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diff --git a/33365-8.txt b/33365-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a0fedd --- /dev/null +++ b/33365-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15533 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7 + "Cerargyrite" to "Charing Cross" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August 6, 2010 [EBook #33365] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE CHALCIS: "Chalcis subsequently became a member of both the + Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period it gained importance as a + fortress by which the Macedonian rulers controlled central Greece". + 'importance' amended from 'inportance'. + + ARTICLE CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON: "He often deals with gloomy and + sometimes with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in his + lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or + of satire". 'productions' Amended from 'proudctions'. + + ARTICLE CHANNEL ISLANDS: "... Burhou and Ortach, and numerous other + islets west of it, and west again the notorious Casquets, an angry + group of jagged rocks, on the largest of which is a powerful + lighthouse". 'an' amended from 'and'. + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME V, SLICE VII + + Cerargyrite to Charing Cross + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CERARGYRITE CHAMBERS + CERBERUS CHAMBERSBURG + CERDIC CHAMBÉRY + CERDONIANS CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES DIEUDONNÉ + CEREALIS, PETILLIUS CHAMBORD + CERES CHAMBRE ARDENTE + CERIGNOLA CHAMELEON + CERIGOTTO CHAMFER + CERINTHUS CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS + CERIUM CHAMIER, FREDERICK + CERNUSCHI, HENRI CHAMILLART, MICHEL + CEROGRAPHY CHAMINADE, CÉCILE + CERRO DE PASCO CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON + CERTALDO CHAMKANNI + CERUSSITE CHAMOIS + CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE GIACHIMO CHAMOMILE + CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE CHAMONIX + CERVERA, PASCUAL TOPETE CHAMPAGNE + CESAREVICH CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE + CESARI, GIUSEPPE CHAMPAIGN + CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE + CESENA CHAMPARAN + CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF + CESPEDES, PABLO DE CHAMPERTY + CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE CHAMPION + CESS CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE + CESSIO BONORUM CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE + CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO CHAMPLAIN + CESTIUS, LUCIUS CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE + CESTUI, CESTUY CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS + CETACEA CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH + CETHEGUS CHANCE + CETINA, GUTIERRE DE CHANCEL + CETTE CHANCELLOR + CETTIGNE CHANCELLORSVILLE + CETUS CHANCE-MEDLEY + CETYWAYO CHANCERY + CEUTA CHANDA + CEVA CHANDAUSI + CÉVENNES CHAND BARDAI + CEYLON CHANDELIER + CHABAZITE CHANDERNAGORE + CHABLIS CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM + CHABOT, FRANÇOIS CHANDLER, RICHARD + CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE CHANDLER, SAMUEL + CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH + CHABRIAS CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF + CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL CHANDOS, SIR JOHN + CHACMA CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA + CHACO CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE + CHACONNE CHANG-CHOW + CHAD, SAINT CHANG CHUN, KIU + CHAD CHANGE + CHADDERTON CHANGELING + CHADERTON, LAURENCE CHANGOS + CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN CHANGRA + CHAEREMON (Athenian dramatist) CHANNEL ISLANDS + CHAEREMON (Stoic philosopher) CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY + CHAERONEIA CHANSONS DE GESTE + CHAETOGNATHA CHANT + CHAETOPODA CHANTABUN + CHAETOSOMATIDA CHANTADA + CHAFER CHANTAGE + CHAFF CHANTARELLE + CHAFFARINAS CHANTAVOINE, HENRI + CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA CHANTILLY + CHAFFINCH CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT + CHAFING-DISH CHANT ROYAL + CHAGOS CHANTRY + CHAGRES CHANUTE + CHAIN CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED + CHAIR CHAOS + CHAISE CHAPBOOK + CHAKRATA CHAPE + CHALCEDON CHAPEL + CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF CHAPELAIN, JEAN + CHALCEDONY CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH + CHALCIDICUM CHAPEL HILL + CHALCIS CHAPELLE ARDENTE + CHALCONDYLES CHAPERON + CHALDAEA CHAPLAIN + CHALDEE CHAPLIN, HENRY + CHALICE CHAPMAN, GEORGE + CHALIER, JOSEPH CHAPMAN + CHALK CHAPONE, HESTER + CHALKHILL, JOHN CHAPPE, CLAUDE + CHALKING THE DOOR CHAPPELL, WILLIAM + CHALLAMEL, JEAN AUGUSTIN CHAPRA + CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE + CHALLENGE CHAPTER + "CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION CHAPTER-HOUSE + CHALLONER, RICHARD CHAPU + CHALMERS, ALEXANDER CHAR + CHALMERS, GEORGE CHAR-À-BANC + CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL CHARACTER + CHALMERS, JAMES CHARADE + CHALMERS, THOMAS CHARCOAL + CHALONER, SIR THOMAS CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN + CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT + CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE CHARD + CHALUKYA CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON + CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ CHARDIN, SIR JOHN + CHALYBITE CHARENTE + CHAMBA CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE + CHAMBAL CHARENTON-LE-PONT + CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH CHARES + CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE CHARES + CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES CHARES + CHAMBERLAIN CHARGE + CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM CHARGÉ D'AFFAIRES + CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM CHARGING ORDER + CHAMBERS, GEORGE CHARIBERT + CHAMBERS, ROBERT CHARIDEMUS + CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM CHARING CROSS + + + + +CERARGYRITE, a mineral species consisting of silver chloride; an +important ore of silver. The name cerargyrite is a Greek form (from +[Greek: keras], horn, and [Greek: argyros], silver) of the older name +hornsilver, which was used by K. Gesner as far back as 1565. The +chloro-bromide and bromide of silver were also included under this term +until they were distinguished chemically in 1841 and 1842, and described +under the names embolite and bromargyrite (or bromyrite) respectively; +the chloride then came to be distinguished as chlorargyrite, though the +name cerargyrite is often now applied to this alone. Chloro-bromo-iodide +of silver has also been recognized as a mineral and called iodembolite. +All these are strikingly alike in appearance and general characters, +differing essentially only in chemical composition, and it would seem +better to reserve the name cerargyrite for the whole group, using the +names chlorargyrite (AgCl), embolite (Ag(Cl, Bl)), bromargyrite (AgBr) +and iodembolite (Ag(Cl, Br, I)) for the different isomorphous members of +the group. They are cubic in crystallization, with the cube and the +octahedron as prominent forms, but crystals are small and usually +indistinct; there is no cleavage. They are soft (H = 2½) and sectile to +a high degree, being readily cut with a knife like horn. With their +resinous to adamantine lustre and their translucency they also present +somewhat the appearance of horn; hence the name hornsilver. The colour +varies somewhat with the chemical composition, being grey or colourless +in chlorargyrite, greenish-grey in embolite and bromargyrite, and +greenish-yellow to orange-yellow in iodembolite. On exposure to light +the colour quickly darkens. The specific gravity also varies with the +composition: for the pure chloride it is 5.55, and the highest recorded +for an iodembolite is 6.3. + +The hornsilvers all occur under similar conditions and are often +associated together; they are found in metalliferous veins with native +silver and ores of silver, and are usually confined to the upper +oxidized parts of the lodes. They are important ores of silver (the pure +chloride contains 75.3% of silver), and have been extensively mined at +several places in Chile, also in Mexico, and at Broken Hill in New South +Wales. The chloride and chloro-bromide have been found in several +Cornish mines, but never in very large amounts. (L. J. S.) + + + + +CERBERUS, in Greek mythology, the dog who guarded the entrance to the +lower world. He allowed all to enter, but seized those who attempted to +escape. According to Hesiod (_Theog._ 311), he was a fifty-headed +monster with a fearful bark, the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. He was +variously represented with one, two or (usually) three heads, often +with the tail of a snake or with snakes growing from his head or twined +round his body. One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles was to fetch +Cerberus from below to the upper world, a favourite subject of ancient +vase-paintings. + + + + +CERDIC (d. 534), founder of the West Saxon kingdom, is described as an +ealdorman who in 495 landed with his son Cynric in Hampshire, where he +was attacked at once by the Britons. Nothing more is heard of him until +508, when he defeated the Britons with great slaughter. Strengthened by +fresh arrivals of Saxons, he gained another victory in 519 at +Certicesford, a spot which has been identified with the modern Charford, +and in this year took the title of king. Turning westward, Cerdic +appears to have been defeated by the Britons in 520 at Badbury or Mount +Badon, in Dorset, and in 527 yet another fight with the Britons is +recorded. His last work was the conquest of the Isle of Wight, probably +in the interest of some Jutish allies. All the sovereigns of England, +except Canute, Hardicanute, the two Harolds and William the Conqueror, +are said to be descended from Cerdic. + + See _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899); + Gildas, _De excidio Britanniae_, edited by Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1898); + Nennius, _Historia, Brittonum_, edited by Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1898); + Bede, _Historiae ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum libri v._, ed. C. + Plummer (Oxford, 1896); E. Guest, _Origines Celticae_ (London, 1883); + J.R. Green, _The Making of England_ (London, 1897). + + + + +CERDONIANS, a Gnostic sect, founded by Cerdo, a Syrian, who came to Rome +about 137, but concerning whose history little is known. They held that +there are two first causes--the perfectly good and the perfectly evil. +The latter is also the creator of the world, the god of the Jews, and +the author of the Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the son of the good +deity; he was sent into the world to oppose the evil; but his +incarnation, and therefore his sufferings, were a mere appearance. +Regarding the body as the work of the evil deity, the Cerdonians formed +a moral system of great severity, prohibiting marriage, wine and the +eating of flesh, and advocating fasting and other austerities. Most of +what the Fathers narrate of Cerdo's tenets has probably been transferred +to him from his famous pupil Marcion, like whom he is said to have +rejected the Old Testament and the New, except part of Luke's Gospel and +of Paul's Epistles. (See MARCION, and GNOSTICISM.) + + + + +CEREALIS (CERIALIS), PETILLIUS (1st century A.D.), Roman general, a near +relative of the emperor Vespasian. He is first heard of during the reign +of Nero in Britain, where he was completely defeated (A.D. 61) by +Boadicea. Eight years later he played an important part in the capture +of Rome by the supporters of Vespasian. In 70 he put down the revolt of +Civilis (q.v.). In 71, as governor of Britain, where he had as a +subordinate the famous Agricola, he inflicted severe defeats upon the +Brigantes, the most powerful of the tribes of Britain. Tacitus says that +he was a bold soldier rather than a careful general, and preferred to +stake everything on the issue of a single engagement. He possessed +natural eloquence of a kind that readily appealed to his soldiers. His +loyalty towards his superiors was unshakable. + + Tacitus, _Annals_, xiv. 32; _Histories_, iii. 59, 78, iv. 71, 75, 86, + v. 21; _Agricola_, 8, 17. + + + + +CERES, an old Italian goddess of agriculture. The name probably means +the "creator" or "created," connected with _crescere_ and _creare_. But +when Greek deities were introduced into Rome on the advice of the +Sibylline books (in 495 B.C., on the occasion of a severe drought), +Demeter, the Greek goddess of seed and harvest, whose worship was +already common in Sicily and Lower Italy, usurped the place of Ceres in +Rome, or rather, to Ceres were added the religious rites which the +Greeks paid to Demeter, and the mythological incidents which originated +with her. At the same time the cult of Dionysus and Persephone (see +LIBER AND LIBERA) was introduced. The rites of Ceres were Greek in +language and form. Her priestesses were Italian Greeks and her temple +was Greek in its architecture and built by Greek artists. She was +worshipped almost exclusively by plebeians, and her temple near the +Circus Maximus was under the care of the plebeian aediles, one of whose +duties was the superintendence of the corn-market. Her chief festivals +were the _ludi Cereris_ or _Cerealia_ (more correctly, _Cerialia_), +games held annually from April 12-19 (Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 392 ff.); a +second festival, in August, to celebrate the reunion of Ceres and +Proserpine, in which women, dressed in white, after a fast of nine days +offered the goddess the first-fruits of the harvest (Livy xxii. 56); and +the _Jejunium Cereris_, a fast also introduced (191 B.C.) by command of +the Sibylline books (Livy xxvi. 37), at first held only every four +years, then annually on the 4th of October. In later times Ceres was +confused with Tellus. (See also DEMETER.) + + + + +CERIGNOLA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, 26 m. +S.E. by rail from the town of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 34,195. It was rebuilt +after a great earthquake in 1731, and has a considerable agricultural +trade. In 1503 the Spaniards under Gonzalo de Cordoba defeated the +French under the duc de Nemours below the town--a victory which made the +kingdom of Naples into a Spanish province in Italy. Cerignola occupies +the site of Furfane, a station on the Via Traiana between Canusium and +Herdoniae. + + + + +CERIGOTTO, called locally LIUS (anc. _Aegilia_ or _Ogylos_; mod. Gr. +officially _Antikythera_), an island of Greece, belonging to the Ionian +group, and situated between Cythera (Cerigo) and Crete, about 20 m. from +each. Some raised beaches testify to an upheaval in comparatively recent +times. With an area of about 10 sq. m. it supports a population of about +300, who are mainly Cretan refugees, and in favourable seasons exports a +quantity of good wheat. It was long a favourite resort of Greek pirates. +It is famous for the discovery in 1900, close to its coast, of the wreck +of an ancient ship with a cargo of bronze and marble statues. + + + + +CERINTHUS (c. A.D. 100), an early Christian heretic, contemporary with +the closing years of the apostle John, who, according to the well-known +story of Polycarp, reported by Irenaeus (iii. 3) and twice recorded in +Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iii. 28, iv. 14), made a hasty exit from a bath +in Ephesus on learning that Cerinthus was within. Other early accounts +agree in making the province of Asia the scene of his activity, and +Hippolytus (_Haer_. vii. 33) credits him with an Egyptian training. +There can be no truth in the notice given by Epiphanius (_Haer_. xxviii. +4) that Cerinthus had in earlier days at Jerusalem led the judaizing +opposition against Paul. + +The difficulty of defining Cerinthus's theological position is due not +only to the paucity of our sources but to the fact that the witness of +the two principal authorities, Irenaeus (1. 26, iii. 11) and Hippolytus +(_Syntagma_), does not agree. Further, Irenaeus himself in one passage +fails to distinguish between Cerinthian and Valentinian doctrines. It +would appear, however, that Cerinthus laid stress on the rite of +circumcision and on the observance of the Sabbath. He taught that the +world had been made by angels, from one of whom, the god of the Jews, +the people of Israel had received their Law, which was not perfect. The +only New Testament writing which he accepted was a mutilated Gospel of +Matthew. Jesus was the offspring of Joseph and Mary, and on him at the +baptism descended the Christ,[1] revealing the hitherto unknown Father, +and endowing him with miraculous power. This Christ left Jesus again +before the Passion, and the resurrection of Jesus was still in the +future. Together with these somewhat gnostic ideas, Cerinthus, if we may +trust the notices of Gaius the Roman presbyter (c. 290) and Dionysius of +Alexandria (c. 340), held a violent and crude form of chiliasm. But the +chief significance of the man is his "combination of zeal for legal +observances with bold criticism of the Law itself as a whole and of its +origin," which reminds us of the Clementine _Recognitions_. Cerinthus is +a blend of judaizing christian and gnostic. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] So Irenaeus. According to Hippolytus and Epiphanius it was the + Holy Ghost that thus descended. + + + + +CERIUM (symbol Ce, atomic weight 140.25), a metallic chemical element +which occurs with the rare earths in the minerals cerite, samarskite, +euxenite, monazite, parisite and many yttrium minerals. The particular +earth containing cerium was discovered by M.H. Klaproth in 1803, whilst +J. Berzelius at about the same time also examined it and came to the +conclusion that it was the oxide of a new metal, which he termed +cerium. The crude oxide of the metal is obtained from cerite, by +evaporating the mineral with strong sulphuric acid, removing excess of +acid and dissolving the residue in ice-cold water; sulphuretted hydrogen +is passed through the solution, which is then filtered, acidified with +hydrochloric acid, and precipitated as oxalate by oxalic acid; the +oxalate is then converted into oxide by ignition. From the crude oxide +so obtained (which contains lanthanum and didymium oxides) the cerium +may be separated by conversion into its double sulphate on the addition +of potassium sulphate, the sulphates of the cerium group being insoluble +in a saturated solution of potassium sulphate. The sulphate is +subsequently boiled with water, when a basic sulphate is precipitated. +For the preparation of pure cerium compounds see Auer v. Welsbach, +_Monatshefte_, 1884, v. 508. + +The metal was first obtained, in an impure state, by C.G. Mosander, by +fusing its chloride with sodium. W.F. Hillebrand and T. Norton have +prepared it by the electrolysis of the melted chloride (_Pogg. Ann._, +1875, 156, p. 466); and C. Winkler (_Berichte_, 1891, xxiv. 884) +obtained it by heating the dioxide with magnesium powder. The metal has +somewhat the appearance of iron, and has a specific gravity of 6.628, +which, after melting, is increased to 6.728. Its specific heat is +0.04479 (W.F. Hillebrand). It is permanent in dry air, but tarnishes in +moist air; it can be hammered and rolled; it melts at 623° C. It burns +readily on heating, with a brilliant flame; and it also combines with +chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus and cyanogen. In the case +of the two former elements the combination is accompanied by combustion +of the metal. With water it is slowly converted into the dioxide. Cold +concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids are without action on the metal, +but it reacts rapidly with dilute nitric and hydrochloric acids. The +dioxide is used in incandescent gas mantles (see LIGHTING). + + Three oxides of cerium are known. The sesquioxide, Ce2O3, is obtained + by heating the carbonate in a current of hydrogen. It is a + bluish-green powder, which on exposure rapidly combines with the + oxygen of the air. By the addition of caustic soda to cerous salts, a + white precipitate of cerous hydroxide is formed. Cerium dioxide, CeO2, + is produced when cerium carbonate, nitrate, sulphate or oxalate is + heated in air. It is a white or pale yellow compound, which becomes + reddish on heating. Its specific gravity is 6.739, and its specific + heat 0.0877. It is not reduced to the metallic condition on heating + with carbon. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves this oxide, forming + a yellowish solution and ozone. By suspending the precipitated cerous + hydroxide in water and passing chlorine through the solution, a + hydrated form of the dioxide, 2CeO2·3H2O, is obtained, which is + readily soluble in nitric and sulphuric acids, forming ceric salts, + and in hydrochloric acid, where it forms cerous chloride, with + liberation of chlorine. A higher hydrated oxide, CeO3·xH2O, is formed + by the interaction of cerous sulphate with sodium acetate and hydrogen + peroxide (Lecoq de Boisbaudran, _Comptes rendus_, 1885, 100, p. 605). + + Cerous chloride, CeCl3, is obtained when the metal is burned in + chlorine; when a mixture of cerous oxide and carbon is heated in + chlorine; or by rapid heating of the dioxide in a stream of carbon + monoxide and chlorine. It is a colourless substance, which is easily + fusible. A hydrated chloride of composition 2CeCl3·15H2O is also + known, and is obtained when a solution of cerous oxide in hydrochloric + acid is evaporated over sulphuric acid. Double salts of cerous + chloride with stannic chloride, mercuric chloride, and platinic + chloride are also known. Cerous bromide, 2CeBr3·3H2O, and iodide, + CeI3·9H2O, are known. Cerous sulphide, Ce2S3, results on heating + cerium with sulphur or cerium oxide in carbon bisulphide vapour. It is + a red infusible mass of specific gravity 5.1, and is slowly decomposed + by warm water. The sulphate, Ce2(SO4)3, is formed on dissolving the + carbonate in sulphuric acid, or on dissolving the basic sulphate in + sulphuric acid, in the presence of sulphur dioxide, evaporating the + solution, and drying the product obtained, at high temperature (B. + Brauner, _Monatshefte_, 1885, vi. 793). It is a white powder of + specific gravity 3.912, easily soluble in cold water. Many hydrated + forms of the sulphate are known, as are also double salts of the + sulphate with potassium, sodium, ammonium, thallium and cadmium + sulphates. Ceric fluoride, CeF4·H2O, is obtained when the hydrated + dioxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and the solution evaporated + on the water bath (B. Brauner). The sulphate, Ce(SO4)2·4H2O, is formed + when the basic sulphate is dissolved in sulphuric acid; or when the + dioxide is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, and evaporated _in + vacuo_ over sulphuric acid. It forms yellow crystals soluble in water; + the aqueous solution on standing gradually depositing a basic salt. + Double sulphates of composition 2Ce(SO4)2·2K2SO4·2H2O, + Ce(SO4)2·3(NH4)2SO4·4H2O are known. Nitrates of cerium have been + described, as have also phosphates, carbonates and a carbide. + + Cerium compounds may be recognized by the red precipitate of ceric + hydroxide, which is formed when sodium hypochlorite is added to a + colourless cerous salt. For the quantitative determination of the + metal, the salts are precipitated by caustic potash, the precipitate + washed, dried and heated, and finally weighed as the dioxide. + + The atomic weight of cerium has been determined by B. Brauner (_Chem. + News_, 1895, lxxi. 283) from the analysis of the oxalate; the values + obtained varying from 140.07 to 140.35. + + + + +CERNUSCHI, HENRI (1821-1896), Italian politician and economist, was born +of wealthy parents at Milan in 1821, and was destined for the legal +profession. During his studies he became involved in the revolutionary +movement. He played a conspicuous part in the insurrection at Milan in +1848, and also at Rome in 1849, where he had a seat in the National +Assembly. On the collapse of the revolutionary government he was +arrested (1850), but managed to escape to France, where he engaged in +commerce and banking, became naturalized, and acquired a large fortune. +He took a prominent part in opposing the Socialist movement, and in +April 1870, having subscribed a large sum to the funds of a committee +formed to combat the Napoleonic plebiscite, had to leave the country. In +September the formation of the Third Republic enabled him to return, but +he soon left Paris to travel in the East, whence he returned with a fine +art collection, particularly of Japanese objects. Cernuschi is best +known for his publications on financial questions, more especially +bimetallism. Of the latter he was an ardent champion, and the word +itself is commonly supposed to have originated with him--at least in its +English form it is first found in his _Silver Vindicated_ (1876). Among +his other works may be mentioned: _Mécanique de l'échange_ (1861); +_Illusion des sociétés coopératives_ (1886); _Le Bimétallisme en +Angleterre_ (1879); _Le Grand Procès de l'Union latine_ (1884). He died +at Mentone on the 12th of May 1896. + + + + +CEROGRAPHY (from the Gr. [Greek: kêros], wax, and [Greek: graphein], to +write), the art of painting in wax. (See ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.) + + + + +CERRO DE PASCO, or PASCO, a mining town of Peru, capital of the +department of Junin, 107 m. (221 m. by rail, via Oroya) N.E. of Lima. +Pop. (1907 est.) 10,000. It is situated on the plateau of Bombon, 14,280 +ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of one of the oldest and richest +silver-mining districts of Peru. There were 342 silver mines in this +district in 1890, and at the end of the 19th century the average annual +output since the discovery of the mines in 1630 was estimated at +1,600,000 oz. A decline in the silver production having set in, the +American company which had become owners of three-fourths of the mining +properties in the district turned its attention to the extensive copper +deposits there, built a railway to Oroya 83 m. distant, another, 25 m. +long, to the coal-fields of Gollarisquisga, north of Pasco, and then +erected large smelting works (in which 2500 men were regularly employed +in 1907) 8 m. out of town and 4 m. from limestone beds. The railway to +Oroya was completed in 1903, the coal mine branch and smelter later on, +and in 1907 the copper output was 20,152,000 lb. The town of Pasco is +badly built and unattractive, and is inhabited chiefly by mining +labourers and their families. Its population is increased 50% in times +of great mining activity. The name Cerro de Pasco is that of a "knot" of +mountains uniting the two great ranges of the Andes at this point. + + + + +CERTALDO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, 35 m. +S.S.W. by rail and 18 m. direct from the town of Florence. Pop. (1901) +town, 4552; commune, 9120. It was the home of the family of Giovanni +Boccaccio, who died and was buried here in 1375. His house (of red +brick, like the other old houses of the town) was restored in 1823 and +fitted up with old furniture. A statue of him was erected in the +principal square in 1875. The Palazzo Pretorio, or Vicariale, the +residence of the Florentine governors, recently restored to its original +condition, has a picturesque facade and court adorned with coats of +arms, and in the interior are various frescoes dating from the 13th to +the 16th century. The town as a whole is picturesque, and lies on a hill +426 ft. above sea-level. + + See R. Pantini, _S. Gimignano e Certaldo_ (Bergamo, 1904), p. 101 seq. + + + + +CERUSSITE, a mineral consisting of lead carbonate (PbCO3), and an +important ore of lead. The name (sometimes erroneously spelt cerusite) +is from the Lat. _cerussa_, "white lead." "Cerussa nativa" was mentioned +by K. Gesner in 1565, and in 1832 F.S. Beudant applied the name céruse +to the mineral, whilst the present form, cerussite, is due to W. +Haidinger (1845). Popular names in early use were lead-spar and +white-lead-ore. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +Cerussite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is isomorphous +with aragonite. Like aragonite it is very frequently twinned, the +compound crystals being pseudo-hexagonal in form. Three crystals are +usually twinned together on two faces of the prism m{110}, producing +six-rayed stellate groups (figs, 1 and 2) with the individual crystals +intercrossing at angles of nearly 60°. Twinning on the faces of the +prism r{130}, the angles of which are also nearly 60°, produces a +similar kind of grouping, but is much less common. Crystals are of +frequent occurrence, and they usually have very bright and smooth faces. +The mineral also occurs in compact granular masses, and sometimes in +fibrous forms. It is usually colourless or white, sometimes grey or +greenish in tint; it varies from transparent to translucent, and has an +adamantine lustre. It is very brittle, and has a conchoidal fracture. +Hardness 3-3½; sp. gr. 6.5. A variety containing 7% of zinc carbonate, +replacing lead carbonate, is known as iglesiasite, from Iglesias in +Sardinia, where it is found. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The mineral may be readily recognized by its characteristic twinning, in +conjunction with the adamantine lustre and high specific gravity. It +dissolves with effervescence in dilute nitric acid. Before the blow-pipe +it fuses very readily, and gives reactions for lead. Cerussite occurs in +metalliferous veins in association with galena, and has been formed by +the action of carbonated waters on the galena; it is therefore found in +the upper parts of the lodes together with other secondary minerals, +such as limonite. Finely crystallized specimens have been obtained from +the Friedrichssegen mine near Ems in Nassau, Johanngeorgenstadt in +Saxony, Mies in Bohemia, Phenixville in Pennsylvania, Broken Hill in New +South Wales, and several other localities. Delicate acicular crystals of +considerable length were found long ago in the Pentire Glaze mine near +St Minver in Cornwall. It is often found in considerable quantities, and +contains as much as 77½% of lead. (L. J. S.) + + + + +CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO (1738-1792), French author and +politician, was born at Turin on the 13th of June 1738. He joined the +Society of Jesus and became professor at the Jesuit college at Lyons. In +1762, in reply to the attacks on his order, he published an _Apologie +générale de l'institut et de la doctrine des Jésuites_, which won him +much fame and some exalted patronage; notably that of the ex-king +Stanislaus of Poland and of his grandson the dauphin. During the +agitations that preceded the Revolution Cerutti took the popular side, +and in 1788 published a pamphlet, _Mémoire pour le peuple français_, in +which in a clear and trenchant style he advocated the claims of the +_tiers état_. In May 1789 he presided over the electors of Paris, by +whom in January 1791 he was chosen member of the administration of the +department and afterwards deputy to the Legislative Assembly. He was a +friend of Mirabeau, whose policy he supported and whose funeral oration +he pronounced. He himself died on the 3rd of February 1792. Of Cerutti's +literary enterprises the most interesting, and probably the most +influential, was the popular newspaper founded by him, on the 30th of +September 1790, in collaboration with Rabaut Saint-Étienne and Philippe +Antoine Grouvelle. Its character and objects are explained by its +title: _La Feuille villageoise, adressée chaque semaine à tous les +villages de France pour les instruire des lois, des événements, des +découvertes qui interessent tout ban citoyen, &c._ It was continued by +Grouvelle after Cerutti's death, the last number appearing on the 2nd of +August 1795. + + Cerutti's works were published in 1793 in 3 volumes. On the _Mémoire + pour le peuple français_, see F.A. Aulard in _La Révolution + française_, tom. xv. (1888). + + + + +CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE (1547-1616), Spanish novelist, playwright +and poet, was born at Alcalá de Henares in 1547. The attempts of +biographers to provide him with an illustrious genealogy are +unsuccessful. The family history begins with the author's grandfather, +Juan de Cervantes (b. 1490), a lawyer who at one time (1545-6) +administered the estates of the duke de Osuna, and resided later at +Cordova, where he died about 1555. Cervantes' father was Rodrigo de +Cervantes, an apothecary-surgeon, who married Leonor de Cortinas in 1540 +or 1541. The children of this marriage were Andrés (b. 1543), Andrea (b. +1544), Luisa (b. 1546), Miguel, Rodrigo (b. 1550), Magdalena (b. 1554) +and Juan (of whom nothing is known beyond the mention of him in his +father's will). + +The exact date of Cervantes' birth is not recorded: he was baptized on +the 9th of October 1547, in the church of Santa Maria la Mayor at +Alcalá. There are indications that Rodrigo de Cervantes resided at +Valladolid in 1554, at Madrid in 1561, at Seville in 1564-1565, and at +Madrid from 1566 onwards. It may be assumed that his family accompanied +him, and it seems likely that either at Valladolid or at Madrid +Cervantes saw the famous actor-manager and dramatist, Lope de Rueda, of +whose performances he speaks enthusiastically in the preface to his +plays. In 1569 a Madrid schoolmaster, Juan Lopez de Hoyos, issued a work +commemorative of Philip II.'s third wife, Isabel de Valois, who had died +on the 3rd of October 1568. This volume, entitled _Historia y relación +verdadera de la enfermedad, felicisimo tránsito y sumptuosas exequias +fúnebres de la Serenisima Reyna de Españia Doña Isabel de Valoys_, +contains six contributions by Cervantes: a sonnet, four _redondillas_, +and an elegy. Lopez de Hoyos introduces Cervantes as "our dear and +beloved pupil," and the elegy is dedicated to Cardinal Espinosa "in the +name of the whole school." It has been inferred that Cervantes was +educated by Lopez de Hoyos, but this conclusion is untenable, for Lopez +de Hoyos' school was not opened till 1567. On the 13th of October 1568, +Giulio Acquaviva reached Madrid charged with a special mission to Philip +II.; he left for Rome on the 2nd of December, and Cervantes is supposed +to have accompanied him. This conjecture is based solely on a passage in +the dedication of the _Galatea_, where the writer speaks of having been +"_camarero_ to Cardinal Acquaviva at Rome." There is, however, no reason +to think that Cervantes met Acquaviva in Madrid; the probability is that +he enlisted as a supernumerary towards the end of 1568, that he served +in Italy, and there entered the household of Acquaviva, who had been +raised to the cardinalate on the 17th of May 1570. There exists a +warrant (dated September 15, 1569) for the arrest of one Miguel de +Cervantes, who had wounded Antonio de Sigura, and had been condemned in +absence to have his right hand cut off and to be exiled from the capital +for ten years; and it has been sought to identify the offender with the +future author of _Don Quixote_. No evidence is available. All that is +known with certainty is that Cervantes was in Rome at the end of 1569, +for on the 22nd of December of that year the fact was recorded in an +official information lodged by Rodrigo de Cervantes with a view to +proving his son's legitimacy and untainted Christian descent. + +If it is difficult to say precisely when Cervantes was in Acquaviva's +service, it is no less difficult to say when he left it to join the +regular army. There is evidence, more or less satisfactory, that his +enlistment took place in 1570; in 1571 he was serving as a private in +the company commanded by Captain Diego de Urbina which formed part of +Miguel de Moncada's famous regiment, and on the 16th of September he +sailed from Messina on board the "Marquesa," which formed part of the +armada under Don John of Austria. At the battle of Lepanto (October 7, +1571) the "Marquesa" was in the thickest of the conflict. As the fleet +came into action Cervantes lay below, ill with fever; but, despite the +remonstrances of his comrades, he vehemently insisted on rising to take +his share in the fighting, and was posted with twelve men under him in a +boat by the galley's side. He received three gunshot wounds, two in the +chest, and one which permanently maimed his right hand--"for the greater +glory of the right," in his own phrase. On the 30th of October the fleet +returned to Messina, where Cervantes went into hospital, and during his +convalescence received grants-in-aid amounting to eighty-two ducats. On +the 29th of April 1572 he was transferred to Captain Manuel Ponce de +León's company in Lope de Figueroa's regiment; he shared in the +indecisive naval engagement off Navarino on the 7th of October 1572, in +the capture of Tunis on the 10th of October 1573, and in the +unsuccessful expedition to relieve the Goletta in the autumn of 1574. +The rest of his military service was spent in garrison at Palermo and +Naples, and shortly after the arrival of Don John at Naples on the 18th +of June 1575, Cervantes was granted leave to return to Spain; he +received a recommendatory letter from Don John to Philip II., and a +similar testimonial from the duke de Sessa, viceroy of Sicily. Armed +with these credentials, Cervantes embarked on the "Sol" to push his +claim for promotion in Spain. + +On the 26th of September 1575, near Les Trois Maries off the coast of +Marseilles, the "Sol" and its companion ships the "Mendoza" and the +"Higuera" encountered a squadron of Barbary corsairs under Arnaut Mami; +Cervantes, his brother Rodrigo and other Spaniards were captured, and +were taken as prisoners to Algiers. Cervantes became the slave of a +Greek renegade named Dali Mami, and, as the letters found on him were +taken to prove that he was a man of importance in a position to pay a +high ransom, he was put under special surveillance. With undaunted +courage and persistence he organized plans of escape. In 1576 he induced +a Moor to guide him and other Christian captives to Oran; the Moor +deserted them on the road, the baffled fugitives returned to Algiers, +and Cervantes was treated with additional severity. In the spring of +1577 two priests of the Order of Mercy arrived in Algiers with a sum of +three hundred crowns entrusted to them by Cervantes' parents; the amount +was insufficient to free him, and was spent in ransoming his brother +Rodrigo. Cervantes made another attempt to escape in September 1577, but +was betrayed by the renegade whose services he had enlisted. On being +brought before Hassan Pasha, the viceroy of Algiers, he took the blame +on himself, and was threatened with death; struck, however, by the +heroic bearing of the prisoner, Hassan remitted the sentence, and bought +Cervantes from Dali Mami for five hundred crowns. In 1577 the captive +addressed to the Spanish secretary of state, Mateo Vazquez, a versified +letter suggesting that an expedition should be fitted out to seize +Algiers; the project, though practicable, was not entertained. In 1578 +Cervantes was sentenced to two thousand strokes for sending a letter +begging help from Martín de Córdoba, governor of Oran; the punishment +was not, however, inflicted on him. Meanwhile his family were not idle. +In March 1578 his father presented a petition to the king setting forth +Cervantes' services; the duke de Sessa repeated his testimony to the +captive's merits; in the spring of 1579 Cervantes' mother applied for +leave to export two thousand ducats' worth of goods from Valencia to +Algiers, and on the 31st of July 1579 she gave the Trinitarian monks, +Juan Gil and Antón de la Bella, a sum of two hundred and fifty ducats to +be applied to her son's ransom. On his side Cervantes was indefatigable, +and towards the end of 1579 he arranged to secure a frigate; but the +plot was revealed to Hassan by Juan Blanco de Paz, a Dominican monk, who +appears to have conceived an unaccountable hatred of Cervantes. Once +more the conspirator's life was spared by Hassan who, it is recorded, +declared that "so long as he had the maimed Spaniard in safe keeping, +his Christians, ships and city were secure." On the 29th of May 1580 the +two Trinitarians arrived in Algiers: they were barely in time, for +Hassan's term of office was drawing to a close, and the arrangement of +any ransom was a slow process, involving much patient bargaining. Hassan +refused to accept less than five hundred gold ducats for his slave; the +available funds fell short of this amount, and the balance was collected +from the Christian traders of Algiers. Cervantes was already embarked +for Constantinople when the money was paid on the 19th of September +1580. The first use that he made of his liberty was to cause affidavits +of his proceedings at Algiers to be drawn up; he sailed for Spain +towards the end of October, landed at Denia in November, and made his +way to Madrid. He signed an information before a notary in that city on +the 18th of December 1580. + +These dates prove that he cannot, as is often alleged, have served under +Alva in the Portuguese campaign of 1580: that campaign ended with the +battle of Alcántara on the 25th of August 1580. It seems certain, +however, that he visited Portugal soon after his return from Algiers, +and in May 1581 he was sent from Thomar on a mission to Oran. Construed +literally, a formal statement of his services, signed by Cervantes on +the 21st of May 1590, makes it appear that he served in the Azores +campaigns of 1582-83; but the wording of the document is involved, the +claims of Cervantes are confused with those of his brother Rodrigo (who +was promoted ensign at the Azores), and on the whole it is doubtful if +he took part in either of the expeditions under Santa Cruz. In any case, +the stories of his residence in Portugal, and of his love affairs with a +noble Portuguese lady who bore him a daughter, are simple inventions. +From 1582-3 to 1587 Cervantes seems to have written copiously for the +stage, and in the _Adjunta al Parnaso_ he mentions several of his plays +as "worthy of praise"; these were _Los Tratos de Argel, La Numancia, La +Gran Turquesa, La Batalla naval, La Jerusalem, La Amaranta ó la de Mayo, +El Bosque amoroso, La Unica y Bizarra Ársinda_--"and many others which I +do not remember, but that which I most prize and pique myself on was, +and is, one called _La Confusa_ which, with all respect to as many +sword-and-cloak plays as have been staged up to the present, may take a +prominent place as being good among the best." Of these only _Los Tratos +de Argel_ (or _El Trato de Argel_) and _La Numancia_ have survived, and, +though _La Numancia_ contains many fine rhetorical passages, both plays +go to prove that the author's genius was not essentially dramatic. In +February 1584 he obtained a licence to print a pastoral novel entitled +_Primera parte de la Galatea_, the copyright of which he sold on the +14th of June to Blas de Robles, a bookseller at Alcalá de Henares, for +1336 _reales_. On the 12th of December he married Catalina de Palacios +Salazar y Vozmediano of Esquivias, eighteen years his junior. The +_Galatea_ was published in the spring of 1585, and is frequently said to +relate the story of Cervantes' courtship, and to introduce various +distinguished writers under pastoral names. These assertions must be +received with great reserve. The birth of an illegitimate daughter, +borne to Cervantes by a certain Ana Francisca de Rojas, is referred to +1584, and earlier in that same year the _Galatea_ had passed the censor; +with few exceptions, the identifications of the characters in the book +with personages in real life are purely conjectural. These +circumstances, together with the internal evidence of the work, point to +the conclusion that the _Galatea_ was begun and completed before 1583. +It was only twice reprinted--once at Lisbon (1590), and once at Paris +(1611)--during the author's lifetime; but it won him a measure of +repute, it was his favourite among his books, and during the thirty +years that remained to him he repeatedly announced the second part which +is promised conditionally in the text. However, it is not greatly to be +regretted that the continuation was never published; though the +_Galatea_ is interesting as the first deliberate bid for fame on the +part of a great genius, it is an exercise in the pseudo-classic +literature introduced into Italy by Sannazaro, and transplanted to Spain +by the Portuguese Montemõr; and, ingenious or eloquent as the +Renaissance prose-pastoral may be, its innate artificiality stifles +Cervantes' rich and glowing realism. He himself recognized its defects; +with all his weakness for the _Galatea_, he ruefully allows that "it +proposes something and concludes nothing." Its comparative failure was +a serious matter for Cervantes who had no other resource but his pen; +his plays were probably less successful than his account of them would +imply, and at any rate play-writing was not at this time a lucrative +occupation in Spain. No doubt the death of his father on the 13th of +June 1585 increased the burden of Cervantes' responsibilities; and the +dowry of his wife, as appears from a document dated the 9th of August +1586, consisted of nothing more valuable than five vines, an orchard, +some household furniture, four beehives, forty-five hens and chickens, +one cock and a crucible. + +It had become evident that Cervantes could not gain his bread by +literature, and in 1587 he went to Seville to seek employment in +connexion with the provisioning of the Invincible Armada. He was placed +under the orders of Antonio de Guevara, and before the 24th of February +was excommunicated for excessive zeal in collecting wheat at Écija. +During the next few months he was engaged in gathering stores at Seville +and the adjacent district, and after the defeat of the Armada he was +retained as commissary to the galleys. Tired of the drudgery, and +without any prospect of advancement, on the 21st of May 1590 Cervantes +drew up a petition to the king, recording his services and applying for +one of four posts then vacant in the American colonies: a place in the +department of public accounts in New Granada, the governorship of +Soconusco in Guatemala, the position of auditor to the galleys at +Cartagena, or that of _corregidor_ in the city of La Paz. The petition +was referred to the Council of the Indies, and was annotated with the +words:--"Let him look for something nearer home." Cervantes perforce +remained at his post; the work was hard, uncongenial and ill-paid, and +the salary was in constant arrears. In November 1590 he was in such +straits that he borrowed money to buy himself a suit of clothes, and in +August 1592 his sureties were called upon to make good a deficiency of +795 _reales_ in his accounts. His thoughts turned to literature once +more, and on the 5th of September 1592, he signed a contract with +Rodrigo Osorio undertaking to write six plays at fifty ducats each, no +payment to be made unless Osorio considered that each of these pieces +was "one of the best ever produced in Spain." Nothing came of this +agreement, and it appears that, between the date of signing it and the +19th of September, Cervantes was imprisoned (for reasons unknown to us) +at Castro del Río. He was speedily released, and continued to +perquisition as before in Andalusia; but his literary ambitions were not +dead, and in May 1595 he won the first prize--three silver spoons--at a +poetical tourney held in honour of St Hyacinth at Saragossa. Shortly +afterwards Cervantes found himself in difficulties with the exchequer +officials. He entrusted a sum of 7400 _reales_ to a merchant named Simón +Freire de Lima with instructions to pay the amount into the treasury at +Madrid; the agent became bankrupt and absconded, leaving Cervantes +responsible for the deficit. By some means the money was raised, and the +debt was liquidated on the 21st of January 1597. But Cervantes' position +was shaken, and his unbusinesslike habits lent themselves to +misinterpretation. On the 6th of September 1597 he was ordered to find +sureties that he would present himself at Madrid within twenty days, and +there submit to the exchequer vouchers for all official moneys collected +by him in Granada and elsewhere. No such sureties being available, he +was committed to Seville jail, but was released on the 1st of December +on condition that he complied with the original order of the court +within thirty days. He was apparently unable to find bail, was dismissed +from the public service, and sank into extreme poverty. During a +momentary absence from Seville in February 1590, he was again summoned +to Madrid by the treasury, but does not appear to have obeyed: it is +only too likely that he had not the money to pay for the journey. There +is some reason to think that he was imprisoned at Seville in 1602, but +nothing positive is known of his existence between 1600 and the 8th of +February 1603: at the latter date he seems to have been at Valladolid, +to which city Philip III. had removed the court in 1601. + +Since the publication of the _Galatea_ in 1585 Cervantes' contributions +to literature had been limited to occasional poems. In 1591 he published +a ballad in Andrés de Villalta's _Flor de varios y nuevos romances_; in +1595 he composed a poem, already mentioned, to celebrate the +canonization of St Hyacinth; in 1596 he wrote a sonnet ridiculing Medina +Sidonia's tardy entry into Cadiz after the English invaders had retired, +and in the same year his sonnet lauding Santa Cruz was printed in +Cristóbal. Mosquera de Figueroa's _Comentario en breve compendio de +disciplina militar_; to 1597 is assigned a sonnet (the authenticity of +which is disputed) commemorative of the poet Herrera; in 1598 he wrote +two sonnets and a copy of _quintillas_ on the death of Philip II.; and +in 1602 a complimentary sonnet from his pen appeared in the second +edition of Lope de Vega's _Dragontea_. Curiously enough, it is by Lope +de Vega that _Don Quixote_ is first mentioned. Writing to an unknown +correspondent (apparently a physician) on the 14th of August 1604, Lope +de Vega says that "no poet is as bad as Cervantes, nor so foolish as to +praise _Don Quixote_," and he goes on to speak of his own plays as being +odious to Cervantes. It is obvious that the two men had quarrelled since +1602, and that Lope de Vega smarted under the satire of himself and his +works in Cervantes' forthcoming book; _Don Quixote_ may have been +circulated in manuscript, or may even have been printed before the +official licence was granted on the 26th of September 1604. It was +published early in 1605, and was dedicated to the seventh duke de Béjar +in phrases largely borrowed from the dedication in Herrera's edition +(1580) of Garcilaso de la Vega, and from Francisco de Medina's preface +to that work. + +The mention of Bernardo de la Vega's _Pastor de Iberia_ shows that the +sixth chapter of _Don Quixote_ cannot have been written before 1591. In +the prologue Cervantes describes his masterpiece as being "just what +might be begotten in a jail"; on the strength of this passage, it has +been thought that he conceived the story, and perhaps began writing it, +during one of his terms of imprisonment at Seville between 1597 and +1602. Within a few weeks of its publication at Madrid, three pirated +editions of _Don Quixote_ were issued at Lisbon; a second authorized +edition, imperfectly revised, was hurried out at Madrid; and another +reprint appeared at Valencia with an _aprobación_ dated 18th July 1605. +With the exception of Alemán's _Guzmán de Alfarache_, no Spanish book of +the period was more successful. Modern criticism is prone to regard _Don +Quixote_ as a symbolic, didactic or controversial work intended to bring +about radical reforms in church and state. Such interpretations did not +occur to Cervantes' contemporaries, nor to Cervantes himself. There is +no reason for rejecting his plain statement that his main object was to +ridicule the romances of chivalry, which in their latest developments +had become a tissue of tiresome absurdities. It seems clear that his +first intention was merely to parody these extravagances in a short +story; but as he proceeded the immense possibilities of the subject +became more evident to him, and he ended by expanding his work into a +brilliant panorama of Spanish society as it existed during the 16th +century. Nobles, knights, poets, courtly gentlemen, priests, traders, +farmers, barbers, muleteers, scullions and convicts; accomplished +ladies, impassioned damsels, Moorish beauties, simple-hearted +country-girls and kindly kitchen-wenches of questionable morals--all +these are presented with the genial fidelity which comes of sympathetic +insight. The immediate vogue of _Don Quixote_ was due chiefly to its +variety of incident, to its wealth of comedy bordering on farce, and +perhaps also to its keen thrusts at eminent contemporaries; its reticent +pathos, its large humanity, and its penetrating criticism of life were +less speedily appreciated. + +Meanwhile, on the 12th of April 1605, Cervantes authorized his publisher +to proceed against the Lisbon booksellers who threatened to introduce +their piratical reprints into Castile. By June the citizens of +Valladolid already regarded Don Quixote and Sancho Panza as proverbial +types. Less gratifying experiences awaited the popular author. On the +27th of June 1605 Gaspar de Ezpeleta, a Navarrese gentleman of dissolute +life, was wounded outside the lodging-house in which Cervantes and his +family lived; he was taken indoors, was nursed by Cervantes' sister +Magdalena, and died on the 29th of June. That same day Cervantes, his +natural daughter (Isabel de Saavedra), his sister Andrea and her +daughter were lodged in jail on suspicion of being indirectly concerned +in Ezpeleta's death; one of the witnesses made damaging charges against +Cervantes' daughter, but no substantial evidence was produced, and the +prisoners were released. Little is known of Cervantes' life between 1605 +and 1608. A _Relación_ of the festivities held to celebrate the birth of +Philip IV., and a certain _Carta á don Diego Astudillo Carrillo_ have +been erroneously ascribed to him; during these three years he apparently +wrote nothing beyond three sonnets, and one of these is of doubtful +authenticity. The depositions of the Valladolid enquiry show that he was +living in poverty five months after the appearance of _Don Quixote_, and +the fact that he borrowed 450 _reales_ from his publisher before +November 1607 would convey the idea that his position improved slowly, +if at all. But it is difficult to reconcile this view of his +circumstances with the details concerning his illegitimate daughter +revealed in documents recently discovered. Isabel de Saavedra was stated +to be a spinster when arrested at Valladolid in June 1605; the +settlement of her marriage with Luis de Molina in 1608 describes her as +the widow of Diego Sanz, as the mother of a daughter eight months old, +and as owning house-property of some value. These particulars are +perplexing, and the situation is further complicated by the publication +of a deed in which Cervantes declares that he himself is the real owner +of this house-property, and that his daughter has merely a life-interest +in it. This claim may be regarded as a legal fiction; it cannot easily +be reconciled with Cervantes' statement towards the end of his life, +that he was dependent on the bounty of the count de Lemos and of +Bernardo de Sandoval, cardinal-archbishop of Toledo. In 1609 he joined +the newly founded confraternity of the Slaves of the Most Blessed +Sacrament; in 1610 Lemos was appointed viceroy of Naples, and Cervantes +was keenly disappointed at not being chosen to accompany his patron. In +1611 he lost his sister Magdalena, who was buried by the charity of the +Tertiaries of Saint Francis; in 1612 he joined the Academia Selvaje, and +there appears to have renewed his former friendly relations with Lope de +Vega; in 1613 he dedicated his _Novelas exemplares_ to the count de +Lemos, and disposed of his rights for 1600 _reales_ and twenty-four +copies of the book. The twelve tales in this volume, some of them +written very much later than others, are of unequal merit, but they +contain some of the writer's best work, and the two picaresque +stories--_Rinconete y Cortadillo_ and the _Coloquio de los perros_--are +superb examples of their kind, and would alone entitle Cervantes to take +rank with the greatest masters of Spanish prose. In 1614 he published +the _Viage del Parnaso_, a burlesque poem suggested by the _Viaggio in +Parnaso_ (1582) of the Perugian poet Cesare Caporali. It contains some +interesting autobiographical passages, much flattery of contemporary +poetasters, and a few happy satirical touches; but, though it is +Cervantes' most serious bid for fame as a poet, it has seldom been +reprinted, and would probably have been forgotten but for an admirably +humorous postscript in prose which is worthy of the author at his best. +In the preface to his _Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos_ (1615) he +good-humouredly admits that his dramatic works found no favour with +managers, and, when this collection was first reprinted (1749), the +editor advanced the fantastic theory that the _comedias_ were deliberate +exercises in absurdity, intended to parody the popular dramas of the +day. This view cannot be maintained, but a sharp distinction must be +drawn between the eight set plays and the eight interludes; with one or +two exceptions, the _comedias_ or set plays are unsuccessful experiments +in Lope de Vega's manner, while the _entremeses_ or _interludes_, +particularly those in prose, are models of spontaneous gaiety and +ingenious wit. + +In the preface to the _Novelas exemplares_ Cervantes had announced the +speedy appearance of the sequel to _Don Quixote_ which he had vaguely +promised at the end of the first part. He was at work on the fifty-ninth +chapter of his continuation when he learned that he had been anticipated +by Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda of Tordesillas, whose _Segunde tamo +del ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha_ was published at +Tarragona in 1614. On the assumption that Fernandez de Avellaneda is a +pseudonym, this spurious sequel has been ascribed to the king's +confessor, Luis de Aliaga, to Cervantes' old enemy, Blanco de Paz, to +his old friend, Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola, to the three great +dramatists, Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina and Ruiz de Alarcón, to Alonso +Fernandez, to Juan José Martí, to Alfonso Lamberto, to Luis de Granada, +and probably to others. Some of these attributions are manifestly +absurd--for example, Luis de Granada died seventeen years before the +first part of _Don Quixote_ was published--and all of them are +improbable conjectures; if Avellaneda be not the real name of the +author, his identity is still undiscovered. His book is not devoid of +literary talent and robust humour, and possibly he began it under the +impression that Cervantes was no more likely to finish _Don Quixote_ +than to finish the _Galatea_. He should, however, have abandoned his +project on reading the announcement in the preface to the _Novelas +exemplares_; what he actually did was to disgrace himself by writing an +insolent preface taunting Cervantes with his physical defects, his moral +infirmities, his age, loneliness and experiences in jail. He was too +intelligent to imagine that his continuation could hold its own against +the authentic sequel, and malignantly avowed his intention of being +first in the field and so spoiling Cervantes' market. It is quite +possible that _Don Quixote_ might have been left incomplete but for this +insulting intrusion; Cervantes was a leisurely writer and was, as he +states, engaged on _El Engaño à los ojos, Las Semanas del Jardín_ and +_El Famoso Bernardo_, none of which have been preserved. Avellaneda +forced him to concentrate his attention on his masterpiece, and the +authentic second part of _Don Quixote_ appeared towards the end of 1615. +No book more signally contradicts the maxim, quoted by the Bachelor +Carrasco, that "no second part was ever good." It is true that the last +fourteen chapters are damaged by undignified denunciations of +Avellaneda; but, apart from this, the second part of _Don Quixote_ is an +improvement on the first. The humour is more subtle and mature; the +style is of more even excellence; and the characters of the bachelor and +of the physician, Pedro Recio de Agüero, are presented with a more vivid +effect than any of the secondary characters in the first part. Cervantes +had clearly profited by the criticism of those who objected to "the +countless cudgellings inflicted on Señor Don Quixote," and to the +irrelevant interpolation of extraneous stories in the text. Don Quixote +moves through the second part with unruffled dignity; Sancho Panza loses +something of his rustic cunning, but he gains in wit, sense and manners. +The original conception is unchanged in essentials, but it is more +logically developed, and there is a notable progress in construction. +Cervantes had grown to love his knight and squire, and he understood his +own creations better than at the outset; more completely master of his +craft, he wrote his sequel with the unfaltering confidence of a renowned +artist bent on sustaining his reputation. + +The first part of _Don Quixote_ had been reprinted at Madrid in 1608; it +had been produced at Brussels in 1607 and 1611, and at Milan in 1610; it +had been translated into English in 1612 and into French in 1614. +Cervantes was celebrated in and out of Spain, but his celebrity had not +brought him wealth. The members of the French special embassy, sent to +Madrid in February 1615, under the Commandeur de Sillery, heard with +amazement that the author of the _Galatea_, the _Novelas exemplares_ and +_Don Quixote_ was "old, a soldier, a gentleman and poor." But his trials +were almost at an end. Though failing in health, he worked assiduously +at _Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda_, which, as he had jocosely +prophesied in the preface to the second part of _Don Quixote_, would be +"either the worst or the best book ever written in our tongue." It is +the most carefully written of his prose works, and the least animated or +attractive of them; signs of fatigue and of waning powers are +unmistakably visible. Cervantes was not destined to see it in print. He +was attacked by dropsy, and, on the 18th of April 1616, received the +sacrament of extreme unction; next day he wrote the dedication of +_Persiles y Sigismunda_ to the count de Lemos--the most moving and +gallant of farewells. He died at Madrid in the Calle del León on the +23rd of April; he was borne from his house "with his face uncovered," +according to the rule of the Tertiaries of St Francis, and on the 24th +of April was buried in the church attached to the convent of the +Trinitarian nuns in the Calle de Cantarranas. There he rests--the story +of his remains being removed in 1633 to the Calle del Humilladero has no +foundation in fact--but the exact position of his grave is unknown. +Early in 1617 _Persiles y Sigismunda_ was published, and passed through +eight editions within two years; but the interest in it soon died away, +and it was not reprinted between 1625 and 1719. Cervantes' wife died +without issue on the 31st of October 1626; his natural daughter, who +survived both the child of her first marriage and her second husband, +died on the 20th of September 1652. Cervantes is represented solely by +his works. The _Novelas exemplares_ alone would give him the foremost +place among Spanish novelists; _Don Quixote_ entitles him to rank with +the greatest writers of all time: "children turn its leaves, young +people read it, grown men understand it, old folk praise it." It has +outlived all changes of literary taste, and is even more popular to-day +than it was three centuries ago. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Leopold Rius, _Bibliografía crítica de las obras de + Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_ (Madrid, 1895-1905, 3 vols.); _Obras + completas_ (Madrid, 1863-1864, 12 vols.), edited by Juan Eugenio + Hartzenbusch; _Complete Works_ (Glasgow, 1901-1906, 8 vols. in + progress), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid, + 1833-1839, 6 vols.), edited by Diego Clemencíu; _Don Quixote_ (London, + 1899-1900, 2 vols.), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly and John + Ormsby; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid, 1905-1906, 2 vols. in progress), edited + by Clemente Cortejón; _Rinconete y Cortadillo_ (Sevilla, 1905), edited + by Francisco Rodriguez Marín; _Epístola á Mateo Vázquez_ (Madrid, + 1905), edited by E[milio] C[otarelo]; Julián Apráiz, _Estudio + histórico-crítico sobre las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_ (Madrid, + 1901); Francisco A. de Icaza, _Las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_ + (Madrid, 1901); Francisco Rodríguez Marín, _El Loaysa de "El Celoso + Extremeño"_ (Sevilla, 1901); Narciso Díaz de Escovar, _Apuntes + escénicos cervantinos_ (Madrid, 1905); Manuel José García, _Estudio + crítico acerca del entremés "El Vizcaino fingido"_ (Madrid, 1905); + Alfred Morel-Fatio, _L'Espagne de Don Quichotte_ in _Études sur + l'Espagne_ (Paris, 1895, 2me série); Julio Puyol y Alonso, _Estado + social que refleja "El Quijote"_ (Madrid, 1905); James + Fitzmaurice-Kelly, _Cervantes in England_ (London, 1905); Raymond + Foulché-Delbose, _Étude sur "La tia fingida,"_ in the _Revue + hispanique_ (Paris, 1899), vol. vi. pp. 256-306; Benedetto Croce, _Due + illustrazioni al "Viage del Parnaso,"_ in the _Homenaje á Menéndez y + Pelayo_ (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 161-193; Paul Groussac, _Une + Énigme littéraire: le Don Quichotte d'Avellaneda_ (Paris, 1903); + Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, _El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de + la Mancha_ (Barcelona, [1905]), edited by Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo; + Julio Cejador y Franca, _La Lengua de Cervantes_ (Madrid, 1905, &c.); + Martin Fernández de Navarrete, _Vida de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_ + (Madrid, 1819); Cristóbal Perez Pastor, _Documentos Cervantinos hasta + ahora inéditos_ (Madrid, 1897-1902, 2 vols.); Emilio Cotardo y Mori, + _Efemérides Cervantinas_ (Madrid, 1905); Francisco Rodríguez Marín, + _Cervantes estudió en Sevilla, 1564-1565_ (Seville, 1905). + (J. F.-K.) + + + + +CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE (1839-1909), Spanish admiral, was born +at Medina Sidonia on the 18th of February 1839. He showed an early +inclination for the sea, and his family sent him to the naval cadet +school at the age of twelve. As a sub-lieutenant he took part in the +naval operations on the coast of Morocco during the campaign of 1859-60. +Then he was for some time engaged in operations in the Sulu Islands and +the Philippines. Afterwards he was on the West Indian station during the +early part of the first Cuban War (1868-78), returning to Spain in 1873 +to serve on the Basque coast against the Carlists. He distinguished +himself in defending the Carraca arsenal near Cadiz against the Federals +in 1873. He won each step in his promotion up to flag-rank through his +steadiness and brilliant conduct in action, and was awarded the crosses +of the Orders of Military and Naval Merit, Isabella the Catholic, and St +Hermengilde, besides several medals. Cervera had a great reputation for +decision, unbending temper and honesty, before he was placed at the head +of the Bilbao building-yards. This post he resigned after a few months +in order to become minister of marine in 1892, in a cabinet presided +over by Sagasta. He withdrew from the cabinet when he found that his +colleagues, from political motives, declined to support him in making +reforms and, on the other hand, unwisely cut down the naval estimates. +When in 1898 the Spanish-American War (q.v.) broke out, he was chosen to +command a squadron composed of four first-class cruisers, the "Maria +Theresa," his flagship, "Oquendo," "Vizcaya," and "Columbus," and +several destroyers. This ill-fated squadron only started upon its +reckless cruise across the ocean after its gallant commander had +repeatedly warned both the minister of marine and the prime minister, +Sagasta, in despatches from Cadiz and from the Canary and Cape Verde +Islands, that the ships were insufficiently provided with coal and +ammunition. Some of them, indeed, even lacked proper guns. In compliance +with the instructions of the government, Admiral Cervera made for the +landlocked harbour of Santiago de Cuba, where he co-operated in the +defence, landing some guns and a naval brigade. In spite of his +energetic representations, Cervera received an order from Madrid, +dictated by political considerations, to sally forth. It meant certain +destruction. The gallant squadron met forces trebly superior to it, and +was totally destroyed. The admiral, three of his captains, and 1800 +sailors and marines were taken by the victors to Portsmouth, New +Hampshire, U.S.A. After the war, Cervera and his captains were tried +before the supreme naval and military court of the realm, which +honourably acquitted them all. In 1901 he became vice-admiral, in 1902 +was appointed chief of staff of the Spanish navy, and in 1903 was made +life senator. He died at Puerto Real on the 3rd of April 1909. + + + + +CESAREVICH, or more properly TSESAREVICH, the title of the heir-apparent +to the Russian throne. The full official title is _Nasliednik +Tsesarevich_, i.e. "heir of Caesar," and in Russia the heir to the +throne is commonly called simply _Nasliednik_, the word _Tsesarevich_ +never being used alone. _Tsarevich_, a form now much used in England, +means simply any "king's son"; it is an antiquated term now out of use +in Russia, and was last borne as heir to the throne by the unfortunate +Alexius, son of Peter the Great. The style of the wife of the +tsesarevich is _Tsesarevna_. The Cesarewitch handicap race at Newmarket, +founded in 1839, was named after the prince who was afterwards Alexander +II. of Russia, who paid a state visit to England that year. + + + + +CESARI, GIUSEPPE, called Il Cavaliere d' Arpino (born in or about 1568 +and created a "Cavaliere di Cristo" by Pope Clement VIII.), also named +Il Giuseppino, an Italian painter, much encouraged at Rome and +munificently rewarded. His father had been a native of Arpino, but +Giuseppe himself was born in Rome. Cesari is stigmatized by Lanzi as not +less the corrupter of taste in painting than Marino was in poetry; +indeed, another of the nicknames of Cesari is "Il Marino de' Pittori" +(the pictorial Marino). There was spirit in Cesari's heads of men and +horses, and his frescoes in the Capitol (story of Romulus and Remus, +&c.), which occupied him at intervals during forty years, are well +coloured; but he drew the human form ill. His perspective is faulty, his +extremities monotonous, and his chiaroscuro defective. He died in 1640, +at the age of seventy-two, or perhaps of eighty, at Rome. Cesari ranks +as the head of the "Idealists" of his period, as opposed to the +"Naturalists," of whom Michelangelo da Caravaggio was the leading +champion,--the so-called "idealism" consisting more in reckless +facility, and disregard of the common facts and common-sense of nature, +than in anything to which so lofty a name could be properly accorded. He +was a man of touchy and irascible character, and rose from penury to the +height of opulence. His brother Bernardino assisted in many of his +works. + + + + +CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE (1730-1808), Italian poet, was born at Padua in +1730, of a noble but impoverished family. At the university of his +native place his literary progress procured for him at a very early age +the chair of rhetoric, and in 1768 the professorship of Greek and +Hebrew. On the invasion of Italy by the French, he gave his pen to their +cause, received a pension, and was made knight of the iron crown by +Napoleon I., to whom, in consequence, he addressed a bombastic and +extravagantly flattering poem called _Pronea_. Cesarotti is best known +as the translator of Homer and Ossian. Much praise cannot be given to +his version of the _Iliad_, for he has not scrupled to add, omit and +modernize. Ossian, which he held to be the finest of poems, he has, on +the other hand, considerably improved in translation; and the appearance +of his version attracted much attention in Italy and France, and raised +up many imitators of the Ossianic style. Cesarotti also produced a +number of works in prose, including a _Course of Greek Literature_, and +essays _On the Origin and Progress of the Poetic Art_, _On the Sources +of the Pleasure derived from Tragedy_, _On the Philosophy of Language_ +and _On the Philosophy of Taste_, the last being a defence of his own +great eccentricities in criticism. His weakness was a straining after +novelty. His style is forcible, but full of Gallicisms. + + A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo. began to appear at + Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death. See + _Memoirs_, by Barbieri (Padua, 1810), and _Un Filosofo delle lettere_, + by Alemanni (Turin, 1894). + + + + +CESENA (anc. _Caesena_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in +the province of Forlì, 12 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Forlì, on the +line between Bologna and Rimini, 144 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1905) +12,245 (town); 43,468 (commune). The town is picturesquely situated at +the foot of the slopes of the Apennines, and is crowned by a medieval +fortress (Rocca), begun by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) +probably, but altered and added to later. The cathedral has two fine +marble altars by the Lombardi of Venice (or their school). The library, +built for Domenico Malatesta in 1452 by Matteo Nuzio, is a fine early +Renaissance building, and its internal arrangements, with the original +desks to which the books are still chained, are especially well +preserved (see J.W. Clark, _The Care of Books_, Cambridge, 1901, p. +199). In it are valuable MSS., many of which were used by Aldus +Manutius. It also contains a picture gallery with a good "Presentation +in the Temple" by Francesco Francia. There are some fine palaces in the +town. Three-quarters of a mile south-east on the hill stands the +handsome church of S. Maria del Monte, after the style of Bramante, with +carved stalls of the 16th century. Wine, hemp and silk are the main +articles of trade. About the ancient Caesena little is said in classical +authors: it is mentioned as a station on the Via Aemilia and as a +fortress in the wars of Theodoric and Narses. During the middle ages it +was at first independent. In 1357 it was unsuccessfully defended by the +wife of Francesco Ordelaffi, lord of Forlì, against the papal troops +under Albornoz. In 1377 it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva +(afterwards Clement VII., antipope). It was then held by the Malatesta +of Rimini until 1465, when it came under the dominion of the church. +Both Pius VI. (1717) and Pius VII. (1742) were born at Cesena. + (T. As.) + + + + +CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI (1832-1904), Italian-American soldier and +archaeologist, was born near Turin on the 29th of July 1832. Having +served in the Austrian and Crimean Wars, in 1860 he went to New York, +where he taught Italian and French and founded a military school for +officers. He took part in the American Civil War as colonel of a cavalry +regiment, and at Aldie (June 1863) was wounded and taken prisoner. He +was released from Libby prison early in 1864, served in the Wilderness +and Petersburg campaigns (1864-65) as a brigadier of cavalry, and at the +close of the war was breveted brigadier-general. He was then appointed +United States consul at Larnaca in Cyprus (1865-1877). During his stay +in the island he carried on excavations, which resulted in the discovery +of a large number of antiquities. The collection was purchased by the +Metropolitan Museum of New York, and Cesnola became director in 1879. +Doubt having been thrown by Gaston L. Feuerdant, in an article in the +New York _Herald_ (August 1880), upon the genuineness of his +restorations, the matter was referred to a special committee, which +pronounced in his favour.[1] He is the author of _Cyprus, its ancient +Cities, Tombs and Temples_ (1877), an interesting book of travel and of +considerable service to the practical antiquary; and of a _Descriptive +Atlas of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities_ (3 vols., +1884-6). He died in New York on the 21st of November 1904. He was a +member of several learned societies in Europe and America, and in 1897 +he received a Congressional medal of honour for conspicuous military +services. + +His brother, ALESSANDRO PALMA DI CESNOLA, born in 1839, conducted +excavations at Paphos (where he was U.S. vice-consul) and Salamis on +behalf of the British government. The results of these are described in +_Salaminia_ (1882). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the Cesnola controversy see C.D. Cobham's _Attempt at a + Bibliography of Cyprus_ (4th ed., 1900). See also article CYPRUS. + + + + +CESPEDES (in Ital. CEDASPE), PABLO DE (1538-1608), Spanish poet, +painter, sculptor and architect, was born at Cordova, and was educated +at Alcalá de Henares, where he studied theology and Oriental languages. +On leaving the university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil +and friend of Federigo Zuccaro, under whose direction he studied +particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1560, while +yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the Inquisition at +Valladolid on account of a letter which, found among the papers of the +archbishop of Toledo, had been written by Cespedes during the preceding +year, and in which he had spoken with great freedom against the holy +office and the inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdés. Cespedes remained +in Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have treated +the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he contrived to bring +the proceedings to an end; he returned, however, to Spain a little +before 1577, and in that year was installed in a prebend of the +cathedral at Cordova, where he resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes +has been called the most _savant_ of Spanish artists. According to his +friend Francisco Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for the +preservation of all of Cespedes's verse that is extant, the school of +Seville owes to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He +was a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master of +colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the advantage of +early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de Vera, Juan de Peñalosa +and Zambrano were among his pupils. His best picture is a Last Supper at +Cordova, but there are good examples of his work at Seville and at +Madrid. Cespedes was author of several opuscules in prose on subjects +connected with his profession. Of his poem on _The Art of Painting_ +enough was preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the +whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and it has +been compared, not disadvantageously, with the _Georgics_. It is written +in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic declamatory vein of +Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether so dull and lifeless as is most +didactic verse. It contains a glowing eulogy of Michelangelo, and some +excellent advice to young painters, insisting particularly on hard work +and on the study of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting +in all to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his +treatise _Del arte de la pintura_, in 1649. + + + + +CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE (1585?-1638), Spanish novelist, was born +at Madrid about 1585. Nothing positive is known of him before the +publication of his celebrated romance, the _Poema trágico del Español +Gerardo, y desengaño del amor lascivo_ (1615-1617); there is evidence +that he had been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the +1st of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but the +nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political +questions in the _Historia apologética en los sucesos del reyno de +Aragón, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, años de 91 y 92_ (1622), having led to +the confiscation of the book, Céspedes took up his residence at +Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection of short +stories entitled _Historias peregrinas y exemplares_ (1623), the +unfinished romance _Varia fortuna del soldado Píndaro_ (1626), and the +first part of his _Historia de Felipe IV._ (1631), a fulsome eulogy +which was rewarded by the author's appointment as official +historiographer to the Spanish king. Céspedes died on the 27th of +January 1638. His novels, though written in a ponderous, affected style, +display considerable imagination and insight into character. The _Poema +trágico_ has been utilized by Fletcher in _The Spanish Curate_ and in +_The Maid of the Mill_. + + The _Historias peregrinas_ has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable + introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori. + + + + +CESS (a shortened form of "assess"; the spelling is due to a mistaken +connexion with "census"), a tax; a term formerly more particularly +applied to local taxation, in which sense it still is used in Ireland; +otherwise it has been superseded by "rate." In India it is applied, with +the qualifying word prefixed, to any taxation, such as "irrigation-cess" +and the like, and in Scotland to the land-tax. + + + + +CESSIO BONORUM (Latin for a "surrender of goods"), in Roman law, a +voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his creditors. It did not +amount to a discharge unless the property ceded was sufficient for the +purpose, but it secured the debtor from personal arrest. The creditors +sold the goods in satisfaction, _pro tanto_, of their claims. The +procedure of _cessio bonorum_ avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his +after-acquired property might be proceeded against, could not be +deprived of the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman +law of _cessio bonorum_ were adopted in Scots law, and also in the +French legal system. (See further BANKRUPTCY.) + + + + +CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO (1620?-1669?), Italian musical composer, was born +at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil of Carissimi, and after holding a +post somewhere in Florence as _maestro di cappella_ entered the papal +chapel in 1660. In 1666 he became _Vice-Kapellmeister_ at Vienna, and +died at Venice in 1669. Cesti is known principally as a composer of +operas, the most celebrated of which were _La Dori_ (Venice, 1663) and +_Il Pomo d' oro_ (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of +chamber-cantatas, and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate +style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the stage. + + + + +CESTIUS, LUCIUS, surnamed Pius, Latin rhetorician, flourished during the +reign of Augustus. He was a native of Smyrna, a Greek by birth. +According to Jerome, he was teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 B.C. +He must have been living after A.D. 9, since we are told that he taunted +the son of Quintilius Varus with his father's defeat in the Teutoburgian +forest (Seneca, _Controv._ i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of great +ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he left Asia, he +was invited to dinner by Cicero's son, then governor of the province. +His host, being uncertain as to his identity, asked a slave who Cestius +was; and on receiving the answer, "he is the man who said your father +was illiterate," ordered him to be flogged (Seneca, _Suasoriae_, vii. +13). As an orator in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and +was worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him so +slavishly that he was nicknamed "my monkey" by his teacher (Seneca, +_Controv._ ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the other hand, he was a +failure. Although a Greek, he always used Latin in his declamations, +and, although he was sometimes at a loss for Latin words, he never +suffered from lack of ideas. Numerous specimens of his declamations will +be found in the works of Seneca the rhetorician. + + See the monograph _De Lucio Cestio Pio_, by F.G. Lindner (1858); T. + Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 2 (1899); + Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Roman Lit._ (Eng. tr.), § 268, 6; M. + Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_, ii. + + + + +CESTUI, CESTUY, an Anglo-French word, meaning "that person," which +appears in the legal phrases _cestui que trust_, _use_, or _vie_. It is +usually pronounced as "cetty." _Cestui que trust_ means literally "the +person for whose benefit the trust" is created. The _cestui que trust_ +is the person entitled to the equitable, as opposed to the legal, +estate. Thus, if land be granted unto, and to the use of A. in trust for +B., B. is _cestui que trust_, and A. trustee. The term, principally +owing to its cumbersomeness, is being gradually superseded in modern law +by that of "beneficiary." _Cestui que use_ (sometimes _cestui à que +use_) means "the person for whose benefit a use" is created (see TRUST). +_Cestui que vie_ is "the person for whose life" lands are held by +another (see REMAINDER). + + + + +CETACEA (from the Gr. [Greek: ketos], a whale), the name of the +mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &c. From +their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adaptation to their +purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded as fishes, +although they are true mammals, with warm blood, and suckle their young. + +The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped body +passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck, and +posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the tail, which +is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of skin supported +by fibrous tissue, called "flukes," forming a horizontal triangular +propelling organ, notched behind in the middle line. The head is +generally large, in some cases attaining more than one-third the entire +length; and the mouth is wide, and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The +fore-limbs are reduced to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous +skin, showing no external sign of division, and without trace of nails. +There are no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the +skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in many +species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth which +may persist through life or be present only in the young state. +Immediately beneath the skin is a thick layer of fat, held together by a +mesh of tissue, constituting the "blubber," which retains the heat of +the body. In nearly all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The +eye is small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The +external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a short +distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or by a single +crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head. + + The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being filled + with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short and + immobile, and the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in many + species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The odontoid + process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone is free, is + usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on the form and + function of the cervical vertebrae published in the _Jenaische + Zeitschrift_ for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the shortening and + soldering is most pronounced in species which, like the right-whales, + live entirely on minute organisms, to capture which there is no + necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly we find that in these + whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are fused into an immovable + solid mass, of which the compound elements, with the exception of the + first and second, are but little thicker than plates. On the other + hand, in the finner-whales, several of which live exclusively on fish, + and thus require a certain amount of mobility in the head and neck, we + find all the cervical vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate + from one another. Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white + whale, or beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the + great comparative length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are + completely free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure + is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk + with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in the + neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed to + feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require + mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On the + other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and mackerel, + which in their densely packed shoals must apparently fall an easy prey + with but little exertion on the part of their captor, and we + accordingly find all the neck-vertebrae very short, and at least six + out of the seven coalesced into a solid immovable mass. None of the + vertebrae are united to form a sacrum. The lumbar and caudal vertebrae + are numerous and large, and, as their arches are not connected by + articular processes (zygapophyses), they are capable of free motion in + all directions. The caps, or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral + bodies are flattened disks, not uniting until after the animal has + attained its full dimensions. There are largely developed + chevron-bones on the under side of the tail, the presence of which + indicates the distinction between caudal and lumbar vertebrae. + + In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost + spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards + and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the + vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region; and + the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits. + The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or + less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae, + vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the upper + jaw or roof of the mouth. + + There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the scapula + at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of the limb + are imperfect; the flattened ends of the bones coming in contact, with + fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any motion. The radius + and ulna are distinct, and about equally developed, and much + flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers. There are four, or + more commonly five, digits, and the number of the phalanges of the + second and third always exceeds the normal number in mammals, + sometimes considerably; they present the exceptional character of + having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis is represented by a pair of + small rod-like bones placed longitudinally, suspended below and at + some distance from the vertebral column at the commencement of the + tail. In some species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other + small bones or cartilages, the rudiments of the hind-limb. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--A Section of the Skull of a Black-Fish + (_Globicephalus melas_). + + PMx, Premaxilla. + Mx, Maxilla. + ME, Ossified portion of the mesethmoid. + an, Nostrils. + Na, Nasal. + IP, Inter-parietal. + Fr, Frontal. + Pa, Parietal. + SO, Supra-occipital. + ExO, Ex-occipital. + BO, Basi-occipital. + Sq, Squamosal. + Per, Periotic. + AS, Alisphenoid. + PS, Presphenoid. + Pt, Pterygoid. + pn, Posterior nares. + Pl, Palatine. + Vo, Vomer. + s, Symphysis of lower jaw. + id, Inferior dental canal. + cp, Coronoid process of lower jaw. + cd, Condyle. + a, Angle. + sh, Stylo-hyal. + bh, Basi-hyal. + th, Thyro-hyal.] + + Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. In + existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with conical + or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded by + milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent (except in the + foetal condition), and the palate is provided with numerous + transversely placed horny plates, forming the "whalebone." Salivary + glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach is complex, and the + intestine simple, and only in some species provided with a small + caecum. The liver is little fissured, and there is no gall-bladder. + The blood-vascular system is complicated by net-like expansions of + both arteries and veins, or _retia mirabilia_, The larynx is of + peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being + elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation, which projects into the + posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft palate forms a + continuous passage between the nostrils and the trachea, or wind-pipe, + in a more perfect manner. The brain is relatively large, round in + form, with its surface divided into numerous and complex convolutions. + The kidneys are deeply lobulated; the testes are abdominal; and there + are no vesiculae seminales nor an os penis. The uterus is bicornuate; + the placenta non-deciduate and diffuse. The two teats are placed in + depressions on each side of the genital aperture. The ducts of the + milk-glands are dilated during suckling into large reservoirs, into + which the milk collects, and from which it is injected by the action + of a muscle into the mouth of the young animal, so that sucking under + water is greatly facilitated. + +Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins and +porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America and +Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their life entirely +in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. They have, +however, to rise very frequently to the surface for the purpose of +respiration; and, in relation to the upward and downward movement in the +water thus necessitated, the principal instrument of motion, the tail, +is expanded horizontally. The position of the nostril on the highest +part of the head is important for this mode of life, as it is the only +part of the body the exposure of which above the surface is absolutely +necessary. Of numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history, +few are so widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes +water taken in at the mouth. But the "spouting," or "blowing," of whales +is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration, which, taking place +at longer intervals than land-animals, is performed with a greater +emphasis. The moment the animal rises to the surface it forcibly expels +from its lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration, which is +charged with vapour in consequence of the respiratory changes. This +rapidly condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is +often observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken +for water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the ocean +is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its expiratory puff +before the orifice has cleared the top of the water, some of which may +thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending to complete the illusion. +From photographs of spouting rorquals, it appears that the height and +volume of the "spout" of all the species is much less than was supposed +to be the case by the older observers; even that of the huge +"sulphur-bottom" (_Balaenoptera sibbaldi_) averaging only about 14 ft. +in height, although it may occasionally reach 20 ft. + +As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans for +receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by the practice +of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged in driving a shoal +of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for the purpose of +frightening their intended victims. As regards the possession of a voice +by cetaceans, it is stated that one species, the "buckelwal" of the +Germans, utters during the breeding-season a prolonged scream, +comparable to the scream of a steam-siren, and embracing the whole +musical scale, from base to treble. In respect of anatomical +considerations, it is true that the external ear is much reduced, the +"pinna" being absent, and the tube or "meatus" of very small calibre. On +the other hand, the internal auditory organs are developed on the plan +of those of ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications +(notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone) for +intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are received from +the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident that whales must hear +when in the water. This inference is confirmed by the comparatively +small development of the other sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is +very small, and can be of little use even at the comparatively small +depths to which whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of +smell, judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs, +must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs comparable to the +lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently, it would seem that when +below the surface of the water they must depend chiefly upon the sense +of hearing. Probably this sense is so highly developed as to enable the +animals, in the midst of the vibrations made by the screw-like movements +of the tail, or flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations) +made by the impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in +the case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water +the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is +difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the +semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound coasts. + + In the Christiania _Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, vol. + xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the + body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely + imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a + matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living + cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale + and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a pond + in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of procedure + is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have, accordingly, + to rely on _post-mortem_ observations. The layer of blubber by which + all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the _post-mortem_ + refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than in most mammals, + so that such observations have a much higher value than might at first + be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the blood-temperature of a + specimen of Sibbald's rorqual three days after death still stood at + 34° C. The various observations that have been taken have afforded the + following results in individual cases: Sperm-whale, 40° C.; Greenland + right-whale, 38.8° C.; porpoise, 35.6° C.; liver of a second + individual, 37.8° C.; common rorqual, 35.4° C.; dolphin, 35.6° C. The + average blood-temperature of man is 37° C., and that of other mammals + 39° C.; while that of birds is 42 C. The record of 40° C. in the case + of the sperm-whale seems to indicate that at least some cetaceans have + a relatively high temperature. + +With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all the Cetacea +are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of some kind. One kind +alone (_Orca_) eats other warm-blooded animals, as seals, and even +members of its own order, both large and small. Many feed on fish, +others on small floating crustaceans, pteropods and jelly-fishes, while +the principal staple of the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes +and squids. In size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins +scarcely exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal +of all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are +exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species exceed +those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct dinosaurian +reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are generally timid, +inoffensive animals, active in their movements and affectionate in their +disposition towards one another, especially the mother towards the +young, of which there is usually but one, or at most two at a time. They +are generally gregarious, swimming in herds or "schools," sometimes +amounting to many thousands in number; though some species are met with +either singly or in pairs. + +Commercially these animals are of importance on account of the oil +yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone, spermaceti and +ambergris are still more valuable products yielded by certain species. +Within the last few years whalebone has been sold in America for £2900 +per ton, while it is also asserted that £3000 per ton has been paid for +two and a quarter tons at Aberdeen, although there seems to be some +degree of doubt attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the +last century, the price of this commodity was as low as £150 per ton, +but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to £620 with +the introduction of "crinoline" into ladies' costume, and it has +apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris, which is very largely +used in perfumery, is solely a product of the sperm-whale, and appears +to be a kind of biliary calculus. It generally contains a number of the +horny beaks of the cuttle-fishes and squids upon which these whales +chiefly feed. Its market-price is subject to considerable variation, but +from £3 to £4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality. +In 1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of ambergris +weighing 270 lb., which was sold in Paris for about 85 s. per oz., or +£18,360. + + _Whalebone Whales_.--Existing Cetacea are divisible into two sections, + or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means clearly + apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales, or + Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although + there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished with + plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and the nasal + bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed upwards + and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not over, the + orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and distinct + from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic, which is + attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging processes. + The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two halves of the + lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends meeting at an + angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any symphysis. All the + ribs at their upper extremity articulate only with the transverse + processes of the vertebrae; their capitular processes when present not + articulating directly with the bodies of the vertebrae. The sternum is + composed of a single piece, and articulates only with a single pair of + ribs; and there are no ossified sternal ribs. External openings of + nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A short conical + caecum. + + When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute teeth lying + in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws. They are best + developed about the middle of foetal life, after which they are + absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth. The + whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth; and consists + of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and four hundred + in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare interval along the + middle line. The plates are placed transversely to the long axis of + the palate, with short intervals between them. Each plate or blade is + somewhat triangular in form, with the base attached to the palate and + the apex hanging downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and + smooth, but the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres, + so that the roof of the whale's mouth looks as if covered with hair, + as described by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade + are two or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal + blades are longest near the middle of the series, and gradually + diminish towards the front and back of the mouth. The horny plates + grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix, which covers the palatal + surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-like processes, one of + which penetrates the base of each blade. Moreover, the free edges of + these processes are covered with long vascular thread-like papillae, + one of which forms the central axis of each of the hair-like fibres + mainly composing the blade. A transverse section of fresh whalebone + shows that it is made up of numbers of these soft vascular papillae, + circular in outline, and surrounded by concentrically arranged + epidermic cells, the whole bound together by other epidermic cells, + that constitute the smooth (so-called "enamel") surface of the blade, + which, disintegrating at the free edge, allows the individual fibres + to become loose and assume a hair-like appearance. + + Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous membrane + of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial development. The + blades are supported and bound together for a certain distance from + their base, by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted by the + surface of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in the + intervals of the plate-like processes. This is the "gum" of the + whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in different species; in some + it is almost jet black, in others slate colour, horn colour, yellow, + or even creamy-white. In some descriptions the blades are variegated + with longitudinal stripes of different hues. It differs also greatly + in other respects, being short, thick, coarse, and stiff in some + cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in those species in + which it has attained its fullest development. Its function is to + strain the water from the small marine molluscs, crustaceans, or fish + upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales fill the immense + mouth with water containing shoals of these small creatures, and then, + on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so as to diminish the + cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through the narrow + intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone blades, and + escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be swallowed. + + Although sometimes divided into two families, _Balaenidae_ and + _Balaenopteridae_, whalebone-whales are best included in a single + family group under the former name. The typical members of this family + are the so-called right-whales, forming the genus _Balaena_, in which + there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin; while the + cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers are + short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the + whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while the + scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process. This + genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (_B. mysticetus_) + of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so much valued + in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by having the head + somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with shorter whalebone and + a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit the temperate seas of both + northern and southern hemispheres, and have been divided into species + in accordance with their geographical distribution, such as _B. + biscayensis_ of the North Atlantic, _B. japonica_ of the North + Pacific, _B. australis_ of the South Atlantic, and _B. antipodarum_ + and _novae-zelandiae_ of the South Pacific; but the differences + between them are so small that they may probably be regarded as races + of a single species, the black whale (_B. australis_). On the head + these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known to whalers as + the "bonnet." This is a large horny excrescence, worn into hollows + like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock, growing probably in the + neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More than one theory has been + suggested to account for its presence. One suggestion is that it + indicates the descent of whales from rhinoceros-like mammals; another + that this species of whale is in the habit of rubbing against rocks in + order to free itself from barnacles, and thus produces a kind of + corn--although why on the nose alone is not stated. Dr W.G. Ridewood, + however, considers that the structure is due to the fact that the + horny layers which are produced all over the skin are not shed on this + particular spot. + + The pigmy whale (_Neobalaena marginata_) represents a genus agreeing + with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flutings, and with the + rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical vertebrae are + united, and there are only 43 vertebrae altogether. The flippers are + small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs remarkably expanded + and flattened; the scapula low and broad, with completely developed + acromion and coracoid processes. The whalebone is long, slender, + elastic and white. The species which inhabits the South American, + Australian and New Zealand seas is the smallest of the + whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in length. + + In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (_Rachianectes + glaucus_) of the North Pacific, which combines the relatively small + head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin-whales, with the + smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the + right-whales. The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other + species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the + first two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony + shield. In the humpback-whale (_Megaptera longimana_ or _boops_) the + head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and wide, and + the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is fluted so as to + form an expansible pouch; there is a low back-fin; and the flippers, + which have four digits each, are extremely long, equalling about + one-fourth the total length of the animal. The acromion and coracoid + processes of the scapula are rudimentary. See HUMPBACK-WHALE. + + The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of the + shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and are + consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and immovable + neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but with a smaller + head, and probably attains considerable speed owing to the length of + its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (_Balaenoptera_), which prey + largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the ocean + greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long and + attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are + furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They chiefly + differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and slender build, + small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing four digits, and + the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low and broad + scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among them are the + most gigantic of all animals, _B. sibbaldi_, which attains the length + of 80 ft., and the small _B. rostrata_, which does not exceed 30. + There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus, + represented by the two just mentioned, and by _B. musculus_ and _B. + borealis_, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether + almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific + Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct + awaits future researches, although some of these have already received + distinct names. See RORQUAL. + + In the report on the zoology of the "Discovery" expedition, published + in 1907 by the British Museum, E.A. Wilson describes a whale + frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates a new + generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure about 20 or + 30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a killer. + + _Toothed Whales._--The second suborder is represented by the toothed + whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and teeth, + generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single pair, and + occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike that of the + whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more or less + unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or flattened + plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming any part of + the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards and + backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent. Hinder end of + the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of the orbital + plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either inseparable from the + jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the roof of the + orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic, which is usually + only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament. Two halves of the + lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height posteriorly, with a wide + funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal, and coming in contact in + front by a flat surface of variable length, but constituting a + symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with well-developed capitular + processes, which articulate with the bodies of the vertebrae. Sternum + almost always composed of several pieces, placed one behind the other, + with which several pairs of ribs are connected by well-developed + cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory aperture + single, the two nostrils uniting before they reach the surface, + usually in the form of a transverse sub-crescentic valvular aperture, + situated on the top of the head. Flippers with five digits, though the + first and fifth are usually little developed. No caecum, except in + _Platanista_. + + The first family, _Physeteridae_, is typified by the sperm-whale, and + characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper jaw; the + lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in number. Bones of + the skull raised so as to form an elevated prominence or crest behind + the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced backwards, meeting in + the middle line, and not involuted to form the outer wall of the + post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed on their outer side. + Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal vertebrae, to which + the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing abruptly near the end + of the series, and replaced by processes on the body at a lower level, + and serially homologous anteriorly with the heads of the ribs, and + posteriorly with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. + Costal cartilages not ossified. + + The first group, or _Physeterinae_, includes the sperm-whale itself + and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth, + which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being + imperfectly divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by + the strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly + asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence of + the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size. + + In the sperm-whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_) the upper teeth are + apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless, being + embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25 teeth on each side, + stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex until they are worn, + without enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave; its posterior and + lateral edges raised into a very high and greatly compressed + semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic processes of jugal + bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elongated, broad at the base, + and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower jaw exceedingly long and + narrow, the symphysis being more than half the length. Vertebrae: C 7, + D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas, or first vertebra, free; all the + other cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and spines into a + single mass. Eleventh pair of ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third + the length of the body; very massive, high and truncated, and rather + compressed in front; owing its huge size and form mainly to the + accumulation of a mass of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the + upper surface of the skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single + blow-hole is longitudinal, slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper + and anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle + line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the head, + considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers short, broad and + truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low protuberance. See + SPERM-WHALE. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Skull of Sperm-Whale (_Physeter + macrocephalus_).] + + In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (_Cogia breviceps_) there may be a + pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw, while on each side of the + lower jaw there are from 9 to 12 rather long, slender, pointed and + curved teeth, with a coating of enamel. Upper surface of the skull + concave, with thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive + and rounded at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle + not longer than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base, + and rapidly tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal + rod-like. Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length. + Vertebrae: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the + cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and arches. The head is + about one-sixth of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in + front; the mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout; the + blow-hole crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in + advance of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the + flippers are bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This + species attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Bottle-nose (_Hyperoödon rostratus_). From a + specimen taken off the coast of Scotland, 1882.] + + A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked + whales, and known as the _Ziphiinae_. In this group the lower teeth + are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely two, + pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male. There is + a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced into a + slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded eminence formed + by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front of the blow-hole + rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single, crescentic and + median, as in the _Delphinidae_. Flippers small, ovate, with five + digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal fin situated + considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on + each side of the skin of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly + meeting in front. In external characters and habits the whales of this + group closely resemble each other. They appear to be almost + exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and occur either singly, in + pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters + they are easily separated into four genera. + + In the first of these, _Hyperoödon_, or bottle-nose, there is a small + conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw, + concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the + premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex and + expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their + anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils; the + right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow between + the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave in the + middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of the + right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla. + Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak, + extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other in + the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so massive + that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital notch + distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Vertebrae: C 7, + D 9, L 10, Ca 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae united. Upper + surface of the head in front of the blow-hole very prominent and + rounded, rising abruptly from above the small, distinct snout. Two + species are known. See BOTTLE-NOSE WHALE. + + The typical representative of the beaked whales is _Ziphius cuvieri_, + in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side + close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards + and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and at + the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral + margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards, + the right being considerably more developed than the left. The + conjoint nasals form a pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of + the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above, + prominent and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a + notch on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not + distinct. Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base + to the apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum + raised into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely + ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of + the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The three + anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sowerby's Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon bidens_).] + + In the numerous species of the allied genus _Mesoplodon_ there is a + much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw, + variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex; + its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasionally + developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the nostrils + is as in _Hyperoödon_, except that the nasals are narrow and more sunk + between the upper ends of the premaxillae; like those of _Hyperoödon_, + they are concave in the middle line in front and above. No maxillary + tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum long and + narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its entire length, and + coalescing with the surrounding bones. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10 or + 11, Ca 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three anterior cervicals + united, the rest usually free. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Skull of a Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon + densirostris_).] + + Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different members of + this genus agree in their essential structure, having a small and + pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of dentine, which, instead of + surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid + mass of osteo-dentine, the continuous growth of which greatly alters + the form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances, as in + the case of _M. layardi_, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like + teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over the rostrum, + and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one species (_M. + grayi_) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like those of + ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, is present even in the adults, + on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but embedded by + their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets. This, with the + frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species of this genus, + indicates that the beaked whales are derived from ancestral forms with + teeth of normal character in both jaws. The species are distributed in + both northern and southern hemispheres, but most frequent in the + latter. Among them are _M. bidens_, _M. europaeas_, _M. densirostris_, + _M. layardi_, _M. grayi_ and _M. hectori_; but there is still much to + be learned with regard to their characters and distribution. This + group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as attested by the frequency + with which the imperishable long, cylindrical rostrum of the skull, of + more than ivory denseness, is found among the rolled and waterworn + animal remains which compose the "bone-bed" at the base of the Red + Crag of Suffolk. + + Finally, in Arnoux's beaked whale (_Berardius arnouxi_), of New + Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two + moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the + symphysis of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the + anterior being the larger of the two and close to the front of the + jaw. Upper ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately + elevated, slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils. + Nasals broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the + vertex of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle + line. Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid + partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the + upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D + 10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals welded, the + rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale has the power of + thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to view when attacked. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Susu, or Ganges Dolphin (_Platanista + gangetica_).] + + In a family by themselves--the _Platinistidae_--are placed three + cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the + following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the + vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at + the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in most + mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal bone is not + distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous + teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one exceeding half its + length. Externally the head is divided from the body by a slightly + constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated. Dorsal fin small + or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are fluviatile or estuarine. In + the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin (_Platanista gangetica_), the teeth + number about 30/30 on each side, are set near together, are rather + large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young, but in old animals + acquire a large laterally compressed base, which in the posterior part + of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots. As the conical + enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the young and old + animals have a totally different appearance. The beak and + tooth-bearing portion of the lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of + the two sides are almost in contact. Maxillae supporting large, + incurved, compressed bony crests, which overarch the nostrils and base + of the rostrum, and almost meet in the middle line above. Orbits very + small and eyes rudimentary, without crystalline lens. Blow-hole + longitudinal, linear. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 25; total 51. A + small caecum. No pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--River Plate Dolphin (_Stenodelphis + blainvillei_).] + + The second genus is represented by _Inia geoffroyi_, of the Amazon, in + which the teeth vary from 26 to 33 pairs in each jaw; those at the + posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner side of the base + of the crown. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18; total 41. Transverse + processes of lumbar vertebrae very broad. Sternum short and broad, and + consisting of a single segment only. Dorsal fin a mere ridge. The long + cylindrical rostrum externally furnished with scattered, stout and + crisp hairs. The third type is _Stenodelphis blainvillei_, the River + Plate dolphin, a small brown species (fig. 7), with from 50 to 60 + pairs of teeth in each jaw, furnished with a cingulum at the base of + the crown. Jaws very long and slender. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca + 19; total 41. Transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae extremely + broad. Sternum elongated, composed of two segments, with four sternal + ribs attached. Dorsal fin rather small, triangular, pointed. Blow-hole + transverse. In several respects this species connects the two + preceding ones with the _Delphinidae_ (see DOLPHIN). + + The last family of existing cetaceans is the above-mentioned + _Delphinidae_, which includes the true dolphins, porpoises, grampuses + and their relatives. As a rule there are numerous teeth in both jaws; + and the pterygoid bones of the skull are short, thin and involuted to + form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of the + post-palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of lower jaw short, or moderate, + never exceeding one-third the length of the jaw. Lacrymal bone not + distinct from the jugal. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae + gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the vertebrae + without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly continuous serially + with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Anterior ribs + attached to the transverse process by the tubercle, and to the body of + the vertebra by the head; the latter attachment lost in the posterior + ribs. Sternal ribs ossified. The blow-hole is transverse, crescentic, + with the horns of the crescent pointing forwards. + + First on the long list is the narwhal, _Monodon monoceros_, in which, + apart from some irregular rudimentary teeth, the dentition is reduced + to a single pair of teeth which lie horizontally in the maxilla, and + in the female remain permanently concealed within the socket, so that + this sex is practically toothless, while in the male (fig. 8), the + right tooth usually remains similarly concealed while the left is + immensely developed, attaining a length equal to more than half that + of the entire animal, projecting horizontally from the head in the + form of a cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, without + enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and ridges, + running in a sinistral direction. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 6, Ca 26; + total 50. Cervical region comparatively long, and all the vertebrae + distinct, or with irregular unions towards the middle of the series, + the atlas and axis being usually free. Flipper small, short and broad, + with the second and third digits nearly equal, the fourth slightly + shorter. No dorsal fin. See NARWHAL. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Upper surface of the Skull of male Narwhal + (_Monodon monoceros_), with the whole of both teeth exposed by removal + of the upper wall of their alveolar cavities.] + + Closely allied is the beluga or white-whale (_Delphinapterus leucas_), + of the Arctic seas, in which, however, there are from eight to ten + pairs of teeth in each jaw, occupying the anterior three-fourths of + the rostrum and corresponding portion of the lower jaw, rather small, + conical, and pointed when unworn, but usually become obliquely + truncated, separated by intervals considerably wider than the diameter + of the tooth, and implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining forwards + especially in the upper jaw. Skull rather narrow and elongated, + depressed. Premaxillae convex in front of the nostrils. Rostrum about + equal in length to the cranial portion of the skull, triangular, broad + at the base, and gradually contracting towards the apex, where it is + somewhat curved downwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 9, Ca 23; total 50. + Cervical vertebrae free. Flippers broad, short and rounded, all the + digits being tolerably well developed, except the first. Anterior part + of head rounded; no distinct snout. No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in + its place. See BELUGA. + + In all the remaining genera of _Delphinidae_ the cervical region of + the vertebral column is very short, and the first two, and usually + more, of the vertebrae are firmly united. The common porpoise + (_Phocaena communis_, or _P. phocaena_) is the typical representative + of the first genus, in which the teeth vary from 18/18 to 25/25, are + small, and occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum, with + compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated from the root by a + constricted neck. Rostrum rather shorter than the cranium proper, + broad at the base and tapering towards the apex. Premaxillae raised + into tuberosities in front of the nostrils. The frontal bones form a + somewhat square elevated protuberance in the middle line of the skull + behind the nostrils, rising above the flattened nasals. Symphysis of + lower jaw very short. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 14, Ca 30; total 64. + First to sixth cervical vertebrae and sometimes the seventh also, + coalesced. Flippers of moderate size, oval, slightly sickle-shaped, + with the second and third digits nearly equal in length, and the + fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Head short, moderately + rounded in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin near the middle of the + back, triangular; its height considerably less than the length of the + base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with one or more rows of + conical horny tubercles. + + The porpoise, which is so common in British waters and the Atlantic, + seldom enters the Mediterranean, and apparently never resides there. + There is, however, a porpoise in the Black Sea, which, according to Dr + O. Abel, is entitled to rank as a distinct species, with the name of + _Phocaena relicta_. This Black Sea porpoise is readily distinguished + from the Atlantic species by the contour of the profile of the head, + which, in place of forming a continuous curve from the muzzle to what + represents the neck, has a marked prominence above the angle of the + mouth, followed by an equally marked depression. The teeth are also + different in form and number. The absence of porpoises from the + Mediterranean is explained by Dr Abel on account of the greater + saltness of that sea as compared with the ocean in general; his idea + being that these cetaceans are near akin to fresh-water members of the + group, and therefore unsuited to withstand an excessively saline + medium. From the Taman Peninsula, on the north shore of the Black Sea, + the same writer has described an extinct type of ancestral porpoise, + under the name of _Palaeophocaena andrussowi_. Another species is the + wholly black _P. spinipennis_, typically from South America. Black is + also the hue of the Indian porpoise (_Neophocaena phocaenoides_), + which wants a dorsal fin, and has eighteen pairs of teeth rather + larger than those of the ordinary porpoise. (See PORPOISE.) + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Beluga or White-Whale (_Delphinapterus + leucas_). From a specimen taken in the river St Lawrence and exhibited + in London, 1877.] + + Next comes the Indo-Malay genus _Orcella_, in which the 12/12 to + 14/14, small, conical teeth are pointed, rather closely set, and + occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull sub-globular, + high. Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion of the + skull, tapering. Flippers of moderate size, not elongated, but + somewhat pointed, with all the bones of the digits broader than long, + except the first phalanges of the index and third fingers. Head + globular in front. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle + of the body. Two species, both of small size--_O. brevirostris_, from + the Bay of Bengal, and _O. fluminalis_, from the Irrawaddy river, from + 300 to 900 m. from the sea. + + In the grampus, or killer, _Orca gladiator_ (or _O. orca_) the teeth + form about twenty pairs, above and below, occupying nearly the whole + length of the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved + crowns and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather + hollowed, on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about equal + in length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened above, + rounded in front; premaxillae broad and rather concave in front of the + nostrils, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and expanding again + towards the apex. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 10, Ca 23; total 51 or + 52; bodies of the first and second and sometimes the third cervical + vertebrae united; the rest free. Flippers very large, ovate, nearly as + broad as long, with all the phalanges and metacarpals broader than + long. General form of body robust. Face short and rounded. Dorsal fin + near the middle of the back, very high and pointed. See GRAMPUS. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--The Grampus or Killer (_Orca gladiator_).] + + The lesser killer or black killer, _Pseudorca crassidens_, has its + 8-12/8-12 teeth confined to the anterior half of the rostrum and + corresponding part of the lower jaw; they are small, conical, curved + and sharp-pointed when unworn, but sometimes deciduous in old age. + Skull broad and depressed; with the rostrum and cranial portions about + equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Premaxillae + concave in front of the nostrils, as wide at the middle of the rostrum + as at the base, and nearly or completely concealing the maxillae in + the anterior half of this region. Vertebrae: C 7, D II, L 12-14, Ca + 28-29; total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or six cervical + vertebrae united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar and anterior + caudal vertebrae about equal to their width. Flippers very long and + narrow, with the second digit the longest, and having as many as 12 or + 13 phalanges, the third shorter (with 9 phalanges), the first, fourth + and fifth very short. Fore part of the head round, in consequence of + the great development of a cushion of fat, placed on the rostrum of + the skull in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin low and triangular, + the length of its base considerably exceeding its vertical height. + + Next comes the ca'ing whale, or black-fish (_Globicephalus melas_), + with about ten pairs of upper and lower teeth. Cranial and dental + characters generally like those of _Orca_, except that the roots of + the teeth are cylindrical. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 9, Ca 24; total 50; + first to sixth or seventh cervical vertebrae united; bodies of the + lumbar vertebrae distinguished from those of the preceding genera by + being more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2. + Flippers of moderate size, narrow and pointed. Dorsal fin situated + near the middle of the back, of moderate size, and sickle-shaped. Head + in front of the blow-hole high, and compressed anteriorly, the snout + truncated. See CA'ING WHALE. + + Risso's dolphin, _Grampus griseus_, represents another genus, + characterized by the absence of teeth in the upper and the small + number of these in the lower jaw (3 to 7 on each side, and confined to + the region of the symphysis). Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, L 19, Ca 30; total + 68. General external characters much as in _Globicephalus_, but the + fore part of the head less rounded, and the flippers less elongated. + _G. griseus_ is about 13 ft. long, and remarkable for its great + variability of colour. It has been found, though rarely, in the North + Atlantic and Mediterranean. + + The common dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_) is the typical representative + of a large group of relatively small species, some of which are wholly + marine, while others are more or less completely fluviatile. They are + divided into a number of genera, such as _Prodelphinus_, _Steno_, + _Lagenorhynchus_, _Cephalorhynchus_, _Tursiops_, &c., best + distinguished from one another by the number and size of the teeth, + the form and relations of the bones on the hinder part of the palate, + the length of the beak and of the union of the two halves of the lower + jaw, and the number of vertebrae. For the distinctive characters of + these genera the reader may refer to one of the works mentioned below; + and it must suffice to state that, collectively, all these dolphins + are characterized by the following features. The teeth are numerous in + both jaws, and more than 20/20 in number, occupying nearly the whole + length of the rostrum, and small, close-set, conical, pointed and + slightly curved. Rostrum more or less elongated, and pointed in front, + usually considerably longer than the cranial portion of the skull. + Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-14, L and Ca variable; total 51 to 90. Flippers + of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat sickle-shaped, with the + first digit rudimentary, the second longest, third nearly equal, and + the fourth and fifth extremely short. Externally the head shows a + distinct beak or pointed snout, marked off from the antenasal fatty + elevation by a V-shaped groove. Dorsal fin rather large, triangular or + sickle-shaped, rarely wanting. A curiously marked brown and white + species, perhaps referable to _Lagenorhynchus_ is found on the fringe + of the Antarctic ice (see report on the zoology of the "Discovery," + published in 1907 by the British Museum). See DOLPHIN. + + + _Extinct Cetacea._ + + At present we are totally in the dark as to the origin of the + whalebone-whales, not being even assured that they are derived from + the same stock as the toothed whales. It is noteworthy, however, that + some of the fossil representatives of the latter have nasal bones of a + type recalling those of the former. Such fossil whalebone-whales as + are known occur in Pliocene, and Miocene formations are either + referable to existing genera, or to more or less nearly related + extinct ones, such as _Plesiocetus_, _Herpetocetus_ and _Cetotherium_. + + The toothed whales, on the other hand, are very largely represented in + a fossil state, reaching as low in the geological series as the upper + Cretaceous. Many of these present much more generalized characters + than their modern representatives, while others indicate apparently a + transition towards the still more primitive zeuglodonts, which, as + will be shown later, are themselves derived from the creodont + Carnivora. In the Pliocene deposits of Belgium and England are + preserved the teeth and other remains of a number of cetaceans, such + as _Physodon_, _Encetus_, _Dinoziphius_, _Hoplocetus_, _Balaenodon_ + and _Scaldicetus_, more or less nearly related to the sperm-whale, but + presenting several primitive characters. A complete skull of a member + of this group from the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia, at first + referred to _Physodon_, but subsequently to _Scaldicetus_, has a full + series of enamelled teeth in the upper jaw; and it is probable that + the same was the case in other forms. This entails either a + modification of the definition of the _Physeteridae_ as given above, + or the creation of a separate family for these primitive sperm-whales. + In other cases, however, as in the Miocene _Prophyseter_ and + _Placoziphius_, the anterior portion or the whole of the upper jaw had + already become toothless; and these forms are regarded as indicating + the descent of the sperm-whales from the under-mentioned _Squalodon_. + The beaked whales, again, are believed to be independently descended + from the latter type, _Berardius_ being traced into the Miocene + _Mioziphius_, _Anoplonassa_ and _Palaeoziphius_, the last of which + shows signs in its dentition of approximating to the complicated + tooth-structure of the squalodonts. + + Another line of descent from the latter, apparently culminating in the + modern _Platanistidae_, is represented by the family + _Eurhinodelphidae_, typified by the European Miocene + _Eurhinodelphis_, but also including the contemporary Patagonian + _Argyrocetus_ and the nearly allied European _Cyrtodelphis_. All these + were very long-beaked dolphins; and in _Argyrocetus_, at all events, + the occipital condyles, instead of being closely pressed to the skull, + are as prominent as in ordinary mammals, while the nasal bones, + instead of forming mere rudimentary nodules, were squared and roofed + over the hind part of the nasal chamber. + + In the Miocene _Squalodon_, representing the family _Squalodontidae_, + the dentition is differentiated into incisors, canines and + cheek-teeth, the hinder ones of the latter series having double roots + and compressed crowns carrying serrations on the hinder edge; + generally the dental formula has been given as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, + m. 7/7, the single-rooted cheek-teeth being regarded as premolars and + those with double roots as molars. Dr Abel is, however, of opinion + that the formula is better represented as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. (8 or + 9)/9, m. 3/2; the teeth reckoned as molars corresponding to those of + the creodont Carnivora. The single-rooted cheek-teeth are regarded as + due, not to the division of double-rooted ones, but to the fusion of + the two roots of teeth of the latter type. In _Squalodon_ the nasal + bones were of the modern nodular type, but in the Miocene Patagonian + _Prosqualodon_ they partially covered the nasal chamber. + + At present there is a gap between the most primitive squalodonts and + the Eocene zeuglodonts (_Zeuglodontidae_), which are regarded by + Messrs Max Weber, O. Abel and C.W. Andrews as the direct forerunners + of the modern-toothed whales, forming the suborder _Archaeoceti_. It + is, however, right to mention that some authorities refuse to admit + the relation of the Archaeoceti to the whales. + + In the typical zeuglodonts the long and flat skull has large temporal + fossae, a strong sagittal crest, a long beak formed mainly by the + premaxillae (in place of the maxillae, as in modern whales), and long + nasal bones covering over the nasal chamber, so that the nostrils + opened about half-way down the beak. All the cervical vertebrae were + free. Normally the dentition in the typical genus _Zeuglodon_ (which + is common to the Eocene of North America and Egypt) is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, + p. 4/4, m. 3/3; the cheek-teeth being two-rooted, with compressed + pointed crowns, of which the fore-and-aft edges are coarsely serrated. + In the Egyptian _Zeuglodon osiris_ the number of the molars is, + however, reduced to 2/3, while some of the earlier cheek-teeth have + become single-rooted, as in the squalodonts. The probable transitional + form between the latter and the zeuglodonts is the small + _Microzeuglodon caucasicus_ described by the present writer, from the + Caucasus. As regards the origin of the zeuglodonts themselves, remains + discovered in the Eocene formations of Egypt indicate a practically + complete transition, so far at least as dental characters are + concerned, from these whale-like creatures to the creodont Carnivora. + In the earliest type, _Protocetus_, the skull is practically that of a + zeuglodont, the snout being in fact more elongated than in some of the + earliest representatives of the latter, although the nostrils are + placed nearer the tip. The incisors are unknown, but the cheek-teeth + are essentially those of a creodont, none of them having acquired the + serrated edges distinctive of the typical zeuglodonts; and the hinder + premolars and molars retaining the three roots of the creodonts. In + the somewhat later _Prozeuglodon_ the skull is likewise essentially of + the zeuglodont type, although the nostrils have shifted a little more + backwards; as regards the cheek-teeth, which have acquired serrated + crowns, the premolars at any rate retain the inner buttress supported + by a distinct third root, so that they are precisely intermediate + between _Protocetus_ and _Zeuglodon_. Yet another connecting form is + _Eocetus_, a very large animal from nearly the same horizon as + _Prozeuglodon_; its skull approaching that of _Zeuglodon_ as regards + the backward position of the nostrils, although the cheek-teeth are of + the creodont type, having inner, or third, roots. It is noteworthy + that _Zeuglodon_ apparently occurs in the same beds as these + intermediate types. + + It follows from the foregoing that if zeuglodonts are the ancestors of + the true Cetacea--and the probability that they are so is very + great--the latter are derived from primitive Carnivora, and not, as + has been suggested, from herbivorous Ungulata. The idea that the + zeuglodonts were provided with a bony armour does not appear to be + supported by recent discoveries. + + AUTHORITIES.--The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. Flower in + the 9th edition of this work. See also W.H. Flower, "On the Characters + and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, + 1883); F.W. True, "Review of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. U.S. + Museum_, No. 36 (1889); R. Lydekker, "Cetacean Skulls from Patagonia," + _Palaeontol. Argentina_, vol. ii: _An. Mus. La Plata_ (1893); W. + Dames, "Über Zeuglodonten aus Ägypten," _Paläontol. Abhandlungen_, + vol. i. (1894); F.E. Beddard, _A Book of Whales_ (London, 1900); O. + Abel, "Untersuchungen über die fossilen Platanistiden des Wiener + Beckens," _Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien._, vol. lxviii. (1899); "Les + Dauphins longirostres du Bolérien," _Mém. musée d'hist. nat. belgique_ + (1901 and 1902); "Die phylogenetische Entwickelung des + Cetaceengebisses und die systematische Stellung der Physeteriden," + _Verhandl. deutsch. zool. Gesellschaft_ (1905); E. Fraas, "Neue + Zeuglodonten aus dem unteren Mittelocean vom Mokattam bei Cairo," + _Geol. und paläontol. Abhandl._ ser. 2, vol. vi. (1904); C.W. + Andrews, "Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the + Fayum" (British Museum, 1906). (R. L.*) + + + + +CETHEGUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of the Cornelian gens. +Like the younger Cato its members kept up the old Roman fashion of +dispensing with the tunic and leaving the arms bare (Horace, _Ars +Poëtica_, 50; Lucan, _Pharsalia_, ii. 543). Two individuals are of some +importance:-- + +(1) MARCUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, pontifex maximus and curule aedile, 213 +B.C. In 211, as praetor, he had charge of Apulia; later, he was sent to +Sicily, where he proved a successful administrator. In 209 he was +censor, and in 204 consul. In 203 he was proconsul in Upper Italy, +where, in conjunction with the praetor P. Quintilius Varus, he gained a +hard-won victory over Mago, Hannibal's brother, in Insubrian territory, +and obliged him to leave Italy. He died in 196. He had a great +reputation as an orator, and is characterized by Ennius as "the +quintessence of persuasiveness" (_suadae medulla_). Horace (_Ars Poët._ +50; _Epistles_, ii. 2. 117) calls him an authority on the use of Latin +words. + + Livy xxv. 2, 41, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11, xxx. 18. + +(2) GAIUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, the boldest and most dangerous of +Catiline's associates. Like many other youthful profligates, he joined +the conspiracy in the hope of getting his debts cancelled. When Catiline +left Rome in 63 B.C., after Cicero's first speech, Cethegus remained +behind as leader of the conspirators with P. Lentulus Sura. He himself +undertook to murder Cicero and other prominent men, but was hampered by +the dilatoriness of Sura, whose age and rank entitled him to the chief +consideration. The discovery of arms in Cethegus's house, and of the +letter which he had given to the ambassadors of the Allobroges, who had +been invited to co-operate, led to his arrest. He was condemned to +death, and executed, with Sura and others, on the night of the 5th of +December. + + Sallust, _Catilina_, 46-55; Cicero, _In Cat._ iii. 5-7; Appian, _Bell. + Civ._ ii. 2-5; see CATILINE. + + + + +CETINA, GUTIERRE DE (1518?-1572?), Spanish poet and soldier, was born at +Seville shortly before 1520. He served under Charles V. in Italy and +Germany, but retired from the army in 1545 to settle in Seville. Soon +afterwards, however, he sailed for Mexico, where he resided for some ten +years; he appears to have visited Seville in 1557, and to have returned +to Mexico, where he died at some date previous to 1575. A follower of +Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega, a friend of Jerónimo de Urrea and +Baltavar del Alcázar, Cetina adopted the doctrines of the Italian school +and, under the name of Vandalio, wrote an extensive series of poems in +the newly introduced metres; his sonnets are remarkable for elegance of +form and sincerity of sentiment, his other productions being in great +part adaptations from Petrarch, Ariosto and Ludovico Dolce. His patrons +were Antonio de Leyva, prince of Ascoli, Hurtado de Mendoza, and Alva's +grandson, the duke de Sessa, but he seems to have profited little by +their protection. His works have been well edited by Joaquín Hazañas y +la Rúa in two volumes published at Seville (1895). + + + + +CETTE, a seaport of southern France in the department of Hérault, 18 m. +S.W. of Montpellier by the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 32,659. After +Marseilles it is the principal commercial port on the south coast of +France. The older part of Cette occupies the foot and slope of the Mont +St Clair (the ancient _Mons Setius_), a hill 590 ft. in height, situated +on a tongue of land that lies between the Mediterranean and the lagoon +of Thau. This quarter with its wide streets and lofty stone buildings is +bounded on the east by the Canal de Cette, which leads from the lagoon +of Thau to the Old Basin and the outer harbour. Across the canal lie the +newer quarters, which chiefly occupy two islands separated from each +other by a wet dock and limited on the east by the Canal Maritime, +parallel to the Canal de Cette. A lateral canal unites the northern ends +of the two main canals. A breakwater running W.S.W. and E.N.E. protects +the entrance to the harbour, which is one of the safest in France. The +outer port and the Old Basin are enclosed by a mole to the south and by +a jetty to the east. Behind the outer port lies an inner and more recent +basin which communicates with the Canal Maritime. The entire area of the +harbour, including the canals, is 111 acres with a quayage length of +over 8000 yds. The public institutions of Cette include tribunals of +commerce and of maritime commerce, councils of arbitration in commercial +and fishing affairs, an exchange and chamber of commerce, a branch of +the Bank of France and a large hospital. There are also a communal +college, a naval school, and schools of music, commerce and industry, +and navigation. Cette is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The town is +connected with Lyons by the canal from the Rhone to Cette, and with +Bordeaux by the Canal du Midi, and is a junction of the Southern and +Paris-Lyon railways. The shipping trade is carried on with South +America, the chief ports of the Mediterranean, and especially with +Spain. The chief exports are wines and brandy, chemical products, skins +and soap; the chief imports are wine, cereals, coal, timber, petroleum, +sulphur, tar and chemical substances. In the five years 1901-1905 the +average annual value of imports was £3,720,000 (£4,980,000 in years +1896-1900), of exports £1,427,000 (£1,237,000 in 1896-1900). More than +400 small craft are employed in the sardine, tunny, cod and other +fisheries. Large quantities of shell-fish are obtained from the lagoon +of Thau. There are factories for the pickling of sardines, for the +manufacture of liqueurs and casks, and for the treatment of sulphur, +phosphates, and nitrate of soda. The Schneider Company of Creusot also +have metallurgical works at Cette, and the establishments for making +wine give employment to thousands. The port of Cette was created in 1666 +by the agency of Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., and according to the +plans of Vauban; toward the end of the 17th century its development was +aided by the opening of the Canal du Midi. + + + + +CETTIGNE (Servian, _Tsetinye_; also written _Cettinje_, _Tzetinje_, and +_Tsettinye_), the capital of Montenegro; in a narrow plain deeply sunk +in the heart of the limestone mountains, at a height of 2093 ft. above +the sea. Pop. (1900) about 3200. The surrounding country is bare and +stony, with carefully cultivated patches of rich red soil among the +crevices of the rock. In winter it is often so deeply covered with snow +as to be well-nigh inaccessible, while in spring and autumn it is +frequently flooded by the waters of a small brook which becomes a +torrent after rain or a thaw. Cettigne itself is little more than a +walled village, consisting of a cluster of whitewashed cottages and some +unadorned public buildings. These include a church; a fortified +monastery which was founded in 1478, but so often burned and rebuilt as +to seem quite modern, and which is visited by pilgrims to the tomb of +Peter I. (1782-1830); residences for the archimandrite and the _vladika_ +or metropolitan of Cettigne; a palace built in 1863, which accommodates +the ministries; the court of appeal, and a school modelled on the +gymnasia of Germany and Austria; the newer palaces of the prince and his +heir; foreign legations; barracks; a seminary for priests and teachers, +established by the tsar Alexander II. (1855-1881), with a very +successful girls' school founded and endowed by the tsaritsa Marie; a +library and reading-room; a theatre, a museum and a hospital. In an open +space near the old palace stood the celebrated plane tree, beneath which +Prince Nicholas gave audience to his subjects, and administered justice +until the closing years of the 19th century. A zigzag highway, regarded +as a triumph of engineering, winds through the mountain passes between +Cettigne and the Austrian seaport of Cattaro; and other good roads give +access to the richest parts of the interior. There is, however, little +trade, though mineral waters are manufactured. + +Cettigne owes its origin to Ivan the Black, who was forced, towards the +end of the 15th century, to withdraw from Zhabliak, his former capital. +It has often been taken and sacked by the Turks, but has seldom been +occupied by them for long. + + + + +CETUS ("The Whale"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern +hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd +century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be the monster sent by +Neptune to devour Andromeda, but which was slain by Perseus. Ptolemy +catalogued 22 stars in this constellation; Tycho Brahe, 21; and +Hevelius, 45. The most remarkable star of this constellation is +_o-(Mira) Ceti_, a long-period variable, discovered by the German +astronomer Fabricius; its magnitude varies between about 3 to 9, and its +period is 331 days. _[tau]-Ceti_ is an irregular variable, its extreme +magnitudes being 5 and 7; _[gamma]-Ceti_ is a beautiful double star, +consisting of a yellow star of magnitude 3 and a blue of magnitude 6.8; +_[nu]-Ceti_ is also a double star. + + + + +CETYWAYO ( ?-1884), king of the Zulus, was the eldest son of King +Umpande or Panda, and a nephew of the two previous kings, Dingaan and +Chaka. Cetywayo was a young man when in 1840 his father was placed on +the throne by the aid of the Natal Boers; and three years later Natal +became a British colony. Cetywayo had inherited much of the military +talent of his uncle Chaka, the organizer of the Zulu military system, +and chafed under his father's peaceful policy towards his British and +Boer neighbours. Suspecting Panda of favouring a younger son, Umbulazi, +as his successor, Cetywayo made war on his brother, whom he defeated and +slew at a great battle on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856. In +the following year, at an assembly of the Zulus, it was resolved that +Panda should retire from the management of the affairs of the nation, +which were entrusted to Cetywayo, though the old chief kept the title of +king. Cetywayo was, however, suspicious of the Natal government, which +afforded protection to two of his brothers. The feeling of distrust was +removed in 1861 by a visit from Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus +Shepstone, secretary for native affairs in Natal, who induced Panda to +proclaim Cetywayo publicly as the future king. Friendly relations were +then maintained between the Zulus and Natal for many years. In 1872 +Panda died, and Cetywayo was declared king, August 1873, in the presence +of Shepstone, to whom he made solemn promises to live at peace with his +neighbours and to govern his people more humanely. These promises were +not kept. Not only were numbers of his own people wantonly slain +(Cetywayo returning defiant messages to the governor of Natal when +remonstrated with), and the military system of Chaka and Dingaan +strengthened, but he had a feud with the Transvaal Boers as to the +possession of the territory between the Buffalo and Pongola rivers, and +encouraged the chief Sikukuni (Secocoeni) in his struggle against the +Boers. This feud with the Boers was inherited by the British government +on the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877. Cetywayo's attitude became +menacing; he allowed a minor chief to make raids into the Transvaal, and +seized natives within the Natal border. + +Sir Bartle Frere, who became high commissioner of South Africa in March +1877, found evidence which convinced him that the Kaffir revolt of that +year on the eastern border of Cape Colony was part of a design or desire +"for a general and simultaneous rising of Kaffirdom against white +civilization"; and the Kaffirs undoubtedly looked to Cetywayo and the +Zulus as the most redoubtable of their champions. In December 1878 Frere +sent the Zulu king an ultimatum, which, while awarding him the territory +he claimed from the Boers, required him to make reparation for the +outrages committed within the British borders, to receive a British +resident, to disband his regiments, and to allow his young men to marry +without the necessity of having first "washed their spears." Cetywayo, +who had found a defender in Bishop Colenso, vouchsafed no reply, and +Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand, at the head of 13,000 troops, on the +11th of January 1879 to enforce the British demands. The disaster of +Isandhlwana and the defence of Rorke's Drift signalized the commencement +of the campaign, but on the 4th of July the Zulus were utterly routed at +Ulundi. Cetywayo became a fugitive, but was captured on the 28th of +August. His kingdom was divided among thirteen chiefs and he himself +taken to Cape Town, whence he was brought to London in August 1882. He +remained in England less than a month, during which time the government +(the second Gladstone administration) announced that they had decided +upon his restoration. To his great disappointment, however, restoration +proved to refer only to a portion of his old kingdom. Even there one of +his kinsmen and chief enemies, Usibepu, was allowed to retain the +territory allotted to him in 1879. Cetywayo was reinstalled on the 29th +of January 1883 by Shepstone, but his enemies, headed by Usibepu, +attacked him within a week, and after a struggle of nearly a year's +duration he was defeated and his kraal destroyed. He then took refuge in +the Native Reserve, where he died on the 8th of February 1884. For a +quarter of a century he had been the most conspicuous native figure in +South Africa, and had been the cause of long and bitter political +controversy in Great Britain. + +His son DINIZULU afterwards attempted to become king, was exiled (1889) +to St Helena, permitted to return (1898), and granted the position of a +chief. In December 1907 Dinizulu was imprisoned at Maritzburg, being +suspected of complicity in the revolt which had occurred in Zululand the +previous year. He was kept many months waiting trial, there being +considerable friction between the colonial government and the British +government over the incident. He was eventually brought to trial in +November 1908 before a special court, his defence (to the cost of which +the British government contributed £2000) being undertaken by Mr W.P. +Schreiner. The trial was not concluded until March 1909. The charge of +high treason was not proved, but Dinizulu was convicted of harbouring +rebels and was sentenced to four years' imprisonment. + + _The Life of Sir Bartle Frere_, by John Martineau, vol. ii. chaps. 18 + to 21, contains much information concerning Cetywayo. + + + + +CEUTA (Arabic _Sebta_), a Spanish military and convict station and +seaport on the north coast of Morocco, in 35° 54' N., 5° 18' W. Pop. +about 13,000. It is situated on a promontory connected with the mainland +by a narrow isthmus. This promontory marks the south-eastern end of the +straits of Gibraltar, which between Ceuta and Gibraltar have a width of +14 m. The promontory terminates in a bold headland, the Montagne des +Singes, with seven distinct peaks. Of these the highest is the Monte del +Hacko, the ancient _Abyla_, one of the "Pillars of Hercules," which +faces Gibraltar and rises 636 ft. above the sea. On the westernmost +point--Almina, 476 ft. high--is a lighthouse with a light visible for 23 +m. Ceuta consists of two quarters, the old town, covering the low ground +of the isthmus, and the modern town, built on the hills forming the +north and west faces of the peninsula. Between the old and new quarters +and on the north side of the isthmus lies the port. The public buildings +in the town, thoroughly Spanish in its character, are not striking: they +include the cathedral (formerly a mosque), the governor's palace, the +town hall, barracks, and the convict prison in the old convent of San +Francisco. Ceuta has been fortified seaward, the works being furnished +with modern artillery intended to command the entrance to the +Mediterranean. Landward are three lines of defence, the inner line +stretching completely across the isthmus. These fortifications, which +date from the time of the Portuguese occupation, have been partly +modernized. The citadel, El Hacho, built on the neck of the isthmus, +dates from the 15th century. The garrison consists of between 3000 and +4000 men, inclusive of a disciplinary corps of military convicts. Of the +rest of the population about 2000 are civilian convicts; and there are +colonies of Jews, negroes and Moors, the last including descendants of +Moors transferred to Ceuta from Oran when Spain abandoned that city in +1796. + +Ceuta occupies in part the site of a Carthaginian colony, which was +succeeded by a Roman colony said to have been called _Ad Septem Fratres_ +and also _Exilissa_ or _Lissa Civitas_. From the Romans the town passed +to the Vandals and afterwards to Byzantium, the emperor Justinian +restoring its fortifications in 535. In 618 the town, then known as +_Septon_, fell into the hands of the Visigoths. It was the last +stronghold in North Africa which held out against the Arabs. At that +date (A.D. 711) the governor of the town was the Count Julian who, in +revenge for the betrayal of his daughter by King Roderick of Toledo, +invited the Arabs to cross the straits under Tarik and conquer Spain for +Islam. By the Arabs the town was called _Cibta_ or _Sebta_, hence the +Spanish form _Ceuta_. From the date of its occupation by the Arabs the +town had a stormy history, being repeatedly captured by rival Berber and +Spanish-Moorish dynasties. It became nevertheless an important +commercial and industrial city, being noted for its brass ware, its +trade in ivory, gold and slaves. It is said to have been the first place +in the West where a paper manufactory was established. In 1415 the town +was captured by the Portuguese under John I., among those taking part in +the attack being Prince Henry "the Navigator" and two of his brothers, +who were knighted on the day following in the mosque (hastily dedicated +as a Christian church). Ceuta passed to Spain in 1580 on the subjugation +of Portugal by Philip II., and was definitely assigned to the Spanish +crown by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688. The town has been several times +unsuccessfully besieged by the Moors--one siege, under Mulai Ismail, +lasting twenty-six years (1694-1720). In 1810, with the consent of +Spain, it was occupied by British troops under General Sir J.F. Fraser. +The town was restored to Spain by the British at the close of the +Napoleonic Wars. As the result of the war between Spain and Morocco in +1860 the area of Spanish territory around the town was increased. The +military governor of the town also commands the troops in the other +Spanish stations on the coast of Morocco. For civil purposes Ceuta is +attached to the province of Cadiz. It is a free port, but does little +trade. + + See de Prado, _Recuerdos de Africa; historia de la plaza de Ceuta_ + (Madrid, 1859-1860); Budgett Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_ (London, + 1901), chap, xix., where many works dealing with Spanish Morocco are + cited. + + + + +CEVA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 33 m. E. by +rail from the town of Cuneo, 1270 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2703. +In the middle ages it was a strong fortress defending the confines of +Piedmont towards Liguria, but the fortifications on the rock above the +town were demolished in 1800 by the French, to whom it had been ceded in +1796. Its cheese (_caseus cebanus_) was famous in Roman times, but it +does not seem ever to have been a Roman town. It lay on the road between +Augusta Taurinorum and Vada Sabatia. A branch railway runs from Ceva +through Garessio, with its marble quarries, to Ormea (2398 ft.), 22 m. +to the south through the upper valley of the Tanaro, which in Roman +times was under Albingaunum (Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v. +(Berlin, 1877), p. 898). From Ormea a road runs south to (31 m.) Oneglia +on the Ligurian coast. + + + + +CÉVENNES (Lat. _Cebenna_ or _Gebenna_), a mountain range of southern +France, forming the southern and eastern fringe of the central plateau +and part of the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. +It consists of a narrow ridge some 320 m. long, with numerous lofty +plateaus and secondary ranges branching from it. The northern division +of the range, which nowhere exceeds 3320 ft. in height, extends, under +the name of the mountains of Charolais, Beaujolais and Lyonnais, from +the Col de Longpendu (west of Chalon-sur-Saône) in a southerly direction +to the Col de Gier. The central Cévennes, comprising the volcanic chain +of Vivarais, incline south-east and extend as far as the Lozère group. +The northern portion of this chain forms the Boutières range. Farther +south it includes the Gerbier des Joncs (5089 ft.), the Mont de Mézenc +(5755 ft.), the culminating point of the entire range, and the Tanargue +group. South of the Mont Lozère, where the Pic Finiels reaches 5584 ft., +lies that portion of the range to which the name Cévennes is most +strictly applied. This region, now embraced in the departments of Lozère +and Gard, stretches south to include the Aigoual and Espérou groups. +Under various local names (the Garrigues, the mountains of Espinouse and +Lacaune) and with numerous offshoots the range extends south-east and +then east to the Montagne Noire, which runs parallel to the Canal du +Midi and comes to an end some 25 m. east of Toulouse. In the south the +Cévennes separate the cold and barren table-lands known as the Causses +from the sunny region of Languedoc, where the olive, vine and mulberry +flourish. Northwards the contrast between the two slopes is less +striking. + +The Cévennes proper are formed by a folded belt of Palaeozoic rocks +which lies along the south-east border of the central plateau of France. +Concealed in part by later deposits, this ancient mountain chain extends +from Castelnaudary to the neighbourhood of Valence, where it sinks +suddenly beneath the Tertiary and recent deposits of the valley of the +Rhone. It is in the Montagne Noire rather than in the Cévennes proper +that the structure of the chain has been most fully investigated. All +the geological systems from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous are +included in the folded belt, and J. Bergeron has shown that the gneiss +and schist which form so much of the chain consist, in part at least, of +metamorphosed Cambrian beds. The direction of the folds is about N. 60° +E., and the structure is complicated by overthrusting on an extensive +scale. The overthrust came from the south-east, and the Palaeozoic beds +were crushed and crumpled against the ancient massif of the central +plateau. The principal folding took place at the close of the +Carboniferous period, and was contemporaneous with that of the old +Hercynian chain of Belgium, &c. The Permian and later beds lie +unconformably upon the denuded folds, and in the space between the +Montagne Noire and the Cévennes proper the folded belt is buried beneath +the horizontal Jurassic strata of the Causses. Although the chain was +completed in Palaeozoic times, a second folding took place along its +south-east margin at the close of the Eocene period. The Secondary and +Tertiary beds of the Languedoc were crushed against the central plateau +and were frequently overfolded. But by this time the ancient Palaeozoic +chain had become a part of the unyielding massif, and the folding did +not extend beyond its foot. + +As the division between the basins of the Loire and the Garonne to the +west and those of the Saône and Rhone to the east, the Cévennes send +many affluents to those rivers. In the south the Orb, the Hérault and +the Vidourle are independent rivers flowing to the Golfe du Lion; +farther north, the Gard--formed by the union of several streams named +Gardon--the Cèze and the Ardèche flow to the Rhone. The Vivarais +mountains and the northern Cévennes approach the right banks of the +Rhone and Saône closely, and on that side send their waters by way of +short torrents to those rivers; on the west side the streams are +tributaries of the Loire, which rises at the foot of Mont Mézenc. A +short distance to the south on the same side are the sources of the +Allier and Lot. The waters of the north-western slope of the southern +Cévennes drain into the Tarn either directly or by way of the Aveyron, +which rises in the outlying chain of the Lévezou, and, in the extreme +south, the Agout. The Tarn itself rises on the southern slope of the +Mont Lozère. + +In the Lozère group and the southern Cévennes generally, good pasturage +is found, and huge flocks spend the summer there. Silkworm-rearing and +the cultivation of peaches, chestnuts and other fruits are also carried +on. In the Vivarais cattle are reared, while on the slopes of the +Beaujolais excellent wines are grown. + +The chief historical event in the history of the Cévennes is the revolt +of the Camisards in the early years of the 18th century (see CAMISARDS). + + + + +CEYLON, a large island and British colony in the Indian Ocean, separated +on the N.W. from India by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait. It lies +between 5° 55' and 9° 51' N. and between 79° 41' and 81° 54' E. Its +extreme length from north to south is 271½ m.; its greatest width is +137½ m.; and its area amounts to 25,481 sq. m., or about five-sixths of +that of Ireland. In its general outline the island resembles a pear, the +apex of which points towards the north. + + + Coast. + +The coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks, rocks and +shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with India by the island +of Rameswaram and Adam's Bridge, a succession of bold rocks reaching +almost across the gulf at its narrowest point. Between the island and +the opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying depth and +width, beset by rocks and shoals. One of these, the Manaar Passage, is +only navigable by very small craft. The other, called the Paumben +Passage, lying between Rameswaram and the mainland, has been deepened at +considerable outlay, and is used by large vessels in passing from the +Malabar to the Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing +so to make the circuit of the island. The west and south coasts, which +are uniformly low, are fringed their entire length by coco-nut trees, +which grow to the water's edge in great luxuriance, and give the island +a most picturesque appearance. Along these shores there are numerous +inlets and backwaters of the sea, some of which are available as +harbours for small native craft. The east coast from Point de Galle to +Trincomalee is of an entirely opposite character, wanting the ample +vegetation of the other, and being at the same time of a bold +precipitous character. The largest ships may freely approach this side +of the island, provided they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks, +whose localities, however, are well known to navigators. + +Seen from a distance at sea this "utmost Indian isle" of the old +geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance. The remarkable elevation +known as "Adam's Peak," the most prominent, though not the loftiest, of +the hilly ranges of the interior, towers like a mountain monarch amongst +an assemblage of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the +navigator when as yet the Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid +the green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the waters of +the ocean. The low coast-line encircles the mountain zone of the +interior on the east, south and west, forming a belt which extends +inland to a varying distance of from 30 to 80 m.; but on the north the +whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya to Batticaloa is an almost +unbroken plain, containing magnificent forests of great extent. + + + Mountains. + +The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and covers an area +of about 4212 sq. m. The uplifting force seems to have been exerted from +south-west to north-east, and although there is much confusion in many +of the intersecting ridges, and spurs of great size and extent are sent +off in many directions, the lower ranges manifest a remarkable tendency +to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to north-west. +Towards the north the offsets of the mountain system radiate to short +distances and speedily sink to the level of the plain. Detached hills +are rare; the most celebrated of these are Mihintale (anc. _Missïaka_), +which overlooks the sacred city of Anuradhapura, and Sigiri. The latter +is the only example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which form +so remarkable a feature in the tableland of the Deccan--which, starting +abruptly from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are +frequently converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous +pathways or by steps hewn in the solid rock. + +For a long period Adam's Peak was supposed to be the highest mountain in +Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft. above sea-level. This +elevation is chiefly remarkable as the resort of pilgrims from all parts +of the East. The hollow in the lofty rock that crowns the summit is said +by the Brahmans to be the footstep of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha, +by the Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were +divided between the conflicting claims of St Thomas and the eunuch of +Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered by a handsome roof, +and is guarded by the priests of a rich monastery half-way up the +mountain, who maintain a shrine on the summit of the peak. The highest +mountains in Ceylon are Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in altitude; +Kirigalpota, 7836 ft.; and Totapelakanda, 7746 ft. + +The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure, and along +their base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect them in every +direction, the slopes were formerly covered with forests of gigantic and +valuable trees, which, however, have disappeared under the axe of the +planter, who felled and burnt the timber on all the finest slopes at an +elevation of 2000 to 4500 ft., and converted the hillsides into highly +cultivated coffee and afterwards tea estates. + +The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the sanatorium of the island, is at an +elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of an alpine +country. The climate of the Horton plains, at an elevation of 7000 ft., +is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but they are difficult of +access, and are but little known to Europeans. The town of Kandy, in the +Central Province, formerly the capital of the native sovereigns of the +interior, is situated 1727 ft. above sea-level. + + + Rivers. + +The island, though completely within the influence of oceanic +evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable +extent, does not boast of any rivers of great volume. The rains which +usher in each monsoon or change of season are indeed heavy, and during +their fall swell the streams to torrents and impetuous rivers. But when +these cease the water-courses fall back to their original state, and +there are few of the rivers which cannot generally be passed on +horseback. The largest river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m., +draining about one-sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the +sea at Trincomalee on the east coast. There are twelve other +considerable rivers, running to the west, east and south, but none of +these exceeds 90 m. in length. The rivers are not favourable for +navigation, except near the sea, where they expand into backwaters, +which were used by the Dutch for the construction of their system of +canals all round the western and southern coasts. Steamers ply between +Colombo and Negombo along this narrow canal and lake. A similar service +on the Kaluganga did not prove a success. There are no inland lakes +except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north and east +of the island, and the backwaters on the coast. The lakes which add to +the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake Gregory, Nuwara Eliya and Kurunegala +are artificial or partly so. Giant's Tank is said to have an area of +6380 acres, and Minneri and Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres. + +The magnificent basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east coast of +Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, security and beauty by any +haven in the world. The admiralty had a dockyard here which was closed +in 1905. + +_Geology._--Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly rising from +the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in marine shells, which +occur in situations far above high-water mark, and at some miles +distance from the sea. A great portion of the north of the island may be +regarded as the joint production of the coral polyps and the currents, +which for the greater part of the year set impetuously towards the +south; coming laden with alluvial matter collected along the coast of +Coromandel, and meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they +have deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro; and +these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by sand drifts, +have formed the peninsula of Jaffna, and the plains that trend westward +till they unite with the narrow causeway of Adam's Bridge. Tertiary +rocks are almost unknown. The great geological feature of the island is +the profusion of gneiss, overlaid in many places in the interior by +extensive beds of dolomitic limestone. This formation appears to be of +great thickness; and when, as is not often the case, the under-surface +of the gneiss series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on +granite. Veins of pure quartz and felspar of considerable extent have +been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the elevated lands of +the interior in the Galle districts may be seen copious deposits of +disintegrated felspar, or _kaolin_, commonly known as porcelain clay. At +various elevations the gneiss may be found intersected by veins of trap +rock, upheaved whilst in a state of fusion subsequent to the +consolidation of the former. In some localities on the seashore these +veins assume the character of pitch-stone porphyry highly impregnated +with iron. Hornblende and primitive greenstone are found in the vicinity +of Adam's Peak and in the Pussellava district. Laterite, known in Ceylon +as _kabuk_, a product of disintegrated gneiss, exists in vast quantities +in many parts, and is quarried for building purposes. + +_Climate._--The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from those +prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The two +distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds which +accompany them, the south-west and the north-east. The former is very +regular in its approach, and may be looked for along the south-west +coast between the 10th and 20th of May; the latter reaches the +north-east coast between the end of October and the middle of November. +There is a striking contrast in the influence which the south-west +monsoon exerts on the one side of the island and on the other. The +clouds are driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western +and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there in +copious showers. But the rains do not reach the opposite side of the +island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and north are +sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently happens that +different sides of the same mountain present at the same moment the +opposite extreme of droughts and moisture. The influence of the +north-east monsoon is more general. The mountains which face the +north-east are lower and more remote from the sea than those on the +south-west; the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains +simultaneously on both sides of the island. + +The length of the day, owing to the proximity of the island to the +equator, does not vary more than an hour at any season. The mean time of +the rising of the sun's centre at Colombo on February 1st is 6^h 23^m +A.M., and of its setting 6^h 5^m P.M. On August 15th its rising is at +5^h 45^m A.M., and its setting at 6^h 7^m P.M. It is mid-day in Colombo +when it is morning in England. Colombo is situated in 79° 50' 45" E., +and the day is further advanced there than at Greenwich by 5^h 19^m +23^s. + + _Flora_.--The characteristics of the low-growing plants of Ceylon + approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India. The + _Rhizophoreae_ are numerous along the low muddy shores of salt lakes + and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant. The list + comprises _Aegiceras fragrans_, _Epithinia malayana_, _Thespesia + populnea_, _Feronia elephantum_, _Salvadora persica_ (the true mustard + tree of Scripture), _Eugenia bracteata_, _Elaeodendron Roxburghii_, + _Cassia Fistula_, _Cassia Roxburghii_, &c. The herbaceous plants of + the low country belong mostly to the natural orders _Compositae_, + _Leguminosae_, _Rubiaceae_, _Scrophulariaceae_ and _Euphorbiaceae_. + + Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a height of + 4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and trees + assume an altered character. The foliage of the latter is larger and + deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the hot low + country. The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns, + _Cyrtandreae_, _Compositae_, _Scitamineae_ and _Urticaceae_. The dense + masses of lofty forest at that altitude are interspersed with large + open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives _patanas_, and + of value to them as affording pasturage for their cattle. + + Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to be met + with partaking of European forms, yet blended with tropical + characteristics. The guelder rose, St John's wort, the _Nepenthes + distillatoria_ or pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups, + sundews, ladies' mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of + _Magnoliaceae_, _Ranunculaceae_, _Elaeocarpeae_, &c. The most + beautiful flowering shrub of this truly alpine region is the + rhododendron, which in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft. It + is met with in great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated + land above Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in June and July. There + are two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having + its leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty colour on the under side; + the other, peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the + loftiest elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the + under side, and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft. + round the stem. At these altitudes English flowers, herbs and + vegetables have been cultivated with perfect success, as also wheat, + oats and barley. English fruit-trees grow, but rarely bear. Grapes are + grown successfully in the north of the island. The vines were + introduced by the Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual + summer by exposing the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial + winter. + + The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every altitude + from the sea-beach to the loftiest mountain peak. They vary much in + their hardiness and durability, from the common cashew-nut tree, which + when felled decays in a month, to the ebony and satinwood, which for + many years resist the attacks of insects and climate. Many of the + woods are valuable for furniture, and house and shipbuilding, and are + capable of standing long exposure to weather. The most beautiful woods + adapted to furniture work are the calamander, ebony, flowered + satinwood, tamarind, nedun, dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &c.; + the sack-yielding tree (_Antiaris saccidora_), for a long time + confounded with the far-famed upas tree of Java (_Antiaris + toxicaria_), grows in the Kurunegala district of the island. The + _Cocos nucifera_, or coco-nut palm, is a native of the island, and may + justly be considered the most valuable of its trees. It grows in vast + abundance alone the entire sea-coast of the west and south sides of + the island, and furnishes almost all that a Sinhalese villager + requires. Its fruit, when green, supplies food and drink; when ripe, + it yields oil. The juice of the unopened flower gives him toddy and + arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit when woven makes him ropes, + nets, matting. The nut-shells form drinking-vessels, spoons, &c. The + plaited leaves serve as plates and dishes, and as thatch for his + cottage. The dried leaves are used as torches, the large leaf-stalks + as garden fences. The trunk of the tree sawn up is employed for every + possible purpose, from knife-handles to door-posts; hollowed out it + forms a canoe or a coffin. There are four kinds of this palm--the + common, the king, the dwarf and the Maldive. The Palmyra and Areca + palms grow luxuriantly and abundantly, the former in the northern, the + latter in the western and central districts. The one is valuable + chiefly for its timber, of which large quantities are exported to the + Indian coasts; the other supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst + natives of the eastern tropics as a masticatory. The export trade in + the latter to India and eastern ports is very considerable. Next in + importance to the coco-nut palm among the indigenous products of + Ceylon is the cinnamon plant, yielding the well-known spice of that + name. + + _Fauna_.--Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the elephant, which, + though far inferior to those of Africa and the Indian continent, is + nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on account of its + strength, sagacity and docility. They are to be met with in greater or + less numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior. + Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds + and plantations, committing great damage. In order to protect these + lands, and at the same time keep up the government stud of draught + elephants, "kraals" or traps on a large scale are erected in the + forests, into which the wild herds are driven; and once secured they + are soon tamed and fit for service. The oxen are of small size, but + hardy, and capable of drawing heavy loads. Buffaloes exist in great + numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed in a + half-tame state for ploughing rice-fields and treading out the corn. + They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be maintained on + the village pasture-lands where oxen would not find support. Of deer, + Ceylon possesses the spotted kind (_Axis maculata_), the muntjac + (_Stylocerus muntjac_), a red deer (the Sambur of India), popularly + called the Ceylon elk (_Musa Aristotelis_), and the small musk + (_Moschus minima_). There are five species of monkeys, one the small + rilawa (_Macacus pileatus_), and four known in Ceylon by the name of + "wandaru" (_Presbytes ursinus_, _P. Thersites_, _P. cephalopterus_, + _P. Priamus_), and the small quadrumanous animal, the loris (_Loris + gracilis_), known as the "Ceylon sloth." Of the Cheiroptera sixteen + species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette or flying + fox (_Pteropus Edwardsii_). Of the Carnivora the only one dangerous to + man is the small black bear (_Prochilus labiatus_). The tiger is not + known in Ceylon, but the true panther (_Felis pardus_) is common, as + is the jackal (_Canis aureus_) and the mongoose or ichneumon + (_Herpestes vitticollis_). Rats are numerous, as are the squirrel and + the porcupine, and the pig-rat or bandicoot (_Mus bandicota_), while + the scaly ant-eater (_Manis pentedactyla_), locally known by the Malay + name of pangolin, is occasionally found. The dugong (_Halicore + dugong_), is frequently seen on various points of the coast. A game + preservation society and the judicious action of government have done + much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer, elephants, &c., + by establishing a close season. It is estimated that there must be + 5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests. A licence to shoot or + capture and an export royalty are now levied by government. + + Captain V. Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many of + them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed by + the birds of South America and Northern India. The eagles are small + and rare, but hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter is a + remarkable brown species, the cry of which has earned for it the name + of the "devil-bird." The esculent swift, which furnishes in its edible + nest the celebrated Chinese dainty, builds in caves in Ceylon. Crows + of various species are numerous, and in the wilder parts pea-fowl are + abundant. There are also to be mentioned king-fishers, sun-birds, + several beautiful fly-catchers and snatchers, the golden oriole, + parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are at least a dozen + species. The Ceylon jungle-fowl (_Gallus Lafayetti_) is distinct from + the Indian species. Ceylon is singularly rich in wading and water + birds--ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons being frequently + seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the beach in long files, + and on the deeper waters inland are found teal and a countless variety + of ducks and smaller fowl. Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen + there are partridge, quail and snipe in abundance, and the woodcock + has been seen. + + The poisonous snakes of Ceylon are not numerous. Four species have + been enumerated--the ticpolonga (_Daboia elegans_), the cobra di + capello (_Naja tripudians_), the carawilla (_Trigonocephalus + hypnale_), and the _Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus_, which is so rare + that it has no popular name. The largest snake in Ceylon is the "boa," + or "anaconda" of Eastern story (_Python reticulatus_); it is from 20 + to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller animals. + Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large fresh-water + reservoirs which supply the rice-fields; there are two species (_C. + biporcatus_ and _C. palustris_). Of lizards the most noteworthy are + the iguana, several bloodsuckers, the chameleon and the familiar + geckoes, which are furnished with pads to each toe, by which they are + enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to glass and + ceilings. + + Insects exist in great numbers. The leaf and stick insects are of + great variety and beauty. Ceylon has four species of the ant-lion, + renowned for the predaceous ingenuity of its larvae; and the white + ants or termites, the ravages of which are most destructive, are at + once ubiquitous and innumerable in every place where the climate is + not too chilly or the soil too sandy for them to construct their domed + dwellings. They make their way through walls and floors, and in a few + hours destroy every vegetable substance within their reach. Of all the + insect pests that beset an unseasoned European the most annoying are + the mosquitoes. Ticks are also an intolerable nuisance; they are + exceedingly minute, and burrow under the skin. In the lower ranges of + the hill country land leeches are found in tormenting profusion. But + insects and reptiles do not trouble European residents so much as in + early years--at any rate in the towns, while in the higher planting + districts there is almost complete exemption from their unwelcome + attentions. Bungalows are more carefully built to resist white ants, + drainage and cleanliness prevent mosquitoes and ticks from + multiplying, while snakes and leeches avoid cultivated, occupied + ground. + + Of the fish in ordinary use for the table the finest is the seir, a + species of scomber (_Cybium guttatum_). Mackerel, dories, carp, + whitings, mullet (red and striped), soles and sardines are abundant. + Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and the huge saw fish + (_Pristis antiquorum_) infests the eastern coast of the island, where + it attains a length of 12 to 15 ft. There are also several fishes + remarkable for the brilliancy of their colouring; e.g. the Red Sea + perch (_Holocentrum rubrum_), of the deepest scarlet, and the great + fire fish (_Scorpaena miles_), of a brilliant red. Some are purple, + others yellow, and numbers with scales of a lustrous green are called + "parrots" by the natives; of these one (_Sparus Hardwickii_) is called + the "flower parrot," from its exquisite colouring--irregular bands of + blue, crimson and purple, green, yellow and grey, crossed by + perpendicular stripes of black. The pearl fishery, as indicated below, + is of great importance. + + _Population_.--The total population of Ceylon in 1901, inclusive of + military, shipping and 4914 prisoners of war, was 3,578,333, showing + an increase of 18.8% in the decade. The population of Colombo was + 158,228. + + The population and area of the nine provinces was as follows:-- + + +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+ + | District. | Population. | Area in sq. m. | + +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+ + | | | | + | Western Province | 925,342 | 1,432 | + | Central Province | 623,011 | 2,299½ | + | Northern Province | 341,985 | 3,363¼ | + | Southern Province | 566,925 | 2,146¼ | + | Eastern Province | 174,288 | 4,036½ | + | North-Western Province | 353,845 | 2,996-7/8 | + | North Central Province | 79,110 | 4,002¼ | + | Province of Uva | 192,072 | 3,154½ | + | Province of Sabaragamuwa | 321,755 | 1,901-1/8 | + | +-------------+----------------+ + | | 3,578,333 | 25,332 | + +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+ + + The table of nationality gives the principal groups as follows:-- + + Europeans 9,509 + Burghers and Eurasians 23,539 + Low-country Sinhalese 1,458,320 + Kandyan Sinhalese 872,487 + Tamils 953,535 + Moors (Mahommedan) 228,706 + Malays 11,963 + Veddahs (Aborigines) 3,971 + + Altogether there are representatives of some seventy races in Ceylon. + The Veddahs, who run wild in the woods, are the aborigines of the + island. + + _Language_.--The language of nearly 70% of the population is + Sinhalese, which is nearly allied to Pali (q.v.); of the remaining + 30%, with the exception of Europeans, the language is Tamil. A corrupt + form of Portuguese is spoken by some natives of European descent. The + Veddahs, a small forest tribe, speak a distinct language, and the + Rodiyas, an outcast tribe, possess a large vocabulary of their own. + The Sinhalese possess several original poems of some merit, and an + extensive and most interesting series of native chronicles, but their + most valuable literature is written in Pali, though the greater + portion of it has been translated into Sinhalese, and is best known to + the people through these Sinhalese translations. + + _Religion_.--The principal religions may be distributed as + follows:--Christians, 349,239; Buddhists, 2,141,404; Hindus, 826,826; + Mahommedans, 246,118. Of the Christians, 287,419 are Roman Catholics, + and 61,820 are Protestants of various denominations; and of these + Christians 319,001 are natives, and 30,238 Europeans. The Mahommedans + are the descendants of Arabs (locally termed Moormen) and the Malays. + The Tamils, both the inhabitants of the island and the immigrants from + India, are Hindus, with the exception of 93,000 Christians. The + Sinhalese, numbering 70% of the whole population, are, with the + exception of 180,000 Christians, Buddhists. Ceylon may properly be + called a Buddhist country, and it is here that Buddhism is found + almost in its pristine purity. Ceylon was converted to Buddhism in the + 3rd century B.C. by the great Augustine of Buddhism, Mahinda, son of + the Indian king Asoka; and the extensive ruins throughout Ceylon, + especially in the ancient cities of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, bear + witness to the sacrifices which kings and people joined in making to + create lasting monuments of their faith. The Buddhist temples in the + Kandyan country possess valuable lands, the greater portion of which + is held by hereditary tenants on the tenure of service. These lands + were given out with much care to provide for all that was necessary to + maintain the temple and its connected monastery. Some tenants had to + do the blacksmiths' work, others the carpenters', while another set of + tenants had to cultivate the land reserved for supplying the + monastery; others again had to attend at the festivals, and prepare + decorations, and carry lamps and banners. In course of time + difficulties arose; the English courts were averse to a system under + which the rent of lands was paid by hereditary service, and a + commission was issued by Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards Lord + Rosmead) when governor, to deal with the whole question, to define the + services and to enable the tenants to commute these for a money + payment. The result of the inquiry was to show that the services, + except in a few instances, were not onerous, and that almost without + an exception the tenants were willing to continue the system. The + anomaly of an ecclesiastical establishment of Anglican and + Presbyterian chaplains with a bishop of Colombo paid out of the + general revenues has now been abolished in Ceylon, and only the bishop + and two or three incumbents remain on the list for life, or till they + retire on pension. + + _Education_.--There has been a great advance in public instruction + since 1875, through the multiplication of vernacular, Anglo-vernacular + and English schools by government, by the different Christian missions + and by the Buddhists and Hindus who have come forward to claim the + government grant. The government has also started a technical college, + and an agricultural school has been reorganized. An agricultural + department, recommended by a commission, should profit by the services + of the entomologist, mycologist and chemical analyst added by the + governor to the staff of the royal botanic gardens at Peradeniya. + There are industrial and reformatory schools, which are partially + supported by government. In spite of the great advance that has been + made, however, at the census of 1901 no fewer than 2,790,235 of the + total population were entered as unable to read or write their own + tongue. Of this number 1,553,078 were females, showing a very + unsatisfactory state of things. + + + Soil. + + _Agriculture._--The natural soils of Ceylon are composed of quartzose + gravel, felspathic clay and sand often of a pure white, blended with + or overlaid by brown and red loams, resulting; from the decay of + vegetable matter, or the disintegration of the gneiss and hornblende + formations. The whole of the great northern extremity of the island + consists of a sandy and calcareous admixture, made to yield productive + crops of grain, tobacco, cotton and vegetables by the careful industry + of the Tamil population, who spare no pains in irrigating and manuring + their lands. Between the northern districts and the elevated mountain + ranges which overlook the Bintenne and Uva countries are extensive + plains of alluvial soil washed down from the table-lands above, where + once a teeming population produced large quantities of grain. The + remains of ancient works of irrigation bear testimony to the bygone + agriculture of these extensive regions now covered by swamps or dense + jungle. + + The general character of the soil in the maritime provinces to the + east, south and west is sandy. Large tracts of quartzose sand spread + along the whole line of sea-coast, some of which, of a pure white, and + very deficient in vegetable matter, is admirably adapted to the growth + of the cinnamon plant. In the light sandy districts where the soil is + perfectly free, and contains a portion of vegetable and mineral loam, + the coco-nut palm flourishes in great luxuriance. This is the case + along the entire coast line from Kalpitiya to Point de Galle, and + farther eastward and northward to Matara, stretching to a distance + inland varying from 100 yds. to 3 m. From this light sandy belt as far + as the mountain-zone of the Kandyan country the land is mainly + composed of low hilly undulations of sandstone and ferruginous clay, + incapable of almost any cultivation, but intersected in every + direction with extensive valleys and wide plains of a more generous + soil, not highly fertile, but still capable, with a little industry, + of yielding ample crops of rice. + + The soil of the central province, although frequently containing great + quantities of quartzose sand and ferruginous clay, is in many of the + more elevated districts of a fine loamy character. Sand sufficiently + vegetable and light for rice culture may be seen at all elevations in + the hill districts; but the fine chocolate and brown loams overlying + gneiss or limestone formations, so admirably adapted for coffee + cultivation, are only to be found on the steep sides or along the base + of mountain ranges at an elevation varying from 2000 to 4000 ft. Such + land, well-timbered, contains in its elements the decomposed particles + of the rocks above, blended with the decayed vegetable matter of + forests that have for centuries scattered beneath them the germs of + fertility. The quantity of really rich coffee land in these districts + is but small as compared with the extent of country--vast tracts of + open valleys consisting of an indifferent yellow tenacious soil + interspersed with many low ranges of quartz rock, but tea is a much + hardier plant than coffee, and grows on poorer soil. + + _Irrigation_.--The native rulers covered the whole face of the country + with a network of irrigation reservoirs, by which Ceylon was enabled + in ancient times to be the great granary of southern Asia. Wars, and + the want of a strong hand to guide the agriculture of the country, led + to the decay of these ancient works, and large tracts of land, which + were formerly highly productive, became swampy wastes or dense + forests. The remains of some of the larger irrigation works are + amongst the most interesting of the memorials of Ceylon's former + greatness. Some of the artificial lakes were of great size. Minneri, + formed by damming across the valleys between the low hills which + surround it with an embankment 60 ft. wide at the top, is at this day + 20 m. in circumference. It has recently been restored by government, + and is capable of irrigating 15,000 acres; while the Giant's Tank, + which has also been restored, irrigates 20,000 acres. Another lake, + with an embankment several miles in length, the Kalawewa, was formed + by damming back the waters of the Kalaoya, but they have forced their + way through the embankment, and in the ancient bed of the lake, or + tank, are now many small villages. In connexion with these large tanks + were numerous canals and channels for supplying smaller tanks, or for + irrigating large tracts of fields. Throughout the district of + Nuwarakalawiya every village has its tank. The embankments have been + formed with great skill, and advantage has been taken to the utmost of + the slightest fall in the land; but they in common with the larger + works had been allowed to fall into decay, and were being brought to + destruction by the evil practice of cutting them every year to + irrigate the fields. The work of restoring these embankments was + undertaken by the government, and 100 village tanks were repaired + every year, besides eighteen larger works. In 1900 a sum of five + million rupees was set apart for these larger undertakings. + + _Cultivation and Products._--The area of uncultivated land is little + over 3½ million acres, whereas fully four times that amount is capable + of cultivation. A great deal is waste, besides lagoons, tanks, + backwaters, &c. Thick forest land does not cover more than 5000 sq. m. + Scrub, or chena, and patana grass cover a very great area. Tea, cacao, + cardamoms, cinchona, coffee and indiarubber are the products + cultivated by European and an increasing number of native planters in + the hill country and part of the low country of Ceylon. A great change + has been effected in the appearance of the country by the introduction + of the tea plant in place of the coffee plant, after the total failure + of the latter owing to disease. For some time coffee had been the most + important crop. In the old days it grew wild like cinnamon, and was + exported so far back as the time of the Portuguese, but was lightly + esteemed as an article of European commerce, as the berry was gathered + unripe, was imperfectly cured and had little flavour. In 1824 the + governor, Sir E. Barnes, introduced coffee cultivation on the West + Indian plan; in 1834 the falling off of other sources of supply drew + general attention to Ceylon, and by 1841 the Ceylon output had become + considerable, and grew steadily (with an interval in 1847 due to a + commercial crisis) till 1877 when 272,000 acres were under coffee + cultivation, the total export amounting to 103,000,000 lb. Then owing + to disease came a crisis, and a rapid decline, and now only a few + thousand acres are left. On the failure of the coffee crops planters + began extensively to grow the tea plant, which had already been known + in the island for several years. By 1882 over 20,000 acres had been + planted with tea, but the export that year was under 700,000 lb. Five + years later the area planted was 170,000 acres, while the export had + risen to nearly 14,000,000 lb. By 1892 there were 262,000 acres + covered with tea, and 71,000,000 lb. were that year exported. In 1897, + 350,000 acres were planted, and the export was 116,000,000 lb. By the + beginning of the 20th century, the total area cultivated with tea was + not under 390,000 acres, while the estimate of shipments was put at + 146,000,000 lb. annually. Nearly every plantation has its factory, + with the machinery necessary to prepare the leaf as brought in from + the bushes until it becomes the tea of commerce. The total amount of + capital now invested in the tea industry in Ceylon cannot be less than + £10,000,000. The tea-planting industry more than anything else has + raised Ceylon from the depressed state to which it fell in 1882. + + Before tea was proved a success, however, _cinchona_ cultivation was + found a useful bridge from coffee to the Ceylon planter, who, however, + grew it so freely that in one year 15,000,000 lb. bark was shipped, + bringing the price of quinine down from 16s. to 1s. 6d. an ounce. + + In a few places, where the rainfall is abundant, rice cultivation is + allowed to depend on the natural supply of water, but in most parts + the cultivation is not attempted unless there is secured beforehand a + certain and sufficient supply, by means of canals or reservoirs. In + the hill country every valley and open plain capable of tillage is + made to yield its crops of grain, and the steep sides of the hills are + cut into terraces, on which are seen waving patches of green rice + watered by mountain streams, which are conducted by means of channels + ingeniously carried round the spurs of the hills and along the face of + acclivities, by earthen water-courses and bamboo aqueducts, so as to + fertilize the fields below. These works bear witness to the patience, + industry and skill of the Kandyan villagers. In the low country to the + north and east and north-west of the hills, irrigation works of a + more expensive kind are necessary. In January 1892, the immemorial + rent or tax on fields of _paddy_ (rice in the husk) was removed, but + not the customs duty on imported rice. But even with the advantage of + protection to the extent of 10% in the local markets, there has been + no extension of paddy cultivation; on the contrary, the import of + grain from India has grown larger year by year. Through the + multiplication of irrigation works and the northern railway, rice + culture may be sufficiently extended to save some of the large imports + (8,000,000 to 9,000,000 bushels annually) now required from India. + + Tobacco is extensively cultivated in various parts of the island, and + the growth of particular places, such as Dumbara and Uva, is much + prized for local consumption. The tobacco of export is grown in the + peninsula of Jaffna. The exports of this article in 1850 were 22,176 + cwts., valued at £20,698. The cultivation of the plant has not greatly + increased of recent years, and is almost entirely in the hands of + natives in the northern and parts of the central Province. + + Ceylon has been celebrated since the middle of the 14th century for + its cinnamon, and during the period of the Dutch occupation this spice + was the principal article of commerce; under their rule and up to 1832 + its cultivation was a government monopoly. With the abolition of the + monopoly the quantity exported increased, but the value declined. + + Unlike the coffee plant, the hardy tea plant grows from sea-level to + 7000 ft. altitude; but crown forest-lands above 5000 ft. are no longer + sold, so that a very large area on the highest mountain ranges and + plateaus is still under forest. Moreover, on the tea plantations + arboriculture is attended to in a way unknown in 1875; the Australian + eucalypts, acacias and grevilleas, Indian and Japanese conifers, and + other trees of different lands, are now freely planted for ornament, + for protection from wind, for firewood or for timber. A great advance + has been made at Hakgalla and Nuwara Eliya, in Upper Uva, and other + high districts, in naturalizing English fruits and vegetables. The + calamander tree is nearly extinct, and ebony and other fine cabinet + woods are getting scarce; but the conservation of forests after the + Indian system has been taken in hand under a director and trained + officers, and much good has been done. The cinnamon tree (wild in the + jungles, cultivated as a shrub in plantations) is almost the only one + yielding a trade product which is indigenous to the island. The + coco-nut and nearly all other palms have been introduced. + + Among other agricultural products mention must be made of _cacao_, the + growth and export of which have steadily extended since coffee failed. + Important also is the spice or aromatic product of cardamoms. + + The culture of _indiarubber_ was begun on low-country plantations, and + Ceylon rubber is of the best quality in the market. The area of + cultivation of the coco-nut palm has been greatly extended since 1875 + by natives as well as by Europeans. The products of this palm that are + exported, apart from those so extensively used in the island itself, + exceed in a good year £1,000,000 sterling in value. Viticulture and + cotton cultivation, as well as tobacco growing, are being developed + along the course of the new northern railway. + + Taking the trade in the products mentioned as a whole, no country can + compete with the United Kingdom as a customer of Ceylon. But there is + a considerable trade in nearly all products with Germany and America; + in cardamoms with India; in cinnamon with Spain, Italy, Belgium, + Australia, Austria and France; and in one or other of the products of + the coco-nut palm (coco-nuts, coco-nut oil, copra, desiccated + coco-nut, poonac, coir) with Belgium, Russia, France, Austria, + Australia and Holland. + + _Pearl Fishery._--Pearl oysters are found in the Tambalagam bay, near + Trincomalee, but the great banks on which these oysters are usually + found lie near Arippu, off the northern part of the west coast of + Ceylon, at a distance of from 16 to 20 m. from the shore. They extend + for many miles north and south, varying considerably in their size and + productiveness. It is generally believed that the oyster arrives at + maturity in its seventh year, that the pearl is then of full size and + perfect lustre, and that if the oyster be not then secured it will + shortly die, and the pearl be lost. It is certain that from some + unexplained cause the oysters disappear from their known beds for + years together. The Dutch had no fishery from 1732 to 1746, and it + failed them again for twenty-seven years from 1768 to 1796. The + fishery was again interrupted between 1820 and 1828, also from 1833 to + 1854, from 1864 to 1873, and again from 1892 to 1900. The fishery of + 1903 was the first since 1891, and produced a revenue of Rs.829,348, + being the third largest on record. In 1797 and 1798 the government + sold the privilege of fishing the oyster-beds for £123,982 and + £142,780 respectively. From that time the fishery was conducted by the + government itself until 1906, when it was leased to the Ceylon Pearl + Fisheries Company for twenty years at a rent of £20,000 a year. + Professor Herdman, F.R.S., was appointed to inquire and report on the + conservation and cultivation of the Ceylon pearl-oyster, and visited + Ceylon in January 1902. In consequence of his report, a marine + laboratory for the culture of the pearl oysters was established in + Galle harbour under the care of Mr Hornell. + + _Mineral Industries._--Commercially there are two established mineral + industries:--(1) that of digging for precious stones; and (2) the much + more important industry of digging for plumbago or graphite, the one + mineral of commercial importance found. Further developments may + result in the shipment of the exceptionally pure iron ore found in + different parts of Ceylon, though still no coal has been found to be + utilized with it. Several places, too--Ruanwella, Rangalla, Rangbodde, + &c.--indicate where gold was found in the time of the Kandyan kings; + and geologists might possibly indicate a paying quartz reef, as in + Mysore. Owing to the greatly increased demand in Europe and America, + plumbago in 1899 more than doubled in price, rising from £40 to £80, + and even £100 a ton for the finest. Latterly there has been a + considerable fall, but the permanent demand is likely to continue keen + in consequence mainly of the Ceylon kind being the best for making + crucibles. The trade with Great Britain and the United States has + slightly decreased, but there has been a rapid expansion in the + exports to Belgium and Holland, Russia, Japan and Victoria; and the + industry seems to be established on a sound basis. One consequence of + its development has been to bring European and American capitalists + and Cornish and Italian miners into a field hitherto almost entirely + worked by Sinhalese. Though some of the mines were carried to a depth + of 1000 ft., the work was generally very primitive in character, and + Western methods of working are sure to lead to greater safety and + economy. Besides a royalty or customs duty of 5 rupees (about 6s. 8d.) + per ton on all plumbago exported, the government issue licenses at + moderate rates for the digging of plumbago on crown lands, a certain + share of the resulting mineral also going to government. The plumbago + industry, in all its departments of mining, carting, preparing, + packing and shipping, gives employment to fully 100,000 men and women, + still almost entirely Sinhalese. The wealthiest mine-owners, too, are + Sinhalese land-owners or merchants. + + As regards _gems_, there are perhaps 500 gem pits or quarries worked + in the island during the dry season from November to June in the + Ratnapura, Rakwane and Matara districts. Some of these are on a small + scale; but altogether several thousands of Sinhalese find a precarious + existence in digging for gems. Rich finds of a valuable ruby, + sapphire, cat's-eye, amethyst, alexandrite or star stone, are + comparatively rare; it is only of the commoner gems, such as + moonstone, garnet, spinels, that a steady supply is obtained. The + cat's-eye in its finer qualities is peculiar to Ceylon, and is + occasionally in great demand, according to the fashion. The obstacle + to the investment of European capital in "gemming" has always been the + difficulty of preventing the native labourers in the pits---even if + practically naked--from concealing and stealing gems. A Chamber of + Mines, with a suitable library, was established in Colombo during + 1899. + + _Manufactures._--Little is done save in the preparation in factories + and stores, in Colombo or on the plantations, of the several products + exported. The manufacture of jewellery and preparation of precious + stones, and, among native women and children, of pillow lace, give + employment to several thousands. Iron and engineering works are + numerous in Colombo and in the planting districts. The Sinhalese are + skilful cabinetmakers and carpenters. The Moormen and Tamils furnish + good masons and builders. + + _Commerce._--There has been rapid development since 1882, and the + returns for 1903 showed a total value of 22½ millions sterling. The + principal imports were articles of food and drink (chiefly rice from + India) manufactured metals (with specie), coal, cotton yarns and piece + goods from Manchester, machinery and millwork and apparel. The Ceylon + customs tariff for imports is one of 6½% _ad valorem_, save in the + case of intoxicating drinks, arms, ammunition, opium, &c. The chief + export is tea. + + _Roads._--The policy of the Sinhalese rulers of the interior was to + exclude strangers from the hill country. Prior to the British + occupation of the Kandyan territory in 1815, the only means of access + from one district to another was by footpaths through the forests. The + Portuguese do not appear to have attempted to open up the country + below the hills, and the Dutch confined themselves to the improvement + of the inland water-communications. The British government saw from + the first the necessity of making roads into the interior for military + purposes, and, more recently, for developing the resources of the + country. The credit of opening up the country is due mainly to the + governor, Sir Edward Barnes, by whose direction the great military + road from Colombo to Kandy was made. Gradually all the military + stations were connected by broad tracks, which by degrees were bridged + and converted into good carriage roads. The governors Sir Henry Ward + and Sir Hercules Robinson recognized the importance of giving the + coffee planters every assistance in opening up the country, and the + result of their policy is that the whole of the hill country is now + intersected by a vast number of splendid roads, made at a cost of + upwards of £2000 per mile. In 1848 an ordinance was passed to levy + from every adult male in the colony (except Buddhist priests and + British soldiers) six days' labour on the roads, or an equivalent in + money. The labour and money obtained by this wise measure have enabled + the local authorities to connect the government highways by minor + roads, which bring every village of importance into communication with + the principal towns. + + _Railways._--After repeated vain attempts by successive governors to + connect Colombo with the interior by railways, Sir Charles MacCarthy + successfully set on foot a railway of 75 m. in length from Colombo to + Kandy. The railway mileage had developed to 563 m. in 1908, including + one of the finest mountain lines in the world--over 160 m. long, + rising to 6200 ft. above sea-level, and falling at the terminus to + 4000 ft. The towns of Kandy, Matale, Gampola, Nawalapitiya, Hatton and + Haputale (and practically Nuwara Eliya) in the hills, are thus + connected by rail, and in the low country the towns of Kurunegala, + Galle, Matara, Kalutara, &c. Most of the debt on the railways (all + government lines) is paid off, and the traffic receipts now make up + nearly one-third of the general revenue. An Indo-Ceylon railway to + connect the Indian and Ceylon systems has been the subject of separate + reports and estimates by engineers serving the Ceylon and Indian + governments, who have pronounced the work across the coral reef + between Manaar and Rameswaram quite feasible. A commission sat in 1903 + to consider the gauge of an Indo-Ceylon railway. Such a line promised + to serve strategic as well as commercial purposes, and to make Colombo + more than ever the port for southern India. The headquarters of the + mail steamers have been removed from Galle to Colombo, where the + colonial government have constructed a magnificent breakwater, and + undertaken other harbour works which have greatly augmented both the + external trade and the coasting trade of the island. + + _Government._--Ceylon is a crown colony, that is, a possession of the + British crown acquired by conquest or cession, the affairs of which + are administered by a governor, who receives his appointment from the + crown, generally for a term of six years. He is assisted by an + executive and a legislative council. The executive council acts as the + cabinet of the governor, and consists of the attorney-general, the + three principal officers of the colony (namely, the colonial + secretary, the treasurer and the auditor-general), and the general in + command of the forces. The legislative council includes, besides the + governor as president and nine official members, eight unofficial + members--one for the Kandyan Sinhalese (or Highlanders) and one for + the "Moormen" having been added in 1890. The term of office for the + unofficial members is limited to five years, though the governor may + reappoint if he choose. The king's advocate, the deputy-advocate, and + the surveyor-general are now respectively styled attorney-general, + solicitor-general, and director of public works. The civil service has + been reconstituted into five classes, not including the colonial + secretary as a staff appointment, nor ten cadets; these five classes + number seventy officers. The district judges can punish up to two + years' imprisonment, and impose fines up to Rs.1000. The police + magistrates can pass sentences up to six months' imprisonment, and + impose fines of Rs.150. The criminal law has since 1890 been codified + on the model of the Indian penal code; criminal and civil procedure + have also been the subject of codification. There are twenty-three + prisons in the island, mostly small; but convict establishments in and + near the capital take all long-sentence prisoners. + + _Banks and Currency._--Ceylon has agencies of the National Bank of + India, Bank of Madras, Mercantile Bank of India, Chartered Bank of + India, Australia and China, and of the Hong-kong and Shanghai Bank, + besides mercantile agencies of other banks, also a government savings + bank at Colombo, and post-office savings banks all over the island. In + 1884, on the failure of the Oriental Bank, the notes in currency were + guaranteed by government, and a government note currency was started + in supersession of bank notes. The coin currency of Ceylon is in + rupees and decimals of a rupee, the value of the standard following + that fixed for the Indian rupee, about 1s. 4d. per rupee. + + _Finance._--With the disease of the coffee plant the general revenue + fell from Rs.1,70,00,000 in 1877 to Rs.1,20,00,000 in 1882, when + trade was in a very depressed state, and the general prosperity of the + island was seriously affected. Since then, however, the revenue has + steadily risen with the growing export of tea, cocoa-nut produce, + plumbago, &c., and in 1902 it reached a total of 28 millions of + rupees. (J. F. D.; C. L.) + +_History._--The island of Ceylon was known to the Greeks and Romans +under the name of _Taprobane_, and in later times Serendib, Sirinduil +and Zeylan have been employed to designate it by writers of the Western +and Eastern worlds. Serendib is a corruption of the Sanskrit +_Sinhaladvïpa_. Like most oriental countries, Ceylon possesses a great +mass of ancient records, in which fact is so confused with fable that +they are difficult to distinguish. The labours of George Turnour +(1799-1843), however, helped to dissipate much of this obscurity, and +his admirable edition (1836) of the _Mahavamsa_ first made it possible +to trace the main lines of Sinhalese history. + +The Sinhalese inscriptional records, to which George Turnour first +called attention, and which, through the activity of Sir William Gregory +in 1874, began to be accurately transcribed and translated, extend from +the 2nd century B.C. onwards. Among the oldest inscriptions discovered +are those on the rock cells of the Vessagiri Vihara of Anuradhapura, cut +in the old Brahma-lipi character. The inscriptions show how powerful was +the Buddhist hierarchy which dominated the government and national life. +The royal decrees of successive rulers are mainly concerned with the +safeguarding of the rights of the hierarchy, but a few contain +references to executive acts of the kings, as in a slab inscription of +Kassapa V. (c. A.D. 929-939). In an edict ascribed to Mahinda IV. (c. +A.D. 975-991) reference is made to the Sinhalese palladium, the famous +tooth-relic of Buddha, now enshrined at Kandy, and the decree confirms +tradition as to the identity of the fine stone temple, east of the +Thuparama at Anuradhapura, with the shrine in which the tooth was first +deposited when brought from Kalinga in the reign of Kirti Sri Meghavarna +(A.D. 304-324). + +The earliest inhabitants of Ceylon were probably the ancestors of the +modern Veddahs, a small tribe of primitive hunters who inhabit the +eastern jungles; and the discovery of palaeolithic stone implements +buried in some of their caves points to the fact that they represent a +race which has been in the island for untold ages. As to subsequent +immigrations, the great Hindu epic, the _Ramayana_, tells the story of +the conquest of part of the island by the hero Rama and his followers, +who took the capital of its king Rawana. Whatever element of truth there +may be in this fable, it certainly represents no permanent occupation. +The authentic history of Ceylon, so far as it can be traced, begins with +the landing in 543 B.C. of Vijaya, the founder of the Sinhalese dynasty, +with a small band of Aryan-speaking followers from the mainland of +India. Vijaya married the daughter of a native chief, with whose aid he +proceeded to master the whole island, which he parcelled out among his +followers, some of whom formed petty kingdoms. The Sinhalese introduced +from the mainland a comparatively high type of civilization, notably +agriculture. The earliest of the great irrigation tanks, near +Anuradhapura, was opened about 504 B.C. by the successor of Vijaya; and +about this time was established that system of village communities which +still obtains over a large part of Ceylon. + +The island was converted to Buddhism at the beginning of the 3rd century +B.C. by the preaching of Mahinda, a son of the great Buddhist emperor +Asoka; a conversion that was followed by an immense multiplication of +_daghobas_, curious bell-shaped reliquaries of solid stone, and of +Buddhist monasteries. For the rest, the history of ancient Ceylon is +largely a monotonous record of Malabar or Tamil invasions, conquests and +usurpations. Of these latter the first was in 237 B.C. when two officers +in the cavalry and fleet revolted, overthrew the Sinhalese ruler with +the aid of his own Tamil mercenaries, and reigned jointly, as Sena I. +and Guptika, until 215. The Sinhalese Asela then ruled till 205, when he +was overthrown by a Tamil from Tanjore, Elala, who held the reins of +power for 44 years. In 161 B.C. Elala was defeated and slain by +Dutegemunu, still remembered as one of the great Sinhalese heroes of +Ceylon. The ruins of the great monastery, known as the Brazen Palace, at +Anuradhapura, remain a memorial of King Dutegemunu's splendour and +religious zeal. He died in 137 B.C., and thenceforth the history of +Ceylon is mainly that of further Tamil invasions, of the construction of +irrigation tanks, and of the immense development of the Buddhist +monastic system. A tragic episode in the royal family in the 5th century +A.D. is, however, worthy of notice as connected with one of Ceylon's +most interesting remains, the Sigiri rock and tank (see SIGIRI). In A.D. +477 King Datu Sen was murdered by his son, who mounted the throne as +Kasyapa I., and when he was driven from the capital by the inhabitants, +infuriated by his crime, built himself a stronghold on the inaccessible +Sigiri rock, whence he ruled the country until in 495 he was overthrown +and slain by his brother Mugallana (495-513), who at the time of his +father's murder had escaped to India. + +Towards the close of the 10th century Ceylon was invaded by Rajaraja the +Great, the Chola king, and after a series of protracted campaigns was +annexed to his empire in 1005. The island, did not, however, remain long +under Tamil domination. In 1071 Vijaya Bahu succeeded in re-establishing +the Sinhalese dynasty, and for a while Ceylon was freed from foreign +intervention. The most notable of the successors of Vijaya Bahu, and +indeed of all the long line of Sinhalese rulers, was Parakrama Bahu I. +(1155-1180), whose colossal statue still stands near Polonnaruwa. He not +only took advantage of the unaccustomed tranquillity of the country to +restore the irrigation tanks and the monasteries, but he availed himself +of a disputed succession to the Pandya throne of Madura to turn the +tables on his Tamil enemies by invading India. According to the +_Mahavamsa_ his generals met with immediate and unbroken success; +according to the more probable account preserved in a long Chola +inscription at Arpakkam near Kanchi, they were, though at first +successful, ultimately driven out by a coalition of the southern princes +(V.A. Smith, _Early History of India_, ed. 1908, p. 411). In any case, +within thirty years of Parakrama Bahu's death his work was undone; the +Malabar invaders were once more able to effect a settlement in the +island, and the Sinhalese capital was moved farther and farther south, +till in 1410 it had become established at Kotta, now a suburb of +Colombo. In 1408 a new misfortune had befallen the Sinhalese dynasty; in +revenge for an insult offered to a Chinese envoy, a Chinese army invaded +the island and carried away King Vijaya Bahu IV. into captivity. For +thirty years from this date the Sinhalese kings of Ceylon were tributary +to China. + +When, in 1505, the Portuguese Francisco de Almeida landed in Ceylon, he +found the island divided into seven kingdoms. Twelve years later the +viceroy of Goa ordered the erection of a fort at Colombo, for which +permission was obtained from the king of Kotta; and from this time until +the advent of the Dutch in the 17th century the Portuguese endeavoured, +amid perpetual wars with the native kings, who were assisted by Arab and +other traders jealous of European rivalry, to establish their control +over the island. They ultimately succeeded so far as the coast was +concerned, though their dominion scarcely penetrated inland. Materially +their gain was but small, for the trade of Ceylon was quite +insignificant; but they had the spiritual satisfaction of prosecuting a +vigorous propaganda of Catholicism, St Francis Xavier being the most +notable of the missionaries who at this time laboured in the island. + +The fanatical zeal and the masterful attitude of the Portuguese were a +constant source of dissension with the native rulers, and when the +Dutch, under Admiral Spilberg, landed on the east coast in 1602 and +sought the alliance of the king of Kandy in the interior of the island, +every inducement was held out to them to aid in expelling the +Portuguese. Nothing seems to have come of this until 1638-1639, when a +Dutch expedition attacked and razed the Portuguese forts on the east +coast. In the following year they landed at Negombo, without however +establishing themselves in any strong post. In 1644 Negombo was captured +and fortified by the Dutch, while in 1656 they took Colombo, and in 1658 +they drove the Portuguese from Jaffna, their last stronghold in Ceylon. + +Pursuing a wiser policy than their predecessors, the Dutch lost no +opportunity of improving that portion of the country which owned their +supremacy, and of opening a trade with the interior. More tolerant and +less disposed to stand upon their dignity than the Portuguese, they +subordinated political to commercial ends, flattered the native rulers +by a show of deference, and so far succeeded in their object as to +render their trade between the island and Holland a source of great +profit. Many new branches of industry were developed. Public works were +undertaken on a large scale, and education, if not universally placed +within the reach of the inhabitants of the maritime provinces, was at +least well cared for on a broad plan of government supervision. That +which they had so much improved by policy, they were, however, unable to +defend by force when the British turned their arms against them. A +century and a half had wrought great changes in the physical and mental +status of the Dutch colonists. The territory which in 1658 they had +slowly gained by undaunted and obstinate bravery, they as rapidly lost +in 1796 by imbecility and cowardice. + +The first intercourse of the English with Ceylon was as far back as +1763, when an embassy was despatched from Madras to the king of Kandy, +without, however, leading to any result. On the rupture between Great +Britain and Holland in 1795, a force was sent against the Dutch +possessions in Ceylon, where the opposition offered was so slight that +by the following year the whole of their forts were in the hands of the +English commander. + +The abiding results of the occupation of Ceylon by the Portuguese and +Dutch is described by Sir Emerson Tennent (_Ceylon_) as follows: + + "The dominion of the Netherlands in Ceylon was nearly equal in + duration with that of Portugal, about 140 years; but the policies of + the two countries have left a very different impress on the character + and institutions of the people amongst whom they lived. The most + important bequest left by the utilitarian genius of Holland is the + code of Roman Dutch law, which still prevails in the supreme courts of + justice, whilst the fanatical propagandism of the Portuguese has + reared for itself a monument in the abiding and expanding influence of + the Roman Catholic faith. This flourishes in every hamlet and province + where it was implanted by the Franciscans, whilst the doctrines of the + reformed church of Holland, never preached beyond the walls of the + fortresses, are already almost forgotten throughout the island, with + the exception of an expiring community at Colombo. Already the + language of the Dutch, which they sought to extend by penal + enactments, has ceased to be spoken even by their direct descendants, + whilst a corrupted Portuguese is to the present day the vernacular of + the lower classes in every town of importance. As the practical and + sordid government of the Netherlands only recognized the interest of + the native population in so far as they were essential to uphold their + trading monopolies, their memory was recalled by no agreeable + associations: whilst the Portuguese, who, in spite of their cruelties, + were identified with the people by the bond of a common faith, excited + a feeling of admiration by the boldness of their conflicts with the + Kandyans, and the chivalrous though ineffectual defence of their + beleaguered fortresses. The Dutch and their proceedings have almost + ceased to be remembered by the lowland Sinhalese; but the chiefs of + the south and west perpetuate with pride the honorific title Don, + accorded to them by their first European conquerors, and still prefix + to their ancient patronymics the sonorous Christian names of the + Portuguese." + +The British forces by which the island had been conquered were those of +the East India Company, and Ceylon was therefore at first placed under +its jurisdiction and administered from Madras. The introduction of the +Madras revenue system, however, together with a host of Malabar +collectors, led to much discontent, which culminated in rebellion; and +in 1798 the colony was placed directly under the crown. By the treaty of +Amiens, in 1803, this situation was regularized, from the international +point of view, by the formal cession to Great Britain of the former +Dutch possessions in the island. For a while the British dominion was +confined to the coast. The central tract of hilly country, hedged in by +impenetrable forests and precipitous mountain ranges, remained in +possession of Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha, the last of the Sinhalese dynasty, +who showed no signs of encouraging communication with his European +neighbours. + +Minor differences led in 1803 to an invasion of the Kandyan territory; +but sickness, desertion and fatigue proved more formidable adversaries +to the British forces than the troops of the Sinhalese monarch, and +peace was eventually concluded upon terms by no means favourable to the +English. The cruelty and oppression of the king now became so +intolerable to his subjects that disaffection spread rapidly amongst +them. Punishments of the most horrible kinds were inflicted, but failed +to repress the popular indignation; and in 1815 the British, at the +urgent request of many of the Adigars and other native chiefs, proceeded +against the tyrant, who was captured near Kandy, and subsequently ended +his days in exile. With him ended a long line of sovereigns, whose +pedigree may be traced through upwards of two thousand years. + +By a convention entered into with the Kandyan chiefs on the 2nd of March +1815, the entire sovereignty of the island passed into the hands of the +British, who in return guaranteed to the inhabitants civil and religious +liberty. The religion of Buddha was declared inviolable, and its rights, +ministers and places of worship were to be maintained and protected; the +laws of the country were to be preserved and administered according to +established forms; and the royal dues and revenues were to be levied as +before for the support of government. + +With the exception of a serious outbreak in some parts of the interior +in 1817, which lasted for upwards of a year, and of two minor attempts +at rebellion easily put down, in 1843 and 1848, the political +atmosphere of Ceylon has remained undisturbed since the deportation of +the last king of Kandy. + + AUTHORITIES.--Major Thomas Skinner, _Fifty Years in Ceylon_, edited by + his son, A. Skinner (London, 1891); Constance F. Gordon Gumming, _Two + Happy Years in Ceylon_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892); H.W. Cave, _The + Ruined Cities of Ceylon_ (London, 1897), and _The Book of Ceylon_ + (London, 1908); Sir Emerson Tennent, _Ceylon_ (2 vols. 4th ed., 1860); + J. Ferguson, _Ceylon in 1903_ (Colombo); J.C. Willis, _Ceylon_ + (Colombo, 1907). See also E. Müller, _Ancient Inscriptions in Ceylon_, + published for the government (1883-1884), and the important + archaeological survey in _Epigraphia Zeylonica_, part i., 1904, ii., + 1907, iii., 1907, by Don Martino de Silva Wickremasinghe, who in 1899 + was appointed epigraphist to the Ceylon government. Among other works + on special subjects may be mentioned H. Trimen, F.R.S., director of + Ceylon Botanic Gardens, _Ceylon Flora_, in 5 vols., completed by Sir + Joseph Hooker; Captain V. Legge, F.Z.S., _History of the Birds of + Ceylon_ (London, 1870); Dr Copleston, bishop of Colombo, _Buddhism, + Primitive and Present, in Magadha and in Ceylon_ (London, 1892); + review by Sir West Ridgeway, _Administration of Ceylon, 1896-1903_; + Professor W.A. Herdman, _Report on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries, + 1903-1904_. + + + + +CHABAZITE, a mineral species belonging to the group of zeolites. It +occurs as white to flesh-red crystals which vary from transparent to +translucent and have a vitreous lustre. The crystals are rhombohedral, +and the predominating form is often a rhombohedron (r) with interfacial +angles of 85° 14'; they therefore closely resemble cubes in appearance, +and the mineral was in fact early (in 1772) described as a cubic +zeolite. A characteristic feature is the twinning, the crystals being +frequently interpenetration twins with the principal axis as twin-axis +(figs, 1, 2). The appearance shown in fig. 1, with the corners of small +crystals in twinned position projecting from the faces r of the main +crystal, is especially characteristic of chabazite. Such groups resemble +the interpenetrating twinned cubes of fluorspar, but the two minerals +are readily distinguished by their cleavage, fluorspar having a perfect +octahedral cleavage truncating the corners of the cube, whilst in +chabazite there are less distinct cleavages parallel to the rhombohedral +(cube-like) faces. Another type of twinned crystal is represented in +fig. 2, in which the predominating form is an obtuse hexagonal pyramid +(t); the faces of these flatter crystals are often rounded, giving rise +to lenticular shapes, hence the name phacolite (from [Greek: phakos], a +lentil) for this variety of chabazite. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. Twinned Crystals of Chabazite.] + +The hardness of chabazite is 4½, and the specific gravity 2.08-2.16. As +first noticed by Sir David Brewster in 1830, the crystals often exhibit +anomalous optical characters: instead of being uniaxial, a basal section +may be divided into sharply-defined biaxial sectors. Heating of the +crystals is attended by a loss of water and a change in their optical +characters; it is probable therefore that the anomalous optical +characters are dependent on the amount of water present. + +Besides phacolite, mentioned above, other varieties of chabazite are +distinguished. Herschelite and seebachite are essentially the same as +phacolite. Haydenite is the name given to small yellowish crystals, +twinned on a rhombohedron plane r, from Jones's Falls near Baltimore in +Maryland. Acadialite is a reddish chabazite from Nova Scotia (the old +French name of which is Acadie). + +Chemically, chabazite is a complex hydrated calcium and sodium silicate, +with a small proportion of the sodium replaced by potassium, and +sometimes a small amount of the calcium replaced by barium and +strontium. The composition is however variable, and is best expressed +as an isomorphous mixture of the molecules (Ca, Na2) Al2(SiO4)2 + 4H2O +and (Ca, Na2) Al2(Si3O8)2 + 8H2O, which are analogous to the felspars. +Most analyses correspond with a formula midway between these extremes, +namely, (Ca, Na2)Al2(SiO3)4 + 6H2O. + +Chabazite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of +basaltic rocks; occasionally it has been found in gneisses and schists. +Well-formed crystals are known from many localities; for example, +Kilmalcolm in Renfrewshire, the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and +Oberstein in Germany. Beautiful, clear glassy crystals of the phacolite +("seebachite") variety occur with phillipsite and radiating bundles of +brown calcite in cavities in compact basalt near Richmond, Melbourne, +Victoria. Small crystals have been observed lining the cavities of +fossil shells from Iceland, and in the recent deposits of the hot +springs of Plombières and Bourbonne-les-Bains in France. + +Gmelinite and levynite are other species of zeolites which may be +mentioned here, since they are closely related to chabazite, and like it +are rhombohedral and frequently twinned. Gmelinite forms large flesh-red +crystals usually of hexagonal habit, and was early known as +soda-chabazite, it having the composition of chabazite but with sodium +predominating over calcium (Na2, Ca)Al2(SiO3)46H2O. The formula of +levynite is CaAl2Si3O10 + 5H2O. (L. J. S.) + + + + +CHABLIS, a town of north-central France, in the department of Yonne, on +the left bank of the Serein, 14 m. E. by N. of Auxerre by road. Pop. +(1906) 2227. Its church of St Martin belongs to the end of the 12th +century. The town gives its name to a well-known white wine produced in +the neighbouring vineyards, of which the most esteemed are Clos, +Bouguerots, Moutonne, Grenouille, Montmaires, Lys and Vaux-Désirs. There +are manufactures of biscuits. + + + + +CHABOT, FRANÇOIS (1757-1794), French revolutionist, had been a +Franciscan friar before the Revolution, and after the civil constitution +of the clergy continued to act as "constitutional" priest, becoming +grand vicar of Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois. Then he was elected to +the Legislative Assembly, sitting at the extreme left, and forming with +C. Bazire and Merlin de Thionville the "Cordelier trio." Re-elected to +the Convention he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and opposed the +proposal to prosecute the authors of the massacre of September, "because +among them there are heroes of Jemmapes." Some of his sayings are well +known, such as that Christ was the first "_sans-culotte_." Compromised +in the falsification of a decree suppressing the India Company and in a +plot to bribe certain members of the Convention, especially Fabre +d'Eglantine and C. Bazire, he was arrested, brought before the +Revolutionary Tribunal, and was condemned and executed at the same time +as the Dantonists, who protested against being associated with such a +"_fripon_." + + + + +CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE, known as CHABOT DE L'ALLIER (1758-1819), French +jurist and statesman, was president of the tribunal of Montluçon when he +was elected as a deputy _suppléant_ to the National Convention. A member +of the council of the Ancients, then of the Tribunate, he was president +of the latter when the peace of Amiens was signed. He had a resolution +adopted, tending to give Napoleon Bonaparte the consulship for life; and +in 1804 supported the proposal to establish a hereditary monarchy. +Napoleon named him inspector-general of the law schools, then judge of +the court of cassation. He published various legal works, e.g. _Tableau +de la législation ancienne sur les successions et de la législation +nouvelle établie par le code civil_ (Paris, 1804), and _Questions +fransitoires sur le code Napoléon_ (Paris, 1809). + + + + +CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE, SEIGNEUR DE BRION, COUNT OF CHARNY AND BUZANÇAIS +(c. 1492-1543), admiral of France. The Chabot family was one of the +oldest and most powerful in Poitou. Philippe was a cadet of the Jarnac +branch. He was a companion of Francis I. as a child, and on that king's +accession was loaded with honours and estates. After the battle of Pavia +he was made admiral of France and governor of Burgundy (1526), and +shared with Anne de Montmorency the direction of affairs. He was at the +height of his power in 1535, and commanded the army for the invasion of +the states of the duke of Savoy; but in the campaigns of 1536 and 1537 +he was eclipsed by Montmorency, and from that moment his influence began +to wane. He was accused by his enemies of peculation, and condemned on +the 10th of February 1541 to a fine of 1,500,000 livres, to banishment, +and to the confiscation of his estates. Through the good offices of +Madam d'Étampes, however, he obtained the king's pardon almost +immediately (March 1541), was reinstated in his posts, and regained his +estates and even his influence, while Montmorency in his turn was +disgraced. But his health was affected by these troubles, and he died +soon afterwards on the 1st of June 1543. His tomb in the Louvre, by an +unknown sculptor, is a fine example of French Renaissance work. It was +his nephew, Guy Chabot, seigneur de Jarnac, who fought the famous duel +with François de Vivonne, seigneur de la Châtaigneraie, in 1547, at the +beginning of the reign of Henry II. + + The main authorities for Chabot's life are his MS. correspondence in + the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and contemporary memoirs. See also + E de Barthélemy, "Chabot de Brion," in the _Revue des questions + historiques_ (vol. xx. 1876); Martineau, "L'Amiral Chabot," in the + _Positions des thèses de l'École des Chartes_ (1883). + + + + +CHABRIAS (4th century B.C.), a celebrated Athenian general. In 388 B.C. +he defeated the Spartans at Aegina and commanded the fleet sent to +assist Evagoras, king of Cyprus, against the Persians. In 378, when +Athens entered into an alliance with, Thebes against Sparta, he defeated +Agesilaus near Thebes. On this occasion he invented a manoeuvre, which +consisted in receiving a charge on the left knee, with shields resting +on the ground and spears pointed against the enemy. In 376 he gained a +decisive victory over the Spartan fleet off Naxos, but, when he might +have destroyed the Spartan fleet, remembering the fate of the generals +at Arginusae, he delayed to pick up the bodies of his dead. Later, when +the Athenians changed sides and joined the Spartans, he repulsed +Epaminondas before the walls of Corinth. In 366, together with +Callistratus, he was accused of treachery in advising the surrender of +Oropus to the Thebans. He was acquitted, and soon after he accepted a +command under Tachos, king of Egypt, who had revolted against Persia. +But on the outbreak of the Social War (357) he joined Chares in the +command of the Athenian fleet. He lost his life in an attack on the +island of Chios. + + See Cornelius Nepos, _Chabrias_; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, v. 1-4; Diod. + Sic. xv. 29-34; and C. Rehdantz, _Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae, et + Timothei_ (1845); art. DELIAN LEAGUE, section B, and authorities there + quoted. + + + + +CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL (1841-1894), French composer, was born at +Ambert, Puy de Dôme, on the 18th of January 1841. At first he only +cultivated music as an amateur, and it was not until 1879 that he threw +up an administration appointment in order to devote himself entirely to +the art. He had two years previously written an _opéra bouffe_ entitled +_L'Étoile_, which was performed at the Bouffes Parisiens. In 1881 he was +appointed chorus-master of the concerts then recently established by +Lamoureux. In 1883 he composed the brilliant orchestral rhapsody +entitled _España_, the themes of which he had jotted down when +travelling in Spain. His opera _Gwendoline_ was brought out with +considerable success at Brussels on the 10th of April 1886, and was +given later at the Paris Grand Opéra. The following year 1887, _Le Roi +malgré lui_, an opera of a lighter description, was produced in Paris at +the Opéra Comique, its run being interrupted by the terrible fire by +which this theatre was destroyed. His last opera, _Briseis_, was left +unfinished, and performed in a fragmentary condition at the Paris Opéra, +after the composer's death in Paris on the 13th of September 1894. +Chabrier was also the author of a set of piano pieces entitled _Pièces +pittoresques, Valses romantiques_, for two pianos, a fantasia for horn +and piano, &c. His great admiration for Wagner asserted itself in +_Gwendoline_, a work which, in spite of inequalities due to want of +experience, is animated by a high artistic ideal, is poetically +conceived, and shows considerable harmonic originality, besides a +thorough mastery over the treatment of the orchestra. The +characteristics of _Le Roi malgré lui_ have been well summed up by M. +Joncières when he alludes to "cette verve inépuisable, ces rythmes +endiablés, cette exubérance de gaieté et de vigueur, à laquelle venait +se joindre la note mélancolique et émue." Chabrier's premature death +prevented him from giving the full measure of his worth. + + + + +CHACMA, the Hottentot name of the Cape baboon, _Papio porcarius_, a +species inhabiting the mountains of South Africa as far north as the +Zambezi. Of the approximate size of an English mastiff, this powerful +baboon is blackish grey in colour with a tinge of green due to the +yellow rings on most of the hairs. Unlike most of its tribe, it is a +good climber; and where wooded cliffs are not available, will take up +its quarters in tall trees. Chacmas frequently strip orchards and +fruit-gardens, break and devour ostrich eggs, and kill lambs and kids +for the sake of the milk in their stomachs. + + + + +CHACO, a territory of northern Argentina, part of a large district known +as the Gran Chaco, bounded N. by the territory of Formosa, E. by +Paraguay and Corrientes, S. by Santa Fé, and W. by Santiago del Estero +and Salta. The Bermejo river forms its northern boundary, and the +Paraguay and Paraná rivers its eastern; these rivers are its only means +of communication. Pop. (1895) 10,422; (1904, est.) 13,937; area, 52,741 +sq. m. The northern part consists of a vast plain filled with numberless +lagoons; the southern part is slightly higher and is covered with dense +forests, occasionally broken by open grassy spaces. Its forests contain +many species of trees of great economic value; among them is the +_quebracho_, which is exported for the tannin which it contains. The +capital, Resistencia, with an estimated population of 3500 in 1904, is +situated on the Paraná river opposite the city of Corrientes. There is +railway communication between Santa Fé and La Sabana, an insignificant +timber-cutting village on the southern frontier. In the territory there +are still several tribes of uncivilized Indians, who occasionally raid +the neighbouring settlements of Santa Fé. + + + + +CHACONNE (Span. _chacona_), a slow dance, introduced into Spain by the +Moors, now obsolete. It resembles the Passacaglia. The word is used also +of the music composed for this dance--a slow stately movement in ¾ time. +Such a movement was often introduced into a sonata, and formed the +conventional finale to an opera or ballet until the time of Gluck. + + + + +CHAD [CEADDA], SAINT (d. 672), brother of Cedd, whom he succeeded as +abbot at Lastingham, was consecrated bishop of the Northumbrians by +Wine, the West Saxon bishop, at the request of Oswio in 664. On the +return of Wilfrid from France, where he had been sent to be consecrated +to the same see, a dispute of course arose, which was settled by +Theodore in favour of Wilfrid after three years had passed. Chad +thereupon retired to Lastingham, whence with the permission of Oswio he +was summoned by Wulfhere of Mercia to succeed his bishop Jaruman, who +died 667. Chad built a monastery at Barrow in Lincolnshire and fixed his +see at Lichfield. He died after he had held his bishopric in Mercia two +and a half years, and was succeeded by Wynfrith. Bede gives a beautiful +character of Chad. + + See Bede's _Hist. Eccl._ edited by C. Plummer, iii. 23, 24, 28; iv. 2, + 3 (Oxford, 1896); Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_, xiv., xv. edited by J. + Raine, Rolls Series (London, 1879). + + + + +CHAD, a lake of northern Central Africa lying between 12° 50' and 14° +10' N. and 13° and 15° E. The lake is situated about 850 ft. above the +sea in the borderland between the fertile and wooded regions of the +Sudan on the south and the arid steppes which merge into the Sahara on +the north. The area of the lake is shrinking owing to the progressive +desiccation of the country, Saharan climate and conditions replacing +those of the Sudan. The drying-up process has been comparatively rapid +since the middle of the 19th century, a town which in 1850 was on the +southern margin of the lake being in 1905 over 20 m. from it. On the +west the shore is perfectly flat, so that a slight rise in the water +causes the inundation of a considerable area--a fact not without its +influence on the estimates made at varying periods as to the size of the +lake. Around the north-west and north shores is a continuous chain of +gently sloping sand-hills covered with bush. This region abounds in big +game and birds are plentiful. In the east, the country of Kanem, the +desiccation has been most marked. Along this coast is a continuous chain +of islands running from north-west to south-east. But what were islands +when viewed by Overweg in 1851, formed in 1903 part of the mainland and +new islands had arisen in the lake. They are generally low, being +composed of sand and clay, and lie from 5 to 20 m. from the shore, which +throughout its eastern side nowhere faces open water. The channels +between the islands do not exceed 2 m. in width. Two principal groups +are distinguished, the Kuri archipelago in the south, and the Buduma in +the north. The inhabitants of the last-named islands were noted pirates +until reduced to order by the French. The coast-line is, in general, +undefined and marshy, and broken into numerous bays and peninsulas. It +is also, especially on the east, lined by lagoons which communicate with +the lake by intricate channels. The lake is nowhere of great depth, and +about midway numerous mud-banks, marshes, islands and dense growths of +aqueous plants stretch across its surface. Another stretch of marsh +usually cuts off the northernmost part of the lake from the central +sections. The open water varies in depth from 3 ft. in the north-west to +over 20 in the south, where desiccation is less apparent. Fed by the +Shari (q.v.) and other rivers, the lake has no outlet and its area +varies according to the season. The flood water brought down by the +Shari in December and January causes the lake to rise to a maximum of 24 +ft., the water spreading over low-lying ground, left dry again in May or +June. But after several seasons of heavy rainfall the waters have +remained for years beyond their low-water level. Nevertheless the +secular shrinking goes on, the loss by evaporation and percolation +exceeding the amount of water received; whilst, on the average, the +rainfall is diminishing. In 1870 the lake rose to an exceptional height, +but since then, save in 1897, there has been only the normal seasonal +rise. The prevalent north-east wind causes at times a heavy swell on the +lake. Fish abound in its waters, which are sweet, save at low-level, +when they become brackish. The lagoons are believed to act as purifying +pans in which the greater part of the salt in the water is precipitated. +In the south-west end of the lake the water is yellow, caused by banks +of clay; elsewhere it is clear. + +[Illustration: Lake Chad] + +The southern basin of Chad is described under the Shari, which empties +its waters into the lake about the middle of the southern shore, forming +a delta of considerable extent. Beyond the south-east corner of the lake +is a depression known as the Bahr-el-Ghazal (not to be confounded with +the Nile affluent of the same name). This depression is the termination +of what is in all probability the bed of one of the dried-up Saharan +rivers. Coming from the Tibesti highlands the Bahr-el-Ghazal has a +south-westerly trend to Lake Chad. Near the lake the valley was formerly +swampy, and at high-water the lake overflowed into it. There was also at +one time communication between the Shari and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, so that +the water of the first-named stream reached Chad by way of the +Bahr-el-Ghazal. There is now neither inlet nor outlet to the lake in +this direction, the mouth of the Ghazal having become a fertile millet +field. There is still, however, a distinct current from the Shari delta +to the east end of the lake--known to the natives, like the depression +beyond, as the Bahr-el-Ghazal--indicative of the former overflow outlet. + +Besides the Shari, the only important stream entering Lake Chad is the +Waube or Yo (otherwise the Komadugu Yobe), which rises near Kano, and +flowing eastward enters the lake on its western side 40 m. north of +Kuka. In the rains the Waube carries down a considerable body of water +to the lake. + +Lake Chad is supposed to have been known by report to Ptolemy, and is +identified by some writers with the Kura lake of the middle ages. It was +first seen by white men in 1823 when it was reached by way of Tripoli by +the British expedition under Dr Walter Oudney, R.N., the other members +being Captain Hugh Clapperton and Major (afterwards Lieut.-Colonel) +Dixon Denham. By them the lake was named Waterloo. In 1850 James +Richardson, accompanied by Heinrich Barth and Adolf Overweg, reached the +lake, also via Tripoli, and Overweg was the first European to navigate +its waters (1851). The lake was visited by Eduard Vogel (1855) and by +Gustav Nachtigal (1870), the last-named investigating its hydrography in +some detail. In 1890-1893 its shores were divided by treaty between +Great Britain, France and Germany. The first of these nations to make +good its footing in the region was France. A small steamer, brought from +the Congo by Emile Gentil, was in 1897 launched on the Shari, and +reaching the Chad, navigated the southern part of the lake. +Communication between Algeria and Lake Chad by way of the Sahara was +opened, after repeated failures, by the French explorer F. Foureau in +1899-1900. At the same time a French officer, Lieut. Joalland, reached +the lake from the middle Niger, continuing his journey round the north +end to Kanem. A British force under Colonel T.L.N. Morland visited the +lake at the beginning of 1902, and in May of the same year the Germans +first reached it from Cameroon. In 1902-1903 French officers under +Colonel Destenave made detailed surveys of the south-eastern and eastern +shores and the adjacent islands. In 1903 Captain E. Lenfant, also a +French officer, succeeded in reaching the lake (which he +circumnavigated) via the Benue, proving the existence of water +communication between the Shari and the Niger. In 1905 Lieut. Boyd +Alexander, a British officer, further explored the lake, which then +contained few stretches of open water. The lake is bordered W. and S.W. +by Bornu, which is partly in the British protectorate of Nigeria and +partly in the German protectorate of Cameroon. Bagirmi to the S.E. of +the lake and Kanem to the N.E. are both French possessions. The north +and north-west shores also belong to France. One of the ancient trade +routes across the Sahara--that from Tripoli to Kuka in Bornu--strikes +the lake at its north-west corner, but this has lost much of its former +importance. + + See the works of Denham, Clapperton, Barth and Nachtigal cited in the + biographical notices; _Geog. Journal_, vol. xxiv. (1904); Capt. Tilho + in _La Géographie_ (March 1906); Boyd Alexander, _From the Niger to + the Nile_, vol. i. (London, 1907); A. Chevalier, _Mission Chari-Lac + Tchad 1902-1904_ (Paris 1908); E. Lenfant, _La Grande Route du Tchad_ + (Paris, 1905); H. Freydenberg, _Étude sur le Tchad et le bassin du + Chari_ (Paris, 1908). + + + + +CHADDERTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England, within the +parliamentary borough of Oldham (q.v.). Pop. (1901) 24,892. Cotton and +chemical works, and the coal-mines of the neighbourhood, employ the +large industrial population. + + + + +CHADERTON, LAURENCE (?1536-1640), Puritan divine, was born at Lees Hall, +in the parish of Oldham, Lancashire, probably in September 1536, being +the second son of Edmund Chaderton, a gentleman of an ancient and +wealthy family, and a zealous Catholic. Under the tuition of Laurence +Vaux, a priest, he became an able scholar. In 1564 he entered Christ's +College, Cambridge, where, after a short time, he formally adopted the +reformed doctrines and was in consequence disinherited by his father. In +1567 he was elected a fellow of his college, and subsequently was chosen +lecturer of St Clement's church, Cambridge, where he preached to +admiring audiences for many years. He was a man of moderate views, +though numbering among his friends extremists like Cartwright and +Perkins. So great was his reputation that when Sir Walter Mildmay +founded Emmanuel College in 1584 he chose Chaderton for the first +master, and on his expressing some reluctance, declared that if he would +not accept the office the foundation should not go on. In 1604 Chaderton +was appointed one of the four divines for managing the cause of the +Puritans at the Hampton Court conference; and he was also one of the +translators of the Bible. In 1578 he had taken the degree of B.D., and +in 1613 he was created D.D. At this period he made provision for twelve +fellows and above forty scholars in Emmanuel College. Fearing that he +might have a successor who held Arminian doctrines, he resigned the +mastership in favour of John Preston, but survived him, and lived also +to see the college presided over successively by William Sancroft (or +Sandcroft) and Richard Holdsworth. He died on the 13th of November 1640 +at the age of about 103, preserving his bodily and mental faculties to +the end. + + Chaderton published a sermon preached at St Paul's Cross about 1580, + and a treatise of his _On Justification_ was printed by Anthony + Thysius, professor of divinity at Leiden. Some other works by him on + theological subjects remain in manuscript. + + + + +CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN (1800-1890), English sanitary reformer, was born at +Longsight, near Manchester, on the 24th of January 1800. Called to the +bar without any independent means, he sought to support himself by +literary work, and his essays in the _Westminster Review_ (mainly on +different methods of applying scientific knowledge to the business of +government) introduced him to the notice of Jeremy Bentham, who engaged +him as a literary assistant and left him a handsome legacy. In 1832 he +was employed by the royal commission appointed to inquire into the +operation of the poor laws, and in 1833 he was made a full member of +that body. In conjunction with Nassau W. Senior he drafted the +celebrated report of 1834 which procured the reform of the old poor law. +His special contribution was the institution of the union as the area of +administration. He favoured, however, a much more centralized system of +administration than was adopted, and he never ceased to complain that +the reform of 1834 was fatally marred by the rejection of his views, +which contemplated the management of poor-law relief by salaried +officers controlled from a central board, the boards of guardians acting +merely as inspectors. In 1834 he was appointed secretary to the poor law +commissioners. Finding himself unable to administer in accordance with +his own views an act of which he was largely the author, his relations +with his official chiefs became much strained, and the disagreement led, +among other causes, to the dissolution of the poor law commission in +1846. Chadwick's chief contribution to political controversy was his +constant advocacy of entrusting certain departments of local affairs to +trained and selected experts, instead of to representatives elected on +the principle of local self-government. While still officially connected +with the poor law he had taken up the question of sanitation in +conjunction with Dr Southwood Smith, and their joint labours produced a +most salutary improvement in the public health. His report on "The +Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population" (1842) is a valuable +historical document. He was a commissioner of the Board of Health from +its establishment in 1848 to its abolition in 1854, when he retired upon +a pension, and occupied the remainder of his life in voluntary +contributions to sanitary and economical questions. He died at East +Sheen, Surrey, on the 6th of July 1890. He had been made K.C.B. in 1889. + + See a volume on _The Evils of Disunity in Central and Local + Administration ... and the New Centralization for the People_, by + Edwin Chadwick (1885); also _The Health of Nations, a Review of the + Works of Edwin Chadwick, with a Biographical Introduction_, by Sir B. + W. Richardson (1887). + + + + +CHAEREMON, Athenian dramatist of the first half of the 4th century B.C. +He is generally considered a tragic poet. Aristotle (_Rhetoric_, iii. +12) says his works were intended for reading, not for representation. +According to Suidas, he was also a comic poet, and the title of at least +one of his plays (_Achilles Slayer of Thersites_) seems to indicate that +it was a satyric drama. His _Centaurus_ is described by Aristotle +(_Poet._ i. 12) as a rhapsody in all kinds of metres. The fragments of +Chaeremon are distinguished by correctness of form and facility of +rhythm, but marred by a florid and affected style reminiscent of +Agathon. He especially excelled in descriptions (irrelevantly +introduced) dealing with such subjects as flowers and female beauty. It +is not agreed whether he is the author of three epigrams in the Greek +Anthology (Palatine vii. 469, 720, 721) which bear his name. + + See H. Bartsch, _De Chaeremone Poëta tragico_ (1843); fragments in A. + Nauck, _Fragmenta Tragicorum Graecorum_. + + + + +CHAEREMON, of Alexandria (1st century A.D.), Stoic philosopher and +grammarian. He was superintendent of the portion of the Alexandrian +library that was kept in the temple of Serapis, and as custodian and +expounder of the sacred books ([Greek: ierogrammateus] sacred scribe) +belonged to the higher ranks of the priesthood. In A.D. 49 he was +summoned to Rome, with Alexander of Aegae, to become tutor to the +youthful Nero. He was the author of a _History of Egypt_; of works on +_Comets, Egyptian Astrology_, and _Hieroglyphics_; and of a grammatical +treatise on _Expletive Conjunctions_ ([Greek: syndesmoi +paraplêrôpaeromatikoi]). Chaeremon was the chief of the party which +explained the Egyptian religious system as a mere allegory of the +worship of nature. His books were not intended to represent the ideas of +his Egyptian contemporaries; their chief object was to give a +description of the sanctity and symbolical secrets of ancient Egypt. He +can hardly be identical with the Chaeremon who accompanied (c. 26 B.C.; +Strabo xvii. p. 806) Aelius Gallus, praefect of Egypt, on a journey into +the interior of the country. + + Fragments in C. Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, iii. + 495-499. + + + + +CHAERONEIA, or CHAERONEA, an ancient town of Boeotia, said by some to be +the Homeric Arne, situated about 7 m. W. of Orchomenus. Until the 4th +century B.C. it was a dependency of Orchomenus, and at all times it +played but a subordinate part in Boeotian politics. Its importance lay +in its strategic position near the head of the defile which presents the +last serious obstacle to an invader in central Greece. Two great battles +were fought on this site in antiquity. In 338 B.C. Philip II. and +Alexander of Macedon were confronted by a confederate host from central +Greece and Peloponnese under the leadership of Thebes and Athens, which +here made the last stand on behalf of Greek liberty. A hard-fought +conflict, in which the Greek infantry displayed admirable firmness, was +decided in favour of Philip through the superior organization of his +army. In 86 B.C. the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla defeated the army +of Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, near Chaeroneia. The latter's +enormous numerical superiority was neutralized by Sulla's judicious +choice of ground and the steadiness of his legionaries; the Asiatics +after the failure of their attack were worn down and almost annihilated. +Chaeroneia is also notable as the birthplace of Plutarch, who returned +to his native town in old age, and was held in honour by its citizens +for many successive generations. Pausanias (ix. 40) mentions the divine +honours accorded at Chaeroneia to the sceptre of Agamemnon, the work of +Hephaestus (cf. _Iliad_, ii. 101). The site of the town is partly +occupied by the village of Kapraena; the ancient citadel was known as +the Petrachus, and there is a theatre cut in the rock. A colossal seated +lion a little to the S.E. of the site marks the grave of the Boeotians +who fell fighting against Philip; this lion was found broken to pieces; +the tradition that it was blown up by Odysseus Androutsos is incorrect +(see Murray, _Handbook for Greece_, ed. 5, 1884, p. 409). It has now +been restored and re-erected (1905). + + AUTHORITIES.--Thucydides iv. 76; Diodorus xvi. 85-86; Plutarch, + _Alexander_, ch. 9; _Sulla_, chs. 16-19; Appian, _Mithradatica_, chs. + 42-45; W.M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London, 1835), ii. + 112-117, 192-201; B.V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p. + 292; J. Kromayer, _Antike Schlachtfelder in Griechenland_ (Berlin, + 1903), pp. 127-195; G. Sotiriades in _Athen. Mitteil._ 1903, pp. 301 + ff.; 1905, p. 120; 1906, p. 396; [Greek: Ephêm. Archaiol.], 1908, p. + 65. + + + + +CHAETOGNATHA, the name given by R. Leuckhart to a small group of +transparent and for the most part pelagic organisms, whose position in +the animal kingdom is a very isolated one. Only three genera, _Sagitta_, +_Spadella_ and _Krohnia_, are recognised, and the number of species is +small. Nevertheless these animals exist in extraordinary quantities, so +that at certain seasons and under certain conditions the surface of the +sea seems almost stiff with the incredible multitude of organisms which +pervade it. Rough seas, &c., cause them to seek safety in dropping into +deeper water. Deep-sea forms also occur, but in spite of this the group +is essentially pelagic. + +[Illustration: _Spadella cephaloptera_ (Busch). + + St, Septa dividing body-cavity transversely. + g², Cerebral ganglia. + n¹, Commissure uniting this with ventral ganglion (not shown in fig.). + n², Nerve uniting cerebral ganglia with small ganglia on head. + nr, Olfactory nerve. + d, Alimentary canal. + r, Olfactory organ. + te, Tentacle. + t, Tactile hairs springing from surface of body. + e, Ovary. + el, Oviduct. + ho, Testes. + sg, Vas deferens. + f², f³, Lateral and caudal fins. + sb, Seminal pouch. + + The eyes are indicated as black dots behind the cerebral ganglia.] + + As a rule the body is some 1 to 2 or 3 cm. in length, though some + species are larger, by 4 or 5 mm. in breadth, and it is shaped + something like a torpedo with side flanges and a slightly swollen, + rounded head. It can be divided into three regions--(i.) head, (ii.) + trunk, and (iii.) tail, separated from one another by two transverse + septa. The almost spherical head is covered by a hood which can be + retracted; it bears upon its side a number of sickle-shaped, chitinous + hooks and one or more short rows of low spines--both of these features + are used in characterizing the various species. A pair of eyes lie + dorsally and behind them is a closed circlet, often pulled out into + various shapes, of modified epidermis, to which an olfactory function + has been attributed. The interior of the head is filled up with masses + of muscle fibres which are mainly occupied with moving the + sickle-shaped hooks. The trunk contains a spacious body-cavity filled + during the breeding season by the swollen ovaries, and the same is + true of the tail if we substitute testes for ovaries. + + The skin consists of a transparent cuticle excreted by the underlying + ectoderm, the cells of which though usually one-layered may be heaped + up into several layers in the head; beneath this is a basement + membrane, and then a layer of longitudinal muscle fibres which are + limited inside by a layer of peritoneal cells. The muscles are + striated and arranged in four quadrants, two dorso-lateral and two + ventro-lateral, an arrangement which recalls that of the Nematoda, + whilst in their histology they somewhat resemble the muscles of the + Oligochaeta. Along each side of the body stretches a horizontal fin + and a similar flange surrounds the tail. Into these fins, which are + largely cuticular and strengthened by radiating bars, a single layer + of ectoderm cells projects. + + The mouth, a longitudinal slit, opens on to the ventral surface of the + head. It leads into a straight alimentary canal whose walls consist of + a layer of ciliated cells ensheathed in a thin layer of peritoneal + cells. There is no armature, and no glands, and the whole tract can + only be divided into an oesophagus and an intestine. The latter runs + with no twists or coils straight to the anus, which is situated at the + junction of the trunk with the tail. A median mesentery running + dorso-ventrally supports the alimentary canal and is continued behind + it into the tail, thus dividing the body cavity into two lateral + halves. + + There are no specialized circulatory, respiratory or excretory organs. + + The nervous system consists of a cerebral ganglion in the head, a + conspicuous ventral ganglion in the trunk, and of lateral commissures + uniting these ganglia on each side. The whole of this system has + retained its primitive connexion with the ectoderm. The cerebral + ganglion also gives off a nerve on each side to a pair of + small-ganglia, united by a median commissure, which have sunk into and + control the muscles of the head. As in other animals there is a minute + but extensive nervous plexus, which permeates the whole body and takes + its origin from the chief ganglia. In addition to the eyes and the + olfactory circle on the head scattered tactile papillae are found on + the ectoderm. + + Chaetognatha are hermaphrodite. The ovaries are attached to the side + walls of the trunk region; between them and the body wall lie the two + oviducts whose inner and anterior end is described as closed, their + outer ends opening one on each side of the anus, where the trunk joins + the tail. According to Miss N.M. Stevens the so-called oviduct acts + only as a "sperm-duct" or receptaculum seminis. The spermatozoa enter + it and pass through its walls and traverse a minute duct formed of two + accessory cells, and finally enter the ripe ovum. Temporary oviducts + are formed between the "sperm-duct" and the germinal epithelium at + each oviposition. A number of ova ripen simultaneously. The two testes + lie in the tail and are formed by lateral proliferations of the living + peritoneal cells. These break off and, lying in the coelomic fluid, + break up into spermatozoa. They pass out through short vasa deferentia + with internal ciliated funnels, sometimes an enlargement on their + course--the seminal vesicles--and a minute external pore situated on + the side of the tail. + + With hardly an exception the transparent eggs are laid into the sea + and float on its surface. The development is direct and there is no + larval stage. The segmentation is complete; one side of the hollow + blastosphere invaginates and forms a gastrula. The blastopore closes, + a new mouth and a new anus subsequently arising. The archenteron gives + off two lateral pounchs and thus becomes trilobed. The middle lobe + forms the alimentary canal; it closes behind and opens to the exterior + anteriorly and so makes the mouth. The two lateral lobes contain the + coelom; each separates off in front a segment which forms the head and + presumably then divides again to form anteriorly the trunk, and + posteriorly the tail regions. An interesting feature of the + development of Chaetognaths is that, as in some insects, the cells + destined to form the reproductive organs are differentiated at a very + early period, being apparent even in the gastrula stage. + + The great bulk of the group is pelagic, as the transparent nature of + all their tissues indicates. They move by flexing their bodies. + _Spadella cephaloptera_ is, however, littoral and oviposits on + seaweed, and the "Valdivia" brought home a deep-sea species. + + The three genera are differentiated as follows:-- + + _Sagitta_ M. Slabber, with two pairs of lateral fins. This genus was + named as long ago as 1775. + + _Krohnia_ P. Langerhans, with one lateral fin on each side, extending + on to the tail. + + _Spadella_ P. Langerhans, with a pair of lateral fins on the tail and + a thickened ectodermic ridge running back on each side from the head + to the anterior end of the fin. + + The group is an isolated one and should probably be regarded as a + separate phylum. It has certain histological resemblances with the + Nematoda and certain primitive Annelids, but little stress must be + laid on these. The most that can be said is that the Chaetognaths + begin life with three segments, a feature they share with such + widely-differing groups as the Brachiopoda, the Echinoderma and the + Enteropneusta, and probably Vertebrata generally. + + See O. Hertwig, _Die Chaetognathen, eine Monographie_ (Jena, 1880); + B.J. Grassi, _Chetognathi: Flora u. Fauna d. Golfes von Neapel_ + (1883); S. Strodtman, _Arch. Naturg._ lviii., 1892; N.M. Stevens, + _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xviii., 1903, and xxi., 1905. (A. E. S.) + + + + +CHAETOPODA (Gr. [Greek: chaitê], hair, [Greek: pous], foot), a +zoological class, including the majority of the Annelida (q.v.), and +indeed, save for the Echiuroidea (q.v.), co-extensive with that group as +usually accepted. They are divisible into the Haplodrili (q.v.) or +Archiannelida, the Polychaeta containing the marine worms, the +Oligochaeta or terrestrial and fresh-water annelids (see EARTHWORM), the +Hirudinea or leeches (see LEECH), and a small group of parasitic worms, +the Myzostomida (q.v.). + +The distinctive characters of the class Chaetopoda as a whole are partly +embodied in the name. They possess (save for certain Archiannelida, most +Hirudinea, and other very rare exceptions) setae or chaetae implanted in +epidermal pits. The setae are implanted metamerically in accordance with +the metamerism of the body, which consists of a prostomium followed by a +number of segments. The number of segments in an individual is +frequently more or less definite. The anterior end of body always shows +some "cephalization." The internal organs are largely repeated +metamerically, in correspondence with the external metamerism. Thus the +body cavity is divided into a sequence of chambers by transverse septa; +and even among the Hirudinea, where this condition is usually not to be +observed, there is embryological evidence that the existing state of +affairs is derived from this. Commonly the nephridia are strictly paired +a single pair to each segment, while the branches of the blood vascular +system are similarly metameric. The alimentary canal is nearly always a +straight tube running from the mouth, which is surrounded by the first +segment of the body and overhung by the prostomium, to the anus, which +is then either surrounded by the last segment of the body or opens +dorsally a little way in front of this. + +THE CLASS AS A WHOLE.--The Chaetopoda are with but few exceptions +(Myzostomida in part, _Sternaspis_) elongated worms, flattened or, more +usually, cylindrical, and bilaterally symmetrical. The body consists of +a number of exactly similar or closely similar segments, which are never +fused and metamorphosed, as in the Arthropoda, to form specialized +regions of the body. It is, however, always possible to recognize a +head, which consists at least of the peristomial segment with a forward +projection of the same, the prostomium. A thorax also is sometimes to be +distinguished from an abdomen. Where locomotive appendages (the +parapodia of the Polychaeta) exist, they are never jointed, as always in +the Arthropoda; nor are they modified anteriorly to form jaws, as in +that group. + +[Illustration: FIG 1.--A, side view of the head region of _Nereis +cultrifera_; B, dorsal view of the same. + + E, Eye. + M, Mouth. + d.c, Dorcal cirrus. + per, Peristomium, probably equal to two segments, + per.c, Peristomial cirri. + pl, Prostomial palp. + pp, Parapodium. + pr, Prostomium. + pr.t, Prostomial tentacle. + t.s, Trunk segment. + v.c, Ventral cirrus.] + + The prostomium overhangs the mouth, and is often of considerable size + and, as a rule, quite distinct from the segment following, being + separated by an external groove, and containing, at least temporarily, + the brain, which always arises there. Its cavity also is at first + independent of the coelom though later invaded by the latter. In any + case the cavity of the prostomium is single, and not formed, as is the + cavity of the segments of the body, by paired coelomic chambers. It + has, however, been alleged that this cavity is formed by a pair of + mesoblastic somites (N. Kleinenberg), in which case there is more + reason for favouring the view that would assign an equality between + the prostomium and the (in that case) other segments of the body. The + peculiar prostomium of _Tomopteris_ is described below. The body wall + of the Chaetopoda consists of a "dermo-muscular" tube which is + separated from the gut by the coelom and its peritoneal walls, except + in most leeches. A single layer of epidermic cells, some of which are + glandular, forms the outer layer. Rarely are these ciliated, and then + only in limited tracts. They secrete a cuticle which never approaches + in thickness the often calcified cuticle of Arthropods. Below this is + a circular, and below that again a longitudinal, layer of muscle + fibres. These muscles are not striated, as they are in the Arthropoda. + + _Setae_.--These chitinous, rod-like, rarely squat and then hook-like + structures are found in the majority of the Chaetopoda, being absent + only in certain Archiannelida, most leeches, and a very few + Oligochaeta. They exist in the Brachiopoda (which are probably not + unrelated to the Chaetopoda), but otherwise are absolutely distinctive + of the Chaetopods. The setae are invariably formed each within an + epidermic cell, and they are sheathed in involutions of the epidermis. + Their shape and size varies greatly and is often of use in + classification. The setae are organs of locomotion, though their large + size and occasionally jagged edges in some of the Polychaeta suggest + an aggressive function. They are disposed in two groups on either + side, corresponding in the Polychaeta to the parapodia; the two + bundles are commonly reduced among the earthworms to two pairs of + setae or even to a single seta. On the other hand, in certain + Polychaeta the bundles of setae are so extensive that they nearly form + a complete circle surrounding the body; and in the Oligochaet genus + _Perichaeta_ (= _Pheretima_), and some allies, there is actually a + complete circle of setae in each segment broken only by minute gaps, + one dorsal, the other ventral. + + _Coelom_.--The Chaetopoda are characterized by a spacious coelom, + which is divided into a series of chambers in accordance with the + general metamerism of the body. This is the typical arrangement, which + is exhibited in the majority of the Polychaeta and Oligochaeta; in + these the successive chambers of the coelom are separated by the + intersegmental septa, sheets of muscle fibres extending from the body + wall to the gut and thus forming partitions across the body. The + successive cavities are not, however, completely closed from each + other; there is some communication between adjoining segments, and the + septa are sometimes deficient here and there. Thus in the Chaetopoda + the perivisceral cavity is coelomic; in this respect the group + contrasts with the Arthropoda and Molluscs, where the perivisceral + cavity is, mainly at least, part of the vascular or haemal system, and + agrees with the Vertebrata. The coelom is lined throughout by cells, + which upon the intestine become large and loaded with excretory + granules, and are known as chloragogen cells. Several forms of cells + float freely in the fluid of the coelom. In another sense also the + coelom is not a closed cavity, for it communicates in several ways + with the external medium. Thus, among the Oligochaeta there are often + a series of dorsal pores, or a single head pore, present also among + the Polychaeta (in _Ammochares_). In these and other Chaetopods the + coelom is also put into indirect relations with the outside world by + the nephridia and by the gonad ducts. In these features, and in the + fact that the gonads are local proliferations of the coelomic + epithelium, which have undergone no further changes in the simpler + forms, the coelom of this group shows in a particularly clear fashion + the general characters of the coelom in the higher Metazoa. It has + been indeed largely upon the conditions characterizing the Chaetopoda + that the conception of the coelom in the Coelomocoela has been based. + + Among the simpler Chaetopoda the coelom retains the character of a + series of paired chambers, showing the above relations to the exterior + and to the gonads. There are, however, further complications in some + forms. Especially are these to be seen in the more modified + Oligochaeta and in the much more modified Hirudinea. In the + Polychaeta, which are to be regarded as structurally simpler forms + than the two groups just referred to, there is but little subdivision + of the coelom of the segments, indeed a tendency in the reverse + direction, owing to the suppression of septa. Among the Oligochaeta + the dorsal vessel in _Dinodrilus_ and _Megascolides_ is enclosed in a + separate coelomic chamber which may or may not communicate with the + main coelomic cavity. To this pericardial coelom is frequently added a + gonocoel enclosing the gonads and the funnels of their ducts. This + condition is more fully dealt with below in the description of the + Oligochaeta. The division and, indeed, partial suppression of the + coelom culminates in the leeches, which in this, as in some other + respects, are the most modified of Annelids. + + _Nervous System._--In all Chaetopods this system consists of cerebral + ganglia connected by a circumoesophageal commissure with a ventral + ganglionated cord. The plan of the central nervous system is therefore + that of the Arthropoda. Among the Archiannelida, in _Aeolosoma_ and + some Polychaetes, the whole central nervous system remains imbedded in + the epidermis. In others, it lies in the coelom, often surrounded by a + special and occasionally rather thick sheath. The cerebral ganglia + constitute an archicerebrum for the most part, there being no evidence + that, as in the Arthropoda, a movement forward of post-oral ganglia + has taken place. In the leeches, however, there seems to be the + commencement of the formation of a syncerebrum. In the latter, the + segmentally arranged ganglia are more sharply marked off from the + connectives than in other Chaetopods, where nerve cells exist along + the whole ventral chain, though more numerous in segmentally disposed + swellings. + + _Vascular System._--In addition to the coelom, another system of + fluid-holding spaces lies between the body wall and the gut in the + Chaetopoda. This is the vascular or haemal system (formerly and + unnecessarily termed pseudhaemal). With a few exceptions among the + Polychaeta the vascular system is always present among the Chaetopoda, + and always consists of a system of vessels with definite walls, which + rarely communicate with the coelom. It is in fact typically a closed + system. The larger trunks open into each other either directly by + cross branches, or a capillary system is formed. There are no lacunar + blood spaces with ill-defined or absent walls except for a sinus + surrounding the intestine, which is at least frequently present. The + principal trunks consist of a dorsal vessel lying above the gut, and a + ventral vessel below the gut but above the nervous cord. These two + vessels in the Oligochaeta are united in the anterior region of the + body by a smaller or greater number of branches which surround the + oesophagus and are, some of them at least, contractile and in that + case wider than the rest. The dorsal vessel also communicates with the + ventral vessel indirectly by the intestinal sinus, which gives off + branches to both the longitudinal trunks, and by tegementary vessels + and capillaries which supply the skin and the nephridia. In the + smaller and simpler forms the capillary networks are much reduced, but + the dorsal and ventral vessels are usually present. The former, + however, is frequently developed only in the anterior region of the + body where it emerges from the peri-intestinal blood sinus. On the + other hand, additional longitudinal trunks are sometimes developed, + the chief one of which is a supra-intestinal vessel lying below the + dorsal vessel and closely adherent to the walls of the oesophagus in + which region it appears. The capillaries sometimes (in many leeches + and Oligochaeta) extend into the epidermis itself. Usually they do not + extend outwards of the muscular layers of the body wall. The main + trunks of the vascular system often possess valves at the origin of + branches which regulate the direction of the blood flow. Among many + Oligochaeta the dorsal blood-vessel is partly or entirely a double + tube, which is a retention of a character shown by F. Vezhdovský to + exist in the embryo of certain forms. The blood in the Chaetopoda + consists of a plasma in which float a few corpuscles. The plasma is + coloured red by haemoglobin: it is sometimes (in _Sabella_ and a few + other Polychaeta) green, which tint is due to another respiratory + pigment. The plasma may be pink (_Magelona_) or yellow (_Aphrodite_) + in which cases the colour is owing to another pigment. In _Aeolosoma_ + it is usually colourless. The vascular system is in the majority of + Chaetopods a closed system. It has been asserted (and denied) that the + cellular rod which is known as the "Heart-body" (_Herzkorper_), and is + to be found in the dorsal vessel of many Oligochaeta and Polychaeta, + is formed of cells which are continuous with the chloragogen cells, + thus implying the existence of apertures of communication with the + coelom. The statement has been often made and denied, but it now seems + to have been placed on a firm basis (E.S. Goodrich), that among the + Hirudinea the coelom, which is largely broken up into narrow tubes, + may be confluent with the tubes of the vascular system. This state of + affairs has no antecedent improbability about it, since in the + Vertebrata the coelom is unquestionably confluent with the haemal + system through the lymphatic vessels. Finally, there are certain + Polychaeta, _e g._ the _Capitellidae_, in which the vascular system + has vanished altogether, leaving a coelom containing + haemoglobin-impregnated corpuscles. It has been suggested (E. Ray + Lankester) that this condition has been arrived at through some such + intermediate stage as that offered by Polychaet _Magelona_. In this + worm the ventral blood-vessel is so swollen as to occupy nearly the + whole of the available coelom. Carry the process but a little farther + and the coelom disappears and its place is taken by a blood space or + haemocoel. It has been held that the condition shown in certain + leeches tend to prove that the coelom and haemocoel are primitively + one series of spaces which have been gradually differentiated. The + facts of development, however, prove their distinctness, though those + same facts do not speak clearly as to the true nature of the blood + system. One view of the origin of the latter (largely based upon + observations upon the development of _Polygordius_) sees in the blood + system a persistent blastocoel. F. Vezhdovský has lately seen reasons + for regarding the blood system as originating entirely from the + hypoblast by the secretion of fluid, the blood, from particular + intestinal cells and the consequent formation of spaces through + pressure, which become lined with these cells. + + _Nephridia and Coelomoducts_.--The name "Nephridium" was originally + given by Sir E. Ray Lankester to the members of a series of tubes, + proved in some cases to be excretory in nature, which exist typically + to the number of a single pair in most of the segments of the + Chaetopod body, and open each by a ciliated orifice into the coelom on + the one hand, and by a pore on to the exterior of the body on the + other. In its earlier conception, this view embraced as homologous + organs (so far as the present group is concerned) not only the + nephridia of Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, which are obviously closely + similar, but the wide tubes with an intercellular lumen and large + funnels of certain Polychaeta, and (though with less assurance) the + gonad ducts in Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. The function of nitrogenous + excretion was not therefore a necessary part of the view--though it + may be pointed out that there are grounds for believing that the gonad + ducts are to some extent also organs of excretion (see below). Later, + the investigations of E. Meyer and E.S. Goodrich, endorsed by + Lankester, led to the opinion that under the general morphological + conception of "nephridium" were included two distinct sets of organs, + viz. nephridia and coelomoducts. The former (represented by, e.g. the + "segmental organs" of _Lumbricus_) have been asserted to be + "ultimately, though not always, actually traceable to the ectoderm"; + the latter (represented by, e.g. the oviduct of _Lumbricus_) are parts + of the coelomic wall itself, which have grown out to the exterior. The + nephridia, in fact, on this view, are _ectodermic ingrowths_, the + coelomoducts _coelomic outgrowths_. The cavity of the former has + nothing to do with coelom. The cavity of the latter is coelom. + + The embryological facts upon which this view has been based, however, + have been differently interpreted. According to C.O. Whitman the + entire nephridial system (in the leech _Clepsine_) is formed by the + differentiation of a continuous epiblastic band on each side. The + exact opposite is maintained by R.S. Bergh (for _Lumbricus_ and + _Criodrilus_), whose figures show a derivation of the entire + nephridium from mesoblast, and an absence of any connexion between + successive nephridia by any continuous band, epiblastic or + mesoblastic. A midway position is taken up by Wilson, who asserts the + mesoblastic formation of the funnel, but also asserts the presence of + a continuous band of epiblast from which certainly the terminal + vesicle of the nephridium, and doubtfully the glandular part of the + tube is derived. Vezhdovský's figures of _Rhynchelmis_ agree with + those of Bergh in showing the backward growth of the nephridium from + the funnel cell. There are thus substantial reasons for believing that + the nephridium grows backwards from a funnel as does the coelomoduct. + It is therefore by no means certain that so profound a difference + embryologically can be asserted to exist between the excretory + nephridia and the ducts leading from the coelom to the exterior, which + are usually associated with the extrusion of the genital products + among the Chaetopoda. + + There are, however, anatomical and histological differences to be seen + at any rate at the extremes between the undoubted nephridia of + Goodrich, Meyer and Lankester, and the coelomoducts of the same + authors. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2. (from Goodrich). + + A, Diagram of the nephridium of _Nereis diversicolor_. + B, Diagram of the nephridium of _Alciope_, into which opens the large + genital funnel (coelomostome). + C, Small portion of the nephridium of _Glycera siphonostoma_, showing + the canal cut through, and the solenocytes on the outer surface. + D, Optical section of a branch of the nephridium of _Nephthys + scolopendroides_. + c.s, Cut surface. + cst, Coelomostome. + f, Flagellum. + g.f, Genital funnel. + n, Neck of solenocyte. + n.c, Nephridial canal. + n.p, Nephridiopore. + nst, Nephridiostome. + nu, Nucleus of solenocyte. + s, Solenocytes. + t, Tube.] + + I. _Nephridia_.--Excretory organs which are undisputed nephridia are + practically universal among the Oligochaeta, Hirudinea and + Archiannelida, and occur in many Polychaeta. Their total absence has + been asserted definitely only in _Paranais littoralis_. Usually these + organs are present to the number of a single pair per somite, and are + commonly present in the majority of the segments of the body, failing + often among the Oligochaeta in a varying number of the anterior + segments. They are considerably reduced in number in certain + Polychaeta. Essentially, a nephridium is a tube, generally very long + and much folded upon itself, composed of a string of cells placed end + to end in which the continuous lumen is excavated. Such cells are + termed "drain pipe" cells. Frequently the lumen is branched and may + form a complicated anastomosing network in these cells. Externally, + the nephridium opens by a straight part of the tube, which is often + very wide, and here the intracellular lumen becomes intercellular. + Rarely the nephridium does not communicate with the coelom; in such + cases the nephridium ends in a single cell, like the "flame cell" of a + Platyhelminth worm, in which there is a lumen blocked at the coelomic + end by a tuft of fine cilia projecting into the lumen. This is so with + _Aeolosoma_ (Vezhdovský). The condition is interesting as a + persistence of the conditions obtaining in the provisional nephridia + of e.g. _Rhynchelmis_, which afterwards become by an enlargement and + opening up of the funnel the permanent nephridia of the adult worm. In + some Polychaets (e.g. _Glycera_, see fig. 2) there are many of these + flame cells to a single nephridium which are specialized in form, and + have been termed "solenocytes" (Goodrich). They are repeated in + _Polygordius_, and are exactly to be compared with similarly-placed + cells in the nephridia of _Amphioxus_. + + More usually, and indeed in nearly every other case among the + Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, the coelomic aperture of the nephridium + consists of several cells, ciliated like the nephridium itself for a + greater or less extent, forming a funnel. The funnel varies greatly in + size and number of its component cells. There are so many differences + of detail that no line can be drawn between the one-celled funnel of + _Aeolosoma_ and the extraordinarily large and folded funnel of the + posterior nephridia in the Oligochaete _Thamnodrilus_. In the + last-mentioned worm the funnels of the anterior nephridia are small + and but few celled; it is only the nephridia in and behind the 17th + segment of the body which are particularly large and with a sinuous + margin, which recall the funnels of the gonad ducts (i.e. + coelomoducts). + + Among the Polychaeta the nephridium of _Nereis_ (see fig. 2) is like + that of the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in that the coiled glandular + tube has an intracellular duct which is ciliated in the same way in + parts. The Polychaeta, however, present us with another form of + nephridium seen, for example, in _Arenicola_, where a large funnel + leads into a short and wide excretory tube whose lumen is + intercellular. In the young stages of this worm which have been + investigated by W.B. Benham, the tube, though smaller, and with a but + little pronounced funnel, has still an intercellular duct. That these + organs in Polychaeta serve for the removal of the generative products + to the exterior is proved not only by the correspondence in number to + them of the gonads, but by actual observation of the generative + products in transit. This form of nephridia leads to the shorter but + essentially similar organs in the Polychaete _Sternaspis_, and to + those of the Echiuroidea (q.v.) and of the Gephyrea (q.v.). + + Though the paired arrangement of the nephridia is the prevalent one in + the Chaetopoda, there are many examples, among the Oligochaeta, of + species and genera in which there are several, even many, nephridia in + each segment of the body, which may or may not be connected among + themselves, but have in any case separate orifices on to the exterior. + + 2. _Coelomoducis._--In this category are included (by Goodrich and + Lankester) the gonad ducts of the Oligochaeta, certain funnels without + any aperture to the exterior that have been detected in _Nereis_, &c., + funnels with wide and short ducts attached to nephridia in other + Polychaeta, gonad ducts in the _Capitellidae_, the gonad ducts of the + leeches. In all these cases we have a duct which has a usually wide, + always intercellular, lumen, generally, if not always, ciliated, which + opens directly into the coelom on the one hand and on to the exterior + of the body on the other. These characters are plain in all the cases + cited, excepting only the leeches which will be considered separately. + + There is not a great deal of difference between most of these + structures and true nephridia. It is not clear, for example, to which + category it is necessary to refer the excretory organs of _Arenicola_, + or _Polynoe_. Both series of organs consist essentially of a ciliated + tube leading from the coelom to the exterior. Both series of organs + grow back centrifugally from the funnel. In both the cavity originally + or immediately continuous with the coelom appears first in the funnel + and grows backwards. In some cases, e.g. oviducts of Oligochaeta, + sperm ducts of _Phreoryctes_, the coelomoducts occupy, like the + nephridia, two segments, the funnel opening into that in front of the + segment which carries the external pore. It is by no means certain + that a hard and fast line can be drawn between intra- and + intercellular lumina. Finally, in function there are some points of + likeness. The gonad ducts of _Lumbricus_, &c., must perform one + function of nephridia; they must convey to the exterior some of the + coelomic fluid with its disintegrated products of waste. There is no + possibility that sperm and ova can escape by these tubes not in + company with coelomic fluid. In the case of many Oligochaeta where + there is no vascular network surrounding the nephridium, this function + must be the chief one of those glands, the more elaborate process of + excretion taking place in the case of nephridia surrounded by a rich + plexus of blood capillaries. A consideration of the mode of + development and appearance of the coelomoducts that have thus far been + enumerated (with the possible exception of those of the leeches) seems + to show that there is a distinct though varying relation between them + and the nephridia. It has been shown that in _Tubifex_, and some other + aquatic Oligochaeta, the genital segments are at first provided with + nephridia, and that these disappear on the appearance of the + generative ducts, which are coelomoducts. In _Lumbricus_ the connexion + is a little closer; the funnel of the nephridium, in the segments in + which the funnels of the gonad ducts are to be developed, persists and + is continuous with the gonad duct funnels on their first appearance. + In the development of the Acanthodrilid earthworm _Octochaetus_ (F.E. + Beddard) the funnels of the pronephridia disappear except in the + genital segments, where they seem to be actually converted into the + genital funnels. At the least there is no doubt that the genital + funnels are developed precisely where the nephridial funnels formerly + existed. If the genital funnels are not wholly or partly formed out of + the nephridial funnels they have replaced them. In the genital + segments of _Eudrilus_ the nephridia are present, but the funnels have + not been found though they are obvious in other segments. Here also + the genital funnels have either replaced or been formed out of + nephridial funnels. In _Haplotaxis heterogyne_ (W.B. Benham) the + sperm ducts are hardly to be distinguished from nephridia; they are + sinuous tubes with an intra-cellular duct. But the funnel is large and + thus differs from the funnels of the nephridia in adjoining segments. + Here again the nephridial funnel seems to have been converted into or + certainly replaced by a secondarily developed funnel. This example is + similar to cases among the Polychaeta where a true nephridium is + provided with a large funnel, coelomostome, according to the + nomenclature of Lankester. The whole organ, having, as is thought but + not known, this double origin, is termed a nephromixium. The various + facts, however, seem to be susceptible of another interpretation. It + may be pointed out that the several examples described recall a + phenomenon which is not uncommon and is well known to anatomists. That + is the replacement of an organ by, sometimes coupled with its partial + conversion into, a similar or slightly different organ performing the + same or an analogous function. Thus the postcaval vein of the higher + vertebrata is partly a new structure altogether, and is partly formed + out of the pre-existing posterior cardinals. The more complete + replacements, such as the nephridia of the genital segment of + _Tubifex_ by a subsequently formed genital duct, may be compared with + the succession of the nesonephros to the pronephros in vertebrates, + and of the metanephros to the mesonephros in the higher vertebrates. + It might be well to term these structures, mostly serving as gonad + ducts, which have an undoubted resemblance to nephridia, and for the + most part an undoubted connexion with nephridia, "Nephrodinia," to + distinguish them from another category of "ducts" which are + communications between the coelom and the exterior, and which have no + relation whatever to nephridia or to the organs just discussed. For + these latter, the term coelomoducts might well be reserved. To this + category belong certain sacs and pouches in many, perhaps most, genera + of the Oligochaeta family, _Eudrilidae_, and possibly the gonad ducts + in the Hirudinea. As an example of the former it has been shown + (Beddard) that a large median sac in _Lybiodrilus_ is at first freely + open to the coelom, that it later becomes shut off from the same, that + it then acquires an external orifice, and, finally, that it encloses + the ovary or ovaries, between which and the exterior a passage is thus + effected. To this category will belong the oviducts in Teleostean + fishes and probably the gonad ducts in several groups of + invertebrates. + +POLYCHAETA.--This group may be thus defined and the definition +contrasted and compared with those of the other divisions of the +Chaetopoda. Setae always present and often very large, much varied in +form and very numerous, borne by the dorsal and ventral parapodia (when +present). The prostomium and the segments generally often bear processes +sensory and branchial. Eyes often present and comparatively complicated +in structure. Clitellum not present as a definite organ, as in +Oligochaeta. The anus is mostly terminal, and there are no anterior and +posterior suckers. Nervous system often imbedded in the epidermis. +Vascular system generally present forming a closed system of tubes. +Alimentary canal rarely coiled, occasionally with glands which are +simple caeca and sometimes serve as air reservoirs; jaws often present +and an eversible pharynx. Nephridia sometimes of the type of those of +the Oligochaeta; in other cases short, wide tubes with a large funnel +serving also entirely or in part as gonad ducts. Frequently reduced in +number of pairs; rarely (_Capitellidae_) more than one pair per segment. +Gonads not so restricted in position as in Oligochaets, and often more +abundant; the individuals usually unisexual. No specialized system of +spermathecae, sperm reservoirs, and copulatory apparatus, as in +Oligochaeta; development generally through a larval form; reproduction +by budding also occurs. Marine (rarely fresh-water) in habit. + +The Polychaeta contrast with the Oligochaeta by the great variety of +outward form and by the frequency of specialization of different regions +of the body. The head is always recognizable and much more conspicuous +than in other Chaetopoda. As in the Oligochaeta the peristomial segment +is often without setae, but this character is not by any means so +constant as in the Oligochaeta. The prostomium bears often processes, +both dorsal and ventral, which in the Sabellids are split into the +circle of branchial plumes, which surround or nearly surround the mouth +in those tube-dwelling Annelids. _Tomopteris_ is remarkable for the fact +that the hammer-shaped prostomium has paired ventral processes each with +a single seta. It is held, however, that these are a pair of parapodia +which have shifted forwards. The presence of parapodia distinguish this +from other groups of Chaetopoda. Typically, the parapodium consists of +two processes of the body on each side, each of which bears a bundle of +setae; these two divisions of the "limb" are termed respectively +notopodium and neuropodium. The notopodium may be rudimentary or absent +and the entire parapodium reduced to the merest ridge or even completely +unrepresented. Naturally, it is among the free living forms that the +parapodium is best developed, and least developed among the tubicolous +Polychaeta. To each division of the parapodium belongs typically a long +tentacle, the cirrus, which may be defective upon one or other of the +notopodium or neuropodium, and may be developed into an arborescent gill +or into a flat scale-like process, the elytron (in _Polynoe_, &c.). +There are other gills developed in addition to those which represent the +cirri. + + _Setae_.--The setae of the Polychaeta are disposed in two bundles in + many genera, but in only one bundle in such forms as have no + notopodium (e.g. _Syllis_). In some genera the setae are in vertical + rows, and in certain _Capitellidae_ these rows so nearly meet that an + arrangement occurs reminiscent of the continuous circle of setae in + the perichaetous Oligochaeta. The setae vary much in form and are + often longer and stronger than in the Oligochaetes. Jointed setae and + very short hooks or "uncini" (see fig. 3) are among the most + remarkable forms. Simple bifid setae, such as those of Oligochaetes, + are also present in certain forms. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3.--a, Bristle of _Pionosyllis Malmgreni_; b, Hook + of _Terebella_.] + + Among the burrowing and tubicolous forms it is not uncommon for the + body to be distinguishable into two or more regions; a "thorax," for + example, is sharply marked off from an "abdomen" in the Sabellids. In + these forms the bundles of setae are either capilliform or uncinate, + and the dorsal setae of the thorax are like the ventral setae of the + abdomen. It is a remarkable and newly-ascertained fact that in + regeneration (in _Potamilla_) the thorax is not replaced by the growth + of uninjured thoracic segments; but that the anterior segments of the + abdomen take on the same characters, the setae dropping out and being + replaced in accordance with the plan of the setae in the thorax of + uninjured worms. Among the Oligochaeta the sexually mature worm is + distinguished from the immature worm by the clitellum and by the + development of genital setae. Among the Polychaeta the sexual worm is + often more marked from the asexual form, so much so that these latter + have been placed in different species or even genera. The alteration + in form does not only affect structures used in generation; but the + form of the parapodia, &c., alter. There are even dimorphic forms + among the Syllids where the sexes are, as in many Polychaets, + separate. + + _Nephridia_.--The nephridia of the Polychaeta have been generally + dealt with above in considering the nephridial system of the + Chaetopoda as a whole. They contrast with those of the Oligochaeta and + Hirudinea by reason of their frequently close association with the + gonads, the same organ sometimes serving the two functions of + excretion and conveyance of the ova and spermatozoa out of the body. + On the hypothesis that such a form as _Dinophilus_ (see Haplodrili) + has preserved the characters of the primitive Chaetopod more nearly + than any existing Polychaet or Oligochaet, it is clear that the + nephridia in the Oligochaeta have preserved the original features of + those organs more nearly than most Polychaeta. Thus _Nereis_ among the + latter worms, from the resemblance which its excretory system bears to + that of the Oligochaeta, may be made the starting-point of a series. + In this worm the paired nephridia exist in most of the segments of the + body, and their form (see fig. 2) is much like that of the nephridia + in the _Enchytraeidae_. The funnel, which is not large, appears to + open, as a rule at least, into the segment in front of that which + bears the external orifice. Quite independent of these are certain + large dorsally situate funnel-like folds of the coelomic epithelium, + ciliated, but of which no duct has been discovered leading to the + exterior. It is possible that we have here gonad ducts distinct from + nephridia which at the time of sexual maturity do open on to the + exterior. + + In _Polynoe_ the nephridia are short tubes with a slightly folded + funnel whose lumen is intercellular, and this intercellular lumen is + characteristic of the Polychaetes as contrasted with leeches and + Oligochaetes. Among the Terebelloidea there is a remarkable + differentiation of the nephridia into two series. One set lies in + front of the diaphragm, which is the most anterior and complete + septum, the rest having disappeared or being much less developed. The + anterior nephridia, of which there are one to three pairs, contrast + with the posterior series by their small funnels and large size, the + posterior nephridia having a large funnel followed by a short tube. In + _Chaetozone setosa_ the anterior nephridia occupy five segments. There + is usually a gap between the two series, several segments being + without nephridia. It seems that the posterior nephridia are mainly + gonad ducts, and the gonads are developed in close association with + the funnels. The same arrangement is found in some other Polychaetes; + for instance, in _Sabellaria_ there is a single pair of large anterior + nephridia, which open by a common pore, followed after an interval by + large-funnelled and short nephridia. This differentiation is not, + however, peculiar to the Polychaetes; for in several Oligochaetes the + anterior nephridia are of large size, and opening as they do into the + buccal cavity clearly play a different function to those which follow. + In _Thamnodrilus_, as has been pointed out, there are two series of + nephridia which resemble those of the Terebelloidea in the different + sizes of their funnels. In _Lanice conchilega_ the posterior series of + nephridia are connected by a thick longitudinal duct, which seems to + be seen in its most reduced form in _Owenia_, where a duct on each + side runs in the epidermis, being in parts a groove, and receives one + short tubular nephridium only and occupies only one segment. This + connexion of successive nephridia (in _Lanice_) has its counterpart in + _Allolobophora, Lybiodrilus_, and apparently in the Lumbriculids + _Teleuscolex_ and _Styloscolex_, among the Oligochaeta. Among the + _Capitellidae_, which in several respects resemble the Oligochaeta, + wide and short gonad ducts coexist in the same segments with + nephridia, the latter being narrower and longer. It is noteworthy that + in this family only among the Polychaeta, the nephridia are not + restricted to a single pair in each segment; so that the older view + that the gonad ducts are metamorphosed nephridia is not at variance + with the anatomical facts which have been just stated. + + _Alimentary Canal._--The alimentary canal of Polychaetes is usually a + straight tube running from the anterior mouth to the posterior anus. + But in some forms, e.g. _Sternaspis_, the gut is coiled. In others, + again, e.g. _Cobangia_, the anus is anterior and ventral. A gizzard is + present in a few forms. The buccal cavity is sometimes armed with + jaws. The oesophagus is provided often with caeca which in Syllids and + _Hesionidae_ have been found to contain air, and possibly therefore + perform the function of the fish's air-bladder. In other Polychaetes + one or more pairs of similar outgrowths are glandular. The intestine + is provided with numerous branched caeca in _Aphrodite_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Dasychone infracta_, Kr. (After Malmgren.)] + + _Reproduction._--As is the case with the Oligochaeta, the Polychaeta + furnish examples of species which multiply asexually by budding. There + is a further resemblance between the two orders of Chaetopoda in that + this budding is not a general phenomenon, but confined to a few forms + only. Budding, in fact, among the Polychaetes is limited to the family + _Syllidae_. In the Oligochaetes it is only the families + _Aeolosomatidae_ and _Naididae_ that show the same phenomenon. It has + been mentioned that in the Nereids a sexual form occurs which differs + structurally from the asexual worms, and was originally placed in a + separate genus, _Heteronereis_; hence the name "Heteronereid" for the + sexual worm. In _Syllis_ there is also a "Heterosyllid" form in which + the gonads are limited to a posterior region of the body which is + further marked off from the anterior non-sexual segments by the + oak-like setae. In some Syllids this posterior region separates off + from the rest, producing a new head; thus a process of fission occurs + which has been termed schizogamy. A similar life history distinguishes + certain Sabellid worms, e.g. _Filigrana_. Among the Syllids this + simple state of affairs is further complicated. In _Autolytus_ there + is, to begin with, a conversion of the posterior half of the body to + form a sexual zooid. But before this separates off a number of other + zooids are formed from a zone of budding which appears between the two + first-formed individuals. Ultimately, a chain of sexual zooids is thus + formed. A given stock only produces zooids of one sex. In _Myrianida_ + there is a further development of this process. The conversion of the + posterior end of the simple individual into a sexual region is + dispensed with; but from a preanal budding segment a series of sexual + buds are produced. The well-known Syllid, discovered during the voyage + of the "Challenger," shows a modification of this form of budding. + Here, however, the buds are lateral, though produced from a budding + zone, and they themselves produce other buds, so that a ramifying + colony is created. + + Quite recently, another mode of budding has been described in + _Trypanosyllis gemmipara_, where a crowd of some fifty buds arising + symmetrically are produced at the tail end of the worm. In some + Syllids, such as _Pionosyllis gestans_, the ova are attached to the + body of the parent in a regular line, and develop in situ; this + process, which has been attributed to budding, is an "external + gestation," and occurs in a number of species. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--A, _Autolytus_ (after Mensch) with numerous + buds. B, Portion of a colony of _Syllis ramosa_ (from M'Intosh). + _b.z_, Budding zone; p, anterior region of the parent worm; 1-5, + buds.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--A, Side view of the larva of _Lopadorhynchus_ + (from Kleinenberg), showing the developing trunk region. B, Side view + of the trochophore larva of _Eupomatus uncinatus_ (from Hatschek). + + A, Anus. + E, Eye. + M, Mouth. + ap, Apical organ. + h, "Head Kidney." + i, Intestine. + me, Mesoblast. + ms, Larval muscle. + o, Otocyst. + pp, Parapodium. + pr, Praeoral ciliated ring, or prototroch.] + + As is very frequently the case with marine forms, as compared with + their fresh-water and terrestrial allies, the Polychaeta differ from + the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in possessing a free living larval form + which is hatched at an early stage in development. This larva is + termed the Trochosphere larva, and typically (as it is held) is an + egg-shaped larva with two bands of cilia, one preoral and one + postoral, with an apical nervous plate surmounted by a tuft of longer + cilia, and with a simple bent alimentary canal, with lateral mouth and + posterior anus, between which and the ectoderm is a spacious cavity + (blastocoel) traversed by muscular strands and often containing a + larval kidney. The segmentation is of the mesoblast to begin with, + and appears later behind the mouth, the part anterior to this becoming + the prostomium of the adult. The chief modifications of this form are + seen in the _Mitraria_ larva of _Ammochares_ with only the preoral + band, which is much folded and which has provisional and long setae; + the atrochous larva, where the covering of cilia is uniform and not + split into bands; and the polytrochous larva where there are several + bands surrounding the body. There are also other modifications. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Nereis pelagica_, L. (After Oersted.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Sabella vesiculosa_, Mont. (After Montagu.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9. _Arenicola marina_, L.] + + _Classification_.--The older arrangement of the Polychaeta into + Errantia or free living and Tubicola or tube-dwelling forms will + hardly fit the much increased knowledge of the group. W.B. Benham's + division into Phanerocephala in which the prostomium is plain, and + Crytocephala in which the prostomium is hidden by the peristomium + adopted by Sedgwick, can only be justified by the character used; for + the Terebellids, though phanerocephalous, have many of the features of + the Sabellids. It is perhaps safer to subdivide the Order into 6 + Suborders (in the number of these following Benham, except in + combining the Sabelliformia and Hermelliformia). Of these 6, the two + first to be considered are very plainly separable and represent the + extremes of Polychaete organization, (1) _Nereidiformia_.--"Errant" + Polychaetes with well-marked prostomium possessing tentacles and palps + with evident and locomotor parapodia, supported (with few exceptions) + by strong spines, the aciculi; muscular pharynx usually armed with + jaws; septa and nephridia regularly metameric and similar throughout + body; free living and predaceous. (2) _Cryptocephala_.--Tube-dwelling + with body divided into thorax and abdomen marked by the setae, which + are reversed in position in the neuropodium and notopodium + respectively in the two regions. Parapodia hardly projecting; palps of + prosomium forming branched gills; no pharynx or eversible buccal + region; no septa in thorax, septa in abdomen regularly disposed. + Nephridia in two series; large, anterior nephridia followed by small, + short tubes in abdomen. The remaining groups are harder to define, + with the exception of the (3) _Capitelliformia_, which are mud-living + worms of an "oligochaetous" appearance, and with some affinities to + that order. The peristomium has no setae, and the setae generally are + hair-like or uncinate, often forming almost complete rings. The + genital ducts are limited to one segment (the 8th in _Capitella + capitata_), and there are genital setae on this and the next segment. + In other forms genital ducts and nephridia coexist in the same + segment. The nephridia are sometimes numerous in each segment. There + is no blood system, and the coelomic corpuscles contain haemoglobin. + (4) _Terebelliformia_. These worms are in some respects like the + Sabellids (Cryptocephala). The parapodia, as in the Capitellidae, are + hardly developed. The buccal region is unarmed and not eversible. The + prostomium has many long filaments which recall the gills of the + Sabellids, &c. The nephridia are specialized into two series, as in + the last-mentioned worms. (5) _Spioniformia_ (including + _Chaetopterus_, _Spio_, &c.) and (6) _Scoleciformia_ (_Arenicola_, + _Chloraema_, _Sternaspis_) are the remaining groups. In both, the + nephridia are all alike; there are no jaws; the prostomium rarely has + processes. The body is often divisible into regions. + + LITERATURE.--W.B. Benham, "Polychaeta" in _Cambridge Natural History_; + E. Claparède, _Annélides chétopodes du golfe de Naples_ (1868 and + 1870); E. Ehlers, _Die Börstenwürmer_ (1868); H. Eisig, _Die + Capitelliden_ (Naples Monographs), and development of do. in _Mitth. + d. zool. Stat. Neapel_ (1898); W.C. M'Intosh, _"Challenger" Reports_ + (1885); E.R. Lankester, Introductory Chapter in _A Treatise on + Zoology_; E.S. Goodrich, _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ (1897-1900); E. + Meyer, _Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel_ (1887, 1888), as well as + numerous other memoirs by the above and by J.T. Cunningham, de St + Joseph, A. Malaquin, A. Agassiz, A.T. Watson, Malmgren, Bobretsky and + A.F. Marion, E.A. Andrews, L.C. Cosmovici, R. Horst, W. Michaelsen, G. + Gilson, F. Buchanan, H. Levinsen, Joyeux-Laffuie, F.W. Gamble, &c. + +OLIGOCHAETA.--As contrasted with the other subdivisions of the +Chaetopoda, the Oligochaeta may be thus defined. Setae very rarely +absent (genus _Achaeta_) and as a rule not so large or so numerous in +each segment as in the Polychaeta, and different in shape. Eyes rarely +present and then rudimentary. Prostomium generally small, sometimes +prolonged, but never bearing tentacles or processes. Appendages of body +reduced to branchiae, present only in four species, and to the ventral +copulatory appendages of _Alma_ and _Criodrilus_. Clitellum always +present, extending over two (many limicolous forms) to forty-five +segments (_Alma_). Segments of body numerous and not distinctive of +species, being irregular and not fixed in numbers. In terrestrial forms +dorsal pores are usually present; in aquatic forms a head pore only. +Anus nearly always terminal, rarely dorsal, at a little distance from +end of body. Suckers absent. Nervous system rarely (_Aeolosoma_) in +continuity with epidermis. Vascular system always present, forming a +closed system, more complicated in the larger forms than in the aquatic +genera. Several specially large contractile trunks in the anterior +segments uniting the dorsal and ventral vessels. Nephridia generally +paired, often very numerous in each segment, in the form of long, +much-coiled tubes with intracellular lumen. Gonads limited in number of +pairs, testes and ovaries always present in the same individual. Special +sacs developed from the intersegmental septa lodge the developing ova +and sperm. Special gonad ducts always present. Male ducts often open on +to exterior through a terminal chamber which is variously specialized, +and sometimes with a penis. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 10.--Diagrams of various Earthworms, to illustrate external +characters. A, B, C, anterior segments from the ventral surface; D, +hinder end of body of _Urochaeta_. + + A, _Lumbricus_: 9, 10, segments containing spermathecae, the orifices + of which are indicated; 14, segment bearing oviducal pores; 15, + segment bearing male pores; 32, 37, first and last segments of + clitellum. + + B, _Acanthodrilus_: cp, orifices of spermathecae; [Female], oviducal + pores; [Male], male pores; on 17th and 19th segments are the apertures + of the atria. + + C, _Perichaeta_: the spermathecal pores are between segments 6 and 7, + 7 and 8, 8 and 9, the oviducal pores upon the 14th and the male pores + upon the 18th segment. + + In all the figures the nephridial pores are indicated by dots and the + setae by strokes.] + +Generative pores usually paired, sometimes single and median. +Spermathecae nearly always present. Alimentary canal straight, often +with appended glands of complicated or simpler structure; no jaws. Eggs +deposited in a cocoon after copulation. Development direct. Reproduction +by budding also occurs. Fresh-water (rarely marine) and terrestrial. + +The Oligochaeta show a greater variety of size than any other group of +the Chaetopoda. They range from a millimetre or so (smaller species of +_Aeolosoma_) to 6 ft. or even rather more (_Microchaeta rappi_, &c.) in +length. + + _Setae._--The setae, which are always absent from the peristomial + segment, are also sometimes absent from a greater number of the + anterior segments of the body, and have completely disappeared in + _Achaeta cameranoi._ When present they are either arranged in four + bundles of from one to ten or even more setae, or are disposed in + continuous lines completely encircling each segment of the body. This + latter arrangement characterizes many genera of the family + _Megascolicidae_ and one genus (_Periscolex_) of the + _Glossoscolicidae._ It has been shown (Bourne) that the "perichaetous" + condition is probably secondary, inasmuch as in worms which are, when + adult, "perichaetous" the setae develop in pairs so that the embryo + passes through a stage in which it has four bundles of setae, two to + each bundle, the prevalent condition in the group. Rarely there is an + irregular disposition of the setae which are not paired, though the + total number is eight to a segment (fig. 10), e.g. _Pontoscolex._ The + varying forms of the setae are illustrated in fig. 11. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Setae of _Oligochaeta_. + + a, Penial seta of _Perichaeta ceylonica._ + b, Extremity of penial seta of _Acanthodrilus_ (after Horst). + c, Seta of _Urochaeta_ (Perier). + d, Seta of _Lumbricus._ + e, Seta of _Criodrilus._ + f, g, Setae of _Bohemilla comata._ + h, i, j, Setae of _Psammoryctes barbatus_ (f to j after Vezhdovský).] + + _Structure._--The body wall consists of an epidermis which secretes a + delicate cuticle and is only ciliated in _Aeolosoma_, and in that + genus only on the under surface of the prostomium. The epidermis + contains numerous groups of sense cells; beneath the epidermis there + is rarely (_Kynotus_) an extensive connective tissue dermis. Usually + the epidermis is immediately followed by the circular layer of + muscles, and this by the longitudinal coat. Beneath this again is a + distinct peritoneum lining the coelom, which appears to be wanting as + a special layer in some Polychaetes (Benham, Gilson). The muscular + layers are thinner in the aquatic forms, which possess only a single + row of longitudinal fibres, or (_Enchytracidae_) two layers. In the + earthworms, on the other hand, this coat is thick and composed of many + layers. + + The clitellum consists of a thickening of the epidermis, and is of two + forms among the Oligochaeta. In the aquatic genera the epidermis comes + to consist entirely of glandular cells, which are, however, arranged + in a single layer. In the earthworms, on the other hand, the epidermis + becomes specialized into several layers of cells, all of which are + glandular. It is therefore obviously much thicker than the clitellum + in the limicolous forms. The position of the clitellum, which is + universal in occurrence, varies much as does the number of component + segments. As a rule--to which, however, there are exceptions--the + clitellum consists of two or three segments only in the small aquatic + Oligochaeta, while in the terrestrial forms it is as a general rule, + to which again there are exceptions, a more extensive, sometimes much + more extensive, region. + + In the Oligochaeta there is a closer correspondence between external + metamerism and the divisions of the coelom than is apparent in some + Chaetopods. The external segments are usually definable by the setae; + and if the setae are absent, as in the anterior segments of several + _Geoscolicidae_, the nephridiopores indicate the segments; to each + segment corresponds internally a chamber of the coelom which is + separated from adjacent segments by transverse septa, which are only + unrecognizable in the genus _Aeolosoma_ and in the head region of + other Oligochaeta. In the latter case, the numerous bands of muscle + attaching the pharynx to the parietes have obliterated the regular + partition by means of septa. + + _Nephridia_.--The nephridia in this group are invariably coiled tubes + with an intracellular lumen and nearly invariably open into the coelom + by a funnel. There are no renal organs with a wide intercellular + lumen, such as occur in the Polychaeta, nor is there ever any + permanent association between nephridia and ducts connected with the + evacuation of the generative products, such as occur in _Alciope_, + _Saccocirrus_, &c. In these points the Oligochaeta agree with the + Hirudinea. They also agree in the general structure of the nephridia. + It has been ascertained that the nephridia of Oligochaeta are preceded + in the embryo by a pair of delicate and sinuous tubes, also found in + the Hirudinea and Polychaeta, which are larval excretory organs. It is + not quite certain whether these are to be regarded as the remnant of + an earlier excretory system, replaced among the Oligochaeta by the + subsequently developed paired structures, or whether these "head + kidneys" are the first pair of nephridia precociously developed. The + former view has been extensively held, and it is supported by the fact + that in _Octochaetus_ the first segment of the body has a pair of + nephridia which is exactly like those which follow, and, like them, + persists. On the other hand, in most Oligochaeta the first segment has + in the adult no nephridium, and in the case of _Octochaetus_ the + existence of a "head kidney" antedating the subsequently developed + nephridia of the first and other segments has neither been seen nor + proved to be absent. In any case the nephridia which occupy the + segments of the body generally are first of all represented by paired + structures, the "pronephridia," in which the funnel is composed of but + one cell, which is flagellate. This stage has at any rate been + observed in _Rhynchelmis_ and _Lumbricus_ (in its widest sense) by + Vezhdovský. It is further noticeable that in _Rhynchelmis_ the + covering of vesicular cells which clothes the drain-pipe cells of the + adult nephridium is cut off from the nephridial cells themselves and + is not a peritoneal layer surrounding the nephridium. Thus the + nephridia, in this case at least, are a part of the coelom and are not + shut off from it by a layer of peritoneum, as are other organs which + lie in it, e.g. the gut. A growth both of the funnel, which becomes + multicellular, and of the rest of the nephridium produces the adult + nephridia of the genera mentioned. The paired disposition of these + organs is the prevalent one among the Oligochaeta, and occurs in all + of twelve out of the thirteen families into which the group is + divided. + + Among the _Megascolicidae_, however, which in number of genera and + species nearly equals the remaining families taken together, another + form of the excretory system occurs. In the genera _Pheretima, + Megascolex_, _Dichogaster_, &c., each segment contains a large number + of nephridia, which, on account of the fact that they are necessarily + smaller than the paired nephridia of e.g. _Lumbricus_, have been + termed micronephridia, as opposed to meganephridia; there is, however, + no essential difference in structure, though micronephridia are not + uncommonly (e.g. _Megascolides_, _Octochaetus_) unprovided with + funnels. It is disputed whether these micronephridia are or are not + connected together in each segment and from segment to segment. In any + case they have been shown in three genera to develop by the growth and + splitting into a series of original paired pronephridia. A complex + network, however, does occur in _Lybiodrilus_ and certain other + _Eudrilidae_, where the paired nephridia possess ducts leading to the + exterior which ramify and anastomose on the thickness of the body + wall. The network is, however, of the duct of the nephridium, possibly + ectodermic in origin, and does not affect the glandular tubes which + remain undivided and with one coelomic funnel each. + + The Oligochaeta are the only Chaetopods in which undoubted nephridia + may possess a relationship with the alimentary canal. Thus, in + _Octochaetus multiporus_ a large nephridium opens anteriorly into the + buccal cavity, and numerous nephridia in the same worm evacuate their + contents into the rectum. The anteriorly-opening and usually very + large nephridia are not uncommon, and have been termed + "peptonephridia." + + _Gonads and Gonad Ducts_.--The Oligochaeta agree with the leeches and + differ from most Polychaeta in that they are hermaphrodite. There is + no exception to this generalization. The gonads are, moreover, limited + and fixed in numbers, and are practically invariably attached to the + intersegmental septa, usually to the front septum of a segment, more + rarely to the posterior septum. The prevalent number of testes is one + pair in the aquatic genera and two pairs in earthworms. But there are + exceptions; thus a species of _Lamprodrilus_ has four pairs of testes. + The ovaries are more usually one pair, but two are sometimes present. + The segments occupied by the gonads are fixed, and are for earthworms + invariably X, XI, or one of them for the testes, and XIII for the + ovaries The position varies in the aquatic Oligochaeta. The + Oligochaeta contrast with the Polychaeta in the general presence of + outgrowths of the septa in the genital segments, which are either + close to, or actually involve, the gonads, and into which may also + open the funnels of the gonad ducts. These sacs contain the developing + sperm cells or eggs, and are with very few exceptions universal in + the group. The testes are more commonly thus involved than are the + ovaries. It is indeed only among the _Eudrilidae_ that the enclosure + of the ovaries in septal sacs is at all general. Recently the same + thing has been recorded in a few species of _Pheretima_ (= + _Perichaeta_), but details are as yet wanting. We can thus speak in + these worms of _gonocoels_, i.e. coelomic cavities connected only with + the generative system. These cavities communicate with the exterior + through the gonad ducts, which have nothing to do with them, but whose + coelomic funnels are taken up by them in the course of their growth. + There are, however, in the _Eudrilidae_, as already mentioned, sacs + envolving the ovaries which bore their own way to the exterior, and + thus may be termed coelomoducts. These sacs are dealt with later under + the description of the spermathecae, which function they appear to + perform. The gonad ducts are male and female, and open opposite to or, + rarely, alongside of the gonads, whose products they convey to the + exterior. The oviducts are always short trumpet-shaped tubes and are + sometimes reduced (_Enchytraeidae_) to merely the external orifices. + It is possible, however, that those oviducts belong to a separate + morphological category, more comparable to the dorsal pores and to + abdominal pores in some fishes. The sperm ducts are usually longer + than the oviducts; but in Limicolae both series of tubes opening by + the funnel into one segment and on to the exterior in the following + segment. While the oviducts always open directly on to the exterior, + it is the rule for the sperm ducts to open on to the exterior near to + or through certain terminal chambers, which have been variously termed + atrium and prostate, or spermiducal gland. The distal extremity of + this apparatus is sometimes eversible as a penis. Associated with + these glands are frequently to be found bundles or pairs of long and + variously modified setae which are termed penial setae, to distinguish + them from other setae sometimes but not always associated with rather + similar glands which are found anteriorly to these, and often in the + immediate neighbourhood of the spermathecae; the latter are spoken of + as genital setae. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Female reproductive system of + _Heliodrilus_.--XI-XIV, eleventh to fourteenth segments, sperm, + spermatheca; sp.o, its external orifice; sp.sac, spermathecal sac; ov, + sac containing ovary; r.o, egg sac; od, oviduct.] + + _Spermathecae._--These structures appear to be absolutely distinctive + of the Oligochaeta, unless the sacs which contain sperm and open in + common with the nephridia of _Saccocirrus_ (see HAPLODRILI) are + similar. Spermathecae are generally present in the Oligochaeta and are + absent only in comparatively few genera and species. Their position + varies, but is constant for the species, and they are rarely found + behind the gonads. They are essentially spherical, pear-shaped or oval + sacs opening on to the exterior but closed at the coelomic end. In a + few _Enchytraeidae_ and _Lumbriculidae_ the spermathecae open at the + distal extremity into the oesophagus, which is a fact difficult of + explanation. Among the aquatic Oligochaeta and many earthworms (the + families _Lunibricidae_, _Geoscolicidae_ and a few other genera) the + spermathecae are simple structures, as has been described. In the + majority of the _Megascolicidae_ each sac is provided with one or more + diverticula, tubular or oval in form, of a slightly different + histological character in the lining epithelium, and in them is + invariably lodged the sperm. + + The spermathecae are usually paired structures, one pair to each of + the segments where they occur. In many _Geoscolicidae_, however, and + certain _Lumbricidae_ and _Perichaetidae_, there are several, even a + large number, of pairs of very small spermathecae to each of the + segments which contain them. + + In the _Eudrilidae_ there are spermathecae of different morphological + value. In figs. 12 and 13 are shown the spermathecae of the genera + _Hyperiodrilus_ and _Heliodrilus_, which are simple sacs ending + blindly as in other earthworms, but of which there is only one median + opening in the thirteenth segment or in the eleventh. In _Heliodrilus_ + the blind extremity of the spermatheca is enclosed in a coelomic sac + which is in connexion with the sacs envolving the ovaries and + oviducts. In _Hyperiodrilus_ the whole spermatheca is thus included in + a corresponding sac, which is of great extent. In such other genera of + the family as have been examined, the true spermatheca has entirely + disappeared, and the sac which contains it in _Hyperiodrilus_ alone + remains. This sac has been already referred to as a coelomoduct. Its + orifice on to the exterior is formed by an involution (as it appears) + of the epidermis, and that it performs the function of a spermatheca + is shown by its containing spermatozoa, or, in _Stuhlmannia_, a + spermatophore. In _Polytoreutus_, also, spermatophores have been found + in these spermathecal sacs. We have thus the replacement of a + spermatheca, corresponding to those of the remaining families of + Oligochaeta, and derived, as is believed, from the epidermis, by a + structure performing the same function, but derived from the + mesoblastic tissues, and with a cavity which is coelom. + + _Alimentary Canal._--The alimentary canal is always a straight tube, + and the anus, save in the genera _Criodrilus_ and _Dero_, is + completely terminal. A buccal cavity, a pharynx, an oesophagus and an + intestine are always distinguishable. Commonly among the terrestrial + forms there is a gizzard, or two gizzards, or a larger number, in the + oesophageal region. There is no armed protrusible pharynx, such as + exists in some other Chaetopods. This may be associated with + mud-eating habits; but it is not wholly certain that this is the case; + for in _Chaetogaster_ and _Agriodrilus_, which are predaceous worms, + there is no protrusible pharynx, though in the latter the oesophagus + is thickened through its extent with muscular fibres. The oesophagus + is often furnished with glandular diverticula, the "glands of Morren," + which are often of complex structure through the folding of their + walls. Among the purely aquatic families such structures are very + rare, and are represented by two caeca in the genus _Limnodriloides_. + It is a remarkable fact, not yet understood, that in certain + _Enchytraeidae_ and _Lumbriculidae_ the spermathecae open into the + oesophagus as well as on to the exterior. The only comparable fact + among other worms is the Laurer's canal or genito-intestinal canal in + the Trematoda. The intestine is usually in the higher forms provided + with a typhlosole, in which, in _Pontoscolex_, runs a ciliated canal + or canals communicating with the intestine. It is possible that this + represents the syphon or supplementary intestine of _Capitellidae_, + which has been shown to develop as a grooving of the intestine + ultimately cut off from it. The intestine has a pair of caeca or two + or three pairs (but all lie in one segment) in the genus _Pheretima_ + and in one species of _Rhinodrilus_. In _Typhoeus_ and _Megascolex_ + there are complex glands appended to the intestine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Female reproductive system of + _Hyperiodrilus_.--XIII, XIV, thirteenth and fourteenth segments. + + sp, Spermatheca. + sp', Spermathecal sac involving the last. + ov, Ovary. + r.o, Egg sac. + od, Oviduct.] + + In _Benhamia caecifera_ and at least one other earthworm there are + numerous caeca, one pair to each segment. + + _Classification._--The classifications of Adolf Eduard, Grube and + Claparède separated into two subdivisions the aquatic and the + terrestrial forms. This scheme, opposed by many, has been reinstated + by Sedgwick. The chief difficulty in this scheme is offered by the + Moniligastridae, which in some degree combine the characters of both + the suborders, into neither of which will they fit accurately. The + following arrangement is a compromise:-- + + Group I. _Aphaneura._--This group is referred by A. Sedgwick to the + Archiannelida. It is, however, though doubtless near to the base of + the Oligochaetous series, most nearly allied in the reproductive + system to the Oligochaeta. It contains but one family, + _Aeolosomatidae_. There are three pairs of spermathecae situated in + segments III-V, a testis in V and an ovary in VI. There are a + clitellum and sperm ducts which though like nephridia have a larger + funnel and a less complexly wound duct. This family consists of only + one well-known genus, _Aeolosoma_, which contains several species. + They are minute worms with coloured oil drops (green, olive green or + orange) contained in the epidermis. The nervous system is embedded in + the epidermis, and the pairs of ganglia are separated as in _Serpula_, + &c.; each pair has a longish commissure between its two ganglia. The + intersegmental septa are absent save for the division of the first + segment. The large prostomium is ciliated ventrally. The setae are + either entirely capillary or there are in addition some sigmoid setae + even with bifid free extremities. This genus also propagates + asexually, like _Ctenodrilus_, which may possibly belong to the same + family. Asexual reproduction universal. + + Group II. _Limicolae._--With a few exceptions the Limicolae are, as + the name denotes, aquatic in habit. They are small to moderate-sized + Oligochaeta, with a smaller number of segments than in the Terricolae. + The alimentary canal is simple and a gizzard or oesophageal + diverticula rarely developed. The vascular system is simple with as a + rule direct communication between dorsal and ventral vessels in each + segment. Nerve cord lies in coelom; brain in first segment or + prostomium in many forms. Clitellum generally only two or three + segments and more anterior in position than in Terricolae. Nephridia + always paired and without plexus of blood capillaries. Spermatheca + rarely with diverticula; sperm ducts as a rule occupying two segments + only, usually opening by means of an atrium. Sperm sacs generally + occupying a good many segments and with simple interior undivided by a + network of trabeculae. Ova large and with much yolk. Asexual + reproduction only in Naids. Egg sacs as large or nearly so as sperm + sacs. Testes and ovaries always free. The following families + constitute the group, viz. _Naididae_, _Enchytraeidae_, _Tubificidae_, + _Lumbriculidae_, _Phreoryctidae_, _Phreodrilidae_, _Alluroididae_, the + latter possibly not referable to this group. + + Group III. _Moniligastres._--Moderate-sized to very large Oligochaeta, + terrestrial in habit, with the appearance of Terricolae. Generative + organs anterior in position as in Limicolae. Sperm ducts and atria as + in Limicolae; egg sacs large; body wall thick; vascular system and + nephridia as in Terricolae. Only one family, _Moniligastridae_. + + Group IV. _Terricolae._--Earthworms, rarely aquatic in habit. Of small + to very large size. Clitellum commonly extensive and more posterior in + position than in other groups. Vascular system complicated without + regular connexion between dorsal and ventral vessels, except in + anterior segments. Nephridia as a rule with abundant vascular supply. + Testes, and occasionally ovaries, enclosed in sacs. Sperm sacs + generally limited to one or two segments with interior subdivided by + trabeculae. Sperm ducts traverse several segments on their way to + exterior. They open in common with, or near to, or, more rarely, into, + glands which are not certainly comparable to the atria of the + Limicolae. Egg sacs minute and functionless(?). Eggs minute with + little yolk. Nephridia sometimes very numerous in each segment. + Spermathecae often with diverticula. + + Earthworms are divided into the following families, viz. + _Megascolicidae_, _Geoscolicidae_, _Eudrilidae_, _Lumbricidae_. + + As an appendix to the Oligochaeta, and possibly referable to that + group, though their systematic position cannot at present be + determined with certainty, are to be placed the _Bdellodrilidae_ + (_Discodrilidae_ auct.), which are small parasites upon crayfish. + These worms lay cocoons like the Oligochaeta and leeches, and where + they depart from the structure of the Oligochaeta agree with that of + leeches. The body is composed of a small and limited number of + segments (not more than fourteen), and there is a sucker at each end + of the body. There are no setae and apparently only two pairs of + nephridia, of which the anterior pair open commonly by a common pore + on the third segment after the head, whose segments have not been + accurately enumerated. The intervening segments contain the genitalia, + which are on the Oligochaeta plan in that the gonads are independent + of their ducts and that there are special spermathecae, one pair. The + male ducts are either one pair or two pairs, which open by a common + and complicated efferent terminal apparatus furnished with a + protrusible penis. The ganglia are crowded at the posterior end of the + body as in leeches, and there is much tendency to the obliteration of + the coelom as in that group. _Pterodrilus_ and _Cirrodrilus_ bear a + few, or circles of, external processes which may be branchiae; + _Bdellodrilus_ and _Astacobdella_ have none. The vascular system is as + in the lower Oligochaeta. There are two chitinous jaws in the buccal + cavity, a dorsal and a ventral, which are of specially complicated + structure in _Cirrodrilus_. + + LITERATURE.--F.E. Beddard, _A Monograph of the Oligochaeta_ (Oxford, + 1895), also _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1886-1895, and _Proc. Zool. + Soc._, 1885-1906; W.B. Benham, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1886-1905; + W. Michaelsen, "Oligochaeta" in _Das Tierreich_, 1900, and _Mitth. + Mus._ (Hamburg, 1890-1906); A.G. Bourne, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, + 1894; H.J. Moore, _Journ. Morph._, 1895; F. Vezhdovský, _System d. + Oligochaeten_ (Prague, 1884), and _Entwicklungsgeschichtliche + Untersuchungen_; and numerous papers by the above and by G. Eisen, E. + Perrier, D. Rosa, R. Horst, L. Cognetti, U. Pierantoni, W. Baldwin + Spencer, H. Ude, &c., and embryological memoirs by R.S. Bergh, E.B. + Wilson, N. Kleinenberg, &c. + +HIRUDINEA.--The leeches are more particularly to be compared with the +Oligochaeta, and the following definition embraces the main features in +which they agree and disagree with that group. Setae are only present in +the genus _Acanthobdella_. Eyes are present, but hardly so complex as in +certain genera of Polychaetes. The appendages of the body are reduced to +branchiae, present in certain forms. A clitellum is present. The +segments of body are few (not more than thirty-four) and fixed in +number. The anus is dorsal. One or two (anterior and posterior) suckers +always present. Nervous system always in coelom. Coelom generally +reduced to a system of tubes, sometimes communicating with vascular +system; in _Acanthobdella_ and _Ozobranchus_ a series of metamerically +arranged chambers as in Oligochaeta. Nephridia always paired, rarely +(_Pontobdella_) forming a network communicating from segment to segment; +lumen of nephridia always intracellular, funnels pervious or impervious. +Alimentary canal sometimes with protrusible proboscis; never with +gizzard or oesophageal glands; intestine with caeca as a rule. Jaws +often present. Testes several pairs, rarely one pair, continuous with +sperm ducts; ovaries, one pair, continuous with oviducts; generative +pores single and median. No separate spermathecae or septal chambers for +the development of the ova and sperm. Eggs deposited in a cocoon. +Development direct. No asexual generation. Fresh-water, marine and +terrestrial. Parasitic or carnivorous. + + In external characters the Hirudinea are unmistakable and not to be + confused with other Annelids, except perhaps with the + _Bdellodrilidae_, which resemble them in certain particulars. The + absence of setae--save in _Acanthobdella_, where five of the anterior + segments possess each four pairs of setae with reserve setae placed + close behind them (fig. 14), and the presence of an anterior and + posterior sucker, produce a looping mode of progression similar to + that of a Geometrid larva. The absence of setae and the great + secondary annulation render the mapping of the segments a subject of + some difficulty. The most reliable test appears to be the nerve + ganglia, which are more distinct from the intervening connectives than + in other Annelids. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Acanthobdella_, from the ventral surface, + showing the five sets of setae (S1 to S5) and the replacing setae (Sr) + behind them. The three pairs of pigmented spots show the position of + the eyes on the dorsal surface. (After Kovalevsky.)] + + In the middle of the body, where the limits of the somites can be + checked by a comparison with the arrangement of the nephridia and the + gonads, and where the ganglia are quite distinct and separated by long + connectives, each ganglion is seen to consist of six masses of cells + enclosed by capsules and to give off three nerves on each side. This + corresponds to the usual presence (in the _Rhynchobdellidae_) of three + annuli to each segment. Anteriorly and posteriorly separate ganglia + have fused. The brain consists not only of a group of six capsules + corresponding to the archicerebrum of the Oligochaeta, but of a + further mass of cells surrounding and existing below the alimentary + canal, which can be analysed into five or six more separate ganglia. + The whole mass lies in the seventh or eighth segment. At the posterior + end of the body there are likewise seven separate ganglia partially + fused to form a single ganglionic mass, which innervates the segments + lying behind the anus and corresponding to the posterior sucker. So + that a leech in which only twenty-seven segments are apparent by the + enumeration of the annuli, separate ganglia, nephridia, lines of + sensillae upon the body, really possesses an additional seven lying + behind that which is apparently the last of the series and crowded + together into a minute space. The annuli into which segments are + externally divided are so deeply incised as to render it impossible to + distinguish, as can be readily done in the Oligochaeta as a rule, the + limits of an annulus from that of a true segment. As remarked, the + prevalent number of annuli to a segment is three in the + _Rhynchobdellidae_. But in that group (_Cystobranchus_) there may be + as many as eight annuli. In the _Gnathobdellidae_ the prevailing + number of annuli to a segment is five; but here again the number is + often increased, and _Trocheta_ has no less than eleven. The reason + for this excessive annulation has been seen in the limited number of + segments (thirty-four) of which the body is composed, which are laid + down early and do not increase. In the Oligochaeta, on the other hand, + there is growth of new segments. It is important to notice that the + metameric plan of growth of Chaetopods is still preserved. + + The nephridia are like those of the Oligochaeta in general structure; + that is to say, they consist of drain-pipe cells which are placed end + to end and are perforated by their duct. The internal funnel varies in + the same way as in the Oligochaeta in the number of cells which form + it. In _Clepsine_ (_Glossiphonia_) there are only three cells, and in + _Nephelis_ five to eight cells. In _Hirudo_ the funnel is not pervious + and is composed of a large number of cells. Externally, the nephridium + opens by a vesicle, as in many Oligochaetes whose lumen is + intercellular. In _Pontobdella_ and _Branchellion_ the nephridia form + a network extending from segment to segment, but there is only one + pair of funnels in each segment. Slight differences in form have been + noted between nephridia of different segments; but the Hirudinea do + not show the marked differentiation that is to be seen in some other + Chaetopods; nor do the nephridia ever acquire any relations to the + alimentary canal. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Section of _Acanthobdella_ (after + Kovalevsky). + + c, Coelom. + c.ch, Coelomic epithelium (yellow-cells). + cg, Glandular cells. + cl, Muscle cells of lateral line. + cp, Pigment cells. + ep, Ectoderm. + g, Nerve cord. + m, Intestine. + mc, Circular muscle. + ml, Longitudinal muscle. + vd, Dorsal vessel. + vv, Ventral vessel.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Section of _Acanthobdella_ (after + Kovalevsky). Identical letters as in fig. 2; in addition, cn, nerve + cord; in, intestine; nf, parts of nephridium; on, external opening of + nephridium; ov, ova; t, testis.] + + _Coelom._--The coelom of the Hirudinea differs in most genera from + that of the Oligochaeta and Polychaeta. The difference is that it is + broken up into a complex sinus system. The least modified type is + shown by _Acanthobdella_, a leech, parasitic upon fishes, in which + transverse sections (see figs. 15 and 16) show the gut, the nervous + system, &c., lying in a spacious chamber which is the coelom. This + coelom is lined by peritoneal cells and is divided into a series of + metameres by septa which correspond to the segmentation of the body, + the arrangement being thus precisely like that of typical Chaetopoda. + Moreover, upon the intestine the coelomic cells are modified into + chloragogen cells. In _Acanthobdella_ the testes are, however, not + contained in the general coelom, and the nephridia lie in the septa. + It is remarkable, in view of the spaciousness of the coelom, that the + funnels of the latter have not been seen. _Ozobranchus_ possesses a + coelom which is less typically chaetopodous than that of + _Acanthobdella_, but more so than in other leeches. There is a + spacious cavity surrounding the gut and containing also blood-vessels, + and to some extent the generative organs, and the nervous cord. + Furthermore, in the mid region of the body this coelom is broken up by + metamerically arranged septa, as in _Acanthobdella_. These septa are, + however, rather incomplete and are not fastened to the gut; and, as in + _Acanthobdella_, the nephridia are embedded in them. In addition to + the median lacuna there are two lateral lacunae, one upon each side. + These regions of the coelom end at the ends of the body and + communicate with each other by means of a branched system of coelomic + sinuses, which are in places very fine tubes. Neither in this genus + nor in the last is there any communication between coelom and vascular + system. In _Clepsine_ (_Glossiphonia_) there is a further breaking up + of the coelom. The median lacuna no longer exists, but is represented + by a dorsal and ventral sinus. The former lodges the dorsal, the + latter the ventral, blood-vessel. The gut has no coelomic space + surrounding it. A complex network places these sinuses and the + lateral sinuses in communication. Here also the blood system has no + communication with the sinus system of the coelom. In _Hirudo_ and the + _Gnathobdellidae_ there is only one system of cavities which consist + of four principal longitudinal trunks, of which the two lateral are + contractile, which communicate with a network ramifying everywhere, + even among the cells of the epidermis. The network is partly formed + out of pigmented cells which are excavated and join to form tubes, the + so-called botryoidal tissue, not found among the _Rhynchobdellidae_ at + all. It seems clear from the recent investigations of A.G. Bourne and + E.S. Goodrich that the vascular system and the coelom are in + communication (as in vertebrates by means of the lymph system). On the + other hand, it has been held that in these leeches there is no + vascular system at all and that the entire system of spaces is coelom. + In favour of regarding the vascular system as totally absent, is the + fact that the median coelomic channels contain no dorsal and ventral + vessel. In favour of seeing in the lateral trunks and their branches a + vascular system, is the contractility of the former, and the fact of + the intrusion of the latter into the epidermis, matched among the + Oligochaeta, where undoubted blood capillaries perforate the + epidermis. A further fact must be considered in deciding this + question, which is the discovery of ramifying coelomic tubes, + approaching close to, but not entering, the epidermis in the + Polychaete _Arenicola_. These tubes are lined by flattened epithelium + and often contain blood capillaries; they communicate with the coelom + and are to be regarded as prolongation of it into the thickness of the + body wall. + + _Gonads and Gonad Ducts._--The gonads and their ducts in the Hirudinea + invariably form a closed system of cavities entirely shut off from the + coelom in which they lie. There is thus a broad resemblance to the + _Eudrilidae_, to which group of Oligochaeta the Hirudinea are further + akin by reason of the invariably unpaired condition of the generative + apertures, and the existence of a copulatory apparatus (both of which + characters, however, are present occasionally in other Oligochaeta). + + The testes are more numerous than the ovaries, of which latter there + are never more than one pair. The testes vary in numbers of pairs. + Four (_Ozobranchus_) to six (_Glossiphonia_) or ten (_Philaemon_) are + common numbers. In _Acanthobdella_, however, the testes of each side + of the body have grown together to form a continuous band, which + extends in front of external pore. Each testis communicates by means + of an efferent duct with a common collecting duct of its side of the + body, which opens on to the exterior by means of a protrusible penis, + and to which is sometimes appended a seminal vesicle. The efferent + ducts are ciliated, and there is a patch of cilia at the point where + they communicate with the cavity of each testis. The ovaries are more + extensive in some forms (e.g. _Ozobranchus_) than in others, where + they are small rounded bodies. The two ducts continuous with the + gonads open by a common vagina on to the exterior behind the male + pores. This "vagina" is sometimes of exaggerated size. Thus, in + _Philaemon pungens_ (Lambert) it has the form of a large sac, into + which open by a single orifice the conjoined oviducts. From this + vagina arises a narrow duct leading to the exterior. In _Ozobranchus_ + the structures in question are still more complicated. The two long + ovarian sacs communicate with each other by a transverse bridge before + uniting to form the terminal canal. Into each ovarian sac behind the + transverse junction opens a slender tube, which is greatly coiled, + and, in its turn, opens into a spherical "spermathecal sac." From this + an equally slender tube proceeds, which joins its fellow of the + opposite side, and the two form a thick, walled tube, which opens on + to the exterior within the bursa copulatrix through which the penis + protrudes. These two last-mentioned types show features which can be, + as it seems, matched in the Eudrilidae. + + The gonads develop (O. Bürger) in coelomic spaces close to nephridial + funnels, which have, however, no relation to the gonad ducts. The + ovaries are solid bodies, of which the outer layer becomes separated + from the plug of cells lying within; thus a cavity is formed which is + clearly coelom. This cavity and its walls becomes prolonged to form + the oviducts. A stage exactly comparable to the stage in the leeches, + where the ovary is surrounded by a closed sac, has been observed in + _Eudrilus_. In this Annelid later the sac in question joins its + fellow, passing beneath the nerve cord exactly as in the leech, and + also grows out to reach the exterior. The sole difference is therefore + that in _Eudrilus_ the ovarian sac gives rise to a tube which + bifurcates, one branch meeting a corresponding branch of the other + ovary of the pair, while the second branch reaches the exterior. In + the leech the two branches are fused into one. We have here clearly a + case of a true coelomoduct performing the function of an oviduct in + both leeches and _Eudrilidae_. The facts just referred to suggest + further comparisons between the Hirudinea and _Eudrilidae_. The large + sacs which have been termed vagina are suggestive of the large + coelomic spermathecae in Eudrilids, a comparison which needs, however, + embryological data, not at present forthcoming, for its justification. + It is at least clear that in _Ozobranchus_ this comparison is + justifiable; but only probable, or perhaps possible, in the case of + _Philaemon_. In the former, the duct, leading from the ovarian sac, + and swelling along its course into the spherical sac, the + "spermatheca," is highly suggestive of the oviduct and receptaculum of + the _Eudrilidae_. + + The testes during development become hollowed out and are prolonged + into the vasa efferentia. These ducts therefore have not their exact + counterparts in the Oligochaeta, unless we are to assume that they + collectively are represented by the seminal vesicles of earthworms and + the vasa deferentia. It is to be noted that the Hirudinea differ from + the Oligochaeta in that the male pore is in advance of the gonads + (except in _Acanthobdella_, which here, as in so many points, + approximates to the Oligochaeta), whereas in Oligochaeta that pore is + behind the gonads (again with an exception, _Allurus_). + + _Classification_.--The Hirudinea may be divided into three families:-- + + (i.) _Rhynchobdellidae_.--A protrusible proboscis exists, but there + are no jaws. The blood is colourless. _Pontobdella_, _Glossiphonia_, + &c. + + (ii.) _Gnathobdellidae_.--A proboscis absent, but jaws usually + present. Blood coloured red with haemoglobin. _Hirudo_, _Nephelis_, + &c. + + (iii.) _Acanthobdellidae_.--Proboscis present, but short. Paired setae + of Oligochaetous pattern present in anterior segments. Blood red. + _Acanthobdella_. + + LITERATURE.--A.O. Kovalevsky, _Bull. Imp. Sci._ (St Petersburg, + November 1896) (_Acanthobdella_); A.G. Bourne, _Quart. Journ. Micr. + Sci._, 1884; A. Oka, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._, 1894; E.S. Goodrich, + _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1899; W.E. Castle, _Bull. Mus. Comp. + Zool._, 1900; A.M. Lambert, _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (Victoria, 1897); C.O. + Whitman, _Journ. Morph._, 1889 and 1891; O. Bürger, _Zeitschr. wiss. + Zool._, 1902, and other memoirs by the above, and by St V. Apáthy, R. + Blanchard, H. Bolsius, A. Dendy, R.S. Bergh, &c. (F. E. B.) + + + + +CHAETOSOMATIDA, a small group of minute, free-living, aquatic organisms +which are usually placed as an annex to the Nematoda. Indeed Mechnikov, +to whom we owe much of our knowledge of these forms, calls them +"creeping Nematoda." They are usually found amongst seaweed in temperate +seas, but they are probably widely distributed; some are fresh-water. +The genus _Chaetosoma_, with the two species _Ch. claparedii_ and _Ch. +ophicephalum_ and the genus _Tristicochaeta_, have swollen heads. The +third genus _Rhabdogaster_ has no such distinct head, though the body +may be swollen anteriorly. The mouth is terminal and anterior and +surrounded by a ring of spicules or a half-ring of hooks. Scattered +hairs cover the body. Just in front of the anus there is in _Chaetosoma_ +a double, and in _Tristicochaeta_ a triple row of about fifteen stout +cylindrical projections upon which the animals creep. The females are a +little larger than the males; in _Ch. claparedii_ the former attain a +length of 1.5 mm., the latter of 1.12 mm. The mouth opens into an +oesophagus which passes into an intestine; this opens by a ventral anus +situated a little in front of the posterior end. The testis is single, +and its duct opens with the anus, and is provided with a couple of +spicules. The ovary is double, and the oviducts open by a median ventral +pore about the middle of the body; in this region there is a second +swelling both in _Chaetosoma_ and in _Rhabdogaster_. The last-named form +is in the female 0.36 mm. in length. In it the hairs are confined to the +dorsal middle line and the creeping setae are hooked, of a finer +structure than in _Chaetosoma_, and situated so far forward that the +vagina opens amongst them. _Ch. ophicephalum_ has been taken in the +English Channel. + +[Illustration: From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. ii. "Worms." by +permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd. + +Mature female of _Chaetosoma daparedii_, (From Mechnikov.) a, +Oesophagus; b, intestine; c, anus; d, ovary; e, generative pore; f, +ventral bristles.] + + See E. Mechnikov, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._ xvii., 1867, p. 537; + Panceri, _Atti Acc. Napoli_, vii., 1878, p. 7. (A. E. S.) + + + + +CHAFER, a word used in modern speech to distinguish the beetles of the +family _Scarabaeidae_, and more especially those species which feed on +leaves in the adult state. The word is derived from the O. Eng. +_ceafor_, and it is interesting to note that the cognate Ger. _Käfer_ is +applied to beetles of all kinds. For the characters of the +_Scarabaeidae_ see COLEOPTERA. This family includes a large number of +beetles, some of which feed on dung and others on vegetable tissues. +The cockchafers and their near allies belong to the subfamily +_Melolonthinae_, and the rose-chafers to the _Cetoniinae_; in both the +beetles eat leaves, and their grubs spend a long life underground +devouring roots. In Britain the Melolonthines that are usually noted as +injurious are the two species of cockchafer (_Melolontha vulgaris_ and +_M. hippocastani_), large heavy beetles with black pubescent pro-thorax, +brown elytra and an elongated pointed tail-process; the summer-chafer +(_Rhizotrogus solstitialis_), a smaller pale brown chafer; and the still +smaller garden-chafer or "cocker-bundy" (_Phyllopertha horticola_), +which has a dark green pro-thorax and brown elytra. Of the Cetoniines, +the beautiful metallic green rose-chafer, _Cetonia aurata_, sometimes +causes damage, especially in gardens. The larvae of the chafers are +heavy, soft-skinned grubs, with hard brown heads provided with powerful +mandibles, three pairs of well-developed legs, and a swollen abdomen. As +they grow, the larvae become strongly flexed towards the ventral +surface, and lie curled up in their earthen cells, feeding on roots. The +larval life lasts several years, and in hard frosts the grubs go deep +down away from the surface. Pupation takes place in the autumn, and +though the perfect insect emerges from the cuticle very soon afterwards, +it remains in its underground cell for several months, not making its +way to the upper air until the ensuing summer. After pairing, the female +crawls down into the soil to lay her eggs. The grubs of chafers, when +turned up by the plough, are greedily devoured by poultry, pigs and +various wild birds. When the beetles become so numerous as to call for +destruction, they are usually shaken off the trees where they rest on to +sheets or tarred boards. On the continent of Europe chafers are far more +numerous than in the United Kingdom, and the rural governments in France +give rewards for their destruction. D. Sharp states that in the +department of Seine-inférieure 867,173,000 cockchafers and 647,000,000 +larvae were killed in the four years preceding 1870. + + The anatomy of _Melolontha_ is very fully described in a classical + memoir by H.E. Strauss-Dürckheim (Paris, 1828). (G. H. C.) + + + + +CHAFF (from the A.S. _ceaf_, allied to the O. High Ger. _cheva_, a husk +or pod), the husks left after threshing grain, and also hay and straw +chopped fine as food for cattle; hence, figuratively, the refuse or +worthless part of anything. The colloquial use of the word, to chaff, in +the sense of to banter or to make fun of a person, may be derived from +this figurative sense, or from "to chafe," meaning to vex or irritate. + + + + +CHAFFARINAS, or ZAITARINES, a group of islands belonging to Spain off +the north coast of Morocco, near the Algerian frontier, 2½ m. to the +north of Cape del Agna. The largest of these isles, Del Congreso, is +rocky and hilly. It has a watch-house on the coast nearest to Morocco. +Isabella II., the central island, contains several batteries, barracks +and a penal convict settlement. The Spanish government has undertaken +the construction of breakwaters to unite this island with the +neighbouring islet of El Rey, with a view to enclose a deep and already +sheltered anchorage. This roadstead affords a safe refuge for many large +vessels. The Chaffarinas, which are the _Tres Insulae_ of the Romans and +the _Zafran_ of the Arabs, were occupied by Spain in 1848. The Spanish +occupation anticipated by a few days a French expedition sent from Oran +to annex the islands to Algeria. The population of the islands is under +1000. + + + + +CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA (1842- ), American general, was born at Orwell, +Ohio, on the 14th of April 1842. At the outbreak of the Civil War he +entered the United States cavalry as a private, and he rose to +commissioned rank in 1863, becoming brevet captain in 1865. He remained +in the army after the war and took part with distinction in many Indian +campaigns. His promotion was, however, slow, and he was at the age of +fifty-six still a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. But in 1898, at the +outbreak of the Spanish-American War, he was made brigadier-general and +soon afterwards major-general of volunteers. In the Cuban campaign he won +particular distinction, and the victory of the Americans in the action of +El Caney was in large measure due to his careful personal reconnaissances +of the ground to be attacked and to the endurance of his own brigade. +After reverting for a time to the rank of brigadier-general, he was made +a major-general U.S.V. again in 1900 and was appointed to command the +United States contingent in China. He took a brilliant and successful +part in the advance on Peking and the relief of the Legations. In 1901 he +became a major-general in the regular army, and in 1901-1902 commanded +the Division of the Philippines. In 1902-1903 he commanded the Department +of the East, and from 1904 to 1906 was chief of the general staff of the +army. In 1904 he received the rank of lieutenant-general in the United +States army, being the first enlisted man of the regular army to attain +this, the highest rank in the service. He was retired at his own request +on the 1st of February 1906, after more than forty years' service. + + + + +CHAFFINCH (_Fringilla coelebs_), the common English name of a bird +belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), and distinguished, +in the male sex, by the deep greyish blue of its crown feathers, the +yellowish green of its rump, the white of the wing coverts, so disposed +as to form two conspicuous bars, and the reddish brown passing into +vinous red of the throat and breast. The female is drab, but shows the +same white markings as the male, and the young males resemble the +females until after the first autumn moult, when they gradually assume +the plumage of their sex. The chaffinch breeds early in the season, and +its song may often be heard in February. Its nest, which is a model of +neatness and symmetry, it builds on trees and bushes, preferring such as +are overgrown with moss and lichens. It is chiefly composed of moss and +wool, lined internally with grass, wool, feathers, and whatever soft +material the locality affords. The outside consists of moss and lichens, +and according to Selby, "is always accordant with the particular colour +of its situation." When built in the neighbourhood of towns the nest is +somewhat slovenly and untidy, being often composed of bits of dirty +straw, pieces of paper and blackened moss; in one instance, near +Glasgow, the author of the _Birds of the West of Scotland_ found several +postage-stamps thus employed. It lays four or five eggs of a pale +purplish buff, streaked and spotted with purplish red. In spring the +chaffinch is destructive to early flowers, and to young radishes and +turnips just as they appear above the surface; in summer, however, it +feeds principally on insects and their larvae, while in autumn and +winter its food consists of grain and other seeds. On the continent of +Europe the chaffinch is a favourite song-bird, especially in Germany, +where great attention is paid to its training. + + + + +CHAFING-DISH (from the O. Fr. _chaufer_, to make warm), a kind of +portable grate heated with charcoal, and used for cooking or keeping +food warm. In a light form, and heated over a spirit lamp, it is also +used for cooking various dainty dishes at table. The employment of the +chafing-dish for the latter purpose has been largely restored in modern +cookery. + + + + +CHAGOS, a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, belonging to Britain, +disposed in circular form round the Chagos bank, in 4° 44' to 7° 39' S., +and 70° 55' to 72° 52' E. The atolls on the south and east side of the +bank, which has a circumference of about 270 m., have disappeared +through subsidence; a few--Egmont, Danger, Eagle, and Three +Brothers--still remain on the east side, but most of the population +(about 700) is centred on Diego Garcia, which lies on the south-east +side, and is nearly 13 m. long by 6 m. wide. The lagoon, which is +enclosed by two coral barriers and accessible to the largest vessels on +the north side, forms one of the finest natural harbours in the world. +The group, which has a total land area of 76 sq. m., is dependent for +administrative purposes on Mauritius, and is regularly visited by +vessels from that colony. The only product is cocoa-nut oil, of which +about 106,000 gallons are annually exported. The French occupied the +islands in 1791 from Mauritius, and the oil industry (from which the +group is sometimes called the Oil Islands) came into the hands of French +Creoles. + + + + +CHAGRES, a village of the Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast of +the Isthmus, at the mouth of the Chagres river, and about 8 m. W. of +Colon. It has a harbour from 10 to 12 ft. deep, which is difficult to +enter, however, on account of bars at its mouth. The port was discovered +by Columbus in 1502, and was opened for traffic with Panama, on the +Pacific coast, by way of the Chagres river, in the 16th century. With +the decline of Porto Bello in the 18th century Chagres became the chief +Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and was at the height of its importance +during the great rush of gold-hunters across the Isthmus to California +in 1849 and the years immediately following. With the completion of the +Panama railway in 1855, however, travel was diverted to Colon, and +Chagres soon became a village of miserable huts, with no evidence of its +former importance. On a high rock at the mouth of the river stands the +castle of Lorenzo, which was destroyed by Sir Henry Morgan when he +captured the town in 1671, but was rebuilt soon afterwards by the +Spaniards. Chagres was again captured in 1740 by British forces under +Admiral Edward Vernon. + + + + +CHAIN (through the O. Fr. _choeine_, _choene_, &c., from Lat. _catena_), +a series of links of metal or other material so connected together that +the whole forms a flexible band or cord. Chains are used for a variety +of purposes, such as fastening, securing, or connecting together two or +more objects, supporting or lifting weights, transmitting mechanical +power, &c.; or as an ornament to serve as a collar, as a symbol of +office or state, or as part of the insignia of an order of knighthood; +or as a device from which to hang a jewelled or other pendant, a watch, +&c. (see COLLAR). Ornamental chains are made with a great variety of +links, but those intended for utilitarian purposes are mostly of two +types. In stud chains a stud or brace is inserted across each link to +prevent its sides from collapsing inwards under strain, whereas in open +link chains the links have no studs. The addition of studs is reckoned +to increase the load which the chain can safely bear by 50%. Small +chains of the open-link type are to a great extent made by machinery. +For larger sizes the smith cuts off a length of iron rod of suitable +diameter, forms it while hot to the shape of the link by repeated blows +of his hammer, and welds together the two ends of the link, previously +slipped inside its fellow, by the aid of the same tool; in some cases +the bending is done in a mechanical press and the welding under a power +hammer (see also CABLE). Weldless chains are also made; in A.G. +Strathern's process, for instance, cruciform steel bars are pressed, +while hot, into links, each without join and engaging with its +neighbours. Chains used for transmitting power are known as +pitch-chains; the chain of a bicycle (q.v.) is an example. + +From the use of the chain as employed to bind or fetter a prisoner or +slave, comes the figurative application to anything which serves as a +constraining or restraining force; and from its series of connected +links, to any series of objects, events, arguments, &c., connected by +succession, logical sequence or reasoning. Specific uses are for a +measuring line in land-surveying, consisting of 100 links, i.e. iron +rods, 7.92 in. in length, making 22 yds. in all, hence a lineal measure +of that length; and, as a nautical term, for the contrivance by which +the lower shrouds of a mast are extended and secured to the ship's +sides, consisting of dead-eyes, chain-plates, and chain-wale or +"channel." + + + + +CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. _choere_, through O. Fr. _chaëre_ or _chaiere_, +from Lat. _cathedra_, later _caledra_, Gr. [Greek: kathedra], seat, cf. +"cathedral"; the modern Fr. form _chaise_, a chair, has been adopted in +English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; _chaire_ in +French is still used of a professorial or ecclesiastical "chair," or +_cathedra_), a movable seat, usually with four legs, for a single +person, the most varied and familiar article of domestic furniture. The +chair is of extreme antiquity, although for many centuries and indeed +for thousands of years it was an appanage of state and dignity rather +than an article of ordinary use. "The chair" is still extensively used +as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons and in public +meetings. It was not, in fact, until the 16th century that it became +common anywhere. The chest, the bench and the stool were until then the +ordinary seats of everyday life, and the number of chairs which have +survived from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most of such +examples are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Our knowledge of +the chairs of remote antiquity is derived almost entirely from +monuments, sculpture and paintings. A few actual examples exist in the +British Museum, in the Egyptian museum at Cairo, and elsewhere. In +ancient Egypt they appear to have been of great richness and splendour. +Fashioned of ebony and ivory, or of carved and gilded wood, they were +covered with costly stuffs and supported upon representations of the +legs of beasts of the chase or the figures of captives. An arm-chair in +fine preservation found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is +astonishingly similar, even in small details, to that "Empire" style +which followed Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. The earliest monuments of +Nineveh represent a chair without a back but with tastefully carved legs +ending in lions' claws or bulls' hoofs; others are supported by figures +in the nature of caryatides or by animals. The earliest known form of +Greek chair, going back to five or six centuries before Christ, had a +back but stood straight up, front and back. On the frieze of the +Parthenon Zeus occupies a square seat with a bar-back and thick turned +legs; it is ornamented with winged sphinxes and the feet of beasts. The +characteristic Roman chairs were of marble, also adorned with sphinxes; +the curule chair was originally very similar in form to the modern +folding chair, but eventually received a good deal of ornament. + +The most famous of the very few chairs which have come down from a +remote antiquity is the reputed chair of St Peter in St Peter's at Rome. +The wooden portions are much decayed, but it would appear to be +Byzantine work of the 6th century, and to be really an ancient _sedia +gestatoria_. It has ivory carvings representing the labours of Hercules. +A few pieces of an earlier oaken chair have been let in; the existing +one, Gregorovius says, is of acacia wood. The legend that this was the +curule chair of the senator Pudens is necessarily apocryphal. It is not, +as is popularly supposed, enclosed in Bernini's bronze chair, but is +kept under triple lock and exhibited only once in a century. Byzantium, +like Greece and Rome, affected the curule form of chair, and in addition +to lions' heads and winged figures of Victory and dolphin-shaped arms +used also the lyre-back which has been made familiar by the +pseudo-classical revival of the end of the 18th century. The chair of +Maximian in the cathedral of Ravenna is believed to date from the middle +of the 6th century. It is of marble, round, with a high back, and is +carved in high relief with figures of saints and scenes from the +Gospels--the Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, the flight into +Egypt and the baptism of Christ. The smaller spaces are filled with +carvings of animals, birds, flowers and foliated ornament. Another very +ancient seat is the so-called "Chair of Dagobert" in the Louvre. It is +of cast bronze, sharpened with the chisel and partially gilt; it is of +the curule or faldstool type and supported upon legs terminating in the +heads and feet of animals. The seat, which was probably of leather, has +disappeared. Its attribution depends entirely upon the statement of +Suger, abbot of St Denis in the 12th century, who added a back and arms. +Its age has been much discussed, but Viollet-le-Duc dated it to early +Merovingian times, and it may in any case be taken as the oldest +faldstool in existence. To the same generic type belongs the famous +abbots' chair of Glastonbury; such chairs might readily be taken to +pieces when their owners travelled. The _faldisterium_ in time acquired +arms and a back, while retaining its folding shape. The most famous, as +well as the most ancient, English chair is that made at the end of the +13th century for Edward I., in which most subsequent monarchs have been +crowned. It is of an architectural type and of oak, and was covered with +gilded _gesso_ which long since disappeared. + +Passing from these historic examples we find the chair monopolized by +the ruler, lay or ecclesiastical, to a comparatively late date. As the +seat of authority it stood at the head of the lord's table, on his dais, +by the side of his bed. The seigneurial chair, commoner in France and +the Netherlands than in England, is a very interesting type, +approximating in many respects to the episcopal or abbatial throne or +stall. It early acquired a very high back and sometimes had a canopy. +Arms were invariable, and the lower part was closed in with panelled or +carved front and sides--the seat, indeed, was often hinged and +sometimes closed with a key. That we are still said to sit "in" an +arm-chair and "on" other kinds of chairs is a reminiscence of the time +when the lord or seigneur sat "in his chair." These throne-like seats +were always architectural in character, and as Gothic feeling waned took +the distinctive characteristics of Renaissance work. It was owing in +great measure to the Renaissance that the chair ceased to be an appanage +of state, and became the customary companion of whomsoever could afford +to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily came into +general use, and almost at once began to reflect the fashions of the +hour. No piece of furniture has ever been so close an index to sumptuary +changes. It has varied in size, shape and sturdiness with the fashion +not only of women's dress but of men's also. Thus the chair which was +not, even with its arms purposely suppressed, too ample during the +several reigns of some form or other of hoops and farthingale, became +monstrous when these protuberances disappeared. Again, the costly laced +coats of the dandy of the 18th and early 19th centuries were so +threatened by the ordinary form of seat that a "conversation chair" was +devised, which enabled the buck and the ruffler to sit with his face to +the back, his valuable tails hanging unimpeded over the front. The early +chair almost invariably had arms, and it was not until towards the close +of the 16th century that the smaller form grew common. + +The majority of the chairs of all countries until the middle of the 17th +century were of oak without upholstery, and when it became customary to +cushion them, leather was sometimes employed; subsequently velvet and +silk were extensively used, and at a later period cheaper and often more +durable materials. Leather was not infrequently used even for the costly +and elaborate chairs of the faldstool form--occasionally sheathed in +thin plates of silver--which Venice sent all over Europe. To this day, +indeed, leather is one of the most frequently employed materials for +chair covering. The outstanding characteristic of most chairs until the +middle of the 17th century was massiveness and solidity. Being usually +made of oak, they were of considerable weight, and it was not until the +introduction of the handsome Louis XIII. chairs with cane backs and +seats that either weight or solidity was reduced. Although English +furniture derives so extensively from foreign and especially French and +Italian models, the earlier forms of English chairs owed but little to +exotic influences. This was especially the case down to the end of the +Tudor period, after which France began to set her mark upon the British +chair. The squat variety, with heavy and sombre back, carved like a +piece of panelling, gave place to a taller, more slender, and more +elegant form, in which the framework only was carved, and attempts were +made at ornament in new directions. The stretcher especially offered +opportunities which were not lost upon the cabinet-makers of the +Restoration. From a mere uncompromising cross-bar intended to strengthen +the construction it blossomed, almost suddenly, into an elaborate +scroll-work or an exceedingly graceful semicircular ornament connecting +all four legs, with a vase-shaped knob in the centre. The arms and legs +of chairs of this period were scrolled, the splats of the back often +showing a rich arrangement of spirals and scrolls. This most decorative +of all types appears to have been popularized in England by the +cavaliers who had been in exile with Charles II. and had become familiar +with it in the north-western parts of the European continent. During he +reign of William and Mary these charming forms degenerated into +something much stiffer and more rectangular, with a solid, more or less +fiddle-shaped splat and a cabriole leg with pad feet. The more +ornamental examples had cane seats and ill-proportioned cane backs. From +these forms was gradually developed the Chippendale chair, with its +elaborately interlaced back, its graceful arms and square or cabriole +legs, the latter terminating in the claw and ball or the pad foot. +Hepplewhite, Sheraton and Adam all aimed at lightening the chair, which, +even in the master hands of Chippendale, remained comparatively heavy. +The endeavour succeeded, and the modern chair is everywhere +comparatively slight. Chippendale and Hepplewhite between them +determined what appears to be the final form of the chair, for since +their time practically no new type has lasted, and in its main +characteristics the chair of the 20th century is the direct derivative +of that of the later 18th. + +The 18th century was, indeed, the golden age of the chair, especially in +France and England, between which there was considerable give and take +of ideas. Even Diderot could not refrain from writing of them in his +_Encyclopédie_. The typical Louis Seize chair, oval-backed and ample of +seat, with descending arms and round-reeded legs, covered in Beauvais or +some such gay tapestry woven with Boucher or Watteau-like scenes, is a +very gracious object, in which the period reached its high-water mark. +The Empire brought in squat and squabby shapes, comfortable enough no +doubt, but entirely destitute of inspiration. English Empire chairs were +often heavier and more sombre than those of French design. Thenceforward +the chair in all countries ceased to attract the artist. The _art +nouveau_ school has occasionally produced something of not unpleasing +simplicity; but more often its efforts have been frankly ugly or even +grotesque. There have been practically no novelties, with the exception +perhaps of the basket-chair and such like, which have been made possible +by modern command over material. So much, indeed, is the present +indebted to the past in this matter that even the revolving chair, now +so familiar in offices, has a pedigree of something like four centuries +(see also SEDAN-CHAIR). (J. P.-B.) + + + + +CHAISE (the French for "chair," through a transference from a +"sedan-chair" to a wheeled vehicle), a light two- or four-wheeled +carriage with a movable hood or "calash"; the "post-chaise" was the +fast-travelling carriage of the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was +closed and four-wheeled for two or four horses and with the driver +riding postillion. + + + + +CHAKRATA, a mountain cantonment in the Dehra Dun district of the United +Provinces of India, on the range of hills overlooking the valleys of the +Jumna and the Tons, at an elevation of 7000 ft. It was founded in 1866 +and first occupied in April 1869. + + + + +CHALCEDON, more correctly CALCHEDON (mod. _Kadikeui_), an ancient +maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost directly opposite +Byzantium, south of Scutari. It was a Megarian colony founded on a site +so obviously inferior to that which was within view on the opposite +shore, that it received from the oracle the name of "the City of the +Blind." In its early history it shared the fortunes of Byzantium, was +taken by the satrap Otanes, vacillated long between the Lacedaemonian +and the Athenian interests, and was at last bequeathed to the Romans by +Attalus III. of Pergamum (133 B.C.). It was partly destroyed by +Mithradates, but recovered during the Empire, and in A.D. 451 was the +seat of the Fourth General Council. It fell under the repeated attacks +of the barbarian hordes who crossed over after having ravaged Byzantium, +and furnished an encampment to the Persians under Chosroes, c. 616-626. +The Turks used it as a quarry for building materials for Constantinople. +The site is now occupied by the village of Kadikeui ("Village of the +Judge"), which forms the tenth "cercle" of the municipality of +Constantinople. Pop. about 33,000, of whom 8000 are Moslems. There is a +large British colony with a church, and also Greek and Armenian churches +and schools, and a training college for Roman Catholic Armenians. To the +S. are the ruins of Panteichion (mod. _Pendik_), where Belisarius is +said to have lived in retirement. + + See J. von Hammer, _Constantinopolis_ (Pesth, 1822); Murray's + _Handbook for Constantinople_ (London, 1900). + + + + +CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF, the fourth ecumenical council of the Catholic +Church, was held in 451, its occasion being the Eutychian heresy and the +notorious "Robber Synod" (see EUTYCHES and EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF), which +called forth vigorous protests both in the East and in the West, and a +loud demand for a new general council, a demand that was ignored by the +Eutychian Theodosius II., but speedily granted by his successor, +Marcian, a "Flavianist." In response to the imperial summons, five to +six hundred bishops, all Eastern, except the Roman legates and two +Africans, assembled in Chalcedon on the 8th of October 451. The bishop +of Rome claimed for his legates the right to preside, and insisted that +any act that failed to receive their approval would be invalid. The +first session was tumultuous; party feeling ran high, and scurrilous and +vulgar epithets were bandied to and fro. The acts of the Robber Synod +were examined; fraud, violence and coercion were charged against it; its +entire proceedings were annulled, and, at the third session, its leader, +Dioscurus, was deposed and degraded. The emperor requested a declaration +of the true faith; but the sentiment of the council was opposed to a new +symbol. It contented itself with reaffirming the Nicene and +Constantinopolitan creeds and the Ephesine formula of 431, and +accepting, only after examination, the Christological statement +contained in the _Epistola Dogmatica_ of Leo I. (q.v.) to Flavianus. +Thus the council rejected both Nestorianism and Eutychianism, and stood +upon the doctrine that Christ had two natures, each perfect in itself +and each distinct from the other, yet perfectly united in one person, +who was at once both God and man. With this statement, which was +formally subscribed in the presence of the emperor, the development of +the Christological doctrine was completed, but not in a manner to +obviate further controversy (see MONOPHYSITES and MONOTHELITES). + +The remaining sessions, vii.-xvi., were occupied with matters of +discipline, complaints, claims, controversies and the like. Canons were +adopted, thirty according to the generally received tradition, although +the most ancient texts contain but twenty-eight, and, as Hefele points +out, the so-called twenty-ninth and thirtieth are properly not canons, +but repetitions of proposals made in a previous session. + +The most important enactments of the council of Chalcedon were the +following: (1) the approval of the canons of the first three ecumenical +councils and of the synods of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Changra, Antioch and +Laodicea; (2) forbidding trade, secular pursuits and war to the clergy, +bishops not even being allowed to administer the property of their +dioceses; (3) forbidding monks and nuns to marry or to return to the +world; likewise forbidding the establishment of a monastery in any +diocese without the consent of the bishop, or the disestablishment of a +monastery once consecrated; (4) punishing with deposition an ordination +or clerical appointment made for money; forbidding "absolute ordination" +(i.e. without assignment to a particular charge), the translation of +clerics except for good cause, the enrolment of a cleric in two churches +at once, and the performance of sacerdotal functions outside of one's +diocese without letters of commendation from one's bishop; (5) +confirming the jurisdiction of bishops over all clerics, regular and +secular alike, and punishing with deposition any conspiracy against +episcopal authority; (6) establishing a gradation of ecclesiastical +tribunals, viz. bishop, provincial synod, exarch of the diocese, +patriarch of Constantinople (obviously the council could not here have +been legislating for the entire church); forbidding clerics to be +running to Constantinople with complaints, without the consent of their +respective bishops; (7) confirming the possession of rural parishes to +those who had actually administered them for thirty years, providing for +the adjudication of conflicting claims, and guaranteeing the integrity +of metropolitan provinces; (8) confirming the third canon of the second +ecumenical council, which accorded to Constantinople equal privileges +([Greek: isa presbeia]) with Rome, and the second rank among the +patriarchates, and, in addition, granting to Constantinople patriarchal +jurisdiction over Pontus, Asia and Thrace. + +The Roman legates, who were absent (designedly?) when this famous +twenty-eighth canon was adopted, protested against it, but in vain, the +imperial commissioners deciding in favour of its regularity and +validity. Leo I., although he recognized the council as ecumenical and +confirmed its doctrinal decrees, rejected canon xxviii. on the ground +that it contravened the sixth canon of Nicaea and infringed the rights +of Alexandria and Antioch. In what proportion zeal for the ancient +canons and the rights of others, and jealous fear of encroachment upon +his own jurisdiction, were mixed in the motives of Leo, it would be +interesting to know. The canon was universally received in the East, +and was expressly confirmed by the Quinisext Council, 692 (see +CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF). + +The emperor Marcian approved the doctrinal decrees of the council and +enjoined silence in regard to theological questions. Eutyches and +Dioscurus and their followers were deposed and banished. But harmony was +not thus to be restored; hardly had the council dissolved when the +church was plunged into the Monophysite controversy. + + See Mansi vi. pp. 529-1102, vii. pp. 1-868; Hardouin ii. pp. 1-772; + Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 394-578 (English translation, iii. pp. + 268-464); also extended bibliographies in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopädie_, 3rd ed., s.v. "Eutyches" (by Loofs) and s.v. + "Nestorianer" (by Kessler). (T. F. C.) + + + + +CHALCEDONY, or CALCEDONY (sometimes called by old writers cassidoine), a +variety of native silica, often used as an ornamental stone. The present +application of the term is comparatively modern. The "chalcedonius" of +Pliny was quite a different mineral, being a green stone from the +copper-mines of Chalcedon, in Asia Minor, whence the name. There has +been some confusion between chalcedony and the ancient "carcedonia," a +stone which seems to have been a carbuncle from Africa, brought by way +of Carthage ([Greek: Karchêdôn]). Our chalcedony was probably included +by the ancients among the various kinds of jasper and agate, especially +the varieties termed "leucachates" and "cerachates." + +By modern mineralogists the name chalcedony is restricted to those kinds +of silica which occur not in distinct crystals like ordinary quartz, but +in concretionary, mammillated or stalactitic forms, which break with a +fine splintery fracture, and display a delicate fibrous structure. +Chalcedony may be regarded as a micro-crystalline form of quartz. It is +rather softer and less dense than crystallized quartz, its hardness +being about 6.5 and its specific gravity 2.6, the difference being +probably due to the presence of a small amount of opaline silica between +the fibres. Chalcedony is a translucent substance of rather waxy lustre, +presenting great variety of colours, though usually white, grey, yellow +or brown. A rare blue chalcedony is sometimes polished under the name of +"sapphirine"--a term applied also to a distinct mineral (an +aluminium-magnesium silicate) from Greenland. + +Chalcedony occurs as a secondary mineral in volcanic rocks, representing +usually the silica set free by the decomposition of various silicates, +and deposited in cracks, forming veins, or in vesicular hollows, forming +amygdales. Its occurrence gives the name to Chalcedony Park, Arizona. It +is found in the basalts of N. Ireland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland: it +is common in the traps of the Deccan in India, and in volcanic rocks in +Uruguay and Brazil. Certain flat oval nodules from a decomposed lava +(augite-andesite) in Uruguay present a cavity lined with quartz crystals +and enclosing liquid (a weak saline solution), with a movable +air-bubble, whence they are called "enhydros" or water-stones. Very fine +examples of stalactitic chalcedony, in whimsical forms, have been +yielded by some of the Cornish copper-mines. The surface of chalcedony +is occasionally coated with a delicate bluish bloom. A chalcedonic +deposit in the form of concentric rings, on fossils and fragments of +limestone in S. Devon, is known as "orbicular silica" or "beekite," +having been named after Dr Henry Beeke, dean of Bristol, who first +directed attention to such deposits. Certain pseudomorphs of chalcedony +after datolite, from Haytor in Devonshire, have received the name of +"haytorite." Optical examination of many chalcedonic minerals by French +mineralogists has shown that they are aggregates of various fibrous +crystalline bodies differing from each other in certain optical +characters, whence they are distinguished as separate minerals under +such names as calcedonite, pseudocalcedonite, quartzine, lutecite and +lussatite. Many coloured and variegated chalcedonies are cut and +polished as ornamental stones, and are described under special headings. +Chalcedony has been in all ages the commonest of the stones used by the +gem-engraver. + + See AGATE, BLOODSTONE, CARNELIAN, CHRYSOPRASE, HELIOTROPE, MOCHA + STONE, ONYX, SARD and SARDONYX. (F. W. R.*) + + + + +CHALCIDICUM, in Roman architecture, the vestibule or portico of a public +building opening on to the forum; as in the basilica of Eumactria at +Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine at Rome, where it was placed at +one end. + + + + +CHALCIS, the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, situated on +the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point. The name is preserved +from antiquity and is derived from the Greek [Greek: chalkos] (copper, +bronze), though there is no trace of any mines in the neighbourhood. +Chalcis was peopled by an Ionic stock which early developed great +industrial and colonizing activity. In the 8th and 7th centuries it +founded thirty town-ships on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and several +important cities in Sicily (q.v.). Its mineral produce, metal-work, +purple and pottery not only found markets among these settlements, but +were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth and +Samos. With the help of these allies Chalcis engaged the rival league of +its neighbour Eretria (q.v.) in the so-called Lelantine War, by which it +acquired the best agricultural district of Euboea and became the chief +city of the island. Early in the 6th century its prosperity was broken +by a disastrous war with the Athenians, who expelled the ruling +aristocracy and settled a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently +became a member of both the Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period it +gained importance as a fortress by which the Macedonian rulers +controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus III. of Syria +(192) and Mithradates VI. of Pontus (88) as a base for invading Greece. +Under Roman rule Chalcis retained a measure of commercial prosperity; +since the 6th century A.D. it again served as a fortress for the +protection of central Greece against northern invaders. From 1209 it +stood under Venetian control; in 1470 it passed to the Ottomans, who +made it the seat of a pasha. In 1688 it was successfully held against a +strong Venetian attack. The modern town has about 10,000 inhabitants, +and maintains a considerable export trade which received an impetus from +the establishment of railway connexion with Athens and Peiraeus (1904). +It is composed of two parts--the old walled town towards the Euripus, +called the Castro, where the Jewish and Turkish families who have +remained there mostly dwell; and the more modern suburb that lies +outside it, which is chiefly occupied by the Greeks. A part of the walls +of the Castro and many of the houses within it were shaken down by the +earthquake of 1894; part has been demolished in the widening of the +Euripus. The most interesting object is the church of St Paraskeve, +which was once the chief church of the Venetians; it dates from the +Byzantine period, though many of its architectural features are Western. +There is also a Turkish mosque, which is now used as a guard-house. + + AUTHORITIES.--Strabo vii. fr. 11, x. p. 447; Herodotus v. 77; + Thucydides i. 15; _Corpus Inscr. Atticarum_, iv. (1) 27a, iv. (2) 10, + iv. (2) p. 22; W.M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London, + 1835), ii. 254-270; E. Curtius in _Hermes_, x. (1876), p. 220 sqq.; A. + Holm, _Lange Fehde_ (Berlin, 1884); H. Dondorff, _De Rebus + Chalcidensium_ (Göttingen, 1869); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia + Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 303-5; and art. NUMISMATICS: _Greek_ § + Euboea. + + + + +CHALCONDYLES[1] (or CHALCOCONDYLAS), LAONICUS, the only Athenian +Byzantine writer. Hardly anything is known of his life. He wrote a +history, in ten books, of the period from 1298-1463, describing the fall +of the Greek empire and the rise of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the +centre of the narrative, down to the conquest of the Venetians and +Mathias, king of Hungary, by Mahommed II. The capture of Constantinople +he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching importance, +although the comparison of it to the fall of Troy is hardly appropriate. +The work incidentally gives a quaint and interesting sketch of the +manners and civilization of England, France and Germany, whose +assistance the Greeks sought to obtain against the Turks. Like that of +other Byzantine writers, Chalcondyles' chronology is defective, and his +adherence to the old Greek geographical nomenclature is a source of +confusion. For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain +information from his father, who was one of the most prominent men in +Athens during the struggles between the Greek and Frankish nobles. His +model is Thucydides (according to Bekker, Herodotus); his language is +tolerably pure and correct, his style simple and clear. The text, +however, is in a very corrupt state. + + _Editio princeps_, ed. J.B. Baumbach (1615); in Bonn _Corpus + Scriptorum Hist. Byz._ ed. I. Bekker (1843); Migne, _Patrologia + Graeca_, clix. There is a French translation by Blaise de Vigenère + (1577, later ed. by Artus Thomas with valuable illustrations on + Turkish matters); see also F. Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Athen + im Mittelalter_, ii. (1889); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. 66; C. + Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). There + is a biographical sketch of Laonicus and his brother in Greek by + Antonius Calosynas, a physician of Toledo, who lived in the latter + part of the 16th century (see C. Hopf, _Chroniques gréco-romanes_, + 1873). + +His brother, DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES (1424-1511), was born in Athens. In +1447 he migrated to Italy, where Cardinal Bessarion gave him his +patronage. He became famous as a teacher of Greek letters and the +Platonic philosophy; in 1463 he was made professor at Padua, and in 1479 +he was summoned by Lorenzo de' Medici to Florence to fill the +professorship vacated by John Argyropoulos. In 1492 he removed to Milan, +where he died in 1511. He was associated with Marsilius Ficinus, Angelus +Politianus, and Theodorus Gaza, in the revival of letters in the western +world. One of his pupils at Florence was the famous John Reuchlin. +Demetrius Chalcondyles published the editio princeps of Homer, +Isocrates, and Suidas, and a Greek grammar (_Erotemata_) in the form of +question and answer. + + See H. Hody, _De Graecis illustribus_ (1742); C. Hopf, _Chroniques + gréco-romanes_ (1873); E. Legrand, _Bibliographic hellénique_, i. + (1885). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A shortened form of Chalcocondyles, from [Greek: chalkos], + copper, and [Greek: kondylos], knuckle. + + + + +CHALDAEA. The expressions "Chaldaea" and "Chaldaeans" are frequently +used in the Old Testament as equivalents for "Babylonia" and +"Babylonians." Chaldaea was really the name of a country, used in two +senses. It was first applied to the extreme southern district, whose +ancient capital was the city of _Bit Yakin_, the chief seat of the +renowned Chaldaean rebel Merodach-baladan, who harassed the Assyrian +kings Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not as yet possible to fix the exact +boundaries of the original home of the Chaldaeans, but it may be +regarded as having been the long stretch of alluvial land situated at +the then separate mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, which rivers now +combine to flow into the Persian Gulf in the waters of the majestic +_Shatt el 'Arab_. + +The name "Chaldaea," however, soon came to have a more extensive +application. In the days of the Assyrian king Ramman-nirari III. +(812-783 B.C.), the term _mat Kaldu_ covered practically all Babylonia. +Furthermore, Merodach-baladan was called by Sargon II. (722-705 B.C.) +"king of the land of the Chaldaeans" and "king of the land of Bit Yakin" +after the old capital city, but there is no satisfactory evidence that +Merodach-baladan had the right to the title "Babylonian." The racial +distinction between the Chaldaeans and the Babylonians proper seems to +have existed until a much later date, although it is almost certain that +the former were originally a Semitic people. That they differed from the +Arabs and Aramaeans is also seen from the distinction made by +Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.) between the Chaldaeans and these races. +Later, during the period covering the fall of Assyria and the rise of +the Neo-Babylonian empire, the term _mat Kaldu_ was not only applied to +all Babylonia, but also embraced the territory of certain foreign +nations who were later included by Ezekiel (xxiii. 23) under the +expression "Chaldaeans." + +As already indicated, the Chaldaeans were most probably a Semitic +people. It is likely that they first came from Arabia, the supposed +original home of the Semitic races, at a very early date along the coast +of the Persian Gulf and settled in the neighbourhood of Ur ("Ur of the +Chaldees," Gen. xi. 28), whence they began a series of encroachments, +partly by warfare and partly by immigration, against the other Semitic +Babylonians. These aggressions after many centuries ended in the +Chaldaean supremacy of Nabopolassar and his successors (c. 626 ff.), +although there is no positive proof that Nabopolassar was purely +Chaldaean in blood. The sudden rise of the later Babylonian empire under +Nebuchadrezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, must have tended to produce so +thorough an amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, who had +theretofore been considered as two kindred branches of the same original +Semite stock, that in the course of time no perceptible differences +existed between them. A similar amalgamation, although in this case of +two peoples originally racially distinct, has taken place in modern +times between the Manchu Tatars and the Chinese. It is quite evident, +for example, from the Semitic character of the Chaldaean king-names, +that the language of these Chaldaeans differed in no way from the +ordinary Semitic Babylonian idiom which was practically identical with +that of Assyria. Consequently, the term "Chaldaean" came quite naturally +to be used in later days as synonymous with "Babylonian." When +subsequently the Babylonian language went out of use and Aramaic took +its place, the latter tongue was wrongly termed "Chaldee" by Jerome, +because it was the only language known to him used in Babylonia. This +error was followed until a very recent date by many scholars. + +The derivation of the name "Chaldaean" is extremely uncertain. Peter +Jensen has conjectured with slight probability that the Chaldaeans were +Semitized Sumerians, i.e. a non-Semitic tribe which by contact with +Semitic influences had lost its original character. There seems to be +little or no evidence to support such a view. Friedrich Delitzsch +derived the name "Chaldaean" =_Kasdim_ from the non-Semitic Kassites who +held the supremacy over practically all Babylonia during an extended +period (c. 1783-1200 B.C.). This theory seems also to be extremely +improbable. It is much more likely that the name "Chaldaean" is +connected with the Semitic stem _kasadu_ (conquer), in which case +_Kaldi-Kasdi_, with the well-known interchange of l and _s_, would mean +"conquerors." It is also possible that _Kasdu-Kaldu_ is connected with +the proper name Chesed, who is represented as having been the nephew of +Abraham (Gen. xxii. 22). There is no connexion whatever between the +Black Sea peoples called "Chaldaeans" by Xenophon (_Anab_. vii. 25) and +the Chaldaeans of Babylonia. + +In Daniel, the term "Chaldaeans" is very commonly employed with the +meaning "astrologers, astronomers," which sense also appears in the +classical authors, notably in Herodotus, Strabo and Diodorus. In Daniel +i. 4, by the expression "tongue of the Chaldaeans," the writer evidently +meant the language in which the celebrated Babylonian works on astrology +and divination were composed. It is now known that the literary idiom of +the Babylonian wise men was the non-Semitic Sumerian; but it is not +probable that the late author of Daniel (c. 168 B.C.) was aware of this +fact. + +The word "Chaldaean" is used in Daniel in two senses. It is applied as +elsewhere in the Old Testament as a race-name to the Babylonians (Dan. +iii. 8, v. 30, ix. 1); but the expression is used oftener, either as a +name for some special class of magicians, or as a term for magicians in +general (ix. 1). The transfer of the name of the people to a special +class is perhaps to be explained in the following manner. As just shown, +"Chaldaean" and "Babylonian" had become in later times practically +synonymous, but the term "Chaldaean" had lived on in the secondary +restricted sense of "wise men." The early _Kaldi_ had seized and held +from very ancient times the region of old Sumer, which was the centre of +the primitive non-Semitic culture. It seems extremely probable that +these Chaldaean Semites were so strongly influenced by the foreign +civilization as to adopt it eventually as their own. Then, as the +Chaldaeans soon became the dominant people, the priestly caste of that +region developed into a Chaldaean institution. It is reasonable to +conjecture that southern Babylonia, the home of the old culture, +supplied Babylon and other important cities with priests, who from their +descent were correctly called "Chaldaeans." This name in later times, +owing to the racial amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, lost +its former national force, and became, as it occurs in Daniel, a +distinctive appellation of the Babylonian priestly class. It is +possible, though not certain, that the occurrence of the word _kalu_ +(priest) in Babylonian, which has no etymological connexion with +_Kaldu_, may have contributed paronomastically towards the popular use +of the term "Chaldaeans" for the Babylonian Magi. (See also ASTROLOGY.) + + LITERATURE.--Delattre, _Les Chaldéens jusqu'à la fond. de l'emp. de + Nebuch._ (1889); Winckler, _Untersuchungen zur altor. Gesch._ (1889), + pp. 49 ff.; _Gesch. Bab. u. Assyr._ (1892), pp. 111 ff.; Prince, + _Commentary on Daniel_ (1899), pp. 59-61; see also BABYLONIA AND + ASSYRIA and SUMER AND SUMERIAN. (J. D. Pr.) + + + + +CHALDEE, a term sometimes applied to the Aramaic portions of the +biblical books of Ezra and Daniel or to the vernacular paraphrases of +the Old Testament (see TARGUM). The explanation formerly adopted and +embodied in the name Chaldee is that the change took place in Babylon. +That the so-called Biblical Chaldee, in which considerable portions of +the books of Ezra and Daniel are written, was really the language of +Babylon was supposed to be clear from Dan. ii. 4, where the Chaldaeans +are said to have spoken to the king in Aramaic. But the cuneiform +inscriptions show that the language of the Chaldaeans was Assyrian; and +an examination of the very large part of the Hebrew Old Testament +written later than the exile proves conclusively that the substitution +of Aramaic for Hebrew as the vernacular of Palestine took place very +gradually. Hence scholars are now agreed that the term "Chaldee" is a +misnomer, and that the dialect so called is really the language of the +South-Western Arameans, who were the immediate neighbours of the Jews +(W. Wright, _Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages_, p. 16). (See +SEMITIC LANGUAGES.) + + + + +CHALICE (through a central O. Fr. form of the Lat. _calix_, _calicis_, +cup), a drinking-vessel of the cup or goblet form, now only used of the +cup used in the celebration of the Eucharist (q.v.). For the various +forms which the "chalice" so used has taken, see DRINKING-VESSELS and +PLATE. When, in the eucharistic service, water is mixed with the wine, +the "chalice" is known as the "mixed chalice." This has been customary +both in the Eastern and Western Churches from early times. The Armenian +Church does not use the "mixed chalice." It was used in the English +Church before the Reformation. According to the present law of the +English Church, the mixing of the water with wine is lawful, if this is +not done as part of or during the services, i.e. if it is not done +ceremonially (_Martin_ v. _Mackonochie_, 1868, L.R. 2 P.C. 365; _Read_ +v. _Bp. of Lincoln_, 1892, A.C. 664). + + + + +CHALIER, JOSEPH (1747-1793), French Revolutionist. He was destined by +his family for the church, but entered business, and became a partner in +a firm at Lyons for which he travelled in the Levant, in Italy, Spain +and Portugal. He was in Paris in 1789, and entered into relations with +Marat, Camille Desmoulins and Robespierre. On his return to Lyons, +Chalier was the first to be named member of the municipal bureau. He +organized the national guard, applied the civil constitution of the +clergy, and regulated the finances of the city so as to tax the rich +heavily and spare the poor. Denounced to the Legislative Assembly by the +directory of the department of Rhone-et-Loire for having made a +nocturnal domiciliary perquisition, he was sent to the bar of the +Assembly, which approved of his conduct. In the election for mayor of +Lyons, in November 1792, he was defeated by a Royalist. Then Chalier +became the orator and leader of the Jacobins of Lyons, and induced the +other revolutionary clubs and the commune of his city to arrest a great +number of Royalists in the night of the 5th and 6th of February 1793. +The mayor, supported by the national guard, opposed this project. +Chalier demanded of the Convention the establishment of a revolutionary +tribunal and the levy of a revolutionary army at Lyons. The Convention +refused, and the anti-revolutionary party, encouraged by this refusal, +took action. On the 29th and 30th of May 1793 the sections rose; the +Jacobins were dispossessed of the municipality and Chalier arrested. On +the 15th of July, in spite of the order of the Convention, he was +brought before the criminal tribunal of the Rhone-et-Loire, condemned to +death, and guillotined the next day. The Terrorists paid a veritable +worship to his memory, as to a martyr of Liberty. + + See N. Wahl, "Étude sur Chalier," in _Revue historique_, t. xxxiv.; + and _Les Premières Années de la Révolution à Lyon_ (Paris, 1894). + + + + +CHALK, the name given to any soft, pulverulent, pure white limestone. +The word is an old one, having its origin in the Saxon _cealc_, and the +hard form "kalk" is still in use amongst the country folk of +Lincolnshire. The German _Kalk_ comprehends all forms of limestone; +therefore a special term, _Kreide_, is employed for chalk--French +_craie_. From being used as a common name, denoting a particular +material, the word was subsequently utilized by geologists as an +appellation for the _Chalk formation_; and so prominent was this +formation in the eyes of the earlier workers that it imposed its name +upon a whole system of rocks, the Cretaceous (Lat. _creta_, chalk), +although this rock itself is by no means generally characteristic of the +system as a whole. + +The Chalk formation, in addition to the typical chalk material--_creta +scriptoria_--comprises several variations; argillaceous kinds--_creta +marga_ of Linnaeus--known locally as malm, marl, clunch, &c.; and +harder, more stony kinds, called rag, freestone, rock, hurlock or +harrock in different districts. In certain parts of the formation layers +of nodular flints (q.v.) abound; in parts, it is inclined to be sandy, +or to contain grains of glauconite which was originally confounded with +another green mineral, chlorite, hence the name "chloritic marl" applied +to one of the subdivisions of the chalk. In its purest form chalk +consists of from 95 to 99% of calcium carbonate (carbonate of lime); in +this condition it is composed of a mass of fine granular particles held +together by a somewhat feeble calcareous cement. The particles are +mostly the broken tests of foraminifera, along with the débris of +echinoderm and molluscan shells, and many minute bodies, like +coccoliths, of somewhat obscure nature. + + The earliest attempts at subdivision of the Chalk formation initiated + by Wm. Phillips were based upon lithological characters, and such a + classification as "Upper Chalk with Flints," "Lower Chalk without + Flints," "Chalk marl or Grey chalk," was generally in use in England + until W. Whitaker established the following order in 1865:-- + + Upper Chalk, with flints + + / chalk rock + Lower Chalk < chalk with few flints + \ chalk without flints + + Chalk Marl / Totternhoe stone + \ " marl + + In France, a similar system of classification was in vogue, the + subdivisions being _craie blanche_, _craie tufan_, _craie chloritée_, + until 1843 when d'Orbigny proposed the term _Senonien_ for the Upper + Chalk and _Turonien_ for the Lower; later he divided the _Turonien_, + giving the name _Cénomanien_ to the lower portion. The subdivisions of + d'Orbigny were based upon the fossil contents and not upon the + lithological characters of the rocks. In 1876 Prof. Ch. Barrois showed + how d'Orbigny's classification might be applied to the British chalk + rocks; and this scheme has been generally adopted by geologists, + although there is some divergence of opinion as to the exact position + of the base line of the Cenomanian. + + The accompanying table shows the classification now adopted in + England, with the zonal fossils and the continental names of the substages:-- + + +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+ + | | |N. France | S.E. and | + | Zonal fossils used in Britain. | Stages. | and | S. France.| + | | | Belgium.*| | + +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+ + | / _Ostrea lunata_ (Norfolk) | Danian? | | | + | | | (Trimingham) | | | + | | _Belemnitella mucronata_ | | | | + |A.< _Actinocamax quadratus_ | Upper Chalk | | | + | | = _Inoceramus lingua_ in Yorkshire | Senonian | Flint- | | + | | / _Marsupites_,| _Craie blanche_ | bearing | | + | \ _Marsupites testudinarium_ \ _Uintacrinus_| | chalk. | | + | | | | Marls, | + | / _Micraster cor-anguinum_ | | | sandstones| + |B.< " _cor-testudinarium_ | | | and | + | \ _Holaster planus_, Chalk rock | | | limestones| + +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+ | (not | + | _Terebratulina gracilis_ | Middle Chalk | | chalky) | + | | Turonian | | with | + | _Rhynchonella Cuvieri_, Melbourne rock | _Craie marneuse_ | | _Hippur- | + +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+ | ites_. | + | | Lower Chalk, | | | + | | Chalk Marl and | | | + | | Cambridge Greensand | Marly | | + | _Actinocamax plenus_ | Cenomanian | chalk. | | + | _Holaster subglobosus_, Totternhoe stone. | | | | + | _Schloenbachia varians_. | _Craie glauconieuse_| | | + +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+ + * (See table in article CRETACEOUS SYSTEM,) + +Since Prof. Barrois introduced the zonal system of subdivision (C. Evans +had used a similar scheme six years earlier), our knowledge of the +English chalk has been greatly increased by the work of Jukes-Browne and +William Hill, and particularly by the laborious studies of Dr A.W. Rowe. +Instead of employing the mixed assemblage of animals indicated as zone +fossils in the table, A. de Grossouvre proposed a scheme for the north +of France based upon ammonite faunas alone, which he contended would be +of more general applicability (_Recherches sur la Craie Supérieure_, +Paris, 1901). + +The Upper Chalk has a maximum thickness in England of about 1000 ft., +but post-cretaceous erosion has removed much of it in many districts. It +is more constant in character, and more typically chalky than the lower +stages; flints are abundant, and harder nodular beds are limited to the +lower portions, where some of the compact limestones are known as "chalk +rock." The thickness of the Middle Chalk varies from about 100 to 240 +ft.; flints become scarcer in descending from the upper to the lower +portions. The whole is more compact than the upper stage, and nodular +layers are more frequent--the "chalk rock" of Dorset and the Isle of +Wight belong to this stage. At the base is the hard "Melbourne rock." +The thickness of the Lower Chalk in England varies from 60 to 240 ft. +This stage includes part of the "white chalk without flints," the "chalk +marl," and the "grey chalk." The Totternhoe stone is a hard freestone +found locally in this stage. The basement bed in Norfolk is a pure +limestone, but very frequently it is marly with grains of sand and +glauconite, and often contains phosphatic nodules; this facies is +equivalent to the "Cambridge Greensand" of some districts and the +"chloritic marl" of others. In Devonshire the Lower Chalk has become +thin sandy calcareous series. + +The chalk can be traced in England from Flamborough Head in Yorkshire, +in a south-westerly direction, to the coast of Dorset; and it not only +underlies the whole of the S.E. corner, where it is often obscured by +Tertiary deposits, but it can be followed across the Channel into +northern France. Rocks of the same age as the chalk are widespread (see +CRETACEOUS SYSTEM); but the variety of limestone properly called by this +name is almost confined to the Anglo-Parisian basin. Some chalk occurs +in the great Cretaceous deposits of Russia, and in Kansas, Iowa, +Nebraska and S. Dakota in the United States. Hard white chalk occurs in +Ireland in Antrim, and on the opposite shore of Scotland in Mull and +Morven. + +_Economic Products of the Chalk._--Common chalk has been frequently used +for rough building purposes, but the more important building stones are +"Beer stone," from Beer Head in Devonshire, "Sutton stone" from a little +north of Beer, and the "Totternhoe stone." It is burned for lime, and +when mixed with some form of clay is used for the manufacture of cement; +chalk marl has been used alone for this purpose. As a manure, it has +been much used as a dressing for clayey land. Flints from the chalk are +used for road metal and concrete, and have been employed in building as +a facing for walls. Phosphatic nodules for manure have been worked from +the chloritic marl and Cambridge Greensand, and to some extent from the +Middle Chalk. The same material is worked at Ciply in Belgium and +Picardy in France. Chalk is employed in the manufacture of carbonate of +soda, in the preparation of carbon dioxide, and in many other chemical +processes; also for making paints, crayons and tooth-powder. _Whiting_ +or _Spanish white_, used to polish glass and metal, is purified chalk +prepared by triturating common chalk with a large quantity of water, +which is then decanted and allowed to deposit the finely-divided +particles it holds in suspension. + +_Chalk Scenery._--Where exposed at the surface, chalk produces rounded, +smooth, grass-covered hills as in the Downs of southern England and the +Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The hills are often intersected by +clean-cut dry valleys. It forms fine cliffs on the coast of Kent, +Yorkshire and Devonshire. + +Chalk is employed medicinally as a very mild astringent either alone or +more usually with other astringents. It is more often used, however, for +a purely mechanical action, as in the preparation hydrargyrum cum creta. +As an antacid its use has been replaced by other drugs. + +_Black chalk_ or _drawing slate_ is a soft carbonaceous schist, which +gives a black streak, so that it can be used for drawing or writing. +_Brown chalk_ is a kind of umber. _Red chalk_ or _reddle_ is an impure +earthy variety of haematite. _French chalk_ is a soft variety of +steatite, a hydrated magnesium silicate. + + The most comprehensive account of the British chalk is contained in + the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom_, "The + Cretaceous Rocks of Britain," vol. ii. 1903, vol. iii. 1904 (with + bibliography), by Jukes-Browne and Hill. See also "The White Chalk of + the English Coast," several papers in the _Proceedings of the + Geologists' Association_, London, (1) Kent and Sussex, xvi. 1900, (2) + Dorset, xvii., 1901, (3) Devon, xviii., 1903, (4) Yorkshire, xviii., + 1904. (J. A. H.) + + + + +CHALKHILL, JOHN (fl. 1600?), English poet. Two songs by him are included +in Izaak Walton's _Compleat Angler_, and in 1683 appeared "Thealma and +Clearchus. A Pastoral History in smooth and easie Verse. Written long +since by John Chalkhill, Esq., an Acquaintant and Friend of Edmund +Spencer" (1683), with a preface written five years earlier by Walton. +Another poem, "Alcilia, Philoparthens Loving Follie" (1595, reprinted in +vol. x. of the _Jahrbuch des deutschen Shakespeare-Vereins_), was at one +time attributed to him. Nothing further is known of the poet, but a +person of his name occurs as one of the coroners for Middlesex in the +later years of Queen Elizabeth's reign. Professor Saintsbury, who +included _Thealma and Clearchus_ in vol. ii. of his _Minor Poets of the +Caroline Period_ (Oxford, 1906), points out a marked resemblance between +his work and that of William Chamberlayne. + + + + +CHALKING THE DOOR, a Scottish custom of landlord and tenant law. In +former days the law was that "a burgh officer, in presence of witnesses, +chalks the most patent door forty days before Whit Sunday, having made +out an execution of 'chalking,' in which his name must be inserted, and +which must be subscribed by himself and two witnesses." This ceremony +now proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The execution +of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal will be +pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the tenant may be +ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days. + + + + +CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN (1818-1894), French historian, +was born in Paris on the 18th of March 1818. His writings consist +chiefly of popular works, which enjoyed great success. The value of some +of his books is enhanced by numerous illustrations, e.g. _Histoire-museé +de la Révolution française_, which appeared in 50 numbers in 1841-1842 +(3rd ed., in 72 numbers, 1857-1858); _Histoire de la mode en France; la +toilette des femmes depuis l'époque gallo-romaine jusqu'à nos jours_ +(1874, with 12 plates; new ed., 1880, with 21 coloured plates). His +_Mémoires du peuple française_ (1865-1873) and _La France et les +Français a travers les siécles_ (1882) at least have the merit of being +among the first books written on the social history of France. In this +sense Challamel was a pioneer, of no great originality, it is true, but +at any rate of fairly wide information. He died on the 20th of October +1894. + + + + +CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND (1827-1896), French statesman, was born at +Avranches on the 19th of May 1827. After passing through the École +Normale Supérieure he became professor of philosophy successively at Pau +and at Limoges. The _coup d'état_ of 1851 caused his expulsion from +France for his republican opinions. He travelled on the continent, and +in 1856 settled down as professor of French literature at the +Polytechnic of Zürich. The amnesty of 1859 enabled him to return to +France, but a projected course of lectures on history and art was +immediately suppressed. He now supported himself by his pen, and became +a regular contributor to the reviews. On the fall of the Second Empire +in September 1870 the government of national defence appointed him +prefect of the department of the Rhone, in which capacity he had to +suppress the Communist rising at Lyons. Resigning his post on the 5th of +February 1871, he was in January 1872 elected to the National Assembly, +and in 1876 to the Senate. He sat at first on the Extreme Left; but his +philosophic and critical temperament was not in harmony with the +recklessness of French radicalism, and his attitude towards political +questions underwent a steady modification, till the close of his life +saw him the foremost representative of moderate republicanism. During +Gambetta's lifetime, however, Challemel-Lacour was one of his warmest +supporters, and he was for a time editor of Gambetta's organ, the +_République française_. In 1879 he was appointed French ambassador at +Bern, and in 1880 was transferred to London; but he lacked the +suppleness and command of temper necessary to a successful diplomatist. +He resigned in 1882, and in February 1883 became minister of foreign +affairs in the Jules Ferry cabinet, but retired in November of the same +year. In 1890 he was elected vice-president of the Senate, and in 1893 +succeeded Jules Ferry as its president. His influence over that body was +largely due to his clear and reasoned eloquence, which placed him at the +head of contemporary French orators. In 1893 he also became a member of +the French Academy. He distinguished himself by the vigour with which he +upheld the Senate against the encroachments of the chamber, but in 1895 +failing health forced him to resign, and he died in Paris on the 26th of +October 1896. He published a translation of A. Heinrich Ritter's +_Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1861); _La Philosophie individualiste: +étude sur Guillaume de Humboldt_ (1864); and an edition of the works of +Madame d'Épinay (1869). + + In 1897 appeared Joseph Reinach's edition of the _OEuvres oratoires + de Challemel-Lacour_. + + + + +CHALLENGE (O. Fr. _chalonge, calenge_, &c., from Lat. _calumnia_, +originally meaning trickery, from _calvi_, to deceive, hence a false +accusation, a "calumny"), originally a charge against a person or a +claim to anything, a defiance. The term is now particularly used of an +invitation to a trial of skill in any contest, or to a trial by combat +as a vindication of personal honour (see DUEL), and, in law, of the +objection to the members of a jury allowed in a civil action or in a +criminal trial (see JURY). + + + + +"CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION. The scientific results of several short +expeditions between 1860 and 1870 encouraged the council of the Royal +Society to approach the British government, on the suggestion of Sir +George Richards, hydrographer to the admiralty, with a view to +commissioning a vessel for a prolonged cruise for oceanic exploration. +The government detailed H.M.S. "Challenger," a wooden corvette of 2306 +tons, for the purpose. Captain (afterwards Sir) George Nares was placed +in command, with a naval crew; and a scientific staff was selected by +the society with Professor (afterwards Sir) C. Wyville Thomson as +director. The staff included Mr (afterwards Sir) John Murray and Mr H.N. +Moseley, biologists; Dr von Willemoes-Suhm, Commander Tizard, and Mr +J.Y. Buchanan, chemist and geologist. A complete scheme of instructions +was drawn up by the society. The "Challenger" sailed from Portsmouth in +December 1872. For nearly a year the work of the expedition lay in the +Atlantic, which was crossed several times. Teneriffe, the Bermudas, the +Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd Islands, Bahia and Tristan da Cunha were +successively visited, and in October 1873 the ship reached Cape Town. +Steering then south-east and east she visited the various islands +between 45° and 50° S., and reached Kerguelen Island in January 1874. +She next proceeded southward about the meridian of 80° E. She was the +first steamship to cross the Antarctic circle, but the attainment of a +high southerly latitude was not an object of the voyage, and early in +March the ship left the south polar regions and made for Melbourne. +Extensive researches were now made in the Pacific. The route led by New +Zealand, the Fiji Islands, Torres Strait, the Banda Sea, and the China +Sea to Hong Kong. The western Pacific was then explored northward to +Yokohama, after which the "Challenger" struck across the ocean by +Honolulu and Tahiti to Valparaiso. She then coasted southward, +penetrated the Straits of Magellan, touched at Montevideo, recrossed the +Atlantic by Ascension and the Azores, and reached Sheerness in May 1876. +This voyage is without parallel in the history of scientific research. +The _"Challenger" Report_ was issued in fifty volumes (London, +1880-1895), mainly under the direction of Sir John Murray, who succeeded +Wyville Thomson in this work in 1882. Specialists in every branch of +science assisted in its production. The zoological collections alone +formed the basis for the majority of the volumes; the deep-sea soundings +and samples of the deposits, the chemical analysis of water samples, the +meteorological, water-temperature, magnetic, geological, and botanical +observations were fully worked out, and a summary of the scientific +results, narrative of the cruise and indices were also provided. + + See also Lord G. Campbell, _Log Letters from the "Challenger"_, + (1876); W.J.J. Spry, _Cruise of H.M.S. "Challenger"_ (1876); Sir C. + Wyville Thomson, _Voyage of the "Challenger," The Atlantic, + Preliminary Account of General Results_ (1877); J.J. Wild, _At Anchor; + Narrative of Experiences afloat and ashore during the Voyage of H.M.S. + "Challenger"_ (1878); H.N. Moseley, _Notes by a Naturalist on the + "Challenger"_ (1879). + + + + +CHALLONER, RICHARD (1691-1781), English Roman Catholic prelate, was born +at Lewes, Sussex, on the 29th of September 1691. After the death of his +father, who was a rigid Dissenter, his mother, left in poverty, lived +with some Roman Catholic families. Thus it came about that he was +brought up as a Roman Catholic, chiefly at the seat of Mr Holman at +Warkworth, Northamptonshire, where the Rev. John Gother, a celebrated +controversialist, officiated as chaplain. In 1704 he was sent to the +English College at Douai, where he was ordained a priest in 1716, took +his degrees in divinity, and was appointed professor in that faculty. In +1730 he was sent on the English mission and stationed in London. The +controversial treatises which he published in rapid succession attracted +much attention, particularly his _Catholic Christian Instructed_ (1737), +which was prefaced by a witty reply to Dr Conyers Middleton's _Letters +from Rome, showing an Exact Conformity between Popery and Paganism_. +Middleton is said to have been so irritated that he endeavoured to put +the penal laws in force against his antagonist, who prudently withdrew +from London. In 1741 Challoner was raised to the episcopal dignity at +Hammersmith, and nominated co-adjutor with right of succession to Bishop +Benjamin Petre, vicar-apostolic of the London district, whom he +succeeded in 1758. He resided principally in London, but was obliged to +retire into the country during the "No Popery" riots of 1780. He died on +the 12th of January 1781, and was buried at Milton, Berkshire. Bishop +Challoner was the author of numerous controversial and devotional works, +which have been frequently reprinted and translated into various +languages. He compiled the _Garden of the Soul_ (1740 ?), which +continues to be the most popular manual of devotion among +English-speaking Roman Catholics, and he revised an edition of the Douai +version of the Scriptures (1749-1750), correcting the language and +orthography, which in many places had become obsolete. Of his historical +works the most valuable is one which was intended to be a Roman Catholic +antidote to Foxe's well-known martyrology. It is entitled _Memoirs of +Missionary Priests and other Catholicks of both Sexes who suffered Death +or Imprisonment in England on account of their Religion, from the year +1577 till the end of the reign of Charles II._ (2 vols. 1741, frequently +reprinted). He also published anonymously, in 1745, the lives of +English, Scotch and Irish saints, under the title of _Britannia Sancta_, +an interesting work which has, however, been superseded by that of Alban +Butler. + + For a complete list of his writings see J. Gillow's _Bibl. Dict. of + Eng. Cath._ i. 452-458; Barnard, _Life of R. Challoner_ (1784); + Flanagan, _History of the Catholic Church in England_ (1857); there is + also a critical history of Challoner by Rev. E. Burton. + + + + +CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1750-1834), Scottish writer, was born in Aberdeen +on the 29th of March 1759. He was educated as a doctor, but gave up this +profession for journalism, and he was for some time editor of the +_Morning Herald_. Besides editions of the works of Shakespeare, Beattie, +Fielding, Johnson, Warton, Pope, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, he published _A +General Biographical Dictionary_ in 32 vols.(1812-1817); a _Glossary to +Shakspeare_ (1797); an edition of Steevens's Shakespeare (1809); and the +_British Essayists_, beginning with the _Tatler_ and ending with the +_Observer_, with biographical and historical prefaces and a general +index. He died in London on the 19th of December 1834. + + + + +CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825), Scottish antiquarian and political writer, +was born at Fochabers, a village in the county of Moray, in 1742. His +father, James Chalmers, was a grandson of George Chalmers of Pittensear, +a small estate in the parish of Lhanbryde, now St Andrews-Lhanbryde, in +the same county, possessed by the main line of the family from about the +beginning of the 17th to the middle of the 18th century. After +completing the usual course at King's College, Aberdeen, young Chalmers +studied law in Edinburgh for several years. Two uncles on the father's +side having settled in America, he visited Maryland in 1763, with the +view, it is said, of assisting to recover a tract of land of some extent +about which a dispute had arisen, and was in this way induced to +commence practice as a lawyer at Baltimore, where for a time he met with +much success. Having, however, espoused the cause of the Royalist party +on the breaking out of the American War of Independence, he found it +expedient to abandon his professional prospects in the New World, and +return to his native country. For the losses he had sustained as a +colonist he received no compensation, and several years elapsed before +he obtained an appointment that placed him in a state of comfort and +independence. + +In the meantime Chalmers applied himself with great diligence and +assiduity to the investigation of the history and establishment of the +English colonies in North America; and enjoying free access to the state +papers and other documents preserved among what were then termed the +plantation records, he became possessed of much important information. +His work entitled _Political Annals of the present United Colonies from +their Settlement to the Peace of 1763_, 4to, London, 1780, was to have +formed two volumes; but the second, which should have contained the +period between 1688 and 1763, never appeared. The first volume, however, +is complete in itself, and traces the original settlement of the +different American colonies, and the progressive changes in their +constitutions and forms of government as affected by the state of public +affairs in the parent kingdom. Independently of its value as being +compiled from original documents, it bears evidence of great research, +and has been of essential benefit to later writers. Continuing his +researches, he next gave to the world _An Estimate of the Comparative +Strength of Britain during the Present and Four Preceding Reigns_, +London, 1782, which passed through several editions. At length, in +August 1786, Chalmers, whose sufferings as a Royalist must have strongly +recommended him to the government of the day, was appointed chief clerk +to the committee of privy council on matters relating to trade, a +situation which he retained till his death in 1825, a period of nearly +forty years. As his official duties made no great demands on his time, +he had abundant leisure to devote to his favourite studies,--the +antiquities and topography of Scotland having thenceforth special +attractions for his busy pen. + +Besides biographical sketches of Defoe, Sir John Davies, Allan Ramsay, +Sir David Lyndsay, Churchyard and others, prefixed to editions of their +respective works, Chalmers wrote a life of Thomas Paine, the author of +the _Rights of Man_, which he published under the assumed name of +Francis Oldys, A.M., of the University of Pennsylvania; and a life of +Ruddiman, in which considerable light is thrown on the state of +literature in Scotland during the earlier part of the last century. His +life of Mary, Queen of Scots, in two 4to vols., was first published in +1818. It is founded on a MS. left by John Whitaker, the historian of +Manchester; but Chalmers informs us that he found it necessary to +rewrite the whole. The history of that ill-fated queen occupied much of +his attention, and his last work, _A Detection of the Love-Letters +lately attributed in Hugh Campbell's work to Mary Queen of Scots_, is an +exposure of an attempt to represent as genuine some fictitious letters +said to have passed between Mary and Bothwell which had fallen into +deserved oblivion. In 1797 appeared his _Apology for the Believers in +the Shakespeare Papers which were exhibited in Norfolk Street_, followed +by other tracts on the same subject. These contributions to the +literature of Shakespeare are full of curious matter, but on the whole +display a great waste of erudition, in seeking to show that papers which +had been proved forgeries might nevertheless have been genuine. Chalmers +also took part in the Junius controversy, and in _The Author of Junius +Ascertained, from a Concatenation of Circumstances amounting to Moral +Demonstration_, Lond. 1817, 8vo, sought to fix the authorship of the +celebrated letters on Hugh Boyd. In 1824 he published _The Poetical +Remains of some of the Scottish Kings, now first collected_; and in the +same year he edited and presented as a contribution to the Bannatyne +Club _Robene and Makyne and the Testament of Cresseid, by Robert +Henryson_. His political writings are equally numerous. Among them may +be mentioned _Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other +Powers_, Lond. 1790, 2 vols. 8vo; _Vindication of the Privileges of the +People in respect to the Constitutional Right of Free Discussion_, &c., +Lond. 1796, 8vo, published anonymously; _A Chronological Account of +Commerce and Coinage in Great Britain from the Restoration till 1810_, +Lond. 1810, 8vo; _Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on various points of +English Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies, Fisheries, and +Commerce of Great Britain_, Lond. 1814, 2 vols. 8vo; _Comparative Views +of the State of Great Britain before and since the War_, Lond. 1817, +8vo. + +But Chalmers's greatest work is his _Caledonia_, which, however, he did +not live to complete. The first volume appeared in 1807, and is +introductory to the others. It is divided into four books, treating +successively of the Roman, the Pictish, the Scottish and the Scoto-Saxon +periods, from 80 to 1306 A.D. In these we are presented, in a condensed +form, with an account of the people, the language and the civil and +ecclesiastical history, as well as the agricultural and commercial state +of Scotland during the first thirteen centuries of our era. +Unfortunately the chapters on the Roman period are entirely marred by +the author's having accepted as genuine Bertram's forgery _De Situ +Britanniae_; but otherwise his opinions on controverted topics are +worthy of much respect, being founded on a laborious investigation of +all the original authorities that were accessible to him. The second +volume, published in 1810, gives an account of the seven south-eastern +counties of Scotland--Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh, +Linlithgow, Peebles and Selkirk--each of them being treated of as +regards name, situation and extent, natural objects, antiquities, +establishment as shires, civil history, agriculture, manufactures and +trade, and ecclesiastical history. In 1824, after an interval of +fourteen years, the third volume appeared, giving, under the same +headings, a description of the seven south-western counties--Dumfries, +Kirkcudbright, Wigtown, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew and Dumbarton. In the +preface to this volume the author states that the materials for the +history of the central and northern counties were collected, and that he +expected the work would be completed in two years, but this expectation +was not destined to be realized. He had also been engaged on a history +of Scottish poetry and a history of printing in Scotland. Each of them +he thought likely to extend to two large quarto volumes, and on both he +expended an unusual amount of enthusiasm and energy. He had also +prepared for the press an elaborate history of the life and reign of +David I. In his later researches he was assisted by his nephew James, +son of Alexander Chalmers, writer in Elgin. + +George Chalmers died in London on the 31st of May 1825. His valuable and +extensive library he bequeathed to his nephew, at whose death in 1841 it +was sold and dispersed. Chalmers was a member of the Royal and +Antiquarian Societies of London, an honorary member of the Antiquarian +Society of Scotland, and a member of other learned societies. In private +life he was undoubtedly an amiable man, although the dogmatic tone that +disfigures portions of his writings procured him many opponents. Among +his avowed antagonists in literary warfare the most distinguished were +Malone and Steevens, the Shakespeare editors; Mathias, the author of the +_Pursuits of Literature_; Dr Jamieson, the Scottish lexicographer; +Pinkerton, the historian; Dr Irving, the biographer of the Scottish +poets; and Dr Currie of Liverpool, But with all his failings in judgment +Chalmers was a valuable writer. He uniformly had recourse to original +sources of information; and he is entitled to great praise for his +patriotic and self-sacrificing endeavours to illustrate the history, +literature and antiquities of his native country. (J. M'D.) + + + + +CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878), Scottish painter, was born at +Montrose, and studied at Edinburgh. His landscapes are now more valued +than the portraits which formed his earlier work. The best of these are +"The End of the Harvest" (1873), "Running Water" (1875), and "The +Legend" (in the National Gallery, Edinburgh). He became an associate +(1867) and a full member (1871) of the Scottish Academy. + + + + +CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901), Scottish missionary to New Guinea, was born +at Ardrishaig in Argyll. After serving in the Glasgow City Mission he +passed through Cheshunt College, and, being accepted by the London +Missionary Society, was appointed to Rarotonga in the South Pacific in +1866. Here the natives gave him the well-known name "Tamate." After ten +years' service, especially in training native evangelists, he was +transferred to New Guinea. In addition to his enthusiastic but sane +missionary work, Chalmers did much to open up the island, and, with his +colleague W.G. Lawes, gave valuable aid in the British annexation of the +south-east coast of the island. On the 8th of April 1901, in company +with a brother missionary, Oliver Tomkins, he was killed by cannibals at +Goaribari Island. R.L. Stevenson has left on record his high +appreciation of Chalmers's character and work. + + Chalmers's _Autobiography and Letters_ were edited by Richard Lovett + in 1902, who also wrote a popular life called _Tamate_. + + + + +CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847), Scottish divine, was born at Anstruther in +Fifeshire, on the 17th of March 1780. At the age of eleven he was +entered as a student at St Andrews, where he devoted himself almost +exclusively to mathematics. In January 1799 he was licensed as a +preacher of the Gospel by the St Andrews presbytery. In May 1803, after +attending further courses of lectures in Edinburgh, and acting as +assistant to the professor of mathematics at St Andrews, he was ordained +as minister of Kilmany in Fifeshire, about 9 m. from the university +town, where he continued to lecture. His mathematical lectures roused so +much enthusiasm that they were discontinued by order of the authorities, +who disliked the disturbance of the university routine which they +involved. Chalmers then opened mathematical classes on his own account +which attracted many students; at the same time he delivered a course of +lectures on chemistry, and ministered to his parish at Kilmany. In 1805 +he became a candidate for the vacant professorship of mathematics at +Edinburgh, but was unsuccessful. In 1808 he published an _Inquiry into +the Extent and Stability of National Resources_, a contribution to the +discussion created by Bonaparte's commercial policy. Domestic +bereavements and a severe illness then turned his thoughts in another +direction. At his own request the article on Christianity was assigned +to him in Dr Brewster's _Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_, and in studying the +credentials of Christianity he received a new impression of its +contents. His journal and letters show how he was led from a sustained +effort to attain the morality of the Gospel to a profound spiritual +revolution. After this his ministry was marked by a zeal which made it +famous. The separate publication of his article in the _Edinburgh +Encyclopaedia_, and contributions to the _Edinburgh Christian +Instructor_ and the _Eclectic Review_, enhanced his reputation as an +author. In 1815 he became minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow, in spite +of determined opposition to him in the town council on the ground of his +evangelical teaching. From Glasgow his repute as a preacher spread +throughout the United Kingdom. A series of sermons on the relation +between the discoveries of astronomy and the Christian revelation was +published in January 1817, and within a year nine editions and 20,000 +copies were in circulation. When he visited London Wilberforce wrote, +"all the world is wild about Dr Chalmers." + +In Glasgow Chalmers made one of his greatest contributions to the life +of his own time by his experiments in parochial organization. His parish +contained about 11,000 persons, and of these about one-third were +unconnected with any church. He diagnosed this evil as being due to the +absence of personal influence, spiritual oversight, and the want of +parochial organizations which had not kept pace in the city, as they had +done in rural parishes, with the growing population. He declared that +twenty new churches, with parishes, should be erected in Glasgow, and he +set to work to revivify, remodel and extend the old parochial economy of +Scotland. The town council consented to build one new church, attaching +to it a parish of 10,000 persons, mostly weavers, labourers and factory +workers, and this church was offered to Dr Chalmers that he might have a +fair opportunity of testing his system. + +In September 1819 he became minister of the church and parish of St +John, where of 2000 families more than 800 had no connexion with any +Christian church. He first addressed himself to providing schools for +the children. Two school-houses with four endowed teachers were +established, where 700 children were taught at the moderate fees of 2s. +and 3s. per quarter. Between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools were +opened, where more than 1000 children were taught the elements of +secular and religious education. The parish was divided into 25 +districts embracing from 60 to 100 families, over each of which an elder +and a deacon were placed, the former taking oversight of their +spiritual, the latter of their physical needs. Chalmers was the +mainspring of the whole system, not merely superintending the +visitation, but personally visiting all the families, and holding +evening meetings, when he addressed those whom he had visited. This +parochial machinery enabled him to make a singularly successful +experiment in dealing with the problem of poverty. At this time there +were not more than 20 parishes north of the Forth and Clyde where there +was a compulsory assessment for the poor, but the English method of +assessment was rapidly spreading. Chalmers believed that compulsory +assessment ended by swelling the evil it was intended to mitigate, and +that relief should be raised and administered by voluntary means. His +critics replied that this was impossible in large cities. When he +undertook the management of the parish of St John's, the poor of the +parish cost the city £1400 per annum, and in four years, by the adoption +of his method, the pauper expenditure was reduced to £280 per annum. The +investigation of all new applications for relief was committed to the +deacon of the district, and every effort was made to enable the poor to +help themselves. When once the system was in operation it was found that +a deacon, by spending an hour a week among the families committed to his +charge, could keep himself acquainted with their character and +condition. + +In 1823, after eight years of work at high pressure, he was glad to +accept the chair of moral philosophy at St Andrews, the seventh academic +offer made to him during his eight years in Glasgow. In his lectures he +excluded mental philosophy and included the whole sphere of moral +obligation, dealing with man's duty to God and to his fellow-men in the +light of Christian teaching. Many of his lectures are printed in the +first and second volumes of his published works. In ethics he made +contributions to the science in regard to the place and functions of +volition and attention, the separate and underived character of the +moral sentiments, and the distinction between the virtues of perfect and +imperfect obligation. His lectures kindled the religious spirit among +his students, and led some of them to devote themselves to missionary +effort. In November 1828 he was transferred to the chair of theology in +Edinburgh. He then introduced the practice of following the lecture with +a viva voce examination on what had been delivered. He also introduced +text-books, and came into stimulating contact with his people; perhaps +no one has ever succeeded as he did by the use of these methods in +communicating intellectual, moral and religious impulse to so many +students. + +These academic years were prolific also in a literature of various +kinds. In 1826 he published a third volume of the _Christian and Civic +Economy of Large Towns_, a continuation of work begun at St John's, +Glasgow. In 1832 he published a _Political Economy_, the chief purpose +of which was to enforce the truth that the right economic condition of +the masses is dependent on their right moral condition, that character +is the parent of comfort, not vice versa. In 1833 appeared a treatise on +_The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual +Constitution of Man_. In 1834 Dr Chalmers was elected fellow of the +Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in the same year he became corresponding +member of the Institute of France; in 1835 Oxford conferred on him the +degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he became leader of the evangelical section of +the Scottish Church in the General Assembly. He was appointed chairman +of a committee for church extension, and in that capacity made a tour +through a large part of Scotland, addressing presbyteries and holding +public meetings. He also issued numerous appeals, with the result that +in 1841, when he resigned his office as convener of the church extension +committee, he was able to announce that in seven years upwards of +£300,000 had been contributed, and 220 new churches had been built. His +efforts to induce the Whig government to assist in this effort were +unsuccessful. + +In 1841 the movement which ended in the Disruption was rapidly +culminating, and Dr Chalmers found himself at the head of the party +which stood for the principle that "no minister shall be intruded into +any parish contrary to the will of the congregation" (see FREE CHURCH OF +SCOTLAND). Cases of conflict between the church and the civil power +arose in Auchterarder, Dunkeld and Marnoch; and when the courts made it +clear that the church, in their opinion, held its temporalities on +condition of rendering such obedience as the courts required, the church +appealed to the government for relief. In January 1843 the government +put a final and peremptory negative on the church's claims for spiritual +independence. On the 18th of May 1843 470 clergymen withdrew from the +general assembly and constituted themselves the Free Church of Scotland, +with Dr Chalmers as moderator. He had prepared a sustentation fund +scheme for the support of the seceding ministers, and this was at once +put into successful operation. On the 30th of May 1847, immediately +after his return from the House of Commons, where he had given evidence +as to the refusal of sites for Free Churches by Scottish landowners, he +was found dead in bed. + +Dr Chalmers' action throughout the Free Church controversy was so +consistent in its application of Christian principle and so free from +personal or party animus, that his writings are a valuable source for +argument and illustration on the question of Establishment. "I have no +veneration," he said to the royal commissioners in St Andrews, before +either the voluntary or the non-intrusive controversies had arisen, "for +the Church of Scotland _qua_ an establishment, but I have the utmost +veneration for it _qua_ an instrument of Christian good." He was +transparent in character, chivalrous, kindly, firm, eloquent and +sagacious; his purity of motive and unselfishness commanded absolute +confidence; he had originality and initiative in dealing with new and +difficult circumstances, and great aptitude for business details. + +During a life of incessant activity Chalmers scarcely ever allowed a day +to pass without its modicum of composition; at the most unseasonable +times, and in the most unlikely places, he would occupy himself with +literary work. His writings occupy more than 30 volumes. He would have +stood higher as an author had he written less, or had he indulged less +in that practice of reiteration into which he was constantly betrayed by +his anxiety to impress his ideas upon others. As a political economist +he was the first to unfold the connexion that subsists between the +degree of the fertility of the soil and the social condition of a +community, the rapid manner in which capital is reproduced (see Mill's +_Political Economy_, i. 94), and the general doctrine of a limit to all +the modes by which national wealth may accumulate. He was the first also +to advance that argument in favour of religious establishments which +meets upon its own ground the doctrine of Adam Smith, that religion like +other things should be left to the operation of the natural law of +supply and demand. In the department of natural theology and the +Christian evidences he ably advocated that method of reconciling the +Mosaic narrative with the indefinite antiquity of the globe which +William Buckland (1784-1856) advanced in his Bridgewater Treatise, and +which Dr Chalmers had previously communicated to him. His refutation of +Hume's objection to the truth of miracles is perhaps his intellectual +_chef-d'oeuvre_. The distinction between the laws and dispositions of +matter, as between the ethics and objects of theology, he was the first +to indicate and enforce, and he laid great emphasis on the superior +authority as witnesses for the truth of Revelation of the Scriptural as +compared with the Extra-Scriptural writers, and of the Christian as +compared with the non-Christian testimonies. In his _Institutes of +Theology_, no material modification is attempted on the doctrines of +Calvinism, which he received with all simplicity of faith as revealed in +the Divine word, and defended as in harmony with the most profound +philosophy of human nature and of the Divine providence. + + For biographical details see Dr W. Hanna's _Memoirs_ (Edinburgh, 4 + vols., 1849-1852); there is a good short _Life_ by Mrs Oliphant + (1893). (W. Ha.; D. Mn.) + + + + +CHALONER, SIR THOMAS (1521-1565), English statesman and poet, was the +son of Roger Chaloner, mercer of London, a descendant of the +Denbighshire Chaloners. No details are known of his youth except that he +was educated at both Oxford and Cambridge. In 1540 he went, as secretary +to Sir Henry Knyvett, to the court of Charles V., whom he accompanied in +his expedition against Algiers in 1541, and was wrecked on the Barbary +coast. In 1547 he joined in the expedition to Scotland, and was +knighted, after the battle of Musselburgh, by the protector Somerset, +whose patronage he enjoyed. In 1549 he was a witness against Dr Bonner, +bishop of London; in 1551 against Stephen Gardiner, bishop of +Winchester; in the spring of the latter year he was sent as a +commissioner to Scotland, and again in March 1552. In 1553 he went with +Sir Nicholas Wotton and Sir William Pickering on an embassy to France, +but was recalled by Queen Mary on her accession. In spite of his +Protestant views, Chaloner was still employed by the government, going +to Scotland in 1555-1556, and providing carriages for troops in the war +with France, 1557-1558. In 1558 he went as Elizabeth's ambassador to the +emperor Ferdinand at Cambrai, from July 1559 to February 1559/60 he was +ambassador to King Philip at Brussels, and in 1561 he went in the same +capacity to Spain. His letters are full of complaints of his treatment +there, but it was not till 1564, when in failing health, that he was +allowed to return home. He died at his house in Clerkenwell on the 14th +of October 1565. He acquired during his years of service three estates, +Guisborough in Yorkshire, Steeple Claydon in Buckinghamshire, and St +Bees in Cumberland. He married (1) Joan, widow of Sir Thomas Leigh; and +(2) Etheldreda, daughter of Edward Frodsham, of Elton, Cheshire, by whom +he had one son, Sir Thomas Chaloner (1561-1615), the naturalist. +Chaloner was the intimate of most of the learned men of his day, and +with Lord Burghley he had a life-long friendship. Throughout his busy +official life he occupied himself with literature, his Latin verses and +his pastoral poems being much admired by his contemporaries. Chaloner's +"Howe the Lorde Mowbray ... was ... banyshed the Realme," printed in the +1559 edition of William Baldwin's _Mirror for Magistrates_ (repr. in +vol. ii. pt. 1 of Joseph Haslewood's edition of 1815), has sometimes +been attributed to Thomas Churchyard. His most important work, _De Rep. +Anglorum instauranda libri decem_, written while he was in Spain, was +first published by William Malim (1579, 3 pts.), with complimentary +Latin verses in praise of the author by Burghley and others. Chaloner's +epigrams and epitaphs were also added to the volume, as well as _In +laudem Henrici octavi ... carmen Panegericum_, first printed in 1560. +Amongst his other works are _The praise of folie, Moriae encomium_ ... +by Erasmus ... Englished by Sir Thomas Chaloner, Knight (1549, ed. Janet +E. Ashbee, 1901); _A book of the Office of Servantes_ (1543), translated +from Gilbert Cognatus; and _An homilie of Saint John Chrysostome_.... +Englished by T.C. (1544). + + See "The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St Bees," by William + Jackson, in _Transactions of the Cumberland Assoc. for the Advancement + of Literature and Science_, pt. vi. pp. 47-74, 1880-1881. + + + + + +CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE, a town of north-eastern France, capital of the +department of Marne, 107 m. E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern +railway to Nancy, and 25 m. S.S.E. of Reims. Pop. (1906) 22,424. Châlons +is situated in a wide level plain principally on the right bank of the +Marne, its suburb of Marne, which contains the railwaystations of the +Eastern and Est-État railways, lying on the left bank. The town proper +is bordered on the west by the lateral canal of the Marne, across which +lies a strip of ground separating it from the river itself. Châlons is +traversed by branches of the canal and by small streams, and its streets +are for the most part narrow and irregular, but it is surrounded by +ample avenues and promenades, the park known as the Jard, in the +south-western quarter, being especially attractive. Huge barracks lie to +the north and east. There are several interesting churches in the town. +The cathedral of St Étienne dates chiefly from the 13th century, but its +west façade is in the classical style and belongs to the 17th century. +There are stained-glass windows of the 13th century in the north +transept. Notre-Dame, of the 12th and 13th centuries, is conspicuous for +its four Romanesque towers, two flanking the apse; the other two, +surmounted by tall lead spires, flanking the principal façade. The +churches of St. Alpin, St Jean and St Loup date from various periods +between the 11th and the 17th centuries. The hôtel-de-ville (1771), +facing which stands a monument to President Carnot; the prefecture +(1750-1764), once the residence of the intendants of Champagne; the +college, once a Jesuit establishment; and a training college which +occupies the Augustinian abbey of Toussaints (16th and 17th centuries), +are noteworthy civil buildings. The houses of Châlons are generally +ill-built of timber and plaster, or rough-cast, but some old mansions, +dating from the 15th to the 16th centuries, remain. The church of Ste +Pudentienne, on the left bank of the river, is a well-known place of +pilgrimage. The town is the seat of a bishop and a prefect, and +headquarters of the VI. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance +and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a +museum, a library, training colleges, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, +a communal college and an important technical school. The principal +industry is brewing, which is carried on in the suburb of Marne. +Galleries of immense length, hewn in a limestone hill and served by +lines of railway, are used as store-houses for beer. The preparation of +champagne, the manufacture of boots and shoes, brushes, wire-goods and +wall-paper also occupy many hands. There is trade in cereals. + +Châlons-sur-Marne occupies the site of the chief town of the Catalauni, +and some portion of the plains which lie between it and Troyes was the +scene of the defeat of Attila in the conflict of 451. In the 10th and +following centuries it attained great prosperity as a kind of +independent state under the supremacy of its bishops, who were +ecclesiastical peers of France. In 1214 the militia of Châlons served at +the battle of Bouvines; and in the 15th century the citizens maintained +their honour by twice (1430 and 1434) repulsing the English from their +walls. In the 16th century the town sided with Henry IV., king of +France, who in 1589 transferred thither the parlement of Paris, which +shortly afterwards burnt the bulls of Gregory XIV. and Clement VIII. In +1856 Napoleon III. established a large camp, known as the Camp of +Châlons, about 16 m. north of the town by the railway to Reims. It was +situated in the immediate neighbourhood of Grand Mourmelon and Petit +Mourmelon, and occupied an area of nearly 30,000 acres. The "Army of +Châlons," formed by Marshal MacMahon in the camp after the first +reverses of the French in 1870, marched thence to the Meuse, was +surrounded by the Germans at Sedan, and forced to capitulate. The camp +is still a training-centre for troops. + +About 5 m. E. of Châlons is L'Epine, where there is a beautiful +pilgrimage church (15th and 16th centuries, with modern restoration) +with a richly-sculptured portal. In the interior there is a fine +choir-screen, an organ of the 16th century, and an ancient and +much-venerated statue of the Virgin. + + + + +CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE, a town of east-central France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Saône-et-Loire, 81 m. N. of Lyons +by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 26,538. It is a well-built town, +with fine quays, situated in an extensive plain on the right bank of the +Saône at its junction with the Canal du Centre. A handsome stone bridge +of the 15th century, decorated in the 18th century with obelisks, +connects it with the suburb of St Laurent on an island in the river. The +principal building is the church of St Vincent, once the cathedral. It +dates mainly from the 12th to the 15th centuries, but the façade is +modern and unpleasing. The old bishop's palace is a building of the 15th +century. The church of St Pierre, with two lofty steeples, dates from +the late 17th century. Chalon preserves remains of its ancient ramparts +and a number of old houses. The administrative buildings are modern. An +obelisk was erected in 1730 to commemorate the opening of the canal. +There is a statue of J.N. Niepce, a native of the town. Chalon is the +seat of a sub-prefect and a court of assizes, and there are tribunals of +first instance and commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber +of commerce, communal colleges for boys and girls, a school of drawing, +a public library and a museum. Chalon ranks next to Le Creusot among the +manufacturing towns of Burgundy; its position at the junction of the +Canal du Centre and the Saône, and as a railway centre for Lyons, Paris, +Dôle, Lons-le-Saunier and Roanne, brings it a large transit trade. The +founding and working of copper and iron is its main industry; the large +engineering works of Petit-Creusot, a branch of those of Le Creusot, +construct bridges, tug-boats and torpedo-boats; distilleries, +glass-works, chemical works, straw-hat manufactories, oil-works, +tile-works and sugar refineries also occupy many hands. Wine, grain, +iron, leather and timber are among the many products for which the town +is an entrepôt. About 2 m. east of Chalon is St Marcel (named after the +saint who in the 2nd century preached Christianity at Chalon), which has +a church of the 12th century, once belonging to a famous abbey. + +Chalon-sur-Saône is identified with the ancient _Cabillonum_, originally +an important town of the Aedui. It was chosen in the 6th century by +Gontram, king of Burgundy, as his capital; and it continued till the +10th to pay for its importance by being frequently sacked. The +bishopric, founded in the 4th century, was suppressed at the Revolution. +In feudal times Chalon was the capital of a countship. In 1237 it was +given in exchange for other fiefs in the Jura by Jean le Sage, whose +descendants nevertheless retained the title. Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy, +the other party to the exchange, gave the citizens a communal charter in +1256. In its modern history the most important event was the resistance +offered to a division of the Austrian army in 1814. + + + + +CHALUKYA, the name of an Indian dynasty which ruled in the Deccan from +A.D. 550 to 750, and again from 973 to 1190. The Chalukyas themselves +claimed to be Rajputs from the north who imposed their rule on the +Dravidian inhabitants of the Deccan tableland, and there is some +evidence for connecting them with the Chapas, a branch of the foreign +Gurjaras. The dynasty was founded by a chief named Pulakesin I., who +mastered the town of Vatapi (now Badami, in the Bijapur district) about +550. His sons extended their principality east and west; but the founder +of the Chalukya greatness was his grandson Pulakesin II., who succeeded +in 608 and proceeded to extend his rule at the expense of his +neighbours. In 609 he established as his viceroy in Vengi his brother +Kubja Vishnuvardhana, who in 615 declared his independence and +established the dynasty of Eastern Chalukyas, which lasted till 1070. In +620 Pulakesin defeated Harsha (q.v.), the powerful overlord of northern +India, and established the Nerbudda as the boundary between the South +and North. He also defeated in turn the Chola, Pandya and Kerala kings, +and by 630 was beyond dispute the most powerful sovereign in the Deccan. +In 642, however, his capital was taken and he himself killed by the +Pallava king Narasimhavarman. In 655 the Chalukya power was restored by +Pulakesin's son Vikramaditya I.; but the struggle with the Pallavas +continued until, in 740, Vikramaditya II. destroyed the Pallava capital. +In 750 Vikramaditya's son, Kirtivarman Chalukya, was overthrown by the +Rashtrakutas. + +In 973, Taila or Tailapa II. (d. 995), a scion of the royal Chalukya +race, succeeded in overthrowing the Rashtrakuta king Kakka II., and in +recovering all the ancient territory of the Chalukyas with the exception +of Gujarat. He was the founder of the dynasty known as the Chalukyas of +Kalyani. About A.D. 1000 a formidable invasion by the Chola king +Rajaraja the Great was defeated, and in 1052 Somesvara I., or Ahamavalla +(d. 1068), the founder of Kalyani, defeated and slew the Chola +Rajadhiraja. The reign of Vikramaditya VI., or Vikramanka, which lasted +from 1076 to 1126, formed another period of Chalukya greatness. +Vikramanka's exploits against the Hoysala kings and others, celebrated +by the poet Bilhana, were held to justify him in establishing a new era +dating from his accession. With his death, however, the Chalukya power +began to decline. In 1156 the commander-in-chief Bijjala (or Vijjana) +Kalachurya revolted, and he and his sons held the kingdom till 1183. In +this year Somesvara IV. Chalukya recovered part of his patrimony, only +to succumb, about 1190, to the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Hoysalas of +Dorasamudra. Henceforth the Chalukya rajas ranked only as petty chiefs. + + See J.F. Fleet, _Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts_; Prof. R.G. + Bhandarker, "Early History of the Deccan," in the _Bombay Gazetteer_ + (1896), vol. i. part ii.; Vincent A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_ + (Oxford, 1908), pp. 382 ff. + + + + +CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ (1796-1862), German philosopher, was born at +Pfaffroda in Saxony. For some years he taught at Dresden, and won a high +reputation by his lectures on the history of philosophy in Germany. In +1839 he became professor in Kiel University, where, with the exception of +one brief interval, when he was expelled with several colleagues because +of his German sympathies, he remained till his death. His first published +work, _Historische Entwickelung der spekulativen Philosophic von Kant bis +Hegel_ (1837, 5th ed. 1860), which still ranks among the best expositions +of modern German thought, has been twice translated into English, by A. +Tulk (London, 1854), and by A. Edersheim (Edinburgh, 1854). His chief +works are _Entwurf eines Systems der Wissenschaftslehre_ (Kiel, 1846) and +_System der spekulativen Ethik_ (2 vols., 1850). He opposed both the +extreme realism of Herbart and what he regarded as the one-sided idealism +of Hegel, and endeavoured to find a mean between them, to discover the +ideal or formal principle which unfolds itself in the real or material +world presented to it. His _Wissenschaftslehre_, accordingly, divides +itself into (1) _Principlehre_, or theory of the one principle; (2) +_Vermittelungslehre_, or theory of the means by which this principle +realizes itself; and (3) _Teleologie_. The most noticeable point is the +position assigned by Chalybäus to the "World Ether," which is defined as +the infinite in time and space, and which, he thinks, must be posited as +necessarily coexisting with the Infinite Spirit or God. The fundamental +principle of the _System der Ethik_ is carried out with great strength of +thought, and with an unusually complete command of ethical material. + + See J.E. Erdmann, _Grundriss der Gesch. d. Philos._ ii. 781-786; K. + Prantl, in _Allgem. deutsch. Biog._ + + + + +CHALYBITE, a mineral species consisting of iron carbonate (FeCO3) and +forming an important ore of iron. It was early known as spathose iron, +spathic iron or steel ore. F.S. Beudant in 1832 gave the name siderose +(from [Greek: sidêros], iron), which was modified by W. Haidinger in +1845 to siderite. Chalybite (from [Greek: chalyps], [Greek: chalybos], +Lat. _chalybs_, steel) is of slightly later date, having been given by +E.F. Glocker in 1847. The name siderite is in common use, but it is open +to objection since it had earlier been applied to several other species, +and is also now used as a group name for meteoric irons. Chalybite +crystallizes in the rhombohedral system and is isomorphous with calcite; +like this it possesses perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the +primitive rhombohedron, the angles between which are 73° 0'. Crystals +are usually rhombohedral in habit, and the primitive rhombohedron r +{100} is a common form, the faces being often curved as represented in +the figure. Acute rhombohedra in combination with the basal pinacoid are +also frequent, giving crystals of octahedral aspect. The mineral often +occurs in cleavable masses with a coarse or fine granular texture; also +in botryoidal or globular (sphaerosiderite) and oolitic forms. When +compact and mixed with much clay and sand it constitutes the well-known +clay ironstone. Chalybite is usually yellowish-grey or brown in colour; +it is translucent and has a vitreous lustre. Hardness 3½; sp. gr. 3.8. +The double refraction ([omega] - [epsilon] = 0.241) is stronger than +that of calcite. When pure it contains 48.2% of iron, but this is often +partly replaced isomorphously by manganese, magnesium or calcium: the +varieties known as oligon-spar or oligonite, sideroplesite and +siderodote contain these elements respectively in large amount. These +varieties form a passage to ankerite (q.v.) and mesitite, and all are +referred to loosely as brown-spar. + +[Illustration: Crystal of Chalybite.] + +Chalybite is a common gangue mineral in metalliferous veins, and +well-crystallized specimens are found with ores of copper, lead, tin, +&c., in Cornwall, the Harz, Saxony and many other places. It also occurs +alone as large masses in veins and beds in rocks of various kinds. The +clay ironstone so extensively worked as an ore of iron occurs as nodules +and beds in the Coal Measures of England and the United States, and the +oolitic iron ore of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire forms beds in +the Lias. The mineral is occasionally found as concretionary masses +(sphaerosiderite) in cavities in basic igneous rocks such as dolerite. + (L. J. S.) + + + + +CHAMBA, a native state of India, within the Punjab, amid the Himalayas, +and lying on the southern border of Kashmir. It has an area of 3216 sq. +m. Pop. (1901) 127,834. The sanatorium of Dalhousie, though within the +state, is attached to the district of Gurdaspur. Chamba is entirely +mountainous; in the east and north, and in the centre, are snowy ranges. +The valleys in the west and south are fertile. The chief rivers are the +Chandra and Ravi. The country is much in favour with sportsmen. The +principal crops are rice, maize and millet. Mineral ores of various +kinds are known, but unworked. Trade is chiefly in forest produce. The +capital of the state is Chamba (pop. 6000), situated above the gorge of +the Ravi. External communications are entirely by road. The state was +founded in the 6th century, and, though sometimes nominally subject to +Kashmir and afterwards tributary to the Mogul empire, always practically +maintained its independence. Its chronicles are preserved in a series of +inscriptions, mostly engraved on copper. It first came under British +influence in 1846, when it was declared independent of Kashmir. The line +of the rajas of Chamba was founded in the 6th century A.D. by Marut, of +an ancient family of Rajputs. In 1904 Bhuri Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., an +enlightened and capable ruler, succeeded. + + + + +CHAMBAL, a river of India, one of the principal tributaries of the +Jumna. Rising amid the summits of the Vindhya mountains in Malwa, it +flows north, and after being joined by the Chambla and Sipra, passes +through the gorges of the Mokandarra hills. After receiving the waters +of the Kali-Sind, Parbati and Banas, its principal confluents, the +Chambal becomes a great river, enters the British district of Etawah, +and joins the Jumna 40 m. below Etawah town, its total length being 650 +m. + + + + +CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH (1836- ), British statesman, third son of Joseph +Chamberlain, master of the Cordwainers' Company, was born at Camberwell +Grove, London, on the 8th of July 1836. His father was a well-to-do man +of business, a Unitarian in religion and a Liberal in politics. Young +Chamberlain was educated at Canonbury from 1845 to 1850, and at +University College school, London, from 1850 to 1852. After two years in +his father's office in London, he was sent to Birmingham to join his +cousin Joseph Nettlefold in a screw business in which his father had an +interest; and by degrees, largely owing to his own intelligent +management, this business became very successful. Nettlefold & +Chamberlain employed new methods of attracting customers, and +judiciously amalgamated rival firms with their own so as to reduce +competition, with the result that in 1874, after twenty-two years of +commercial life, Mr Chamberlain was able to retire with an ample +fortune. Meanwhile he had in 1861 married his first wife, Miss Harriet +Kenrick (she died in 1863), and had gradually come to take an +increasingly important part in the municipal and political life of +Birmingham. He was a constant speaker at the Birmingham and Edgbaston +Debating Society; and when in 1868 the Birmingham Liberal Association +was reorganized, he became one of its leading members. In 1869 he was +elected chairman of the executive council of the new National Education +League, the outcome of Mr George Dixon's movement for promoting the +education of the children of the lower classes by paying their school +fees, and agitating for more accommodation and a better national system. +In the same year he was elected a member of the town council, and +married his second wife--a cousin of his first--Miss Florence Kenrick +(d. 1875). + +In 1870 he was elected a member of the first school board for +Birmingham; and for the next six years, and especially after 1873, when +he became leader of a majority and chairman, he actively championed the +Nonconformist opposition to denominationalism. He was then regarded as a +Republican--the term signifying rather that he held advanced Radical +opinions, which were construed by average men in the light of the +current political developments in France, than that he really favoured +Republican institutions. His programme was "free Church, free land, free +schools, free labour." At the general election of 1874 he stood as a +parliamentary candidate for Sheffield, but without success. Between 1869 +and 1873 he was a prominent advocate in the Birmingham town council of +the gospel of municipal reform preached by Mr Dawson, Dr Dale and Mr +Bunce (of the _Birmingham. Post_); and in 1873 his party obtained a +majority, and he was elected mayor, an office he retained until June +1876. As mayor he had to receive the prince and princess of Wales on +their visit in June 1874, an occasion which excited some curiosity +because of his reputation as a Republican; but those who looked for an +exhibition of bad taste were disappointed, and the behaviour of the +Radical mayor satisfied the requirements alike of _The Times_ and of +_Punch_. + +The period of his mayoralty was one of historic importance in the growth +of modern Birmingham. New municipal buildings were erected, Highgate +Park was opened as a place of recreation, the free library and art +gallery were developed. But the great work carried through by Mr +Chamberlain for Birmingham was the municipalization of the supply of gas +and water, and the improvement scheme by which slums were cleared away +and forty acres laid out in new streets and open spaces. The prosperity +of modern Birmingham dates from 1875 and 1876, when these admirably +administered reforms were initiated, and by his share in them Mr +Chamberlain became not only one of its most popular citizens but also a +man of mark outside. An orator of a business-like, straightforward type, +cool and hard-hitting, his spare figure, incisive features and single +eye-glass soon made him a favourite subject for the caricaturist; and in +later life his aggressive personality, and the peculiarly irritating +effect it had on his opponents, made his actions and speeches the object +of more controversy than was the lot of any other politician of his +time. His hobby for orchid-growing at his house "Highbury" near +Birmingham also became famous. In private life his loyalty to his +friends, and his "genius for friendship" (as John Morley said) made a +curious contrast to his capacity for arousing the bitterest political +hostility. It may be added here that the interest taken by him in +Birmingham remained undiminished during his life, and he was largely +instrumental in starting the Birmingham University (1900), of which he +became chancellor. His connexion with Birmingham University was indeed +peculiarly appropriate to his character as a man of business; but in +spite of his representing a departure among men of the front rank in +politics from the "Eton and Oxford" type, his general culture sometimes +surprised those who did not know him. In later life Oxford and Cambridge +gave him their doctors' degrees; and in 1897 he was made lord rector of +Glasgow University (delivering an address on "Patriotism" at his +installation). + +In 1876 Mr Dixon resigned his seat in parliament, and Mr Chamberlain was +returned for Birmingham in his place unopposed, as John Bright's +colleague. He made his maiden speech in the House of Commons on the 4th +of August 1876, on Lord Sandon's Education Bill. At this period, too, he +paid much attention to the question of licensing reform, and in 1876 he +examined the Gothenburg system in Sweden, and advocated a solution of +the problem in England on similar lines. During 1877 the new federation +of Liberal Associations which became known as the "Caucus" was started +under Mr Chamberlain's influence in Birmingham--its secretary, Mr +Schnadhorst, quickly making himself felt as a wire-puller of exceptional +ability; and the new organization had a remarkable effect in putting +life into the Liberal party, which since Mr Gladstone's retirement in +1874 had been much in need of a stimulus. When the general election came +in 1880, Mr Schnadhorst's powers were demonstrated in the successes won +under his auspices. The Liberal party numbered 349, against 243 +Conservatives and 60 Irish Nationalists; and the Radical section of the +Liberal party, led by Mr Chamberlain and Sir Charles Dilke, was +recognized by Mr Gladstone by his inclusion of the former in his cabinet +as president of the Board of Trade, and the appointment of the latter as +under secretary for foreign affairs. In his new capacity Mr Chamberlain +was responsible for carrying such important measures as the Bankruptcy +Act 1883, and the Patents Act. Another bill which he had much at heart, +on merchant shipping, had to be abandoned, and a royal commission +substituted, but the subsequent legislation in 1888-1894 owed much to +his efforts. The Franchise Act of 1884 was also one in which he took a +leading part as a champion of the opinions of the labouring class. At +this time he took the current advanced Radical views of both Irish and +foreign policy, hating "coercion," disliking the occupation of Egypt, +and prominently defending the Transvaal settlement after Majuba. Both +before and after the defeat of Mr Gladstone's government on the Budget +in June 1885, he associated himself with what was known as the +"Unauthorized Programme," i.e. free education, small holdings, graduated +taxation and local government. In June 1885 he made a speech at +Birmingham, treating the reforms just mentioned as the "ransom" that +property must pay to society for the security it enjoys--for which Lord +Iddesleigh called him "Jack Cade"; and he continually urged the Liberal +party to take up these Radical measures. At the general election of +November 1885 Mr Chamberlain was returned for West Birmingham. The +Liberal strength generally was, however, reduced to 335 members, though +the Radical section held their own; and the Irish vote became necessary +to Mr Gladstone if he was to command a majority. In December it was +stated that Mr Gladstone intended to propose Home Rule for Ireland, and +in January Lord Salisbury's ministry was defeated on the Address, on an +amendment moved by Mr Chamberlain's Birmingham henchman, Mr Jesse +Collings (b. 1831), embodying the "three acres and a cow" of the Radical +programme. Unlike Lord Hartington (afterwards duke of Devonshire) and +other Liberals, who declined to join Mr Gladstone in view of the altered +attitude he was adopting towards Ireland, Mr Chamberlain entered the +cabinet as president of the Local Government Board (with Mr Jesse +Collings as parliamentary secretary), but on the 15th of March 1886 he +resigned, explaining in the House of Commons (8th April) that, while he +had always been in favour of the largest possible extension of local +government to Ireland consistently with the integrity of the empire and +the supremacy of parliament, and had therefore joined Mr Gladstone when +he believed that this was what was intended, he was unable to consider +that the scheme communicated by Mr Gladstone to his colleagues +maintained those limitations. At the same time he was not +irreconcilable, and he invited Mr Gladstone even then to modify his bill +so as to remove the objections made to it. This indecisive attitude did +not last long, and the split in the party rapidly widened. At Birmingham +Mr Chamberlain was supported by the "Two Thousand," but deserted by the +"Caucus" and Mr Schnadhorst. In May the Radicals who followed Mr Bright +and Mr Chamberlain, and the Whigs who took their cue from Lord +Hartington, decided to vote against the second reading of the Home Rule +Bill, instead of allowing it to be taken and then pressing for +modifications in committee, and on 7th June the bill was defeated by 343 +to 313, 94 Liberal Unionists--as they were generally called--voting +against the government. Mr Chamberlain was the object of the bitterest +attacks from the Gladstonians for his share in this result; he was +stigmatized as "Judas," and open war was proclaimed by the Home Rulers +against the "dissentient Liberals"--the description used by Mr +Gladstone. The general election, however, returned to parliament 316 +Conservatives, 78 Liberal Unionists, and only 276 Gladstonians and +Nationalists, Birmingham returning seven Unionist members. When the +House met in August, it was decided by the Liberal Unionists, under Lord +Hartington's leadership, that their policy henceforth was essentially to +combine with the Tories to keep Mr Gladstone out. The old Liberal +feeling still prevailing among them was too strong, however, for their +leaders to take office in a coalition ministry. It was enough for them +to be able to tie down the Conservative government to such measures as +were not offensive to Liberal Unionist principles. It still seemed +possible, moreover, that the Gladstonians might be brought to modify +their Home Rule proposals, and in January 1887 a Round Table conference +(suggested by Mr Chamberlain) was held between Mr Chamberlain, Sir G. +Trevelyan, Sir William Harcourt, Mr Morley and Lord Herschell. But no +_rapprochement_ was effected, and reconciliation became daily more and +more difficult. The influence of Liberal Unionist views upon the +domestic legislation of the government was steadily bringing about a +more complete union in the Unionist party, and destroying the old lines +of political cleavage. Before 1892 Mr Chamberlain had the satisfaction +of seeing Lord Salisbury's ministry pass such important acts, from a +progressive point of view, as those dealing with Coal Mines Regulation, +Allotments, County Councils, Housing of the Working Classes, Free +Education and Agricultural Holdings, besides Irish legislation like the +Ashbourne Act, the Land Act of 1891, and the Light Railways and +Congested Districts Acts. In October 1887 Mr Chamberlain, Sir L. +Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper were selected by the government as +British plenipotentiaries to discuss with the United States the Canadian +fisheries dispute, and a treaty was arranged by them at Washington on +the 15th of February 1888. The Senate refused to ratify it; but a +protocol provided for a _modus vivendi_ pending ratification, giving +American fishing vessels similar advantages to those contemplated in the +treaty; and on the whole Mr Chamberlain's mission to America was +accepted as a successful one in maintaining satisfactory relations with +the United States. He returned to England in March 1888, and was +presented with the freedom of the borough of Birmingham. The visit also +resulted, in November 1888, in his marriage with his third wife, Miss +Endicott, daughter of the United States secretary of war in President +Cleveland's first administration. + +At the general election of 1892 Mr Chamberlain was again returned, with +an increased majority, for West Birmingham; but the Unionist party as a +whole came back with only 315 members against 355 Home Rulers. In August +Lord Salisbury's ministry was defeated; and on the 13th of February 1893 +Mr Gladstone introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which was eventually +read a third time on the 1st of September. During the eighty-two days' +discussion in the House of Commons Mr Chamberlain was the life and soul +of the opposition, and his criticisms had a vital influence upon the +attitude of the country when the House of Lords summarily threw out the +bill. His chief contribution to the discussions during the later stages +of the Gladstone and Rosebery ministries was in connexion with Mr +Asquith's abortive Employers' Liability Bill, when he foreshadowed the +method of dealing with this question afterwards carried out in the +Compensation Act of 1897. Outside parliament he was busy formulating +proposals for old age pensions, which had a prominent place in the +Unionist programme of 1895. In that year, on the defeat of Lord +Rosebery, the union of the Unionists was sealed by the inclusion of the +Liberal Unionist leaders in Lord Salisbury's ministry; and Mr +Chamberlain became secretary of state for the colonies. There had been +much speculation as to what his post would be, and his nomination to the +colonial office, then considered one of secondary rank, excited some +surprise; but Mr Chamberlain himself realized how important that +department had become. He carried with him into the ministry his close +Birmingham municipal associates, Mr Jesse Collings (as under secretary +of the home office), and Mr J. Powell-Williams (1840-1904) as financial +secretary to the war office. Mr Chamberlain's influence in the Unionist +cabinet was soon visible in the Workmen's Compensation Act and other +measures. This act, though in Sir Matthew White Ridley's charge as home +secretary, was universally and rightly associated with Mr Chamberlain; +and its passage, in the face of much interested opposition from +highly-placed, old-fashioned conservatives and capitalists on both +sides, was principally due to his determined advocacy. Another "social" +measure of less importance, which formed part of the Chamberlain +programme, was the Small Houses Acquisition Act of 1899; but the problem +of old age pensions was less easily solved. This subject had been handed +over in 1893 to a royal commission, and further discussed by a select +committee in 1899 and a departmental committee in 1900, but both of +these threw cold water on the schemes laid before them--a result which, +galling enough to one who had made so much play with the question in the +country, offered welcome material to his opponents for electioneering +recrimination, as year by year went by between 1895 and 1900 and nothing +resulted from all the confident talk on the subject in which Mr +Chamberlain had indulged when out of office. Eventually it was the +Liberal and not the Unionist party that carried an Old Age Pensions +scheme through parliament, during the 1908 session, when Mr Chamberlain +was _hors de combat_. + +From January 1896 (the date of the Jameson Raid) onwards South Africa +demanded the chief attention of the colonial secretary (see SOUTH +AFRICA, and for details TRANSVAAL). In his negotiations with President +Kruger one masterful temperament was pitted against another. Mr +Chamberlain had a very difficult part to play, in a situation dominated +by suspicion on both sides, and while he firmly insisted on the rights +of Great Britain and of British subjects in the Transvaal, he was the +continual object of Radical criticism at home. Never has a statesman's +personality been more bitterly associated by his political opponents +with the developments they deplored. Attempts were even made to ascribe +financial motives to Mr Chamberlain's actions, and the political +atmosphere was thick with suspicion and scandal. The report of the +Commons committee (July 1897) definitely acquitted both Mr Chamberlain +and the colonial office of any privity in the Jameson Raid, but Mr +Chamberlain's detractors continued to assert the contrary. Opposition +hostility reached such a pitch that in 1899 there was hardly an act of +the cabinet during the negotiations with President Kruger which was not +attributed to the personal malignity and unscrupulousness of the +colonial secretary. The elections of 1900 (when he was again returned, +unopposed, for West Birmingham) turned upon the individuality of a +single minister more than any since the days of Mr Gladstone's +ascendancy, and Mr Chamberlain, never conspicuous for inclination to +turn his other cheek to the smiter, was not slow to return the blows +with interest. + +Apart from South Africa, his most important work at this time was the +successful passing of the Australian Commonwealth Act (1900), in which +both tact and firmness were needed to settle certain differences between +the imperial government and the colonial delegates. + +Mr Chamberlain's tenure of the office of colonial secretary between 1895 +and 1900 must always be regarded as a turning-point in the history of +the relations between the British colonies and the mother country. His +accession to office was marked by speeches breathing a new spirit of +imperial consolidation, embodied either in suggestions for commercial +union or in more immediately practicable proposals for improving the +"imperial estate"; and at the Diamond Jubilee of 1897 the visits of the +colonial premiers to London emphasized and confirmed the new policy, the +fruits of which were afterwards seen in the cordial support given by the +colonies in the Boer War. Even in what Mr Chamberlain called his +"Radical days" he had never supported the "Manchester" view of the value +of a colonial empire; and during the Gladstone ministry of 1882-1885 Mr +Bright had remarked that the junior member for Birmingham was the only +Jingo in the cabinet--meaning, no doubt, that he objected to the policy +of _laissez-faire_ and the timidity of what was afterwards known as +"Little Englandism." While he was still under Mr Gladstone's influence +these opinions were kept in subordination; but Mr Chamberlain was always +an imperial federationist, and from 1887 onwards he constantly gave +expression to his views on the desirability of drawing the different +parts of the empire closer together for purposes of defence and +commerce. In 1895 the time for the realization of these views had come; +and Mr Chamberlain's speeches, previously remarkable chiefly for +debating power and directness of argument, were now dominated by a new +note of constructive statesmanship, basing itself on the economic +necessities of a world-wide empire. Not the least of the anxieties of +the colonial office during this period was the situation in the West +Indies, where the cane-sugar industry was being steadily undermined by +the European bounties given to exports of continental beet; and though +the government restricted themselves to attempts at removing the +bounties by negotiation and to measures for palliating the worst effects +in the West Indies, Mr Chamberlain made no secret of his repudiation of +the Cobden Club view that retaliation would be contrary to the doctrines +of free trade, and he did his utmost to educate public opinion at home +into understanding that the responsibilities of the mother country are +not merely to be construed according to the selfish interests of a +nation of consumers. As regards foreign affairs, Mr Chamberlain more +than once (and particularly at Leicester on 30th November 1899) +indicated his leanings towards a closer understanding between the +British empire, the United States and Germany,--a suggestion which did +not save him from an extravagant outburst of German hostility during the +Boer War. The unusually outspoken and pointed expression, however, of +his disinclination to submit to Muscovite duplicity or to "pin-pricks" +or "unmannerliness" from France was criticized on the score of +discretion by a wider circle than that of his political adversaries. + +During the progress of the Boer War from 1899 to 1902, Mr Chamberlain, +as the statesman who had represented the cabinet in the negotiations +which led to it, remained the object of constant attacks from his +Radical opponents--the "little Englanders" and "Pro-Boers," as he called +them--and he was supported by the Imperialist and Unionist party with at +least equal ardour. But as colonial secretary, except in so far as his +consistent support of Lord Milner and his enthusiastic encouragement of +colonial assistance were concerned, he naturally played only a +subordinate part during the carrying out of the military operations. +Among domestic statesmen he was felt, however, to be the backbone of the +party in power. He was the hero of the one side, just as he was the +bugbear of the other. On the 13th of February 1902 he was presented with +an address in a gold casket by the city corporation, and entertained at +luncheon at the Mansion House, an honour not unconnected with the strong +feeling recently aroused by his firm reply (at Birmingham, January 11) +to some remarks made by Count von Büllow, the German chancellor, in the +Reichstag (January 8), reflecting the offensive allegations current in +Germany against the conduct of the army in South Africa. Mr +Chamberlain's speech, in answer to what had been intended as a +contemptuous rebuke, was universally applauded. His own imperialism was +intensified by the way in which England's difficulties resulted in +calling forth colonial assistance and so cementing the bonds of empire. +The domestic crisis, and the sharp cleavage between parties at home, had +driven the bent of his mind and policy further and further away from the +purely municipal and national ideals which he had followed so keenly +before he became colonial minister. The problems of empire engrossed +him, and a new enthusiasm for imperial projects arose in the Unionist +party under his inspiration. No English statesman probably has ever +been, at different times in his career, so able an advocate of +absolutely contradictory policies, and his opponents were not slow to +taunt him with quotations from his earlier speeches. As the war drew to +its end, new plans for imperial consolidation were maturing in his +brain. Subsidiary points of utility, such as the formation of the London +and Liverpool schools of tropical medicine from 1899 onwards, were taken +up by him with characteristic vigour. But the next step was to prove a +critical one indeed for the loyalty of the party which had so far been +unanimous in his favour. + +The settlement after the war was full of difficulties, financial and +others, in South Africa. When Mr Arthur Balfour succeeded Lord Salisbury +as prime minister in July 1902, Mr Chamberlain agreed to serve loyally +under him, and the friendship between the two leaders was indeed one of +the most marked features of the political situation. In November 1902 it +was arranged that Mr Chamberlain should go out to South Africa, and it +was hoped, not without reason, that his personality would effect more +good than any ordinary official negotiations. At the time the best +results appeared to be secured. He went from place to place in South +Africa (December 26-February 25); arranged with the leading Transvaal +financiers that in return for support from the British government in +raising a Transvaal loan they would guarantee a large proportion of a +Transvaal debt of £30,000,000, which should repay the British treasury +so much of the cost of the war; and when he returned in March 1903, +satisfaction was general in the country over the success of his mission. +But meantime two things had happened. He had looked at the empire from +the colonial point of view, in a way only possible in a colonial +atmosphere; and at home some of his colleagues had gone a long way, +behind the scenes, to destroy one of the very factors on which the +question of a practical scheme for imperial commercial federation seemed +to hinge. In the budget of 1902 a duty of a shilling a quarter on +imported corn had been reintroduced. This small tax was regarded as only +a registration duty. Even by free-trade ministers like Gladstone it had +been left up to 1869 untouched, and its removal by Robert Lowe (Lord +Sherbrooke) had since then been widely regarded as a piece of economic +pedantry. Its reimposition, officially supported for the sake of +necessary revenue in war-time, and cordially welcomed by the Unionist +party, had justified itself, as they contended, in spite of the +criticisms of the Opposition (who raised the cry of the "dear loaf"), by +proving during the year to have had no general or direct effect on the +price of bread. And the more advanced Imperialists, as well as the more +old-fashioned protectionists (like Mr Chaplin) who formed an integral +body of the Conservative party, had looked forward to this tax being +converted into a differential one between foreign and colonial corn, so +as to introduce a scheme of colonial preference and commercial +consolidation between the colonies and the mother country. In South +Africa--as in any other British colony, since all of them were +accustomed to tariffs of a protectionist nature, and the idea of a +preference (already started by Canada) was fairly popular--Mr +Chamberlain had found this view well established. The agitation in +England against the tax had now blown over. The Unionist rank and file +were committed to its support,--many even advocating its increase to two +shillings at least. But Mr Ritchie, the chancellor of the exchequer, +having a surplus in prospect and taxation to take off, carried the +cabinet in favour of again remitting this tax on corn. Mr Chamberlain +himself had proposed only to take it off as regards colonial, and not +foreign corn,--thus inaugurating a preferential system. But a majority +of the cabinet supported Mr Ritchie. The remission of this tax, after +all the conviction with which its restoration had been supported a year +before, was very difficult for the party itself to stomach, and on any +ground it was a distasteful act, loyally as the party followed their +leaders. But to those who had looked to it as providing a lever for a +gradual change in the established fiscal system, the _volte-face_ was a +bitter blow, and at once there began, though not at first openly, a +split between the more rigid free-traders--advocates of cheap food and +free imports--and those who desired to use the opportunities of a +tariff, of however moderate a kind, for attaining national and imperial +and not merely revenue advantages. This idea, which had for some time +been floating in Mr Chamberlain's mind (see especially his speech at +Birmingham of May 16, 1902), now took full possession of it. For the +moment he remained in the cabinet, but the seed of dissension was sown. +The first public intimation of his views was given in a speech to his +constituents at Birmingham (May 15, 1903), when he outlined a plan for +raising more money by a rearranged tariff, partly to obtain a +preferential system for the empire and partly to produce funds for +social reform at home. On May 28th in the House of Commons he spoke on +the same subject, and declared "if you are to give a preference to the +colonies, you must put a tax on food." Considered in the light of after +events, this putting the necessity of food-taxes in the forefront was +decidedly injudicious; but imperialist conviction and enthusiasm were +more conspicuous than electioneering tact in the launching of Mr +Chamberlain's new scheme. + +The movement grew quickly, its supporters including a number of the +cleverest younger politicians and journalists in the Unionist party. The +idea of tariff reform--to broaden the basis of taxation, to introduce a +preference, and to stimulate home industries and increase +employment--took firm root; and the political economists of the +party--Prof. W. Cunningham, Prof. W. Ashley and Prof. W.A.S. Hewins, in +particular--brought effective criticism to bear on the one-sided "free +trade" in vogue. The first demand was for inquiry. The country was still +bearing an income-tax of elevenpence in the pound; it appeared that the +old sources of revenue were inadequate; and meanwhile the statistics of +trade, it was argued, showed that the English free-import system +hampered English trade while providing the foreigner with a free market. +Mr Chamberlain and his supporters argued that since 1870 certain other +countries (Germany and the United States), with protective tariffs, had +increased their trade in much larger proportion, while English trade had +only been maintained by the increased business done with British +colonies. A scientific inquiry into the facts was needed. By the +Opposition, who now found themselves the defenders of conservatism in +the established fiscal policy of the country, this whole argument was +scouted; but for a time the demand merely for inquiry, and the +production of figures, gave no sufficient occasion for dissension among +Unionists, even when, like Sir M. Hicks Beach, they were convinced +free-importers on purely economic grounds; and Mr Balfour (q.v.), as +premier, managed to hold his colleagues and party together by taking the +line that particular opinions on economic subjects should not be made a +test of party loyalty. The Board of Trade was set to work to produce +fiscal Blue-books, and hum-drum politicians who had never shown any +genius for figures suddenly blossomed out into arithmeticians of the +deepest dye. The Tariff Reform League was founded in order to further Mr +Chamberlain's policy, holding its inaugural meeting on July 21st; and it +began to take an active part in issuing leaflets and in work at +by-elections. Discussion proceeded hotly on the merits of a preferential +tariff, and on August 15th a manifesto appeared against it signed by +fourteen professors or lecturers on political economy, including Mr +Leonard Courtney, Professor Edgeworth, Professor Marshall, Professor +Bastable, Professor Smart, Professor J.S. Nicholson, Professor Conner, +Mr Bowley, Mr E. Cannan and Mr L.R. Phelps,--men of admitted competence, +yet, after all, of no higher authority than the economists supporting Mr +Chamberlain, such as Dr Cunningham and Professor Ashley. + +Meanwhile, the death of Lord Salisbury (August 22) removed a weighty +figure from the councils of the Unionist party. The cabinet met several +times at the beginning of September, and the question of their attitude +towards the fiscal problem became acute. The public had its first +intimation of impending events in the appearance on September 16th of Mr +Balfour's _Economic Notes on Insular Free Trade_, which had been +previously circulated as a cabinet memorandum. The next day appeared the +Board of Trade Fiscal Blue-book. And on the 18th the resignations were +announced, not only of the more rigid free-traders in the cabinet, Mr +Ritchie and Lord George Hamilton, but also of Mr Chamberlain. Letters in +cordial terms were published, which had passed between Mr Chamberlain +(September 9) and Mr Balfour (September 16). Mr Chamberlain pointed out +that he was committed to a preferential scheme involving new duties on +food, and could not remain in the government without prejudice while it +was excluded from the party programme; remaining loyal to Mr Balfour and +his general objects, he could best promote this course from outside, and +he suggested that the government might confine its policy to the +"assertion of our freedom in the case of all commercial relations with +foreign countries." Mr Balfour, while reluctantly admitting the +necessity of Mr Chamberlain's taking a freer hand, expressed his +agreement in the desirability of a closer fiscal union with the +colonies, but questioned the immediate practicability of any scheme; he +was willing to adopt fiscal reform so far as it covered retaliatory +duties, but thought that the exclusion of taxation of food from the +party programme was in existing circumstances necessary, so long as +public opinion was not ripe. At the same time he welcomed the fact that +Mr Chamberlain's son, Mr Austen Chamberlain, was ready to remain a +member of the government. Mr Austen Chamberlain (b. 1863) accordingly +became the new chancellor of the exchequer; he was already in the +cabinet as postmaster-general, having previously made his mark as civil +lord of the admiralty (1895-1900), and financial secretary to the +treasury (1900-1902). + +From the turning-point of Mr Chamberlain's resignation, it is not +necessary here to follow in detail the discussions and dissensions in +the party as a whole in its relations with the prime minister (see +BALFOUR, A.J.). It is sufficient to say that while Mr Balfour's +sympathetic "send off" appeared to indicate his inclination towards Mr +Chamberlain's programme, if only further support could be gained for it, +his endeavour to keep the party together, and the violent opposition +which gathered against Mr Chamberlain's scheme, combined to make his +real attitude during the next two years decidedly obscure, both sections +of the party--free-traders and tariff reformers--being induced from time +to time to regard him as on their side. The tariff reform movement +itself was now, however, outside the purely official programme, and Mr +Chamberlain (backed by a majority of the Unionist members) threw himself +with impetuous ardour into a crusade on its behalf, while at the same +time supporting Mr Balfour in parliament, and leaving it to him to +decide as to the policy of going to the country when the time should be +ripe. In his own words, he went in front of the Unionist army as a +pioneer, and if his army was attacked he would go back to it; in no +conceivable circumstances would he allow himself to be put in any sort +of competition, direct or indirect, with Mr Balfour, his friend and +leader, whom he meant to follow (October 6). + +On October 6th he opened his campaign with a speech at Glasgow. +Analysing the trade statistics as between 1872 and 1902, he insisted +that British progress involved a relative decline compared with that of +protectionist foreign countries like Germany and the United States; +Great Britain exported less and less of manufactured goods, and imported +more and more; the exports to foreign countries had decreased, and it +was only the increased exports to the colonies that maintained the +British position. This was the outcome of the working of a one-sided +free-trade system. Now was the time, and it might soon be lost, for +consolidating British trade relations with the colonies. If the mother +country and her daughter states did not draw closer, they would +inevitably drift apart. A further increase of £26,000,000 a year in the +trade with the colonies might be obtained by a preferential tariff, and +this meant additional employment at home for 166,000 workmen, or +subsistence for a population of a far larger number. His positive +proposals were: (1) no tax on raw materials; (2) a small tax on food +other than colonial, e.g. two shillings a quarter on foreign corn but +excepting maize, and 5% on meat and dairy produce excluding bacon; (3) +a 10% general tariff on imported manufactured goods. To meet any +increased cost of living, he proposed to reduce the duties on tea, sugar +and other articles of general consumption, and he estimated that his +scheme would in no case increase a working-man's expenditure, and in +most cases would reduce it. "The colonies," he said, "are prepared to +meet us; in return for a very moderate preference, they will give us a +substantial advantage in their markets." This speech, delivered with +characteristic vigour and Imperialistic enthusiasm, was the type of +others which followed in quick succession during the year. At Greenock +next day he emphasized the necessity of retaliating against foreign +tariffs--"I never like being hit without striking back." The practice of +"dumping" must be fairly met; if foreign goods were brought into England +to undersell British manufacturers, either the Fair Wages Clause and the +Factory Acts and the Compensation Act would have to be repealed, or the +workmen would have to take lower wages, or lose their work. "Agriculture +has been practically destroyed, sugar has gone, silk has gone, iron is +threatened, wool is threatened, cotton will go! How long are you going +to stand it?" On October 20th he spoke at Newcastle, on the 21st at +Tynemouth, on the 27th at Liverpool, insisting that free-trade had never +been a working-class measure and that it could not be reconciled with +trade-unionism; on November 4th at Birmingham, on the 20th at Cardiff, +on the 21st at Newport, and on December 16th at Leeds. In all these +speeches he managed to point his argument by application to local +industries. In the Leeds speech he announced that, with a view to +drawing up a scientific model tariff, a non-political commission of +representative experts would be appointed under the auspices of the +Tariff Reform League to take evidence from every trade; it included many +heads of businesses, and Mr Charles Booth, the eminent student of social +and industrial London, with Sir Robert Herbert as chairman, and +Professor W.A.S. Hewins as secretary. The name of "Tariff Commission," +given to this voluntary and unofficial body, was a good deal criticized, +but though flouted by the political free-traders it set to work in +earnest, and accumulated a mass of evidence as to the real facts of +trade, which promised to be invaluable to economic inquirers. On January +18th, 1904, Mr Chamberlain ended his series of speeches by a great +meeting at the Guildhall, in the city of London, the key-note being his +exhortation to his audience to "think imperially." + +All this activity on Mr Chamberlain's part represented a great physical +and intellectual feat on the part of a man now sixty-seven years of age; +but his bodily vigour and comparatively youthful appearance were +essential features of his personality. Nothing like this campaign had +been known in the political world since Mr Gladstone's Midlothian days; +and it produced a great public impression, stirring up both supporters +and opponents. Free-trade unionists like Lord Goschen and Lord Hugh +Cecil, and the Liberal leaders--for whom Mr Asquith became the principal +spokesman, though Lord Rosebery's criticisms also had considerable +weight--found new matter in Mr Chamberlain's speeches for their +contention that any radical change in the traditional English fiscal +policy, established now for sixty years, would only result in evil. The +broad fact remained that while Mr Chamberlain's activity gathered round +him the bulk of the Unionist members and an enthusiastic band of +economic sympathizers, the country as a whole remained apathetic and +unconvinced. One reason was the intellectual difficulty of the subject +and the double-faced character of all arguments from statistics, which +were either incomprehensible or disputable; another was the fact that +substantially this was a political movement, and that tariff reform was, +after all, only one in a complexity of political issues, most of which +during this period were being interpreted by the electorate in a sense +hostile to the Unionist party. Mr Chamberlain had relied on his personal +influence, which from 1895 to 1902 had been supreme; but his own +resignation, and the course of events, had since 1903 made his +personality less authoritative, and new interests--such as the +opposition to the Education Act, to the heavy taxation, and to Chinese +labour in the Transvaal, and indignation over the revelations concerned +with the war--were monopolizing attention, to the weakening of his hold +on the public. The revival in trade, and the production of new +statistics which appeared to stultify Mr Chamberlain's prophecies of +progressive decline, enabled the free-trade champions to reassure their +audiences as to the very foundation of his case, and to represent the +whole tariff reform movement as no less unnecessary than risky. +Moreover, the split in the Unionist party brought the united Liberal +party in full force into the field, and at last the country began to +think that the danger of Irish Home Rule was practically over, and that +a Liberal majority might be returned to power in safety, with the +prospect of providing an alternative government which would assure +commercial repose (Lord Rosebery's phrase), relief from extravagant +expenditure, and--as the working-classes were led to believe--a certain +amount of labour legislation which the Tory leaders would never propose. +On the other hand the colonies took a great interest in the new +movement, though without putting any such pressure on the home public as +Mr Chamberlain might have expected. At the opening of 1904 he was +officially invited by Mr Deakin, the prime minister of the Commonwealth, +to pay a visit to Australia, in order to expound his scheme, being +promised an enthusiastic welcome "as the harbinger of commercial +reciprocity between the mother country and her colonies." Mr +Chamberlain, however, declined; his work at home was too pressing. + +From the end of Mr Chamberlain's series of expository speeches on his +scheme of tariff reform, onwards during the various fiscal debates and +discussions of 1904, it is unnecessary to follow events in detail. The +scheme was now before the country, and Mr Chamberlain was anxious to +take its verdict. Time was not on his side at his age, and if he had to +be beaten at one election he was anxious to get rid of the other issues +which would encumber the popular vote, and to press on to a second when +he would be on the attacking side. But he would make no move which would +embarrass Mr Balfour in parliament, and adhered to his promise of +loyalty. The result was a long drawn out interval, while the government +held on and its supporters became more embittered over their +differences. Mr Chamberlain needed a rest, and was away in Italy and +Egypt from March to May, and again in November. He made three important +speeches at Welbeck (August 4), at Luton (October 5), and at Limehouse +(December 15), but he had nothing substantial to add to his case, and +the party situation continued in all its embarrassments. Mr Balfour's +introduction of his promise (at Edinburgh on October 3) to convene an +imperial conference after the general election if the Unionists came +back to power, in order to discuss a scheme for fiscal union, +represented an academic rather than a practical advance, since the +by-elections showed that the Unionists were certain to be defeated. The +one important new development concerned the Liberal-Unionist +organization. In January some correspondence was published between Mr +Chamberlain and the duke of Devonshire, dating from the previous +October, as to difficulties arising from the central Liberal-Unionist +organization subsidizing local associations which had adopted the +programme of tariff reform. The duke objected to this departure from +neutrality, and suggested that it was becoming "impossible with any +advantage to maintain under existing circumstances the existence of the +Liberal-Unionist organization." Mr Chamberlain retorted that this was a +matter for a general meeting of delegates to decide; if the duke was +outvoted he might resign his presidency; for his own part he was +prepared to allow the local associations to be subsidized impartially, +so long as they supported the government, but he was not prepared for +the violent disruption, which the duke apparently contemplated, of an +association so necessary to the success of the Unionist cause. The duke +was in a difficult position as president of the organization, since most +of the local associations supported Mr Chamberlain, and he replied that +the differences between them were vital, and he would not be responsible +for dividing the association into sections, but would rather resign. Mr +Chamberlain then called a general meeting on his own responsibility in +February, when a new constitution was proposed; and in May, at the +annual meeting of the Liberal-Unionist council, the free-food Unionists, +being in a minority, retired, and the association was reorganized under +Mr Chamberlain's auspices, Lord Lansdowne and Lord Selborne (both of +them cabinet ministers) becoming vice-presidents. On July 14th the +reconstituted Liberal-Unionist organization held a great demonstration +in the Albert Hall, and Mr Chamberlain's success in ousting the duke of +Devonshire and the other free-trade members of the old Liberal-Unionist +party, and imposing his own fiscal policy upon the Liberal-Unionist +caucus, was now complete. + +During the spring and summer of 1905 Mr Chamberlain's more active +supporters were in favour of forcing a dissolution by leaving the +government in a minority, but he himself preferred to leave matters to +take their course, so long as the prime minister was content to be +publicly identified with the policy of eventually fighting on tariff +reform lines. Speaking at the Albert Hall in July Mr Chamberlain pushed +somewhat further than before his "embrace" of Mr Balfour; and in the +autumn, when foreign affairs no longer dominated the attention of the +government, the crisis rapidly came to a head. In reply to Mr Balfour's +appeal for the sinking of differences (Newcastle, November 14), Mr +Chamberlain insisted at Bristol (November 21) on the adoption of his +fiscal policy; and Mr Balfour resigned on December 4. on the ground that +he no longer retained the confidence of the party. At the crushing +Unionist defeat in the general election which followed in January 1906, +Mr Chamberlain was triumphantly returned for West Birmingham, and all +the divisions of Birmingham returned Chamberlainite members. Amid the +wreck of the party--Mr Balfour and several of his colleagues themselves +losing their seats--he had the consolation of knowing that the tariff +reformers won the only conspicuous successes of the election. But he had +no desire to set himself up as leader in Mr Balfour's place, and after +private negotiations with the ex-prime minister, a common platform was +arranged between them, on which Mr Balfour, for whom a seat was found in +the City of London, should continue to lead the remnant of the party. +The formula was given in a letter from Mr Balfour of February 14th (see +BALFOUR, A.J.) which admitted the necessity of making fiscal reform the +first plank in the Unionist platform, and accepted a general tariff on +manufactured goods and a small duty on foreign corn as "not in principle +objectionable." + +It may be left to future historians to attempt a considered judgment on +the English tariff reform movement, and on Mr Chamberlain's +responsibility for the Unionist _débâcle_ of 1906. But while his enemies +taunted him with having twice wrecked his party--first the Radical party +under Mr Gladstone, and secondly the Unionist party under Mr Balfour--no +well-informed critic doubted his sincerity, or failed to recognize that +in leaving the cabinet and embarking on his fiscal campaign he showed +real devotion to an idea. In championing the cause of imperial fiscal +union, by means involving the abandonment of a system of taxation which +had become part of British orthodoxy, he followed the guidance of a +profound conviction that the stability of the empire and the very +existence of the hegemony of the United Kingdom depended upon the +conversion of public opinion to a revision of the current economic +doctrine. There were doubtless miscalculations at the outset as to the +resistance to be encountered. But from the purely party point of view he +was entitled to say that he followed the path of loyalty to Mr Balfour +which he had marked out from the moment of his resignation, and that he +persistently, refused to be put in competition with him as leader. Even +in the absence of the new issue, defeat was foredoomed for Mr Balfour's +administration by the ordinary course of political events; and it might +fairly be claimed that "Chinese slavery," "passive resistance," and +labour irritation at the Taff Vale judgment (see TRADE UNIONS) were +mainly responsible for the Unionist collapse. Time alone would show +whether the system of free imports could be permanently reconciled with +British imperial policy or commercial prosperity. It remained the fact +that Mr Chamberlain staked an already established position on his +refusal to compromise with his convictions on a question which appeared +to him of vital and immediate importance. + +Mr Chamberlain's own activity in the political field was cut short in +the middle of the session of 1906 by a serious attack of gout, which was +at first minimized by his friends, but which, it was gradually +discovered, had completely crippled him. Though encouragement was given +to the idea that he might return to the House of Commons, where he +continued to retain his seat for Birmingham, he was quite incapacitated +for any public work; and this invalid condition was protracted +throughout 1907, 1908 and 1909. But he remained in the background as the +inspirer and adviser of the Tariff Reformers. The cause made continuous +headway at by-elections, and though the general election of January 1910 +gave the Unionists no majority it saw them returned in much increased +strength, which was chiefly due to the support obtained for tariff +reform principles. Mr Chamberlain himself was returned unopposed for +West Birmingham again. (H. Ch.) + + + + +CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE (1828- ), American soldier and +educationalist, was born at Brewer, Maine, on the 8th of September 1828. +He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1852, and at the Bangor Theological +Seminary in 1855, and was successively tutor in logic and natural +theology (1855-1856), professor of rhetoric and oratory (1856-1861), and +professor of modern languages (1861-1865), at Bowdoin. In 1862 he +entered the Federal army as lieutenant-colonel of the 20th Maine +Infantry. His military career was marked by great personal bravery and +energy and intrepidity as a leader. He was six times wounded, and +participated in all the important battles in the East from Antietam +onwards, including Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, the +Wilderness, Cold Harbor, Petersburg and Five Forks. For his conduct at +Petersburg, where he was severely wounded, he was promoted to be +brigadier-general of volunteers. He was breveted major-general of +volunteers on the 29th of March 1865, and led the Federal advance in the +final operations against General R.E. Lee. In 1893 he received a +Congressional medal of honour "for daring heroism and great tenacity in +holding his position on the Little Round Top and carrying the advance +position on the Great Round Top at the Battle of Gettysburg." After the +war he was again professor of rhetoric and oratory at Bowdoin in +1865-1866, and in 1867-1870 was governor of Maine, having been elected +as a Republican. From 1871 to 1883 he was president of Bowdoin College, +and during 1874-1879 was professor of mental and moral philosophy also. +Appointed in 1880 by Alonzo Garcelon, the retiring governor, to protect +the property and institutions of the state until a new governor should +be duly qualified, and acting as major-general of the state militia, +Chamberlain did much to avert possible civil war, at a time of great +political excitement and bitter partisan feeling. (See MAINE: +_History_.) In 1883-1885 he was a lecturer on political science and +public law at Bowdoin, and in 1900 became surveyor of customs for the +district of Portland, Maine. He published _Maine, Her Place in History_ +(1877), and edited _Universities and Their Sons_ (6 vols., 1898). + + + + +CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES (1820-1902), British field marshal, was +the third son of Sir Henry Chamberlain, first baronet, consul-general +and chargé d'affaires in Brazil, and was born at Rio on the 10th of +January 1820. He entered the Indian army in 1837, served as a subaltern +in the first Afghan War (1839-42), and was wounded on six occasions. He +was attached to the Governor-General's Bodyguard at the battle of +Maharajpur, in the Gwalior campaign of 1843, was appointed military +secretary to the governor of Bombay in 1846, and honorary aide-de-camp +to the governor-general of India in 1847. He served on the staff +throughout the Punjab campaign of 1848-49, and was given a brevet +majority. In 1850 he was appointed commandant of the Punjab military +police, and in 1852 military secretary to the Punjab government. +Promoted lieut.-colonel in 1854, he was given the command of the Punjab +Frontier Force with rank of brigadier-general, and commanded in several +expeditions against the frontier tribes. In the Indian Mutiny he +succeeded Colonel Chester as adjutant-general of the Indian army, and +distinguished himself at the siege of Delhi, where he was severely +wounded. He was rewarded with a brevet-colonelcy, the appointment of +A.D.C. to the queen, and the C.B. He was reappointed to the command of +the Punjab Frontier Force in 1858, and commanded in the Umbeyla campaign +(1863), in which he was severely wounded. He was now made major-general +for distinguished service and a K.C.B. He was made K.C.S.I. in 1866, +lieut.-general in 1872, G.C.S.I. in 1873, G.C.B in 1875, and general in +1877. From 1876 to 1881 he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army, +and in 1878 was sent on a mission to the amir of Afghanistan, whose +refusal to allow him to enter the country precipitated the second Afghan +War. He was for some time acting military member of the council of the +governor-general of India. He retired in 1886, was made a field marshal +in 1900, and died on the 18th of February 1902. + + An excellent biography by G.W. Forrest appeared in 1909. + + + + +CHAMBERLAIN (O. Fr. _chamberlain, chamberlenc_, Mod. Fr. _chambellan_, +from O.H. Ger. _Chamarling, Chamarlinc_, whence also the Med. Lat. +_cambellanus, camerlingus, camerlengus_; Ital. _camerlingo_; Span, +_camerlengo_, compounded of O.H. Ger. _Chamara, Kamara_ [Lat. _camera_, +"chamber"], and the Ger. suffix _-ling_), etymologically, and also to a +large extent historically, an officer charged with the superintendence +of domestic affairs. Such were the chamberlains of monasteries or +cathedrals, who had charge of the finances, gave notice of chapter +meetings, and provided the materials necessary for the various services. +In these cases, as in that of the apostolic chamberlain of the Roman +see, the title was borrowed from the usage of the courts of the western +secular princes. A royal chamberlain is now a court official whose +function is in general to attend on the person of the sovereign and to +regulate the etiquette of the palace. He is the representative of the +medieval _camberlanus, cambellanus_, or _cubicularius_, whose office was +modelled on that of the _praefectus sacri cubiculi_ or _cubicularius_ of +the Roman emperors. But at the outset there was another class of +chamberlains, the _camerarii_, i.e. high officials charged with the +administration of the royal treasury (_camera_). The _camerarius_ of the +Carolingian emperors was the equivalent of the _hordere_ or +_thesaurarius_ (treasurer) of the Anglo-Saxon kings; he develops into +the _Erzkämmerer_ (_archicamerarius_) of the Holy Roman Empire, an +office held by the margraves of Brandenburg, and the _grand chambrier_ +of France, who held his _chamberie_ as a fief. Similarly in England +after the Norman conquest the _hordere_ becomes the chamberlain. This +office was of great importance. Before the Conquest he had been, with +the marshal, the principal officer of the king's court; and under the +Norman sovereigns his functions were manifold. As he had charge of the +administration of the royal household, his office was of financial +importance, for a portion of the royal revenue was paid, not into the +exchequer, but in _camera regis_. In course of time the office became +hereditary and titular, but the complexities of the duties necessitated +a division of the work, and the office was split up into three: the +hereditary and sinecure office of _magister camerarius_ or lord great +chamberlain (see LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN), the more important domestic +office of _camerarius regis_, king's chamberlain or lord chamberlain +(see LORD CHAMBERLAIN), and the chamberlains (_camerarii_) of the +exchequer, two in number, who were originally representatives of the +chamberlain at the exchequer, and afterwards in conjunction with the +treasurer presided over that department. In 1826 the last of these +officials died, when by an act passed forty-four years earlier they +disappeared. + +In France the office of _grand chambrier_ was early overshadowed by the +_chamberlains (cubicularii, cambellani_, but sometimes also +_camerarii_), officials in close personal attendance on the king, men at +first of low rank, but of great and ever-increasing influence. As the +office of _grand chambrier_, held by great feudal nobles seldom at +court, became more and more honorary, the chamberlains grew in power, in +numbers and in rank, until, in the 13th century, one of them emerges as +a great officer of state, the _chambellan de France_ or _grand +chambellan_ (also _magister cambellanorum, mestre chamberlenc_), who at +times shares with the _grand chambrier_ the revenues derived from +certain trades in the city of Paris (see _Regestum Memoralium Camerae +computorum_, quoted in du Cange, s. _Cameranus_). The honorary office of +_grand chambrier_ survived till the time of Henry II., who was himself +the last to hold it before his accession; that of _grand chambellan_, +which in its turn soon became purely honorary, survived till the +Revolution. Among the prerogatives of the _grand chambellan_ which +survived to the last not the least valued was the right to hand the king +his shirt at the ceremonial levée. The offices of _grand chambellan, +premier chambellan_, and _chambellan_ were revived by Napoleon, +continued under the Restoration, abolished by Louis Philippe, and again +restored by Napoleon III. + +In the papal Curia the apostolic chamberlain (Lat. _camerarius_, Ital. +_camerlingo_) occupies a very important position. He is at the head of +the treasury (_camera thesauraria_) and, in the days of the temporal +power, not only administered the papal finances but possessed an +extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction. During a vacancy of the Holy +See he is at the head of the administration of the Roman Church. The +office dates from the 11th century, when it superseded that of +archdeacon of the Roman Church, and the close personal relations of the +_camerarius_ with the pope, together with the fact that he is the +official guardian of the ceremonial vestments and treasures, point to +the fact that he is also the representative of the former _vestararius_ +and _vice-dominus_, whose functions were merged in the new office, of +which the idea and title were probably borrowed from the usage of the +secular courts of the West (Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. 405, &c.). +There are also attached to the papal household (_famiglia pontificia_) a +large number of chamberlains whose functions are more or less +ornamental. These are divided into several categories: privy +chamberlains (_camerieri segreti_), chamberlains, assistant and honorary +chamberlains. These are gentlemen of rank and belong to the highest +class of the household (_famiglia nobile_). + +In England the modern representatives of the _cubicularii_ are the +gentlemen and grooms of the bed-chamber, in Germany the _Kammerherr_ +(_Kämmerer_, from _camerarius_, in Bavaria and Austria) and +_Kammerjunker_. The insignia of their office is a gold key attached to +their coats behind. + +Many corporations appoint a chamberlain. The most important in England +is the chamberlain of the corporation of the city of London, who is +treasurer of the corporation, admits persons entitled to the freedom of +the city, and, in the chamberlain's court, of which he and the +vice-chamberlain are judges, exercises concurrent jurisdiction with the +police court in determining disputes between masters and apprentices. +Formerly nominated by the crown, since 1688 he has been elected annually +by the liverymen. He has a salary of £2000 a year. Similarly in Germany +the administration of the finances of a city is called the _Kämmerei_ +and the official in charge of it the _Kämmerer_. + + See also STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF; HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL; Du Cange, + _Glossarium_, s. "Camerarius" and "Cambellanus"; Père Anselme (Pierre + de Guibours), _Hist. généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale + de France, &c_. (9 vols., 3rd ed., 1726-1733); A. Luchaire, _Manuel + des institutions françaises_ (Paris, 1892); W.R. Anson, _Law and + Custom of the Constitution_ (Oxford, 1896); Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, + i. 405 (Berlin, 1869). + + + + +CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM (1619-1679), English poet, was born in 1619. +Nothing is known of his history except that he practised as a physician +at Shaftesbury in Dorsetshire, and fought on the Royalist side at the +second battle of Newbury. He died on the 11th of July 1679. His works +are: _Pharonnida_ (1659), a verse romance in five books; _Love's +Victory_ (1658), a tragi-comedy, acted under another title in 1678 at +the Theatre Royal; _England's Jubilee_ (1660), a poem in honour of the +Restoration. A prose version of _Pharonnida_, entitled _Eromena_, or the +_Noble Stranger_, appeared in 1683. Southey speaks of him as "a poet to +whom I am indebted for many hours of delight." _Pharonnida_ was +reprinted by S.W. Singer in 1820, and again in 1905 by Prof. G. +Saintsbury in _Minor Poets of the Caroline Period_ (vol. i.). The poem +is loose in construction, but contains some passages of great beauty. + + + + +CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740), English encyclopaedist, was born at Kendal, +Westmorland, in the latter part of the 17th century. He was apprenticed +to a globe-maker in London, but having conceived the plan of his +Cyclopaedia, or _Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences_, he devoted +himself entirely to it. The first edition appeared by subscription in +1728, in two vols. fol., and dedicated to the king (see ENCYCLOPAEDIA). +The _Encyclopédie_ of Diderot and d'Alembert owed its inception to a +French translation of Chambers's work. In addition to the _Cyclopaedia_, +Chambers wrote for the _Literary Magazine_ (1735-1736), and translated +the _History and Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris_ +(1742), and the _Practice of Perspective_ from the French of Jean +Dubreuil. He died on the 15th of May 1740. + + + + +CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840), English marine painter, born at Whitby, +Yorkshire, was the son of a seaman, and for several years he pursued his +father's calling. While at sea he was in the habit of sketching the +different classes of vessels. His master, observing this, gratified him +by cancelling his indentures, and thus set him free to follow his +natural bent. Chambers then apprenticed himself to an old woman who kept +a painter's shop in Whitby, and began by house-painting. He also took +lessons of a drawing-master, and found a ready sale for small and cheap +pictures of shipping. Coming afterwards to London, he was employed by +Thomas Horner to assist in painting the great panorama of London for the +Colosseum (the exhibition building in Regent's Park, demolished towards +1860), and he next became scene-painter at the Pavilion theatre. In 1834 +he was elected an associate, and in 1836 a full member, of the +Water-colour Society. His best works represent naval battles. Two of +these--the "Bombardment of Algiers in 1816," and the "Capture of Porto +Bello"--are in Greenwich hospital. Not long before his death he was +introduced to William IV., and his professional prospects brightened; +but his constitution, always frail, gave way, and he died on the 28th of +October 1840. + + A _Life_, by John Watkins, was published in 1841. + + + + +CHAMBERS, ROBERT (1802-1871), Scottish author and publisher, was born at +Peebles on the 10th of July 1802. He was sent to the local schools, and +gave evidence of unusual literary taste and ability. A small circulating +library in the town, and a copy of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ which +his father had purchased, furnished him with stores of reading of which +he eagerly availed himself. Long afterwards he wrote of his early +years--"Books, not playthings, filled my hands in childhood. At twelve I +was deep, not only in poetry and fiction, but in encyclopaedias." Robert +had been destined for the church, but this design had to be abandoned +for lack of means. The family removed to Edinburgh in 1813, and in 1818 +Robert began business as a bookstall-keeper in Leith Walk. He was then +only sixteen, and his whole stock consisted of a few old books belonging +to his father. In 1819 his elder brother William had begun a similar +business, and the two eventually united as partners in the publishing +firm of W. & R. Chambers. Robert Chambers showed an enthusiastic +interest in the history and antiquities of Edinburgh, and found a most +congenial task in his _Traditions of Edinburgh_ (2 vols., 1824), which +secured for him the approval and the personal friendship of Sir Walter +Scott. A _History of the Rebellions in Scotland from 1638 to 1745_ (5 +vols., 1828) and numerous other works followed. + +In the beginning of 1832 William Chambers started a weekly publication +under the title of _Chambers's Edinburgh Journal_ (known since 1854 as +_Chambers's Journal of Literature, Science and Arts_), which speedily +attained a large circulation. Robert was at first only a contributor. +After fourteen numbers had appeared, however, he was associated with his +brother as joint-editor, and his collaboration contributed more perhaps +than anything else to the success of the _Journal_. + +Among the other numerous works of which Robert was in whole or in part +the author, the _Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen_ (4 vols., +Glasgow, 1832-1835), the _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_ (1844), the +_Life and Works of Robert Burns_ (4 vols., 1851), _Ancient Sea Margins_ +(1848), the _Domestic Annals of Scotland_ (3 vols., 1859-1861) and the +_Book of Days_ (2 vols., 1862-1864) were the most important. +_Chambers's Encyclopaedia_ (1859-1868), with Dr Andrew Findlater as +editor, was carried out under the superintendence of the brothers (see +ENCYCLOPAEDIA). The _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_[1] contains a +series of admirably selected extracts from the best authors of every +period, "set in a biographical and critical history of the literature +itself." For the _Life of Burns_ he made diligent and laborious original +investigations, gathering many hitherto unrecorded facts from the poet's +sister, Mrs Begg, to whose benefit the whole profits of the work were +generously devoted. Robert Chambers was a scientific geologist, and +availed himself of tours in Scandinavia and Canada for the purpose of +geological exploration. The results of his travels were embodied in +_Tracings of the North of Europe_ (1851) and _Tracings in Iceland and +the Faroe Islands_ (1856). His knowledge of geology was one of the +principal grounds on which the authorship of the _Vestiges of the +Natural History of Creation_ (2 vols., 1843-1846) was eventually +assigned to him. The book was published anonymously. Robert Chambers was +aware of the storm that would probably be raised at the time by a +rational treatment of the subject, and did not wish to involve his firm +in the discredit that a charge of heterodoxy would bring with it. The +arrangements for publication were made through Alexander Ireland of +Manchester, and the secret was so well kept that such different names as +those of Prince Albert and Sir Charles Lyell were coupled with the book. +Ireland in 1884 issued a 12th edition, with a preface giving an account +of its authorship, which there was no longer any reason for concealing. +The _Book of Days_ was Chambers's last publication, and perhaps his most +elaborate. It was a miscellany of popular antiquities in connexion with +the calendar, and it is supposed that his excessive labour in connexion +with this book hastened his death, which took place at St Andrews on the +17th of March 1871. Two years before, the university of St Andrews had +conferred upon him the degree of doctor of laws, and he was elected a +member of the Athenaeum club in London. It is his highest claim to +distinction that he did so much to give a healthy tone to the cheap +popular literature which has become so important a factor in modern +civilization. + +His brother, WILLIAM CHAMBERS (1800-1883) was born at Peebles, on the +16th of April 1800. He was the financial genius of the publishing firm. +He laid the city of Edinburgh under the greatest obligations by his +public spirit and munificence. As lord provost he procured the passing +in 1867 of the Improvement Act, which led to the reconstruction of a +great part of the Old Town, and at a later date he proposed and carried +out, largely at his own expense, the restoration of the noble and then +neglected church of St Giles, making it in a sense "the Westminster +Abbey of Scotland." This service was fitly acknowledged by the offer of +a baronetcy, which he did not live to receive, dying on the 20th of May +1883, three days before the reopening of the church. He was the author +of a history of St Giles's, of a memoir of himself and his brother +(1872), and of many other useful publications. On his death in 1883 +Robert Chambers (1832-1888), son of Robert Chambers, succeeded as head +of the firm, and edited the _Journal_ until his death. His eldest son, +Charles Edward Stuart Chambers (b. 1859), became editor of the _Journal_ +and chairman of W. & R. Chambers, Limited. + + See also _Memoir of Robert Chambers, with Autobiographic Reminiscences + of William Chambers_ (1872), the 13th ed. of which (1884) has a + supplementary chapter; Alexander Ireland's preface to the 12th ed. + (1884) of the _Vestiges of Creation_; the _Story of a Long and Busy + Life_ (1884), by William Chambers; and some discriminating + appreciation in James Payn's _Some Literary Recollections_ (1884), + chapter v. The _Select Writings of Robert Chambers_ were published in + 7 vols. in 1847, and a complete list of the works of the brothers is + added to _A Catalogue of Some of the Rarer Books ... in the Collection + of C.E.S. Chambers_ (Edinburgh, 1891). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A new and enlarged edition of this work, edited by David Patrick, + LL. D., appeared in 1903. + + + + +CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796), British architect, was the grandson +of a rich merchant who had financed the armies of Charles XII., but was +paid in base money, and whose son remained in Sweden many years +endeavouring to obtain redress. In 1728 the latter returned to England +and settled at Ripon, where William, who was born in Stockholm, was +educated. At the age of sixteen he became supercargo to the Swedish East +India Company, and voyaging to Canton made drawings of Chinese +architecture, furniture and costume which served as basis for his +_Designs for Chinese Buildings_, &c. (1757). Two years later he quitted +the sea to study architecture seriously, and spent a long time in Italy, +devoting special attention to the buildings of classical and Renaissance +architects. He also studied under Clérisseau in Paris, with whom and +with the sculptor Wilton he lived at Rome. In 1755 he returned to +England with Cipriani and Wilton, and married the beautiful daughter of +the latter. His first important commission was a villa for Lord +Bessborough at Roehampton, but he made his reputation by the grounds he +laid out and the buildings he erected at Kew between 1757 and 1762 for +Augusta, princess dowager of Wales. Some of them have since been +demolished, but the most important, the pagoda, still survives. The +publication in a handsome volume of the designs for these buildings +assured his position in the profession. He was employed to teach +architectural drawing to the prince of Wales (George III.), and gained +further professional distinction in 1759 by the publication of his +_Treatise of Civil Architecture_. He began to exhibit with the Society +of Artists in 1761 at Spring Gardens, and was one of the original +members and treasurer of the Royal Academy when it was established in +1768. In 1772 he published his _Dissertation on Oriental Gardening_, +which attempted to prove the inferiority of European to Chinese +landscape gardening. As a furniture designer and internal decorator he +is credited with the creation of that "Chinese Style" which was for a +time furiously popular, although Thomas Chippendale (q.v.) had published +designs in that manner at a somewhat earlier date. It is not +unreasonable to count the honours as divided, since Chippendale +unquestionably adapted and altered the Chinese shapes in a manner better +to fit them for European use. To the rage for every possible form of +_chinoiserie_, for which he is chiefly responsible, Sir William Chambers +owed much of his success in life. He became architect to the king and +queen, comptroller of his majesty's works, and afterwards +surveyor-general. In 1775 he was appointed architect of Somerset House, +his greatest monument, at a salary of £2000 a year. He also designed +town mansions for Earl Gower at Whitehall and Lord Melbourne in +Piccadilly, built Charlemont House, Dublin, and Duddingston House near +Edinburgh. He designed the market house at Worcester, was employed by +the earl of Pembroke at Wilton, by the duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, +and by the duke of Bedford in Bloomsbury. The state coach of George +III., his constant patron, was his work; it is now in the Victoria and +Albert Museum. Although his practice was mainly Classic, he made Gothic +additions to Milton Abbey in Dorset. Sir William Chambers achieved +considerable distinction as a designer of furniture. In addition to his +work in the Chinese style and in the contemporary fashions, he was the +author of what is probably the most ambitious and monumental piece of +furniture ever produced in England. This was a combined bureau, +dressing-case, jewel-cabinet and organ, made for Charles IV., king of +Spain, in 1793. These combination pieces were in the taste of the time, +and the effort displays astonishing ingenuity and resource. The panels +were painted by W. Hamilton, R.A., with representations of the four +seasons, night and morning, fire and water, Juno and Ceres, together +with representations of the Golden Fleece and the Immaculate Conception. +The organ, in the domed top, is in a case decorated with ormolu and +Wedgwood. This remarkable achievement, which possesses much sober +elegance, formed part of the loan collection of English furniture at the +Franco-British Exhibition in London in 1908. Sir William Chambers +numbered among his friends Dr Johnson, Goldsmith, Sir Joshua Reynolds, +David Garrick and Dr Burney. + + + + +CHAMBERS (the Fr. _chambre_, from Lat. _camera_, a room), a term used +generally of rooms or apartments, but especially in law of the offices +of a lawyer or the semi-private rooms in which judges or judicial +officers deal with questions of practice and other matters not of +sufficient importance to be dealt with in court. It is a matter of doubt +at what period the practice of exercising jurisdiction "in chambers" +commenced in England; there is no statutory sanction before 1821, though +the custom can be traced back to the 17th century. An act of 1821 +provided for sittings in chambers between terms, and an act of 1822 +empowered the sovereign to call upon the judges by warrant to sit in +chambers on as many days in vacation as should seem fit, while the Law +Terms Act 1830 defined the jurisdiction to be exercised at chambers. The +Judges' Chambers Act 1867 was the first act, however, to lay down proper +regulations for chamber work, and the Judicature Act 1873 preserved that +jurisdiction and gave power to increase it as might be directed or +authorized by rules of court to be thereafter made. (See CHANCERY; +KING'S BENCH, COURT OF.) + + + + +CHAMBERSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Franklin county, +Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of Conoco-cheague Creek and +Falling Spring, 52 m. S.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) 7863; (1900) 8864, +of whom 769 were negroes; (1910) 11,800. It is served by the Cumberland +Valley and the Western Maryland railways, and is connected by electric +lines with Greencastle, Waynesboro, Caledonia, a beautiful park in the +Pennsylvania timber reservation, on South Mountain, 12 m. east of +Chambersburg, and Pen Mar, a summer resort, on South Mountain, near the +boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland. Chambersburg is built +on an elevated site in the broad and fertile Cumberland Valley, and +commands a fine view of the distant hills and dales. The borough is the +seat of Chambersburg Academy, a preparatory school; Penn Hall, a school +for girls; and Wilson College, a Presbyterian institution for women, +opened in 1870. The Wilson College campus, the former estate of Col. A. +K. McClure (1828-1909), a well-known journalist, was laid out by Donald +G. Mitchell ("Ik Marvel"), who was an enthusiastic landscape gardener. +The shops of the Cumberland Valley railway are at Chambersburg, and +among the borough's manufactures are milling machinery, boilers, +engines, hydraulic presses, steam-hammers, engineering and bridge +supplies, hosiery, shoes, gloves, furniture, flour, paper, leather, +carriages and agricultural implements; the total value of its factory +product in 1905 was $1,085,185. The waterworks and the electric-lighting +plant are owned and operated by the municipality. A settlement was +founded here in 1730 by Benjamin Chambers, in whose honour the borough +was named, and who, immediately after General Edward Braddock's defeat +in 1755, built a stone fort and surrounded it with a stockade for the +protection of the community from the Indians. Chambersburg was laid out +in 1764 and was incorporated as a borough in 1803. On the 30th of July +1864 Chambersburg was occupied by a Confederate cavalry force under +General McCausland (acting under General Jubal A. Early's orders), who, +upon the refusal of the citizens to pay $100,000 for immunity, burned a +large part of the borough. + + + + +CHAMBÉRY, a city of France, capital of the department of Savoie, +pleasantly situated in a fertile district, between two hills, on the +rivers Leysse and Albane, 79 m. by rail S.S.W. of Geneva. Pop. (1906) +town, 16,852; commune, 23,027. The town is irregularly built, and has +only two good streets--the Place Saint-Léger and the Rue de Boigne, the +latter being named after General Benoît Boigne (1741-1830), who left a +fortune of 3,400,000 francs (accumulated in India) to the town. The +principal buildings are the cathedral, dating from the 14th and 15th +centuries; the Hôtel-Dieu, founded in 1647; the castle, a modern +building serving as the prefecture, and preserving only a great square +tower belonging to the original structure; the palace of justice, the +theatre, the barracks, and the covered market, which dates from 1863. +Several of the squares are adorned with fountains; the old ramparts of +the city, destroyed during the French Revolution, have been converted +into public walks; and various promenades and gardens have been +constructed. Chambéry is the seat of an archbishop (raised to that +dignity from a bishopric in 1817) and of a superior tribunal. It has +also a Jesuit college, a royal academical society, a society of +agriculture and commerce, a public library with 60,000 volumes, a museum +(antiquities and paintings), a botanic garden, and many charitable +institutions. It manufactures silk-gauze, lace, leather and hats, and +has a considerable trade in liqueurs, wine, lead, copper and other +articles. Overlooking the town on the north is the Rocher de Lémenc, +which derives its name from the _Lemincum_ of the Romans; and in the +vicinity is Les Charmettes, for some time (1736-1740) the residence of +Rousseau. + +The origin of Chambéry is unknown, but its lords are mentioned for the +first time in 1029. In 1232 it was sold to the count of Savoy, Thomas +I., who bestowed several important privileges on the inhabitants. As +capital of the duchy of Savoy, it has passed through numerous political +vicissitudes. Between 1536 and 1713 it was several times occupied by the +French; in 1742 it was captured by a Franco-Spanish army; and in 1792 it +was occupied by the Republican forces, and became the capital of the +department of Mont Blanc. Restored to the house of Savoy by the treaties +of Vienna and Paris, it was again surrendered to France in 1860. Among +the famous men whom it has given to France, the most important are +Vaugelas (1585-1650), Saint-Réal (1639-1692), and the brothers Joseph +(1754-1821) and Xavier (1763-1852) de Maistre. + + + + +CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE DIEUDONNÉ COMTE DE (1820-1883), +the "King Henry V." of the French legitimists, was born in Paris on the +29th of September 1820. His father was the duc de Berry, the elder son +of the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.); his mother was the +princess Caroline Ferdinande Louise of Naples. Born seven months after +the assassination of his father, he was hailed as the "enfant du +miracle," and was made the subject of one of Lamartine's most famous +poems. He was created duc de Bordeaux, and in 1821, as the result of a +subscription organized by the government, received the château of +Chambord. He was educated by tutors inspired by detestation of the +French Revolution and its principles, and from the duc de Damas in +particular imbibed those ideas of divine right and of devotion to the +Church to which he always remained true. After the revolution of July, +Charles X. vainly endeavoured to save the Bourbon cause by abdicating in +his favour and proclaiming him king under the title of Henry V. (August +2, 1830). The comte de Chambord accompanied his grandfather into exile, +and resided successively at Holyrood, Prague, and Görz. In 1841, during +an extensive tour through Europe, he broke his leg--an accident that +resulted in permanent lameness. The death of his grandfather, Charles +X., in 1836, and of his uncle, the duc d'Angoulême, in 1844, left him +the last male representative of the elder branch of the Bourbon family; +and his marriage with the archduchess Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of +the duke of Modena (November 7, 1846), remained without issue. The title +to the throne thus passed to the comte de Paris, as representative of +the Orleans branch of the house of Bourbon, and the history of the comte +de Chambord's life is largely an account of the efforts made to unite +the Royalist party by effecting a reconciliation between the two +princes. Though he continued to hold an informal court, both on his +travels and at his castle of Frohsdorf, near Vienna, yet he allowed the +revolution of 1848 and the _coup d'état_ of 1851 to pass without any +decisive assertion of his claims. It was the Italian war of 1859, with +its menace to the pope's independence, that roused him at last to +activity. He declared himself ready "to pay with his blood for the +triumph of a cause which was that of France, the Church, and God +himself." Making common cause with the Church, the Royalists now began +an active campaign against the Empire. On the 9th of December 1866 he +addressed a manifesto to General Saint-Priest, in which he declared the +cause of the pope to be that of society and liberty, and held out +promises of retrenchment, civil and religious liberty, "and above all +honesty." Again, on the 4th of September 1870, after the fall of the +Empire, he invited Frenchmen to accept a government "whose basis was +right and whose principle was honesty," and promised to drive the enemy +from French soil. These vague phrases, offered as a panacea to a nation +fighting for its life, showed conclusively his want of all political +genius; they had as little effect on the French as his protest against +the bombardment of Paris had on the Germans. Yet fortune favoured him. +The elections placed the Republican party in a minority in the National +Assembly; the abrogation of the law of exile against the royal family +permitted him to return to his castle of Chambord; and it was thence +that on the 5th of July 1871 he issued a proclamation, in which for the +first time he publicly posed as king, and declared that he would never +abandon the white standard of the Bourbons, "the flag of Henry IV., +Francis I., and Joan of Arc," for the tricolour of the Revolution. He +again quitted France, and answered the attempts to make him renounce his +claims in favour of the comte de Paris by the declaration (January 25, +1872) that he would never abdicate. In the following month he held a +great gathering of his adherents at Antwerp, which was the cause of +serious disturbances. A constitutional programme, signed by some 280 +members of the National Assembly, was presented for his acceptance, but +without result. The fall of Thiers in May 1873, however, offered an +opportunity to the Royalists by which they hastened to profit. The comte +de Paris and the prince de Joinville journeyed to Frohsdorf, and were +formally reconciled with the head of the family (August 5). The +Royalists were united, the premier (the duc de Broglie) an open +adherent, the president (MacMahon) a benevolent neutral. MM. Lucien Brun +and Chesnelong were sent to interview the comte de Chambord at Salzburg, +and obtain the definite assurances that alone were wanting. They +returned with the news that he accepted the principles of the French +Revolution and the tricolour flag. But a letter to Chesnelong, dated +Salzburg, 27th of October, declared that he had been misunderstood: he +would give no guarantees; he would not inaugurate his reign by an act of +weakness, nor become "le roi légitime de la Révolution." "Je suis le +pilote nécessaire," he added, "le seul capable de conduire le navire au +port, parce que j'ai mission et autorité pour cela." This outspoken +adherence to the principle of divine right did credit to his honesty, +but it cost him the crown. The duc de Broglie carried the septennate, +and the Republic steadily established itself in popular favour. A last +effort was made in the National Assembly in June 1874 by the duc de la +Rochefoucauld-Bisaccia, who formally moved the restoration of the +monarchy. The comte de Chambord on the 2nd of July issued a fresh +manifesto, which added nothing to his former declarations. The motion +was rejected by 272 to 79, and on the 25th of February 1875 the Assembly +definitely adopted the Republic as the national form of government. From +this time the comte de Chambord, though continuing to publish letters on +political affairs, made no further effort to regain the throne. He died +at Frohsdorf on the 24th of August 1883. + + See _Manifestes et programmes politiques de M. le comte de Chambord, + 1848-1873_ (1873), and _Correspondance de la famille royale et + principalement de Mgr. le comte de Chambord avec le comte de Bouillé_ + (1884). Of the enormous literature relating to him, mention may be + made of _Henri V et la monarchie traditionnelle_ (1871), _Le Comte de + Chambord étudié dans ses voyages et sa correspondance_ (1880), and + _Henri de France_, by H. de Pène (1885). (H. Sy.) + + + + +CHAMBORD, a village of central France, in the department of +Loir-et-Cher, on the left bank of the Cosson, 10 m. E. by N. of Blois by +road. The village stands in the park of Chambord, which is enclosed by a +wall 21 m. in circumference. The celebrated château (see ARCHITECTURE: +_Renaissance Architecture in France_) forms a parallelogram flanked at +the angles by round towers and enclosing a square block of buildings, +the façade of which forms the centre of the main front. The profusion of +turrets, pinnacles, and dormer windows which decorates the roof of this, +the chief portion of the château, constitutes the main feature of the +exterior, while in the interior are a well-preserved chapel of the 16th +century and a famous double staircase, the construction of which permits +two people to ascend and descend respectively without seeing one +another. There are 440 apartments, containing pictures of the 17th +century and souvenirs of the comte de Chambord. The château was +originally a hunting-box of the counts of Blois, the rebuilding of which +was begun by Francis I. in 1526, and completed under Henry II. It was +the residence of several succeeding monarchs, and under Louis XIV. +considerable alterations were made. In the same reign Molière performed +_Monsieur de Pourceaugnac_ and _Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_ for the first +time in the theatre. Stanislaus, king of Poland, lived at Chambord, +which was bestowed by his son-in-law, Louis XV., upon Marshal Saxe. It +was given by Napoleon to Marshal Berthier, from whose widow it was +purchased by subscription in 1821, and presented to the duc de Bordeaux, +the representative of the older branch of the Bourbons, who assumed from +it the title of comte de Chambord. On his death in 1883 it came by +bequest into the possession of the family of Parma. + + + + +CHAMBRE ARDENTE (Fr. "burning chamber"), the term for an extraordinary +court of justice in France, mainly held for the trials of heretics. The +name is perhaps an allusion to the fact that the proceedings took place +in a room from which all daylight was excluded, the only illumination +being from torches, or there may be a reference to the severity of the +sentences in _ardente_, suggesting the burning of the prisoners at the +stake. These courts were originated by the Cardinal of Lorraine, the +first of them meeting in 1535 under Francis I. The _Chambre Ardente_ +co-operated with an inquisitorial tribunal also established by Francis +I., the duty of which was to discover cases of heresy and hand them over +for final judgment to the _Chambre Ardente_. The reign of Henry II. of +France was particularly infamous for the cruelties perpetrated by this +court on the Huguenots. The marquise de Brinvilliers (q.v.) and her +associates were tried in the _Chambre Ardente_ in 1680. The court was +abolished in 1682. + + See N. Weiss, _La Chambre Ardente_ (Paris, 1889), and F. Ravaisson, + _Archives de la Bastille_ (Paris, 1866-1884, 16 vols.). + + + + +CHAMELEON, the common name of one of the three suborders of Lacertilia +or lizards. The chief genus is _Chamaeleon_, containing most of the +fifty to sixty species of the whole group, and with the most extensive +range, all through Africa and Madagascar into Arabia, southern India and +Ceylon. The Indian species is _Ch. calcaratus_; the dwarf chameleon of +South Africa is _Ch. pumilus_; the giant of the whole tribe, reaching a +total length of 2 ft., is _Ch. parsoni_ of Madagascar. The commonest +species in the trade is _Ch. vulgaris_ of North Africa, introduced into +southern Andalusia. A few queer genera, with much stunted tail, e.g. +_Rhampholeon_, in tropical Africa and _Brookesia_ in Madagascar are the +most aberrant. The common chameleon is the most typical. The head is +raised into a pyramidal crest far beyond the occiput, there is no outer +ear, nor a drum-cavity. The limbs are very long and slender, and the +digits form stout grasping bundles; on the hand the first three form an +inner bundle, opposed to the remaining two; on the foot the inner bundle +is formed by the first and second toe, the outer by the other three +toes. The tail is prehensile, by being rolled downwards; it is not +brittle and cannot be renewed. The eyeballs are large, but the lids are +united into one concentric fold, leaving only the small pupil visible. +The right and left eyes are incessantly moved separately from each other +and literally in every direction, up and down, forwards and straight +backwards, producing the most terrible squinting. Chameleons alone of +all reptiles can focus their eyes upon one spot, and conformably they +alone possess a retinal _macula centralis_, or spot of acutest, +binocular vision. The tongue has attained an extraordinary development. +It is club-shaped, covered with a sticky secretion, and based upon a +very narrow root, which is composed of extremely elastic fibres and +telescoped over the much elongated, style-shaped, copular piece of the +hyoid. The whole apparatus is kept in a contracted state like a spring +in a tube. When the spring is released, so to speak, by filling the +apparatus with blood and by the play of the hyoid muscles, the heavy +thick end shoots out upon the insect prey and is withdrawn by its own +elasticity. The whole act is like a flash. An ordinary chameleon can +shoot a fly at the distance of fully 6 in., and it can manage even a big +sphinx moth. + +[Illustration: Left Forefoot of _Chamaeleon o'shaughenesii_, outer +view.] + +Another remarkable feature is their changing of colour. This proverbial +power is greatly exaggerated. They cannot assume in succession all the +colours of the rainbow, nor are the changes quick. The common chameleon +may be said to be greenish grey, changing to grass-green or to dull +black, with or without maroon red, or brown, lateral series of patches. +At night the same specimen assumes as a rule a more or less uniform pale +straw-colour. After it has been watched for several months, when all its +possibilities seem exhausted, it will probably surprise us by a totally +new combination, for instance, a black garb with many small yellow +specks, or green with many black specks. Pure red and blue are not in +the register of this species, but they are rather the rule upon the dark +green ground colour of the South African dwarf chameleon. The changes +are partly under control of the will, partly complicated reflex actions, +intentionally adaptive to the physical and psychical surroundings. The +mechanism is as follows. The cutis contains several kinds of specialized +cells in many layers, each filled with minute granules of guanine. The +upper cells are the smallest, most densely filled with crystals, and +cause the white colour by diffusion of direct light; near the Malpighian +layer the cells are charged with yellow oil drops; the deeper cells are +the largest, tinged light brown, and acting as a turbid medium they +cause a blue colour, which, owing to the superimposed yellow drops, +reaches our eye as green; provided always that there is an effective +screen at the back, and this is formed by large chromatophores which lie +at the bottom and send their black pigment half-way up, or on to the top +of the layers of guanine and oil containing cells. When all the pigment +is shifted towards the surface, as near the epidermis as possible, the +creature looks black; when the black pigment is withdrawn into the basal +portions of the chromatophores the skin appears yellow. + +The lungs are very capacious, and end in several narrow blind sacs which +extend far down into the body cavity, so that not only the chest but the +whole body can be blown up. This happens when the animals hiss and +fight, as they often do. But when they know themselves discovered, they +make themselves as thin as possible by compressing the chest and belly +vertically by means of their peculiarly elongated ribs. The whole body +is then put into such a position that it presents only its narrow edge +to the enemy, and with the branch of the tree or shrub interposed. They +are absolutely arboreal, but they hibernate in the ground. + +The usual mode of propagation is by eggs, which are oval, numerous, +provided with a calcareous shell, and buried in humus, whence they are +hatched about four months later. But a few species, e.g. the dwarf +chameleon, are viviparous. + +Chameleons are insectivorous. They prefer locusts, grass-hoppers and +lepidoptera, but are also fond of flies and mealworms. They are +notoriously difficult to keep in good health. They want not only warmth, +but sunshine, and they must have water, which they lick up in drops from +the edges of wet leaves whenever they have a chance. The silliness of +the fable that they live on air is shown by the fact that they usually +die in an absolutely emaciated and parched condition after three or four +months' starvation. (H. F. G.) + + In astronomy, "Chamaeleon" is a constellation situated near the south + pole and surrounded by the constellations of Octans, Mensa, Piscis + volans, Carina (Nauta), Musca and Apus. In chemistry, "chameleon + mineral" is a name applied to the green mass which is obtained when + pyrolusite (manganese dioxide) is fused with nitre, since a solution + in water assumes a purple tint on exposure to the air; this change is + due to the oxidation of the manganate, which is first formed, to a + permanganate. + + + + +CHAMFER, CHAMPFER or CHAUMFER (Fr. _chanfrein_; possibly from Lat. +_cantus_, corner, and _frangere_, to break), an architectural term; when +the edge or arris of any work is cut off at an angle of 45° in a small +degree, it is said to be "chamfered," while it would be "canted" if on a +large scale. The chamfer is much used in medieval work, and is sometimes +plain, sometimes hollowed out and sometimes moulded. Chamfers are +sometimes "stopped" by a bead or some moulding, but when cut short by a +slope they are generally known as "stop chamfer." + + + + +CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS (1741-1794), French man of letters, was +born at a little village near Clermont in Auvergne in 1741. He was, +according to a baptismal certificate found among his papers, the son of +a grocer named Nicolas. A journey to Paris resulted in the boy's +obtaining a bursary at the Collège des Grassins. He worked hard, +although he wrote later in one of his most contemptuous epigrams--_"Ce +que j'ai appris je ne le sais plus; le peu que je sais je l'ai diviné."_ +His college career ended, Chamfort assumed the dress of a _petit abbé. +"C'est un costume, et non point un état,"_ he said; and to the principal +of his college who promised him a benefice, he replied that he would +never be a priest, inasmuch as he preferred honour to honours--_"j'aime +l'honneur et non les honneurs."_ About this time he assumed the name of +Chamfort. + +For some time he contrived to exist by teaching and as a booksellers' +hack. His good looks and ready wit, however, soon brought him into +notice; but though endowed with immense strength--"Hercule sous la +figure d'Adonis," Madame de Craon called him--he lived so hard that he +was glad of the chance of doing a "cure" at Spa when the Belgian +minister in Paris, M. van Eyck, took him with him to Germany in 1761. On +his return to Paris he produced a comedy, _La Jeune Indienne_ (1764), +which was performed with some success, and this was followed by a series +of "epistles" in verse, essays and odes. It was not, however, until +1769, when he won the prize of the French Academy for his _Éloge_ on +Molière, that his literary reputation was established. + +Meanwhile he had lived from hand to mouth, mainly on the hospitality of +people who were only too glad to give him board and lodging in exchange +for the pleasure of the conversation for which he was famous. Thus +Madame Helvétius entertained him at Sèvres for some years. In 1770 +another comedy, _Le Marchand de Smyrne_, brought him still further into +notice, and he seemed on the road to fortune, when he was suddenly +smitten with a horrible disease. His distress was relieved by the +generosity of a friend, who made over to him a pension of 1200 livres +charged on the _Mercure de France_. With this assistance he was able to +go to the baths of Contrexéville and to spend some time in the country, +where he wrote an _Éloge_ on La Fontaine which won the prize of the +Academy of Marseilles (1774). In 1775, while taking the waters at +Barèges, he met the duchesse de Grammont, sister of Choiseul, through +whose influence he was introduced at court. In 1776 his poor tragedy, +_Mustapha et Zeangir_, was played at Fontainebleau before Louis XVI. and +Marie Antoinette; the king gave him a further pension of 1200 livres, +and the prince de Condé made him his secretary. But he was a Bohemian +naturally and by habit, the restraints of the court irked him, and with +increasing years he was growing misanthropical. After a year he resigned +his post in the prince's household and retired into solitude at Auteuil. +There, comparing the authors of old with the men of his own time, he +uttered the famous _mot_ that proclaims the superiority of the dead over +the living as companions; and there too he presently fell in love. The +lady, attached to the household of the duchesse du Maine, was +forty-eight years old, but clever, amusing, a woman of the world; and +Chamfort married her. They left Auteuil, and went to Vaucouleurs, where +in six months Madame Chamfort died. Chamfort lived in Holland for a time +with M. de Narbonne, and returning to Paris received in 1781 the place +at the Academy left vacant by the death of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye, +the author of the _Dictionnaire des antiquités françaises_. In 1784, +through the influence of Calonne, he became secretary to the king's +sister, Madame Elizabeth, and in 1786 he received a pension of 2000 +livres from the royal treasury. He was thus once more attached to the +court, and made himself friends in spite of the reach and tendency of +his unalterable irony; but he quitted it for ever after an unfortunate +and mysterious love affair, and was received into the house of M. de +Vaudreuil. Here in 1783 he had met Mirabeau, with whom he remained to +the last on terms of intimate friendship. whom he assisted with money +and influence, and one at least of whose speeches--that on the +Academies--he wrote. + +The outbreak of the Revolution made a profound change in the relations +of Chamfort's life. Theoretically he had long been a republican, and he +now threw himself into the new movement with almost fanatical ardour, +devoting all his small fortune to the revolutionary propaganda. His old +friends of the court he forgot. "Those who pass the river of +revolutions," he said, "have passed the river of oblivion." Until the +31st of August 1791 he was secretary of the Jacobin club; he became a +street orator and entered the Bastille among the first of the storming +party. He worked for the _Mercure de France_, collaborated with Ginguené +in the _Feuille villageoise_, and drew up for Talleyrand his _Adresse au +peuple français_. + +With the reign of Marat and Robespierre, however, his uncompromising +Jacobinism grew critical, and with the fall of the Girondins his +political life came to an end. But he could not restrain the tongue that +had made him famous; he no more spared the Convention than he had spared +the court. His notorious republicanism failed to excuse the sarcasms he +lavished on the new order of things, and denounced by an assistant in +the Bibliothèque Nationale, to a share in the direction of which he had +been appointed by Roland, he was taken to the Madelonnettes. Released +for a moment, he was threatened again with arrest; but he had determined +to prefer death to a repetition of the moral and physical restraint to +which he had been subjected. He attempted suicide with pistol and with +poniard; and, horribly hacked and shattered, dictated to those who came +to arrest him the well-known declaration--_"Moi, Sebastien-Roch-Nicolas +Chamfort, déclare avoir voulu mourir en homme libre plutôt que d'être +reconduit en esclave dans une maison d'arrêt"_--which he signed in a +firm hand and in his own blood. He did not die at once, but lingered on +until the 13th of April 1794 in charge of a gendarme, for whose wardship +he paid a crown a day. To the Abbé Sieyès Chamfort had given fortune in +the title of a pamphlet ("_Qu'est-ce que le Tiers-État? Tout. Qu'a-t-il? +Rien_"), and to Sieyès did Chamfort retail his supreme sarcasm, the +famous "_Je m'en vais enfin de ce monde où il faut que le coeur se brise +ou se bronze._" The maker of constitutions followed the dead wit to the +grave. + +The writings of Chamfort, which include comedies, political articles, +literary criticisms, portraits, letters, and verses, are colourless and +uninteresting in the extreme. As a talker, however, he was of +extraordinary force. His _Maximes et Pensées_, highly praised by John +Stuart Mill, are, after those of La Rochefoucauld, the most brilliant +and suggestive sayings that have been given to the modern world. The +aphorisms of Chamfort, less systematic and psychologically less +important than those of La Rochefoucauld, are as significant in their +violence and iconoclastic spirit of the period of storm and preparation +that gave them birth as the _Réflexions_ in their exquisite restraint +and elaborate subtlety are characteristic of the tranquil elegance of +their epoch; and they have the advantage in richness of colour, in +picturesqueness of phrase, in passion, in audacity. Sainte-Beuve +compares them to "well-minted coins that retain their value," and to +keen arrows that "_arrivent brusquement et sifflent encore._" + + An edition of his works--_OEuvres complètes de Nicolas Chamfort_--Was + published at Paris in five volumes in 1824-1825. Selections--_OEuvres + de Chamfort_--in one volume, appeared in 1852, with a biographical and + critical preface by Arsène Houssaye, reprinted from the _Revue des + deux mondes_; and _Oeuvres choisies_ (2 vols.), with a preface and + notes by M. de Lescure (1879). See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du + Lundi_. + + + + +CHAMIER, FREDERICK (1796-1870), English novelist, was the son of an +Anglo-Indian official. In 1809 he entered the navy, and was in active +service until 1827. He retired in 1833, and was promoted to be captain +in 1856. On his retirement he settled near Waltham Abbey, and wrote +several nautical novels on the lines popularized by Marryat, that had +considerable success. These were _The Life of a Sailor_ (1832), _Ben +Brace_ (1836), _The Arethusa_ (1837), _Jack Adams_ (1838), _Tom Bowling_ +(1841) and _Jack Malcolm's Log_ (1846). He wrote a number of other +books, and edited and brought down to 1827 James's _Naval History_ +(1837). + + + + +CHAMILLART, MICHEL (1652-1721), French statesman, minister of Louis +XIV., was born at Paris of a family of the noblesse of recent elevation. +Following the usual career of a statesman of his time he became in turn +councillor of the parlement of Paris (1676), master of requests (1686), +and intendant of the generality of Rouen (January 1689). Affable, of +polished manners, modest and honest, Chamillart won the confidence of +Madame de Maintenon and pleased the king. In 1690 he was made intendant +of finances, and on the 5th of September 1699 the king appointed him +controller-general of finances, to which he added on the following 7th +of January the ministry of war. From the first Chamillart's position was +a difficult one. The deficit amounted to more than 53 million livres, +and the credit of the state was almost exhausted. He lacked the great +intelligence and energy necessary for the situation, and was unable to +moderate the king's warlike tastes, or to inaugurate economic reforms. +He could only employ the usual expedients of the time--the immoderate +sale of offices, the debasement of the coinage (five times in six +years), reduction of the rate of interest on state debts, and increased +taxation. He attempted to force into circulation a kind of paper money, +_billets de monnaie_, but with disastrous results owing to the state of +credit. He studied Vauban's project for the royal tithe and +Boisguillebert's proposition for the _taille_, but did not adopt them. +In October 1706 he showed the king that the debts immediately due +amounted to 288 millions, and that the deficit already foreseen for 1707 +was 160 millions. In October 1707 he saw with consternation that the +revenue for 1708 was already entirely eaten up by anticipation, so that +neither money nor credit remained for 1708. In these conditions +Chamillart, who had often complained of the overwhelming burden he was +carrying, and who had already wished to retire in 1706, resigned his +office of controller-general. Public opinion attributed to him the ruin +of the country, though he had tried in 1700 to improve the condition of +commerce by the creation of a council of commerce. As secretary of state +for war he had to place in the field the army for the War of the Spanish +Succession, and to reorganize it three times, after the great defeats of +1704, 1706 and 1708. With an empty treasury he succeeded only in part, +and he frankly warned the king that the enemy would soon be able to +dictate the terms of peace. He was reproached with having secured the +command of the army which besieged Turin (1706) for his son-in-law, the +incapable duc de la Feuillade. Madame de Maintenon even became hostile +to him, and he abandoned his position on the 10th of June 1709, retiring +to his estates. He died on the 14th of April 1721. + + Chamillart's papers have been published by G. Esnault, _Michel + Chamillart, contrôleur général et secrétaire d'état de la guerre, + correspondance et papiers inédits_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885); and by A. + de Boislisle in vol. 2 of his _Correspondance des contrôleurs + généraux_ (1883). See D'Auvigny, _Vies des hommes illustres_ (1739), + tome vi. pp. 288-402; E. Moret, _Quinze années du règne de Louis XIV_ + (Paris, 1851); and the new edition of the _Mémoires de St-Simon_, by + A. de Boislisle. + + + + +CHAMINADE, CÉCILE (1861- ), French musical composer, was born at Paris +on the 8th of August 1861. She studied in Paris, her musical talent +being shown at the age of eight by the writing of some church music +which attracted Bizet's attention; and at eighteen she came out in +public as a pianist. Her own compositions, both songs (in large numbers) +and instrumental pieces, were soon produced in profusion: melodious and +interesting, and often charming, they became very popular, without being +entitled to rank with the greater style of music. Both in Paris and in +England Mlle Chaminade and her works became well known at the principal +concerts. In 1908 she visited America and was warmly welcomed. + + + + +CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON [LOUIS CHARLES ADELAIDE DE] (1781-1838), German +poet and botanist, was born at the château of Boncourt in Champagne, +France, the ancestral seat of his family, on the 30th of January 1781. +Driven from France by the Revolution, his parents settled in Berlin, +where in 1796 young Chamisso obtained the post of page-in-waiting to the +queen, and in 1798 entered a Prussian infantry regiment as ensign. His +family were shortly afterwards permitted to return to France; he, +however, remained behind and continued his career in the army. He had +but little education, but now sought distraction from the soulless +routine of the Prussian military service in assiduous study. In +collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense, he founded in 1803 the _Berliner +Musenalmanach_, in which his first verses appeared. The enterprise was a +failure, and, interrupted by the war, it came to an end in 1806. It +brought him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities +of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet. He had +become lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 accompanied his regiment to +Hameln, where he shared in the humiliations following the treasonable +capitulation of that fortress in the ensuing year. Placed on parole he +went to France, where he found that both his parents were dead; and, +returning to Berlin in the autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from +the service early in the following year. Homeless and without a +profession, disillusioned and despondent, he lived in Berlin until 1810, +when, through the services of an old friend of the family, he was +offered a professorship at the _lycée_ at Napoléonville in La Vendée. He +set out to take up the post, but drawn into the charmed circle of Madame +de Staël, followed her in her exile to Coppet in Switzerland, where, +devoting himself to botanical research, he remained nearly two years. In +1812 he returned to Berlin, where he continued his scientific studies. +In the summer of the eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative +_Peter Schlemihl_, the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of +all his works, has been translated into most European languages (English +by W. Howitt). It was written partly to divert his own thoughts and +partly to amuse the children of his friend Hitzig. In 1815 Chamisso was +appointed botanist to the Russian ship "Rurik," which Otto von Kotzebue +(son of August von Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the +world. His diary of the expedition (_Tagebuch_, 1821) affords some +interesting glimpses of England and English life. On his return in 1818 +he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and was +elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1820 he married. +Chamisso's travels and scientific researches restrained for a while the +full development of his poetical talent, and it was not until his +forty-eighth year that he turned again to literature. In 1829, in +collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and from 1832 in conjunction with +Franz von Gaudy, he brought out the _Deutsche Musenalmanach_, in which +his later poems were mainly published. He died on the 21st of August +1838. + +As a scientist Chamisso has not left much mark, although his +_Bemerkungen und Ansichten_, published in an incomplete form in O. von +Kotzebue's _Entdeckungsreise_ (Weimar, 1821) and more completely in +Chamisso's _Gesammelte Werke_ (1836), and the botanical work, _Übersicht +der nutzbarsten und schädlichsten Gewächse in Norddeutschland_ (1829) +are esteemed for their careful treatment of the subjects with which they +deal. As a poet Chamisso's reputation stands high, _Frauen Liebe und +Leben_ (1830), a cycle of lyrical poems, which was set to music by +Schumann, being particularly famous. Noteworthy are also _Schloss +Boncourt_ and _Salas y Gomez_. In estimating his success as a writer, it +should not be forgotten that he was cut off from his native speech and +from his natural current of thought and feeling. He often deals with +gloomy and sometimes with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in +his lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or of +satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions he displays a +fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with true feeling a tale of love +or vengeance. _Die Löwenbraut_ may be taken as a sample of his weird and +powerful simplicity; and _Vergeltung_ is remarkable for a pitiless +precision of treatment. + + The first collected edition of Chamisso's works was edited by J.E. + Hitzig, 6 vols. (1836); 6th edition (1874); there are also excellent + editions by M. Koch (1883) and O.F. Walzel (1892). On Chamisso's life + see J.E. Hitzig, "Leben und Briefe von Adelbert yon Chamisso" (in the + _Gesammelte Werke_); K. Fulda, _Chamisso und seine Zeit_ (1881); G. + Hofmeister, _Adelbert von Chamisso_ (1884); and, for the scientific + side of Chamisso's life, E. du Bois-Raymond, _Adelbert von Chamisso + als Naturforscher_ (1889). + + + + + +CHAMKANNI, a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of the North-West +Province of India. They inhabit the western part of the Kurmana Valley +in the Orakzai portion of Tirah, but are supposed to be a distinct race. +They took part in the frontier risings of 1897, and during the Tirah +expedition of that year a brigade under General Gaselee was sent to +punish them. + + + + +CHAMOIS, the Franco-Swiss name of an Alpine ruminant known in the German +cantons as _Gemse_, and to naturalists as _Rupicapra tragus_ or _R. +rupicapra tragus_. It is the only species of its genus, and typifies a +subfamily, _Rupicaprinae_, of hollow-horned ruminants in some degree +intermediate between antelopes and goats (see ANTELOPE). About equal in +height to a roebuck, and with a short black tail, the chamois is readily +distinguishable from all other ruminants by its vertical, +backwardly-hooked, black horns, which are common to males and females, +although smaller in the latter. Apart from black and white +face-markings, and the black tail and dorsal stripe, the prevailing +colour of the Alpine chamois is chestnut brown in summer, but lighter +and greyer in winter. In the Pyrenees the species is represented by a +small race locally known as the izard; a very brightly-coloured form, +_R.t. picta_, inhabits the Apennines; the Carpathian chamois is very +dark-coloured, and the one from the Caucasus is the representative of +yet another race. A thick under-fur is developed in the winter-coat, as +in all other ruminants dwelling at high altitudes. Chamois are +gregarious, living in herds of 15 or 20, and feeding generally in the +morning or evening. The old males, however, live alone except in the +rutting season, which occurs in October, when they join the herds, +driving off the younger bucks, and engaging in fierce contests with each +other, that often end fatally for one at least of the combatants. The +period of gestation is twenty weeks, when the female, beneath the +shelter generally of a projecting rock, produces one and sometimes two +young. In summer they ascend to the limits of perpetual snow, being only +exceeded in the loftiness of their haunts by the ibex; and during that +season they show their intolerance of heat by choosing such +browsing-grounds as have a northern exposure. In winter they descend to +the wooded districts that immediately succeed the region of glaciers, +and it is there only they can be successfully hunted. Chamois are +exceedingly shy; and their senses, especially those of sight and smell, +very acute. The herd never feeds without having a sentinel posted on +some prominence to give notice of the approach of danger; which is done +by stamping on the ground with the forefeet, and uttering a shrill +whistling note, thus putting the entire herd on the alert. No sooner is +the object of alarm scented or seen than each one seeks safety in the +most inaccessible situations, which are often reached by a series of +astounding leaps over crevasses, up the faces of seemingly perpendicular +rocks, or down the sides of equally precipitous chasms. The chamois will +not hesitate, it is said, thus to leap down 20 or even 30 ft., and this +it effects with apparent ease by throwing itself forward diagonally and +striking its feet several times in its descent against the face of the +rock. Chamois-shooting is most successfully pursued when a number of +hunters form a circle round a favourite feeding ground, which they +gradually narrow; the animals, scenting the hunters to windward, fly in +the opposite direction, only to encounter those coming from leeward. +Chamois-hunting, in spite of, or perhaps owing to the great danger +attending it, has always been a favourite pursuit among the hardy +mountaineers of Switzerland and Tirol, as well as of the amateur +sportsmen of all countries, with the result that the animal is now +comparatively rare in many districts where it was formerly common. +Chamois feed in summer on mountain-herbs and flowers, and in winter +chiefly on the young shoots and buds of fir and pine trees. They are +particularly fond of salt, and in the Alps sandstone rocks containing a +saline impregnation are often met with hollowed by the constant licking +of these creatures. The skin of the chamois is very soft; made into +leather it was the original _shammy_, which is now made, however, from +the skins of many other animals. The flesh is prized as venison. + (R. L.*) + + + + +CHAMOMILE, or Camomile Flowers, the _flores anthemidis_ of the British +Pharmacopoeia, the flower-heads of _Anthemis nobilis_ (Nat. Ord. +_Compositae_), a herb indigenous to England and western Europe. It is +cultivated for medicinal purposes in Surrey, at several places in +Saxony, and in France and Belgium,--that grown in England being much +more valuable than any of the foreign chamomiles brought into the +market. In the wild plant the florets of the ray are ligulate and white, +and contain pistils only, those of the disk being tubular and yellow; +but under cultivation the whole of the florets tend to become ligulate +and white, in which state the flower-heads are said to be double. The +flower-heads have a warm aromatic odour, which is characteristic of the +entire plant, and a very bitter taste. In addition to a bitter +extractive principle, they yield about 2% of a volatile liquid, which on +its first extraction is of a pale blue colour, but becomes a yellowish +brown on exposure to light. It has the characteristic odour of the +flowers, and consists of a mixture of butyl and amyl angelates and +valerates. Angelate of potassium has been obtained by treatment of the +oil with caustic potash, and angelic acid may be isolated from this by +treatment with dilute sulphuric acid. Chamomile is used in medicine in +the form of its volatile oil, of which the dose is ½-3 minims. There is +an official extract which is never used. Like all volatile oils the drug +is a stomachic and carminative. In large doses the infusion is a simple +emetic. + +Wild chamomile is _Matricaria Chamomilla_, a weed common in waste and +cultivated ground especially in the southern counties of England. It has +somewhat the appearance of true chamomile, but a fainter scent. + + + + +CHAMONIX, a mountain valley in south-east France, its chief village, of +the same name, being the capital of a canton of the arrondissement of +Bonneville in the department of Haute-Savoie. The valley runs from N.E. +to S.W., and is watered by the Arve, which rises in the Mer de Glace. On +the S.E. towers the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, and on the N.W. the +less lofty, but rugged chain of the Brévent and of the Aiguilles Rouges. +Near the head of the valley is the village of Argentière (4101 ft.), +which is connected with Switzerland by "char" (light carriage) roads +over the Tête Noire and past Salvan, and by a mule path over the Col de +Balme, which joins the Tête Noire route near Trient and then crosses by +a "char" road the Col de la Forclaz to Martigny in the Rhone valley. The +principal village, Chamonix (3416 ft.), is 6 m. below Argentière by +electric railway (which continues via Finhaut to Martigny) and is +visited annually by a host of tourists, as it is the best starting-point +for the exploration of the glaciers of the Mont Blanc chain, as well as +for the ascent of Mont Blanc itself. It is connected with Geneva by a +railway (55 m.). In 1906 the population of the village was 806, of the +commune 3482. + +The valley is first heard of about 1091, when it was granted by the +count of the Genevois to the great Benedictine house of St Michel de la +Cluse, near Turin, which by the early 13th century established a priory +therein. But in 1786 the inhabitants bought their freedom from the +canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory had been transferred in 1519. +In 1530 the inhabitants obtained from the count of the Genevois the +privilege of holding two fairs a year, while the valley was often +visited by the civil officials and by the bishops of Geneva (first +recorded visit in 1411, while St Francis de Sales came thither in 1606). +But travellers for pleasure were long rare. The first party to publish +(1744) an account of their visit was that of Dr R. Pococke, Mr W. +Windham and other Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741. In +1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760 H.B. de +Saussure, and rather later Bourrit. + + See J.A. Bonnefoy and A. Perrin, _Le Prieuré de Chamonix_ (2 vols., + Chambery, 1879 and 1883); A. Perrin, _Histoire de la vallée et du + prieuré de Chamonix_ (Chambéry, 1887); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, _Carte + de la chaîne du Mont Blanc_ (1896; new ed., 1905); L. Kurz, _Climbers' + Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc_ (London, 1892); also works referred + to under BLANC, MONT. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province of the kingdom of France, bounded N. by +Liége and Luxemburg; E. by Lorraine; S. by Burgundy; and W. by Picardy +and Isle de France. It now forms the departments of Ardennes, Marne, +Aube and Haute Marne, with part of Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne and +Meuse. Its name--in Latin Campania, "country of plains"--is derived from +the immense plains near Reims, Châlons and Troyes. It was constituted +towards the end of the middle ages by joining to the countship of +Champagne the ecclesiastical duchies of Reims and Langres, together with +the ecclesiastical countship of Châlons. Documents of the 12th and 13th +centuries make it possible to determine the territorial configuration of +the countship of Champagne with greater accuracy than in the case of any +other fief of the crown of France. Formed at random by the acquisitions +of the counts of the houses of Vermandois and Blois, Champagne reckoned +among its dependencies, from 1152 to 1234, the countship of Blois and +Chartres, of which Touraine was a fief, the countship of Sancerre, and +various scattered fiefs in the Bourbonnais and in Burgundy. Officially +called the "countship of Champagne and Brie" since 1217, this state was +formed by the union of the countships of Troyes and Meaux, to which the +greater part of the districts embraced in the country known, since the +beginning of the middle ages, by the name of Champagne and Brie came in +course of time to be attached. Placed under the authority of a single +count in 960, the countships of Troyes and Meaux were not again +separated after 1125. For the counts of Troyes before the 11th century +see TROYES. We confine ourselves here to the counts of Champagne of the +house of Blois. + +About 1020 Eudes or Odo I. (Odo II., count of Blois) became count of +Champagne. He disputed the kingdom of Burgundy with the emperor Conrad, +and died in 1037, in a battle near Bar-le-Duc. In 1037 he was succeeded +by his younger son, Stephen II. About 1050 Odo II., son of Stephen II., +became count. This prince, guilty of murder, found refuge in Normandy, +where he received the castle of Aumale. He took part in 1066 in the +conquest of England, and became earl of Holderness. About 1063 Theobald +(Thibaud) I., count of Blois and Meaux, eldest son of Odo I., became +count of Champagne. In 1077 he seized the countships of Vitry and +Bar-sur-Aube, left vacant by Simon of Valois, who had retired to a +monastery. In 1089 Odo III., second son of Theobald II., became count, +and was succeeded about 1093 by his younger brother, Hugh, who became a +templar in 1125, and gave up the countship to his suzerain, the count of +Blois. In 1125 the countship of Champagne passed to Theobald II. the +Great, already count of Blois and Meaux, and one of the most powerful +French barons of his time. He was related to the royal house of England, +and incurred the displeasure of the king of France, who in 1142 invaded +Champagne and burnt the town of Vitry. After Theobald the Great the +countship of Blois ceased to be the dominant fief of his house and +became the appanage of a younger branch. In 1152 Henry the Liberal, +eldest son of Theobald II., became count of Champagne; he married Mary, +daughter of Louis VII. of France, and went to the crusade in 1178. He +was taken prisoner by the Turks, recovered his liberty through the good +offices of the emperor of the East, and died a few days after his return +to Champagne. In 1181 his eldest son, Henry II., succeeded him under the +tutelage of Mary of France. In 1190 he went to the Holy Land, and became +king of Jerusalem in 1192 by his marriage with Isabelle, widow of the +marquis of Montferrat. He died in 1197 in his town of Acre from the +results of an accident. In 1197 Theobald III., younger son of Henry I., +became count, and was succeeded in 1201 by Theobald IV., "le +Chansonnier" (the singer), who was the son of Theobald III. and Blanche +of Navarre, and was born some days after the death of his father. From +1201 to 1222 he remained under the tutelage of his mother, who governed +Champagne with great sagacity. The reign of this prince was singularly +eventful. The two daughters of count Henry II. successively claimed the +countship, so that Theobald had to combat the claims of Philippa, wife +of Erard of Brienne, seigneur of Rameru, from 1216 to 1222, and those of +Alix, queen dowager of Cyprus, in 1233 and 1234. In 1226 he followed +king Louis VII. to the siege of Avignon, and after the death of that +monarch played a prominent part during the reign of St Louis. At first +leagued with the malcontent barons, he allowed himself to be gained over +by the queen-mother, and thus came into collision with his old allies. +He became king of Navarre in 1234 by the death of his maternal uncle, +Sancho VII. but by the onerous treaty which he concluded in that year +with the queen of Cyprus he was compelled to cede to the king, in return +for a large sum of money, the overlordship of the countships of Blois, +Chartres and Sancerre, and the viscounty of Châteaudun. In 1239 and 1240 +he took part in an expedition to the Holy Land, probably accompanied St +Louis in 1242 in the campaign of Saintonge against the English, and died +on the 14th of July 1254 at Pampeluna. If the author of the _Grandes +chroniques de France_ can be believed, Theobald IV. conceived a passion +for Queen Blanche, the mother of St Louis,--a passion which she +returned, and which explains the changes in his policy; but this opinion +apparently must be relegated to the category of historical fables. The +witty and courtly songs he composed place him in the front rank of the +poets of that class, in which he showed somewhat more originality than +his rivals. In 1254 Theobald V. the Young, eldest son of Theobald IV. +and, like his father, king of Navarre, became count of Champagne. He +married Isabelle of France, daughter of St Louis, and followed his +father-in-law to Tunis to the crusade, dying on his return. In 1270 he +was succeeded by Henry III. the Fat, king of Navarre. Henry was +succeeded in 1274 by his only daughter, Joan of Navarre, under the +tutelage of her mother, Blanche of Artois, and afterwards of Edmund, +earl of Lancaster, her mother's second husband. In 1284 she married the +heir-presumptive to the throne of France, Philip the Fair, to whom she +brought the countship of Champagne as well as the kingdom of Navarre. +She became queen of France in 1285, and died on the 4th of April 1305, +when her eldest son by King Philip, Louis Hutin, became count of +Champagne. He was the last independent count of the province, which +became attached to the French crown on his accession to the throne of +France in 1314. + +The celebrated fairs of Champagne, which flourished in the 12th and 13th +centuries, were attended by merchants from all parts of civilized +Europe. They were six in number: two at Troyes, two at Provins, one at +Lagny-sur-Marne, and one at Bar-sur-Aube. They formed a kind of +continuous market, divided into six periods, and passed in turn from +Lagny to Bar, from Bar to Provins, from Provins to Troyes, from Troyes +to Provins and from Provins to Troyes, to complete the year. It was, in +fact, a perpetual fair, which had at once unity and variety, offering to +the different parts of the countship the means of selling successively +the special productions of their soil or their industry, and of +procuring in exchange riches and comforts. These fairs had special +legislation; and special magistrates, called "masters of the fairs," had +control of the police. + + For the wine "champagne" see WINE. + + AUTHORITIES.--H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Histoire des ducs et des + comtes de Champagne_ (1859-1866); A. Longnon, _Documents relatifs au + comté de Champagne et de Brie_ (1901 seq.; vol. i. with map); F. + Bourquelot, _Études sur les foires de Champagne_ (1865). (A. Lo.) + + + + +CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE (1756-1834), French politician, was +born at Roanne, and entered the navy in 1774. He fought through the war +in America and resigned in 1787. Elected deputy by the _noblesse_ of +Forex to the states-general in 1789, he went over to the third estate on +the 21st of June and collaborated in the work of the Constituent +Assembly, especially occupying himself with the reorganization of the +navy. A political career seems to have attracted him little; he remained +in private life from 1791 to 1799, when Napoleon named him member of the +council of state. From July 1801 to August 1804 he was ambassador of +France at Vienna, and directed with great intelligence the incessant +negotiations between the two courts. In August 1804 Napoleon made him +minister of the interior, and in this position, which he held for three +years, he proved an administrator of the first order. In addition to the +ordinary charges of his office, he had to direct the recruitment of the +army, organize the industrial exhibition of 1808, and to complete the +public works undertaken in Paris and throughout France. He was devoted +to Napoleon, on whom he lavished adulation in his speeches. In August +1807 the emperor chose him to succeed Talleyrand as minister for +foreign affairs. He directed the annexation of the Papal States in April +1808, worked to secure the abdication of Charles IV. of Spain in May +1808, negotiated the peace of Vienna (1809) and the marriage of +Napoleon. In April 1811 a quarrel with the emperor led to his +retirement, and he obtained the sinecure office of intendant general of +the crown. In 1814, after the abdication, the empress sent him on a +fruitless mission to the emperor of Austria. Then he went over to the +Bourbons. During the Hundred Days he again joined Napoleon. This led to +his exclusion by Louis XVIII., but in 1819 he recovered his dignity of +peer. He died in Paris in 1834. He had three sons who became men of +distinction. François (1804-1882) was a well-known author, who was made +a member of the French Academy in 1869. His great work was a history of +the Roman empire, in three parts, (1) _Les Césars_ (1841-1843, 4 vols.), +(2) _Les Antonins_ (1863, 3 vols.), (3) _Les Césars du IIIe siècle_ +(1870, 3 vols.). Napoléon (1806-1872) published a _Traité de la police +municipale_ in 4 volumes (1844-1861), and was a deputy in the Corps +Législatif from 1852 to 1870. Jérome Paul (1809-1886) was also deputy in +the Corps Législatif from 1853 to 1870, and was made honorary +chamberlain in 1859. He worked at the official publication of the +correspondence of Napoleon I. + + + + +CHAMPAIGN, a city of Champaign county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 125 m. S. +by W. of Chicago, on the head-waters of the Vermilion river. Pop. (1890) +5839; (1900) 9098, of whom 973 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,421. +It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the +Wabash, and the Illinois Central railways (the last having repair shops +here), and by the Illinois (electric) Traction System from Danville, +Illinois, to St Louis, Missouri. In 1906 the city covered 3.5 sq. m.; it +is situated in a rich agricultural region, and has small manufacturing +interests. Immediately east of Champaign is the city of Urbana, the +county-seat of Champaign county, served by the Wabash and the Cleveland, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, with repair shops of the +latter. In 1890 the population of Urbana was 3511; in 1900, 5728 (300 +foreign-born); in 1910, 8245. Partly in Urbana and partly in Champaign +is the University of Illinois (see ILLINOIS); immediately south of its +campus is the 400-acre farm of the university. Each city has a public +library, and in Champaign are the Burnham Athenaeum, the Burnham +hospital, the Garwood home for old ladies, and several parks, all gifts +of former citizens. Champaign was founded in 1855, incorporated as a +city in 1860, and re-chartered in 1883. Urbana secured a city charter in +1855. + + + + +CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE (1602-1674), Belgian painter of the French +school, was born at Brussels of a poor family. He was a pupil of J. +Fouquières; and, going to Paris in 1621, was employed by N. Du Chesne to +paint along with Nicholas Poussin in the palace of the Luxembourg. His +best works are to be found at Vincennes, and in the church of the +Carmelites at Paris, where is his celebrated Crucifix, a signal +perspective success, on one of the vaultings. After the death of Du +Chesne, Philippe became first painter to the queen of France, and +ultimately rector of the Academy of Paris. As his age advanced and his +health failed, he retired to Port Royal, where he had a daughter +cloistered as a nun, of whom (along with Catherine Agnès Arnauld) he +painted a celebrated picture, now in the Louvre, highly remarkable for +its solid unaffected truth. This, indeed, is the general character of +his work,--grave reality, without special elevation or depth of +character, or charm of warm or stately colour. He produced an immense +number of paintings, religious and other subjects as well as portraits, +dispersed over various parts of France, and now over the galleries of +Europe. Philippe was a good man, indefatigable, earnest and scrupulously +religious. He died on the 12th of August 1674. + + + + +CHAMPARAN, or CHUMPARUN, a district of British India, in the Patna +division of Bengal, occupying the north-west corner of Behar, between +the two rivers Gandak and Baghmati and the Nepal hills. It has an area +of 3531 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 1,790,463, showing a decrease +of 4% in the decade. A broad grass-covered road or embankment defines +the Nepal frontier, except where rivers or streams form a natural +boundary. The district is a vast level except in the N. and N.W., where +it undulates, and gradually assumes a rugged appearance as it approaches +the mountains and forests of Nepal. Wide uncultivated tracts cover its +north-western corner; the southern and western parts are carefully +cultivated, and teem with an active agricultural population. The +principal rivers are the Gandak, navigable all the year round, the Buri +Gandak, Panch Nadi, Lalbagia, Koja and Teur. Old beds of rivers +intersect Champaran in every direction, and one of these forms a chain +of lakes which occupy an area of 139 sq. m. in the centre of the +district. Champaran, with the rest of Bengal and Behar, was acquired by +the British in 1765. Up to 1866 it remained a subdivision of Saran. In +that year it was separated and formed into a separate district. The +administrative headquarters are at Motihari (population, 13,730); Bettia +is the centre of a very large estate; Segauli, still a small military +station, was the scene of a massacre during the Mutiny. Champaran was +the chief seat of indigo planting in Behar before the decline of that +industry. There are about 40 saltpetre refineries. The district suffered +severely from drought in 1866 and 1874, and again in 1897. In the last +year a small government canal was opened, and a canal from the Gandak +has also been constructed. The district is traversed almost throughout +its length to Bettia by the Tirhoot state railway. A considerable trade +is conducted with Nepal. + + + + +CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF [GULIELMUS CAMPELLENSIS] (c. 1070-1121), French +philosopher and theologian was born at Champeaux near Melun. After +studying under Anselm of Laon and Roscellinus, he taught in the school +of the cathedral of Notre Dame, of which he was made canon in 1103. +Among his pupils was Abelard. In 1108 he retired into the abbey of St +Victor, where he resumed his lectures. He afterwards became bishop of +Châlons-sur-Marne, and took part in the dispute concerning investitures +as a supporter of Calixtus II., whom he represented at the conference of +Mousson. His only printed works are a fragment on the Eucharist +(inserted by Jean Mabillon in his edition of the works of St Bernard), +and the _Moralia Abbreviata_ and _De Origine Animae_ (in E. Martène's +_Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum_, 1717, vol. 5). In the last of these he +maintains that children who die unbaptized must be lost, the pure soul +being denied by the grossness of the body, and declares that God's will +is not to be questioned. He upholds the theory of Creatianism (that a +soul is specially created for each human being). Ravaisson-Mollien has +discovered a number of fragments by him, among which the most important +is the _De Essentia Dei et de Substantia Dei_; a _Liber Sententiarum_, +consisting of discussions on ethics and Scriptural interpretation, is +also ascribed to Champeaux. He is reputed the founder of Realism. For +his views and his controversy with Abelard, see SCHOLASTICISM and +ABELARD. + + See Victor Cousin, introduction to his _Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard_ + (1836), and _Fragments pour servir à l'histoire de la philosophie_ + (1865); G.A. Patru, _Wilhelmi Campellensis de natura et de origine + rerum placita_ (1847); E. Michaud, _Guillaume de Champeaux et les + écoles de Paris au XIIe siècle_ (2nd ed., 1868); "William of Champeaux + and his Times" in _Christian Observer_, lxxii. 843; B. Hauréau, _De la + philosophie scolastique_ (Paris, 1850); Opuscula in J.P. Migne's + _Patrologia_, clxiii. + + + + +CHAMPERTY, or CHAMPARTY (Lat. _campi partitio_, O. Fr. _champ parti_), +in English law, a bargain between a plaintiff or defendant in a cause +and another person, to divide the land (_campum partiri_) or other +matter sued for, if they prevail, in consideration of that person +carrying on or defending the suit at his own expense. It is a +misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment. It differs only from +maintenance (q.v.), in that the recompense for the service which has +been given is always part of the matter in suit, or some profit growing +out of it. So an agreement by a solicitor not to charge costs on +condition of retaining for himself a share of the sums recovered would +be illegal and void. It is not, however, champerty to charge the +subject-matter of a suit in order to obtain the means of prosecuting it. + + See _Fifth Report of the Criminal Law Commissioners_, pp. 34-9. + + + + + +CHAMPION (Fr. _champion_, Late Lat. _campio_ from _campus_, a field or +open space, i.e. one "who takes the field" or fights; cf. Ger. _Kampf_, +battle, and _Kämpfer_, fighter), in the judicial combats of the middle +ages the substitute for a party to the suit disabled from bearing arms +or specially exempt from the duty to do so (see WAGER). Hence the word +has come to be applied to any one who "champions," or contends on behalf +of, any person or cause. In the laws of the Lombards (lib. ii. tit. 56 +§§ 38, 39), those who by reason of youth, age or infirmity could not +bear arms were allowed to nominate champions, and the same provision was +made in the case of women (lib. i. tit. 3 § 6, tit. 16, §2). This was +practically the rule laid down in all subsequent legislation on the +subject. Thus the _Assize of Jerusalem_ (cap. 39) says: "These are the +people who may defend themselves through champions; a woman, a sick man, +a man who has passed the age of sixty, &c." The clergy, too, whether as +individuals or corporations, were represented by champions; in the case +of bishops and abbots this function was part of the duties of the +_advocatus_ (see ADVOCATE). Du Cange gives instances of mercenary +champions (_campiones conductitii_), who were regarded as "infamous +persons" and sometimes, in case of defeat, were condemned to lose hand +or foot. Sometimes championships were "serjeanties," i.e. rendered +service to lords, churches or cities in consideration of the grant of +certain fiefs, or for annual money payments, the champion doing homage +to the person or corporation represented by him (_campiones homagii_). + +The office of "king's champion" (_campio regis_) is peculiar to England. +The function of the king's champion, when the ceremonial of the +coronation was carried out in its completeness, was to ride, clad in +complete armour, on his right the high constable, on his left the earl +marshal, into Westminster Hall during the coronation banquet, and +challenge to single combat any who should dispute the king's right to +reign. The challenge was thrice repeated by the herald, at the entrance +to the hall, in the centre, and at the foot of the dais. On picking up +his gauntlet for the third time the champion was pledged by the king in +a gilt-covered cup, which was then presented to him as his fee by the +king. If he had had occasion to fight, and was victorious, his fee would +have been the armour he wore and the horse he rode, the second best in +the royal stables; but no such occasion has ever arisen. This +picturesque ceremonial was last performed at the coronation of George +IV. The office of king's champion is of great antiquity, and its origins +are involved in great obscurity. It is said to have been held under +William the Conqueror by Robert or Roger Marmion, whose ancestors had +been hereditary champions in Normandy. The first authentic record, +however is a charter of Henry I., signed by Robert Marmion (_Robertus de +Bajucis campio regis_). Of the actual exercise of the office the +earliest record dates from the coronation of Richard II. On this +occasion the champion, Sir John Dymoke, appeared at the door of the +Abbey immediately after the coronation mass, but was peremptorily told +to go away and return later; moreover, in his bill presented to the +court of claims, he stated that the champion was to ride in the +procession before the service, and make his challenge to all the world. +This seems to show that the ceremony, as might be expected, was +originally performed _before_ the king's coronation, when it would have +had some significance. The office of king's champion is hereditary, and +is now held by the family of Dymoke (q.v.). + + See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Campio"; L.G. Wickham Legg, + _English Coronation Records_ (Westminster, 1901); J.H.T. Perkins, + _The Coronation Book_ (London, 1902). + + + + +CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE (1762-1800), French general, enlisted in the +army at an early age and served in the great siege of Gibraltar. When +the Revolution broke out he took a prominent part in the movement, and +was elected by the men of a battalion to command them. In May 1793 he +was charged with the suppression of the disturbances in the Jura, which +he quelled without bloodshed. Under Pichegru he took part in the Rhine +campaign of that year as a brigade commander, and at Weissenburg and in +the Palatinate won the warm commendation of Lazare Hoche. At Fleurus his +stubborn fighting in the centre of the field contributed greatly to +Jourdan's victory. In the subsequent campaigns he commanded the left +wing of the French armies on the Rhine between Neuwied and Düsseldorf, +and took a great part in all the successful and unsuccessful expeditions +to the Lahn and the Main. In 1798 Championnet was named +commander-in-chief of the "army of Rome" which was protecting the infant +Roman republic against the Neapolitan court and the British fleet. +Nominally 32,000 strong, the army scarcely numbered 8000 effectives, +with a bare fifteen cartridges per man. The Austrian general Mack had a +tenfold superiority in numbers, but Championnet so well held his own +that he ended by capturing Naples itself and there setting up the +Parthenopean Republic. But his intense earnestness and intolerance of +opposition soon embroiled him with the civilians, and the general was +recalled in disgrace. The following year, however, saw him again in the +field as commander-in-chief of the "army of the Alps." This, too, was at +first a mere paper force, but after three months' hard work it was able +to take the field. The campaign which followed was uniformly +unsuccessful, and, worn out by the unequal struggle, Championnet died at +Antibes on the 9th of January 1800. In 1848 a statue was erected in his +honour at Valence. + + See A.R.C. de St Albin, _Championnet, ou les Campagnes de Hollande, de + Rome et de Naples_ (Paris, 1860). + + + + +CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567-1635), French explorer, colonial pioneer and +first governor of French Canada, was born at Brouage, a small French +port on the Bay of Biscay, in 1567. His father was a sea captain, and +the boy was early skilled in seamanship and navigation. He entered the +army of Henry IV., and served in Brittany under Jean d'Aumont, François +de St Luc and Charles de Brissac. When the army of the League was +disbanded he accompanied his uncle, who had charge of the ships in which +the Spanish allies were conveyed home, and on reaching Cadiz secured +(1599) the command of one of the vessels about to make an expedition to +the West Indies. He was gone over two years, visiting all the principal +ports and pushing inland from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. The MS. +account of his adventures, _Bref Discours des Choses plus remarquables +que Samuel Champlain de Brouage a recognues aux Indes Occidentales_, is +in the library at Dieppe. It was not published in French until 1870, +although an English translation was printed by the Hakluyt Society in +1859. It contains a suggestion of a Panama Canal, "by which the voyage +to the South Sea would be shortened by more than 1500 leagues." In 1603 +Champlain made his first voyage to Canada, being sent out by Aymar de +Clermont, seigneur de Chastes, on whom the king had bestowed a patent. +Champlain at once established friendly relations with the Indians and +explored the St Lawrence to the rapids above Montreal. On his return he +published an interesting and historically valuable little book, _Des +sauvages, ou voyage de Samuel Champlain de Brouage fait en la France +Nouvelle_. During his absence de Chastes had died, and his privileges +and fur trade monopolies were conferred upon Pierre de Guast, sieur de +Monts (1560-1611). With him, in 1604, Champlain was engaged in exploring +the coast as far south as Cape Cod, in seeking a site for a new +settlement, and in making surveys and charts. They first settled on an +island near the mouth of the St Croix river, and then at Port Royal--now +Annapolis, N.S. + +Meanwhile the Basques and Bretons, asserting that they were being ruined +by de Monts' privileges, got his patent revoked, and Champlain returned +with the discouraged colonists to Europe. When, however, in modified +form, the patent was re-granted to his patron Champlain induced him to +abandon Acadia and establish a settlement on the St Lawrence, of the +commercial advantages of which, perhaps even as a western route to China +and Japan, he soon convinced him. Champlain was placed in command of one +of the two vessels sent out. He was to explore and colonize, while the +other vessel traded, to pay for the expedition. Champlain fixed on the +site of Quebec and founded the first white settlement there in July +1608, giving it its present name. In the spring he joined a war party of +Algonquins and Hurons, discovered the great lake that bears his name, +and, near the present Ticonderoga, took with his arquebus an important +part in the victory which his savage friends obtained over the Iroquois. +The Iroquois naturally turned first to the Dutch and then to the English +for allies. "Thus did new France rush into collision with the redoubted +warriors of the Five Nations. Here was the beginning, and in some +measure doubtless the cause, of a long suite of murderous conflicts, +bearing havoc and flame to generations yet unborn" (Parkman). Champlain +returned to France and again related to Henry IV.--who had previously +learned his worth and had pensioned him--his exciting adventures. De +Monts failed to secure a renewal of his patent, but resolved to proceed +without it. Champlain was again (1611) in Canada, fighting for and +against the Indians and establishing a trading post at Mont Royal (see +MONTREAL). He was the third white man to descend, and the second to +descend successfully, the Lachine Rapids. De Monts, now governor of +Paris, was too busy to occupy himself in the waning fortunes of the +colony, and left them entirely to his associate. An influential +protector was needed; and Champlain prevailed upon Charles de Bourbon, +comte de Soissons, to interest himself to obtain from the king the +appointment of lieutenant-general in New France. The comte de Soissons +died almost immediately, and was succeeded in the office by Henri de +Bourbon, prince de Condé, and he, like his predecessors and successors, +retained Champlain as lieutenant-governor. "In Champlain alone was the +life of New France. By instinct and temperament he was more impelled to +the adventurous toils of exploration than to the duller task of building +colonies. The profits of trade had value in his eyes only as means to +these ends, and settlements were important chiefly as a base of +discovery. Two great objects eclipsed all others,--to find a route to +the Indies, and to bring the heathen tribes into the embraces of the +Church, since, while he cared little for their bodies, his solicitude +for their souls knew no bounds" (Parkman). + +In 1613 Champlain again crossed the Atlantic and endeavoured to confirm +Nicolas de Vignau's alleged discovery of a short route to the ocean by +the Ottawa river, a great lake at its source, and another river flowing +north therefrom. That year he got as far as Allumette Island in the +Ottawa, but two years later, with a "Great War Party" of Indians, he +crossed Lake Nipissing and the eastern ends of Lakes Huron and Ontario, +and made a fierce but unsuccessful attack on an Onondaga fortified town +a few miles south of Lake Oneida. This was the end of his wanderings. He +now devoted himself to the growth and strengthening of Quebec. Every +year he went to France with this end in view. He was one of the hundred +associates of the Company of New France, created by Richelieu to reform +abuses and take over all his country's interests in the new world. These +ill-defended possessions England now prepared to seize. Three ships were +sent out under letters of marque commanded by David, Lewis and Thomas +Kirke, and Quebec, already on the verge of starvation, was compelled to +surrender (1629). Champlain was taken to England a prisoner, but when +Canada was restored to the French he returned (1633) to his post, where +he died on the 25th of December 1635. He had married in 1610, Hélène +Boullé, then but twelve years old. She did not leave France for Canada, +however, until ten years later. After his death she became a nun. + + Champlain's complete works in 6 vols. were published under the + patronage of the university of Laval in 1870. There is a careful + translation of _Champlain's Voyages_, by Professor and Mrs E.G. Bourne + in the "Trailmaker" series edited by Prof. J.B. McMaster. See F. + Parkman, _Pioneers of France in the New World_ (1865); J. Winsor, + _Cartier to Frontenac_ (1894); N.E. Dionne, _Champlain_ (1905). + (N. E. D.) + + + + +CHAMPLAIN, a lake lying between the states of New York and Vermont, +U.S.A., and penetrating for a few miles into Canada. It extends about +130 m. from N. to S., varies from ¼ m. to 1 m. in width for 40 m. from +its S. terminus, and then widens until it reaches a maximum width of +about 11 m. near Ausable Point. Its area is about 500 sq. m. Its surface +is 96 ft. above the sea. In the north part it is generally from 200 to +300 ft. deep; opposite Essex, N.Y., near its middle, the depth +increases to 400 ft.; but farther south it is much less; throughout the +greater part of the lake there is a depth of water of more than 100 ft. +Since the lake is caused by the ponding of water in a broad irregular +valley, the shore line is nearly everywhere much broken, and in the +northern portion are several islands, both large and small, most of +which belong to Vermont. These islands divide the lake's northern end +into two large arms which extend into Canada. From the western arm the +Richelieu river flows out, carrying the water of Champlain to the St +Lawrence. The waters abound in salmon, salmon-trout, sturgeon and other +fish, and are navigated from end to end by large steamboats and vessels +of considerable tonnage. The lake was formerly the seat of extensive +traffic, especially in lumber, but navigation has greatly decreased; the +tonnage entering and clearing at the lake was twice as great in the +early '70's as it was thirty years later. The principal ports are +Burlington, Vt., and Plattsburg, N.Y. Lake Champlain lies in a valley +from 1 to 30 m. wide, between the Green Mountains on the east and the +Adirondack Mountains on the west, and the scenery is most picturesque. +On the east side is a rather gradual ascent for 20 m. or more from shore +to summit, while on the west side the ascent is by a succession of +hills, in some places from the water's edge. North of Crown Point low +mountains rise 1000 to 1600 ft. above the lake, and behind these are the +higher peaks of the Adirondacks, reaching an elevation of more than 5000 +ft. Lake George is a tributary on the south, several small streams flow +in from each side; the Champlain Canal, 63 m. in length, connects the +lake with the Hudson river; and through the Richelieu it has a natural +outlet to the north into the St Lawrence. + +Lake Champlain was named from Samuel de Champlain, who discovered it in +July 1609. The valley is a natural pathway between the United States and +Canada, and during the various wars which the English have waged in +America it had great strategic importance. In 1731 the French built a +fort at Crown Point; in 1756, another at Ticonderoga; and both were +important strategic points in the French and Indian War as well as in +the American War of Independence. On the 11th of October 1776, the first +battle between an American and a British fleet, the battle of Valcour +Island, was fought on the lake. Benedict Arnold, the American commander, +with a decidedly inferior force, withstood the British under Thomas +Pringle for about seven hours, and then during the night escaped through +the enemy's line. Although overtaken the next day he again, after a +fight of a few hours, made a successful retreat. + +At the beginning of the War of 1812 the American naval force on the +lake, though very small, was superior to that of the British, but on the +3rd of June 1813 the British captured two American sloops in the narrow +channel at the northern end and gained supremacy. Both sides now began +to build and equip vessels for a decisive contest; by May 1814 the +Americans had regained supremacy, and four months later a British land +force of 11,000 men under Sir George Prevost (1767-1816) and a naval +force of 16 vessels of about 2402 tons with 937 men and 92 guns under +Captain George Downie (d. 1814) confronted an American land force of +1500 men under Brigadier-General Alexander Macomb (1782-1841), strongly +entrenched at Plattsburg, and an American naval force (anchored in +Plattsburg Bay) of 14 vessels of about 2244 tons with 882 men and 86 +guns under Commodore Thomas Macdonough (1783-1825). In the open lake the +British naval force should have been the superior, but at anchor in the +bay the Americans had a decided advantage. Expecting the British land +force to drive the American fleet from its anchorage, Captain Downie, on +the 11th of September 1814, began the battle of Lake Champlain. It had +continued only fifteen minutes when he was killed; the land force failed +to co-operate, and after a severe fight at close range for 2½ hours, +during which the British lost about 300 men, the Americans 200 and the +vessels of both sides were greatly shattered, the British retreated both +by land and by water, abandoning their plan of invading New York. + + See C.E. Peet, "Glacial and Post-Glacial History of the Hudson and + Champlain Valleys," in vol. xii. of the _Journal of Geology_ + (Chicago, 1904); P.S. Palmer, _History of Lake Champlain_ (Albany. + 1866); and Capt. A.T. Mahan, _Sea Power in its Relations to the War of + 1812_ (2 vols., Boston, 1905). + + + + +CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE (1642-1698), French actress, was born in Rouen of a +good family. Her father's name was Desmares. She made her first +appearance on the stage at Rouen with Charles Chevillet (1645-1701), who +called himself sieur de Champmeslé, and they were married in 1666. By +1669 they were playing in Paris at the Théatre du Marais, her first +appearance there being as Venus in Boyer's _Fête de Venus_. The next +year, as Hermione in Racine's _Andromaque_, she had a great success at +the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Her intimacy with Racine dates from then. Some +of his finest tragedies were written for her, but her repertoire was not +confined to them, and many an indifferent play--like Thomas Corneille's +_Ariane_ and _Comte d'Essex_--owed its success to "her natural manner of +acting, and her pathetic rendering of the hapless heroine." _Phèdre_ was +the climax of her triumphs, and when she and her husband deserted the +Hôtel de Bourgogne (see BÉJART _ad fin._), it was selected to open the +Comédie Française on the 26th of August 1680. Here, with Mme Guérin as +the leading comedy actress, she played the great tragic love parts for +more than thirty years, dying on the 15th of May 1698. La Fontaine +dedicated to her his novel _Belphégor_, and Boileau immortalized her in +verse. Her husband distinguished himself both as actor and playwright, +and his _Parisien_ (1682) gave Mme Guérin one of her greatest successes. + +Her brother, the actor NICOLAS DESMARES (c. 1650-1714), began as a +member of a subsidized company at Copenhagen, but by her influence he +came to Paris and was received in 1685 _sans début_--the first time such +an honour had been accorded--at the Comédie Française, where he became +famous for peasant parts. His daughter, to whom Christian V. and his +queen stood sponsors, CHRISTINE ANTOINETTE CHARLOTTE DESMARES +(1682-1753), was a fine actress in both tragedy and soubrette parts. She +made her début at the Comédie Française in 1699, in La Grange Chancel's +_Oreste et Pylade_, and was at once received as _sociétaire_. She +retired in 1721. + + + + +CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS (1790-1832), French Egyptologist, called LE +JEUNE to distinguish him from Champollion-Figeac (q.v.), his elder +brother, was born at Figeac, in the department of Lot, on the 23rd of +December 1790. He was educated by his brother, and was then appointed +government pupil at the Lyceum, which had recently been founded. His +first work (1804) was an attempt to show by means of their names that +the giants of the Bible and of Greek mythology were personifications of +natural phenomena. At the age of sixteen (1807) he read before the +academy of Grenoble a paper in which he maintained that the Coptic was +the ancient language of Egypt. He soon after removed to Paris, where he +enjoyed the friendship of Langlès, De Sacy and Millin. In 1809 he was +made professor of history in the Lyceum of Grenoble, and there published +his earlier works. Champollion's first decipherment of hieroglyphics +dates from 1821. In 1824 he was sent by Charles X. to visit the +collections of Egyptian antiquities in the museums of Turin, Leghorn, +Rome and Naples; and on his return he was appointed director of the +Egyptian museum at the Louvre. In 1828 he was commissioned to undertake +the conduct of a scientific expedition to Egypt in company with +Rosellini, who had received a similar appointment from Leopold II., +grand duke of Tuscany. He remained there about a year. In March 1831 he +received the chair of Egyptian antiquities, which had been created +specially for him, in the Collège de France. He was engaged with +Rosellini in publishing the results of Egyptian researches at the +expense of the Tuscan and French governments, when he was seized with a +paralytic disorder, and died at Paris in 1832. Champollion, whose claims +were hotly disputed for many years after his death, is now universally +acknowledged to have been the founder of Egyptology. + + He wrote _L'Égypte sous les Phraons_ (2 vols. 8vo, 1814); _Sur + l'écriture hiératique_ (1821); _Sur l'écriture démotique_; _Précis du + systéme hiéroglyphique_, &c. (1824); _Panthéon égyptien, ou collection + des personnages mythologiques de l'ancienne Egypte_ (incomplete); + _Monumens de l'Égypte et de la Nubie considérés par rapport a + l'histoire, la religion, &c._; _Grammaire égyptienne_ (1836), and + _Dictionnaire égyptienne_(1841), edited by his brother; _Analyse + méthodique du texte démotique de Rosette_; _Aperçu des résultats + historiques de la découverte de l'alphabet hiéroglyphique_ (1827); + _Mémoires sur les signes employés par les Égyptiens dans leurs trois + systèmes graphiques à la notation des principales divisions du temps_; + _Lettres ecrites d'Égypte et de Nubie_ (1833); and also seveial + letters on Egyptian subjects, addressed at different periods to the + duc de Blacas and others. + + See H. Hartleben, _Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk_ (2 vols., + 1906); also EGYPT: _Language and Writing_ (_ad init._). + + + + +CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH (1778-1867), French archaeologist, +elder brother of Jean François Champollion, was born at Figeac in the +department of Lot, on the 5th of October 1778. He became professor of +Greek and librarian at Grenoble, but was compelled to retire in 1816 on +account of the part he had taken during the Hundred Days. He afterwards +became keeper of manuscripts at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and +professor of palaeography at the École des Chartes. In 1849 he became +librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau. He edited several of his +brother's works, and was also author of original works on philological +and historical subjects, among which may be mentioned _Nouvelles +recherches sur les patois ou idiomes vulgaires de la France_ (1809), +_Annales de Lagides_ (1819) and _Chartes latines sur papyrus du VIe +siècle de l'ère chrétienne_. His son AIMÉ (1812-1894) became his +father's assistant at the Bibliothèque Nationale, and besides a number +of works on historical subjects wrote a biographical and bibliographical +study of his family in _Les Deux Champollion_ (Grenoble, 1887). + + + + +CHANCE (through the O. Fr. _chéance_, from the Late Lat. _cadentia_, +things happening, from _cadere_, to fall out, happen; cf. "case"), an +accident or event, a phenomenon which has no apparent or discoverable +cause; hence an event which has not been expected, a piece of good or +bad fortune. From the popular idea that anything of which no assignable +cause is known has therefore no cause, chance (Gr. [Greek: tuchê]) was +regarded as having a substantial objective existence, being itself the +source of such uncaused phenomena. For the philosophic theories relating +to this subject see ACCIDENTALISM. + +"Chance," in the theory of probability, is used in two ways. In the +stricter, or mathematical usage, it is synonymous with probability; i.e. +if a particular event may occur in n ways in an aggregate of p events, +then the "chance" of the particular event occurring is given by the +fraction _n/p_. In the second usage, the "chance" is regarded as the +ratio of the number of ways which a particular event may occur to the +number of ways in which it may not occur; mathematically expressed, this +chance is _n/(p-n)_ (see PROBABILITY). In the English law relating to +gaming and wagering a distinction is drawn between games of chance and +games of skill (see GAMING AND WAGERING). + + + + +CHANCEL (through O. Fr. from Lat. plur. _cancelli_, dim. of _cancer_, +grating, lattice, probably connected with an Indo-European root _Kar_-, +to bend; cf. circus, curve, &c.), in the earliest and strictest sense +that part of a church near the altar occupied by the deacons and +sub-deacons assisting the officiating priest, this space having +originally been separated from the rest of the church by _cancelli_ or +lattice work. The word _cancelli_ is used in classical Latin of a +screen, bar or the like, set to mark off an enclosed space in a building +or in an open place. It is thus used of the bar in a court of justice +(Cicero, _Verres_, ii. 3 seq.). It is particularly used of the lattice +or screen in the ancient basilica, which separated the _bema_, or raised +tribunal, from the rest of the building. The use of the name in +ecclesiastical buildings is thus natural, for the altar stood in the +place occupied by the _bema_ in the apse of the basilica. From the +screen the term was early transferred to the space _inter cancellos_, +i.e. the _locus altaris cancellis septus_. This railed-off space is now +generally known among Roman Catholics as the "sanctuary," the word +chancel being little used. In the Church of England, however, the word +chancel survived the Reformation, and is applied, both in the +ecclesiastical and the architectural sense, to that part of the church +occupied by the principal altar or communion table and by the clergy and +singers officiating at the chief services; it thus includes presbytery, +chancel proper and choir (q.v.), and in this sense, in the case of +cathedrals and other large churches, is often used synonymously with +choir. In this more inclusive sense the early basilican churches had no +chancels, which were a comparatively late development; the _cancelli_, +e.g. of such a church as San Clemente at Rome are equivalent not to the +"chancel screen" of a medieval church but to the "altar rails" that +divide off the sanctuary. In churches of the type that grew to its +perfection in the middle ages the chancels are clearly differentiated +from the nave by structural features: by the raising of the floor level, +by the presence of a "chancel arch," and by a chancel or rood screen +(see ROOD). The chancel screen might be no more than a low barrier, some +4 ft. high, or a light structure of wood or wrought iron; sometimes, +however, they were massive stone screens, which in certain cases were +continued on either side between the piers of the choir and (on the +European continent) round the east end of the sanctuary, as in the +cathedrals of Paris, Bourges, Limoges, Amiens and Chartres. These +screens served the purpose, in collegiate and conventual churches, of +cutting off the space reserved for the services conducted for and by the +members of the chapter or community. For popular services a second high +altar was usually set up to the west of the screen, as formerly at +Westminster Abbey. In parish churches the screen was set, partly to +differentiate the space occupied by the clergy from that reserved for +the laity, partly to support the representation of the crucifixion known +as the Rood. In these churches, too, the chancel is very usually +structurally differentiated by being narrower and, sometimes, less high +than the nave. + +In the Church of England, the duty of repairing the chancel falls upon +the parson by custom, while the repair of the body of the church falls +on the parishioners. In particular cases, as in certain London churches, +the parishioners also have to repair the chancel. Where there are both a +rector and a vicar the repairs are shared between them, and this is also +the case where the rector is a lay impropriator. By the rubric of the +English Prayer Book "the chancels shall remain as they have done in +times past," i.e. distinguished from the body of the church by some +partition sufficient to separate the two without interfering with the +view of the congregation. At the Reformation, and for some time after, +this distinction was regarded by the dominant Puritan party as a mark of +sacerdotalism, and services were commonly said in other parts of the +church, the chancels being closed and disused. The rubric, however, +directs that "'Morning and Evening Prayer' shall be used in the +accustomed place in the church, chapel or chancel, except it shall be +otherwise determined by the Ordinary." Chancel screens, with or without +gates, are lawful, but chancellors of dioceses have refused to grant a +faculty to erect gates, as unnecessary or inexpedient. + + + + +CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. _canceler_, _chanceler_, Fr. +_chancelier_, Lat. _cancellarius_), an official title used by most of +the peoples whose civilization has arisen directly or indirectly out of +the Roman empire. At different times and in different countries it has +stood and stands for very various duties, and has been, and is, borne by +officers of various degrees of dignity. The original chancellors were +the _cancelarii_ of Roman courts of justice, ushers who sat at the +_cancelli_ or lattice work screens of a "basilica" or law court, which +separated the judge and counsel from the audience (see CHANCEL). In the +later Eastern empire the _cancellarii_ were promoted at first to +notarial duties. The barbarian kingdoms which arose on the ruin of the +empire in the West copied more or less intelligently the Roman model in +all their judicial and financial administration. Under the Frankish +kings of the Merovingian dynasty the _cancellarii_ were subordinates of +the great officer of state called the _referendarius_, who was the +predecessor of the more modern chancellor. The office became established +under the form _archi-cancellarius_, or chief of the _cancellarii_. +Stubbs says that the Carolingian chancellor was the royal notary and the +arch-chancellor keeper of the royal seal. His functions would naturally +be discharged by a cleric in times when book learning was mainly +confined to the clergy. From the reign of Louis the Pious the post was +held by a bishop. By an equally natural process he became the chief +secretary of the king and of the queen, who also had her chancellor. +Such an office possessed an obvious capacity for developing on the +judicial as well as the administrative side. Appeals and petitions of +aggrieved persons would pass through the chancellor's hands, as well as +the political correspondence of the king. Nor was the king the only man +who had need of a chancellor. Great officers and corporations also had +occasion to employ an agent to do secretarial, notarial and judicial +work for them, and called him by the convenient name of chancellor. The +history of the office in its many adaptations to public and private +service is the history of its development on judicial, administrative, +political, secretarial and notarial lines. + + + The chancellor in England. + +The model of the Carolingian court was followed by the medieval states +of Western Europe. In England the office of chancellor dates back to the +reign of Edward the Confessor, the first English king to use the Norman +practice of sealing instead of signing documents; and from the Norman +Conquest onwards the succession of chancellors is continuous. The +chancellor was originally, and long continued to be, an ecclesiastic, +who combined the functions of the most dignified of the royal chaplains, +the king's secretary in secular matters, and keeper of the royal seal. +From the first, then, though at the outset overshadowed by that of the +justiciar, the office of chancellor was one of great influence and +importance. As chaplain the chancellor was keeper of the king's +conscience; as secretary he enjoyed the royal confidence in secular +affairs; as keeper of the seal he was necessary to all formal +expressions of the royal will. By him and his staff of chaplains the +whole secretarial work of the royal household was conducted, the +accounts were kept under the justiciar and treasurer, writs were drawn +up and sealed, and the royal correspondence was carried on. He was, in +fact, as Stubbs puts it, a sort of secretary of state for all +departments. "This is he," wrote John of Salisbury (d. 1180), "who +cancels (_cancellat_) the evil laws of the realm, and makes equitable +(_aequa_) the commands of a pious prince," a curious anticipation of the +chancellor's later equitable jurisdiction. Under Henry II., indeed, the +chancellor was already largely employed in judicial work, either in +attendance on the king or in provincial visitations; though the peculiar +jurisdiction of the chancery was of later growth. By this time, however, +the chancellor was "great alike in Curia and Exchequer"; he was +_secundus a rege_, i.e. took precedence immediately after the justiciar, +and nothing was done either in the Curia or the exchequer without his +consent. So great was his office that William FitzStephen, the +biographer of Becket, tells us that it was not purchasable (_emenda non +est_), a statement which requires modification, since it was in fact +more than once sold under Henry I., Stephen, Richard and John (Stubbs, +_Const. Hist._ i. pp. 384-497; Gneist, _Const. Hist. of England_, p. +219), an evil precedent which was, however, not long followed. + +The judicial duties of the chancellor grew out of the fact that all +petitions addressed to the king passed through his hands. The number and +variety of these became so great that in 1280, under Edward I., an +ordinance was issued directing the chancellor and the justices to deal +with the greater number of them; those which involved the use of the +great seal being specially referred to the chancellor. The chancellor +and justices were to determine which of them were "so great, and of +grace, that the chancellor and others would not despatch them without +the king," and these the chancellor and other chief ministers were to +carry in person to the king (Stubbs ii. 263, note, and p. 268). At this +period the chancellor, though employed in equity, had ministerial +functions only; but when, in the reign of Edward III., the chancellor +ceased to follow the court, his tribunal acquired a more definite +character, and petitions for grace and favour began to be addressed +primarily to him, instead of being merely examined and passed on by him +to the king; and in the twenty-second year of this reign matters which +were of grace were definitely committed to the chancellor for decision. +This is the starting-point of the equitable jurisdiction of the +chancellor, whence developed that immense body of rules, supplementing +the deficiencies or modifying the harshness of the common law, which is +known as Equity (q.v.). + + + The chancellor in parliament. + +The position of the chancellor as speaker or prolocutor of the House of +Lords dates from the time when the ministers of the royal Curia formed +_ex officio_ a part of the _commune concilium_ and parliament. The +chancellor originally attended with the other officials, and he +continued to attend _ex officio_ after they had ceased to do so. If he +chanced to be a bishop, he was summoned regularly _qua_ bishop; +otherwise he attended without summons. When not a peer the chancellor +had no place in parliament except as chancellor, and the act of 31 Henry +VIII. cap. 10 (1539) laid down that, if not a peer, he had "no interest +to give any assent or dissent in the House." Yet Sir Robert Bourchier +(d. 1349), the first lay chancellor, had protested in 1341 against the +first statute of 15 Edward III. (on trial by peers, &c.), on the ground +that it had not received his assent and was contrary to the laws of the +realm. From the time, however, of William, Lord Cowper (first lord high +chancellor of Great Britain in 1705, created Baron Cowper in 1706), all +chancellors have been made peers on their elevation to the woolsack. +Sometimes the custody of the great seal has been transferred from the +chancellor to a special official, the lord keeper of the great seal (see +LORD KEEPER); this was notably the case under Queen Elizabeth (cf. the +French _garde des sceaux_, below). Sometimes it is put into commission, +being affixed by lords commissioners of the great seal. By the Catholic +Emancipation Act of 1829 it was enacted that none of these offices could +be held by a Roman Catholic (see further under LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR). +The office of lord chancellor of Ireland, and that of chancellor of +Scotland (who ceased to be appointed after the Act of Union of 1707) +followed the same lines of development. + + + Chancellor of the exchequer. + +The title of chancellor, without the predicates "high" or "lord," is +also applied in the United Kingdom to a number of other officials and +functionaries of varying rank and importance. Of these the most +important is the chancellor of the exchequer, an office which originated +in the separation of the chancery from the exchequer in the reign of +Henry III. (1216-1272). His duties consisted originally in the custody +and employment of the seal of the exchequer, in the keeping of a +counter-roll to check the roll kept by the treasurer, and in the +discharge of certain judicial functions in the exchequer of account. So +long as the treasury board was in active working, the chancellorship of +the exchequer was an office of small importance, and even during a great +part of the 19th century was not necessarily a cabinet office, unless +held in conjunction with that of first lord of the treasury. At the +present time the chancellor of the exchequer is minister of finance, and +therefore always of cabinet rank (see EXCHEQUER). + + + Chancellor of the duchy. + +The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster is the representative of the +crown in the management of its lands and the control of its courts in +the duchy of Lancaster, the property of which is scattered over several +counties. These lands and privileges, though their inheritance has +always been vested in the king and his heirs, have always been kept +distinct from the hereditary revenues of the sovereign, whose palatine +rights as duke of Lancaster were distinct from his rights as king. The +Judicature Act of 1873 left only the chancery court of the duchy, but +the chancellor can appoint and dismiss the county court judges within +the limits of the duchy; he is responsible also for the land revenues of +the duchy, which are the private property of the sovereign, and keeps +the seal of the duchy. His appointment is by letters patent, and his +salary is derived from the revenue of the duchy. As the judicial and +estate work is done by subordinate officials, the office is practically +a sinecure and is usually given to a minister whose assistance is +necessary to a government, but who for one reason or another cannot +undertake the duties of an important department. John Bright described +him as the maid-of-all-work of the cabinet. + + + Ecclesiastical chancellors. + +The chancellor of a diocese is the official who presides over the +bishop's court and exercises jurisdiction in his name. This use of the +word is comparatively modern, and, though employed in acts of +parliament, is not mentioned in the commission, having apparently been +adopted on the analogy of the like title in the state. The chancellor +was originally the keeper of the archbishop or bishop's seals; but the +office, as now understood, includes two other offices distinguished in +the commission by the titles of vicar-general and official principal +(see ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). The chancellor of a diocese must be +distinguished from the chancellor of a cathedral, whose office is the +same as that of the ancient _scholasticus_ (see CATHEDRAL). + + + Academic, &c. + +The chancellor of an order of knighthood discharges notarial duties and +keeps the seal. The chancellor of a university is an official of +medieval origin. The appointment was originally made by the popes, and +the office from the first was one of great dignity and originally of +great power. The chancellor was, as he remains, the head of the +university; he had the general superintendence of its studies and of its +discipline, could make and unmake laws, try and punish offences, appoint +to professorial chairs and admit students to the various degrees (see Du +Cange, s. "_Cancellarii Academiarum_"). In England the chancellorship of +the universities is now a more or less ornamental office and is +conferred on noblemen or statesmen of distinction, whose principal +function is to look after the general interests of the university, +especially in its relations with the government. The chancellor is +represented in the university by a vice-chancellor, who performs the +administrative and judicial functions of the office. In the United +States the heads of certain educational establishments have the title of +chancellor. In Scotland the foreman of a jury is called its chancellor. +In the United States the chancellors are judges of the chancery courts +of the states, e.g. Delaware and New Jersey, where these courts are +still maintained as distinct from the courts of common law. In other +states, e.g. New York since 1847, the title has been abolished, and +there is no federal chancellor. + +In diplomacy generally the chancellor of an embassy or legation is an +official attached to the suite of an ambassador or minister. He performs +the functions of a secretary, archivist, notary and the like, and is at +the head of the chancery, or chancellery (Fr. _chancellerie_), of the +mission. The functions of this office are the transcribing and +registering of official despatches and other documents, and generally +the transaction of all the minor business, e.g. marriages, passports and +the like, connected with the duties of a diplomatic agent towards his +nationals in a foreign country. The dignified connotation of the title +chancellor has given to this office a prestige which in itself it does +not deserve; and "chancery" or "chancellery" is commonly used as though +it were synonymous with embassy, while diplomatic style is sometimes +called _style de chancellerie_, though as a matter of fact the +chanceries have nothing to do with it. + +_France._--The country in which the office of chancellor followed most +closely the same lines as in England is France. He had become a great +officer under the Carolingians, and he grew still greater under the +Capetian sovereigns. The great chancellor, _summus cancellarius_ or +_archi-cancellarius_, was a dignitary who had indeed little real power. +The post was commonly filled by the archbishop of Reims, or the bishop +of Paris. The _cancellarius_, who formed part of the royal court and +administration, was officially known as the _sub-cancellarius_ in +relation to the _summus cancellarius_, but as _proto-cancellarius_ in +regard to his subordinate _cancellarii_. He was a very great officer, an +ecclesiastic who was the chief of the king's chaplains or king's clerks, +who administered all ecclesiastical affairs; he had judicial powers, and +from the 12th century had the general control of foreign affairs. The +chancellor in fact became so great that the Capetian kings, who did not +forget the mayor of the palace, grew afraid of him. Few of the early +ecclesiastical chancellors failed to come into collision with the king, +or parted with him on good terms. Philip Augustus suspended the +chancellorship throughout the whole of his reign, and appointed a keeper +of the seals (_garde des sceaux_). The office was revived under Louis +VIII., but the ecclesiastical chancellorship was finally suppressed in +1227. The king of the 13th century employed only keepers of the seal. +Under the reign of Philip IV. le Bel lay chancellors were first +appointed. From the reign of Charles V. to that of Louis XI. the French +_chancelier_ was elected by the royal council. In the 16th century he +became irremovable, a distinction more honourable than effective, for +though the king could not dismiss him from office he could, and on some +occasions did, deprive him of the right to exercise his functions, and +entrusted them to a keeper of the seal. The _chancelier_ from the 13th +century downwards was the head of the law, and performed the duties +which are now entrusted to the minister of justice. His office was +abolished when in 1790 the whole judicial system of France was swept +away by the Revolution. The smaller _chanceliers_ of the provincial +parlements and royal courts disappeared at the same time. But when +Napoleon was organizing the empire he created an arch-chancellor, an +office which was imitated rather from the _Erz-Kanzler_ of the Holy +Roman Empire than from the old French _chancelier_. At the Restoration +the office of chancellor of France was restored, the chancellor being +president of the House of Peers, but it was finally abolished at the +revolution of 1848. The administration of the Legion of Honour is +presided over by a _grand chancelier_, who is a grand cross of the +order, and who advises the head of the state in matters concerning the +affairs of the order. The title of _chancelier_ continues also to be +used in France for the large class of officials who discharge notarial +duties in some public offices, in embassies and consulates. They draw up +diplomas and prepare all formal documents, and have charge of the +registration and preservation of the archives. + +_Spain._--In Spain the office of chancellor, _canciller_, was introduced +by Alphonso VII. (1126-1157), who adopted it from the court of his +cousins of the Capetian dynasty of France. The _canciller_ did not in +Spain go beyond being the king's notary. The chancellor of the privy +seal, _canciller del sello de la puridad_ (literally the secret seal), +was the king's secretary, and sealed all papers other than diplomas and +charters. The office was abolished in 1496, and its functions were +transferred to the royal secretaries. The _cancelario_ was the +chancellor of a university. The _canciller_ succeeded the _maesescuela_ +or _scholasticus_ of a church or monastery. _Canciller mayor de +Castilla_ is an honorary title of the archbishops of Toledo. The _gran +canciller de las Indias_, high chancellor of the Indies, held the seal +used for the American dominions of Spain, and presided at the council in +the absence of the president. The office disappeared with the loss of +Spain's empire in America. + +_Italy, Germany, &c._--In central and northern Europe, and in Italy, the +office had different fortunes. In southern Italy, where Naples and +Sicily were feudally organized, the chancellors of the Norman kings, who +followed Anglo-Norman precedents very closely, and, at least in Sicily, +employed Englishmen, were such officers as were known in the West. The +similarity is somewhat concealed by the fact that these sovereigns also +adopted names and offices from the imperial court at Constantinople. +Their chancellor was officially known as Protonotary and Logothete, and +their example was followed by the German princes of the Hohenstaufen +family, who acquired the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. The papal or +apostolic chancery is dealt with in the article on the Curia Romana +(q.v.). It may be pointed out here, however, that the close connexion of +the papacy with the Holy Roman Empire is illustrated by the fact that +the archbishop of Cologne, who by right of his see was the emperor's +arch-chancellor (_Erz-Kanzler_) for Italy, was confirmed as papal +arch-chancellor by a bull of Leo IX. in 1052. The origin and duration of +this connexion are, however, obscure; it appears to have ceased before +1187. The last record of a papal chancellor in the middle ages dates +from 1212, from which time onward, for reasons much disputed, the head +of the papal chancery bore the title vice-chancellor (Hinschius i. 439), +until the office of chancellor was restored by the constitution +_Sapientius_ of Pius X. in 1908. + +The title of arch-chancellor (_Erz-Kanzler_) was borne by three great +ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Holy Roman Empire. The archbishop of +Mainz was arch-chancellor for Germany. The archbishop of Cologne held +the dignity for Italy, and the archbishop of Trier for Gaul and the +kingdom of Arles. The second and third of these dignities became purely +formal with the decline of the Empire in the 13th century. But the +arch-chancellorship of Germany remained to some extent a reality till +the Empire was finally dissolved in 1806. The office continued to be +attached to the archbishopric of Mainz, which was an electorate. Karl +von Dalberg, the last holder of the office, and the first prince primate +of the Confederation of the Rhine, continued to act in show at least as +chancellor of that body, and was after a fashion the predecessor of the +_Bundes Kanzler_, or chancellor of the North German Confederation. The +duties imposed on the imperial chancery by the very complicated +constitution of the Empire were, however, discharged by a +vice-chancellor who was attached to the court of the emperor. The abbot +of Fulda was chancellor to the empress. + +The house of Austria in their hereditary dominions, and in those of +their possessions which they treated as hereditary, even where the +sovereignty was in theory elective, made a large and peculiar use of the +title chancellor. The officers so called were of course distinct from +the arch-chancellor and vice-chancellor of the Empire, although the +imperial crown became in practice hereditary in the house of Habsburg. +In the family states their administration was, to use a phrase familiar +to the French, "polysynodic." As it was when fully developed, and as it +remained until the March revolution of 1848, it was conducted through +boards presided over by a chancellor. There were three aulic +chancellorships for the internal affairs of their dominions, "a united +aulic chancellorship for all parts of the empire (i.e. of Austria, not +the Holy Roman) not belonging to Hungary or Transylvania, and a separate +chancellorship for each of those last-mentioned provinces" (Hartig, +_Genesis of the Revolution in Austria_). There were also a house, a +court, and a state chancellor for the business of the imperial household +and foreign affairs, who were not, however, the presidents of a board. +These "aulic" (i.e. court) officers were in fact secretaries of the +sovereign, and administrative or political rather than judicial in +character, though the boards over which they presided controlled +judicial as well as administrative affairs. In the case of such +statesmen as Kaunitz and Metternich, who were house, court, and state +chancellors as well as "united aulic" chancellors, the combination of +offices made them in practice prime ministers, or rather +lieutenants-general, of the sovereign. The system was subject to +modifications, and in the end it broke down under its own complications. +We are not dealing here with the confusing history of the Austrian +administration, and these details are only quoted to show how it +happened that in Austria the title chancellor came to mean a political +officer and minister. There is obviously a vast difference between such +an official as Kaunitz, who as house, court, and state chancellor was +minister of foreign affairs, and as "united aulic" chancellor had a +general superiority over the whole machinery of government, and the lord +high chancellor in England, the _chancelier_ in France, or the +_canciller mayor_ in Castile, though the title was the same. The +development of the office in Austria must be understood in order to +explain the position and functions of the imperial chancellor (_Reichs +Kanzler_) of the modern German empire. Although the present empire is +sometimes rhetorically and absurdly spoken of as a revival of the +medieval Empire, it is in reality an adaptation of the Austrian empire, +which was a continuation under a new name of the hereditary Habsburg +monarchy. The _Reichs Kanzler_ is the immediate successor of the _Bundes +Kanzler_, or chancellor of the North German Confederation (_Bund_). But +the _Bundes Kanzler_, who bore no sort of resemblance except in mere +name to the _Erz-Kanzler_ of the old Empire, was in a position not +perhaps actually like that of Prince Kaunitz, but capable of becoming +much the same thing. When the German empire was established in 1871 +Prince Bismarck, who was _Bundes Kanzler_ and became _Reichs Kanzler_, +took care that his position should be as like as possible to that of +Prince Kaunitz or Prince Metternich. The constitution of the German +empire is separately dealt with, but it may be pointed out here that +the _Reichs Kanzler_ is the federal minister of the empire, the chief of +the federal officials, and a great political officer, who directs the +foreign affairs, and superintends the internal affairs, of the empire. + +In these German states the title of chancellor is also given as in +France to government and diplomatic officials who do notarial duties and +have charge of archives. The title of chancellor has naturally been +widely used in the German and Scandinavian states, and in Russia since +the reign of Peter the Great. It has there as elsewhere wavered between +being a political and a judicial office. Frederick the Great of Prussia +created a _Gross Kanzler_ for judicial duties in 1746. But there was in +Prussia a state chancellorship on the Austrian model. It was allowed to +lapse on the death of Hardenberg in 1822. The Prussian chancellor after +his time was one of the four court ministries (_Hofämter_) of the +Prussian monarchy. + + AUTHORITIES.--Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Cancellarius"; W. Stubbs, + _Const. Hist. of England_ (1874-1878); Rudolph Gneist, _Hist. of the + English Constitution_ (Eng. trans., London, 1891); L.O. Pike, _Const. + Hist. of the House of Lords_ (London, 1894); Sir William R. Anson, + _The Law and Custom of the Constitution_, vol. ii. part i. (Oxford, + 1907); A. Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions françaises_ (Paris, + 1892); K.F. Stumpf, _Die Reichs Kanzler_ (3 vols., Innsbruck, + 1865-1873); G. Sceliger, _Erzkanzler und Reichskanzleien_ (ib. 1889); + P. Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_ (Berlin, 1869); Sir R.J. Phillimore, + _Eccles. Law_ (London, 1895); P. Pradier-Fodéré, _Cours de droit + diplomatique_, ii. 542 (Paris, 1899). + + + + +CHANCELLORSVILLE, a village of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A., +situated almost midway between Washington and Richmond. It was the +central point of one of the greatest battles of the Civil War, fought on +the 2nd and 3rd of May 1863, between the Union Army of the Potomac under +Major-General Hooker, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia +under General Lee. (See AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, and WILDERNESS.) General +"Stonewall" Jackson was mortally wounded in this battle. + + + + +CHANCE-MEDLEY (from the A.-Fr. _chance-medlée_, a mixed chance, and not +from _chaude-medlée_, a hot affray), an accident of a mixed character, +an old term in English law for a form of homicide arising out of a +sudden affray or quarrel. The homicide has not the characteristic of +"malice prepense" which would raise the death to murder, nor the +completely accidental nature which would reduce it to homicide by +misadventure. It was practically identical, therefore, with +manslaughter. + + + + +CHANCERY, in English law, the court of the lord chancellor of England, +consolidated in 1873 along with the other superior courts in the Supreme +Court of Judicature. Its origin is noticed under the head of Chancellor. + +It has been customary to say that the court of chancery consists of two +distinct tribunals--one a court of common law, the other a court of +equity. From the former have issued all the original writs passing under +the great seal, all commissions of sewers, lunacy, and the like--some of +these writs being originally kept in a _hanaper_ or hamper (whence the +"hanaper office"), and others in a little sack or bag (whence the +"petty-bag office"). The court had likewise power to hold pleas upon +_scire facias_ (q.v.) for repeal of letters patent, &c. "So little," +says Blackstone, "is commonly done on the common law side of the court +that I have met with no traces of any writ of error being actually +brought since the fourteenth year of Queen Elizabeth." + +The equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was founded on the +supposed superiority of conscience and equity over the strict law. The +appearance of equity in England is in harmony with the general course of +legal history in progressive societies. What is remarkable is that, +instead of being incorporated with or superseding the common law, it +gave rise to a wholly independent set of tribunals. The English dislike +of the civil law, and the tendency to follow precedent which has never +ceased to characterize English lawyers, account for this unfortunate +separation. The claims of equity in its earlier stages are well +expressed in the little treatise called _Doctor and Student_, published +in the reign of Henry VIII.:--"Conscience never resisteth the law nor +addeth to it, but only when the law is directly in itself against the +_law of God_, or _law of reason_." So also King James, speaking in the +Star Chamber, says: "Where the rigour of the law in many cases will undo +a subject, then the chancery tempers the law with equity, and so mixes +mercy with justice, as it preserves a man from destruction." This theory +of the essential opposition between law and equity, and of the natural +superiority of the latter, remained long after equity had ceased to +found itself on natural justice, and had become as fixed and rigid as +the common law itself. The jealousy of the common lawyers came to a head +in the time of Lord Ellesmere, when Coke disputed the right of the +chancery to give relief against a judgment of the court of queen's bench +obtained by gross fraud and imposition. James I., after consultation, +decided in favour of the court of equity. The substitution of lay for +clerical chancellors is regarded by G. Spence (_Equitable Jurisdiction +of the Court of Chancery_, 2 vols., 1846-1849) as having at first been +unfortunate, inasmuch as the laymen were ignorant of the principles on +which their predecessors had acted. Lord Nottingham (1621-1682) is +usually credited with the first attempt to reduce the decisions of the +court to order, and his work was continued by Lord Hardwicke +(1690-1764). By the time of Lord Eldon equity had become fixed, and the +judges, like their brethren in the common law courts, strictly followed +the precedents. Henceforward chancery and common law courts have +exhibited the anomaly of two co-ordinate sets of tribunals, empowered to +deal with the same matters, and compelled to proceed in many cases on +wholly different principles. The court of chancery could in most cases +prevent a person from taking advantage of a common law right, not +approved of by its own system. But if a suitor chose to go to a court of +common law, he might claim such unjust rights, and it required the +special intervention of the court of equity to prevent his enforcing +them. In many cases also a special application had to be made to +chancery for facilities which were absolutely necessary to the +successful conduct of a case at common law. Another source of difficulty +and annoyance was the uncertainty in many cases whether the chancery or +common law courts were the proper tribunal, so that a suitor often found +at the close of an expensive and protracted suit that he had mistaken +his court and must go elsewhere for relief. Attempts more or less +successful were made to lessen those evils by giving the powers to both +sets of courts; but down to the consolidation effected by the Judicature +Act, the English judicial system justified the sarcasm of Lord Westbury, +that one tribunal was set up to do injustice and another to stop it. + +The equitable jurisdiction of chancery was commonly divided into +_exclusive_, _concurrent_ and _auxiliary_. Chancery had exclusive +jurisdiction when there were no forms of action by which relief could be +obtained at law, in respect of rights which ought to be enforced. Trusts +were the most conspicuous example of this class. It also included the +rights of married women, infants and lunatics. Chancery had concurrent +jurisdiction when the common law did not give _adequate_ relief, e.g. in +cases of fraud, accident, mistake, specific performance of contracts, +&c. It had auxiliary jurisdiction when the administrative machinery of +the law courts was unable to procure the necessary evidence. + +The Judicature Act 1873 enacted (§ 24) that in every civil cause or +matter commenced in the High Court of Justice, law and equity should be +administered by the High Court of Justice and the court of appeal +respectively, according to the rules therein contained, which provide +for giving effect in all cases to "equitable rights and other matters of +equity." The 25th section declared the law hereafter to be administered +in England on certain points, and ordained that "generally in all +matters not hereinbefore particularly mentioned in which there is any +conflict or variance between the rules of equity and the rules of the +common law with reference to the same matter, the rules of equity shall +prevail." The 34th section specifically assigned to the chancery +division the following causes and matters:--The administration of the +estates of deceased persons; the dissolution of partnerships, or the +taking of partnership, or other accounts; the redemption or foreclosure +of mortgages; the raising of portions, or other charges on land; the +sale and distribution of the proceeds of property subject to any lien +or charge; the execution of trusts, charitable or private; the +rectification, or setting aside, or cancellation of deeds or other +written instruments; the specific performance of contracts between +vendors and purchasers of real estates, including contracts for leases; +the partition or sale of real estates; the wardship of infants and the +care of infants' estates. + +The chancery division originally consisted of the lord chancellor as +president and the master of the rolls, and the three vice-chancellors. +The master of the rolls was also a member of the court of appeal, but +Sir George Jessel, who held that office when the new system came into +force, regularly sat as a judge of first instance until 1881, when, by +the act of that year (sec. 2), the master of the rolls became a member +of the court of appeal only, and provision was made for the appointment +of a judge to supply the vacancy thus occasioned (sec. 3). Sir James +Bacon (1798-1895) was the last survivor of the vice-chancellors. He +retained his seat on the bench until the year 1886, when he retired +after more than seventeen years' judicial service. For some reason the +solicitors, when they had the choice, preferred to bring their actions +in the chancery division. The practice introduced by the Judicature Act +of trying actions with oral evidence instead of affidavits, and the +comparative inexperience of the chancery judges and counsel in that mode +of trial, tended to lengthen the time required for the disposal of the +business. Demand was consequently made for more judges in the chancery +division. By an act of 1877 the appointment of an additional judge in +that division was authorized, and Sir Edward Fry (afterwards better +known as a lord justice) was appointed. In August 1899 the crown +consented to the appointment of a new judge of the High Court in the +chancery division on an address from both Houses of Parliament, pursuant +to the 87th section of the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The chancery +division, therefore, consists of the lord chancellor and six puisne +judges. The latter are styled and addressed in the same manner as was +customary in the old common law courts.[1] Formerly there were only four +judges of this division (being the successors of the master of the rolls +and the three vice-chancellors) to whom chambers were attached. The +fifth judge heard only causes with witnesses transferred to him from the +overflowing of the lists of his four brethren. In each set of chambers +there were three chief clerks, with a staff of assistant clerks under +them. The chief clerks had no original jurisdiction, but heard +applications only on behalf of the judge to whose chambers they +belonged, and theoretically every suitor had the right to have his +application heard by the judge himself in chambers. But the appointment +of a sixth judge enabled the lord chancellor to carry out a reform +recommended by a departmental committee which reported in 1885. The +great difficulty in the chancery division always was to secure the +continuous hearing of actions with witnesses, as nearly one-half of the +judge's time was taken up with cases adjourned to him from chambers and +other administrative business and non-witness actions and motions. The +interruption of a witness action for two or three days, particularly in +a country case, occasioned great expense, and had other inconveniences. +It was a simple remedy to link the judges in pairs with one list of +causes and one set of chambers assigned to each pair. This reform was +effected by the alteration of a few words in certain rules of court. +There are therefore, only three sets of chambers, each containing four +chief clerks, or, as they are now styled, masters of the Supreme Court, +and one of the linked judges, by arrangement between themselves, +continuously tries the witness actions in their common list, while the +other attends in chambers, and also hears the motions, petitions, +adjourned summonses and non-witness cases. + +Although styled masters it does not appear that the chief clerks have +any larger or different jurisdiction than they had before. They are +still the representatives of and responsible to the judges to whom the +chambers are attached. The judge may either hear an application in +chambers, or may direct any matter which he thinks of sufficient +importance to be argued before him in court, or a party may move in +court to discharge an order made in chambers with a view to an appeal, +but this is not required if the judge certifies that the matter was +sufficiently discussed before him in chambers. + +Under the existing rules of court many orders can now be made on summons +in chambers which used formerly to require a suit or petition in court +(see Order LV. as to foreclosure, administration, payment out of money +in court and generally). The judge is also enabled to decide any +particular question arising in the administration of the estate of a +deceased person or execution of the trusts of a settlement without +directing administration of the whole estate or execution of the trusts +generally by the court (Order LV. rule 10), and where an application for +accounts is made by a dissatisfied beneficiary or creditor to order the +accounts to be delivered out of court, and the application to stand over +till it can be seen what questions (if any) arise upon the accounts +requiring the intervention of the court (Order LV. 2, 10a). Delay and +consequent worry and expense are thus saved to the parties, and, at the +same time, a great deal of routine administration is got rid of and a +larger portion of the judicial term can be devoted to hearing actions +and deciding any question of importance in court. The work of the +chambers staff of the judges has probably been increased; but, on the +other hand, it has been lightened by the removal of the winding-up +business. The chancery division has also inherited from the court of +chancery a staff of registrars and taxing masters. + +In the United States "chancery" is generally used as the synonym of +"equity." Chancery practice is practice in cases of equity. Chancery +courts are equity courts (see EQUITY). For the diplomatic sense of +chancery (chancellery) see CHANCELLOR. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The comte de Franqueville comments on the misuse of the title + "Lord" in addressing judges as another anomaly which only adds to the + confusion, but perhaps unnecessarily. According to Foss (vol. viii. + p. 200) it was only in the 18th century that the judges began to be + addressed by the title of "Your Lordship." In the Year Books (he + adds) they are constantly addressed by the title of "Sir." "Sir, vous + voyez bien," &c. + + + + +CHANDA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur division of +the Central Provinces. In 1901 the town had a population of 17,803. It +is situated at the junction of the Virai and Jharpat rivers. It was the +capital of the Gond kingdom of Chanda, which was established on the +ruins of a Hindu state in the 11th or 12th century, and survived until +1751 (see GONDWANA). The town is still surrounded by a stone wall 5½m. +in circuit. It has several old temples and tombs, and the district at +large is rich in remains of antiquity. There are manufactures of cotton, +silk, brass-ware and leather slippers, and a considerable local trade. + +The DISTRICT OF CHANDA has an area of 10,156 sq. m. Excepting in the +extreme west, hills are thickly dotted over the country, sometimes in +detached ranges, occasionally in isolated peaks rising sheer out from +the plain. Towards the east they increase in height, and form a broad +tableland, at places 2000 ft. above sea-level. The Wainganga river flows +through the district from north to south, meeting the Wardha river at +Seoni, where their streams unite to form the Pranhita. Chanda is thickly +studded with fine tanks, or rather artificial lakes, formed by closing +the outlets of small valleys, or by throwing a dam across tracts +intersected by streams. The broad clear sheets of water thus created are +often very picturesque in their surroundings of wood and rock. The chief +architectural objects of interest are the cave temples at Bhandak, +Winjbasani, Dewala and Ghugus; a rock temple in the bed of the Wardha +river below Ballalpur; the ancient temples at Markandi, Ambgaon and +elsewhere; the forts of Wairagarh and Ballalpur; and the old walls of +the city of Chanda, its system of waterworks, and the tombs of the Gond +kings. In 1901 the population was 601,533, showing a decrease of 15% in +the decade. The principal crops are rice, millet, pulse, wheat, +oil-seeds and cotton. The district contains the coalfield of Warora, +which was worked by government till 1906, when it was closed. Other +fields are known, and iron ores also occur. The district suffered +severely from famine in 1900, when in April the number of persons +relieved rose to 90,000. + + + + +CHANDAUSI, a town of British India, in the Moradabad district of the +United Provinces, 28 m. south of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 25,711. It is an +important station on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, with a junction for +Aligarh. Its chief exports are of cotton, hemp, sugar and stone. There +is a factory for pressing cotton. + + + + +CHAND BARDAI (fl. c. 1200), Hindu poet, was a native of Lahore, but +lived at the court of Prithwi Raja (Prithiraj), the last Hindu sovereign +of Delhi. His _Prithiraj Rasau_, a poem of some 100,000 stanzas, +chronicling his master's deeds and the contemporary history of his part +of India, is valuable not only as historical material but as the +earliest monument of the Western Hindi language, and the first of the +long series of bardic chronicles for which Rajputana is celebrated. It +is written in ballad form, and portions of it are still sung by +itinerant bards throughout north-western India and Rajputana. + + See Lieut.-Col. James Tod, _Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han_ (2 + vols., London, 1829-1832; repub. by Lalit Mohan Auddy, 2 vols. ib., + 1894-1895), where good translations are given. + + + + +CHANDELIER, a frame of metal, wood, crystal, glass or china, pendent +from roof or ceiling for the purpose of holding lights. The word is +French, but the appliance has lost its original significance of a +candle-holder, the chandelier being now chiefly used for gas and +electric lighting. Clusters of hanging lights were in use as early as +the 14th century, and appear originally to have been almost invariably +of wood. They were, however, so speedily ruined by grease that metal was +gradually subsituted, and fine and comparatively early examples in +beaten iron, brass, copper and even silver are still extant. Throughout +the 17th century the hanging candle-holder of brass or bronze was common +throughout northern Europe, as innumerable pictures and engravings +testify. In the great periods of the art of decoration in France many +magnificent chandeliers were made by Boulle, and at a later date by +Gouthière and Thomire and others among the extraordinarily clever +_fondeurs-ciseleurs_ of the second half of the 18th century. The +chandelier in rock crystal and its imitations had come in at least a +hundred years before their day, and continued in favour to the middle of +the 19th century, or even somewhat later. It reached at last the most +extreme elaboration of banality, with ropes of pendants and hanging +faceted drops often called lustres. When many lights were burning in one +of these chandeliers an effect of splendour was produced that was not +out of place in a ballroom, but the ordinary household varieties were +extremely ugly and inartistic. The more purely domestic chandelier +usually carries from two to six lights. The rapidly growing use of +electricity as an illuminating medium and the preference for smaller +clusters of lights have, however, pushed into the background an +appliance which had grown extremely commonplace in design, and had +become out of character with modern ideas of household decoration. + + + + +CHANDERNAGORE, or CHANDARNAGAR, a French settlement in India, with a +small adjoining territory, situated on the right bank of the river +Hugli, 20 m. above Calcutta, in 22° 51' 40" N, and 88° 24' 50" E. Area 3 +sq. m.; pop. (1901) 25,000. Chandernagore has played an important part +in the European history of Bengal. It became a permanent French +settlement, in 1688, but did not rise to any importance till the time of +Dupleix, during whose administration more than two thousand brick houses +were erected in the town and a considerable maritime trade was carried +on. In 1757 Chandernagore was bombarded by an English fleet under +Admiral Watson and captured; the fortifications and houses were +afterwards demolished. On peace being established the town was restored +to the French in 1763. When hostilities afterwards broke out in 1794, it +was again taken possession of by the English, and was held by them till +1816, when it was a second time given up to the French; it has ever +since remained in their possession. All the former commercial grandeur +of Chandernagore has now passed away, and at present it is little more +than a quiet suburb of Calcutta, without any external trade. The +European town is situated at the bottom of a beautiful reach of the +Hugli, with clean wide thoroughfares, and many elegant residences along +the river-bank. The authorities of Chandernagore are subject to the +jurisdiction of the governor-general of Pondicherry, to whom is confided +the general government of all the French possessions in India. + + + + +CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM (1828-1889), English scholar, was born in London +on the 31st of January 1828. In 1848 he entered Pembroke College, +Oxford, where he was elected fellow in 1853. In 1867 he succeeded H.L. +Mansel as Waynflete professor of moral and metaphysical philosophy, and +in 1884 was appointed curator of the Bodleian library. He died by his +own hand in Oxford on the 16th of May 1889. He was chiefly known as an +Aristotelian scholar, and his knowledge of the Greek commentators on +Aristotle was profound. He collected a vast amount of material for an +edition of the fragments of his favourite author, but on the appearance +of Valentine Rose's work in 1886 he abandoned the idea. Two works on the +bibliography of Aristotle, _A Catalogue of Editions of Aristotle's +Nicomachean Ethics and of Works illustrative of them printed in the 15th +century_ (1868), and _A Chronological Index to Editions of Aristotle's +Nicomachean Ethics, and of Works illustrative of them from the Origin of +Printing to 1799_ (1878), are of great value. Chandler's collection of +works on Aristotelian literature is now in the library of Pembroke +College. His _Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation_ (1862, ed. +min. 1877) is the standard work in English. + + + + +CHANDLER, RICHARD (1738-1810), British antiquary, was born in 1738 at +Elson in Hampshire, and educated at Winchester and at Queen's and +Magdalen Colleges, Oxford. His first work consisted of fragments from +the minor Greek poets, with notes (_Elegiaca Graeca_, 1759); and in 1763 +he published a fine edition of the Arundelian marbles, _Marmora +Oxoniensia_, with a Latin translation, and a number of suggestions for +supplying the lacunae. He was sent by the Dilettanti Society with +Nicholas Revett, an architect, and Pars, a painter, to explore the +antiquities of Ionia and Greece (1763-1766); and the result of their +work was the two magnificent folios of Ionian antiquities published in +1769. He subsequently held several church preferments, including the +rectory of Tylehurst, in Berkshire, where he died on the 9th of February +1810. Other works by Chandler were _Inscriptiones Antiquae pleraeque +nondum editae_ (Oxford, 1774); _Travels in Asia Minor_ (1775); _Travels +in Greece_ (1776); _History of Ilium_ (1803), in which he asserted the +accuracy of Homer's geography. His _Life of Bishop Waynflete_, lord high +chancellor to Henry VI., appeared in 1811. + + A complete edition (with notes by Revett) of the _Travels in Asia + Minor and Greece_ was published by R. Churton (Oxford, 1825), with an + "Account of the Author." + + + + +CHANDLER, SAMUEL (1693-1766), English Nonconformist divine, was born in +1693 at Hungerford, in Berkshire, where his father was a minister. He +was sent to school at Gloucester, where he began a lifelong friendship +with Bishop Butler and Archbishop Secker; and he afterwards studied at +Leiden. His talents and learning were such that he was elected fellow of +the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and was made D.D. of Edinburgh and +Glasgow. He also received offers of high preferment in the Church of +England. These he refused, remaining to the end of his life in the +position of a Presbyterian minister. He was moderately Calvinistic in +his views and leaned towards Arianism. He took a leading part in the +deist controversies of the time, and discussed with some of the bishops +the possibility of an act of comprehension. From 1716 to 1726 he +preached at Peckham, and for forty years he was pastor of a +meeting-house in Old Jewry. During two or three years, having fallen +into pecuniary distress through the failure of the South Sea scheme, he +kept a book-shop in the Poultry. On the death of George II. in 1760 +Chandler published a sermon in which he compared that king to King +David. This view was attacked in a pamphlet entitled _The History of the +Man after God's own Heart_, in which the author complained of the +parallel as an insult to the late king, and, following Pierre Bayle, +exhibited King David as an example of perfidy, lust and cruelty. +Chandler condescended to reply first in a review of the tract (1762) and +then in _A Critical History of the Life of David_, which is perhaps the +best of his productions. This work was just completed when he died, on +the 8th of May 1766. He left 4 vols. of sermons (1768), and a paraphrase +of the Epistles to the Galatians and Ephesians (1777), several works on +the evidences of Christianity, and various pamphlets against Roman +Catholicism. + + + + +CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH (1813-1879), American politician, was born at +Bedford, New Hampshire, on the 10th of December 1813. In 1833 he removed +to Detroit, Michigan, where he became a prosperous dry-goods merchant. +He took a prominent part as a Whig in politics (serving as mayor in +1851), and, impelled by his strong anti-slavery views, actively +furthered the work of the "Underground Railroad," of which Detroit was +one of the principal "transfer" points. He was one of the organizers in +Michigan of the Republican party, and in 1857 succeeded Lewis Cass in +the United States Senate, serving until 1875, and at once taking his +stand with the most radical opponents of slavery extension. When the +Civil War became inevitable he endeavoured to impress upon the North the +necessity of taking extraordinary measures for the preservation of the +Union. After the fall of Fort Sumter he advocated the enlistment of +500,000 instead of 75,000 men for a long instead of a short term, and +the vigorous enforcement of confiscation measures. In July 1862 he made +a bitter attack in the Senate on General George B. McClellan, charging +him with incompetency and lack of "nerve." Throughout the war he allied +himself with the most radical of the Republican faction in opposition to +President Lincoln's policy, and subsequently became one of the bitterest +opponents of President Johnson's plan of reconstruction. From October +1875 to March 1877 he was secretary of the interior in the cabinet of +President Grant, succeeding Columbus Delano (1809-1896). In 1876, as +chairman of the national republican committee, he managed the campaign +of Hayes against Tilden. In February 1879 he was re-elected to the +Senate to succeed Isaac P. Christiancy (1812-1890), and soon afterwards, +in a speech concerning Mexican War pensions, bitterly denounced +Jefferson Davis. He died at Chicago, Illinois, on the 1st of November +1879. By his extraordinary force of character he exercised a wide +personal influence during his lifetime, but failed to stamp his +personality upon any measure or policy of lasting importance. + + + + +CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF. The English title of Chandos began as a +barony in 1554, and was continued in the family of Brydges (becoming a +dukedom in 1719) till 1789. In 1822 the dukedom was revived in connexion +with that of Buckingham. + +JOHN BRYDGES, 1st Baron Chandos (c. 1490-1557), a son of Sir Giles +Brydges, or Bruges (d. 1511), was a prominent figure at the English +court during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Mary. He took +part in suppressing the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyat in 1554, and as +lieutenant of the Tower of London during the earlier part of Mary's +reign, had the custody, not only of Lady Jane Grey and of Wyat, but for +a short time of the princess Elizabeth. He was created Baron Chandos of +Sudeley in 1554, one of his ancestors, Alice, being a grand-daughter of +Sir Thomas Chandos (d. 1375), and he died in March 1557. The three +succeeding barons, direct descendants of the 1st baron, were all members +of parliament and persons of some importance. Grey, 5th Baron Chandos +(c. 1580-1621), lord-lieutenant of Gloucestershire, was called the "king +of the Cotswolds," owing to his generosity and his magnificent style of +living at his residence, Sudeley Castle. He has been regarded by Horace +Walpole and others as the author of some essays, _Horae Subsecivae_. His +elder son George, 6th Baron Chandos (1620-1655), was a supporter of +Charles I. during his struggle with Parliament, and distinguished +himself at the first battle of Newbury in 1643. He had six daughters but +no sons, and after the death of his brother William in 1676 the barony +came to a kinsman, Sir James Brydges, Bart. (1642-1714), who was English +ambassador to Constantinople from 1680 to 1685. + +JAMES BRYDGES, 1st duke of Chandos (1673-1744), son and heir of the +last-named, had been member of parliament for Hereford from 1698 to +1714, and, three days after his father's death, was created Viscount +Wilton and earl of Carnarvon. For eight years, from 1705 to 1713, during +the War of the Spanish Succession, he was paymaster-general of the +forces abroad, and in this capacity he amassed great wealth. In 1719 he +was created marquess of Carnarvon and duke of Chandos. The duke is +chiefly remembered on account of his connexion with Handel and with +Pope. He built a magnificent house at Canons near Edgware in Middlesex, +and is said to have contemplated the construction of a private road +between this place and his unfinished house in Cavendish Square, London. +For over two years Handel, employed by Chandos, lived at Canons, where +he composed his oratorio _Esther_. Pope, who in his _Moral Essays_ +(_Epistle to the Earl of Burlington_) doubtless described Canons under +the guise of "Timon's Villa," referred to the duke in the line, "Thus +gracious Chandos is belov'd at sight"; but Swift, less complimentary, +called him "a great complier with every court." The poet was caricatured +by Hogarth for his supposed servility to the duke. Chandos, who was +lord-lieutenant of the counties of Hereford and Radnor, and chancellor +of the university of St Andrews, became involved in financial +difficulties, and after his death on the 9th of August 1744 Canons was +pulled down. He was succeeded by his son Henry, 2nd duke (1708-1771), +and grandson James, 3rd duke (1731-1789). On the death of the latter +without sons in September 1789 all his titles, except that of Baron +Kinloss, became extinct, although a claimant arose for the barony of +Chandos of Sudeley. The 3rd duke's only daughter, Anna Elizabeth, who +became Baroness Kinloss on her father's death, was married in 1796 to +Richard Grenville, afterwards marquess of Buckingham; and in 1822 this +nobleman was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos (see BUCKINGHAM, +DUKES OF). + + See G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); and J.R. Robinson, + _The Princely Chandos_, i.e. the 1st duke (1893). + + + + +CHANDOS, SIR JOHN (?-1370), one of the most celebrated English +commanders of the 14th century. He is found at the siege of Cambrai in +1337, and at the battle of Crécy in 1346. At the battle of Poitiers, in +1356, it was he who decided the day and saved the life of the Black +Prince. For these services Edward III. made him a knight of the Garter, +gave him the lands of the viscount of Saint Sauveur in Cotentin, and +appointed him his lieutenant in France and vice-chamberlain of the royal +household. In 1362 he was made constable of Aquitaine, and won the +victories of Auray (1364) and Navaret in Spain (1367) over Duguesclin. +He was seneschal of Poitou in 1369, and was mortally wounded at the +bridge of Lussac near Poitiers on the 31st of December. He died on the +following day, the 1st of January 1370. + + See Benjamin Fillon, "John Chandos, Connétable d'Aquitaine et Sénéchal + de Poitou," in the _Revue des provinces de l'ouest_ (1855). + + + + +CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (reigned 321-296 B.C.), known to the Greeks as +Sandracottus, founder of the Maurya empire and first paramount ruler of +India, was the son of a king of Magadha by a woman of humble origin, +whose caste he took, and whose name, Mura, is said to have been the +origin of that of Maurya assumed by his dynasty. As a youth he was +driven into exile by his kinsman, the reigning king of Magadha. In the +course of his wanderings he met Alexander the Great, and, according to +Plutarch (_Alexander_, cap. 62), encouraged him to invade the Ganges +kingdom by enlarging on the extreme unpopularity of the reigning +monarch. During his exile he collected a large force of the warlike +clans of the north-west frontier, and on the death of Alexander attacked +the Macedonian garrisons and conquered the Punjab. He next attacked +Magadha, dethroned and slew the king, his enemy, with every member of +his family, and established himself on the throne (321). The great army +acquired from his predecessor he increased until it reached the total of +30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, and 600,000 infantry; and with this huge +force he overran all northern India, establishing his empire from the +Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. In 305 Seleucus Nicator crossed the +Indus, but was defeated by Chandragupta and forced to a humiliating +peace (303), by which the empire of the latter was still farther +extended in the north. About six years later Chandragupta died, leaving +his empire to his son Bindusura. + +An excellent account of the court and administrative system of +Chandragupta has been preserved in the fragments of Megasthenes, who +came to Pataliputra as the envoy of Seleucus shortly after 303. The +government was, of course, autocratic and even tyrannous, but it was +organized on an elaborate system, army and civil service being +administered by a series of boards, while the cities were governed by +municipal commissioners responsible for public order and the upkeep of +public works. Chandragupta himself is described as living in barbaric +splendour, appearing in public only to hear causes, offer sacrifice, or +to go on military and hunting expeditions, and withal so fearful of +assassination that he never slept two nights running in the same room. + + See J.W. MacCrindle, _Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and + Arrian_ (Calcutta, 1877); V.A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_ (Oxford, + 1908); also the articles INDIA: _History_, and INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_. + + + + +CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE (1793-1877), French general, was born +at Autun on the 26th of April 1793. Educated at St Cyr, he served for a +short time in the bodyguard of Louis XVIII., and entered the line as a +lieutenant in January 1815. He achieved distinction in the Spanish +campaign of 1823, and became captain in 1825. In 1830 he entered the +Royal Guard and was sent to Africa, where he took part in the Mascara +expedition. Promoted commandant in 1835, he distinguished himself under +Marshal Clausel in the campaign against Ahmed Pasha, bey of Constantine, +and became lieutenant-colonel in 1837. The part he took in the +expedition of Portes-de-Fer gained him a colonelcy, and his success +against the Hajutas and Kabyles, the cross of the Legion of Honour. +Three more years of brilliant service in Africa won for him the rank of +_maréchal de camp_ in 1840, and of lieutenant-general in 1843. In 1847 +he held the Algiers divisional command. He visited France early in 1848, +assisted the provisional government to establish order, and returned to +Africa in May to succeed General Cavaignac in the government of Algeria. +He was speedily recalled on his election to the general assembly for the +department of the Seine, and received the command of the National Guard +of Paris, to which was added soon afterwards that of the troops in +Paris, altogether nearly 100,000 men. He held a high place and exercised +great influence in the complicated politics of the next two years. In +1849 he received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. An avowed +enemy of republican institutions, he held a unique position in upholding +the power of the president; but in January 1851 he opposed Louis +Napoleon's policy, was in consequence deprived of his double command, +and at the _coup d'état_ in December was arrested and sent to Mazas, +until his banishment from France by the decree of the 9th of January +1852. He returned to France after the general amnesty, and resided in +his estate in the department of Saône-et-Loire. In 1870 he held no +command, but was present with the headquarters, and afterwards with +Bazaine in Metz. He was employed on an unsuccessful mission to Prince +Frederick Charles, commanding the German army which besieged Metz, and +on the capitulation became a prisoner of war. At the armistice he +returned to Paris, and in 1871 was elected to the National Assembly by +four departments, and sat for the Somme. He took an active part in +politics, defended the conduct of Marshal Bazaine, and served on the +committee which elaborated the monarchical constitution. When the comte +de Chambord refused the compromise, he moved the resolution to extend +the executive power for ten years to Marshal MacMahon. He was elected a +life senator in 1875. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1877. + + + + +CHANG-CHOW, a town of China, in the province of Fu-kien, on a branch of +the Lung Kiang, 35 m. W. of Amoy. It is surrounded by a wall 4½ m. in +circumference, which, however, includes a good deal of open ground. The +streets are paved with granite, but are very dirty. The river is crossed +by a curious bridge, 800 ft. long, constructed of wooden planks +supported on twenty-five piles of stones about 30 ft. apart. The city is +a centre of the silk-trade, and carries on an extensive commerce in +different directions. Brick-works and sugar-factories are among its +chief industrial establishments. Its population is estimated at about +1,000,000. + + + + +CHANG CHUN, KIU (1148-1227), Chinese Taoist sage and traveller, was born +in 1148. In 1219 he was invited by Jenghiz Khan, founder of the Mongol +empire and greatest of Asiatic conquerors, to visit him. Jenghiz' letter +of invitation, dated the 15th of May 1219 (by present reckoning), has +been preserved, and is among the curiosities of history; here the +terrible warrior appears as a meek disciple of wisdom, modest and +simple, almost Socratic in his self-examination, alive to many of the +deepest truths of life and government. Chang Chun obeyed this summons; +and leaving his home in Shantung (February 1220) journeyed first to +Peking. Learning that Jenghiz had gone far west upon fresh conquests, +the sage stayed the winter in Peking. In February 1221 he started again +and crossed eastern Mongolia to the camp of Jenghiz' brother Ujughen, +near Lake Bör or Buyur in the upper basin of the Kerulun-Amur. Thence he +travelled south-westward up the Kerulun, crossed the Karakorum region in +north-central Mongolia, and so came to the Chinese Altai, probably +passing near the present Uliassutai. After traversing the Altai he +visited Bishbalig, answering to the modern Urumtsi, and moved along the +north side of the Tian Shan range to lake Sairam, Almalig (or Kulja), +and the rich valley of the Ili. We then trace him to the Chu, over this +river to Talas and the Tashkent region, and over the Jaxartes (or Syr +Daria) to Samarkand, where he halted for some months. Finally, through +the "Iron Gates" of Termit, over the Oxus, and by way of Balkh and +northern Afghanistan, Chang Chun reached Jenghiz' camp near the Hindu +Kush. Returning home he followed much the same course as on his outward +route: certain deviations, however, occur, such as a visit to +Kuku-khoto. He was back in Peking by the end of January 1224. From the +narrative of his expedition (the _Si yu ki_, written by his pupil and +companion Li Chi Chang) we derive some of the most faithful and vivid +pictures ever drawn of nature and man between the Great Wall of China +and Kabul, between the Aral and the Yellow Sea: we may particularly +notice the sketches of the Mongols, and of the people of Samarkand and +its neighbourhood; the account of the fertility and products of the +latter region, as of the Ili valley, at or near Almalig-Kulja; and the +description of various great mountain ranges, peaks and defiles, such as +the Chinese Altai, the Tian Shan, Mt Bogdo-ola (?), and the Iron Gates +of Termit. There is, moreover, a noteworthy reference to a land +apparently identical with the uppermost valley of the Yenisei. After his +return Chang Chun lived at Peking till his death on the 23rd of July +1227. By order of Jenghiz some of the former imperial garden grounds +were made over to him, for the foundation of a Taoist monastery. + + See E. Bretschneider, _Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic + Sources_, vol. i. pp. 35-108, where a complete translation of the + narrative is given, with a valuable commentary; C.R. Beazley _Dawn of + Modern Geography_, iii. 539. (C. R. B.) + + + + +CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _cambium, cambiare_, +to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which +appears in the Gr. [Greek: kamptein], to bend), properly the +substitution of one thing for another, hence any alteration or +variation, so applied to the moon's passing from one phase to another. +The use of the word for a place of commercial business has usually been +taken to be a shortened form of Exchange (q.v.) and so is often written +'Change. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that "change" appears +earlier than "exchange" in this sense. "Change" is particularly used of +coins of lower denomination given in substitution for those of larger +denomination or for a note, cheque, &c., and also for the balance of a +sum paid larger than that which is due. A further application is that in +bell-ringing, of the variations in order in which a peal of bells may be +rung. The term usually excludes the ringing of the bells according to +the diatonic scale in which they are hung (see BELL). It is from a +combination of these two meanings that the thieves' slang phrase +"ringing the changes" arises; it denotes the various methods by which +wrong change may be given or extracted, or counterfeit coin passed. + + + + +CHANGELING, the term used of a child substituted or changed for another, +especially in the case of substitutions popularly supposed to be through +fairy agency. There was formerly a widespread superstition that infants +were sometimes stolen from their cradles by the fairies. Any specially +peevish or weakly baby was regarded as a changeling, the word coming at +last to be almost synonymous with imbecility. It was thought that the +elves could only effect the exchange before christening, and in the +highlands of Scotland babies were strictly watched till then. Strype +states that in his time midwives had to take an oath binding themselves +to be no party to the theft or exchange of babies. The belief is +referred to by Shakespeare, Spenser and other authors. Pennant, writing +in 1796, says: "In this very century a poor cottager, who lived near the +spot, had a child who grew uncommonly peevish; the parents attributed +this to the fairies and imagined it was a changeling. They took the +child, put it in a cradle, and left it all night beneath the "Fairy Oak" +in hopes that the _tylwydd têg_ or fairy family would restore their own +before morning. When morning came they found the child perfectly quiet, +so went away with it, quite confirmed in their belief" (_Tour in +Scotland_, 1796, p. 257). + + See W. Wirt Sikes, _British Goblins_ (1880). + + + + +CHANGOS, a tribe of South American Indians who appear to have originally +inhabited the Peruvian coast. A few of them still live on the coast of +Atacama, northern Chile. They are a dwarfish race, never exceeding 5 ft. +in height. Their sole occupation is fishing, and in former times they +used boats of inflated sealskins, lived in sealskin huts, and slept on +heaps of dried seaweed. They are a hospitable and friendly people, and +never resisted the whites. + + + + +CHANGRA, or KANGHARI (anc. _Gangra_; called also till the time of +Caracalla, _Germanicopolis_, after the emperor Claudius), the chief town +of a sanjak of the same name in the Kastamuni vilayet, Asia Minor, +situated in a rich, well-watered valley; altitude 2500 ft. The ground is +impregnated with salt, and the town is unhealthy. Pop. (1894) 15,632, of +whom 1086 are Christians (Cuinet). Gangra, the capital of the +Paphlagonian kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus, son of Castor, was taken +into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 6-5 B.C. The earlier +town, the name of which signified "she-goat," was built on the hill +behind the modern city, on which are the ruins of a late fortress; while +the Roman city occupied the site of the modern. In Christian times +Gangra was the metropolitan see of Paphlagonia. In the 4th century the +town was the scene of an important ecclesiastical synod. + +_Synod of Gangra._--Conjectures as to the date of this synod vary from +341 to 376. All that can be affirmed with certainty is that it was held +about the middle of the 4th century. The synodal letter states that +twenty-one bishops assembled to take action concerning Eustathius (of +Sebaste?) and his followers, who contemned marriage, disparaged the +offices of the church, held conventicles of their own, wore a peculiar +dress, denounced riches, and affected especial sanctity. The synod +condemned the Eustathian practices, declaring however, with remarkable +moderation, that it was not virginity that was condemned, but the +dishonouring of marriage; not poverty, but the disparagement of honest +and benevolent wealth; not asceticism, but spiritual pride; not +individual piety, but dishonouring the house of God. The twenty canons +of Gangra were declared ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451. + + See Mansi ii. pp. 1095-1122; Hardouin i. pp. 530-540; Hefele 2nd ed., + i. pp. 777 sqq. (English trans. ii. pp. 325 sqq.). + + + + +CHANNEL ISLANDS (French _Îles Normandes_), a group of islands in the +English Channel, belonging (except the Îles Chausey) to Great Britain. +(For map, see ENGLAND, Section VI.) They lie between 48° 50' and 49° 45' +N., and 1° 50' and 2° 45' W., along the French coast of Cotentin +(department of Manche), at a distance of 4 to 40 m. from it, within the +great rectangular bay of which the northward horn is Cape La Hague. The +greater part of this bay is shallow, and the currents among the numerous +groups of islands and rocks are often dangerous to navigation. The +nearest point of the English coast to the Channel Islands is Portland +Bill, a little over 50 m. north of the northernmost outlier of the +islands. The total land area of the islands is about 75 sq. m. (48,083 +acres), and the population in 1901 was 95,618. The principal individual +islands are four:--JERSEY (area 45 sq. m., pop. 52,576), GUERNSEY (area +24.5 sq. m., pop. 40,446), ALDERNEY (area 3.06 sq. m., pop. 2062), and +SARK (area nearly 2 sq. m., pop. 504). Each of these islands is treated +in a separate article. The chief town and port of Jersey is St Helier, +and of Guernsey St Peter Port; a small town on Alderney is called St +Anne. Regular communication by steamer with Guernsey and Jersey is +provided on alternate days from Southampton and Weymouth, by steamers of +the London & South-Western and Great Western railway companies of +England. Railway communications within the islands are confined to +Jersey. Regular steamship communications are kept up from certain French +ports, and locally between the larger islands. In summer the islands, +especially Jersey, Guernsey and Sark, are visited by numerous tourists, +both from England and from France. + +The islands fall physically into four divisions. The northernmost, lying +due west of Cape La Hague, and separated therefrom by the narrow Race of +Alderney, includes that island, Burhou and Ortach, and numerous other +islets west of it, and west again the notorious Casquets, an angry group +of jagged rocks, on the largest of which is a powerful lighthouse. +Doubtful tradition places here the wreck of the "White Ship," in which +William, son of Henry I., perished in 1120; in 1744 the "Victory," a +British man-of-war, struck on one of the rocks, and among calamities of +modern times the wreck of the "Stella," a passenger vessel, in 1899, may +be recalled. The second division of islands is also the most westerly; +it includes Guernsey with a few islets to the west, and to the east, +Sark, Herm, Jethou (inhabited islands) and others. The strait between +Guernsey and Herm is called Little Russel, and that between Herm and +Sark Great Russel. Sark is famous for its splendid cliffs and caves, +while Herm possesses the remarkable phenomenon of a shell-beach, or +shore, half-a-mile in length, formed wholly of small shells, which +accumulate in a tidal eddy formed at the north of the island. To the +south-east of these, across the channel called La Déroute, lies Jersey, +forming, with a few attendant islets, of which the Ecréhou to the +north-east are the chief, the third division. The fourth and +southernmost division falls into two main subdivisions. The Minquiers, +the more western, are a collection of abrupt rocks, the largest of +which, Maîtresse Ile, affords a landing and shelter for fishermen. Then +eastern subdivision, the Îles Chausey, lies about 9 m. west by north of +Granville (to which commune they belong) on the French coast, and +belongs to France. These rocks are close set, low and curiously regular +in form. On Grande Ile, the only permanently inhabited island (pop. +100), some farming is carried on, and several of the islets are +temporarily inhabited by fishermen. There is also a little +granite-quarrying, and seaweed-burning employs many. + +None of the islands is mountainous, and the fine scenery for which they +are famous is almost wholly coastal. In this respect each main island +has certain distinctive characteristics. Bold cliffs are found on the +south of Alderney; in Guernsey they alternate with lovely bays; Sark is +specially noted for its magnificent sea-caves, while the coast scenery +of Jersey is on the whole more gentle than the rest. + + _Geology_.--Geologically, the Channel Islands are closely related to + the neighbouring mainland of Normandy. With a few exceptions, to be + noted later, all the rocks are of pre-Cambrian, perhaps in part of + Archean age. They consist of massive granites, gneisses, diorites, + porphyrites, schists and phyllites, all of which are traversed by + dykes and veins. In Jersey we find in the north-west corner a granitic + tract extending from Grosnez to St Mary and St John, beyond which it + passes into a small granulitic patch. South of the granites is a + schistose area, by St Ouen and St Lawrence, and reaching to St Aubin's + Bay. Granitic masses again appear round St Brelade's Bay. The eastern + half of the island is largely occupied by porphyrites and similar + rocks (hornstone porphyry) with rhyolites and denitrified obsidians; + some of the latter contain large spherulites with a diameter of as + much as 24 in.; these are well exposed in Bouley Bay; a complex + igneous and intrusive series of rocks lies around St Helier. In the + north-east corner of the island a conglomerate, possibly of Cambrian + age, occurs between Bouley Bay and St Catherine's Bay. Tracts of + blown-sand cover the ground for some distance north of St Clement's + Bay and again east of St Ouen's Bay. In the sea off the latter bay a + submerged forest occurs. The northern half of Guernsey is mainly + dioritic, the southern half, below St Peter, is occupied by gneisses. + Several patches of granite and granulite fringe the western coast, the + largest of these is a hornblende granite round Rocquaine Bay. + Hornblende gneiss from St Sampson and quartz diorite from Capelles, + Corvée and elsewhere are transported to England for road metal. Sark + is composed almost wholly of hornblende-schists and gneisses with + hornblendic granite at the north end of the island, in Little Sark and + in the middle of Bréchou. Dykes of diabase and diorite are abundant. + Alderney consists mainly of hornblende granite and granulite, which + are covered on the east by two areas of sandstone which may be of + Cambrian age. An enstatite-augite-diorite is sent from Alderney for + road-making. Besides the submerged forest on the coast of Jersey + already mentioned, there are similar occurrences near St Peter Port + and St Sampson's harbour, and in Vazon Bay in Guernsey. Raised beaches + are to be seen at several points in the islands. + +_Climate_.--The climate is mild and very pleasant. In Jersey the mean +temperature for twenty years is found to be--in January (the coldest +month) 42.1° F., in August (the hottest) 63°, mean annual 51.7°. In +Guernsey the figures are, for January 42.5°, for August 59.7°, mean +annual 49.5°. The mean annual rainfall for twenty-five years in Jersey +is 34.21 in., and in Guernsey 38.64 in. The average amount of sunshine +in Jersey is considerably greater than in the most favoured spots on the +south coast of England; and in Guernsey it is only a little less than in +Jersey. Snow and frost are rare, and the seasons of spring and autumn +are protracted. Thick sea-fogs are not uncommon, especially in May and +June. + +_Flora and Fauna._--The flora of the islands is remarkably rich, +considering their extent, nearly 2000 different species of plants having +been counted throughout the group. Of timber properly speaking there is +little, but the evergreen oak, the elm and the beech are abundant. Wheat +is the principal grain in cultivation; but far more ground is taken up +with turnips and potatoes, mangold, parsnip and carrot. The tomato +ripens as in France, and the Chinese yam has been successfully grown. +There is a curious cabbage, chiefly cultivated in Jersey, which shoots +up into a long woody stalk from 10 to 15 ft. in height, fit for +walking-sticks or palisades. Grapes and peaches come to perfection in +greenhouses without artificial heat; and not only apples and pears but +oranges and figs can be reared in the open air. The arbutus ripens its +fruit, and the camellia clothes itself with blossom, as in more southern +climates; the fuchsia reaches a height of 15 or 20 ft., and the magnolia +attains the dimensions of a tree. Of the flowers, both indigenous and +exotic, that abound throughout the islands, it is sufficient to mention +the Guernsey lily with its rich red petals, which is supposed to have +been brought from Japan. + +The number of the species of the mammalia is little over twenty, and +several of these have been introduced by man. There is a special breed +of horned cattle, and each island has its own variety, which is +carefully kept from all intermixture. The animals are small and +delicate, and marked by a peculiar yellow colour round the eyes and +within the ears. The red deer was once indigenous, and the black rat is +still common in Alderney, Sark and Herm. The list of birds includes +nearly 200 species, nearly 100 of which are permanent inhabitants of the +islands. There are few localities in the northern seas which are visited +by a greater variety of fish, and the coasts abound in crustacea, +shell-fish and zoophytes. + +_Government_.--For the purposes of government the Channel Islands +(excluding the French Chauseys) are divided into two divisions:--(1) +Jersey, and (2) the bailiwick of Guernsey, which includes Alderney, +Sark, Herm and Jethou with the island of Guernsey. The constitutions of +each division are peculiar and broadly similar, but differing in certain +important details; they may therefore be considered together for the +sake of comparison. Until 1854 governors were appointed by the crown; +now a separate military lieutenant-governor is appointed for each +division on the recommendation of the war office after consultation with +the home office. The other crown officials are the bailiff (_bailli_) +or chief magistrate, the _procureur du roi_, representing the +attorney-general, and the _avocat du roi_, or in Guernsey the +_contrôle_, representing the solicitor-general. In Jersey the _vicomte_ +is also appointed by the crown, in the position of a high sheriff (and +coroner); but his counterpart in Guernsey, the _prévôt_, is not so +appointed. The bailiff in each island is president of the royal court, +which is composed of twelve jurats, elected for life, in Jersey by the +ratepayers of each parish, in Guernsey by the Elective States, a body +which also elects the _prévôt_, who, with the jurats, serves upon it. +The rest of the body is made up of the rectors of the parishes, the +_douzaines_, or elected parish councils ("dozens," from the original +number of their members) of the town parish of St Peter Port, the four +cantons, and the county parishes, and certain other officials. The royal +court administers justice (but in Jersey there is a trial by jury for +criminal cases), and in Guernsey can pass temporary ordinances subject +to no higher body. It also puts forward _projets de loi_ for the +approval of the Deliberative States. Alderney and Sark have a separate +legal existence with courts dependent on the royal court of Guernsey. In +both Jersey and Guernsey the chief administrative body is the +Deliberative States. The Jersey States is composed of the +lieutenant-governor (who has a veto on the deliberation of any question, +but no vote), the bailiff, jurats, parish rectors, parish constables and +deputies, the _procureur_ and _avocat_, with right to speak but no vote, +and the _vicomte_, with right of attendance only. Besides the veto of +the lieutenant-governor, the bailiff has the power to dissent from any +measure, in which case it is referred to the privy council. In Guernsey +the States consists of the bailiff, jurats, eight out of ten rectors, +the _procureur_ and deputies; while the lieutenant-governor is always +invited and may speak if he attends. By both States local administration +is carried on (largely through committees); and relations with the +British parliament are maintained through the privy council. Acts of +parliament are transmitted to the islands by an order in council to be +registered in the rolls of the royal court, and are not considered to be +binding until this is done; moreover, registration may be held over +pending discussion by the States if any act is considered to menace the +privileges of the islands. The right of the crown to legislate by order +in council is held to be similarly limited. In cases of encroachment on +property, a remarkable form of appeal of very ancient origin called +_Clameur de Haro_ survives (see HARO, CLAMEUR DE). The islands are in +the diocese of Winchester, and there is a dean in both Jersey and +Guernsey, who is also rector of a parish. + +These peculiar constitutions are of local development, the history of +which is obscure. The bailiff was originally assisted in his judicial +work by itinerant justices; their place was later taken by the elected +jurats; later still the practice of summoning the States to assist in +the passing of Ordinances was established by the bailiff and jurats, and +at last the States claimed the absolute right of being consulted. This +was confirmed to them in 1771. + +It is characteristic of these islands that there should be compulsory +service in the militia. In Jersey and Alderney every man between the +ages of sixteen and forty-five is liable, but in Jersey after ten years' +service militiamen are transferred to the reserve. In Guernsey the age +limit is from sixteen to thirty-three, and the obligation is extended to +all who are British subjects, and draw income from a profession +practised in the island. Garrisons of regular troops are maintained in +all three islands. Taxation is light in the islands, and pauperism is +practically unknown. + + In 1904 the revenue of Jersey was £70,191, and its expenditure + £69,658; the revenue of Guernsey was £79,334, and the expenditure + £43,385. The public debt in the respective islands was £322,070 and + £195,794. In Jersey the annual revenues from crown rights (principally + seigneurial dues, houses and lands and tithes) amount to about £2700, + and about £360 is remitted to the paymaster-general. In Guernsey these + revenues, in which the principal item is fines on transference of + property (_treizièmes_ or fees), amount to about £4500, and about + £1000 is remitted. In Alderney the revenues (chiefly from harbour + dues) amount to about £1400. + + In Jersey the English gold and silver coinage are current, but there + is a local copper coinage and local one-pound notes are issued. + Guernsey has also such notes, and its copper coinage consists of + pence, halfpence, two-double and one-double (one-eighth of a penny) + pieces. A Guernsey pound is taken as equal to 24 francs, and English + and French currency pass equally throughout the islands. + +_Industry_.--The old Norman system of land-tenure has survived, and the +land is parcelled out among a great number of small proprietors; +holdings ranging from 5 to 25 acres as a rule. The results of this +arrangement seem to be favourable in the extreme. Every corner of the +ground is carefully and intelligently cultivated, and a considerable +proportion is allotted to market-gardening. The cottages are neat and +comfortable, the hedges well-trimmed, and the roads kept in excellent +repair. There is a considerable export trade in agricultural produce and +stock, including vegetables and fruit, in fish (the fisheries forming an +important industry) and in stone. There is no manufacture of importance. +The inhabitants share in common the right of collecting and burning +seaweed (called _vraic_) for manure. The cutting of the weed (vraicking) +became a ceremonial occasion, taking place at times fixed by the +government, and connected with popular festivities. + +_Language_.--The language spoken in ordinary life by the inhabitants of +the islands is in great measure the same as the old Norman French. The +use of the _patois_ has decreased naturally in modern times. Modern +French is the official language, used in the courts and states, and +English is taught in the parochial schools, and is familiar practically +to all. The several islands have each its own dialect, differing from +that of the others in vocabulary and idiom; differences are also +observable in different localities within the same island, as between +the north and the south of Guernsey. None of the dialects has received +much literary cultivation, though Jersey is proud of being the +birthplace of one of the principal Norman poets, Wace, who flourished in +the 12th century. + +_History_.--The original ethnology and pre-Christian history of the +Channel Islands are largely matters of conjecture and debate. Of early +inhabitants abundant proof is afforded by the numerous megalithic +monuments--cromlechs, kistvaens and maenhirs--still extant. But little +trace has been left of Roman occupation, and such remains as have been +discovered are mainly of the portable description that affords little +proof of actual settlement, though there may have been an unimportant +garrison here. The constant recurrence of the names of saints in the +place-names of the islands, and the fact that pre-Christian names do not +occur, leads to the inference that before Christianity was introduced +the population was very scanty. It may be considered to have consisted +originally of Bretons (Celts), and to have received successively a +slight admixture of Romans and Legionaries, Saxons and perhaps Jutes and +Vandals. Christianity may have been introduced in the 5th century. +Guernsey is said to have been visited in the 6th century by St Sampson +of Dol (whose name is given to a small town and harbour in the island), +St Marcou or Marculfus and St Magloire, a friend and fellow-evangelist +of St Sampson, who founded monasteries at Sark and at Jersey, and died +in Jersey in 575. Another evangelist of this period was St Helerius, +whose name is borne by the chief town of Jersey, St Helier. In his life +it is stated that the population of the island when he reached it was +only 30. In 933 the islands were made over to William, duke of Normandy +(d. 943), and after the Norman conquest of England their allegiance +shifted between the English crown and the Norman coronet according to +the vicissitudes of war and policy. During the purely Norman period they +had been enriched with numerous ecclesiastical buildings, some of which +are still extant, as the chapel of Rozel in Jersey. + +In the reign of John of England the future of the islands was decided by +their attachment to the English crown, in spite of the separation of the +duchy of Normandy. To John it has been usual to ascribe a document, at +one time regarded by the islanders as their Magna Carta; but modern +criticism leaves little doubt that it is not genuine. An unauthenticated +"copy" of uncertain origin alone has been discovered, and there is +little proof of there ever having been an original. The reign of Edward +I. was full of disturbance; and in 1279 Jersey and Guernsey received +from the king, by letters patent, a public seal as a remedy for the +dangers and losses which they had incurred by lack of such a +certificate. Edward II. found it necessary to instruct his collectors +not to treat the islanders as foreigners: his successor, Edward III., +fully confirmed their privileges, immunities and customs in 1341; and +his charter was recognized by Richard II. in 1378. In 1343 there was a +descent of the French on Guernsey; the governor was defeated, and Castle +Cornet besieged. In 1372 there was another attack on Guernsey, and in +1374 and 1404 the French descended on Jersey. None of these attempts, +however, resulted in permanent settlement. Henry V. confiscated the +alien priories which had kept up the same connexion with Normandy as +before the conquest, and conferred them along with the regalities of the +islands on his brother, the duke of Bedford. During the Wars of the +Roses, Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., made an agreement with +Pierre de Brézé, comte de Maulevrier, the seneschal of Normandy, that if +he afforded assistance to the king he should hold the islands +independently of the crown. A force was accordingly sent to take +possession of Mont Orgueil. It was captured and a small part of the +island subjugated, and here Maulevrier remained as governor from 1460 to +1465; but the rest held out under Sir Philip de Carteret, seigneur of St +Ouen, and in 1467 the vice-admiral of England, Sir Richard Harliston, +recaptured the castle and brought the foreign occupation to an end. In +1482-1483 Pope Sixtus IV., at the instance of King Edward IV., issued a +bull of anathema against all who molested the islands; it was formally +registered in Brittany in 1484, and in France in 1486; and in this way +the islands acquired the right of neutrality, which they retained till +1689. In the same reign (Edward IV.) Sark was taken by the French, and +only recovered in the reign of Mary, by the strategy (according to +tradition) of landing from a vessel a coffin nominally containing a body +for burial, but in reality filled with arms. By a charter of 1494, the +duties of the governors of Jersey were defined and their power +restricted; and the educational interests of the island were furthered +at the same time by the foundation of two grammar schools. The religious +establishments in the islands were dissolved, as in England, in the +reign of Henry VIII. The Reformation was heartily welcomed in the +islands. The English liturgy was translated into French for their use. +In the reign of Mary there was much religious persecution; and in that +of Elizabeth Roman Catholics were maltreated in their turn. In 1568 the +islands were attached to the see of Winchester, being finally separated +from that of Coutances, with which they had long been connected, with +short intervals in the reign of John, when they had belonged to the see +of Exeter, and that of Henry VI., when they had belonged to Salisbury. + +The Presbyterian form of church government was adopted under the +influence of refugees from the persecution of Protestantism on the +continent. It was formally sanctioned in St Helier and St Peter Port by +Queen Elizabeth; and in 1603 King James enacted that the whole of the +islands "should quietly enjoy their said liberty." During his reign, +however, disputes arose. An Episcopal party had been formed in Jersey, +and in 1619 David Bandinel was declared dean of the island. A body of +canons which he drew up agreeable to the discipline of the Church of +England was accepted after considerable modification by the people of +his charge; but the inhabitants of Guernsey maintained their +Presbyterian practices. Of the hold which this form of Protestantism had +got on the minds of the people even in Jersey abundant proof is afforded +by the general character of the worship at the present day. + +In the great struggle between king and parliament, Presbyterian Guernsey +supported the parliament; in Jersey, however, there were at first +parliamentarian and royalist factions. Sir Philip de Carteret, +lieutenant-governor, declared for the king, but Dean Bandinel and +Michael Lemprière, a leader of the people, headed the parliamentary +party. They received a commission for the apprehension of Carteret, who +established himself in Elizabeth Castle; but after some fighting had +taken place he died in the castle in August 1643. Meanwhile in Guernsey +Sir Peter Osborne, the governor, was defying the whole island and +maintaining himself in Castle Cornet. A parliamentarian governor, +Leonard Lydcott, arrived in Jersey immediately after Sir Philip de +Carteret's death. But the dowager Lady Carteret was holding Mont +Orgueil; George Carteret, Sir Philip's nephew, arrived from St Malo to +support the royalist cause, and Lydcott and Lemprière presently fled to +England. George Carteret established himself as lieutenant-governor and +bailiff. Bandinel was imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and killed himself in +trying to escape. Jersey was now completely royalist. In 1646 the prince +of Wales, afterwards Charles II., arrived secretly at Jersey, and +remained over two months at Elizabeth Castle. He went on to France, but +returned in 1649, having been proclaimed king by George Carteret, and at +Elizabeth Castle he signed the declaration of his claims to the throne +on the 29th of October. In 1651, when Charles had fled to France again +after the battle of Worcester, parliamentarian vessels of war appeared +at Jersey. The islanders, weary of the tyrannical methods of their +governor, now Sir George Carteret, offered little resistance. On the +15th of December the royalist remnant yielded up Elizabeth Castle; and +at the same time Castle Cornet, Guernsey, which had been steadily held +by Osborne, capitulated. In each case honourable terms of surrender were +granted. Both islands had suffered severely from the struggle, and the +people of Guernsey, appealing to Cromwell on the ground of their support +of his cause, complained that two-thirds of the land was out of +cultivation, and that they had lost "their ships, their traffic and +their trading." After the Restoration there was considerable +improvement, and in the reign of James II. the islanders got a grant of +wool for the manufacture of stockings--4000 tods[1] of wool being +annually allowed to Jersey, 2000 to Guernsey, 400 to Alderney and 200 to +Sark. Alderney, which had been parliamentarian, was granted after the +Restoration to the Carteret family; and it continued to be governed +independently till 1825. + +By William of Orange the neutrality of the islands was abolished in +1689, and during the war between England and France (1778-1783) there +were two unsuccessful attacks on Jersey, in 1779 and 1781, the second, +under Baron de Rullecourt, being famous for the victory over the +invaders due to the bravery of the young Major Peirson, who fell when +the French were on the point of surrender. During the revolutionary +period in France the islands were the home of many refugees. In the 18th +century various attempts were made to introduce the English custom-house +system; but proved practically a failure, and the islands throve on +smuggling and privateering down to 1800. + + AUTHORITIES.--Heylin, _Relation of two Journeys_ (1656); P. Falle, + _Account of the Island of Jersey_ (1694; notes, &c., by E. Durell, + Jersey, 1837); J. Duncan, _History of Guernsey_ (London, 1841); P. le + Geyt, _Sur les constitutions, les lois et les usages de cette île_ + [Jersey], ed. R.P. Marett (Jersey, 1846-1847); F.B. Tupper, + _Chronicles of Castle Cornet, Guernsey_ (2nd ed. London, 1851), and + _History of Guernsey and its Bailiwick_ (Guernsey, 1854); S.E. + Hoskins, _Charles II. in the Channel Islands_ (London, 1854), and + other works; Delacroix, _Jersey, ses antiquités, &c._ (Jersey, 1859); + T. le Cerf, _L'archipel des Îles Normandes_ (Paris, 1863); G. Dupont, + _Le Cotentin et ses îles_ (Caen, 1870-1885); J.P.E. Havet, _Les Cours + royales des Îles Normandes_ (Paris, 1878); E. Pégot-Ogier, _Histoire + des Îles de la Manche_ (Paris, 1881); C. Noury, _Géologie de Jersey_ + (Paris and Jersey, 1886); D.T. Ansted and R.G. Latham, _Channel + Islands_ (1865; 3rd ed., rev. by E.T. Nicolle, London, 1893), the + principal general work of reference; Sir E. MacCulloch, _Guernsey + Folklore_, ed. Edith F. Carey (London, 1903); E.F. Carey, _Channel + Islands_ (London, 1904). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A tod generally equalled 28 lb. + + + + +CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780-1842), American divine and +philanthropist, was born in Newport, Rhode Island, on the 7th of April +1780. His maternal grandfather was William Ellery, a signer of the +Declaration of Independence; his mother, Lucy Ellery, was a remarkable +woman; and his father, William Channing, was a prominent lawyer in +Newport. Channing had as a child a refined delicacy of feature and +temperament, and seemed to have inherited from his father simple and +elegant tastes, sweetness of temper, and warmth of affection, and from +his mother that strong moral discernment and straightforward rectitude +of purpose and action which formed so striking a feature of his +character. From his earliest years he delighted in the beauty of the +scenery of Newport, and always highly estimated its influence upon his +spiritual character. His father was a strict Calvinist, and Dr Samuel +Hopkins, one of the leaders of the old school Calvinists, was a frequent +guest in his father's house. He was, even as a child, he himself says, +"quite a theologian, and would chop logic with his elders according to +the fashion of that controversial time." He prepared for college in New +London under the care of his uncle, the Rev. Henry Channing, and in +1794, about a year after the death of his father, entered Harvard +College. Before leaving New London he came under religious influences to +which he traced the beginning of his spiritual life. In his college +vacations he taught at Lancaster, Massachusetts, and in term time he +stinted himself in food that he might need less exercise and so save +time for study,--an experiment which undermined his health, producing +acute dyspepsia. From his college course he thought that he got little +good, and said "when I was in college, only three books that I read were +of any moment to me: ... Ferguson on _Civil Society_, ... Hutcheson's +_Moral Philosophy_, and Price's _Dissertations_. Price saved me from +Locke's philosophy." + +After graduating in 1798, he lived at Richmond, Virginia, as tutor in +the family of David Meade Randolph, United States marshal for Virginia. +Here he renewed his ascetic habits and spent much time in theological +study, his mind being greatly disturbed in regard to Trinitarian +teachings in general and especially prayer to Jesus. He returned to +Newport in 1800 "a thin and pallid invalid," spent a year and a half +there, and in 1802 went to Cambridge as regent (or general proctor) in +Harvard; in the autumn of 1802 he began to preach, having been approved +by the Cambridge Association. On the 1st of June 1803, having refused +the more advantageous pastorate of Brattle Street church, he was +ordained pastor of the Federal Street Congregational church in Boston. +At this time it seems certain that his theological views were not fixed, +and in 1808, when he preached a sermon at the ordination of the Rev. +John Codman (1782-1847), he still applied the title "Divine Master" to +Jesus Christ, and used such expressions as "shed for souls" of the blood +of Jesus, and "the Son of God himself left the abodes of glory and +expired a victim of the cross." But his sermon preached in 1819 at +Baltimore at the ordination of the Rev. Jared Sparks was in effect a +powerful attack on Trinitarianism, and was followed in 1819 by an +article in _The Christian Disciple_, "Objections to Unitarian +Christianity Considered," and in 1820 by another, "The Moral Argument +against Calvinism"--an excellent evidence of the moral (rather than the +intellectual) character of Unitarian protest. In 1814 he had married a +rich cousin, Ruth Gibbs, but refused to make use of the income from her +property on the ground that clergymen were so commonly accused of +marrying for money. + +He was now entering on his public career. Even in 1810, in a Fast Day +sermon, he warned his congregation of Bonaparte's ambition; two years +later he deplored "this country taking part with the oppressor against +that nation which has alone arrested his proud career of victory"; in +1814 he preached a thanksgiving sermon for the overthrow of Napoleon; +and in 1816 he preached a sermon on war which led to the organization of +the Massachusetts Peace Society. His sermon on "Religion, a Social +Principle," helped to procure the omission from the state constitution +of the third article of Part I., which made compulsory a tax for the +support of religious worship. In 1821 he delivered the Dudleian lecture +on the "Evidences of Revealed Religion" at Harvard, of whose corporation +he had been a member since 1813; he had received its degree of S.T.D. in +1820. In August 1821 he undertook a journey to Europe, in the course of +which he met in England many distinguished men of letters, especially +Wordsworth and Coleridge. Both of these poets greatly influenced him +personally and by their writings, and he prophesied that the Lake poets +would be one of the greatest forces in a forming spiritual reform. +Coleridge wrote of him, "He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of +love." + +On his return to America in August 1823, Dr Channing resumed his duties +as pastor, but with a more decided attention than before to literature +and public affairs, especially after receiving as colleague, in 1824, +the Rev. Ezra Stiles Gannett. In 1830, because of his wife's bad health, +Channing went to the West Indies. Negro slavery, as he saw it there, and +as he had seen it in Richmond, more than thirty years before, so +strongly impressed him that he began to write his book _Slavery_ (1835). +In this he insists that "not what is profitable, but what is right" is +"the first question to be proposed by a rational being"; that slavery +ought to be discussed "with a deep feeling of responsibility, and so +done as not to put in jeopardy the peace of the slave-holding states"; +that "man cannot be justly held and used as property"; that the tendency +of slavery is morally, intellectually, and domestically, bad; that +emancipation, however, should not be forced on slave-holders by +governmental interference, but by an enlightened public conscience in +the South (and in the North), if for no other reason, because "slavery +should be succeeded by a friendly relation between master and slave; and +to produce this the latter must see in the former his benefactor and +deliverer." He declined to identify himself with the Abolitionists, +whose motto was "Immediate Emancipation" and whose passionate agitation +he thought unsuited to the work they were attempting. The moderation and +temperance of his presentation of the anti-slavery cause naturally +resulted in some misunderstanding and misstatement of his position, such +as is to be found in Mrs Chapman's _Appendix_ to the _Autobiography of +Harriet Martineau_, where Channing is represented as actually using his +influence on behalf of slavery. In 1837 he published _Thoughts on the +Evils of a Spirit of Conquest, and on Slavery: A Letter on the +Annexation of Texas to the United States_, addressed to Henry Clay, and +arguing that the Texan revolt from Mexican rule was largely the work of +land-speculators, and of those who resolved "to throw Texas open to +slave-holders and slaves"; that the results of annexation must be war +with Mexico, embroiling the United States with England and other +European powers, and at home the extension and perpetuation of slavery, +not alone in Texas but in other territories which the United States, +once started at conquest, would force into the Union. But he still +objected to political agitation by the Abolitionists, preferring +"unremitting appeals to the reason and conscience," and, even after the +prominent part he took in the meeting in Faneuil Hall, called to protest +against the murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, he wrote to _The Liberator_, +counselling the Abolitionists to "disavow this resort to force by Mr +Lovejoy." Channing's pamphlet _Emancipation_ (1840) dealt with the +success of emancipation in the West Indies, as related in Joseph John +Gurney's _Familiar Letters to Henry Clay of Kentucky, describing a +Winter in the West Indies_ (1840), and added his own advice "that we +should each of us bear our conscientious testimony against slavery," and +that the Free States "abstain as rigidly from the use of political power +against Slavery in the States where it is established, as from +exercising it against Slavery in foreign communities," and should free +themselves "from any obligation to use the powers of the national or +state governments in any manner whatever for the support of slavery." In +1842 he published _The Duty of the Free States_, or _Remarks Suggested +by the Case of the Creole_, a careful analysis of the letter of +complaint from the American to the British government, and a defence of +the position taken by the British government. On the 1st of August 1842 +he delivered at Lenox, Massachusetts, an address celebrating the +anniversary of emancipation in the British West Indies. Two months +later, on the 2nd of October 1842, he died at Bennington, Vermont. + +Physically Channing was short and slight; his eyes were unnaturally +large; his voice wonderfully clear, and like his face, filled with +devotional spirit. He was not a great pastor, and lacked social tact, so +that there were not many people who became his near friends; but by the +few who knew him well, he was almost worshipped. As a preacher Channing +was often criticised for his failure to deal with the practical everyday +duties of life. But his sermons are remarkable for their rare simplicity +and gracefulness of style as well as for the thought that they express. +The first open defence of Unitarians was not based on doctrinal +differences but on the peculiar nature of the attack on them made in +June 1815 by the conservatives in the columns of _The Panoplist_, where +it was stated that Unitarians were "operating only in secret, ... guilty +of hypocritical concealment of their sentiments." His chief objection to +the doctrine of the Trinity (as stated in his sermon at the ordination +of the Rev. Jared Sparks) was that it was no longer used +philosophically, as showing God's relation to the triple nature of man, +but that it had lapsed into mere Tritheism. To the name "Unitarian" +Channing objected strongly, thinking "unity" as abstract a word as +"trinity" and as little expressing the close fatherly relation of God to +man. It is to be noted that he strongly objected to the growth of +"Unitarian orthodoxy" and its increasing narrowness. His views as to the +divinity of Jesus were based on phrases in the Gospels which to his mind +established Christ's admission of inferiority to God the Father,--for +example, "Knoweth no man, neither the Son, but the Father"; at the same +time he regarded Christ as "the sinless and spotless son of God, +distinguished from all men by that infinite peculiarity--freedom from +moral evil." He believed in the pre-existence of Jesus, and that it +differed from the pre-existence of other souls in that Jesus was +actually conscious of such pre-existence, and he reckoned him one with +God the Father in the sense of spiritual union (and not metaphysical +mystery) in the same way that Jesus bade his disciples "Be ye one, even +as I am one." Bunsen called him "the prophet in the United States for +the presence of God in mankind." Channing believed in historic +Christianity and in the story of the resurrection, "a fact which comes +to me with a certainty I find in few ancient histories." He also +believed in the miracles of the Gospels, but held that the Scriptures +were not inspired, but merely records of inspiration, and so saw the +possibility of error in the construction put upon miracles by the +ignorant disciples. But in only a few instances did he refuse full +credence of the plain gospel narrative of miracles. He held, however, +that the miracles were facts and not "evidences" of Christianity, and he +considered that belief in them followed and did not lead up to belief in +Christianity. His character was absolutely averse from controversy of +any sort, and in controversies into which he was forced he was free from +any theological odium and continually displayed the greatest breadth and +catholicity of view. The differences in New England churches he +considered were largely verbal, and he said that "would Trinitarians +tell us what they mean, their system would generally be found little +else than a mystical form of the Unitarian doctrine." + +His opposition to Calvinism was so great that even in 1812 he declared +"existence a curse" if Calvinism be true. Possibly his boldest and most +elaborate defence of Unitarianism was his sermon on _Unitarianism most +favourable to Piety_, preached in 1826, criticizing as it did the +doctrine of atonement by the sacrifice of an "infinite substitute"; and +the Election Sermon of 1830 was his greatest plea for spiritual and +intellectual freedom. + +Channing's reputation as an author was probably based largely on his +publication in _The Christian Examiner_ of _Remarks on the Character and +Writings of John Milton_ (1826), _Remarks on the Life and Character of +Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1827-1828), and an _Essay on the Character and +Writings of Fénelon_ (1829). An _Essay on Self-Culture_ (1838) was an +address introducing the Franklin Lectures delivered in Boston September +1838. Channing was an intimate friend of Horace Mann, and his views on +the education of children are stated, by no less an authority than +Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, to have anticipated those of Froebel. His +_Complete Works_ have appeared in various editions (5 vols., Boston, +1841; 2 vols., London, 1865; 1 vol., New York, 1875). + +Among members of his family may be mentioned his two nephews William +Henry (1810-1884), son of his brother Francis Dana, and William Ellery, +commonly known as Ellery (1818-1901), son of his brother Walter, a +Boston physician (1786-1876). The former, whose daughter married Sir +Edwin Arnold, the English poet, became a Unitarian pastor, for some +time in America, and also in England, where he died; he was deeply +interested in Christian Socialism, and was a constant writer, +translating Jouffroy's _Ethics_ (1840), and assisting in editing the +_Memoirs of Margaret Fuller_ (1852); and he wrote the biography of his +uncle (see O.B. Frothingham's _Memoir_, 1886). Ellery Channing married +Margaret Fuller's sister (1842), and besides critical essays and poems +published an intimate sketch of Thoreau in 1873. + + See the _Memoir_ by William Henry Channing (3 vols., London, 1848; + republished in one volume, New York, 1880); Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, + _Reminiscences of the Rev. William Ellery Channing, D.D_. (Boston, + 1880), intimate but inexact; John White Chadwick, _William Ellery + Channing, Minister of Religion_ (Boston, 1903); and William M. Salter, + "Channing as a Social Reformer" (_Unitarian Review_, March 1888). + (R. We.) + + + + +CHANSONS DE GESTE, the name given to the epic chronicles which take so +prominent a place in the literature of France from the 11th to the 15th +century. Gaston Paris defined a chanson de geste as a song the subject +of which is a series of historical facts or _gesta_. These facts form +the centre around which are grouped sets of poems, called cycles, and +hence the two terms have in modern criticism become synonymous for the +epic family to which the hero of the particular group or cycle belongs. +The earliest chansons de geste were founded on the fusion of the +Teutonic spirit, under a Roman form, into the new Christian and French +civilization. It seems probable that as early as the 9th century epic +poems began to be chanted by the itinerant minstrels who are known as +jongleurs. It is conjectured that in a base Latin fragment of the 10th +century we possess a translation of a poem on the siege of Girona. +Gaston Paris dates from this lost epic the open expression of what he +calls "the epic fermentation" of France. But the earliest existing +chanson de geste is also by far the noblest and most famous, the +_Chanson de Roland_; the conjectural date of the composition of this +poem has been placed between the years 1066 and 1095. That the author, +as has been supposed, was one of the conquerors of England, it is +perhaps rash to assert, but undoubtedly the poem was composed before the +First Crusade, and the writer lived at or near the sanctuary of Mont +Saint-Michel. The _Chanson de Roland_ stands at the head of modern +French literature, and its solidity and grandeur give a dignity to the +whole class of poetry of which it is the earliest and by far the noblest +example. But it is in the crowd of looser and later poems, less fully +characterized, less steeped in the individuality of their authors, that +we can best study the form of the typical chanson de geste. These epics +sprang from the soil of France; they were national and historical; their +anonymous writers composed them spontaneously, to a common model, with +little regard to the artificial niceties of style. The earlier examples, +which succeed the _Roland_, are unlike that great work in having no +plan, no system of composition. They are improvisations which wander on +at their own pace, whither accident may carry them. This mass of +medieval literature is monotonous, primitive and superficial. As Léon +Gautier has said, in the rudimentary psychology of the chansons de +geste, man is either entirely good or entirely bad. There are no fine +shades, no observation of character. The language in which these poems +are composed is extremely simple, without elaboration, without ornament. +Everything is sacrificed to the telling of a story by a narrator of +little skill, who helps himself along by means of a picturesque, but +almost childish fancy, and a primitive sentiment of rhythm. Two great +merits, however, all the best of these poems possess, force and +lucidity; and they celebrate, what they did much to create, that +unselfish elevation of temper which we call the spirit of chivalry. + +Perhaps the most important cycle of chansons de geste was that which was +collected around the name of Charlemagne, and was known as the _Geste du +roi_. A group of this cycle dealt with the history of the mother of the +emperor, and with Charlemagne himself down to the coming of Roland. To +this group belong _Bertha Greatfoot_ and _Aspremont_, both of the 12th +century, and a variety of chansons dealing with the childhood of +Charlemagne and of Ogier the Dane. A second group deals with the +struggle of Charlemagne with his rebellious vassals. This is what has +been defined as the Feudal Epic; it includes _Girars de Viane_ and +_Ogier the Dane_, both of the 13th century, or the end of the 12th. A +third group follows Charlemagne and his peers to the East. It is in the +principal of these poems, _The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem_, that +Alexandrine verse first makes its appearance in French literature. This +must belong to the beginning of the 12th century. A fourth group, +antecedent to the Spanish war, is of the end of the 12th century and the +beginning of the 13th; it includes _Aiquin_, _Fierabras_ and _Otinel_. +The fifth class discusses the war in Spain, and it is to this that +_Roland_ belongs; there are different minor epics dealing with the +events of Roncevaux, and independent chansons of _Gui de Bourgogne_, +_Gaidon_ and _Anseïs de Carthage_. The _Geste du Roi_ comprises a sixth +and last group, proceeding with events up to the death of Charlemagne; +this contains _Huon de Bordeaux_ and a vast number of poems of minor +originality and importance. + +Another cycle is that of Duke William Shortnose, _La Geste de +Guillaume_. This includes the very early and interesting _Departure of +the Aimeri Children_, _Aliscans_ and _Rainoart_. It is thought that this +cycle, which used to be called the _Geste de Garin de Monglane_, is less +artificial than the others; it deals with the heroes of the South who +remained faithful in their vassalage to the throne. The poems belonging +to this cycle are extremely numerous, and some of them are among the +earliest which survive. These chansons find their direct opposites in +those which form the great cycle of _La Geste de Doon de Mayence_, +sometimes called "la faulse geste," because it deals with the feats of +the traitors, of the rebellious family of Ganelon. This is the geste of +the Northmen, always hostile to the Carlovingian dynasty. It comprises +some of the most famous of the chansons, in particular _Parise la +duchesse_ and _The Four Sons of Aymon_. Several of its sections are the +production of a known poet, Raimbert of Paris. From this triple division +of the main body of the chansons de geste into _La Geste du Roi_, _La +Geste de Guillaume_ and _La Geste de Doon_, are excluded certain poems +of minor importance,--some provincial, such as _Amis and Amiles_ and +_Garin_, some dealing with the Crusades, such as _Antioche_, and some +which are not connected with any existing cycle, such as _Ciperis de +Vignevaux_; most of this last category, however, are works of the +decadence. + +The analysis which is here sketched is founded on the latest theories of +Léon Gautier, who has given the labour of a lifetime to the +investigation of this subject. The wealth of material is baffling to the +ordinary student; of the medieval chansons de geste many hundreds of +thousands of lines have been preserved. The habit of composing became in +the 14th century, as has been said, no longer an art but a monomania. +Needless to add that a very large proportion of the surviving poems have +never yet been published. All the best of the early chansons de geste +are written in ten-syllable verse, divided into stanzas or _laisses_ of +different length, united by a single assonance. Rhyme came in with the +13th century, and had the effect in languid bards of weakening the +narrative; the sing-song of it led at last to the abandonment of verse +in favour of plain historical prose. The general character of the +chansons de geste, especially of those of the 12th century, is hard, +coarse, inflexible, like the march of rough men stiffened by coats of +mail. There is no art and little grace, but a magnificent display of +force. These poems enshrine the self-sufficiency of a young and powerful +people; they are full of Gallic pride, they breathe the spirit of an +indomitable warlike energy. All their figures belong to the same social +order of things, and all illustrate the same fighting aristocracy. The +moving principle is that of chivalry, and what is presented is, +invariably, the spectacle of the processional life of a medieval +soldier. The age described is a disturbed one; the feudal anarchy of +Europe is united, for a moment, in defending western civilization +against the inroads of Asia, against "the yellow peril." But it is a +time of transition in Europe also, and Charlemagne, the immortal but +enfeebled emperor, whose beard is whiter than lilies, represents an old +order of things against which the rude barons of the North are +perpetually in successful revolt. The loud cry of the dying Ronald, as +E. Quinet said, rings through the whole poetical literature of medieval +France; it is the voice of the individuality of the great vassal, who, +in the decay of the empire, stands alone with himself and with his +sword. + + AUTHORITIES,--Léon Gautier, _Les Épopées françaises_ (4 vols., + 1878-1894); Gaston Paris, _La Littérature française au moyen âge_ + (1890); Paul Meyer, _Recherches sur l'épopée française_ (1867); G. + Paris, _Histoire poétique de Charlemagne_ (1865); A. Longnon, _Les + Quatre Fits Aimon_, &c. (1879). (E. G.) + + + + +CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. _cantare_, to sing; an old +form is "chaunt"), a song or melody, particularly one sung according to +the rules of church service-books. For an account of the chant or +_cantus firmus_ of the Roman Church see PLAIN-SONG. In the English +church "chants" are the tunes set to the unmetrical verses of the psalms +and canticles. The chant consisted of an "intonation" followed by a +reciting note of indefinite length; a "mediation" closed the first part +of the verse, leading to a second reciting note; a "termination" closed +the second part of the verse. In the English chant the "intonation" +disappeared. Chants are "single," if written for one verse only, +"double," if for two. "Quadruple" chants for four verses have also been +written. + + + + +CHANTABUN, or CHANTABURI, the principal town of the Siamese province of +the same name, on the E. side of the Gulf of Siam, in 102° 6' E., 12° +38' N. Pop. about 5000. The town lies about 12 m. from the sea on a +river which is navigable for boats and inside the bar of which there is +good anchorage for light-draft vessels. The trade is chiefly in rubies +and sapphires from the mines of the Krat and Pailin districts, and in +pepper, of which about 500 tons are exported annually. Cardamoms and +rosewood are also exported. In 1905 Chantabun was made the headquarters +of a high commissioner with jurisdiction extending over the coast +districts from the Nam Wen on the East to Cape Liant on the West, which +were thus united to form a provincial division (_Monton_). In 1893 +Chantabun was occupied by a French force of four hundred men, a step +taken by France as a guarantee for the execution by Siam of undertakings +entered into by the treaty of that year. The occupation, which was +merely military and did not affect the civil government, lasted until +January 1905, when, in accordance with the provisions of the +Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904, the garrison of occupation was withdrawn. +Chantabun has been since the 17th century, and still is, a stronghold of +the Roman Catholic missionaries, and the Christian element amongst the +population is greater here than anywhere else in Siam. + + + + +CHANTADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo, on the +left bank of the Río de Chantada, a small right-hand tributary of the +river Miño, and on the main road from Orerse, 18 m. S. by W., to Lugo, +28 m. N. by E. Pop. (1900) 15,003. Chantada is the chief town of the +fertile region between the Miño and the heights of El Faro, which mark +the western border of the province. Despite the lack of railway +communication, it has a thriving trade in grain, flax, hemp, and dairy +produce. + + + + +CHANTAGE (a Fr. word from _chanter_, to sing, slang for a criminal +making an avowal under examination), a demand for money backed by the +threat of scandalous revelations, the French equivalent of "blackmail." + + + + +CHANTARELLE, an edible fungus, known botanically as _Cantharellus +cibarius_, found in woods in summer. It is golden yellow, somewhat +inversely conical in shape and about 2 in. broad and high. The cap is +flattened above with a central depression and a thick lobed irregular +margin. Running down into the stem from the cap are a number of shallow +thick gills. The substance of the fungus is dry and opaque with a +peculiar smell suggesting ripe apricots or plums. The flesh is whitish +tinged with yellow. The chantarelle is sold in the markets on the +continent of Europe, where it forms a regular article of food, but seems +little known in Britain though often plentiful in the New Forest and +elsewhere. Before being cooked they should be allowed to dry, and then +thrown into boiling water. They may then be stewed in butter or oil, or +cut up small and stewed with meat. No fungus requires more careful +preparation. + + See M.C. Cooke, _British Edible Fungi_, (1891), pp. 104-105. + + + + +CHANTAVOINE, HENRI (1850- ), French man of letters, was born at +Montpellier on the 6th of August 1850, and was educated at the École +Normale Supérieure. After teaching in the provinces he moved, in 1876, +to the Lycée Charlemagne in Paris, and subsequently became professor of +rhetoric at the Lycée Henri IV. and _maître de conferences_ at the École +Normale at Sèvres. He was associated with the _Nouvelle Revue_ from its +foundation in 1879, and he joined the _Journal des débats_ in 1884. His +poems include _Poèmes sincères_ (1877), _Satires contemporaines_ (1881), +_Ad memoriam_ (1884), _Au fil des jours_ (1889). + + + + +CHANTILLY, a town of northern France, in the department of Oise, 25 m. +N. of Paris on the Northern railway to St Quentin. Pop. (1906) 4632. It +is finely situated to the north of the forest of Chantilly and on the +left bank of the river Nonette, and is one of the favourite Parisian +resorts. Its name was long associated with the manufacture, which has +now to a great extent decayed, of lace and blonde; it is still more +celebrated for its château and its park (laid out originally by A. Le +Nôtre in the second half of the 17th century), and as the scene of the +great annual races of the French Jockey Club. The château consists of +the palace built from 1876 to 1885 and of an older portion adjoining it +known as the châtelet. The old castle must have been in existence in the +13th century, and in the reign of Charles VI. the lordship belonged to +Pierre d'Orgemont, chancellor of France. In 1484 it passed to the house +of Montmorency, and in 1632 from that family to the house of Condé. +Louis II., prince de Condé, surnamed the Great, was specially attached +to the place, and did a great deal to enhance its beauty and splendour. +Here he enjoyed the society of La Bruyère, Racine, Molière, La Fontaine, +Boileau, and other great men of his time; and here his steward Vatel +killed himself in despair, because of a hitch in the preparations for +the reception of Louis XIV. The stables close to the racecourse were +built from 1719 to 1735 by Louis-Henri, duke of Bourbon. Of the two +splendid mansions existing at that period known as the grand château and +the châtelet, the former was destroyed about the time of the Revolution, +but the latter, built for Anne de Montmorency by Jean Bullant, still +remains as one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in +France. The château d'Enghien, facing the entrance to the grand château, +was built in 1770 as a guest-house. On the death in 1830 of the duke of +Bourbon, the last representative of the house of Condé, the estate +passed into the hands of Henri, duc d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis +Philippe. In 1852 the house of Orleans was declared incapable of +possessing property in France, and Chantilly was accordingly sold by +auction. Purchased by the English bankers, Coutts & Co., it passed back +into the hands of the duc d'Aumale, in 1872. By him a magnificent +palace, including a fine chapel in the Renaissance style, was erected on +the foundations of the ancient grand château and in the style of the +châtelet. It is quadrilateral in shape, consisting of four unequal sides +flanked by towers and built round a courtyard. The whole group of +buildings as well as the pleasure-ground behind them, known as the +Parterre de la Volière, is surrounded by fosses supplied with water from +the Nonette. On the terrace in front of the château there is a bronze +statue of the constable Anne de Montmorency. The duc d'Aumale installed +in the châtelet a valuable library, specially rich in incunabula and +16th century editions of classic authors, and a collection of the +paintings of the great masters, besides many other objects of art. By a +public act in 1886 he gave the park and château with its superb +collections to the Institute of France in trust for the nation, +reserving to himself only a life interest; and when he died in 1897 the +Institute acquired full possession. + + + + +CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT (1782-1841), English sculptor, was born on +the 7th of April 1782 at Norton near Sheffield, where his father, a +carpenter, cultivated a small farm. His father died when he was eight +years of age; and his mother having married again, his profession was +left to be chosen by his friends. In his sixteenth year he was on the +point of being apprenticed to a grocer in Sheffield, when, having seen +some wood-carving in a shop-window, he requested to be made a carver +instead, and was accordingly placed with a Mr Ramsey, wood-carver in +Sheffield. In this situation he became acquainted with Raphael Smith, a +distinguished draftsman in crayon, who gave him lessons in painting; and +Chantrey, eager to commence his course as an artist, procured the +cancelling of his indentures, and went to try his fortune in Dublin and +Edinburgh, and finally (1802) in London. Here he first obtained +employment as an assistant wood-carver, but at the same time devoted +himself to portrait-painting, bust-sculpture, and modelling in clay. He +exhibited pictures at the Academy for some years from 1804, but from +1807 onwards devoted himself mainly to sculpture. The sculptor Nollekens +showed particular zeal in recognizing his merits. In 1807 he married his +cousin, Miss Wale, who had some property of her own. His first +imaginative work in sculpture was the model of the head of Satan, which +was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1808. He afterwards executed for +Greenwich hospital four colossal busts of the admirals Duncan, Howe, +Vincent and Nelson; and so rapidly did his reputation spread that the +next bust which he executed, that of Horne Tooke, procured him +commissions to the extent of £12,000. From this period he was almost +uninterruptedly engaged in professional labour. In 1819 he visited +Italy, and became acquainted with the most distinguished sculptors of +Florence and Rome. He was chosen an associate (1815) and afterwards a +member (1818) of the Royal Academy, received the degree of M.A. from +Cambridge, and that of D.C.L. from Oxford, and in 1835 was knighted. He +died after an illness of only two hours' duration on the 25th of +November 1841, having for some years suffered from disease of the heart, +and was buried in a tomb constructed by himself in the church of his +native village. + +The works of Chantrey are extremely numerous. The principal are the +statues of Washington in the State-house at Boston, U.S.A.; of George +III. in the Guildhall, London; of George IV. at Brighton; of Pitt in +Hanover Square, London; of James Watt in Westminster Abbey and in +Glasgow; of Roscoe and Canning in Liverpool; of Dalton in Manchester; of +Lord President Blair and Lord Melville in Edinburgh, &c. Of his +equestrian statues the most famous are those of Sir Thomas Munro in +Calcutta, and the duke of Wellington in front of the London Exchange. +But the finest of Chantrey's works are his busts, and his delineations +of children. The figures of two children asleep in each other's arms, +which form a monumental design in Lichfield cathedral, have always been +lauded for beauty, simplicity and grace. So is also the statue of the +girlish Lady Louisa Russell, represented as standing on tiptoe and +fondling a dove in her bosom. Both these works appear, in design, to +have owed something to Stothard; for Chantrey knew his own scantiness of +ideal invention or composition, and on system sought aid from others for +such attempts. In busts, his leading excellence is facility--a ready +unconstrained air of life, a prompt vivacity of ordinary expression. +Allan Cunningham and Weekes were his chief assistants, and were indeed +the active executants of many works that pass under Chantrey's name. +Chantrey was a man of warm and genial temperament, and is said to have +borne noticeable though commonplace resemblance to the usual portraits +of Shakespeare. + +_Chantrey Bequest._--By the will dated the 31st of December 1840, +Chantrey (who had no children) left his whole residuary personal estate +after the decease or on the second marriage of his widow (less certain +specified annuities and bequests) in trust for the president and +trustees of the Royal Academy (or in the event of the dissolution of the +Royal Academy, to such society as might take its place), the income to +be devoted to the encouragement of British fine art in painting and +sculpture only, by "the purchase of works of fine art of the highest +merit ... that can be obtained." The funds might be allowed to +accumulate for not more than five years; works by British or foreign +artists, dead or living, might be acquired, so long as such works were +entirely executed within the shores of Great Britain, the artists having +been in residence there during such execution and completion. The prices +to be paid were to be "liberal," and no sympathy for an artist or his +family was to influence the selection or the purchase of works, which +were to be acquired solely on the ground of intrinsic merit. No +commission or orders might be given: the works must be finished before +purchase. Conditions were made as to the exhibition of the works, in the +confident expectation that as the intention of the testator was to form +and establish a "public collection of British Fine Art in Painting and +Sculpture," the government or the country would provide a suitable +gallery for their display; and an annual sum of £300 and £50 was to be +paid to the president of the Royal Academy and the secretary +respectively, for the discharge of their duties in carrying out the +provisions of the will. + +Lady Chantrey died in 1875, and two years later the fund became +available for the purchase of paintings and sculptures. The capital sum +available amounted to £105,000 in 3% Consols, which (since reduced to +2½%) produces an available annual income varying from £2500 to £2100. +Galleries in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington were at +first adopted as the depository of the works acquired, until in 1898 the +Royal Academy arranged with the treasury, on behalf of the government, +for the transference of the collection to the National Gallery of +British Art, which had been erected by Sir Henry Tate at Millbank. It +was agreed that the "Tate Gallery" should be its future home, and that +"no power of selection or elimination is claimed on behalf of the +trustees and director of the National Gallery" (Treasury Letter, +18054-98, 7th December 1898) in respect of the pictures and sculptures +which were then to be handed over and which should, from time to time, +be sent to augment the collection. Inasmuch as it was felt that the +provision that all works must be complete to be eligible for purchase +militated against the most advantageous disposition of the fund in +respect of sculpture, in the case of wax models or plaster casts before +being converted into marble or bronze, it was sought in the action of +_Sir F. Leighton_ v. _Hughes_ (tried by Mr Justice North, judgment May +7th, 1888, and in the court of appeal, before the master of the rolls, +Lord Justice Cotton, and Lord Justice Fry, judgment June 4th, 1889--the +master of the rolls dissenting) to allow of sculptors being commissioned +to complete in bronze or marble a work executed in wax or plaster, such +"completion" being more or less a mechanical process. The attempt, +however, was abortive. + +A growing discontent with the interpretation put by the Royal Academy +upon the terms of the will as shown in the works acquired began to find +expression more than usually forcible and lively in the press during the +year 1903, and a debate raised in the House of Lords by the earl of +Lytton led to the appointment of a select committee of the House of +Lords, which sat from June to August 1904. The committee consisted of +the earls of Carlisle, Lytton, and Crewe, and Lords Windsor, +Ribblesdale, Newton, and Killanin, and the witnesses represented the +Royal Academy and representative art institutions and art critics. The +report (ordered to be printed on the 8th of August 1904) made certain +recommendations with a view to the prevention of certain former errors +of administration held to have been sustained, but dismissed other +charges against the Academy. In reply thereto a memorandum was issued by +the Royal Academy (February 1905, ordered to be printed on the 7th of +August 1905--Paper 166) disagreeing with certain recommendations, but +allowing others, either intact or in a modified form. + +Up to 1905 inclusive 203 works had been bought--all except two from +living painters--at a cost of nearly £68,000. Of these, 175 were in +oil-colours, 12 in water-colours, and 16 sculptures (10 in bronze and 6 +marble). + + See _The Administration of the Chantrey Bequest_, by D.S. MacColl + (l6mo, London, 1904), a highly controversial publication by the + leading assailant of the Royal Academy: _Chantrey and His Bequest_, by + Arthur Fish, a complete illustrated record of the purchases, &c. + (London, 1904); _The Royal Academy, its Uses and Abuses_, by H.J. + Laidlay (London, 1898), controversial; _Report from the Select + Committee of the House of Lords on the Chantrey Trust; together with + the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix_ + (Wyman & Sons, 1904), and _Index_ (separate publication, 1904). + + + + + +CHANT ROYAL, one of the fixed forms of verse invented by the ingenuity +of the poets of medieval France. It is composed of five strophes, +identical in arrangement, of eleven verses each, and of an envoi of five +verses. All the strophes are written on the five rhymes exhibited in the +first strophe, the entire poem, therefore, consisting of sixty lines in +the course of which five rhymes are repeated. It has been conjectured +that the chant royal is an extended ballade, or rather a ballade +conceived upon a larger scale; but which form preceded the other appears +to be uncertain. On this point Henri de Croï, who wrote about these +forms of verse in his _Art et science de rhétorique_ (1493), throws no +light. He dwells, however, on the great dignity of what he calls the +"Champt Royal," and says that those who defy with success the ardour of +its rules deserve crowns and garlands for their pains. Étienne Pasquier +(1529-1615) points out the fact that the Chant Royal, by its length and +the rigidity of its structure, is better fitted than the ballade for +solemn and pompous themes. In Old French, the most admired chants royal +are those of Clement Marot; his _Chant royal chrestien_, with its +refrain + + "Santé au corps, et Paradis à l'âme," + +was celebrated. Théodore de Banville defines the chant royal as +essentially belonging to ages of faith, when its subjects could be +either the exploits of a hero of royal race or the processional +splendours of religion. La Fontaine was the latest of the French poets +to attempt the chant royal, until it was resuscitated in modern times. + +This species of poem was unknown in English medieval literature and was +only introduced into Great Britain in the last quarter of the 19th +century. The earliest chant royal in English was that published by +Edmund Gosse in 1877; it is here given to exemplify the structure and +rhyme-arrangement of the form:-- + + THE PRAISE OF DIONYSUS + + "Behold, above the mountains there is light, + A streak of gold, a line of gathering fire, + And the dim East hath suddenly grown bright + With pale aerial flame, that drives up higher + The lurid mists which all the night long were + Breasting the dark ravines and coverts bare; + Behold, behold! the granite gates unclose, + And down the vales a lyric people flows, + Who dance to music, and in dancing fling + Their frantic robes to every wind that blows, + _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._ + + Nearer they press, and nearer still in sight, + Still dancing blithely in a seemly choir; + Tossing on high the symbol of their rite, + The cone-tipp'd thyrsus of a god's desire; + Nearer they come, tall damsels flushed and fair, + With ivy circling their abundant hair, + Onward, with even pace, in stately rows, + With eye that flashes, and with cheek that glows, + And all the while their tribute-songs they bring, + And newer glories of the past disclose + _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._ + + The pure luxuriance of their limbs is white, + And flashes clearer as they draw the nigher, + Bathed in an air of infinite delight, + Smooth without wound of thorn, or fleck of mire, + Borne up by song as by a trumpet's blare, + Leading the van to conquest, on they fare, + Fearless and bold, whoever comes or goes, + These shining cohorts of Bacchantes close, + Shouting and shouting till the mountains ring, + And forests grim forget their ancient woes, + _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._ + + And youths there are for whom full many a night + Brought dreams of bliss, vague dreams that haunt and tire + Who rose in their own ecstasy bedight, + And wandered forth through many a scourging briar, + And waited shivering in the icy air, + And wrapped the leopard-skin about them there, + Knowing for all the bitter air that froze, + The time must come, that every poet knows, + When he shall rise and feel himself a king, + And follow, follow where the ivy grows, + _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._ + + But oh! within the heart of this great flight, + Whose ivory arms hold up the golden lyre? + What form is this of more than mortal height? + What matchless beauty, what inspiréd ire? + The brindled panthers know the prize they bear, + And harmonize their steps with tender care; + Bent to the morning, like a living rose, + The immortal splendour of his face he shows; + And, where he glances, leaf and flower and wing + Tremble with rapture, stirred in their repose, + _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._ + + _Envoi_. + + Prince of the flute and ivy, all thy foes + Record the bounty that thy grace bestows, + But we, thy servants, to thy glory cling, + And with no frigid lips our songs compose, + _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._" + +In the middle ages the chant royal was largely used for the praise of +the Virgin Mary. Eustache Deschamps (1340-1410) distinguishes these +Marian chants royaux, which were called "serventois," by the absence of +an envoi. These poems are first mentioned by Rutebeuf, a _trouvère_ of +the 13th century. The chant royal is practically unknown outside French +and English literature. (E. G.) + + + + +CHANTRY (Fr. _chanterie_, from _chanter_, to sing; Med. Lat. +_cantuaria_), a small chapel built out from a church, endowed in +pre-Reformation times for the express purpose of maintaining priests for +the chanting of masses for the soul of the founder or of some one named +by him. It generally contained the tomb of the founder, and, as the +officiator or mass-priest was often unconnected with the parochial +clergy, had an entrance from the outside. The word passed through +graduations of meaning. Its first sense was singing or chanting. Then it +meant the endowment funds, next the priests, and then the church or +chapel itself. + + + + +CHANUTE, a city of Neosho county, Kansas, U.S.A., 1 m. from the Neosho +river, and about 120 m. S.S.W. of Kansas city. Pop. (1890) 2826; (1900) +4208, of whom 210 were foreign-born and 171 were negroes; (1910 census) +9272. Chanute is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the +Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, the former having large repair shops. +The city is in the Kansas-Oklahoma oil and gas field, and is surrounded +by a fine farming and dairying region, in which special attention is +given to the raising of small fruit; oil, gas, cement rock and brick +shale are found in the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures are +refined oil, Portland cement, vitrified brick and tile, glass, asphalt, +ice, cigars, drilling machinery, and flour. The municipality owns and +operates the waterworks, a natural gas plant, and an electric lighting +plant. Four towns--New Chicago, Tioga, Chicago Junction and +Alliance--were started here about the same time (1870). In 1872 they +were consolidated, and the present name was adopted in honour of Octave +Chanute (b. 1832), the civil engineer and aeronautist (see FLIGHT AND +FLYING), then the engineer of the Lawrence, Leavenworth & Galveston +railway (now part of the Atchison system). Chanute was incorporated as a +city of the third class in 1873, and its charter was revised in 1888. +Natural gas and oil were found here in 1899, and Chanute became one of +the leaders of the Kansas independent refineries in their contest with +the Standard Oil Company. + + + + +CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED (1823-1883), French general, was born at +Nouart (Ardennes) on the 18th of March 1823. The son of a cavalry +officer, he was educated at the naval school at Brest, but enlisted in +the artillery, and, subsequently passing through St Cyr, was +commissioned in the Zouaves in 1843. He saw a good deal of fighting in +Algeria, and was promoted lieutenant in 1848, and captain in 1851. He +became _chef de bataillon_ in 1856, and served in the Lombardy campaign +of 1859, being present at Magenta and Solferino. He took part in the +Syrian campaign of 1860-61 as a lieutenant-colonel; and as colonel +commanded the 48th regiment at Rome in 1864. He returned to Algeria as +general of brigade, assisted to quell the Arab insurrection, and +commanded the subdivisions of Bel Abbes and Tlemçen in 1868. Although he +had acquired a good professional reputation, he was in bad odour at the +war office on account of suspected contributions to the press, and at +the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was curtly refused a brigade +command. After the revolution, however, the government of national +defence called him from Algeria, made him a general of division, and +gave him command of the XVI. corps of the army of the Loire. (For the +operations of the Orleans campaign which followed, see FRANCO-GERMAN +WAR.) The Loire army won the greatest success of the French during the +whole war at Coulmiers, and followed this up with another victorious +action at Patay; in both engagements General Chanzy's corps took the +most brilliant part. After the second battle of Orleans and the +separation of the two wings of the French army, Chanzy was appointed to +command that in the west, designated the second army of the Loire. His +enemies, the grand duke of Mecklenburg, Prince Frederick Charles, and +General von der Tann, all regarded Chanzy as their most formidable +opponent. He displayed conspicuous moral courage and constancy, not less +than technical skill, in the fighting from Beaugency to the Loire, in +his retreat to Le Mans, and in retiring to Laval behind the Mayenne. As +Gambetta was the soul, Chanzy was the strong right arm of French +resistance to the invader. He was made a grand officer of the Legion of +Honour, and was elected to the National Assembly. At the outbreak of the +Commune, Chanzy, then at Paris, fell into the hands of the insurgents, +by whom he was forced to give his parole not to serve against them. It +was said that he would otherwise have been appointed instead of MacMahon +to command the army of Versailles. A ransom of £40,000 was also paid by +the government for him. In 1872 he became a member of the committee of +defence and commander of the VII. army corps, and in 1873 was appointed +governor of Algeria, where he remained for six years. In 1875 he was +elected a life senator, in 1878 received the grand cross of the Legion +of Honour, and in 1879, without his consent, was nominated for the +presidency of the republic, receiving a third of the total votes. For +two years he was ambassador at St Petersburg, during which time he +received many tokens of respect, not only from the Russians, but also +from the German emperor, William I., and Prince Bismarck. He died +suddenly, while commanding the VI. army corps (stationed nearest to the +German frontier), at Châlons-sur-Marne, on the 4th of January 1883, only +a few days after Gambetta, and his remains received a state funeral. He +was the author of _La Deuxième Armée de la Loire_ (1872). Statues of +General Chanzy have been erected at Nouart and Le Mans. + + + + +CHAOS, in the Hesiodic theogony, the infinite empty space, which existed +before all things (_Theog._ 116, 123). It is not, however, a mere +abstraction, being filled with clouds and darkness; from it proceed +Erebus and Nyx (Night), whose children are Aether (upper air) and Hemera +(Day). In the Orphic cosmogony the origin of all goes back to Chronos, +the personification of time, who produces Aether and Chaos. In the +Aristophanic parody (_Birds_, 691) the winged Eros in conjunction with +gloomy Chaos brings forth the race of birds. The later Roman conception +(Ovid, _Metam._ i. 7) makes Chaos the original undigested, amorphous +mass, into which the architect of the world introduces order and +harmony, and from which individual forms are created. In the created +world (cosmos, order of the universe) the word has various +meanings:--the universe; the space between heaven and earth; the +under-world and its ruler. Metaphorically it is used for the +immeasurable darkness, eternity, and the infinite generally. In modern +usage "chaos" denotes a state of disorder and confusion. + + + + +CHAPBOOK (from the O. Eng. _chap_, to buy and sell), the comparatively +modern name applied by booksellers and bibliophiles to the little +stitched tracts written for the common people and formerly circulated in +England, Scotland and the American colonies by itinerant dealers or +chapmen, consisting chiefly of vulgarized versions of popular stories, +such as _Tom Thumb_, _Jack the Giant Killer_, _Mother Shipton_, and +_Reynard the Fox_--travels, biographies and religious treatises. Few of +the older chapbooks exist. Samuel Pepys collected some of the best and +had them bound into small quarto volumes, which he called Vulgaria; +also four volumes of a smaller size, which he lettered _Penny +Witticisms, Penny Merriments, Penny Compliments_ and _Penny +Godlinesses_. The early chapbooks were the direct descendants of the +black-letter tracts of Wynkyn de Worde. It was in France that the +printing-press first began to supply reading for the common people. At +the end of the 15th century there was a large popular literature of +farces, tales in verse and prose, satires, almanacs, &c., stitched +together so as to contain a few leaves, and circulated by itinerant +booksellers, known as colporteurs. Most early English chapbooks are +adaptations or translations of these French originals, and were +introduced into England early in the 16th century. The chapbooks of the +17th century present us with valuable illustrations of the manners of +the time; one of the best known is that containing the story of Dick +Whittington. Others which had a great vogue are _Jack the Giant Killer, +Little Red Riding Hood_, and _Mother Shipton_. Those of the 18th century +are far inferior in every way, both as regards the literature and the +printing; and unfortunately it is these which form the bulk of what is +now known to us in collections as chapbooks. They have never exercised +any great influence in England nor received much attention, owing no +doubt to their poor literary character. In France, on the other hand, +their French equivalents have been the object of close and systematic +study, and _L'Histoire des livres populaires ou de la littérature du +colportage_ by Charles Nisard (1854) goes deeply into the subject. +Amongst English books may be mentioned _Notices of Fugitive Tracts and +Chapbooks_, by J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps (1849); _Chapbooks of the 18th +Century_, by John Ashton (1882), and some reprints by the Villon Society +in 1885. The word "chapbook" has not been noticed earlier than 1824, +when Dibdin, the celebrated bibliographer, described a work as being "a +chapbook, printed in rather a neat black-letter." + + + + +CHAPE (from the Fr. _chape_, a hood, cope or sheath), a cover or metal +plate, such as the cap upon the needle in the compass, also the +transverse guard of a sword which protects the hand. From the original +meaning comes the use of the word as a support or catch to attach one +thing to another, as the hook on a belt to which the sword is fastened. +The word is also used for the tip of a fox's brush. + + + + +CHAPEL, a place of religious worship,[1] a name properly applied to that +of a Christian religious body, but sometimes to any small temple of +pagan worship (Lat. _sacellum_). The word is derived through the O. Fr. +_chapele_, modern _chapelle_, from the Late Lat. _capelle_ or +_cappella_, diminutive of _cappa_, a cape, particularly that of a monk. +This word was transferred to any sanctuary containing relics, in the +early history of the Frankish Church, because the cloak of St Martin, +_cappa brevior Sancti Martini_, one of the most sacred relics of the +Frankish kings, was carried in a sanctuary or shrine wherever the king +went; and oaths were taken on it (see Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v. +_Capella_). Such a sanctuary was served by a priest, who was hence +called _capellanus_, from which is derived the English "chaplain" +(q.v.). The strict application of the word to a sanctuary containing +relics was extended to embrace any place of worship other than a church, +and it was synonymous, therefore, with "oratory" (_oratorium_), +especially one attached to a palace or to a private dwelling-house. The +celebrated Sainte Chapelle in Paris, attached to what is now the Palais +de Justice, well illustrates the early and proper meaning of the word. +It was built (consecration, 1248) by St Louis of France to contain the +relic of the Crown of Thorns, ransomed by the king from the Venetians, +who held it in pawn from the Latin emperor of the East, John of Brienne, +lately dead. The chapel served as the sanctuary of the relic lodged in +the upper chapel, and the whole building was attached as the place of +worship to the king's palace. This, the primary meaning, survives in the +chapels usually placed in the aisles of cathedrals and large churches. +They were originally built either to contain relics of a particular +saint to whom they were dedicated, or the tomb of a particular family. + +In the Church of England the word is applied to a private place of +worship, attached either to the palaces of the sovereign, "chapels +royal," or to the residence of a private person, to a college, school, +prison, workhouse, &c. Further, the word has particular legal +applications, though in each case the building might be and often is +styled a church. These are places of worship supplementary to a parish +church, and may be either "chapels of ease," to ease or relieve the +mother-church and serve those parishioners who may live far away, +"parochial chapels," the "churches" of ancient divisions of a very large +and widely scattered parish, or "district chapels," those of a district +of a parish divided under the various church building acts. A "free +chapel" is one founded by the king and by his authority, and visited by +him and not by the bishop. A "proprietary chapel" is one that belongs to +a private person. They are anomalies to the English ecclesiastical law, +have no parish rights, and can be converted to other than religious +purposes, but a clergyman may be licensed to perform duty in such a +place of worship. In the early and middle part of the 19th century such +proprietary chapels were common, but they have practically ceased to +exist. "Chapel" was early and still is in England the general name of +places of worship other than those of the established Church, but the +application of "church" to all places of worship without distinction of +sect is becoming more and more common. The word "chapel" was in this +restricted sense first applied to places of worship belonging to the +Roman Church in England, and was thus restricted to those attached to +foreign embassies, or to those of the consorts of Charles I. and II. and +James II., who were members of that church. The word is still frequently +the general term for Roman Catholic churches in Great Britain and always +so in Ireland. The use of "chapel" as a common term for all +Nonconformist places of worship was general through most of the 19th +century, so that "church and chapel" was the usual phrase to mark the +distinction between members of the established Church and those of +Nonconformist bodies. Here the widened use of "church" noticed above has +been especially marked. Most of the recent buildings for worship erected +by Nonconformist bodies will be found to be styled Wesleyan, +Congregational, &c., churches. It would appear that while the word +"chapel" was not infrequent in the early history of Nonconformity, +"meeting-house" was the more usual term. + +From the architectural point of view the addition of chapels to a +cathedral or large church assumes some historical importance in +consequence of the changes it involved in the plan. It was the +introduction of the apsidal chapels in the churches of France which +eventually led to the _chevet_ or cluster of eastern chapels in many of +the great cathedrals, and also sometimes to the extension of the +transept so as to include additional apsidal chapels on the east side. +In France, and to a certain extent in Italy, the multiplication of +chapels led to their being placed on the north and south side of the +aisles, and in some cases, as at Albi in France, to the suppression of +the aisles and the instalment of the chapels in their place. The chapels +of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes of large +dimensions and architecturally of great importance, that of Christ +Church being actually the cathedral of Oxford; among others may be +mentioned the chapel of Merton College, and the new chapel of Exeter +College, both in Oxford, and the chapel of King's College, Cambridge, +which is roofed over with perhaps the finest fan-vault in England. (See +VAULT, Plate II., fig. 19.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The only other English sense is that of a printer's workshop, or + the body of compositors in it, who are presided over by a "father of + the chapel." + + + + +CHAPELAIN, JEAN (1595-1674), French poet and man of letters, the son of +a notary, was born in Paris on the 4th of December 1595. His father +destined him for his own profession; but his mother, who had known +Ronsard, had determined otherwise. At an early age Chapelain began to +qualify himself for literature, learning, under Nicolas Bourbon, Greek +and Latin, and teaching himself Italian and Spanish. Having finished his +studies, he was engaged for a while in teaching Spanish to a young +nobleman. He was then appointed tutor to the two sons of a M. de la +Trousse, grand provost of France. Attached for the next seventeen years +to the family of this gentleman, the administration of whose fortune was +wholly in his hands, he seems to have published nothing during this +period, yet to have acquired a great reputation as a probability. His +first work given to the public was a preface for the _Adone_ of Marini, +who printed and published that notorious poem at Paris. This was +followed by an excellent translation of Mateo Aleman's novel, _Guzmán de +Alfarache_, and by four extremely indifferent odes, one of them +addressed to Richelieu. The credit of introducing the law of the +dramatic unities into French literature has been claimed for many +writers, and especially for the Abbé d'Aubignac, whose _Pratique du +théâtre_ appeared in 1657. The theory had of course been enunciated in +the _Art poétique_ of J.C. Scaliger in 1561, and subsequently by other +writers, but there is no doubt that it was the action of Chapelain that +transferred it from the region of theory to that of actual practice. In +a conversation with Richelieu in about 1632, reported by the abbé +d'Olivet, Chapelain maintained that it was indispensable to maintain the +unities of time, place and action, and it is explicitly stated that the +doctrine was new to the cardinal and to the poets who were in his pay. +French classical drama thus owes the riveting of its fetters to +Chapelain. Rewarded with a pension of a thousand crowns, and from the +first an active member of the newly-constituted Academy, Chapelain drew +up the plan of the grammar and dictionary the compilation of which was +to be a principal function of the young institution, and at Richelieu's +command drew up the _Sentiments de l'Académie sur le Cid_. In 1656 he +published, in a magnificent form, the first twelve cantos of his +celebrated epic _La Pucelle_,[1] on which he had been engaged during +twenty years. Six editions of the poem were disposed of in eighteen +months. But this was the end of the poetic reputation of Chapelain, "the +legist of Parnassus". Later the slashing satire of Boileau (in this case +fairly master of his subject) did its work, and Chapelain ("_Le plus +grand poète Français qu' ait jamais été et du plus solide jugement_," as +he is called in Colbert's list) took his place among the failures of +modern art. + +Chapelain's reputation as a critic survived this catastrophe, and in +1663 he was employed by Colbert to draw up an account of contemporary +men of letters, destined to guide the king in his distribution of +pensions. In this pamphlet, as in his letters, he shows to far greater +advantage than in his unfortunate epic. His prose is incomparably better +than his verse; his criticisms are remarkable for their justice and +generosity; his erudition and kindliness of heart are everywhere +apparent; the royal attention is directed alike towards the author's +firmest friends and bitterest enemies. To him young Racine was indebted +not only for kindly and seasonable counsel, but also for that pension of +six hundred livres which was so useful to him. The catholicity of his +taste is shown by his _De la lecture des vieux romans_ (pr. 1870), in +which he praises the _chansons de geste_, forgotten by his generation. +Chapelain refused many honours, and his disinterestedness in this and +other cases makes it necessary to receive with caution the stories of +Ménage and Tallemant des Réaux, who assert that he was in his old age a +miser, and that a considerable fortune was found hoarded in his +apartments when he died on the 22nd of February 1674. + + There is a very favourable estimate of Chapelain's merits as a critic + in George Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, ii. 256-261. An + analysis of _La Pucelle_ is given in pp. 23-79 of Robert Southey's + _Joan of Arc_. See also _Les Lettres de Jean Chapelain_ (ed. P. + Tanuzey de Larroque, 1880-1882); _Lettres inédites ... à P.D. Huet_ + (1658-1673, ed. by L.G. Pellissier, 1894); Julien Duchesne, _Les + Poèmes épiques du XVIIe siècle_ (1870); the abbé A. Fabre, _Les + Ennemis de Chapelain_ (1888), _Chapelain et nos deux premières + Académies_ (1890); and A. Muehlan,_ Jean Chapelain_ (1893). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The last twelve cantos of _La Pucelle_ were edited (1882) from + the MS. with corrections and a preface in the author's autograph, in + the _Bibliothèque Nationale_, by H. Herluison. Another edition, by E. + de Molènes (2 vols.), was published in 1892. + + + + +CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH, a market town in the High Peak parliamentary +division of Derbyshire, England, 20 m. S.E. of Manchester, on the London +& North-Western and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 4626. It lies in an +upland valley of the Peak district, the hills of which rise above 1200 +ft. in its immediate vicinity. There are paper-works and ironworks, and +brewing is carried on. The foundation of the church of St Thomas of +Canterbury is attributed to the foresters of the royal forest or frith +of the Peak early in the 13th century; and from this the town took name. +After the defeat of the Scottish forces at Preston by Cromwell in 1648, +it is said that 1500 prisoners were confined in the church at +Chapel-en-le-Frith. + + + + +CHAPEL HILL, a town of Orange county, North Carolina, U.S.A., about 28 +m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1900) 1099; (1910) 1149. It is served by a +branch of the Southern railway, connecting at University, 10 m. distant, +with the Greensboro & Goldsboro division. The town is best known as the +seat of the University of North Carolina (see NORTH CAROLINA), whose +campus contains 48 acres. There are cotton and knitting mills and lumber +interests of some importance. Chapel Hill was settled late in the 18th +century, and was first incorporated in 1851. + + + + +CHAPELLE ARDENTE (Fr. "burning chapel"), the chapel or room in which the +corpse of a sovereign or other exalted personage lies in state pending +the funeral service. The name is in allusion to the many candles which +arc lighted round the catafalque. This custom is first chronicled as +occurring at the obsequies of Dagobert I. (602-638). + + + + +CHAPERON, originally a cap or hood (Fr. _chape_) worn by nobles and +knights of the Garter in full dress, and after the 16th century by +middle-aged ladies. The modern use of the word is of a married or +elderly lady (cf. "duenna") escorting or protecting a young and +unmarried girl in public places and in society. + + + + +CHAPLAIN, strictly one who conducts service in a chapel (q.v.), i.e. a +priest or minister without parochial charge who is attached for special +duties to a sovereign or his representatives (ambassadors, judges, &c.), +to bishops, to the establishments of nobles, &c., to institutions (e.g. +parliament, congress, colleges, schools, workhouses, cemeteries), or to +the army and the navy. In some cases a parish priest is also appointed +to a chaplaincy, but in so far as he is a chaplain he has no parochial +duties. Thus a bishop of the English Church appoints examining chaplains +who conduct the examination of candidates for holy orders; such +officials generally hold ordinary benefices also. The British sovereign +has 36 "Chaplains in Ordinary," who perform service at St James's in +rotation, as well as "Honorary Chaplains" and "Chaplains of the +Household." There are also royal chaplains in Scotland and Ireland. The +Scottish chaplains in ordinary are on the same basis as those in +England, but the Irish chaplains are attached to the household of the +lord-lieutenant. The Indian civil service appoints a number of clergymen +of the Church of England and the Church of Scotland. These clergymen are +known as Chaplains, and are subject to the same conditions as other +civil servants, being eligible for a retiring pension after 23 years of +service. Chaplains are also appointed under the foreign office to +embassies, legations, consulates, &c. + +Workhouse chaplains are appointed by overseers and guardians on the +direction of the Local Government Board, to which alone such chaplains +are responsible. Prison chaplains are appointed by the home secretary. + +In the British army there are two kinds of chaplains, permanent and +occasional. The former, described as Chaplains to the Forces, hold +commissions, serving throughout the empire except in India: they include +a Chaplain-General who ranks as a major-general, and four classes of +subordinate chaplains who rank respectively as colonels, +lieutenant-colonels, majors and captains. There are about 100 in all. +Special chaplains (Acting Chaplains for Temporary Service) may be +appointed by a secretary of state under the Army Chaplains Act of 1868 +to perform religious service for the army in particular districts. The +permanent chaplains may be Church of England, Roman Catholic, or +Presbyterian; Wesleyans (if they prefer not to accept commissions) may +be appointed Acting Chaplains. The Church of England chaplains report to +the chaplain-general, while other chaplains report to the War Office +direct. In the navy, chaplains are likewise appointed but do not hold +official rank. They must have a special ecclesiastical licence from the +archbishop of Canterbury. In 1900 a Chaplains' Department of the +Territorial Force was formed; there is no denominational restriction. + +In the armies and navies of all Christian countries chaplains are +officially appointed, with the single exception of France, where the +office was abolished on the separation of Church and State. In the army +of the United States of America chaplains are originally appointed by +the president, and subsequently are under the authority of the secretary +of war, who receives recommendations as regards transfer from department +commanders. By act of Congress, approved in April 1904, the +establishment of chaplains was fixed at 57 (15 with the rank of major), +12 for the artillery corps and 1 each for the cavalry and infantry +regiments. There is no distinction of sect. In the U.S. navy the +chaplains are 24 in number, of whom 13 rank as lieutenants, 7 as +commanders, 4 as captains. + +In the armies of Roman Catholic countries there are elaborate +regulations. Where the chaplains are numerous a chaplain-major is +generally appointed, but in the absence of special sanction from the +pope such officer has no spiritual jurisdiction. Moreover, chaplains +must be approved by the ordinary of the locality. In Austria there are +Roman Catholic, Greek Church, Jewish and Mahommedan chaplains. The Roman +Catholic chaplains are classed as parish priests, curates and +assistants, and are subject to an army Vicar Apostolic. In war, at an +army headquarters there are a "field-rabbi," a "military imam," an +evangelical minister, as well as the Roman Catholic hierarchy. By a +decree of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda (May 15, 1906), the +archbishop of Westminster is the ecclesiastical superior of all +commissioned Roman Catholic chaplains in the British army and navy, and +he is empowered to negotiate with the civil authorities concerning +appointments. + +In Germany, owing to the fact that there are different religions in the +different states, there is no uniform system. In Prussia there are two +_Feldprobste_ (who are directly under the war minister), one Lutheran, +one Roman Catholic. The latter is a titular bishop, and has sole +spiritual authority over soldiers. There are also army corps and +divisional chaplains of both faiths. Bavaria and Saxony, both Roman +Catholic states, have no special spiritual hierarchy; in Bavaria, the +archbishop of Munich and Freysing is _ex officio_ bishop of the army. + +The origin of the office of _capellanus_ or _cappellanus_ in the +medieval church is generally traced (see Du Cange, _Gloss, med. et +infim. Latin_.) to the appointment of persons to watch over the sacred +cloak (_cappa_ or _capella_) of St Martin of Tours, which was preserved +as a relic by the French monarchs. In time of war this cloak was carried +with the army in the field, and was kept in a tent which itself came to +be known as a _cappella_ or _capella_. It is also suggested that the +_capella_ was simply the tent or canopy which the French kings erected +over the altar in the field for the worship of the soldiers. However +this may be, the name _capellanus_ was generally applied to those who +were in charge of sacred relics: such officials were also known as +_custodes, martyrarii, cubicularii_. Thus we hear of a _custos palatinae +capellae_ who was in charge of the palace chapel relics, and guarded +them in the field; the chief of these _custodes_ was sometimes called +the _archicapellanus_. From the care of sacred relics preserved in royal +chapels, &c. (_sacella_ or _capellae_), the office of _capellanus_ +naturally extended its scope until it covered practically that of the +modern court chaplain, and was officially recognized by the Church. +These clerics became the confessors in royal and noble houses, and were +generally chosen from among bishops and other high dignitaries. The +arch-chaplain not only received jurisdiction within the royal household, +but represented the authority of the monarch in religious matters, and +also acquired more general powers. In France the arch-chaplain was +grand-almoner, and both in France and in the Holy Roman Empire was also +high chancellor of the realm. The office was abolished in France at the +Revolution in 1789, revived by Pius IX. in 1857, and again abolished on +the fall of the Second Empire. + +The Roman Catholic Church also recognizes a class of beneficed +chaplains, supported out of "pious foundations" for the specific duty of +saying, or arranging for, certain masses, or taking part in certain +services. These chaplains are classified as follows:--_Ecclesiastical_, +if the foundation has been recognized officially as a benefice; _Lay_, +if this recognition has not been obtained; _Mercenary_, if the person +who has been entrusted with the duty of performing or procuring the +desired celebration is a layman (such persons also are sometimes called +"Lay Chaplains"); _Collative_, if it is provided that a bishop shall +collate or confer the right to act upon the accepted candidate, who +otherwise could not be recognized as an ecclesiastical chaplain. There +are elaborate regulations governing the appointment and conduct of these +chaplains. + +Other classes of chaplains are:--(1) _Parochial_ or _Auxiliary +Chaplains_, appointed either by a parish priest (under a provision +authorized by the Council of Trent) or by a bishop to take over certain +specified duties which he is unable to perform; (2) _Chaplains of +Convents_, appointed by a bishop: these must be men of mature age, +should not be regulars unless secular priests cannot be obtained, and +are not generally to be appointed for life; (3) _Pontifical Chaplains_, +some of whom (known as Private Chaplains) assist the pontiff in the +celebration of Mass; others attached directly to the pope are honorary +private chaplains who occasionally assist the private chaplains, private +clerics of the chapel, common chaplains and supernumerary chaplains. The +common chaplains were instituted by Alexander VII., and in 1907 were +definitely allowed the title "Monsignore" by Pius X. + + + + +CHAPLIN, HENRY (1841- ), English statesman, second son of the Rev. +Henry Chaplin, of Blankney, Lincolnshire, was educated at Harrow and +Christ Church, Oxford, and first entered parliament in 1868 as +Conservative member for Mid-Lincolnshire. He represented this +constituency (which under the Redistribution Act of 1885 became the +Sleaford division) till 1906, when he was defeated, but in 1907 returned +to the House of Commons as member for Wimbledon at a by-election. In +1876 he married a daughter of the 3rd duke of Sutherland, but lost his +wife in 1881. Outside the House of Commons he was a familiar figure on +the Turf, winning the Derby with Hermit in 1867; and in politics from +the first the "Squire of Blankney" took an active interest in +agricultural questions, as a popular and typical representative of the +English "country gentleman" class. Having filled the office of +chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in Lord Salisbury's short ministry +of 1885-1886, he became president of the new Board of Agriculture in +1889, with a seat in the cabinet, and retained this post till 1892. In +the Conservative cabinet of 1895-1900 he was president of the Local +Government Board, and was responsible for the Agricultural Rates Act of +1896; but he was not included in the ministry after its reconstruction +in 1900. Mr Chaplin had always been an advocate of protectionism, being +in this respect the most prominent inheritor of the views of Lord George +Bentinck; and when in 1903 the Tariff Reform movement began under Mr +Chamberlain's leadership, he gave it his enthusiastic support, becoming +a member of the Tariff Commission and one of the most strenuous +advocates in the country of the new doctrines in opposition to free +trade. + + + + +CHAPMAN, GEORGE (? 1559-1634), English poet and dramatist, was born near +Hitchin. The inscription on the portrait which forms the frontispiece of +_The Whole Works of Homer_ states that he was then (1616) fifty-seven +years of age. Anthony à Wood (_Athen. Oxon._ ii. 575) says that about +1574 he was sent to the university, "but whether first to this of Oxon, +or that of Cambridge, is to me unknown; sure I am that he spent some +time in Oxon, where he was observed to be most excellent in the Latin +and Greek tongues, but not in logic or philosophy." Chapman's first +extant play, _The Blind Beggar of Alexandria_, was produced in 1596, and +two years later Francis Meres mentions him in _Palladis Tamia_ among the +"best for tragedie" and the "best for comedie." Of his life between +leaving the university and settling in London there is no account. It +has been suggested, from the detailed knowledge displayed in _The Shadow +of Night_ of an incident in Sir Francis Vere's campaign, that he saw +service in the Netherlands. There are frequent entries with regard to +Chapman in Henslowe's diary for the years 1598-1599, but his dramatic +activity slackened during the following years, when his attention was +chiefly occupied by his _Homer_. In 1604 he was imprisoned with John +Marston for his share in _Eastward Ho_, in which offence was given to +the Scottish party at court. Ben Jonson voluntarily joined the two, who +were soon released. Chapman seems to have enjoyed favour at court, where +he had a patron in Prince Henry, but in 1605 Jonson and he were for a +short time in prison again for "a play." Beaumont, the French ambassador +in London, in a despatch of the 5th of April 1608, writes that he had +obtained the prohibition of a performance of _Biron_ in which the queen +of France was represented as giving Mademoiselle de Verneuil a box on +the ears. He adds that three of the actors were imprisoned, but that the +chief culprit, the author, had escaped (Raumer, _Briefe aus Paris_, +1831, ii. 276). Among Chapman's patrons was Robert Carr, earl of +Somerset, to whom he remained faithful after his disgrace. Chapman +enjoyed the friendship and admiration of his great contemporaries. John +Webster in the preface to _The White Devil_ praised "his full and +heightened style," and Ben Jonson told Drummond of Hawthornden that +Fletcher and Chapman "were loved of him." These friendly relations +appear to have been interrupted later, for there is extant in the +Ashmole MSS. an "Invective written by Mr George Chapman against Mr Ben +Jonson." Chapman died in the parish of St Giles in the Fields, and was +buried on the 12th of May 1634 in the churchyard. A monument to his +memory was erected by Inigo Jones. (M. Br.) + +Chapman, his first biographer is careful to let us know, "was a person +of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate, qualities rarely +meeting in a poet"; he had also certain other merits at least as +necessary to the exercise of that profession. He had a singular force +and solidity of thought, an admirable ardour of ambitious devotion to +the service of poetry, a deep and burning sense at once of the duty +implied and of the dignity inherent in his office; a vigour, opulence, +and loftiness of phrase, remarkable even in that age of spiritual +strength, wealth and exaltation of thought and style; a robust +eloquence, touched not unfrequently with flashes of fancy, and kindled +at times into heat of imagination. The main fault of his style is one +more commonly found in the prose than in the verse of his time,--a +quaint and florid obscurity, rigid with elaborate rhetoric and tortuous +with labyrinthine illustration; not dark only to the rapid reader +through closeness and subtlety of thought, like Donne, whose miscalled +obscurity is so often "all glorious within," but thick and slab as a +witch's gruel with forced and barbarous eccentricities of articulation. +As his language in the higher forms of comedy is always pure and clear, +and sometimes exquisite in the simplicity of its earnest and natural +grace, the stiffness and density of his more ambitious style may perhaps +be attributed to some pernicious theory or conceit of the dignity proper +to a moral and philosophic poet. Nevertheless, many of the gnomic +passages in his tragedies and allegoric poems are of singular weight and +beauty; the best of these, indeed, would not discredit the fame of the +very greatest poets for sublimity of equal thought and expression: +witness the lines chosen by Shelley as the motto for a poem, and fit to +have been chosen as the motto for his life. + +The romantic and sometimes barbaric grandeur of Chapman's _Homer_ +remains attested by the praise of Keats, of Coleridge and of Lamb; it is +written at a pitch of strenuous and laborious exaltation, which never +flags or breaks down, but never flies with the ease and smoothness of an +eagle native to Homeric air. From his occasional poems an expert and +careful hand might easily gather a noble anthology of excerpts, chiefly +gnomic or meditative, allegoric or descriptive. The most notable +examples of his tragic work are comprised in the series of plays taken, +and adapted sometimes with singular licence, from the records of such +part of French history as lies between the reign of Francis I. and the +reign of Henry IV., ranging in date of subject from the trial and death +of Admiral Chabot to the treason and execution of Marshal Biron. The two +plays bearing as epigraph the name of that famous soldier and +conspirator are a storehouse of lofty thought and splendid verse, with +scarcely a flash or sparkle of dramatic action. The one play of +Chapman's whose popularity on the stage survived the Restoration is +_Bussy d'Ambois_ (d'Amboise),--a tragedy not lacking in violence of +action or emotion, and abounding even more in sweet and sublime +interludes than in crabbed and bombastic passages. His rarest jewels of +thought and verse detachable from the context lie embedded in the +tragedy of _Caesar and Pompey_, whence the finest of them were first +extracted by the unerring and unequalled critical genius of Charles +Lamb. In most of his tragedies the lofty and labouring spirit of Chapman +may be said rather to shine fitfully through parts than steadily to +pervade the whole; they show nobly altogether as they stand, but even +better by help of excerpts and selections. But the excellence of his +best comedies can only be appreciated by a student who reads them fairly +and fearlessly through, and, having made some small deductions on the +score of occasional pedantry and occasional indecency, finds in _All +Fools_, _Monsieur d'Olive_, _The Gentleman Usher_, and _The Widow's +Tears_ a wealth and vigour of humorous invention, a tender and earnest +grace of romantic poetry, which may atone alike for these passing +blemishes and for the lack of such clear-cut perfection of character and +such dramatic progression of interest as we find only in the yet higher +poets of the English heroic age. + +So much it may suffice to say of Chapman as an original poet, one who +held of no man and acknowledged no master, but from the birth of Marlowe +well-nigh to the death of Jonson held on his own hard and haughty way of +austere and sublime ambition, not without kindly and graceful +inclination of his high grey head to salute such younger and still +nobler compeers as Jonson and Fletcher. With Shakespeare we should never +have guessed that he had come at all in contact, had not the keen +intelligence of William Minto divined or rather discerned him to be the +rival poet referred to in Shakespeare's sonnets with a grave note of +passionate satire, hitherto as enigmatic as almost all questions +connected with those divine and dangerous poems. This conjecture +Professor Minto fortified by such apt collocation and confrontation of +passages that we may now reasonably accept it as an ascertained and +memorable fact. + +The objections which a just and adequate judgment may bring against +Chapman's master-work, his translation of Homer, may be summed up in +three epithets: it is romantic, laborious, Elizabethan. The qualities +implied by these epithets are the reverse of those which should +distinguish a translator of Homer; but setting this apart, and +considering the poems as in the main original works, the superstructure +of a romantic poet on the submerged foundations of Greek verse, no +praise can be too warm or high for the power, the freshness, the +indefatigable strength and inextinguishable fire which animate this +exalted work, and secure for all time that shall take cognizance of +English poetry an honoured place in its highest annals for the memory of +Chapman. (A. C. S.) + + Chapman's works include:--[Greek: Skia nyktos]: _The Shadow of Night: + Containing two Poeticall Hymnes_ ... (1594), the second of which deals + with Sir Francis Vere's campaign in the Netherlands; _Ovid's Banquet + of Sence. A Coronet for his Mistresse Philosophie; and His Amorous + Zodiacke with a translation of a Latine coppie, written by a Fryer, + Anno Dom. 1400_ (1595, 2nd ed. 1639), a collection of poems frequently + quoted from in _England's Parnassus_ (1600); "De Guiana, carmen + epicum," a poem prefixed to Lawrence Keymis's _A Relation of the + second voyage to Guiana_ (1596); _Hero and Leander. Begun by + Christopher Marloe; and finished by George Chapman_ (1598); _The + Blinde begger of Alexandria, most pleasantly discoursing his variable + humours_ ... (acted 1596, printed 1598), a popular comedy; _A Pleasant + Comedy entituled An Humerous dayes Myrth_ (identified by Mr Fleay with + the "Comodey of Umero" noted by Henslowe on the 11th of May 1597; + printed 1599); _Al Fooles, A Comedy_ (paid for by Henslowe on the 2nd + of July 1599, its original name being "The World runs on wheels"; + printed 1605); _The Gentleman Usher_ (c. 1601, pr. 1606), a comedy; + _Monsieur d'Olive_ (1604, pr. 1606), one of his most amusing and + successful comedies; _Eastward Hoe_ (1605), written in conjunction + with Ben Jonson and John Marston, an excellent comedy of city life; + _Bussy d'Ambois,[1] A Tragedie_ (1604, pr. 1607, 1608, 1616, 1641, + &c.), the scene of which is laid in the court of Henry III.; _The + Revenge of Bussy d'Ambois. A Tragedie_ (pr. 1613, but probably written + much earlier); _The Conspiracie, And Tragedie of Charles Duke of + Byron. Marshall of France, ... in two plays_ (1607 and 1608; pr. 1608 + and 1625); _May-Day, A witty Comedie_ (pr. 1611; but probably acted as + early as 1601); _The widdowes Teares. A Comedie_ (pr. 1612; produced + perhaps as early as 1605); _Caesar and Pompey: A Roman Tragedy, + declaring their warres. Out of whose events is evicted this + Proposition. Only a just man is a freeman_ (pr. 1631), written, says + Chapman in the dedication, "long since," but never staged. + + _The Tragedy of Alphonsus Emperour of Germany_ (see the edition by Dr + Karl Elye; Leipzig, 1867) and _Revenge for Honour_ (1654)[2] both bear + Chapman's name on the title-page, but his authorship has been + disputed. In _The Ball_ (lic. 1632; pr. 1639), a comedy, and _The + Tragedie of Chabot Admirall of France_ (lic. 1635; pr. 1639) he + collaborated with James Shirley. _The memorable Masque of the two + Honourable Houses or Inns of Court; the Middle Temple and Lyncoln's + Inne_, was performed at court in 1613 in honour of the marriage of the + Princess Elizabeth. + + _The Whole Works of Homer: Prince of Poets. In his Iliads and + Odysseys_ ... appeared in 1616, and about 1624 he added _The Crowne + of all Homers works Batrachomyomachia or the Battaile of Frogs and + Mise. His Hymns and Epigrams._ But the whole works had been already + published by instalments. _Seaven Bookes of the Iliades of Homer_ had + appeared in 1598, _Achilles Shield_ in the same year, books i.-xii. + about 1609; in 1611 _The Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets_ ...; and + in 1614 _Twenty-four Bookes of Homer's Odisses_ were entered at + Stationers' Hall. In 1609 he addressed to Prince Henry _Enthymiae + Raptus; or the Teares of Peace_, and on the death of his patron he + contributed _An Epicede, or Funerall Song_ (1612). A paraphrase of + _Petrarchs Seven Penitentiall Psalms_ (1612), a poem in honour of the + marriage of Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, and Frances, the divorced + countess of Essex, indiscreetly entitled _Andromeda Liberata_ ... + (1614), a translation of _The Georgicks of Hesiod_ (1618), _Pro Vere + Autumni Lachrymae_ (1622), in honour of Sir Horatio Vere, _A + justification of a Strange Action of Nero ... also ... the fifth + Satyre of Juvenall_ (1629), and _Eugenia_ ... (1614), an elegy on Sir + William Russell, complete the list of his separately published works. + + Chapman's _Homer_ was edited in 1857 by the Rev. Richard Hooper; and a + reprint of his dramatic works appeared in 1873. The standard edition + of Chapman is the _Works_, edited by R.H. Shepherd (1874-1875), the + third volume of which contains an "Essay on the Poetical and Dramatic + works of George Chapman," by Mr Swinburne, printed separately in 1875. + The selection of his plays (1895) for the Mermaid Series is edited by + Mr W.L. Phelps. For the sources of the plays see Emil Koeppel, + "Anellen Studien zu den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip Massinger's + und John Ford's" in _Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach und + Kulturgeschichte_ (vol. 82, Strassburg, 1897). The suggestion of W. + Minto (see _Characteristics of the English Poets_, 1885) that Chapman + was the "rival poet" of Shakespeare's sonnets is amplified in Mr A. + Acheson's _Shakespeare and the Rival Poet_ (1903). Much satire in + Chapman's introduction is there applied to Shakespeare. For other + criticisms of his translation of Homer see Matthew Arnold, _Lectures + on translating Homer_ (1861), and Dr A. Lohff, _George Chapman's + Ilias-Übersetzung_ (Berlin, 1903). (M. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Chapman's source in this piece remains undetermined. It cannot be + the _Historia sui temporis_ of Jacques de Thorn, for the 4th volume + of his work, which relates the story, was not published until 1609 + (see Koeppel, p. 14). + + [2] This play appears to have been issued in 1653 with the title _The + Parracide, or Revenge for Honour_ as the work of Henry Glathorne. + + + + +CHAPMAN (from O. Eng. _céap_, and Mid. Eng. _cheap_, to barter, cf. +"Cheapside" in London, and Ger. _Kaufmann_), one who buys or sells, a +trader or dealer, especially an itinerant pedlar. The word "chap," now a +slang term, meant originally a customer. + + + + +CHAPONE, HESTER (1727-1801), English essayist, daughter of Thomas Mulso, +a country gentleman, was born at Twywell, Northamptonshire, on the 27th +of October 1727. She was a precocious child, and at the age of nine +wrote a romance entitled _The Loves of Amoret and Melissa_. Hecky Mulso, +as she was familiarly called, developed a beautiful voice, which earned +her the name of "the linnet." While on a visit to Canterbury she made +the acquaintance of the learned Mrs Elizabeth Carter, and soon became +one of the admirers of the novelist Samuel Richardson. She was one of +the little court of women who gathered at North End, Fulham; and in Miss +Susannah Highmore's sketch of the novelist reading _Sir Charles +Grandison_ to his friends Miss Mulso is the central figure. She +corresponded with Richardson on "filial obedience" in letters as long as +his own, signing herself his "ever obliged and affectionate child." She +admired, however, with discrimination, and in the words of her +biographer (_Posthumous Works_, 1807, p. 9) "her letters show with what +dignity, tempered with proper humility, she could maintain her own +well-grounded opinion." In 1760 Miss Mulso, with her father's reluctant +consent, married the attorney, John Chapone, who had been befriended by +Richardson. Her husband died within a year of her marriage. Mrs Chapone +remained in London visiting various friends. She had already made small +contributions to various periodicals when she published, in 1772, her +best known work, _Letters on the Improvement of the Mind._ This book +brought her numerous requests from distinguished persons to undertake +the education of their children. She died on the 25th of December 1801. + + See _The Posthumous Works of Mrs Chapone, containing her + correspondence with Mr Richardson; a series of letters to Mrs + Elizabeth Carter ... together with an account of her life and + character drawn up by her own family_ (1807). + + + + +CHAPPE, CLAUDE (1763-1805), French engineer, was born at Brûlon (Sarthe) +in 1763. He was the inventor of an optical telegraph which was widely +used in France until it was superseded by the electric telegraph. His +device consisted of an upright post, on the top of which was fastened a +transverse bar, while at the ends of the latter two smaller arms moved +on pivots. The position of these bars represented words or letters; and +by means of machines placed at intervals such that each was distinctly +visible from the next, messages could be conveyed through 50 leagues in +a quarter of an hour. The machine was adopted by the Legislative +Assembly in 1792, and in the following year Chappe was appointed +_ingénieur-télégraphe_; but the originality of his invention was so much +questioned that he was seized with melancholia and (it is said) +committed suicide at Paris in 1805. + +His elder brother, Ignace Urbain Jean Chappe (1760-1829), took part in +the invention of the telegraph, and with a younger brother, Pierre +François, from 1805 to 1823 was administrator of the telegraphs, a post +which was also held by two other brothers, René and Abraham, from 1823 +to 1830. Ignace was the author of a _Histoire de la télégraphie_ (1824). +An uncle, Jean Chappe d'Auteroche (1728-1769), was an astronomer who +observed two transits of Venus, one in Siberia in 1761, and the other in +1769 in California, where he died. + + + + +CHAPPELL, WILLIAM (1809-1888), English writer on music, a member of the +London musical firm of Chappell & Co., was born on the 20th of November +1809, eldest son of Samuel Chappell (d. 1834), who founded the business. +William Chappell is particularly noteworthy for his starting the Musical +Antiquarian Society in 1840, and his publication of the standard work +_Popular Music of the Olden Time_ (1855-1859)--an expansion of a +collection of "national English airs" made by him in 1838-1840. The +modern revival of interest in English folk-songs owes much to this work, +which has since been re-edited by Professor H.E. Wooldridge (1893). W. +Chappell died on the 20th of August 1888. His brother, Thomas Patey +Chappell (d. 1902), meanwhile had largely extended the publishing +business, and had started (1859) the Monday and Saturday Popular +Concerts at St James's Hall, which were successfully managed by a +younger brother, S. Arthur Chappell, till they came to an end towards +the close of the century. + + + + +CHAPRA, or CHUPRA, a town of British India, the administrative +headquarters of Saran district in Bengal, near the left bank of the +river Gogra, just above its confluence with the Ganges; with a railway +station on the Bengal & North-Western line towards Oudh. Pop. (1901) +45,901, showing a decrease of 21% in the decade. There are a government +high school, a German Lutheran mission, and a public library endowed by +a former maharaja of Hatwa. Chapra is the centre of trade in indigo and +saltpetre, and conducts a large business by water as well as by rail. + + + + +CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE, COMTE DE CHANTE-LOUP (1756-1832), French +chemist and statesman, was born at Nogaret, Lozère, on the 4th of June +1756. The son of an apothecary, he studied chemistry at Montpellier, +obtaining his doctor's diploma in 1777, when he repaired to Paris. In +1781 the States of Languedoc founded a chair of chemistry for him at the +school of medicine in Montpellier, where he taught the doctrines of +Lavoisier. The capital he acquired by the death of a wealthy uncle he +employed in the establishment of chemical works for the manufacture of +the mineral acids, alum, white-lead, soda and other substances. His +labours in the cause of applied science were at length recognized by the +French government, which presented him with letters of nobility, and the +cordon of the order of Saint Michel. During the Revolution a publication +by Chaptal, entitled _Dialogue entre un Montagnard et un Girondin_, +caused him to be arrested; but being speedily set at liberty through the +intermission of his friends, he undertook, in 1793, the management of +the saltpetre works at Grenelle. In the following year he went to +Montpellier, where he remained till 1797, when he returned to Paris. +After the _coup d'état_ of the 18th of Brumaire (November 9, 1799) he +was made a councillor of state by the First Consul, and succeeded Lucien +Bonaparte as minister of the interior, in which capacity he established +a chemical manufactory near Paris, a school of arts, and a society of +industries; he also reorganized the hospitals, introduced the metrical +system of weights and measures, and otherwise greatly encouraged the +arts and sciences. A misunderstanding between him and Napoleon (who +conferred upon him the title of comte de Chanteloup) occasioned +Chaptal's retirement from office in 1804; but before the end of that +year he was again received into favour by the emperor, who bestowed on +him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and made him treasurer to +the conservative senate. On Napoleon's return from Elba, Chaptal was +made director-general of commerce and manufactures and a minister of +state. He was obliged after the downfall of the emperor to withdraw into +private life; and his name was removed from the list of the peers of +France until 1819. In 1816, however, he was nominated a member of the +Academy of Sciences by Louis XVIII. Chaptal was especially a popularizer +of science, attempting to apply to industry and agriculture the +discoveries of chemistry. In this way he contributed largely to the +development of modern industry. He died at Paris on the 30th of July +1832. + + His literary works exhibit both vigour and perspicuity of style; he + wrote, in addition to various articles, especially in the _Annales de + chimie, Élémens de chimie_ (3 vols., 1790; new ed., 1796-1803); + _Traité du salpètre et des goudrons_ (1796); _Tableau des principaux + sels terreux_ (1798); _Essai sur le perfectionnement des arts + chimiques en France_ (1800); _Art de faire, de gouverner, et de + perfectionner les vins_ (1 vol., 1801; new ed., 1819); _Traité + théorique et pratique sur la culture de la vigne, &c._, (2 vols., + 1801; new ed., 1811); _Essai sur le blanchiment_ (1801); _La Chimie + appliquée aux arts_ (4 vols., 1806); _Art de la teinture du coton en + rouge_ (1807); _Art du teinturier et du dégraisseur_ (1800); _De + l'industrie française_ (2 vols., 1819); _Chimie appliquée a + l'agriculture_ (2 vols., 1823; new ed., 1829). + + + + +CHAPTER (a shortened form of _chapiter_, a word still used in +architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. _chapitre_, Lat. +_capitellum_, diminutive of _caput_, head), a principal division or +section of a book, and so applied to acts of parliament, as forming +"chapters" or divisions of the legislation of a session of parliament. +The name "chapter" is given to the permanent body of the canons of a +cathedral or collegiate church, presided over, in the English Church, by +the dean, and in the Roman communion by the provost or the dean, and +also to the body of the members of a religious order. This may be a +"conventual" chapter of the monks of a particular monastery, +"provincial" of the members of the order in a province, or "general" of +the whole order. This ecclesiastical use of the word arose from the +custom of reading a chapter of Scripture, or a head (_capitulum_) of the +_regula_, to the assembled canons or monks. The transference from the +reading to the assembly itself, and to the members constituting it, was +easy, through such phrases as _convenire ad capitulum_. The title +"chapter" is similarly used of the assembled body of knights of a +military or other order. (See also CANON; CATHEDRAL; DEAN). + + + + +CHAPTER-HOUSE (Lat. _capitolium_, Ital. _capitolo_, Fr. _chapitre_, Ger. +_Kapitelhaus_), the chamber in which the chapter or heads of the +monastic bodies (see ABBEY and CATHEDRAL) assembled to transact +business. They are of various forms; some are oblong apartments, as +Canterbury, Exeter, Chester, Gloucester, &c.; some octagonal, as +Salisbury, Westminster, Wells, Lincoln, York, &c. That at Lincoln has +ten sides, and that at Worcester is circular; most are vaulted +internally and polygonal externally, and some, as Salisbury, Wells, +Lincoln, Worcester, &c., depend on a single slight vaulting shaft for +the support of the massive vaulting. They are often provided with a +vestibule, as at Westminster, Lincoln, Salisbury and are almost +exclusively English. + + + + +CHAPU, formerly an important maritime town of China, in the province of +Cheh-kiang, 50 m. N.W. of Chên-hai, situated in one of the richest and +best cultivated districts in the country. It is the port of Hang-chow, +with which it has good canal communication, and it was formerly the only +Chinese port trading with Japan. The town has a circuit of about 5 m. +exclusive of the suburbs that lie along the beach; and the Tatar quarter +is separated from the rest by a wall. It was captured and much injured +by the British force in 1842, but was abandoned immediately after the +engagement. The sea around it has now silted up, though in the middle of +the 19th century it was accessible to the light-draught ships of the +British fleet. + + + + +CHAR (_Salvelinus_), a fish of the family Salmonidae, represented in +Europe, Asia and North America. The best known and most widely +distributed species, the one represented in British and Irish lakes, is +_S. alpinus_, a graceful and delicious fish, covered with very minute +scales and usually dark olive, bluish or purplish black above, with or +without round orange or red spots, pinkish white or yellowish pink to +scarlet or claret red below. When the char go to sea, they assume a more +silvery coloration, similar to that of the salmon and sea trout; the red +spots become very indistinct and the lower parts are almost white. The +very young are also silvery on the sides and white below, and bear 11 to +15 bars, or parr-marks, on the side. This fish varies much according to +localities; and the difference in colour, together with a few points of +doubtful constancy, have given rise to the establishment of a great +number of untenable so-called species, as many as seven having been +ascribed to the British and Irish fauna, viz. _S. alpinus, nivalis, +killinensis, willoughbyi, perisii, colii_ and _grayi_, the last from +Lough Melvin, Ireland, being the most distinct. _S. alpinus_ varies much +in size according to the waters it inhabits, remaining dwarfed in some +English lakes, and growing to 2 ft. or more in other localities. In +other parts of Europe, also, various local forms have been +distinguished, such as the "omble chevalier" of the lakes of Switzerland +and Savoy (_S. umbla_), the "Säbling" of the lakes of South Germany and +Austria (_S. salvelinus_), the "kullmund" of Norway (_S. carbonarius_), +&c., while the North American _S. parkei, alipes, stagnalis, arcturus, +areolus, oquassa_ and _marstoni_ may also be regarded as varieties. +Taken in this wide sense, _S. alpinus_ has a very extensive +distribution. In central Europe, in the British islands and in the +greater part of Scandinavia it is confined to mountain lakes, but +farther to the north, in both the Old World and the New, it lives in the +sea and ascends rivers to spawn. In Lapland, Iceland, Greenland and +other parts of the arctic regions, it ranks among the commonest fishes. +The extreme northern point at which char have been obtained is 82° 34' +N. (Victoria lake and Floeberg Beach, Arctic America). It reaches an +altitude of 2600 ft. in the Alps and 6000 ft. in the Carpathians. + +The American brook char, _S. fontinalis_, is a close ally of _S. +alpinus_, differing from it in having fewer and shorter gill-rakers, a +rather stouter body, the back more or less barred or marbled with dark +olive or black, and the dorsal and caudal fins mottled or barred with +black. Many local varieties of colour have been distinguished. Sea-run +individuals are often nearly plain bright silvery. It is a small +species, growing to about 18 in. abundant in all clear, cold streams of +North America, east of the Mississippi, northward to Labrador. The fish +has been introduced into other parts of the United States, and also into +Europe. + +Another member of the same section of Salmonidae is the Great Lake char +of North America, _S. namaycush_, one of the largest salmonids, said to +attain a weight of 100 lb. The body is very elongate and covered with +extremely small scales. The colour varies from grey to black, with +numerous round pale spots, which may be tinged with reddish; the dorsal +and caudal fins reticulate with darker. This fish inhabits the Great +Lakes regions and neighbouring parts of North America. + + + + +CHAR-À-BANC (Fr. for "benched carriage"), a large form of wagonette-like +vehicle for passengers, but with benched seats arranged in rows, +looking forward, commonly used for large parties, whether as public +conveyances or for excursions. + + + + +CHARACTER (Gr. [Greek: charaktêr] from [Greek: charattein], to scratch), +a distinctive mark (spelt "caracter" up to the 16th century, with other +variants); so applied to symbols of notation or letters of the alphabet; +more figuratively, the distinguishing traits of anything, and +particularly the moral and mental qualities of an individual human +being, the sum of those qualities which distinguish him as a +personality. From the latter usage "a character" becomes almost +identical with "reputation"; and in the sense of "giving a servant a +character," the word involves a written testimonial. For the law +relating to servants' characters see MASTER AND SERVANT. A further +development is the use of "character" to mean an "odd or eccentric +person"; or of a "character actor," to mean an actor who plays a +highly-coloured strange part. The word is also used as the name of a +form of literature, consisting of short descriptions of types of +character. Well-known examples of such "characters" are those of +Theophrastus and La Bruyère, and in English, of Joseph Hall (1574-1656) +and Sir Thomas Overbury. + + + + +CHARADE, a kind of riddle, probably invented in France during the 18th +century, in which a word of two or more syllables is divined by guessing +and combining into one word (the answer) the different syllables, each +of which is described, as an independent word, by the giver of the +charade. Charades may be either in prose or verse. Of poetic charades +those by W. Mackworth Praed are well known and excellent examples, while +the following specimens in prose may suffice as illustrations. "My +_first_, with the most rooted antipathy to a Frenchman, prides himself, +whenever they meet, upon sticking close to his jacket; my _second_ has +many virtues, nor is its least that it gives its name to my first; my +_whole_ may I never catch!" "My _first_ is company; my _second_ shuns +company; my _third_ collects company; and my _whole_ amuses company." +The solutions are _Tar-tar_ and _Co-nun-drum_. The most popular form of +this amusement is the acted charade, in which the meaning of the +different syllables is acted out on the stage, the audience being left +to guess each syllable and thus, combining the meaning of all the +syllables, the whole word. A brilliant example of the acted charade is +described in Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_. + + + + +CHARCOAL, the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by +removing the volatile constituents of animal and vegetable substances; +wood gives origin to wood-charcoal; sugar to sugar-charcoal; bone to +bone-charcoal (which, however, mainly consists of calcium phosphate); +while coal gives "coke" and "gas-carbon." The first part of the word +charcoal is of obscure origin. The independent use of "char," meaning to +scorch, to reduce to carbon, is comparatively recent, and must have been +taken from "charcoal," which is quite early. The _New English +Dictionary_ gives as the earliest instance of "char" a quotation dated +1679. Similarly the word "chark" or "chak," meaning the same as "char," +is also late, and is probably due to a wrong division of the word +"charcoal," or, as it was often spelled in the 16th and 17th centuries, +"charkole" and "charke-coal." No suggestions for an origin of "char" are +satisfactory. It may be a use of the word "chare," which appears in +"char-woman," the American "chore"; in all these words it means "turn," +a turn of work, a job, and "charcoal" would have to mean "turned coal," +i.e. wood changed or turned to coal, a somewhat forced derivation, for +which there is no authority. Another suggestion is that it is connected +with "chirk" or "chark," an old word meaning "to make a grating noise." + +_Wood-charcoal._--In districts where there is an abundance of wood, as +in the forests of France, Austria and Sweden, the operation of +charcoal-burning is of the crudest description. The method, which dates +back to a very remote period, generally consists in piling billets of +wood on their ends so as to form a conical pile, openings being left at +the bottom to admit air, with a central shaft to serve as a flue. The +whole is covered with turf of moistened soil. The firing is begun at the +bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outwards and upwards. The +success of the operation--both as to the intrinsic value of the product +and its amount--depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under average +conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts by volume, or 25 +parts by weight, of charcoal. The modern process of carbonizing +wood--either in small pieces or as sawdust--in cast iron retorts is +extensively practised where wood is scarce, and also by reason of the +recovery of valuable by-products (wood spirit, pyroligneous acid, +wood-tar), which the process permits. The question of the temperature of +the carbonization is important; according to J. Percy, wood becomes +brown at 220° C., a deep brown-black after some time at 280°, and an +easily powdered mass at 310°. Charcoal made at 300° is brown, soft and +friable, and readily inflames at 380°; made at higher temperatures it is +hard and brittle, and does not fire until heated to about 700°. One of +the most important applications of wood-charcoal is as a constituent of +gunpowder (q.v.). It is also used in metallurgical operations as a +reducing agent, but its application has been diminished by the +introduction of coke, anthracite smalls, &c. A limited quantity is made +up into the form of drawing crayons; but the greatest amount is used as +a fuel. + +The porosity of wood-charcoal explains why it floats on the surface of +water, although it is actually denser, its specific gravity being about +1.5. The porosity also explains the property of absorbing gases and +vapours; at ordinary temperatures ammonia and cyanogen are most readily +taken up; and Sir James Dewar has utilized this property for the +preparation of high vacua at low temperatures. This character is +commercially applied in the use of wood-charcoal as a disinfectant. The +fetid gases produced by the putrefaction and waste of organic matter +enter into the pores of the charcoal, and there meet with the oxygen +previously absorbed from the atmosphere; oxidation ensues, and the +noxious effluvia are decomposed. Generally, however, the action is a +purely mechanical one, the gases being only absorbed. Its +pharmacological action depends on the same property; it absorbs the +gases of the stomach and intestines (hence its use in cases of +flatulence), and also liquids and solids. Wood-charcoal has also the +power of removing colouring matters from solutions, but this property is +possessed in a much higher degree by animal-charcoal. + +_Animal-charcoal_ or _bone black_ is the carbonaceous residue obtained +by the dry distillation of bones; it contains only about 10% of carbon, +the remainder being calcium and magnesium phosphates (80%) and other +inorganic material originally present in the bones. It is generally +manufactured from the residues obtained in the glue (q.v.) and gelatin +(q.v.) industries. Its decolorizing power was applied in 1812 by Derosne +to the clarification of the syrups obtained in sugar-refining; but its +use in this direction has now greatly diminished, owing to the +introduction of more active and easily managed reagents. It is still +used to some extent in laboratory practice. The decolorizing power is +not permanent, becoming lost after using for some time; it may be +revived, however, by washing and reheating. + +_Lampblack_ or _soot_ is the familiar product of the incomplete +combustion of oils, pitch, resins, tallow, &c. It is generally prepared +by burning pitch residues (see COAL-TAR) and condensing the product. +Thus obtained it is always oily, and, before using as a pigment, it must +be purified by ignition in closed crucibles (see CARBON). + + + + +CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN (1825-1893), French physician, was born in Paris on +the 29th of November 1825. In 1853 he graduated as M.D. of Paris +University, and three years later was appointed physician of the Central +Hospital Bureau. In 1860 he became professor of pathological anatomy in +the medical faculty of Paris, and in 1862 began that famous connexion +with the Salpêtrière which lasted to the end of his life. He was elected +to the Academy of Medicine in 1873, and ten years afterwards became a +member of the Institute. His death occurred suddenly on the 16th of +August 1893 at Morvan, where he had gone for a holiday. Charcot, who was +a good linguist and well acquainted with the literature of his own as +well as of other countries, excelled as a clinical observer and a +pathologist. His work at the Salpêtrière exerted a great influence on +the development of the science of neurology, and his classical _Leçons +sur les maladies du système nerveux_, the first series of which was +published in 1873, represents an enormous advance in the knowledge and +discrimination of nervous diseases. He also devoted much attention to +the study of obscure morbid conditions like hysteria, especially in +relation to hypnotism (q.v.); indeed, it is in connexion with his +investigation into the phenomena and results of the latter that his name +is popularly known. In addition to his labours on neurological and even +physiological problems he made many contributions to other branches of +medicine, his published works dealing, among other topics, with liver +and kidney diseases, gout and pulmonary phthisis. As a teacher he was +remarkably successful, and always commanded an enthusiastic band of +followers. + + + + +CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT (1847-1897), British soldier, was born at +Boxhill, near Plymouth, on the 21st of December 1847, and in 1868 +entered the Royal Engineers. In 1878 Lieutenant Chard was ordered to +South Africa to take part in the Zulu War, and was stationed at the +small post of Rorke's Drift to protect the bridges across the Buffalo +river, and some sick men and stores. Here, with Lieutenant Gonville +Bromhead (1856-1891) and eighty men of the 2nd 24th Foot, he heard, on +the 22nd of January 1879, of the disaster of Isandhlwana from some +fugitives who had escaped the slaughter. Believing that the victorious +Zulus would attempt to cross into Natal, they prepared, hastily, to hold +the Drift until help should come. They barricaded and loopholed the old +church and hospital, and improvised defences from wagons, mealie sacks +and bags of Indian corn. Early in the afternoon they were attacked by +more than 3000 Zulus, who, after hours of desperate hand-to-hand +fighting, carried the outer defences, an inner low wall of biscuit +boxes, and the hospital, room by room. The garrison then retired to the +stone kraal, and repulsed attack after attack through the night. The +next morning relieving forces appeared, and the enemy retired. The +spirited defence of Rorke's Drift saved Natal from a Zulu invasion, and +Chard's and Bromhead's gallantry was rewarded with the V.C. and +immediate promotion to the rank of captain and brevet-major. On Chard's +return to England he became a popular hero. From 1893-1896 he commanded +the Royal Engineers at Singapore, and was made a colonel in 1897. He +died the same year at Hatch-Beauchamp, near Taunton, on the 1st of +November. + + + + +CHARD, a market town and municipal borough in the Southern parliamentary +division of Somersetshire, England, 142½ m. W. by S. of London by the +London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4437. It stands on high +ground within 1 m. of the Devonshire border. Its cruciform parish church +of St Mary the Virgin is Perpendicular of the 15th century. A fine east +window is preserved. The manufactures include linen, lace, woollens, +brassware and ironware. Chard is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 444 acres. + +Chard (_Cerdre_, _Cherdre_, _Cherde_) was commercial in origin, being a +trade centre near the Roman road to the west. There are two Roman villas +in the parish. There was a British camp at Neroche in the neighbourhood. +The bishop of Bath held Chard in 1086, and his successor granted in 1234 +the first charter which made Chard a free borough, each burgage paying a +rent of 12d. Trade in hides was forbidden to non-burgesses. This charter +was confirmed in 1253, 1280 and 1285. Chard is said to have been +incorporated by Elizabeth, as the corporation seal dates from 1570, but +no Elizabethan charter can be found. It was incorporated by grant of +Charles I. in 1642, and Charles II. gave a charter in 1683. Chard was a +mesne borough, the first overlord being Bishop Joceline, whose +successors held it (with a brief interval from 1545 to 1552) until 1801, +when it was sold to Earl Poulett. Parliamentary representation began in +1312, and was lost in 1328. A market on Monday and fair on the 25th of +July were granted in 1253, and confirmed in 1642 and 1683, when two more +fair days were added (November 2 and May 3), the market being changed to +Tuesday. The market day is now Monday, fairs being held on the first +Wednesday in May, August and November, for corn and cattle only, their +medieval importance as centres of the cloth trade having departed. + + + + +CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON (1699-1779), French _genre_ painter, was born in +Paris, and studied under Pierre Jacques Cazes (1676-1754), the +historical painter, and Noël Nicolas Coypel. He became famous for his +still-life pictures and domestic interiors, which are well represented +at the Louvre, and for figure-painting, as in his _Le Bénédicité_ +(1740). + + + + +CHARDIN, SIR JOHN (1643-1713), French traveller, was born at Paris in +1643. His father, a wealthy jeweller, gave him an excellent education, +and trained him in his own art; but instead of settling down in the +ordinary routine of the craft, he set out in company with a Lyons +merchant named Raisin in 1665 for Persia and India, partly on business +and partly to gratify his own inclination. After a highly successful +journey, during which he had received the patronage of Shah Abbas II. of +Persia, he returned to France in 1670, and there published in the +following year _Récit du Couronnement du roi de Perse Soliman III_. +Finding, however, that his Protestant profession cut him off from all +hope of honours or advancement in his native country, he set out again +for Persia in August 1671. This second journey was much more adventurous +than the first, as instead of going directly to his destination, he +passed by Smyrna, Constantinople, the Crimea, Caucasia, Mingrelia and +Georgia, and did not reach Ispahan till June 1673. After four years +spent in researches throughout Persia, he again visited India, and +returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope in 1677. The persecution of +Protestants in France led him, in 1681, to settle in London, where he +was appointed jeweller to the court, and received from Charles II. the +honour of knighthood. In 1683 he was sent to Holland as representative +of the English East India Company; and in 1686 he published the first +part of his great narrative--_The Travels of Sir John Chardin into +Persia and the East Indies, &c._ (London). Sir John died in London in +1713, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his monument bears the +inscription _Nomen sibi fecit eundo_. + + It was not till 1711 that the complete account of Chardin's travels + appeared, under the title of _Journal du voyage du chevalier Chardin_, + at Amsterdam. The Persian portion is to be found in vol. ii. of + Harris's _Collection_, and extracts are reprinted by Pinkerton in vol. + ix. The best complete reprint is by Langlès (Paris, 1811). Sir John + Chardin's narrative has received the highest praise from the most + competent authorities for its fulness, comprehensiveness and fidelity; + and it furnished Montesquieu, Rousseau, Gibbon and Helvétius with most + important material. + + + + +CHARENTE, an inland department of south-western France, comprehending +the ancient province of Angoumois, and inconsiderable portions of +Saintonge, Poitou, Marche, Limousin and Périgord. It is bounded N. by +the departments of Deux-Sèvres and Vienne, E. by those of Vienne and +Dordogne, S. by Dordogne and W. by Charente-Inférieure. Area 2305 sq. m. +Pop. (1906) 351,733. The department, though it contains no high +altitudes, is for the most part of a hilly nature. The highest points, +many of which exceed 1000 ft., are found in the Confolentais, the +granite region of the extreme north-east, known also as the Terres +Froides. In the Terres Chaudes, under which name the remainder of the +department is included, the levels vary in general between 300 and 650 +ft., except in the western plains--the Pays-Bas and Champagne--where +they range from 40 to 300 ft. A large part of Charente is thickly +wooded, the principal forests lying in its northern districts. The +department, as its name indicates, belongs mainly to the basin of the +river Charente (area of basin 3860 sq. m.; length of river 225 m.), the +chief affluents of which, within its borders, are the Tardoire, the +Touvre and the Né. The Confolentais is watered by the Vienne, a +tributary of the Loire, while the arrondissement of Barbexieux in the +south-west belongs almost wholly to the basin of the Gironde. + +The climate is temperate but moist, the rainfall being highest in the +north-east. Agriculturally, Charente is prosperous. More than half its +surface is arable land, on the greater part of which cereals are grown. +The potato is an important crop. The vine is predominant in the region +of Champagne, the wine produced being chiefly distilled into the famous +brandy to which the town of Cognac gives its name. The best pasture is +found in the Confolentais, where horned cattle are largely reared. The +chief fruits are chestnuts, walnuts and cider-apples. The poultry raised +in the neighbourhood of Barbezieux is highly esteemed. Charente has +numerous stone quarries, and there are peat workings and beds of clay +which supply brick and tile-works and earthenware manufactories. Among +the other industries, paper-making, which has its chief centre at +Angoulême, is foremost. The most important metallurgical establishment +is the large foundry of naval guns at Ruelle. Flour-mills and +leather-works are numerous. There are also many minor industries +subsidiary to paper-making and brandy-distilling, and Angoulême +manufactures gunpowder and confectionery. Coal, salt and timber are +prominent imports. Exports include paper, brandy, stone and agricultural +products. The department is served chiefly by the Orlêans and Ouest-État +railways, and the Charente is navigable below Angoulême. Charente is +divided into the five arrondissements of Angoulême, Cognac, Ruffec, +Barbezieux and Confolens (29 cantons, 426 communes). It belongs to the +region of the XII. army corps, to the province of the archbishop of +Bordeaux, and to the académie (educational division) of Poitiers. Its +court of appeal is at Bordeaux. + +Angoulême (the capital), Cognac, Confolens, Jarnac and La Rochefoucauld +(q.v.) are the more noteworthy places in the department. Barbezieux and +Ruffec, capitals of arrondissements and agricultural centres, are +otherwise of little importance. The department abounds in churches of +Romanesque architecture, of which those of Bassac, St Amant-de-Boixe +(portions of which are Gothic in style), Plassac and Gensac-la-Pallue +may be mentioned. There are remains of a Gothic abbey church at La +Couronne, and Roman remains at St Cybardeaux, Brossac and Chassenon +(where there are ruins of the Gallo-Roman town of Cassinomagus). + + + + +CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE, a maritime department of south-western France, +comprehending the old provinces of Saintonge and Aunis, and a small +portion of Poitou, and including the islands of Ré, Oléron, Aix and +Madame. Area, 2791 sq.m. Pop. (1906) 453,793. It is bounded N. by +Vendée, N.E. by Deux-Sèvres, E. by Charente, S.E. by Dordogne, S.W. by +Gironde and the estuary of the Gironde, and W. by the Bay of Biscay. +Plains and low hills occupy the interior; the coast is flat and marshy, +as are the islands (Ré, Aix, Oléron) which lie opposite to it. The +department takes its name from the river Charente, which traverses it +during the last 61 m. of its course and drains the central region. Its +chief tributaries are on the right the Boutonne, on the left the Seugne. +The climate is temperate and, except along the coast, healthy. There are +several sheltered bays on the coast, and several good harbours, the +chief of which are La Rochelle, Rochefort and Tonnay-Charente, the two +latter some distance up the Charente. Royan on the north shore of the +Gironde is an important watering-place much frequented for its bathing. + +The majority of the inhabitants of Charente-Inférieure live by +agriculture. The chief products of the arable land are wheat, oats, +maize, barley and the potato. Horse and cattle-raising is carried on and +dairying is prosperous. A considerable quantity of wine, most of which +is distilled into brandy, is produced. The department has a few +peat-workings, and produces freestone, lime and cement; the salt-marshes +of the coast are important sources of mineral wealth. Glass, pottery, +bricks and earthenware are prominent industrial products. Ship-building, +brandy-distilling, iron-founding and machine construction are also +carried on. Oysters and mussels are bred in the neighbourhood of La +Rochelle and Marennes, and there are numerous fishing ports along the +coast. + +The railways traversing the department belong to the Ouest-État system, +except one section of the Paris-Bordeaux line belonging to the Orléans +Company. The facilities of the department for internal communication are +greatly increased by the number of navigable streams which water it. The +Charente, the Sèvre Niortaise, the Boutonne, the Seudre and the Gironde +furnish 142 m. of navigable waterway, to which must be added the 56 m. +covered by the canals of the coast. There are 6 arrondissements (40 +cantons, 481 communes), cognominal with the towns of La Rochelle, +Rochefort, Marennes, Saintes, Jonzac and St Jean d'Angély--La Rochelle +being the chief town of the department. The department forms the diocese +of La Rochelle, and is attached to the 18th military region, and in +educational matters to the académie of Poitiers. Its court of appeal is +at Poitiers. + +La Rochelle, St Jean d'Angély, Rochefort and Saintes (q.v.) are the +principal towns. Surgères and Aulnay possess fine specimens of the +numerous Romanesque churches. Pons has a graceful château of the 15th +and 16th centuries, beside which there rises a fine keep of the 12th +century. + + + + +CHARENTON-LE-PONT, a town of northern France in the department of Seine, +situated on the right bank of the Marne, at its confluence with the +Seine, 1 m. S.E. of the fortifications of Paris, of which it is a +suburb. Pop. (1906) 18,034. It derives the distinctive part of its name +from the stone bridge of ten arches which crosses the Marne and unites +the town with Alfortville, well known for its veterinary school founded +in 1766. It has always been regarded as a point of great importance for +the defence of the capital, and has frequently been the scene of +sanguinary conflicts. The fort of Charenton on the left bank of the +Marne is one of the older forts of the Paris defence. In the 16th and +17th centuries Charenton was the scene of the ecclesiastical councils of +the Protestant party, which had its principal church in the town. At St +Maurice adjoining Charenton is the famous Hospice de Charenton, a +lunatic asylum, the foundation of which dates from 1641. Till the time +of the Revolution it was used as a general hospital, and even as a +prison, but from 1802 onwards it was specially appropriated to the +treatment of lunacy. St Maurice has two other national establishments, +one for the victims of accidents in Paris (_asile national Vacassy_), +the other for convalescent working-men (_asile national de Vincennes_). +Charenton has a port on the Canal de St Maurice, beside the Marne, and +carries on boat-building and the manufacture of tiles and porcelain. + + + + +CHARES, Athenian general, is first heard of in 366 B.C. as assisting the +Phliasians, who had been attacked by Argos and Sicyon. In 361 he visited +Corcyra, where he helped the oligarchs to expel the democrats, a policy +which led to the subsequent defection of the island from Athens. In 357, +Chares was appointed to the command in the Social War, together with +Chabrias, after whose death before Chios he was associated with +Iphicrates and Timotheus (for the naval battle in the Hellespont, see +TIMOTHEUS). Chares, having successfully thrown the blame for the defeat +on his colleagues, was left sole commander, but receiving no supplies +from Athens, took upon himself to join the revolted satrap Artabazus. A +complaint from the Persian king, who threatened to send three hundred +ships to the assistance of the confederates, led to the conclusion of +peace (355) between Athens and her revolted allies, and the recall of +Chares. In 349, he was sent to the assistance of Olynthus (q.v.) against +Philip II. of Macedon, but returned without having effected anything; in +the following year, when he reached Olynthus, he found it already in the +hands of Philip. In 340 he was appointed to the command of a force sent +to aid Byzantium against Philip, but the inhabitants, remembering his +former plunderings and extortions, refused to receive him. In 338 he was +defeated by Philip at Amphissa, and was one of the commanders at the +disastrous battle of Chaeroneia. Lysicles, one of his colleagues, was +condemned to death, while Chares does not seem to have been even +accused. After the conquest of Thebes by Alexander (335), Chares is said +to have been one of the Athenian orators and generals whose surrender +was demanded. Two years later he was living at Sigeum, for Arrian +(_Anabasis_ i. 12) states that he went from there to pay his respects to +Alexander. In 332 he entered the service of Darius and took over the +command of a Persian force in Mytilene, but capitulated on the approach +of a Macedonian fleet on condition of being allowed to retire +unmolested. He is last heard of at Taenarum, and is supposed to have +died at Sigeum. Although boastful and vain-glorious, Chares was not +lacking in personal courage, and was among the best Athenian generals +of his time. At the best, however, he was "hardly more than an ordinary +leader of mercenaries" (A. Holm). He openly boasted of his profligacy, +was exceedingly avaricious, and his bad faith became proverbial. + + Diod. Sic. xv. 75, 95, xvi. 7, 21, 22, 85-88; Plutarch, _Phocion_, 14; + Theopompus, _ap._ Athenaeum, xii. p. 532; A. Schäfer, _Demosthenes und + seine Zeit_ (1885); A. Holm, _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., 1896), + vol. iii. + + + + +CHARES, of Lindus in Rhodes, a noted sculptor, who fashioned for the +Rhodians a colossal bronze statue of the sun-god, the cost of which was +defrayed by selling the warlike engines left behind by Demetrius +Poliorcetes, when he abandoned the siege of the city in 303 B.C. (Pliny, +_Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 41). The colossus was seventy cubits (105 ft.) in +height; and its fingers were larger than many statues. The notion that +the legs were planted apart, so that ships could sail between them, is +absurd. The statue was thrown down by an earthquake after 56 years; but +the remains lay for ages on the spot. + + + + +CHARES, of Mytilene, a Greek belonging to the suite of Alexander the +Great. He was appointed court-marshal or introducer of strangers to the +king, an office borrowed from the Persian court. He wrote a history of +Alexander in ten books, dealing mainly with the private life of the +king. The fragments are chiefly preserved in Athenaeus. + + See _Scriptores Rerum Alexandri_ (pp. 114-120) in the Didot edition of + Arrian. + + + + +CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _carricare_, to load in a +_carrus_ or wagon; cf. "cargo"), a load; from this, its primary meaning, +also seen in the word "charger," a large dish, come the uses of the word +for the powder and shot to load a firearm, the accumulation of +electricity in a battery, the necessary quantity of dynamite or other +explosive in blasting, and a device borne on an escutcheon in heraldry. +"Charge" can thus mean a burden, and so a care or duty laid upon one, as +in "to be in charge" of another. With a transference to that which lays +such a duty on another, "charge" is used of the instructions given by a +judge to a jury, or by a bishop to the clergy of his diocese. In the +special sense of a pecuniary burden the word is used of the price of +goods, of an encumbrance on property, and of the expenses of running a +business. Further uses of the word are of the violent, rushing attack of +cavalry, or of a bull or elephant, or football player; hence "charger" +is a horse ridden in a charge, or more loosely a horse ridden by an +officer, whether of infantry or cavalry. + + + + +CHARGÉ D'AFFAIRES (Fr. for "in charge of business"), the title of two +classes of diplomatic agents, (1) _Chargés d'affaires_ (_ministres +chargés d'affaires_), who were placed by the _règlement_ of the congress +of Vienna in the 4th class of diplomatic agents, are heads of permanent +missions accredited to countries to which, for some reason, it is not +possible or not desirable to send agents of a higher rank. They are +distinguished from these latter by the fact that their credentials are +addressed by the minister for foreign affairs of the state which they +are to represent to the minister for foreign affairs of the receiving +state. Though still occasionally accredited, ministers of this class are +now rare. They have precedence over the other class of _chargés +d'affaires_. (2) _Chargés d'affaires per interim_, or _chargés des +affaires_, are those who are presented as such, either verbally or in +writing, by heads of missions of the first, second or third rank to the +minister for foreign affairs of the state to which they are accredited, +when they leave their post temporarily, or pending the arrival of their +successor. It is usual to appoint a counsellor or secretary of legation +_chargé d'affaires_. Some governments are accustomed to give the title +of minister to such _chargés d'affaires_, which ranks them with the +other heads of legation. Essentially _chargés d'affaires_ do not differ +from ambassadors, envoys or ministers resident. They represent their +nation, and enjoy the same privileges and immunities as other diplomatic +agents (see DIPLOMACY). + + + + +CHARGING ORDER, in English law, an order obtained from a court or judge +by a judgment creditor under the Judgment Acts 1838 and 1840, by which +the property of the judgment debtor in any stocks or funds stands +charged with the payment of the amount for which judgment shall have +been recovered, with interest. A charging order can only be obtained in +respect of an ascertained sum, but this would include a sum ordered to +be paid at a future date. An order can be made on stock standing in the +name of a trustee in trust for the judgment debtor, or on cash in court +to the credit of the judgment debtor, but not on stock held by a debtor +as a trustee. The application for a charging order is usually made by +motion to a divisional court, though it may be made to a judge. The +effect of the order is not that of a contract to pay the debt, but +merely of an instrument of charge on the shares, signed by the debtor. +An interval of six months must elapse before any proceedings are taken +to enforce the charge, but, it necessary, a stop order on the fund and +the dividends payable by the debtor can be obtained by the creditor to +protect his interest A solicitor employed to prosecute any suit, matter +or proceeding in any court, is entitled, on declaration of the court, to +a charge for his costs upon the property recovered or preserved in such +suit or proceeding. (See _Rules of the Supreme Court_, o. XLIX.) + + + + +CHARIBERT (d. 567), king of the Franks, was the son of Clotaire I. On +Clotaire's death in 561 his estates were divided between his sons, +Charibert receiving Paris as his capital, together with Rouen, Tours, +Poitiers, Limoges, Bordeaux and Toulouse. Besides his wife, Ingoberga, +he had unions with Merofleda, a wool-carder's daughter, and Theodogilda, +the daughter of a neatherd. He was one of the most dissolute of the +Merovingian kings, his early death in 567 being brought on by his +excesses. (C. Pf.) + + + + +CHARIDEMUS, of Oreus in Euboea, Greek mercenary leader. About 367 B.C. +he fought under the Athenian general Iphicrates against Amphipolis. +Being ordered by Iphicrates to take the Amphipolitan hostages to Athens, +he allowed them to return to their own people, and joined Cotys, king of +Thrace, against Athens. Soon afterwards he fell into the hands of the +Athenians and accepted the offer of Timotheus to re-enter their service. +Having been dismissed by Timotheus (362) he joined the revolted satraps +Memnon and Mentor in Asia, but soon lost their confidence, and was +obliged to seek the protection of the Athenians. Finding, however, that +he had nothing to fear from the Persians, he again joined Cotys, on +whose murder he was appointed guardian to his youthful son Cersobleptes. +In 357, on the arrival of Chares with considerable forces, the +Chersonese was restored to Athens. The supporters of Charidemus +represented this as due to his efforts, and, in spite of the opposition +of Demosthenes, he was honoured with a golden crown and the franchise of +the city. It was further resolved that his person should be inviolable. +In 351 he commanded the Athenian forces in the Chersonese against Philip +II. of Macedon, and in 349 he superseded Chares as commander in the +Olynthian War. He achieved little success, but made himself detested by +his insolence and profligacy, and was in turn replaced by Chares. After +Chaeroneia the war party would have entrusted Charidemus[1] with the +command against Philip, but the peace party secured the appointment of +Phocion. He was one of those whose surrender was demanded by Alexander +after the destruction of Thebes, but escaped with banishment. He fled to +Darius III., who received him with distinction. But, having expressed +his dissatisfaction with the preparations made by the king just before +the battle of Issus (333), he was put to death. + + See Diod. Sic. xvii. 30; Plutarch, _Phocion_, 16, 17; Arrian, + _Anabasis_, i. 10; Quintus Curtius iii. 2; Demosthenes, _Contra + Aristocratem_; A. Schäfer, _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (1885). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to some authorities, this is a second Charidemus, the + first disappearing from history after being superseded by Chares in + the Olynthian war. + + + + +CHARING CROSS, the locality about the west end of the Strand and the +north end of Whitehall, on the south-east side of Trafalgar Square, +London, England. It falls within the bounds of the city of Westminster. +Here Edward I. erected the last of the series of crosses to the memory +of his queen, Eleanor (d. 1290). It stood near the present entrance to +Charing Cross station of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway, in the +courtyard of which a fine modern cross has been erected within a few +feet of the exact site. A popular derivation of the name connected it +with Edward's "dear queen" (_chère reine_), and a village of Cherringe +or Charing grew up here later, but the true origin of the name is not +known. There is a village of Charing in Kent, and the name is connected +by some with that of a Saxon family, Cerring. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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