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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:59:24 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:59:24 -0700 |
| commit | f318cd9bb847d0fb3990e0d475f238996bd9cdd8 (patch) | |
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text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7 + "Cerargyrite" to "Charing Cross" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August 6, 2010 [EBook #33365] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME V SLICE VII<br /><br /> +Cerargyrite to Charing Cross</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CERARGYRITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CHAMBERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CERBERUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CHAMBERSBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CERDIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CHAMBÉRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CERDONIANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117a">CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE DIEUDONNÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CEREALIS, PETILLIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CHAMBORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CERES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CHAMBRE ARDENTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CERIGNOLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CHAMELEON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CERIGOTTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CHAMFER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CERINTHUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CERIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CHAMIER, FREDERICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CERNUSCHI, HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CHAMILLART, MICHEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CEROGRAPHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CHAMINADE, CÉCILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CERRO DE PASCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CERTALDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CHAMKANNI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CERUSSITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CHAMOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CHAMOMILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CHAMONIX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CHAMPAGNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CESAREVICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CESARI, GIUSEPPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CHAMPAIGN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CESENA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CHAMPARAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CESPEDES, PABLO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CHAMPERTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CHAMPION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CESS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CESSIO BONORUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CESTI, MARC’ ANTONIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CHAMPLAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CESTIUS, LUCIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CESTUI, CESTUY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CETACEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CETHEGUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CHANCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CETINA, GUTIERRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CHANCEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CETTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CHANCELLOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CETTIGNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CHANCELLORSVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CETUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CHANCE-MEDLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CETYWAYO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CHANCERY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CEUTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CHANDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CEVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CHANDAUSI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CÉVENNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CHAND BARDAI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CEYLON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CHANDELIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CHABAZITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CHANDERNAGORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CHABLIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CHABOT, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CHANDLER, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">CHANDLER, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CHABRIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">CHANDOS, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CHACMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CHACO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CHACONNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">CHANG-CHOW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CHAD, SAINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">CHANG CHUN, KIU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CHAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">CHANGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CHADDERTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">CHANGELING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CHADERTON, LAURENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">CHANGOS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">CHANGRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CHAEREMON</a> (Athenian dramatist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">CHANNEL ISLANDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CHAEREMON</a> (Stoic philosopher)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CHAERONEIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">CHANSONS DE GESTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CHAETOGNATHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">CHANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CHAETOPODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">CHANTABUN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CHAETOSOMATIDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">CHANTADA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CHAFER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">CHANTAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CHAFF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">CHANTARELLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CHAFFARINAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">CHANTAVOINE, HENRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">CHANTILLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CHAFFINCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CHAFING-DISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">CHANT ROYAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CHAGOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">CHANTRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CHAGRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">CHANUTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CHAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CHAIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">CHAOS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CHAISE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">CHAPBOOK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CHAKRATA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">CHAPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CHALCEDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">CHAPEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">CHAPELAIN, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CHALCEDONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CHALCIDICUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">CHAPEL HILL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CHALCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">CHAPELLE ARDENTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CHALCONDYLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">CHAPERON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CHALDAEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">CHAPLAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CHALDEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">CHAPLIN, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CHALICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">CHAPMAN, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CHALIER, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">CHAPMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CHALK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">CHAPONE, HESTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CHALKHILL, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">CHAPPE, CLAUDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CHALKING THE DOOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">CHAPPELL, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">CHAPRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CHALLENGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">CHAPTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">“CHALLENGER” EXPEDITION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">CHAPTER-HOUSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CHALLONER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">CHAPU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CHALMERS, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">CHAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CHALMERS, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">CHAR-À-BANC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">CHARACTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CHALMERS, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">CHARADE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CHALMERS, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">CHARCOAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CHALONER, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">CHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CHALUKYA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">CHARDIN, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CHALYBITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">CHARENTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CHAMBA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CHAMBAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">CHARENTON-LE-PONT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">CHARES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">CHARES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">CHARES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CHAMBERLAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">CHARGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">CHARGÉ D’AFFAIRES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">CHARGING ORDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CHAMBERS, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">CHARIBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CHAMBERS, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">CHARIDEMUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">CHARING CROSS</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CERARGYRITE,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of silver chloride; +an important ore of silver. The name cerargyrite is a Greek form +(from <span class="grk" title="keras">κέρας</span>, horn, and <span class="grk" title="argyros">ἄργυρος</span>, silver) of the older name +hornsilver, which was used by K. Gesner as far back as 1565. +The chloro-bromide and bromide of silver were also included +under this term until they were distinguished chemically in +1841 and 1842, and described under the names embolite and +bromargyrite (or bromyrite) respectively; the chloride then +came to be distinguished as chlorargyrite, though the name +cerargyrite is often now applied to this alone. Chloro-bromo-iodide +of silver has also been recognized as a mineral and called +iodembolite. All these are strikingly alike in appearance and +general characters, differing essentially only in chemical composition, +and it would seem better to reserve the name cerargyrite +for the whole group, using the names chlorargyrite (AgCl), +embolite (Ag(Cl, Bl)), bromargyrite (AgBr) and iodembolite +(Ag(Cl, Br, I)) for the different isomorphous members of the +group. They are cubic in crystallization, with the cube and the +octahedron as prominent forms, but crystals are small and +usually indistinct; there is no cleavage. They are soft (H = 2½) +and sectile to a high degree, being readily cut with a knife +like horn. With their resinous to adamantine lustre and their +translucency they also present somewhat the appearance of horn; +hence the name hornsilver. The colour varies somewhat with the +chemical composition, being grey or colourless in chlorargyrite, +greenish-grey in embolite and bromargyrite, and greenish-yellow +to orange-yellow in iodembolite. On exposure to light the +colour quickly darkens. The specific gravity also varies with the +composition: for the pure chloride it is 5.55, and the highest +recorded for an iodembolite is 6.3.</p> + +<p>The hornsilvers all occur under similar conditions and are often +associated together; they are found in metalliferous veins with +native silver and ores of silver, and are usually confined to the +upper oxidized parts of the lodes. They are important ores of +silver (the pure chloride contains 75.3% of silver), and have been +extensively mined at several places in Chile, also in Mexico, and +at Broken Hill in New South Wales. The chloride and chloro-bromide +have been found in several Cornish mines, but never +in very large amounts.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERBERUS,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the dog who guarded the +entrance to the lower world. He allowed all to enter, but +seized those who attempted to escape. According to Hesiod +(<i>Theog.</i> 311), he was a fifty-headed monster with a fearful bark, +the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. He was variously +represented with one, two or (usually) three heads, often with +the tail of a snake or with snakes growing from his head or twined +round his body. One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles was to +fetch Cerberus from below to the upper world, a favourite subject +of ancient vase-paintings.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERDIC<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (d. 534), founder of the West Saxon kingdom, is +described as an ealdorman who in 495 landed with his son Cynric +in Hampshire, where he was attacked at once by the Britons. +Nothing more is heard of him until 508, when he defeated the +Britons with great slaughter. Strengthened by fresh arrivals +of Saxons, he gained another victory in 519 at Certicesford, a +spot which has been identified with the modern Charford, and in +this year took the title of king. Turning westward, Cerdic appears +to have been defeated by the Britons in 520 at Badbury or Mount +Badon, in Dorset, and in 527 yet another fight with the Britons +is recorded. His last work was the conquest of the Isle of Wight, +probably in the interest of some Jutish allies. All the sovereigns +of England, except Canute, Hardicanute, the two Harolds and +William the Conqueror, are said to be descended from Cerdic.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899); +Gildas, <i>De excidio Britanniae</i>, edited by Th. Mommsen +(Berlin, 1898); Nennius, <i>Historia, Brittonum</i>, edited by Th. Mommsen +(Berlin, 1898); Bede, <i>Historiae ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum libri v.</i>, +ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896); E. Guest, <i>Origines Celticae</i> (London, +1883); J.R. Green, <i>The Making of England</i> (London, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERDONIANS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a Gnostic sect, founded by Cerdo, a Syrian, +who came to Rome about 137, but concerning whose history +little is known. They held that there are two first causes—the +perfectly good and the perfectly evil. The latter is also the +creator of the world, the god of the Jews, and the author of the +Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the son of the good deity; he +was sent into the world to oppose the evil; but his incarnation, +and therefore his sufferings, were a mere appearance. Regarding +the body as the work of the evil deity, the Cerdonians formed a +moral system of great severity, prohibiting marriage, wine and +the eating of flesh, and advocating fasting and other austerities. +Most of what the Fathers narrate of Cerdo’s tenets has probably +been transferred to him from his famous pupil Marcion, like +whom he is said to have rejected the Old Testament and the +New, except part of Luke’s Gospel and of Paul’s Epistles. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marcion</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gnosticism</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEREALIS<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Cerialis</span>), <span class="bold">PETILLIUS</span> (1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), Roman +general, a near relative of the emperor Vespasian. He is first +heard of during the reign of Nero in Britain, where he was completely +defeated (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 61) by Boadicea. Eight years later +he played an important part in the capture of Rome by the +supporters of Vespasian. In 70 he put down the revolt of +Civilis (<i>q.v.</i>). In 71, as governor of Britain, where he had as +a subordinate the famous Agricola, he inflicted severe defeats +upon the Brigantes, the most powerful of the tribes of Britain. +Tacitus says that he was a bold soldier rather than a careful +general, and preferred to stake everything on the issue of a +single engagement. He possessed natural eloquence of a kind +that readily appealed to his soldiers. His loyalty towards his +superiors was unshakable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xiv. 32; <i>Histories</i>, iii. 59, 78, iv. 71, 75, 86, v. 21; +<i>Agricola</i>, 8, 17.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERES,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> an old Italian goddess of agriculture. The name +probably means the “creator” or “created,” connected with +<i>crescere</i> and <i>creare</i>. But when Greek deities were introduced +into Rome on the advice of the Sibylline books (in 495 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +on the occasion of a severe drought), Demeter, the Greek goddess +of seed and harvest, whose worship was already common in +Sicily and Lower Italy, usurped the place of Ceres in Rome, +or rather, to Ceres were added the religious rites which the Greeks +paid to Demeter, and the mythological incidents which originated +with her. At the same time the cult of Dionysus and Persephone +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liber and Libera</a></span>) was introduced. The rites of Ceres were +Greek in language and form. Her priestesses were Italian Greeks +and her temple was Greek in its architecture and built by Greek +artists. She was worshipped almost exclusively by plebeians, +and her temple near the Circus Maximus was under the care of +the plebeian aediles, one of whose duties was the superintendence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span> +of the corn-market. Her chief festivals were the <i>ludi Cereris</i> +or <i>Cerealia</i> (more correctly, <i>Cerialia</i>), games held annually from +April 12-19 (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 392 ff.); a second festival, +in August, to celebrate the reunion of Ceres and Proserpine, +in which women, dressed in white, after a fast of nine days +offered the goddess the first-fruits of the harvest (Livy xxii. 56); +and the <i>Jejunium Cereris</i>, a fast also introduced (191 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) by +command of the Sibylline books (Livy xxvi. 37), at first held +only every four years, then annually on the 4th of October. In +later times Ceres was confused with Tellus. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demeter</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERIGNOLA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of +Foggia, 26 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Foggia. Pop. (1901) +34,195. It was rebuilt after a great earthquake in 1731, and has +a considerable agricultural trade. In 1503 the Spaniards under +Gonzalo de Cordoba defeated the French under the duc de +Nemours below the town—a victory which made the kingdom +of Naples into a Spanish province in Italy. Cerignola occupies +the site of Furfane, a station on the Via Traiana between +Canusium and Herdoniae.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERIGOTTO,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> called locally <span class="sc">Lius</span> (anc. <i>Aegilia</i> or <i>Ogylos</i>; mod. +Gr. officially <i>Antikythera</i>), an island of Greece, belonging to the +Ionian group, and situated between Cythera (Cerigo) and Crete, +about 20 m. from each. Some raised beaches testify to an +upheaval in comparatively recent times. With an area of about +10 sq. m. it supports a population of about 300, who are mainly +Cretan refugees, and in favourable seasons exports a quantity of +good wheat. It was long a favourite resort of Greek pirates. It is +famous for the discovery in 1900, close to its coast, of the wreck +of an ancient ship with a cargo of bronze and marble statues.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERINTHUS<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100), an early Christian heretic, contemporary +with the closing years of the apostle John, who, +according to the well-known story of Polycarp, reported by +Irenaeus (iii. 3) and twice recorded in Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> +iii. 28, iv. 14), made a hasty exit from a bath in Ephesus on +learning that Cerinthus was within. Other early accounts agree +in making the province of Asia the scene of his activity, and +Hippolytus (<i>Haer</i>. vii. 33) credits him with an Egyptian training. +There can be no truth in the notice given by Epiphanius (<i>Haer</i>. +xxviii. 4) that Cerinthus had in earlier days at Jerusalem led +the judaizing opposition against Paul.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of defining Cerinthus’s theological position is +due not only to the paucity of our sources but to the fact that the +witness of the two principal authorities, Irenaeus (1. 26, iii. 11) +and Hippolytus (<i>Syntagma</i>), does not agree. Further, Irenaeus +himself in one passage fails to distinguish between Cerinthian +and Valentinian doctrines. It would appear, however, that +Cerinthus laid stress on the rite of circumcision and on the +observance of the Sabbath. He taught that the world had been +made by angels, from one of whom, the god of the Jews, the +people of Israel had received their Law, which was not perfect. +The only New Testament writing which he accepted was a +mutilated Gospel of Matthew. Jesus was the offspring of Joseph +and Mary, and on him at the baptism descended the Christ,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +revealing the hitherto unknown Father, and endowing him with +miraculous power. This Christ left Jesus again before the Passion, +and the resurrection of Jesus was still in the future. Together +with these somewhat gnostic ideas, Cerinthus, if we may trust +the notices of Gaius the Roman presbyter (c. 290) and Dionysius +of Alexandria (c. 340), held a violent and crude form of chiliasm. +But the chief significance of the man is his “combination of zeal +for legal observances with bold criticism of the Law itself as a +whole and of its origin,” which reminds us of the Clementine +<i>Recognitions</i>. Cerinthus is a blend of judaizing christian and +gnostic.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Irenaeus. According to Hippolytus and Epiphanius it was +the Holy Ghost that thus descended.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERIUM<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (symbol Ce, atomic weight 140.25), a metallic +chemical element which occurs with the rare earths in the minerals +cerite, samarskite, euxenite, monazite, parisite and many +yttrium minerals. The particular earth containing cerium was +discovered by M.H. Klaproth in 1803, whilst J. Berzelius at +about the same time also examined it and came to the conclusion +that it was the oxide of a new metal, which he termed cerium. +The crude oxide of the metal is obtained from cerite, by evaporating +the mineral with strong sulphuric acid, removing excess of +acid and dissolving the residue in ice-cold water; sulphuretted +hydrogen is passed through the solution, which is then filtered, +acidified with hydrochloric acid, and precipitated as oxalate +by oxalic acid; the oxalate is then converted into oxide by +ignition. From the crude oxide so obtained (which contains +lanthanum and didymium oxides) the cerium may be separated +by conversion into its double sulphate on the addition of potassium +sulphate, the sulphates of the cerium group being insoluble +in a saturated solution of potassium sulphate. The sulphate +is subsequently boiled with water, when a basic sulphate is +precipitated. For the preparation of pure cerium compounds +see Auer v. Welsbach, <i>Monatshefte</i>, 1884, v. 508.</p> + +<p>The metal was first obtained, in an impure state, by C.G. +Mosander, by fusing its chloride with sodium. W.F. Hillebrand +and T. Norton have prepared it by the electrolysis of the melted +chloride (<i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1875, 156, p. 466); and C. Winkler (<i>Berichte</i>, +1891, xxiv. 884) obtained it by heating the dioxide with magnesium +powder. The metal has somewhat the appearance of +iron, and has a specific gravity of 6.628, which, after melting, +is increased to 6.728. Its specific heat is 0.04479 (W.F. Hillebrand). +It is permanent in dry air, but tarnishes in moist air; +it can be hammered and rolled; it melts at 623° C. It burns +readily on heating, with a brilliant flame; and it also combines +with chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus and cyanogen. +In the case of the two former elements the combination is +accompanied by combustion of the metal. With water it is +slowly converted into the dioxide. Cold concentrated nitric +and sulphuric acids are without action on the metal, but it +reacts rapidly with dilute nitric and hydrochloric acids. The +dioxide is used in incandescent gas mantles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lighting</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Three oxides of cerium are known. The sesquioxide, Ce<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is +obtained by heating the carbonate in a current of hydrogen. It is a +bluish-green powder, which on exposure rapidly combines with the +oxygen of the air. By the addition of caustic soda to cerous salts, a +white precipitate of cerous hydroxide is formed. Cerium dioxide, +CeO<span class="su">2</span>, is produced when cerium carbonate, nitrate, sulphate or +oxalate is heated in air. It is a white or pale yellow compound, +which becomes reddish on heating. Its specific gravity is 6.739, +and its specific heat 0.0877. It is not reduced to the metallic condition +on heating with carbon. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves +this oxide, forming a yellowish solution and ozone. By suspending +the precipitated cerous hydroxide in water and passing chlorine +through the solution, a hydrated form of the dioxide, 2CeO<span class="su">2</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, is +obtained, which is readily soluble in nitric and sulphuric acids, +forming ceric salts, and in hydrochloric acid, where it forms cerous +chloride, with liberation of chlorine. A higher hydrated oxide, +CeO<span class="su">3</span>·xH<span class="su">2</span>O, is formed by the interaction of cerous sulphate with +sodium acetate and hydrogen peroxide (Lecoq de Boisbaudran, +<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1885, 100, p. 605).</p> + +<p>Cerous chloride, CeCl<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained when the metal is burned in +chlorine; when a mixture of cerous oxide and carbon is heated in +chlorine; or by rapid heating of the dioxide in a stream of carbon +monoxide and chlorine. It is a colourless substance, which is easily +fusible. A hydrated chloride of composition 2CeCl<span class="su">3</span>·15H<span class="su">2</span>O is also +known, and is obtained when a solution of cerous oxide in hydrochloric +acid is evaporated over sulphuric acid. Double salts of +cerous chloride with stannic chloride, mercuric chloride, and platinic +chloride are also known. Cerous bromide, 2CeBr<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, and iodide, +CeI<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O, are known. Cerous sulphide, Ce<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, results on heating +cerium with sulphur or cerium oxide in carbon bisulphide vapour. +It is a red infusible mass of specific gravity 5.1, and is slowly +decomposed by warm water. The sulphate, Ce<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, is formed on +dissolving the carbonate in sulphuric acid, or on dissolving the basic +sulphate in sulphuric acid, in the presence of sulphur dioxide, +evaporating the solution, and drying the product obtained, at high +temperature (B. Brauner, <i>Monatshefte</i>, 1885, vi. 793). It is a white +powder of specific gravity 3.912, easily soluble in cold water. Many +hydrated forms of the sulphate are known, as are also double salts +of the sulphate with potassium, sodium, ammonium, thallium and +cadmium sulphates. Ceric fluoride, CeF<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained when the +hydrated dioxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and the solution +evaporated on the water bath (B. Brauner). The sulphate, +Ce(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, is formed when the basic sulphate is dissolved +in sulphuric acid; or when the dioxide is dissolved in dilute sulphuric +acid, and evaporated <i>in vacuo</i> over sulphuric acid. It +forms yellow crystals soluble in water; the aqueous solution on +standing gradually depositing a basic salt. Double sulphates of +composition 2Ce(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·2K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, Ce(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·3(NH<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span> +known. Nitrates of cerium have been described, as have also phosphates, +carbonates and a carbide.</p> + +<p>Cerium compounds may be recognized by the red precipitate of +ceric hydroxide, which is formed when sodium hypochlorite is added +to a colourless cerous salt. For the quantitative determination of +the metal, the salts are precipitated by caustic potash, the precipitate +washed, dried and heated, and finally weighed as the dioxide.</p> + +<p>The atomic weight of cerium has been determined by B. Brauner +(<i>Chem. News</i>, 1895, lxxi. 283) from the analysis of the oxalate; the +values obtained varying from 140.07 to 140.35.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERNUSCHI, HENRI<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1821-1896), Italian politician and +economist, was born of wealthy parents at Milan in 1821, and +was destined for the legal profession. During his studies he +became involved in the revolutionary movement. He played a +conspicuous part in the insurrection at Milan in 1848, and also +at Rome in 1849, where he had a seat in the National Assembly. +On the collapse of the revolutionary government he was arrested +(1850), but managed to escape to France, where he engaged +in commerce and banking, became naturalized, and acquired +a large fortune. He took a prominent part in opposing the +Socialist movement, and in April 1870, having subscribed a +large sum to the funds of a committee formed to combat the +Napoleonic plebiscite, had to leave the country. In September +the formation of the Third Republic enabled him to return, but he +soon left Paris to travel in the East, whence he returned with a +fine art collection, particularly of Japanese objects. Cernuschi +is best known for his publications on financial questions, more +especially bimetallism. Of the latter he was an ardent champion, +and the word itself is commonly supposed to have originated +with him—at least in its English form it is first found in his +<i>Silver Vindicated</i> (1876). Among his other works may be +mentioned: <i>Mécanique de l’échange</i> (1861); <i>Illusion des sociétés +coopératives</i> (1886); <i>Le Bimétallisme en Angleterre</i> (1879); <i>Le +Grand Procès de l’Union latine</i> (1884). He died at Mentone +on the 12th of May 1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEROGRAPHY<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kêros">κηρός</span>, wax, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to +write), the art of painting in wax. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Encaustic Painting</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERRO DE PASCO, <a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>or <span class="sc">Pasco</span>, a mining town of Peru, capital +of the department of Junin, 107 m. (221 m. by rail, via Oroya) +N.E. of Lima. Pop. (1907 est.) 10,000. It is situated on the +plateau of Bombon, 14,280 ft. above sea-level, and in the midst +of one of the oldest and richest silver-mining districts of Peru. +There were 342 silver mines in this district in 1890, and at the +end of the 19th century the average annual output since the +discovery of the mines in 1630 was estimated at 1,600,000 oz. +A decline in the silver production having set in, the American +company which had become owners of three-fourths of the +mining properties in the district turned its attention to the +extensive copper deposits there, built a railway to Oroya 83 m. +distant, another, 25 m. long, to the coal-fields of Gollarisquisga, +north of Pasco, and then erected large smelting works (in which +2500 men were regularly employed in 1907) 8 m. out of town and +4 m. from limestone beds. The railway to Oroya was completed +in 1903, the coal mine branch and smelter later on, and in 1907 +the copper output was 20,152,000 ℔ The town of Pasco is +badly built and unattractive, and is inhabited chiefly by mining +labourers and their families. Its population is increased 50% in +times of great mining activity. The name Cerro de Pasco is +that of a “knot” of mountains uniting the two great ranges +of the Andes at this point.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERTALDO,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of +Florence, 35 m. S.S.W. by rail and 18 m. direct from the town +of Florence. Pop. (1901) town, 4552; commune, 9120. It was +the home of the family of Giovanni Boccaccio, who died and was +buried here in 1375. His house (of red brick, like the other old +houses of the town) was restored in 1823 and fitted up with old +furniture. A statue of him was erected in the principal square in +1875. The Palazzo Pretorio, or Vicariale, the residence of the +Florentine governors, recently restored to its original condition, +has a picturesque facade and court adorned with coats of arms, +and in the interior are various frescoes dating from the 13th to +the 16th century. The town as a whole is picturesque, and lies +on a hill 426 ft. above sea-level.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Pantini, <i>S. Gimignano e Certaldo</i> (Bergamo, 1904), p. 101 seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:108px; height:265px" src="images/img762a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:188px" src="images/img762b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CERUSSITE,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a mineral consisting of lead carbonate (PbCO<span class="su">3</span>), +and an important ore of lead. The name (sometimes erroneously +spelt cerusite) is from the Lat. <i>cerussa</i>, “white lead.” “Cerussa +nativa” was mentioned by K. Gesner in 1565, and in 1832 +F.S. Beudant applied the name céruse to the mineral, whilst the +present form, cerussite, is due to W. Haidinger (1845). Popular +names in early use were lead-spar and white-lead-ore.</p> + +<p>Cerussite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is +isomorphous with aragonite. Like aragonite it is very frequently +twinned, the compound crystals being +pseudo-hexagonal in form. Three crystals are +usually twinned together on two faces of the prism +<i>m</i>{110}, producing six-rayed stellate groups (figs, 1 +and 2) with the individual crystals intercrossing +at angles of nearly 60°. Twinning on the faces of +the prism <i>r</i>{130}, the angles of which are also +nearly 60°, produces a similar kind of grouping, +but is much less common. Crystals are of frequent +occurrence, and they usually have very bright +and smooth faces. The mineral also occurs in +compact granular masses, and sometimes in +fibrous forms. It is usually colourless or white, +sometimes grey or greenish in tint; it varies +from transparent to translucent, and has an +adamantine lustre. It is very brittle, and has a conchoidal +fracture. Hardness 3-3½; sp. gr. 6.5. A variety containing +7% of zinc carbonate, replacing lead carbonate, is known as +iglesiasite, from Iglesias in Sardinia, where it is found.</p> + +<p>The mineral may be readily recognized by its characteristic +twinning, in conjunction with the adamantine lustre and high +specific gravity. It dissolves with effervescence in dilute nitric +acid. Before the blow-pipe +it fuses very readily, +and gives reactions for +lead. Cerussite occurs +in metalliferous veins in +association with galena, +and has been formed by +the action of carbonated +waters on the galena; it +is therefore found in the +upper parts of the lodes +together with other secondary minerals, such as limonite. Finely +crystallized specimens have been obtained from the Friedrichssegen +mine near Ems in Nassau, Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, +Mies in Bohemia, Phenixville in Pennsylvania, Broken Hill in +New South Wales, and several other localities. Delicate acicular +crystals of considerable length were found long ago in the Pentire +Glaze mine near St Minver in Cornwall. It is often found +in considerable quantities, and contains as much as 77½% of +lead.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1738-1792), +French author and politician, was born at Turin on the 13th of +June 1738. He joined the Society of Jesus and became professor +at the Jesuit college at Lyons. In 1762, in reply to the attacks +on his order, he published an <i>Apologie générale de l’institut et de +la doctrine des Jésuites</i>, which won him much fame and some +exalted patronage; notably that of the ex-king Stanislaus of +Poland and of his grandson the dauphin. During the agitations +that preceded the Revolution Cerutti took the popular side, and +in 1788 published a pamphlet, <i>Mémoire pour le peuple français</i>, +in which in a clear and trenchant style he advocated the claims +of the <i>tiers état</i>. In May 1789 he presided over the electors of +Paris, by whom in January 1791 he was chosen member of the +administration of the department and afterwards deputy to +the Legislative Assembly. He was a friend of Mirabeau, whose +policy he supported and whose funeral oration he pronounced. +He himself died on the 3rd of February 1792. Of Cerutti’s +literary enterprises the most interesting, and probably the most +influential, was the popular newspaper founded by him, on the +30th of September 1790, in collaboration with Rabaut Saint-Étienne +and Philippe Antoine Grouvelle. Its character and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span> +objects are explained by its title: <i>La Feuille villageoise, +adressée chaque semaine à tous les villages de France pour les +instruire des lois, des événements, des découvertes qui interessent +tout ban citoyen, &c.</i> It was continued by Grouvelle after Cerutti’s +death, the last number appearing on the 2nd of August 1795.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cerutti’s works were published in 1793 in 3 volumes. On the +<i>Mémoire pour le peuple français</i>, see F.A. Aulard in <i>La Révolution +française</i>, tom. xv. (1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1547-1616), Spanish +novelist, playwright and poet, was born at Alcalá de Henares +in 1547. The attempts of biographers to provide him with an +illustrious genealogy are unsuccessful. The family history begins +with the author’s grandfather, Juan de Cervantes (b. 1490), a +lawyer who at one time (1545-6) administered the estates of +the duke de Osuna, and resided later at Cordova, where he died +about 1555. Cervantes’ father was Rodrigo de Cervantes, an +apothecary-surgeon, who married Leonor de Cortinas in 1540 or +1541. The children of this marriage were Andrés (b. 1543), +Andrea (b. 1544), Luisa (b. 1546), Miguel, Rodrigo (b. 1550), +Magdalena (b. 1554) and Juan (of whom nothing is known +beyond the mention of him in his father’s will).</p> + +<p>The exact date of Cervantes’ birth is not recorded: he was +baptized on the 9th of October 1547, in the church of Santa +Maria la Mayor at Alcalá. There are indications that Rodrigo +de Cervantes resided at Valladolid in 1554, at Madrid in 1561, at +Seville in 1564-1565, and at Madrid from 1566 onwards. It +may be assumed that his family accompanied him, and it seems +likely that either at Valladolid or at Madrid Cervantes saw the +famous actor-manager and dramatist, Lope de Rueda, of whose +performances he speaks enthusiastically in the preface to his +plays. In 1569 a Madrid schoolmaster, Juan Lopez de Hoyos, +issued a work commemorative of Philip II.’s third wife, Isabel +de Valois, who had died on the 3rd of October 1568. This +volume, entitled <i>Historia y relación verdadera de la enfermedad, +felicisimo tránsito y sumptuosas exequias fúnebres de la Serenisima +Reyna de Españia Doña Isabel de Valoys</i>, contains six contributions +by Cervantes: a sonnet, four <i>redondillas</i>, and an elegy. +Lopez de Hoyos introduces Cervantes as “our dear and beloved +pupil,” and the elegy is dedicated to Cardinal Espinosa “in the +name of the whole school.” It has been inferred that Cervantes +was educated by Lopez de Hoyos, but this conclusion is untenable, +for Lopez de Hoyos’ school was not opened till 1567. On the +13th of October 1568, Giulio Acquaviva reached Madrid charged +with a special mission to Philip II.; he left for Rome on the 2nd +of December, and Cervantes is supposed to have accompanied +him. This conjecture is based solely on a passage in the dedication +of the <i>Galatea</i>, where the writer speaks of having been +“<i>camarero</i> to Cardinal Acquaviva at Rome.” There is, however, +no reason to think that Cervantes met Acquaviva in Madrid; +the probability is that he enlisted as a supernumerary towards +the end of 1568, that he served in Italy, and there entered the +household of Acquaviva, who had been raised to the cardinalate +on the 17th of May 1570. There exists a warrant (dated +September 15, 1569) for the arrest of one Miguel de Cervantes, +who had wounded Antonio de Sigura, and had been condemned +in absence to have his right hand cut off and to be exiled from +the capital for ten years; and it has been sought to identify +the offender with the future author of <i>Don Quixote</i>. No evidence +is available. All that is known with certainty is that Cervantes +was in Rome at the end of 1569, for on the 22nd of December +of that year the fact was recorded in an official information lodged +by Rodrigo de Cervantes with a view to proving his son’s +legitimacy and untainted Christian descent.</p> + +<p>If it is difficult to say precisely when Cervantes was in +Acquaviva’s service, it is no less difficult to say when he left it +to join the regular army. There is evidence, more or less satisfactory, +that his enlistment took place in 1570; in 1571 he was +serving as a private in the company commanded by Captain +Diego de Urbina which formed part of Miguel de Moncada’s +famous regiment, and on the 16th of September he sailed from +Messina on board the “Marquesa,” which formed part of the +armada under Don John of Austria. At the battle of Lepanto +(October 7, 1571) the “Marquesa” was in the thickest of the +conflict. As the fleet came into action Cervantes lay below, ill +with fever; but, despite the remonstrances of his comrades, +he vehemently insisted on rising to take his share in the fighting, +and was posted with twelve men under him in a boat by the +galley’s side. He received three gunshot wounds, two in the +chest, and one which permanently maimed his right hand—“for +the greater glory of the right,” in his own phrase. On the 30th +of October the fleet returned to Messina, where Cervantes went +into hospital, and during his convalescence received grants-in-aid +amounting to eighty-two ducats. On the 29th of April 1572 +he was transferred to Captain Manuel Ponce de León’s company +in Lope de Figueroa’s regiment; he shared in the indecisive +naval engagement off Navarino on the 7th of October 1572, in +the capture of Tunis on the 10th of October 1573, and in the +unsuccessful expedition to relieve the Goletta in the autumn of +1574. The rest of his military service was spent in garrison at +Palermo and Naples, and shortly after the arrival of Don John +at Naples on the 18th of June 1575, Cervantes was granted leave +to return to Spain; he received a recommendatory letter from +Don John to Philip II., and a similar testimonial from the duke +de Sessa, viceroy of Sicily. Armed with these credentials, +Cervantes embarked on the “Sol” to push his claim for promotion +in Spain.</p> + +<p>On the 26th of September 1575, near Les Trois Maries off the +coast of Marseilles, the “Sol” and its companion ships the +“Mendoza” and the “Higuera” encountered a squadron of +Barbary corsairs under Arnaut Mami; Cervantes, his brother +Rodrigo and other Spaniards were captured, and were taken as +prisoners to Algiers. Cervantes became the slave of a Greek +renegade named Dali Mami, and, as the letters found on him +were taken to prove that he was a man of importance in a +position to pay a high ransom, he was put under special +surveillance. With undaunted courage and persistence he organized +plans of escape. In 1576 he induced a Moor to guide him and +other Christian captives to Oran; the Moor deserted them on the +road, the baffled fugitives returned to Algiers, and Cervantes +was treated with additional severity. In the spring of 1577 +two priests of the Order of Mercy arrived in Algiers with a sum +of three hundred crowns entrusted to them by Cervantes’ +parents; the amount was insufficient to free him, and was +spent in ransoming his brother Rodrigo. Cervantes made +another attempt to escape in September 1577, but was betrayed +by the renegade whose services he had enlisted. On being +brought before Hassan Pasha, the viceroy of Algiers, he took +the blame on himself, and was threatened with death; struck, +however, by the heroic bearing of the prisoner, Hassan remitted +the sentence, and bought Cervantes from Dali Mami for five +hundred crowns. In 1577 the captive addressed to the Spanish +secretary of state, Mateo Vazquez, a versified letter suggesting +that an expedition should be fitted out to seize Algiers; the +project, though practicable, was not entertained. In 1578 +Cervantes was sentenced to two thousand strokes for sending +a letter begging help from Martín de Córdoba, governor of Oran; +the punishment was not, however, inflicted on him. Meanwhile +his family were not idle. In March 1578 his father presented +a petition to the king setting forth Cervantes’ services; the duke +de Sessa repeated his testimony to the captive’s merits; in the +spring of 1579 Cervantes’ mother applied for leave to export +two thousand ducats’ worth of goods from Valencia to Algiers, +and on the 31st of July 1579 she gave the Trinitarian monks, +Juan Gil and Antón de la Bella, a sum of two hundred and fifty +ducats to be applied to her son’s ransom. On his side Cervantes +was indefatigable, and towards the end of 1579 he arranged to +secure a frigate; but the plot was revealed to Hassan by Juan +Blanco de Paz, a Dominican monk, who appears to have conceived +an unaccountable hatred of Cervantes. Once more the +conspirator’s life was spared by Hassan who, it is recorded, +declared that “so long as he had the maimed Spaniard in safe +keeping, his Christians, ships and city were secure.” On the +29th of May 1580 the two Trinitarians arrived in Algiers: they +were barely in time, for Hassan’s term of office was drawing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span> +to a close, and the arrangement of any ransom was a slow process, +involving much patient bargaining. Hassan refused to accept +less than five hundred gold ducats for his slave; the available +funds fell short of this amount, and the balance was collected +from the Christian traders of Algiers. Cervantes was already +embarked for Constantinople when the money was paid on the +19th of September 1580. The first use that he made of his +liberty was to cause affidavits of his proceedings at Algiers to be +drawn up; he sailed for Spain towards the end of October, +landed at Denia in November, and made his way to Madrid. +He signed an information before a notary in that city on the +18th of December 1580.</p> + +<p>These dates prove that he cannot, as is often alleged, have +served under Alva in the Portuguese campaign of 1580: that +campaign ended with the battle of Alcántara on the 25th of +August 1580. It seems certain, however, that he visited Portugal +soon after his return from Algiers, and in May 1581 he was sent +from Thomar on a mission to Oran. Construed literally, a +formal statement of his services, signed by Cervantes on the +21st of May 1590, makes it appear that he served in the Azores +campaigns of 1582-83; but the wording of the document is +involved, the claims of Cervantes are confused with those of his +brother Rodrigo (who was promoted ensign at the Azores), +and on the whole it is doubtful if he took part in either of the +expeditions under Santa Cruz. In any case, the stories of his +residence in Portugal, and of his love affairs with a noble +Portuguese lady who bore him a daughter, are simple inventions. +From 1582-3 to 1587 Cervantes seems to have written copiously +for the stage, and in the <i>Adjunta al Parnaso</i> he mentions several +of his plays as “worthy of praise”; these were <i>Los Tratos de +Argel, La Numancia, La Gran Turquesa, La Batalla naval, La +Jerusalem, La Amaranta ó la de Mayo, El Bosque amoroso, La +Unica y Bizarra Ársinda</i>—“and many others which I do not +remember, but that which I most prize and pique myself on was, +and is, one called <i>La Confusa</i> which, with all respect to as many +sword-and-cloak plays as have been staged up to the present, +may take a prominent place as being good among the best.” +Of these only <i>Los Tratos de Argel</i> (or <i>El Trato de Argel</i>) and +<i>La Numancia</i> have survived, and, though <i>La Numancia</i> contains +many fine rhetorical passages, both plays go to prove that the +author’s genius was not essentially dramatic. In February +1584 he obtained a licence to print a pastoral novel entitled +<i>Primera parte de la Galatea</i>, the copyright of which he sold on +the 14th of June to Blas de Robles, a bookseller at Alcalá de +Henares, for 1336 <i>reales</i>. On the 12th of December he married +Catalina de Palacios Salazar y Vozmediano of Esquivias, eighteen +years his junior. The <i>Galatea</i> was published in the spring of +1585, and is frequently said to relate the story of Cervantes’ +courtship, and to introduce various distinguished writers under +pastoral names. These assertions must be received with great +reserve. The birth of an illegitimate daughter, borne to Cervantes +by a certain Ana Francisca de Rojas, is referred to 1584, and +earlier in that same year the <i>Galatea</i> had passed the censor; +with few exceptions, the identifications of the characters in the +book with personages in real life are purely conjectural. These +circumstances, together with the internal evidence of the work, +point to the conclusion that the <i>Galatea</i> was begun and completed +before 1583. It was only twice reprinted—once at Lisbon +(1590), and once at Paris (1611)—during the author’s lifetime; +but it won him a measure of repute, it was his favourite among +his books, and during the thirty years that remained to him he +repeatedly announced the second part which is promised conditionally +in the text. However, it is not greatly to be regretted +that the continuation was never published; though the <i>Galatea</i> +is interesting as the first deliberate bid for fame on the part of a +great genius, it is an exercise in the pseudo-classic literature +introduced into Italy by Sannazaro, and transplanted to Spain +by the Portuguese Montemõr; and, ingenious or eloquent as +the Renaissance prose-pastoral may be, its innate artificiality +stifles Cervantes’ rich and glowing realism. He himself recognized +its defects; with all his weakness for the <i>Galatea</i>, he +ruefully allows that “it proposes something and concludes +nothing.” Its comparative failure was a serious matter for +Cervantes who had no other resource but his pen; his plays +were probably less successful than his account of them would +imply, and at any rate play-writing was not at this time a +lucrative occupation in Spain. No doubt the death of his +father on the 13th of June 1585 increased the burden of Cervantes’ +responsibilities; and the dowry of his wife, as appears from a +document dated the 9th of August 1586, consisted of nothing +more valuable than five vines, an orchard, some household +furniture, four beehives, forty-five hens and chickens, one cock +and a crucible.</p> + +<p>It had become evident that Cervantes could not gain his +bread by literature, and in 1587 he went to Seville to seek +employment in connexion with the provisioning of the Invincible +Armada. He was placed under the orders of Antonio de Guevara, +and before the 24th of February was excommunicated for +excessive zeal in collecting wheat at Écija. During the next +few months he was engaged in gathering stores at Seville and +the adjacent district, and after the defeat of the Armada he was +retained as commissary to the galleys. Tired of the drudgery, +and without any prospect of advancement, on the 21st of May +1590 Cervantes drew up a petition to the king, recording his +services and applying for one of four posts then vacant in the +American colonies: a place in the department of public accounts +in New Granada, the governorship of Soconusco in Guatemala, +the position of auditor to the galleys at Cartagena, or that of +<i>corregidor</i> in the city of La Paz. The petition was referred to +the Council of the Indies, and was annotated with the words:—“Let +him look for something nearer home.” Cervantes perforce +remained at his post; the work was hard, uncongenial and +ill-paid, and the salary was in constant arrears. In November +1590 he was in such straits that he borrowed money to buy himself +a suit of clothes, and in August 1592 his sureties were called +upon to make good a deficiency of 795 <i>reales</i> in his accounts. +His thoughts turned to literature once more, and on the 5th of +September 1592, he signed a contract with Rodrigo Osorio +undertaking to write six plays at fifty ducats each, no payment +to be made unless Osorio considered that each of these pieces +was “one of the best ever produced in Spain.” Nothing came +of this agreement, and it appears that, between the date of +signing it and the 19th of September, Cervantes was imprisoned +(for reasons unknown to us) at Castro del Río. He was speedily +released, and continued to perquisition as before in Andalusia; +but his literary ambitions were not dead, and in May 1595 he +won the first prize—three silver spoons—at a poetical tourney +held in honour of St Hyacinth at Saragossa. Shortly afterwards +Cervantes found himself in difficulties with the exchequer +officials. He entrusted a sum of 7400 <i>reales</i> to a merchant +named Simón Freire de Lima with instructions to pay the +amount into the treasury at Madrid; the agent became bankrupt +and absconded, leaving Cervantes responsible for the deficit. +By some means the money was raised, and the debt was liquidated +on the 21st of January 1597. But Cervantes’ position was +shaken, and his unbusinesslike habits lent themselves to +misinterpretation. On the 6th of September 1597 he was ordered +to find sureties that he would present himself at Madrid within +twenty days, and there submit to the exchequer vouchers for +all official moneys collected by him in Granada and elsewhere. +No such sureties being available, he was committed to Seville +jail, but was released on the 1st of December on condition that +he complied with the original order of the court within thirty +days. He was apparently unable to find bail, was dismissed +from the public service, and sank into extreme poverty. During +a momentary absence from Seville in February 1590, he was +again summoned to Madrid by the treasury, but does not appear +to have obeyed: it is only too likely that he had not the money +to pay for the journey. There is some reason to think that he +was imprisoned at Seville in 1602, but nothing positive is known +of his existence between 1600 and the 8th of February 1603: +at the latter date he seems to have been at Valladolid, to which +city Philip III. had removed the court in 1601.</p> + +<p>Since the publication of the <i>Galatea</i> in 1585 Cervantes’ +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span> +contributions to literature had been limited to occasional poems. +In 1591 he published a ballad in Andrés de Villalta’s <i>Flor de +varios y nuevos romances</i>; in 1595 he composed a poem, already +mentioned, to celebrate the canonization of St Hyacinth; in +1596 he wrote a sonnet ridiculing Medina Sidonia’s tardy entry +into Cadiz after the English invaders had retired, and in the +same year his sonnet lauding Santa Cruz was printed in Cristóbal. +Mosquera de Figueroa’s <i>Comentario en breve compendio de +disciplina militar</i>; to 1597 is assigned a sonnet (the authenticity +of which is disputed) commemorative of the poet Herrera; in +1598 he wrote two sonnets and a copy of <i>quintillas</i> on the death +of Philip II.; and in 1602 a complimentary sonnet from his pen +appeared in the second edition of Lope de Vega’s <i>Dragontea</i>. +Curiously enough, it is by Lope de Vega that <i>Don Quixote</i> is +first mentioned. Writing to an unknown correspondent (apparently +a physician) on the 14th of August 1604, Lope de Vega +says that “no poet is as bad as Cervantes, nor so foolish as to +praise <i>Don Quixote</i>,” and he goes on to speak of his own plays +as being odious to Cervantes. It is obvious that the two men +had quarrelled since 1602, and that Lope de Vega smarted under +the satire of himself and his works in Cervantes’ forthcoming +book; <i>Don Quixote</i> may have been circulated in manuscript, +or may even have been printed before the official licence was +granted on the 26th of September 1604. It was published early +in 1605, and was dedicated to the seventh duke de Béjar in +phrases largely borrowed from the dedication in Herrera’s +edition (1580) of Garcilaso de la Vega, and from Francisco de +Medina’s preface to that work.</p> + +<p>The mention of Bernardo de la Vega’s <i>Pastor de Iberia</i> shows +that the sixth chapter of <i>Don Quixote</i> cannot have been written +before 1591. In the prologue Cervantes describes his masterpiece +as being “just what might be begotten in a jail”; on the +strength of this passage, it has been thought that he conceived +the story, and perhaps began writing it, during one of his terms +of imprisonment at Seville between 1597 and 1602. Within a +few weeks of its publication at Madrid, three pirated editions +of <i>Don Quixote</i> were issued at Lisbon; a second authorized +edition, imperfectly revised, was hurried out at Madrid; and +another reprint appeared at Valencia with an <i>aprobación</i> dated +18th July 1605. With the exception of Alemán’s <i>Guzmán de +Alfarache</i>, no Spanish book of the period was more successful. +Modern criticism is prone to regard <i>Don Quixote</i> as a symbolic, +didactic or controversial work intended to bring about radical +reforms in church and state. Such interpretations did not occur +to Cervantes’ contemporaries, nor to Cervantes himself. There +is no reason for rejecting his plain statement that his main object +was to ridicule the romances of chivalry, which in their latest +developments had become a tissue of tiresome absurdities. It +seems clear that his first intention was merely to parody these +extravagances in a short story; but as he proceeded the +immense possibilities of the subject became more evident to +him, and he ended by expanding his work into a brilliant +panorama of Spanish society as it existed during the 16th century. +Nobles, knights, poets, courtly gentlemen, priests, traders, +farmers, barbers, muleteers, scullions and convicts; accomplished +ladies, impassioned damsels, Moorish beauties, simple-hearted +country-girls and kindly kitchen-wenches of questionable morals—all +these are presented with the genial fidelity which comes of +sympathetic insight. The immediate vogue of <i>Don Quixote</i> was +due chiefly to its variety of incident, to its wealth of comedy +bordering on farce, and perhaps also to its keen thrusts at eminent +contemporaries; its reticent pathos, its large humanity, and +its penetrating criticism of life were less speedily appreciated.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, on the 12th of April 1605, Cervantes authorized +his publisher to proceed against the Lisbon booksellers who +threatened to introduce their piratical reprints into Castile. By +June the citizens of Valladolid already regarded Don Quixote +and Sancho Panza as proverbial types. Less gratifying experiences +awaited the popular author. On the 27th of June +1605 Gaspar de Ezpeleta, a Navarrese gentleman of dissolute +life, was wounded outside the lodging-house in which Cervantes +and his family lived; he was taken indoors, was nursed by +Cervantes’ sister Magdalena, and died on the 29th of June. That +same day Cervantes, his natural daughter (Isabel de Saavedra), +his sister Andrea and her daughter were lodged in jail on suspicion +of being indirectly concerned in Ezpeleta’s death; one of the +witnesses made damaging charges against Cervantes’ daughter, +but no substantial evidence was produced, and the prisoners +were released. Little is known of Cervantes’ life between 1605 +and 1608. A <i>Relación</i> of the festivities held to celebrate the +birth of Philip IV., and a certain <i>Carta á don Diego Astudillo +Carrillo</i> have been erroneously ascribed to him; during these +three years he apparently wrote nothing beyond three sonnets, +and one of these is of doubtful authenticity. The depositions +of the Valladolid enquiry show that he was living in poverty five +months after the appearance of <i>Don Quixote</i>, and the fact that +he borrowed 450 <i>reales</i> from his publisher before November 1607 +would convey the idea that his position improved slowly, if at +all. But it is difficult to reconcile this view of his circumstances +with the details concerning his illegitimate daughter revealed +in documents recently discovered. Isabel de Saavedra was +stated to be a spinster when arrested at Valladolid in June 1605; +the settlement of her marriage with Luis de Molina in 1608 +describes her as the widow of Diego Sanz, as the mother of a +daughter eight months old, and as owning house-property of +some value. These particulars are perplexing, and the situation +is further complicated by the publication of a deed in which +Cervantes declares that he himself is the real owner of this house-property, +and that his daughter has merely a life-interest in it. +This claim may be regarded as a legal fiction; it cannot easily +be reconciled with Cervantes’ statement towards the end of his +life, that he was dependent on the bounty of the count de Lemos +and of Bernardo de Sandoval, cardinal-archbishop of Toledo. +In 1609 he joined the newly founded confraternity of the Slaves +of the Most Blessed Sacrament; in 1610 Lemos was appointed +viceroy of Naples, and Cervantes was keenly disappointed at +not being chosen to accompany his patron. In 1611 he lost his +sister Magdalena, who was buried by the charity of the Tertiaries +of Saint Francis; in 1612 he joined the Academia Selvaje, and +there appears to have renewed his former friendly relations with +Lope de Vega; in 1613 he dedicated his <i>Novelas exemplares</i> to +the count de Lemos, and disposed of his rights for 1600 <i>reales</i> +and twenty-four copies of the book. The twelve tales in this +volume, some of them written very much later than others, are +of unequal merit, but they contain some of the writer’s best work, +and the two picaresque stories—<i>Rinconete y Cortadillo</i> and the +<i>Coloquio de los perros</i>—are superb examples of their kind, and +would alone entitle Cervantes to take rank with the greatest +masters of Spanish prose. In 1614 he published the <i>Viage del +Parnaso</i>, a burlesque poem suggested by the <i>Viaggio in Parnaso</i> +(1582) of the Perugian poet Cesare Caporali. It contains some +interesting autobiographical passages, much flattery of contemporary +poetasters, and a few happy satirical touches; but, +though it is Cervantes’ most serious bid for fame as a poet, it has +seldom been reprinted, and would probably have been forgotten +but for an admirably humorous postscript in prose which is +worthy of the author at his best. In the preface to his <i>Ocho +comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos</i> (1615) he good-humouredly +admits that his dramatic works found no favour with managers, +and, when this collection was first reprinted (1749), the editor +advanced the fantastic theory that the <i>comedias</i> were deliberate +exercises in absurdity, intended to parody the popular dramas +of the day. This view cannot be maintained, but a sharp distinction +must be drawn between the eight set plays and the eight +interludes; with one or two exceptions, the <i>comedias</i> or set plays +are unsuccessful experiments in Lope de Vega’s manner, while +the <i>entremeses</i> or <i>interludes</i>, particularly those in prose, are models +of spontaneous gaiety and ingenious wit.</p> + +<p>In the preface to the <i>Novelas exemplares</i> Cervantes had +announced the speedy appearance of the sequel to <i>Don Quixote</i> +which he had vaguely promised at the end of the first part. He +was at work on the fifty-ninth chapter of his continuation when +he learned that he had been anticipated by Alonso Fernandez +de Avellaneda of Tordesillas, whose <i>Segunde tamo del ingenioso +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span> +hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha</i> was published at Tarragona +in 1614. On the assumption that Fernandez de Avellaneda +is a pseudonym, this spurious sequel has been ascribed to the +king’s confessor, Luis de Aliaga, to Cervantes’ old enemy, +Blanco de Paz, to his old friend, Bartolomé Leonardo de +Argensola, to the three great dramatists, Lope de Vega, Tirso de +Molina and Ruiz de Alarcón, to Alonso Fernandez, to Juan José +Martí, to Alfonso Lamberto, to Luis de Granada, and probably +to others. Some of these attributions are manifestly absurd—for +example, Luis de Granada died seventeen years before the +first part of <i>Don Quixote</i> was published—and all of them are +improbable conjectures; if Avellaneda be not the real name +of the author, his identity is still undiscovered. His book is +not devoid of literary talent and robust humour, and possibly +he began it under the impression that Cervantes was no more +likely to finish <i>Don Quixote</i> than to finish the <i>Galatea</i>. +He should, however, have abandoned his project on reading the +announcement in the preface to the <i>Novelas exemplares</i>; what +he actually did was to disgrace himself by writing an insolent +preface taunting Cervantes with his physical defects, his moral +infirmities, his age, loneliness and experiences in jail. He was +too intelligent to imagine that his continuation could hold its +own against the authentic sequel, and malignantly avowed his +intention of being first in the field and so spoiling Cervantes’ +market. It is quite possible that <i>Don Quixote</i> might have been +left incomplete but for this insulting intrusion; Cervantes was +a leisurely writer and was, as he states, engaged on <i>El Engaño +à los ojos, Las Semanas del Jardín</i> and <i>El Famoso Bernardo</i>, +none of which have been preserved. Avellaneda forced him to +concentrate his attention on his masterpiece, and the authentic +second part of <i>Don Quixote</i> appeared towards the end of 1615. +No book more signally contradicts the maxim, quoted by the +Bachelor Carrasco, that “no second part was ever good.” It +is true that the last fourteen chapters are damaged by undignified +denunciations of Avellaneda; but, apart from this, the second +part of <i>Don Quixote</i> is an improvement on the first. The humour +is more subtle and mature; the style is of more even excellence; +and the characters of the bachelor and of the physician, Pedro +Recio de Agüero, are presented with a more vivid effect than +any of the secondary characters in the first part. Cervantes had +clearly profited by the criticism of those who objected to “the +countless cudgellings inflicted on Señor Don Quixote,” and to +the irrelevant interpolation of extraneous stories in the text. +Don Quixote moves through the second part with unruffled +dignity; Sancho Panza loses something of his rustic cunning, +but he gains in wit, sense and manners. The original conception +is unchanged in essentials, but it is more logically developed, +and there is a notable progress in construction. Cervantes +had grown to love his knight and squire, and he understood his +own creations better than at the outset; more completely +master of his craft, he wrote his sequel with the unfaltering +confidence of a renowned artist bent on sustaining his reputation.</p> + +<p>The first part of <i>Don Quixote</i> had been reprinted at Madrid in +1608; it had been produced at Brussels in 1607 and 1611, and +at Milan in 1610; it had been translated into English in 1612 +and into French in 1614. Cervantes was celebrated in and out +of Spain, but his celebrity had not brought him wealth. The +members of the French special embassy, sent to Madrid in +February 1615, under the Commandeur de Sillery, heard with amazement +that the author of the <i>Galatea</i>, the <i>Novelas exemplares</i> +and <i>Don Quixote</i> was “old, a soldier, a gentleman and poor.” +But his trials were almost at an end. Though failing in health, +he worked assiduously at <i>Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda</i>, +which, as he had jocosely prophesied in the preface to the second +part of <i>Don Quixote</i>, would be “either the worst or the best +book ever written in our tongue.” It is the most carefully +written of his prose works, and the least animated or attractive +of them; signs of fatigue and of waning powers are unmistakably +visible. Cervantes was not destined to see it in print. He was +attacked by dropsy, and, on the 18th of April 1616, received the +sacrament of extreme unction; next day he wrote the dedication +of <i>Persiles y Sigismunda</i> to the count de Lemos—the most +moving and gallant of farewells. He died at Madrid in the Calle +del León on the 23rd of April; he was borne from his house +“with his face uncovered,” according to the rule of the Tertiaries +of St Francis, and on the 24th of April was buried in the church +attached to the convent of the Trinitarian nuns in the Calle de +Cantarranas. There he rests—the story of his remains being +removed in 1633 to the Calle del Humilladero has no foundation +in fact—but the exact position of his grave is unknown. Early +in 1617 <i>Persiles y Sigismunda</i> was published, and passed through +eight editions within two years; but the interest in it soon died +away, and it was not reprinted between 1625 and 1719. +Cervantes’ wife died without issue on the 31st of October 1626; +his natural daughter, who survived both the child of her first +marriage and her second husband, died on the 20th of September +1652. Cervantes is represented solely by his works. The +<i>Novelas exemplares</i> alone would give him the foremost place +among Spanish novelists; <i>Don Quixote</i> entitles him to rank +with the greatest writers of all time: “children turn its leaves, +young people read it, grown men understand it, old folk praise +it.” It has outlived all changes of literary taste, and is even +more popular to-day than it was three centuries ago.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Leopold Rius, <i>Bibliografía crítica de las obras de +Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra</i> (Madrid, 1895-1905, 3 vols.); +<i>Obras completas</i> (Madrid, 1863-1864, 12 vols.), +edited by Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch; +<i>Complete Works</i> (Glasgow, 1901-1906, 8 vols. in progress), +edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly; +<i>Don Quijote</i> (Madrid, 1833-1839, 6 vols.), edited by Diego Clemencíu; +<i>Don Quixote</i> (London, 1899-1900, 2 vols.), +edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly and John Ormsby; +<i>Don Quijote</i> (Madrid, 1905-1906, 2 vols. in progress), +edited by Clemente Cortejón; +<i>Rinconete y Cortadillo</i> (Sevilla, 1905), +edited by Francisco Rodriguez Marín; +<i>Epístola á Mateo Vázquez</i> (Madrid, 1905), edited by E[milio] C[otarelo]; +Julián Apráiz, <i>Estudio histórico-crítico +sobre las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes</i> (Madrid, 1901); +Francisco A. de Icaza, +<i>Las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes</i> (Madrid, 1901); +Francisco Rodríguez Marín, +<i>El Loaysa de “El Celoso Extremeño”</i> (Sevilla, 1901); +Narciso Díaz de Escovar, +<i>Apuntes escénicos cervantinos</i> (Madrid, 1905); +Manuel José García, <i>Estudio crítico acerca +del entremés “El Vizcaino fingido”</i> (Madrid, 1905); +Alfred Morel-Fatio, <i>L’Espagne de Don Quichotte</i> +in <i>Études sur l’Espagne</i> (Paris, 1895, 2me série); +Julio Puyol y Alonso, +<i>Estado social que refleja “El Quijote”</i> (Madrid, 1905); +James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, <i>Cervantes in England</i> (London, 1905); +Raymond Foulché-Delbose, <i>Étude sur “La tia fingida,”</i> +in the <i>Revue hispanique</i> (Paris, 1899), vol. vi. pp. 256-306; +Benedetto Croce, <i>Due illustrazioni al “Viage del Parnaso,”</i> in the +<i>Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo</i> (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 161-193; +Paul Groussac, +<i>Une Énigme littéraire: le Don Quichotte d’Avellaneda</i> (Paris, 1903); +Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, <i>El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la +Mancha</i> (Barcelona, [1905]), edited by Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo; +Julio Cejador y Franca, <i>La Lengua de Cervantes</i> (Madrid, 1905, &c.); +Martin Fernández de Navarrete, +<i>Vida de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra</i> (Madrid, 1819); +Cristóbal Perez Pastor, <i>Documentos +Cervantinos hasta ahora inéditos</i> (Madrid, 1897-1902, 2 vols.); +Emilio Cotardo y Mori, <i>Efemérides Cervantinas</i> (Madrid, 1905); +Francisco Rodríguez Marín, +<i>Cervantes estudió en Sevilla, 1564-1565</i> (Seville, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. F.-K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1839-1909), +Spanish admiral, was born at Medina Sidonia on the 18th of +February 1839. He showed an early inclination for the sea, and +his family sent him to the naval cadet school at the age of twelve. +As a sub-lieutenant he took part in the naval operations on the +coast of Morocco during the campaign of 1859-60. Then he was +for some time engaged in operations in the Sulu Islands and the +Philippines. Afterwards he was on the West Indian station +during the early part of the first Cuban War (1868-78), returning +to Spain in 1873 to serve on the Basque coast against the Carlists. +He distinguished himself in defending the Carraca arsenal near +Cadiz against the Federals in 1873. He won each step in his +promotion up to flag-rank through his steadiness and brilliant +conduct in action, and was awarded the crosses of the Orders of +Military and Naval Merit, Isabella the Catholic, and St Hermengilde, +besides several medals. Cervera had a great reputation +for decision, unbending temper and honesty, before he was +placed at the head of the Bilbao building-yards. This post he +resigned after a few months in order to become minister of +marine in 1892, in a cabinet presided over by Sagasta. He withdrew +from the cabinet when he found that his colleagues, from +political motives, declined to support him in making reforms and, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span> +on the other hand, unwisely cut down the naval estimates. When +in 1898 the Spanish-American War (<i>q.v.</i>) broke out, he was chosen +to command a squadron composed of four first-class cruisers, +the “Maria Theresa,” his flagship, “Oquendo,” “Vizcaya,” +and “Columbus,” and several destroyers. This ill-fated squadron +only started upon its reckless cruise across the ocean after its +gallant commander had repeatedly warned both the minister of +marine and the prime minister, Sagasta, in despatches from Cadiz +and from the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, that the ships +were insufficiently provided with coal and ammunition. Some +of them, indeed, even lacked proper guns. In compliance with +the instructions of the government, Admiral Cervera made for +the landlocked harbour of Santiago de Cuba, where he co-operated +in the defence, landing some guns and a naval brigade. In spite +of his energetic representations, Cervera received an order from +Madrid, dictated by political considerations, to sally forth. It +meant certain destruction. The gallant squadron met forces +trebly superior to it, and was totally destroyed. The admiral, +three of his captains, and 1800 sailors and marines were taken +by the victors to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, U.S.A. After +the war, Cervera and his captains were tried before the supreme +naval and military court of the realm, which honourably +acquitted them all. In 1901 he became vice-admiral, in 1902 +was appointed chief of staff of the Spanish navy, and in 1903 +was made life senator. He died at Puerto Real on the 3rd of +April 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESAREVICH,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> or more properly <span class="sc">Tsesarevich</span>, the title of +the heir-apparent to the Russian throne. The full official title +is <i>Nasliednik Tsesarevich</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “heir of Caesar,” and in Russia +the heir to the throne is commonly called simply <i>Nasliednik</i>, the +word <i>Tsesarevich</i> never being used alone. <i>Tsarevich</i>, a form now +much used in England, means simply any “king’s son”; it is an +antiquated term now out of use in Russia, and was last borne +as heir to the throne by the unfortunate Alexius, son of Peter +the Great. The style of the wife of the tsesarevich is <i>Tsesarevna</i>. +The Cesarewitch handicap race at Newmarket, founded in 1839, +was named after the prince who was afterwards Alexander II. +of Russia, who paid a state visit to England that year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESARI, GIUSEPPE,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> called Il Cavaliere d’ Arpino (born in +or about 1568 and created a “Cavaliere di Cristo” by Pope +Clement VIII.), also named Il Giuseppino, an Italian painter, +much encouraged at Rome and munificently rewarded. His +father had been a native of Arpino, but Giuseppe himself was +born in Rome. Cesari is stigmatized by Lanzi as not less the +corrupter of taste in painting than Marino was in poetry; indeed, +another of the nicknames of Cesari is “Il Marino de’ Pittori” +(the pictorial Marino). There was spirit in Cesari’s heads of +men and horses, and his frescoes in the Capitol (story of Romulus +and Remus, &c.), which occupied him at intervals during forty +years, are well coloured; but he drew the human form ill. His +perspective is faulty, his extremities monotonous, and his +chiaroscuro defective. He died in 1640, at the age of seventy-two, +or perhaps of eighty, at Rome. Cesari ranks as the head of +the “Idealists” of his period, as opposed to the “Naturalists,” +of whom Michelangelo da Caravaggio was the leading champion,—the +so-called “idealism” consisting more in reckless facility, +and disregard of the common facts and common-sense of nature, +than in anything to which so lofty a name could be properly +accorded. He was a man of touchy and irascible character, and +rose from penury to the height of opulence. His brother +Bernardino assisted in many of his works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1730-1808), Italian poet, was +born at Padua in 1730, of a noble but impoverished family. At +the university of his native place his literary progress procured +for him at a very early age the chair of rhetoric, and in 1768 the +professorship of Greek and Hebrew. On the invasion of Italy +by the French, he gave his pen to their cause, received a pension, +and was made knight of the iron crown by Napoleon I., to whom, +in consequence, he addressed a bombastic and extravagantly +flattering poem called <i>Pronea</i>. Cesarotti is best known as the +translator of Homer and Ossian. Much praise cannot be given +to his version of the <i>Iliad</i>, for he has not scrupled to add, omit +and modernize. Ossian, which he held to be the finest of poems, +he has, on the other hand, considerably improved in translation; +and the appearance of his version attracted much attention in +Italy and France, and raised up many imitators of the Ossianic +style. Cesarotti also produced a number of works in prose, +including a <i>Course of Greek Literature</i>, and essays <i>On the Origin +and Progress of the Poetic Art</i>, <i>On the Sources of the Pleasure +derived from Tragedy</i>, <i>On the Philosophy of Language</i> and <i>On +the Philosophy of Taste</i>, the last being a defence of his own +great eccentricities in criticism. His weakness was a straining +after novelty. His style is forcible, but full of Gallicisms.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo. began to appear at +Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death. See +<i>Memoirs</i>, by Barbieri (Padua, 1810), and <i>Un Filosofo delle lettere</i>, by +Alemanni (Turin, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESENA<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (anc. <i>Caesena</i>), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, +Italy, in the province of Forlì, 12 m. S.E. by rail from the town +of Forlì, on the line between Bologna and Rimini, 144 ft. above +sea-level. Pop. (1905) 12,245 (town); 43,468 (commune). The +town is picturesquely situated at the foot of the slopes of the +Apennines, and is crowned by a medieval fortress (Rocca), +begun by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) probably, but +altered and added to later. The cathedral has two fine marble +altars by the Lombardi of Venice (or their school). The library, +built for Domenico Malatesta in 1452 by Matteo Nuzio, is a fine +early Renaissance building, and its internal arrangements, with +the original desks to which the books are still chained, are +especially well preserved (see J.W. Clark, <i>The Care of Books</i>, +Cambridge, 1901, p. 199). In it are valuable MSS., many of which +were used by Aldus Manutius. It also contains a picture gallery +with a good “Presentation in the Temple” by Francesco +Francia. There are some fine palaces in the town. Three-quarters +of a mile south-east on the hill stands the handsome +church of S. Maria del Monte, after the style of Bramante, with +carved stalls of the 16th century. Wine, hemp and silk are the +main articles of trade. About the ancient Caesena little is said +in classical authors: it is mentioned as a station on the Via +Aemilia and as a fortress in the wars of Theodoric and Narses. +During the middle ages it was at first independent. In 1357 +it was unsuccessfully defended by the wife of Francesco Ordelaffi, +lord of Forlì, against the papal troops under Albornoz. In 1377 +it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards Clement +VII., antipope). It was then held by the Malatesta of Rimini +until 1465, when it came under the dominion of the church. +Both Pius VI. (1717) and Pius VII. (1742) were born at +Cesena.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1832-1904), Italian-American +soldier and archaeologist, was born near Turin on the 29th of +July 1832. Having served in the Austrian and Crimean Wars, +in 1860 he went to New York, where he taught Italian and +French and founded a military school for officers. He took +part in the American Civil War as colonel of a cavalry regiment, +and at Aldie (June 1863) was wounded and taken prisoner. +He was released from Libby prison early in 1864, served in the +Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns (1864-65) as a brigadier +of cavalry, and at the close of the war was breveted brigadier-general. +He was then appointed United States consul at +Larnaca in Cyprus (1865-1877). During his stay in the island +he carried on excavations, which resulted in the discovery of a +large number of antiquities. The collection was purchased by +the Metropolitan Museum of New York, and Cesnola became +director in 1879. Doubt having been thrown by Gaston L. +Feuerdant, in an article in the New York <i>Herald</i> (August 1880), +upon the genuineness of his restorations, the matter was referred +to a special committee, which pronounced in his favour.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He is +the author of <i>Cyprus, its ancient Cities, Tombs and Temples</i> +(1877), an interesting book of travel and of considerable service +to the practical antiquary; and of a <i>Descriptive Atlas of the +Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities</i> (3 vols., 1884-6). He +died in New York on the 21st of November 1904. He was a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span> +member of several learned societies in Europe and America, and +in 1897 he received a Congressional medal of honour for conspicuous +military services.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Alessandro Palma di Cesnola</span>, born in 1839, +conducted excavations at Paphos (where he was U.S. vice-consul) +and Salamis on behalf of the British government. The results +of these are described in <i>Salaminia</i> (1882).</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the Cesnola controversy see C.D. Cobham’s <i>Attempt at a +Bibliography of Cyprus</i> (4th ed., 1900). See also article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyprus</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESPEDES<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (in Ital. <span class="sc">Cedaspe</span>), <span class="bold">PABLO DE</span> (1538-1608), +Spanish poet, painter, sculptor and architect, was born at +Cordova, and was educated at Alcalá de Henares, where he +studied theology and Oriental languages. On leaving the +university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil and +friend of Federigo Zuccaro, under whose direction he studied +particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1560, +while yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the +Inquisition at Valladolid on account of a letter which, found +among the papers of the archbishop of Toledo, had been written +by Cespedes during the preceding year, and in which he had +spoken with great freedom against the holy office and the inquisitor-general, +Fernando de Valdés. Cespedes remained in +Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have +treated the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he +contrived to bring the proceedings to an end; he returned, +however, to Spain a little before 1577, and in that year was +installed in a prebend of the cathedral at Cordova, where he +resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes has been called the +most <i>savant</i> of Spanish artists. According to his friend Francisco +Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for the preservation of +all of Cespedes’s verse that is extant, the school of Seville owes +to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He was +a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master +of colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the +advantage of early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de +Vera, Juan de Peñalosa and Zambrano were among his pupils. +His best picture is a Last Supper at Cordova, but there are good +examples of his work at Seville and at Madrid. Cespedes was +author of several opuscules in prose on subjects connected with +his profession. Of his poem on <i>The Art of Painting</i> enough was +preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the +whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and +it has been compared, not disadvantageously, with the <i>Georgics</i>. +It is written in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic +declamatory vein of Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether +so dull and lifeless as is most didactic verse. It contains a glowing +eulogy of Michelangelo, and some excellent advice to young +painters, insisting particularly on hard work and on the study +of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting in all +to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his +treatise <i>Del arte de la pintura</i>, in 1649.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1585?-1638), +Spanish novelist, was born at Madrid about 1585. Nothing +positive is known of him before the publication of his celebrated +romance, the <i>Poema trágico del Español Gerardo, y desengaño +del amor lascivo</i> (1615-1617); there is evidence that he had +been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the 1st +of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but +the nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political +questions in the <i>Historia apologética en los sucesos del reyno de +Aragón, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, años de 91 y 92</i> (1622), having +led to the confiscation of the book, Céspedes took up his residence +at Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection +of short stories entitled <i>Historias peregrinas y exemplares</i> (1623), +the unfinished romance <i>Varia fortuna del soldado Píndaro</i> (1626), +and the first part of his <i>Historia de Felipe IV.</i> (1631), a fulsome +eulogy which was rewarded by the author’s appointment as +official historiographer to the Spanish king. Céspedes died on +the 27th of January 1638. His novels, though written in a +ponderous, affected style, display considerable imagination and +insight into character. The <i>Poema trágico</i> has been utilized by +Fletcher in <i>The Spanish Curate</i> and in <i>The Maid of the Mill</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Historias peregrinas</i> has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable +introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESS<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (a shortened form of “assess”; the spelling is due to +a mistaken connexion with “census”), a tax; a term formerly +more particularly applied to local taxation, in which sense it +still is used in Ireland; otherwise it has been superseded by +“rate.” In India it is applied, with the qualifying word prefixed, +to any taxation, such as “irrigation-cess” and the like, and in +Scotland to the land-tax.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESSIO BONORUM<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (Latin for a “surrender of goods”), in +Roman law, a voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his +creditors. It did not amount to a discharge unless the property +ceded was sufficient for the purpose, but it secured the debtor +from personal arrest. The creditors sold the goods in satisfaction, +<i>pro tanto</i>, of their claims. The procedure of <i>cessio bonorum</i> +avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his after-acquired +property might be proceeded against, could not be deprived of +the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman +law of <i>cessio bonorum</i> were adopted in Scots law, and also in the +French legal system. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESTI, MARC’ ANTONIO<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1620?-1669?), Italian musical +composer, was born at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil +of Carissimi, and after holding a post somewhere in Florence as +<i>maestro di cappella</i> entered the papal chapel in 1660. In 1666 he +became <i>Vice-Kapellmeister</i> at Vienna, and died at Venice in 1669. +Cesti is known principally as a composer of operas, the most +celebrated of which were <i>La Dori</i> (Venice, 1663) and <i>Il Pomo +d’ oro</i> (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of chamber-cantatas, +and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate +style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the +stage.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESTIUS, LUCIUS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> surnamed Pius, Latin rhetorician, +flourished during the reign of Augustus. He was a native of +Smyrna, a Greek by birth. According to Jerome, he was +teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He must have been +living after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 9, since we are told that he taunted the son of +Quintilius Varus with his father’s defeat in the Teutoburgian +forest (Seneca, <i>Controv.</i> i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of +great ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he +left Asia, he was invited to dinner by Cicero’s son, then governor +of the province. His host, being uncertain as to his identity, +asked a slave who Cestius was; and on receiving the answer, +“he is the man who said your father was illiterate,” ordered +him to be flogged (Seneca, <i>Suasoriae</i>, vii. 13). As an orator +in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and was +worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him +so slavishly that he was nicknamed “my monkey” by his +teacher (Seneca, <i>Controv.</i> ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the +other hand, he was a failure. Although a Greek, he always +used Latin in his declamations, and, although he was sometimes +at a loss for Latin words, he never suffered from lack of ideas. +Numerous specimens of his declamations will be found in the +works of Seneca the rhetorician.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the monograph <i>De Lucio Cestio Pio</i>, by F.G. Lindner (1858); +T. Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, iii. 2 (1899); +Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist, of Roman Lit.</i> (Eng. tr.), § 268, 6; M. Schanz, +<i>Geschichte der romischen Litteratur</i>, ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CESTUI, CESTUY,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> an Anglo-French word, meaning “that +person,” which appears in the legal phrases <i>cestui que trust</i>, <i>use</i>, +or <i>vie</i>. It is usually pronounced as “cetty.” <i>Cestui que trust</i> +means literally “the person for whose benefit the trust” is +created. The <i>cestui que trust</i> is the person entitled to the equitable, +as opposed to the legal, estate. Thus, if land be granted +unto, and to the use of A. in trust for B., B. is <i>cestui que trust</i>, +and A. trustee. The term, principally owing to its cumbersomeness, +is being gradually superseded in modern law by that of +“beneficiary.” <i>Cestui que use</i> (sometimes <i>cestui à que use</i>) +means “the person for whose benefit a use” is created (see +TRUST). <i>Cestui que vie</i> is “the person for whose life” lands are +held by another (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Remainder</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CETACEA<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="ketos">κέτος</span>, a whale), the name of the +mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &c. +From their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adaptation +to their purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span> +as fishes, although they are true mammals, with warm blood, +and suckle their young.</p> + +<p>The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped +body passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck, +and posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the +tail, which is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions +of skin supported by fibrous tissue, called “flukes,” forming +a horizontal triangular propelling organ, notched behind in the +middle line. The head is generally large, in some cases attaining +more than one-third the entire length; and the mouth is wide, +and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The fore-limbs are reduced +to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous skin, showing no +external sign of division, and without trace of nails. There are +no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the +skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in +many species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of +the mouth which may persist through life or be present only +in the young state. Immediately beneath the skin is a thick +layer of fat, held together by a mesh of tissue, constituting +the “blubber,” which retains the heat of the body. In nearly +all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The eye is +small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The +external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a +short distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or +by a single crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being +filled with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short +and immobile, and the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in +many species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The +odontoid process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone +is free, is usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on +the form and function of the cervical vertebrae published in the +<i>Jenaische Zeitschrift</i> for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the +shortening and soldering is most pronounced in species which, like +the right-whales, live entirely on minute organisms, to capture +which there is no necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly +we find that in these whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are +fused into an immovable solid mass, of which the compound +elements, with the exception of the first and second, are but little +thicker than plates. On the other hand, in the finner-whales, +several of which live exclusively on fish, and thus require a certain +amount of mobility in the head and neck, we find all the cervical +vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate from one another. +Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white whale, or +beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the great comparative +length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are completely +free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure +is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk +with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in +the neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed +to feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require +mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On +the other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and +mackerel, which in their densely packed shoals must apparently +fall an easy prey with but little exertion on the part of their +captor, and we accordingly find all the neck-vertebrae very short, +and at least six out of the seven coalesced into a solid immovable +mass. None of the vertebrae are united to form a sacrum. +The lumbar and caudal vertebrae are numerous and large, and, +as their arches are not connected by articular processes (zygapophyses), +they are capable of free motion in all directions. The caps, +or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral bodies are flattened +disks, not uniting until after the animal has attained its full dimensions. +There are largely developed chevron-bones on the under side +of the tail, the presence of which indicates the distinction between +caudal and lumbar vertebrae.</p> + +<p>In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost +spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards +and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the +vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region; +and the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits. +The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or +less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae, +vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the +upper jaw or roof of the mouth.</p> + +<p>There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the +scapula at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of +the limb are imperfect; the flattened ends of the bones coming in +contact, with fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any +motion. The radius and ulna are distinct, and about equally developed, +and much flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers. +There are four, or more commonly five, digits, and the number of +the phalanges of the second and third always exceeds the normal +number in mammals, sometimes considerably; they present the +exceptional character of having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis +is represented by a pair of small rod-like bones placed longitudinally, +suspended below and at some distance from the vertebral column +at the commencement of the tail. In some species, to the outer +surface of these are fixed other small bones or cartilages, the rudiments +of the hind-limb.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:539px; height:447px" src="images/img769.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—A Section of the Skull of a Black-Fish (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla.</p> +<p><i>Mx</i>, Maxilla.</p> +<p><i>ME</i>, Ossified portion of the mesethmoid.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Nostrils.</p> +<p><i>Na</i>, Nasal.</p> +<p><i>IP</i>, Inter-parietal.</p> +<p><i>Fr</i>, Frontal.</p> +<p><i>Pa</i>, Parietal.</p> +<p><i>SO</i>, Supra-occipital.</p> +<p><i>ExO</i>, Ex-occipital.</p> +<p><i>BO</i>, Basi-occipital.</p> +<p><i>Sq</i>, Squamosal.</p> +<p><i>Per</i>, Periotic.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>AS</i>, Alisphenoid.</p> +<p><i>PS</i>, Presphenoid.</p> +<p><i>Pt</i>, Pterygoid.</p> +<p><i>pn</i>, Posterior nares.</p> +<p><i>Pl</i>, Palatine.</p> +<p><i>Vo</i>, Vomer.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Symphysis of lower jaw.</p> +<p><i>id</i>, Inferior dental canal.</p> +<p><i>cp</i>, Coronoid process of lower jaw.</p> +<p><i>cd</i>, Condyle.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Angle.</p> +<p><i>sh</i>, Stylo-hyal.</p> +<p><i>bh</i>, Basi-hyal.</p> +<p><i>th</i>, Thyro-hyal.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. +In existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with +conical or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded +by milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent +(except in the foetal condition), and the palate is provided with +numerous transversely placed horny plates, forming the “whalebone.” +Salivary glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach +is complex, and the intestine simple, and only in some species +provided with a small caecum. The liver is little fissured, and +there is no gall-bladder. The blood-vascular system is complicated +by net-like expansions of both arteries and veins, or <i>retia mirabilia</i>, +The larynx is of peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the +epiglottis being elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation, +which projects into the posterior nares, and when embraced by the +soft palate forms a continuous passage between the nostrils and the +trachea, or wind-pipe, in a more perfect manner. The brain is +relatively large, round in form, with its surface divided into numerous +and complex convolutions. The kidneys are deeply lobulated; the +testes are abdominal; and there are no vesiculae seminales nor an +os penis. The uterus is bicornuate; the placenta non-deciduate and +diffuse. The two teats are placed in depressions on each side of the +genital aperture. The ducts of the milk-glands are dilated during +suckling into large reservoirs, into which the milk collects, and from +which it is injected by the action of a muscle into the mouth of the +young animal, so that sucking under water is greatly facilitated.</p> +</div> + +<p>Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins +and porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America +and Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their +life entirely in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. +They have, however, to rise very frequently to the surface for +the purpose of respiration; and, in relation to the upward and +downward movement in the water thus necessitated, the principal +instrument of motion, the tail, is expanded horizontally. The +position of the nostril on the highest part of the head is important +for this mode of life, as it is the only part of the body the exposure +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span> +of which above the surface is absolutely necessary. Of numerous +erroneous ideas connected with natural history, few are so +widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes water +taken in at the mouth. But the “spouting,” or “blowing,” of +whales is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration, +which, taking place at longer intervals than land-animals, is +performed with a greater emphasis. The moment the animal +rises to the surface it forcibly expels from its lungs the air taken +in at the last inspiration, which is charged with vapour in consequence +of the respiratory changes. This rapidly condensing in +the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is often observed, +forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken for +water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the +ocean is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its +expiratory puff before the orifice has cleared the top of the water, +some of which may thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending +to complete the illusion. From photographs of spouting rorquals, +it appears that the height and volume of the “spout” of all the +species is much less than was supposed to be the case by the older +observers; even that of the huge “sulphur-bottom” (<i>Balaenoptera +sibbaldi</i>) averaging only about 14 ft. in height, although it +may occasionally reach 20 ft.</p> + +<p>As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans +for receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by +the practice of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged +in driving a shoal of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for +the purpose of frightening their intended victims. As regards the +possession of a voice by cetaceans, it is stated that one species, +the “buckelwal” of the Germans, utters during the breeding-season +a prolonged scream, comparable to the scream of a steam-siren, +and embracing the whole musical scale, from base to treble. +In respect of anatomical considerations, it is true that the external +ear is much reduced, the “pinna” being absent, and the tube +or “meatus” of very small calibre. On the other hand, the +internal auditory organs are developed on the plan of those of +ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications +(notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone) +for intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are +received from the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident +that whales must hear when in the water. This inference is +confirmed by the comparatively small development of the other +sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is very small, and can be +of little use even at the comparatively small depths to which +whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of smell, +judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs, +must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs comparable +to the lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently, +it would seem that when below the surface of the water they must +depend chiefly upon the sense of hearing. Probably this sense +is so highly developed as to enable the animals, in the midst of +the vibrations made by the screw-like movements of the tail, or +flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations) made by the +impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in the +case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water +the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is +difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the +semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound +coasts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the Christiania <i>Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne</i>, vol. +xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the +body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely +imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a +matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living +cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale +and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a +pond in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of +procedure is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have, +accordingly, to rely on <i>post-mortem</i> observations. The layer of +blubber by which all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the +<i>post-mortem</i> refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than +in most mammals, so that such observations have a much higher +value than might at first be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the +blood-temperature of a specimen of Sibbald’s rorqual three days +after death still stood at 34° C. The various observations that +have been taken have afforded the following results in individual +cases: Sperm-whale, 40° C.; Greenland right-whale, 38.8° C.; +porpoise, 35.6° C.; liver of a second individual, 37.8° C.; common +rorqual, 35.4° C.; dolphin, 35.6° C. The average blood-temperature +of man is 37° C., and that of other mammals 39° C.; while that of +birds is 42 C. The record of 40° C. in the case of the sperm-whale +seems to indicate that at least some cetaceans have a relatively +high temperature.</p> +</div> + +<p>With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all +the Cetacea are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of +some kind. One kind alone (<i>Orca</i>) eats other warm-blooded +animals, as seals, and even members of its own order, both large +and small. Many feed on fish, others on small floating crustaceans, +pteropods and jelly-fishes, while the principal staple of +the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes and squids. In +size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins scarcely +exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal of +all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are +exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species +exceed those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct +dinosaurian reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are +generally timid, inoffensive animals, active in their movements +and affectionate in their disposition towards one another, +especially the mother towards the young, of which there is +usually but one, or at most two at a time. They are generally +gregarious, swimming in herds or “schools,” sometimes amounting +to many thousands in number; though some species are +met with either singly or in pairs.</p> + +<p>Commercially these animals are of importance on account +of the oil yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone, +spermaceti and ambergris are still more valuable products +yielded by certain species. Within the last few years whalebone +has been sold in America for £2900 per ton, while it is also asserted +that £3000 per ton has been paid for two and a quarter tons at +Aberdeen, although there seems to be some degree of doubt +attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the last +century, the price of this commodity was as low as £150 per ton, +but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to +£620 with the introduction of “crinoline” into ladies’ costume, +and it has apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris, +which is very largely used in perfumery, is solely a product of +the sperm-whale, and appears to be a kind of biliary calculus. +It generally contains a number of the horny beaks of the cuttle-fishes +and squids upon which these whales chiefly feed. Its +market-price is subject to considerable variation, but from £3 to +£4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality. In +1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of +ambergris weighing 270 ℔, which was sold in Paris for about +85 s. per oz., or £18,360.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Whalebone Whales</i>.—Existing Cetacea are divisible into two +sections, or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means +clearly apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales, +or Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although +there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished +with plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and +the nasal bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed +upwards and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not +over, the orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and +distinct from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic, +which is attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging +processes. The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two +halves of the lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends +meeting at an angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any +symphysis. All the ribs at their upper extremity articulate only +with the transverse processes of the vertebrae; their capitular +processes when present not articulating directly with the bodies of +the vertebrae. The sternum is composed of a single piece, and +articulates only with a single pair of ribs; and there are no ossified +sternal ribs. External openings of nostrils distinct from each other, +longitudinal. A short conical caecum.</p> + +<p>When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute +teeth lying in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws. +They are best developed about the middle of foetal life, after which +they are absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth. +The whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth; +and consists of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and +four hundred in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare +interval along the middle line. The plates are placed transversely +to the long axis of the palate, with short intervals between them. +Each plate or blade is somewhat triangular in form, with the base +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span> +attached to the palate and the apex hanging downwards. The outer +edge of the blade is hard and smooth, but the inner edge and apex +fray out into long bristly fibres, so that the roof of the whale’s mouth +looks as if covered with hair, as described by Aristotle. At the inner +edge of each principal blade are two or three much smaller or subsidiary +blades. The principal blades are longest near the middle of +the series, and gradually diminish towards the front and back of the +mouth. The horny plates grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix, +which covers the palatal surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-like +processes, one of which penetrates the base of each blade. +Moreover, the free edges of these processes are covered with long +vascular thread-like papillae, one of which forms the central axis of +each of the hair-like fibres mainly composing the blade. A transverse +section of fresh whalebone shows that it is made up of numbers of +these soft vascular papillae, circular in outline, and surrounded by +concentrically arranged epidermic cells, the whole bound together +by other epidermic cells, that constitute the smooth (so-called +“enamel”) surface of the blade, which, disintegrating at the free +edge, allows the individual fibres to become loose and assume a +hair-like appearance.</p> + +<p>Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous +membrane of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial +development. The blades are supported and bound together for a +certain distance from their base, by a mass of less hardened epithelium, +secreted by the surface of the palatal membrane or matrix +of the whalebone in the intervals of the plate-like processes. This is +the “gum” of the whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in +different species; in some it is almost jet black, in others slate colour, +horn colour, yellow, or even creamy-white. In some descriptions +the blades are variegated with longitudinal stripes of different hues. +It differs also greatly in other respects, being short, thick, coarse, +and stiff in some cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in +those species in which it has attained its fullest development. Its +function is to strain the water from the small marine molluscs, +crustaceans, or fish upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales +fill the immense mouth with water containing shoals of these small +creatures, and then, on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so +as to diminish the cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through +the narrow intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone +blades, and escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be +swallowed.</p> + +<p>Although sometimes divided into two families, <i>Balaenidae</i> and +<i>Balaenopteridae</i>, whalebone-whales are best included in a single +family group under the former name. The typical members of this +family are the so-called right-whales, forming the genus <i>Balaena</i>, +in which there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin; +while the cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers +are short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the +whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while +the scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process. +This genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (<i>B. +mysticetus</i>) of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so +much valued in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by +having the head somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with +shorter whalebone and a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit +the temperate seas of both northern and southern hemispheres, and +have been divided into species in accordance with their geographical +distribution, such as <i>B. biscayensis</i> of the North Atlantic, <i>B. japonica</i> +of the North Pacific, <i>B. australis</i> of the South Atlantic, and <i>B. +antipodarum</i> and <i>novae-zelandiae</i> of the South Pacific; but the +differences between them are so small that they may probably be +regarded as races of a single species, the black whale (<i>B. australis</i>). +On the head these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known +to whalers as the “bonnet.” This is a large horny excrescence, +worn into hollows like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock, +growing probably in the neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More +than one theory has been suggested to account for its presence. +One suggestion is that it indicates the descent of whales from rhinoceros-like +mammals; another that this species of whale is in the +habit of rubbing against rocks in order to free itself from barnacles, +and thus produces a kind of corn—although why on the nose alone +is not stated. Dr W.G. Ridewood, however, considers that the +structure is due to the fact that the horny layers which are produced +all over the skin are not shed on this particular spot.</p> + +<p>The pigmy whale (<i>Neobalaena marginata</i>) represents a genus +agreeing with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flutings, +and with the rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical +vertebrae are united, and there are only 43 vertebrae altogether. +The flippers are small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs +remarkably expanded and flattened; the scapula low and broad, +with completely developed acromion and coracoid processes. The +whalebone is long, slender, elastic and white. The species which +inhabits the South American, Australian and New Zealand seas is +the smallest of the whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in +length.</p> + +<p>In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (<i>Rachianectes +glaucus</i>) of the North Pacific, which combines the relatively small +head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin-whales, with +the smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the right-whales. +The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other +species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the first +two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony +shield. In the humpback-whale (<i>Megaptera longimana</i> or <i>boops</i>) +the head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and +wide, and the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is +fluted so as to form an expansible pouch; there is a low back-fin; +and the flippers, which have four digits each, are extremely long, +equalling about one-fourth the total length of the animal. The +acromion and coracoid processes of the scapula are rudimentary. +See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Humpback-Whale</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of +the shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and +are consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and immovable +neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but +with a smaller head, and probably attains considerable speed owing +to the length of its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (<i>Balaenoptera</i>), +which prey largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the +ocean greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long +and attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are +furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They +chiefly differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and +slender build, small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing +four digits, and the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low +and broad scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among +them are the most gigantic of all animals, <i>B. sibbaldi</i>, which attains +the length of 80 ft., and the small <i>B. rostrata</i>, which does not exceed +30. There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus, +represented by the two just mentioned, and by <i>B. musculus</i> and +<i>B. borealis</i>, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether +almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific +Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct +awaits future researches, although some of these have already +received distinct names. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rorqual</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In the report on the zoology of the “Discovery” expedition, +published in 1907 by the British Museum, E.A. Wilson describes a +whale frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates +a new generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure +about 20 or 30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a +killer.</p> + +<p><i>Toothed Whales.</i>—-The second suborder is represented by the +toothed whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and +teeth, generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single +pair, and occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike +that of the whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more +or less unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or +flattened plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming +any part of the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards +and backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent. +Hinder end of the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of +the orbital plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either inseparable +from the jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the +roof of the orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic, +which is usually only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament. +Two halves of the lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height +posteriorly, with a wide funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal, +and coming in contact in front by a flat surface of variable length, +but constituting a symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with +well-developed capitular processes, which articulate with the bodies +of the vertebrae. Sternum almost always composed of several pieces, +placed one behind the other, with which several pairs of ribs are +connected by well-developed cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. +External respiratory aperture single, the two nostrils uniting before +they reach the surface, usually in the form of a transverse sub-crescentic +valvular aperture, situated on the top of the head. +Flippers with five digits, though the first and fifth are usually little +developed. No caecum, except in <i>Platanista</i>.</p> + +<p>The first family, <i>Physeteridae</i>, is typified by the sperm-whale, +and characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper +jaw; the lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in +number. Bones of the skull raised so as to form an elevated prominence +or crest behind the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced +backwards, meeting in the middle line, and not involuted to form +the outer wall of the post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed +on their outer side. Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal +vertebrae, to which the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing +abruptly near the end of the series, and replaced by processes on the +body at a lower level, and serially homologous anteriorly with the +heads of the ribs, and posteriorly with the transverse processes of +the lumbar vertebrae. Costal cartilages not ossified.</p> + +<p>The first group, or <i>Physeterinae</i>, includes the sperm-whale itself +and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth, +which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being imperfectly +divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by the +strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly +asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence +of the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:204px" src="images/img772a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Skull of Sperm-Whale (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the sperm-whale (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>) the upper teeth +are apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless, +being embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25 +teeth on each side, stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span> +until they are worn, without enamel. Upper surface of the skull +concave; its posterior and lateral edges raised into a very high and +greatly compressed semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic +processes of jugal bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elongated, +broad at the base, and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower +jaw exceedingly long and narrow, the symphysis being more than +half the length. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas, +or first vertebra, free; all the other cervical vertebrae united +by their bodies and spines into a single mass. Eleventh pair of +ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third the length of the body; +very massive, high and truncated, and rather compressed in front; +owing its huge size and form mainly to the accumulation of a mass +of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the upper surface of the +skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single blow-hole is longitudinal, +slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper and +anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle +line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the +head, considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers +short, broad and truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low +protuberance. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sperm-Whale</a></span>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:584px; height:105px" src="images/img772b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Bottle-nose (<i>Hyperoödon rostratus</i>). From a specimen taken off +the coast of Scotland, 1882.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (<i>Cogia breviceps</i>) +there may be a pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw, +while on each side of the lower jaw there are from 9 to 12 +rather long, slender, pointed and curved teeth, with a coating +of enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave, with +thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive and rounded +at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle not longer +than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base, and rapidly +tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal rod-like. +Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length. Vertebrae: +C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the cervical vertebrae +united by their bodies and arches. The head is about one-sixth +of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in front; the +mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout; the blow-hole +crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in advance +of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the flippers are +bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This species +attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft.</p> + +<p>A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked +whales, and known as the <i>Ziphiinae</i>. In this group the lower teeth +are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely +two, pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male. +There is a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced +into a slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded +eminence formed by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front +of the blow-hole rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single, +crescentic and median, as in the <i>Delphinidae</i>. Flippers small, ovate, +with five digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal +fin situated considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal +grooves on each side of the skin of the throat, diverging +posteriorly, and nearly meeting in front. In external characters +and habits the whales of this group closely resemble each other. +They appear to be almost exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and +occur either singly, in pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and +osteological characters they are easily separated into four genera.</p> + +<p>In the first of these, <i>Hyperoödon</i>, or bottle-nose, there is a small +conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw, +concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the +premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex and +expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their +anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils; +the right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow +between the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave +in the middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of +the right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla. +Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak, +extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other +in the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so +massive that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital +notch distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Vertebrae: +C 7, D 9, L 10, Ca 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae +united. Upper surface of the head in front of the blow-hole very +prominent and rounded, rising abruptly from above the small, +distinct snout. Two species are known. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bottle-nose Whale</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The typical representative of the beaked whales is <i>Ziphius cuvieri</i>, +in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side +close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards +and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and +at the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral +margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards, +the right being considerably more developed than the left. The +conjoint nasals form a pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of +the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above, prominent +and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a notch +on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not distinct. +Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base to the +apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum raised +into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely +ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of +the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The +three anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:575px; height:132px" src="images/img772c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Sowerby’s Beaked Whale (<i>Mesoplodon bidens</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the numerous species of the allied genus <i>Mesoplodon</i> there is a +much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw, +variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex; +its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasionally +developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the +nostrils is as in <i>Hyperoödon</i>, except that the nasals are narrow and +more sunk between the upper ends of the premaxillae; like those of +<i>Hyperoödon</i>, they are concave in the middle line in front and above. +No maxillary tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct. +Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its +entire length, and coalescing with the surrounding bones. Vertebrae: +C 7, D 10, L 10 or 11, Ca 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two +or three anterior cervicals united, the rest usually free.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:222px" src="images/img772d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Skull of a Beaked Whale (<i>Mesoplodon densirostris</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different +members of this genus agree in their essential structure, +having a small and pointed enamel-covered crown, composed +of dentine, which, instead of surmounting a root of +the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid mass of osteo-dentine, +the continuous growth of which greatly alters the +form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances, +as in the case of <i>M. layardi</i>, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like +teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over +the rostrum, and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one +species (<i>M. grayi</i>) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like +those of ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, is present even in +the adults, on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but +embedded by their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets. +This, with the frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other +species of this genus, indicates that the beaked whales are derived +from ancestral forms with teeth of normal character in both jaws. +The species are distributed in both northern and southern hemispheres, +but most frequent in the latter. Among them are <i>M. bidens</i>, +<i>M. europaeas</i>, <i>M. densirostris</i>, <i>M. layardi</i>, <i>M. grayi</i> and <i>M. hectori</i>; +but there is still much to be learned with regard to their characters +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span> +and distribution. This group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as +attested by the frequency with which the imperishable long, cylindrical +rostrum of the skull, of more than ivory denseness, is found +among the rolled and waterworn animal remains which compose +the “bone-bed” at the base of the Red Crag of Suffolk.</p> + +<p>Finally, in Arnoux’s beaked whale (<i>Berardius arnouxi</i>), of New +Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two moderate-sized, +compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the symphysis +of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the anterior +being the larger of the two and close to the front of the jaw. Upper +ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately elevated, +slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils. Nasals +broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the vertex +of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle line. +Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid +partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the +upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae: +C 7, D 10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals +welded, the rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale +has the power of thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to +view when attacked.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:457px; height:112px" src="images/img773a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—The Susu, or Ganges Dolphin (<i>Platanista gangetica</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In a family by themselves—the <i>Platinistidae</i>—are placed three +cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the +following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the +vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at +the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in +most mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal +bone is not distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, +with numerous teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one +exceeding half its length. Externally the head is divided from the +body by a slightly constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and +truncated. Dorsal fin small or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are +fluviatile or estuarine. In the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin +(<i>Platanista gangetica</i>), the teeth number about <span class="spp">30</span>⁄<span class="suu">30</span> on each side, are +set near together, are rather large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed +in the young, but in old animals acquire a large laterally compressed +base, which in the posterior part of the series becomes +irregularly divided into roots. As the conical enamel-covered crown +wears away, the teeth of the young and old animals have a totally +different appearance. The beak and tooth-bearing portion of the +lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of the two sides are almost +in contact. Maxillae supporting large, incurved, compressed bony +crests, which overarch the nostrils and base of the rostrum, and +almost meet in the middle line above. Orbits very small and eyes +rudimentary, without crystalline lens. Blow-hole longitudinal, +linear. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 25; total 51. A small caecum. +No pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:138px" src="images/img773b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—River Plate Dolphin (<i>Stenodelphis blainvillei</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The second genus is represented by <i>Inia geoffroyi</i>, of the +Amazon, in which the teeth vary from 26 to 33 pairs in each +jaw; those at the posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner +side of the base of the crown. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18; +total 41. Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae very broad. +Sternum short and broad, and consisting of a single segment only. +Dorsal fin a mere ridge. The long cylindrical rostrum externally +furnished with scattered, stout and crisp hairs. The third type is +<i>Stenodelphis blainvillei</i>, the River Plate dolphin, a small brown +species (fig. 7), with from 50 to 60 pairs of teeth in each jaw, +furnished with a cingulum at the base of the crown. Jaws very long +and slender. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca 19; total 41. Transverse +processes of the lumbar vertebrae extremely broad. Sternum +elongated, composed of two segments, with four sternal ribs attached. +Dorsal fin rather small, triangular, pointed. Blow-hole transverse. +In several respects this species connects the two preceding ones +with the <i>Delphinidae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dolphin</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:174px; height:1013px" src="images/img773c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Upper surface +of the Skull of +male Narwhal (<i>Monodon +monoceros</i>), with +the whole of both +teeth exposed by removal +of the upper +wall of their alveolar +cavities.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The last family of existing cetaceans is the above-mentioned +<i>Delphinidae</i>, which includes the true dolphins, porpoises, grampuses +and their relatives. As a rule there are numerous teeth in both jaws; +and the pterygoid bones of the skull are short, thin and involuted +to form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of the post-palatine +air-sinus. Symphysis of lower jaw short, or moderate, never +exceeding one-third the length of the jaw. Lacrymal bone not +distinct from the jugal. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae +gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the +vertebrae without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly +continuous serially with the transverse processes of the lumbar +vertebrae. Anterior ribs attached to the +transverse process by the tubercle, and to +the body of the vertebra by the head; the +latter attachment lost in the posterior ribs. +Sternal ribs ossified. The blow-hole is transverse, +crescentic, with the horns of the +crescent pointing forwards.</p> + +<p>First on the long list is the narwhal, +<i>Monodon monoceros</i>, in which, apart from +some irregular rudimentary teeth, the dentition +is reduced to a single pair of teeth which +lie horizontally in the maxilla, and in the +female remain permanently concealed within +the socket, so that this sex is practically +toothless, while in the male (fig. 8), the +right tooth usually remains similarly concealed +while the left is immensely developed, +attaining a length equal to more than half +that of the entire animal, projecting horizontally +from the head in the form of a +cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed +tusk, without enamel, and with the surface +marked by spiral grooves and ridges, running +in a sinistral direction. Vertebrae: C 7, +D 11, L 6, Ca 26; total 50. Cervical region +comparatively long, and all the vertebrae +distinct, or with irregular unions towards +the middle of the series, the atlas and axis +being usually free. Flipper small, short +and broad, with the second and third digits +nearly equal, the fourth slightly shorter. +No dorsal fin. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Narwhal</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Closely allied is the beluga or white-whale +(<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>), of the Arctic seas, +in which, however, there are from eight to +ten pairs of teeth in each jaw, occupying +the anterior three-fourths of the rostrum and +corresponding portion of the lower jaw, +rather small, conical, and pointed when +unworn, but usually become obliquely truncated, +separated by intervals considerably +wider than the diameter of the tooth, and +implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining +forwards especially in the upper jaw. Skull +rather narrow and elongated, depressed. Premaxillae +convex in front of the nostrils. +Rostrum about equal in length to the cranial +portion of the skull, triangular, broad at the +base, and gradually contracting towards the +apex, where it is somewhat curved downwards. +Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 9, Ca 23; +total 50. Cervical vertebrae free. Flippers +broad, short and rounded, all the digits being +tolerably well developed, except the first. +Anterior part of head rounded; no distinct +snout. No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in its +place. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beluga</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In all the remaining genera of <i>Delphinidae</i> +the cervical region of the vertebral column is +very short, and the first two, and usually +more, of the vertebrae are firmly united. +The common porpoise (<i>Phocaena communis</i>, +or <i>P. phocaena</i>) is the typical representative +of the first genus, in which the teeth +vary from <span class="spp">18</span>⁄<span class="suu">18</span> to <span class="spp">25</span>⁄<span class="suu">25</span> , are small, and occupy +nearly the whole length of the rostrum, with +compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated +from the root by a constricted neck. +Rostrum rather shorter than the cranium +proper, broad at the base and tapering towards +the apex. Premaxillae raised into +tuberosities in front of the nostrils. The +frontal bones form a somewhat square elevated +protuberance in the middle line of the +skull behind the nostrils, rising above the flattened nasals. Symphysis +of lower jaw very short. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 14, Ca 30; +total 64. First to sixth cervical vertebrae and sometimes the seventh +also, coalesced. Flippers of moderate size, oval, slightly sickle-shaped, +with the second and third digits nearly equal in length, and +the fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Head short, +moderately rounded in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin near the +middle of the back, triangular; its height considerably less than +the length of the base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with +one or more rows of conical horny tubercles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span></p> + +<p>The porpoise, which is so common in British waters and the +Atlantic, seldom enters the Mediterranean, and apparently never +resides there. There is, however, a porpoise in the Black Sea, which, +according to Dr O. Abel, is entitled to rank as a distinct species, with +the name of <i>Phocaena relicta</i>. This Black Sea porpoise is readily +distinguished from the Atlantic species by the contour of the profile +of the head, which, in place of forming a continuous curve from the +muzzle to what represents the neck, has a marked prominence above +the angle of the mouth, followed by an equally marked depression. +The teeth are also different in form and number. The absence of +porpoises from the Mediterranean is explained by Dr Abel on account +of the greater saltness of that sea as compared with the ocean in +general; his idea being that these cetaceans are near akin to fresh-water +members of the group, and therefore unsuited to withstand +an excessively saline medium. From the Taman Peninsula, on the +north shore of the Black Sea, the same writer has described an extinct +type of ancestral porpoise, under the name of <i>Palaeophocaena andrussowi</i>. +Another species is the wholly black <i>P. spinipennis</i>, typically +from South America. Black is also the hue of the Indian porpoise +(<i>Neophocaena phocaenoides</i>), which wants a dorsal fin, and has +eighteen pairs of teeth rather larger than those of the ordinary +porpoise. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Porpoise</a></span>.)</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:571px; height:109px" src="images/img774a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Beluga or White-Whale (<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>). From a specimen +taken in the river St Lawrence and exhibited in London, 1877.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Next comes the Indo-Malay genus <i>Orcella</i>, in which the <span class="spp">12</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span> to <span class="spp">14</span>⁄<span class="suu">14</span> , +small, conical teeth are pointed, rather closely set, and occupy +nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull sub-globular, high. +Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion of the skull, +tapering. Flippers of moderate size, not elongated, but somewhat +pointed, with all the bones of the digits broader than long, except +the first phalanges of the index and third fingers. Head globular +in front. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle of the +body. Two species, both of small size—<i>O. brevirostris</i>, from the +Bay of Bengal, and <i>O. fluminalis</i>, from the Irrawaddy river, from +300 to 900 m. from the sea.</p> + +<p>In the grampus, or killer, <i>Orca gladiator</i> (or <i>O. orca</i>) the teeth form +about twenty pairs, above and below, occupying nearly the whole +length of the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved +crowns and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather +hollowed, on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about +equal in length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened +above, rounded in front; premaxillae broad and rather concave in +front of the nostrils, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and +expanding again towards the apex. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, +L 10, Ca 23; total 51 or 52; bodies of the first and second and +sometimes the third cervical vertebrae united; the rest free. +Flippers very large, ovate, nearly as broad as long, with all the +phalanges and metacarpals broader than long. General form of +body robust. Face short and rounded. Dorsal fin near the middle +of the back, very high and pointed. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grampus</a></span>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:584px; height:195px" src="images/img774b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—The Grampus or Killer (<i>Orca gladiator</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The lesser killer or black killer, <i>Pseudorca crassidens</i>, has its <span class="spp">8-12</span>⁄<span class="suu">8-12</span> +teeth confined to the anterior half of the rostrum and corresponding +part of the lower jaw; they are small, conical, curved and sharp-pointed +when unworn, but sometimes deciduous in old age. Skull +broad and depressed; with the rostrum and cranial portions about +equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Premaxillae +concave in front of the nostrils, as wide at the middle of +the rostrum as at the base, and nearly or completely concealing the +maxillae in the anterior half of this region. Vertebrae: C 7, D II, +L 12-14, Ca 28-29; total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or +six cervical vertebrae united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar +and anterior caudal vertebrae about equal to their width. Flippers +very long and narrow, with the second digit the longest, and having +as many as 12 or 13 phalanges, the third shorter (with +9 phalanges), the first, fourth and fifth very short. Fore part +of the head round, in consequence of the great development of a +cushion of fat, placed on the rostrum of the skull in front of the +blow-hole. Dorsal fin low and triangular, the length of its base +considerably exceeding its vertical height.</p> + +<p>Next comes the ca’ing whale, or black-fish (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>), +with about ten pairs of upper and lower teeth. Cranial and dental +characters generally like those of <i>Orca</i>, except that the roots of the +teeth are cylindrical. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 9, Ca 24; total 50; +first to sixth or seventh cervical vertebrae united; bodies of the +lumbar vertebrae distinguished from those of the preceding genera +by being more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2. +Flippers of moderate size, narrow and pointed. Dorsal fin situated +near the middle of the back, of moderate size, and sickle-shaped. +Head in front of the blow-hole high, and compressed anteriorly, the +snout truncated. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ca’ing Whale</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Risso’s dolphin, <i>Grampus griseus</i>, represents another genus, +characterized by the absence of teeth in the upper and the small +number of these in the lower jaw (3 to 7 on each side, +and confined to the region of the symphysis). Vertebrae: C 7, +D 12, L 19, Ca 30; total 68. General external characters much +as in <i>Globicephalus</i>, but the fore part of the head less rounded, +and the flippers less elongated. <i>G. griseus</i> is about 13 ft. long, +and remarkable for its great variability of colour. It has been +found, though rarely, in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>The common dolphin (<i>Delphinus delphis</i>) is the typical representative +of a large group of relatively small species, some of +which are wholly marine, while others are more or less completely +fluviatile. They are divided into a number of genera, such as <i>Prodelphinus</i>, +<i>Steno</i>, <i>Lagenorhynchus</i>, <i>Cephalorhynchus</i>, <i>Tursiops</i>, &c., best +distinguished from one another by the number and size of the teeth, +the form and relations of the bones on the hinder part of the palate, +the length of the beak and of the union of the two halves of the lower +jaw, and the number of vertebrae. For the distinctive characters +of these genera the reader may refer to one of the works mentioned +below; and it must suffice to state that, collectively, all these +dolphins are characterized by the following features. The teeth +are numerous in both jaws, and more than <span class="spp">20</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span> in number, occupying +nearly the whole length of the rostrum, and small, close-set, conical, +pointed and slightly curved. Rostrum more or less elongated, and +pointed in front, usually considerably longer than the cranial portion +of the skull. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-14, L and Ca variable; total +51 to 90. Flippers of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat +sickle-shaped, with the first digit rudimentary, the second longest, +third nearly equal, and the fourth and fifth extremely short. Externally +the head shows a distinct beak or pointed snout, marked +off from the antenasal fatty elevation by a V-shaped groove. Dorsal +fin rather large, triangular or sickle-shaped, rarely wanting. A +curiously marked brown and white species, perhaps referable to +<i>Lagenorhynchus</i> is found on the fringe of the Antarctic ice (see +report on the zoology of the “Discovery,” published in 1907 by the +British Museum). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dolphin</a></span>.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Extinct Cetacea.</i></p> + +<p>At present we are totally in the dark as to the origin of the whalebone-whales, +not being even assured that they are derived from the +same stock as the toothed whales. It is noteworthy, +however, that some of the fossil representatives of the +latter have nasal bones of a type recalling those of the +former. Such fossil whalebone-whales as are known occur +in Pliocene, and Miocene formations are either referable to +existing genera, or to more or less nearly related extinct ones, +such as <i>Plesiocetus</i>, <i>Herpetocetus</i> and <i>Cetotherium</i>.</p> + +<p>The toothed whales, on the other hand, are very largely +represented in a fossil state, reaching as low in the geological +series as the upper Cretaceous. Many of these present much +more generalized characters than their modern representatives, +while others indicate apparently a transition towards +the still more primitive zeuglodonts, which, as will be +shown later, are themselves derived from the creodont +Carnivora. In the Pliocene deposits of Belgium and England +are preserved the teeth and other remains of a number of +cetaceans, such as <i>Physodon</i>, <i>Encetus</i>, <i>Dinoziphius</i>, <i>Hoplocetus</i>, +<i>Balaenodon</i> and <i>Scaldicetus</i>, more or less nearly related to the sperm-whale, +but presenting several primitive characters. A complete +skull of a member of this group from the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia, +at first referred to <i>Physodon</i>, but subsequently to <i>Scaldicetus</i>, +has a full series of enamelled teeth in the upper jaw; and it is probable +that the same was the case in other forms. This entails either +a modification of the definition of the <i>Physeteridae</i> as given above, +or the creation of a separate family for these primitive sperm-whales. +In other cases, however, as in the Miocene <i>Prophyseter</i> and <i>Placoziphius</i>, +the anterior portion or the whole of the upper jaw had +already become toothless; and these forms are regarded as indicating +the descent of the sperm-whales from the under-mentioned +<i>Squalodon</i>. The beaked whales, again, are believed to be independently +descended from the latter type, <i>Berardius</i> being traced +into the Miocene <i>Mioziphius</i>, <i>Anoplonassa</i> and <i>Palaeoziphius</i>, the +last of which shows signs in its dentition of approximating to the +complicated tooth-structure of the squalodonts.</p> + +<p>Another line of descent from the latter, apparently culminating +in the modern <i>Platanistidae</i>, is represented by the family +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span> +<i>Eurhinodelphidae</i>, typified by the European Miocene <i>Eurhinodelphis</i>, +but also including the contemporary Patagonian <i>Argyrocetus</i> and the +nearly allied European <i>Cyrtodelphis</i>. All these were very long-beaked +dolphins; and in <i>Argyrocetus</i>, at all events, the occipital condyles, +instead of being closely pressed to the skull, are as prominent as +in ordinary mammals, while the nasal bones, instead of forming +mere rudimentary nodules, were squared and roofed over the hind +part of the nasal chamber.</p> + +<p>In the Miocene <i>Squalodon</i>, representing the family <i>Squalodontidae</i>, +the dentition is differentiated into incisors, canines and cheek-teeth, +the hinder ones of the latter series having double roots and +compressed crowns carrying serrations on the hinder edge; generally +the dental formula has been given as i. <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> , c. <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span> , p. <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> , m. <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> , the +single-rooted cheek-teeth being regarded as premolars and those with +double roots as molars. Dr Abel is, however, of opinion that the +formula is better represented as i. <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> , c. <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span> , p. <span class="spp">8 or 9</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span>, m. <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span> ; the teeth +reckoned as molars corresponding to those of the creodont Carnivora. +The single-rooted cheek-teeth are regarded as due, not to the division +of double-rooted ones, but to the fusion of the two roots of teeth +of the latter type. In <i>Squalodon</i> the nasal bones were of the modern +nodular type, but in the Miocene Patagonian <i>Prosqualodon</i> they +partially covered the nasal chamber.</p> + +<p>At present there is a gap between the most primitive squalodonts +and the Eocene zeuglodonts (<i>Zeuglodontidae</i>), which are regarded by +Messrs Max Weber, O. Abel and C.W. Andrews as the direct +forerunners of the modern-toothed whales, forming the suborder +<i>Archaeoceti</i>. It is, however, right to mention that some +authorities refuse to admit the relation of the Archaeoceti to the +whales.</p> + +<p>In the typical zeuglodonts the long and flat skull has large temporal +fossae, a strong sagittal crest, a long beak formed mainly by the +premaxillae (in place of the maxillae, as in modern whales), and long +nasal bones covering over the nasal chamber, so that the nostrils +opened about half-way down the beak. All the cervical vertebrae +were free. Normally the dentition in the typical genus <i>Zeuglodon</i> +(which is common to the Eocene of North America and Egypt) +is i. <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> , c. <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span> , p. <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> , m. <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ; the cheek-teeth being two-rooted, with +compressed pointed crowns, of which the fore-and-aft edges are coarsely +serrated. In the Egyptian <i>Zeuglodon osiris</i> the number of the molars +is, however, reduced to <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> , while some of the earlier cheek-teeth have +become single-rooted, as in the squalodonts. The probable transitional +form between the latter and the zeuglodonts is the small +<i>Microzeuglodon caucasicus</i> described by the present writer, from the +Caucasus. As regards the origin of the zeuglodonts themselves, +remains discovered in the Eocene formations of Egypt indicate a +practically complete transition, so far at least as dental characters +are concerned, from these whale-like creatures to the creodont +Carnivora. In the earliest type, <i>Protocetus</i>, the skull is practically +that of a zeuglodont, the snout being in fact more elongated than +in some of the earliest representatives of the latter, although the +nostrils are placed nearer the tip. The incisors are unknown, but +the cheek-teeth are essentially those of a creodont, none of them +having acquired the serrated edges distinctive of the typical zeuglodonts; +and the hinder premolars and molars retaining the three +roots of the creodonts. In the somewhat later <i>Prozeuglodon</i> the +skull is likewise essentially of the zeuglodont type, although the +nostrils have shifted a little more backwards; as regards the cheek-teeth, +which have acquired serrated crowns, the premolars at any +rate retain the inner buttress supported by a distinct third root, so +that they are precisely intermediate between <i>Protocetus</i> and <i>Zeuglodon</i>. +Yet another connecting form is <i>Eocetus</i>, a very large animal +from nearly the same horizon as <i>Prozeuglodon</i>; its skull approaching +that of <i>Zeuglodon</i> as regards the backward position of the nostrils, +although the cheek-teeth are of the creodont type, having inner, or +third, roots. It is noteworthy that <i>Zeuglodon</i> apparently occurs in +the same beds as these intermediate types.</p> + +<p>It follows from the foregoing that if zeuglodonts are the ancestors +of the true Cetacea—and the probability that they are so is very +great—the latter are derived from primitive Carnivora, and not, as +has been suggested, from herbivorous Ungulata. The idea that the +zeuglodonts were provided with a bony armour does not appear +to be supported by recent discoveries.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. +Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See also W.H. Flower, +“On the Characters and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae,” +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> (London, 1883); F.W. True, “Review of the +Family Delphinidae,” <i>Proc. U.S. Museum</i>, No. 36 (1889); R. Lydekker, +“Cetacean Skulls from Patagonia,” <i>Palaeontol. Argentina</i>, +vol. ii: <i>An. Mus. La Plata</i> (1893); W. Dames, “Über Zeuglodonten +aus Ägypten,” <i>Paläontol. Abhandlungen</i>, vol. i. (1894); F.E. +Beddard, <i>A Book of Whales</i> (London, 1900); O. Abel, “Untersuchungen +über die fossilen Platanistiden des Wiener Beckens,” +<i>Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien.</i>, vol. lxviii. (1899); “Les Dauphins +longirostres du Bolérien,” <i>Mém. musée d’hist. nat. belgique</i> (1901 +and 1902); “Die phylogenetische Entwickelung des Cetaceengebisses +und die systematische Stellung der Physeteriden,” <i>Verhandl. +deutsch. zool. Gesellschaft</i> (1905); E. Fraas, “Neue Zeuglodonten +aus dem unteren Mittelocean vom Mokattam bei Cairo,” <i>Geol. +und paläontol. Abhandl.</i> ser. 2, vol. vi. (1904); C.W. Andrews, +“Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum” +(British Museum, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CETHEGUS,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> the name of a Roman patrician family of +the Cornelian gens. Like the younger Cato its members +kept up the old Roman fashion of dispensing with the +tunic and leaving the arms bare (Horace, <i>Ars Poëtica</i>, 50; +Lucan, <i>Pharsalia</i>, ii. 543). Two individuals are of some +importance:—</p> + +<p>(1) <span class="sc">Marcus Cornelius Cethegus</span>, pontifex maximus and +curule aedile, 213 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 211, as praetor, he had charge of +Apulia; later, he was sent to Sicily, where he proved a successful +administrator. In 209 he was censor, and in 204 consul. In +203 he was proconsul in Upper Italy, where, in conjunction with +the praetor P. Quintilius Varus, he gained a hard-won victory +over Mago, Hannibal’s brother, in Insubrian territory, and +obliged him to leave Italy. He died in 196. He had a great +reputation as an orator, and is characterized by Ennius as “the +quintessence of persuasiveness” (<i>suadae medulla</i>). Horace (<i>Ars +Poët.</i> 50; <i>Epistles</i>, ii. 2. 117) calls him an authority on the use +of Latin words.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Livy xxv. 2, 41, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11, xxx. 18.</p> +</div> + +<p>(2) <span class="sc">Gaius Cornelius Cethegus</span>, the boldest and most +dangerous of Catiline’s associates. Like many other youthful +profligates, he joined the conspiracy in the hope of getting his +debts cancelled. When Catiline left Rome in 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after +Cicero’s first speech, Cethegus remained behind as leader of the +conspirators with P. Lentulus Sura. He himself undertook to +murder Cicero and other prominent men, but was hampered +by the dilatoriness of Sura, whose age and rank entitled +him to the chief consideration. The discovery of arms in +Cethegus’s house, and of the letter which he had given to the +ambassadors of the Allobroges, who had been invited to co-operate, +led to his arrest. He was condemned to death, and +executed, with Sura and others, on the night of the 5th of +December.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sallust, <i>Catilina</i>, 46-55; Cicero, <i>In Cat.</i> iii. 5-7; Appian, <i>Bell. +Civ.</i> ii. 2-5; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catiline</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CETINA, GUTIERRE DE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1518?-1572?), Spanish poet and +soldier, was born at Seville shortly before 1520. He served +under Charles V. in Italy and Germany, but retired from the +army in 1545 to settle in Seville. Soon afterwards, however, +he sailed for Mexico, where he resided for some ten years; he +appears to have visited Seville in 1557, and to have returned +to Mexico, where he died at some date previous to 1575. A +follower of Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega, a friend of Jerónimo +de Urrea and Baltavar del Alcázar, Cetina adopted the doctrines +of the Italian school and, under the name of Vandalio, wrote +an extensive series of poems in the newly introduced metres; +his sonnets are remarkable for elegance of form and sincerity of +sentiment, his other productions being in great part adaptations +from Petrarch, Ariosto and Ludovico Dolce. His patrons were +Antonio de Leyva, prince of Ascoli, Hurtado de Mendoza, and +Alva’s grandson, the duke de Sessa, but he seems to have profited +little by their protection. His works have been well edited by +Joaquín Hazañas y la Rúa in two volumes published at Seville +(1895).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CETTE,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a seaport of southern France in the department of +Hérault, 18 m. S.W. of Montpellier by the Southern railway. +Pop. (1906) 32,659. After Marseilles it is the principal commercial +port on the south coast of France. The older part of +Cette occupies the foot and slope of the Mont St Clair (the +ancient <i>Mons Setius</i>), a hill 590 ft. in height, situated on a +tongue of land that lies between the Mediterranean and the +lagoon of Thau. This quarter with its wide streets and lofty +stone buildings is bounded on the east by the Canal de Cette, +which leads from the lagoon of Thau to the Old Basin and the +outer harbour. Across the canal lie the newer quarters, which +chiefly occupy two islands separated from each other by a wet +dock and limited on the east by the Canal Maritime, parallel to +the Canal de Cette. A lateral canal unites the northern ends +of the two main canals. A breakwater running W.S.W. and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span> +E.N.E. protects the entrance to the harbour, which is one of +the safest in France. The outer port and the Old Basin are +enclosed by a mole to the south and by a jetty to the east. +Behind the outer port lies an inner and more recent basin which +communicates with the Canal Maritime. The entire area of the +harbour, including the canals, is 111 acres with a quayage +length of over 8000 yds. The public institutions of Cette +include tribunals of commerce and of maritime commerce, +councils of arbitration in commercial and fishing affairs, an +exchange and chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of +France and a large hospital. There are also a communal college, +a naval school, and schools of music, commerce and industry, +and navigation. Cette is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The +town is connected with Lyons by the canal from the Rhone to +Cette, and with Bordeaux by the Canal du Midi, and is a +junction of the Southern and Paris-Lyon railways. The shipping +trade is carried on with South America, the chief ports of the +Mediterranean, and especially with Spain. The chief exports +are wines and brandy, chemical products, skins and soap; the +chief imports are wine, cereals, coal, timber, petroleum, sulphur, +tar and chemical substances. In the five years 1901-1905 the +average annual value of imports was £3,720,000 (£4,980,000 in +years 1896-1900), of exports £1,427,000 (£1,237,000 in 1896-1900). +More than 400 small craft are employed in the sardine, tunny, +cod and other fisheries. Large quantities of shell-fish are +obtained from the lagoon of Thau. There are factories for the +pickling of sardines, for the manufacture of liqueurs and casks, +and for the treatment of sulphur, phosphates, and nitrate of +soda. The Schneider Company of Creusot also have metallurgical +works at Cette, and the establishments for making wine +give employment to thousands. The port of Cette was created +in 1666 by the agency of Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., and +according to the plans of Vauban; toward the end of the 17th +century its development was aided by the opening of the Canal +du Midi.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CETTIGNE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (Servian, <i>Tsetinye</i>; also written <i>Cettinje</i>, <i>Tzetinje</i>, +and <i>Tsettinye</i>), the capital of Montenegro; in a narrow plain +deeply sunk in the heart of the limestone mountains, at a height +of 2093 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900) about 3200. The surrounding +country is bare and stony, with carefully cultivated +patches of rich red soil among the crevices of the rock. In +winter it is often so deeply covered with snow as to be well-nigh +inaccessible, while in spring and autumn it is frequently flooded +by the waters of a small brook which becomes a torrent after +rain or a thaw. Cettigne itself is little more than a walled +village, consisting of a cluster of whitewashed cottages and +some unadorned public buildings. These include a church; +a fortified monastery which was founded in 1478, but so often +burned and rebuilt as to seem quite modern, and which is +visited by pilgrims to the tomb of Peter I. (1782-1830); residences +for the archimandrite and the <i>vladika</i> or metropolitan +of Cettigne; a palace built in 1863, which accommodates the +ministries; the court of appeal, and a school modelled on the +gymnasia of Germany and Austria; the newer palaces of the +prince and his heir; foreign legations; barracks; a seminary +for priests and teachers, established by the tsar Alexander II. +(1855-1881), with a very successful girls’ school founded and +endowed by the tsaritsa Marie; a library and reading-room; +a theatre, a museum and a hospital. In an open space near +the old palace stood the celebrated plane tree, beneath which +Prince Nicholas gave audience to his subjects, and administered +justice until the closing years of the 19th century. A zigzag +highway, regarded as a triumph of engineering, winds through +the mountain passes between Cettigne and the Austrian seaport +of Cattaro; and other good roads give access to the richest +parts of the interior. There is, however, little trade, though +mineral waters are manufactured.</p> + +<p>Cettigne owes its origin to Ivan the Black, who was +forced, towards the end of the 15th century, to withdraw from +Zhabliak, his former capital. It has often been taken and +sacked by the Turks, but has seldom been occupied by them +for long.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CETUS<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (“The Whale”), in astronomy, a constellation of the +southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and fabled by the Greeks to be +the monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda, but which +was slain by Perseus. Ptolemy catalogued 22 stars in this +constellation; Tycho Brahe, 21; and Hevelius, 45. The most +remarkable star of this constellation is <i>o</i>-(<i>Mira</i>) <i>Ceti</i>, a long-period +variable, discovered by the German astronomer Fabricius; +its magnitude varies between about 3 to 9, and its period is 331 +days. <i>τ-Ceti</i> is an irregular variable, its extreme magnitudes +being 5 and 7; <i>γ-Ceti</i> is a beautiful double star, consisting of a +yellow star of magnitude 3 and a blue of magnitude 6.8; <i>ν-Ceti</i> +is also a double star.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CETYWAYO<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (  ?-1884), king of the Zulus, was the eldest +son of King Umpande or Panda, and a nephew of the two +previous kings, Dingaan and Chaka. Cetywayo was a young +man when in 1840 his father was placed on the throne by the +aid of the Natal Boers; and three years later Natal became +a British colony. Cetywayo had inherited much of the military +talent of his uncle Chaka, the organizer of the Zulu military +system, and chafed under his father’s peaceful policy towards +his British and Boer neighbours. Suspecting Panda of favouring +a younger son, Umbulazi, as his successor, Cetywayo made +war on his brother, whom he defeated and slew at a great battle +on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856. In the following +year, at an assembly of the Zulus, it was resolved that Panda +should retire from the management of the affairs of the nation, +which were entrusted to Cetywayo, though the old chief kept +the title of king. Cetywayo was, however, suspicious of the +Natal government, which afforded protection to two of his +brothers. The feeling of distrust was removed in 1861 by a +visit from Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus Shepstone, secretary +for native affairs in Natal, who induced Panda to proclaim +Cetywayo publicly as the future king. Friendly relations were +then maintained between the Zulus and Natal for many years. +In 1872 Panda died, and Cetywayo was declared king, August +1873, in the presence of Shepstone, to whom he made solemn +promises to live at peace with his neighbours and to govern his +people more humanely. These promises were not kept. Not +only were numbers of his own people wantonly slain (Cetywayo +returning defiant messages to the governor of Natal when +remonstrated with), and the military system of Chaka and +Dingaan strengthened, but he had a feud with the Transvaal +Boers as to the possession of the territory between the Buffalo +and Pongola rivers, and encouraged the chief Sikukuni (Secocoeni) +in his struggle against the Boers. This feud with the Boers was +inherited by the British government on the annexation of the +Transvaal in 1877. Cetywayo’s attitude became menacing; he +allowed a minor chief to make raids into the Transvaal, and +seized natives within the Natal border.</p> + +<p>Sir Bartle Frere, who became high commissioner of South +Africa in March 1877, found evidence which convinced him that +the Kaffir revolt of that year on the eastern border of Cape +Colony was part of a design or desire “for a general and +simultaneous rising of Kaffirdom against white civilization”; and +the Kaffirs undoubtedly looked to Cetywayo and the Zulus as +the most redoubtable of their champions. In December 1878 +Frere sent the Zulu king an ultimatum, which, while awarding +him the territory he claimed from the Boers, required him to +make reparation for the outrages committed within the British +borders, to receive a British resident, to disband his regiments, +and to allow his young men to marry without the necessity +of having first “washed their spears.” Cetywayo, who had +found a defender in Bishop Colenso, vouchsafed no reply, and +Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand, at the head of 13,000 troops, +on the 11th of January 1879 to enforce the British demands. +The disaster of Isandhlwana and the defence of Rorke’s Drift +signalized the commencement of the campaign, but on the 4th +of July the Zulus were utterly routed at Ulundi. Cetywayo +became a fugitive, but was captured on the 28th of August. His +kingdom was divided among thirteen chiefs and he himself +taken to Cape Town, whence he was brought to London in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span> +August 1882. He remained in England less than a month, +during which time the government (the second Gladstone +administration) announced that they had decided upon his +restoration. To his great disappointment, however, restoration +proved to refer only to a portion of his old kingdom. Even +there one of his kinsmen and chief enemies, Usibepu, was allowed +to retain the territory allotted to him in 1879. Cetywayo was +reinstalled on the 29th of January 1883 by Shepstone, but his +enemies, headed by Usibepu, attacked him within a week, and +after a struggle of nearly a year’s duration he was defeated and +his kraal destroyed. He then took refuge in the Native Reserve, +where he died on the 8th of February 1884. For a quarter of a +century he had been the most conspicuous native figure in South +Africa, and had been the cause of long and bitter political +controversy in Great Britain.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Dinizulu</span> afterwards attempted to become king, was +exiled (1889) to St Helena, permitted to return (1898), and +granted the position of a chief. In December 1907 Dinizulu +was imprisoned at Maritzburg, being suspected of complicity +in the revolt which had occurred in Zululand the previous +year. He was kept many months waiting trial, there being +considerable friction between the colonial government and the +British government over the incident. He was eventually +brought to trial in November 1908 before a special court, his +defence (to the cost of which the British government contributed +£2000) being undertaken by Mr W.P. Schreiner. The trial was +not concluded until March 1909. The charge of high treason +was not proved, but Dinizulu was convicted of harbouring rebels +and was sentenced to four years’ imprisonment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Life of Sir Bartle Frere</i>, by John Martineau, vol. ii. chaps. 18 +to 21, contains much information concerning Cetywayo.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEUTA<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Arabic <i>Sebta</i>), a Spanish military and convict station +and seaport on the north coast of Morocco, in 35° 54′ N., 5° 18′ +W. Pop. about 13,000. It is situated on a promontory connected +with the mainland by a narrow isthmus. This promontory +marks the south-eastern end of the straits of Gibraltar, +which between Ceuta and Gibraltar have a width of 14 m. +The promontory terminates in a bold headland, the Montagne +des Singes, with seven distinct peaks. Of these the highest +is the Monte del Hacko, the ancient <i>Abyla</i>, one of the “Pillars +of Hercules,” which faces Gibraltar and rises 636 ft. above the +sea. On the westernmost point—Almina, 476 ft. high—is a +lighthouse with a light visible for 23 m. Ceuta consists of two +quarters, the old town, covering the low ground of the isthmus, +and the modern town, built on the hills forming the north and +west faces of the peninsula. Between the old and new quarters +and on the north side of the isthmus lies the port. The public +buildings in the town, thoroughly Spanish in its character, are +not striking: they include the cathedral (formerly a mosque), +the governor’s palace, the town hall, barracks, and the convict +prison in the old convent of San Francisco. Ceuta has been +fortified seaward, the works being furnished with modern +artillery intended to command the entrance to the Mediterranean. +Landward are three lines of defence, the inner line stretching +completely across the isthmus. These fortifications, which date +from the time of the Portuguese occupation, have been partly +modernized. The citadel, El Hacho, built on the neck of the +isthmus, dates from the 15th century. The garrison consists of +between 3000 and 4000 men, inclusive of a disciplinary corps +of military convicts. Of the rest of the population about 2000 +are civilian convicts; and there are colonies of Jews, negroes +and Moors, the last including descendants of Moors transferred +to Ceuta from Oran when Spain abandoned that city in 1796.</p> + +<p>Ceuta occupies in part the site of a Carthaginian colony, +which was succeeded by a Roman colony said to have been called +<i>Ad Septem Fratres</i> and also <i>Exilissa</i> or <i>Lissa Civitas</i>. +From the Romans the town passed to the Vandals and afterwards +to Byzantium, the emperor Justinian restoring its fortifications +in 535. In 618 the town, then known as <i>Septon</i>, fell into the +hands of the Visigoths. It was the last stronghold in North +Africa which held out against the Arabs. At that date (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +711) the governor of the town was the Count Julian who, in +revenge for the betrayal of his daughter by King Roderick of +Toledo, invited the Arabs to cross the straits under Tarik and +conquer Spain for Islam. By the Arabs the town was called +<i>Cibta</i> or <i>Sebta</i>, hence the Spanish form <i>Ceuta</i>. From +the date of its occupation by the Arabs the town had a stormy history, +being repeatedly captured by rival Berber and Spanish-Moorish +dynasties. It became nevertheless an important commercial +and industrial city, being noted for its brass ware, its trade in +ivory, gold and slaves. It is said to have been the first place +in the West where a paper manufactory was established. In +1415 the town was captured by the Portuguese under John I., +among those taking part in the attack being Prince Henry +“the Navigator” and two of his brothers, who were knighted +on the day following in the mosque (hastily dedicated as a +Christian church). Ceuta passed to Spain in 1580 on the +subjugation of Portugal by Philip II., and was definitely assigned +to the Spanish crown by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688. The town +has been several times unsuccessfully besieged by the Moors—one +siege, under Mulai Ismail, lasting twenty-six years (1694-1720). +In 1810, with the consent of Spain, it was occupied by +British troops under General Sir J.F. Fraser. The town was +restored to Spain by the British at the close of the Napoleonic +Wars. As the result of the war between Spain and Morocco in +1860 the area of Spanish territory around the town was increased. +The military governor of the town also commands the troops in +the other Spanish stations on the coast of Morocco. For civil +purposes Ceuta is attached to the province of Cadiz. It is a +free port, but does little trade.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See de Prado, <i>Recuerdos de Africa; historia de la plaza de Ceuta</i> +(Madrid, 1859-1860); Budgett Meakin, <i>The Land of the Moors</i> +(London, 1901), chap, xix., where many works dealing with Spanish +Morocco are cited.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEVA,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, +33 m. E. by rail from the town of Cuneo, 1270 ft. above sea-level. +Pop. (1901) 2703. In the middle ages it was a strong fortress +defending the confines of Piedmont towards Liguria, but the +fortifications on the rock above the town were demolished in +1800 by the French, to whom it had been ceded in 1796. Its +cheese (<i>caseus cebanus</i>) was famous in Roman times, but it does +not seem ever to have been a Roman town. It lay on the road +between Augusta Taurinorum and Vada Sabatia. A branch +railway runs from Ceva through Garessio, with its marble +quarries, to Ormea (2398 ft.), 22 m. to the south through the +upper valley of the Tanaro, which in Roman times was under +Albingaunum (Th. Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> v. (Berlin, +1877), p. 898). From Ormea a road runs south to (31 m.) Oneglia +on the Ligurian coast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CÉVENNES<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Cebenna</i> or <i>Gebenna</i>), a mountain range +of southern France, forming the southern and eastern fringe of +the central plateau and part of the watershed between the +Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. It consists of a narrow +ridge some 320 m. long, with numerous lofty plateaus and +secondary ranges branching from it. The northern division of +the range, which nowhere exceeds 3320 ft. in height, extends, +under the name of the mountains of Charolais, Beaujolais and +Lyonnais, from the Col de Longpendu (west of Chalon-sur-Saône) +in a southerly direction to the Col de Gier. The central Cévennes, +comprising the volcanic chain of Vivarais, incline south-east +and extend as far as the Lozère group. The northern portion of +this chain forms the Boutières range. Farther south it includes +the Gerbier des Joncs (5089 ft.), the Mont de Mézenc (5755 ft.), +the culminating point of the entire range, and the Tanargue +group. South of the Mont Lozère, where the Pic Finiels reaches +5584 ft., lies that portion of the range to which the name Cévennes +is most strictly applied. This region, now embraced in the +departments of Lozère and Gard, stretches south to include the +Aigoual and Espérou groups. Under various local names (the +Garrigues, the mountains of Espinouse and Lacaune) and with +numerous offshoots the range extends south-east and then east +to the Montagne Noire, which runs parallel to the Canal du +Midi and comes to an end some 25 m. east of Toulouse. In the +south the Cévennes separate the cold and barren table-lands +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span> +known as the Causses from the sunny region of Languedoc, +where the olive, vine and mulberry flourish. Northwards the +contrast between the two slopes is less striking.</p> + +<p>The Cévennes proper are formed by a folded belt of Palaeozoic +rocks which lies along the south-east border of the central +plateau of France. Concealed in part by later deposits, this +ancient mountain chain extends from Castelnaudary to the +neighbourhood of Valence, where it sinks suddenly beneath the +Tertiary and recent deposits of the valley of the Rhone. It is +in the Montagne Noire rather than in the Cévennes proper that +the structure of the chain has been most fully investigated. All +the geological systems from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous +are included in the folded belt, and J. Bergeron has shown that +the gneiss and schist which form so much of the chain consist, +in part at least, of metamorphosed Cambrian beds. The direction +of the folds is about N. 60° E., and the structure is complicated +by overthrusting on an extensive scale. The overthrust came +from the south-east, and the Palaeozoic beds were crushed and +crumpled against the ancient massif of the central plateau. +The principal folding took place at the close of the Carboniferous +period, and was contemporaneous with that of the old Hercynian +chain of Belgium, &c. The Permian and later beds lie unconformably +upon the denuded folds, and in the space between the +Montagne Noire and the Cévennes proper the folded belt is +buried beneath the horizontal Jurassic strata of the Causses. +Although the chain was completed in Palaeozoic times, a second +folding took place along its south-east margin at the close of +the Eocene period. The Secondary and Tertiary beds of the +Languedoc were crushed against the central plateau and were +frequently overfolded. But by this time the ancient Palaeozoic +chain had become a part of the unyielding massif, and the +folding did not extend beyond its foot.</p> + +<p>As the division between the basins of the Loire and the +Garonne to the west and those of the Saône and Rhone to the +east, the Cévennes send many affluents to those rivers. In the +south the Orb, the Hérault and the Vidourle are independent +rivers flowing to the Golfe du Lion; farther north, the Gard—formed +by the union of several streams named Gardon—the +Cèze and the Ardèche flow to the Rhone. The Vivarais mountains +and the northern Cévennes approach the right banks of the +Rhone and Saône closely, and on that side send their waters by +way of short torrents to those rivers; on the west side the +streams are tributaries of the Loire, which rises at the foot of +Mont Mézenc. A short distance to the south on the same side +are the sources of the Allier and Lot. The waters of the north-western +slope of the southern Cévennes drain into the Tarn +either directly or by way of the Aveyron, which rises in the +outlying chain of the Lévezou, and, in the extreme south, the +Agout. The Tarn itself rises on the southern slope of the Mont +Lozère.</p> + +<p>In the Lozère group and the southern Cévennes generally, +good pasturage is found, and huge flocks spend the summer +there. Silkworm-rearing and the cultivation of peaches, chestnuts +and other fruits are also carried on. In the Vivarais +cattle are reared, while on the slopes of the Beaujolais excellent +wines are grown.</p> + +<p>The chief historical event in the history of the Cévennes is the +revolt of the Camisards in the early years of the 18th century +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Camisards</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEYLON,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a large island and British colony in the Indian +Ocean, separated on the N.W. from India by the Gulf of Manaar +and Palk Strait. It lies between 5° 55′ and 9° 51′ N. and between +79° 41′ and 81° 54′ E. Its extreme length from north to south +is 271½ m.; its greatest width is 137½ m.; and its area amounts +to 25,481 sq. m., or about five-sixths of that of Ireland. In its +general outline the island resembles a pear, the apex of which +points towards the north.</p> + +<p>The coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks, +rocks and shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with +India by the island of Rameswaram and Adam’s +Bridge, a succession of bold rocks reaching almost +<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span> +across the gulf at its narrowest point. Between the island and +the opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying +depth and width, beset by rocks and shoals. One of these, the +Manaar Passage, is only navigable by very small craft. The +other, called the Paumben Passage, lying between Rameswaram +and the mainland, has been deepened at considerable outlay, +and is used by large vessels in passing from the Malabar to the +Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing so +to make the circuit of the island. The west and south coasts, +which are uniformly low, are fringed their entire length by coco-nut +trees, which grow to the water’s edge in great luxuriance, +and give the island a most picturesque appearance. Along these +shores there are numerous inlets and backwaters of the sea, some +of which are available as harbours for small native craft. The +east coast from Point de Galle to Trincomalee is of an entirely +opposite character, wanting the ample vegetation of the other, +and being at the same time of a bold precipitous character. The +largest ships may freely approach this side of the island, provided +they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks, whose localities, +however, are well known to navigators.</p> + +<p>Seen from a distance at sea this “utmost Indian isle” of +the old geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance. The +remarkable elevation known as “Adam’s Peak,” the most +prominent, though not the loftiest, of the hilly ranges of the +interior, towers like a mountain monarch amongst an assemblage +of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the navigator +when as yet the Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid +the green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the +waters of the ocean. The low coast-line encircles the mountain +zone of the interior on the east, south and west, forming a belt +which extends inland to a varying distance of from 30 to 80 m.; +but on the north the whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya +to Batticaloa is an almost unbroken plain, containing magnificent +forests of great extent.</p> + +<p>The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and +covers an area of about 4212 sq. m. The uplifting force seems +to have been exerted from south-west to north-east, and +although there is much confusion in many of the intersecting +<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span> +ridges, and spurs of great size and extent are sent +off in many directions, the lower ranges manifest a remarkable +tendency to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to +north-west. Towards the north the offsets of the mountain system +radiate to short distances and speedily sink to the level of the +plain. Detached hills are rare; the most celebrated of these are +Mihintale (anc. <i>Missïaka</i>), which overlooks the sacred city of +Anuradhapura, and Sigiri. The latter is the only example in +Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which form so remarkable a +feature in the tableland of the Deccan—which, starting abruptly +from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are frequently +converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous pathways +or by steps hewn in the solid rock.</p> + +<p>For a long period Adam’s Peak was supposed to be the highest +mountain in Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft. +above sea-level. This elevation is chiefly remarkable as the +resort of pilgrims from all parts of the East. The hollow in the +lofty rock that crowns the summit is said by the Brahmans to +be the footstep of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha, by the +Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were +divided between the conflicting claims of St Thomas and the +eunuch of Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered +by a handsome roof, and is guarded by the priests of a rich +monastery half-way up the mountain, who maintain a shrine on +the summit of the peak. The highest mountains in Ceylon are +Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in altitude; Kirigalpota, 7836 ft.; and +Totapelakanda, 7746 ft.</p> + +<p>The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure, +and along their base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect +them in every direction, the slopes were formerly covered with +forests of gigantic and valuable trees, which, however, have +disappeared under the axe of the planter, who felled and burnt +the timber on all the finest slopes at an elevation of 2000 to 4500 +ft., and converted the hillsides into highly cultivated coffee and +afterwards tea estates.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span></p> + +<p>The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the sanatorium of the island, is at +an elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of +an alpine country. The climate of the Horton plains, at an +elevation of 7000 ft., is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but +they are difficult of access, and are but little known to Europeans. +The town of Kandy, in the Central Province, formerly the capital +of the native sovereigns of the interior, is situated 1727 ft. above +sea-level.</p> + +<p>The island, though completely within the influence of oceanic +evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable +extent, does not boast of any rivers of great volume. +The rains which usher in each monsoon or change of +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +season are indeed heavy, and during their fall swell the streams +to torrents and impetuous rivers. But when these cease the water-courses +fall back to their original state, and there are few of the +rivers which cannot generally be passed on horseback. The +largest river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m., draining +about one-sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the +sea at Trincomalee on the east coast. There are twelve other +considerable rivers, running to the west, east and south, but +none of these exceeds 90 m. in length. The rivers are not +favourable for navigation, except near the sea, where they +expand into backwaters, which were used by the Dutch for the +construction of their system of canals all round the western and +southern coasts. Steamers ply between Colombo and Negombo +along this narrow canal and lake. A similar service on the +Kaluganga did not prove a success. There are no inland lakes +except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north +and east of the island, and the backwaters on the coast. The +lakes which add to the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake Gregory, +Nuwara Eliya and Kurunegala are artificial or partly so. Giant’s +Tank is said to have an area of 6380 acres, and Minneri and +Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres.</p> + +<p>The magnificent basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east +coast of Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, security and +beauty by any haven in the world. The admiralty had a dockyard +here which was closed in 1905.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly +rising from the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in +marine shells, which occur in situations far above high-water +mark, and at some miles distance from the sea. A great portion +of the north of the island may be regarded as the joint production +of the coral polyps and the currents, which for the greater part +of the year set impetuously towards the south; coming laden +with alluvial matter collected along the coast of Coromandel, +and meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they have +deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro; +and these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by sand +drifts, have formed the peninsula of Jaffna, and the plains that +trend westward till they unite with the narrow causeway of +Adam’s Bridge. Tertiary rocks are almost unknown. The great +geological feature of the island is the profusion of gneiss, overlaid +in many places in the interior by extensive beds of dolomitic +limestone. This formation appears to be of great thickness; +and when, as is not often the case, the under-surface of +the gneiss series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on +granite. Veins of pure quartz and felspar of considerable extent +have been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the +elevated lands of the interior in the Galle districts may be seen +copious deposits of disintegrated felspar, or <i>kaolin</i>, commonly +known as porcelain clay. At various elevations the gneiss may +be found intersected by veins of trap rock, upheaved whilst in a +state of fusion subsequent to the consolidation of the former. +In some localities on the seashore these veins assume the +character of pitch-stone porphyry highly impregnated with +iron. Hornblende and primitive greenstone are found in the +vicinity of Adam’s Peak and in the Pussellava district. Laterite, +known in Ceylon as <i>kabuk</i>, a product of disintegrated gneiss, +exists in vast quantities in many parts, and is quarried for +building purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from +those prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The +two distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds +which accompany them, the south-west and the north-east. +The former is very regular in its approach, and may be looked +for along the south-west coast between the 10th and 20th of +May; the latter reaches the north-east coast between the end +of October and the middle of November. There is a striking +contrast in the influence which the south-west monsoon exerts +on the one side of the island and on the other. The clouds are +driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western +and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there +in copious showers. But the rains do not reach the opposite +side of the island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and +north are sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently +happens that different sides of the same mountain +present at the same moment the opposite extreme of droughts +and moisture. The influence of the north-east monsoon is more +general. The mountains which face the north-east are lower +and more remote from the sea than those on the south-west; +the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains simultaneously +on both sides of the island.</p> + +<p>The length of the day, owing to the proximity of the island +to the equator, does not vary more than an hour at any season. +The mean time of the rising of the sun’s centre at Colombo on +February 1st is 6<span class="sp">h</span> 23<span class="sp">m</span> <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and of its setting 6<span class="sp">h</span> 5<span class="sp">m</span> <span class="scs">P.M.</span> On +August 15th its rising is at 5<span class="sp">h</span> 45<span class="sp">m</span> <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and its setting at 6<span class="sp">h</span> 7<span class="sp">m</span> <span class="scs">P.M.</span> +It is mid-day in Colombo when it is morning in England. +Colombo is situated in 79° 50′ 45″ E., and the day is further +advanced there than at Greenwich by 5<span class="sp">h</span> 19<span class="sp">m</span> 23<span class="sp">s</span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The characteristics of the low-growing plants of Ceylon +approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India. The +<i>Rhizophoreae</i> are numerous along the low muddy shores of salt lakes +and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant. The +list comprises <i>Aegiceras fragrans</i>, <i>Epithinia malayana</i>, <i>Thespesia +populnea</i>, <i>Feronia elephantum</i>, <i>Salvadora persica</i> (the true mustard +tree of Scripture), <i>Eugenia bracteata</i>, <i>Elaeodendron Roxburghii</i>, <i>Cassia +Fistula</i>, <i>Cassia Roxburghii</i>, &c. The herbaceous plants of the low +country belong mostly to the natural orders <i>Compositae</i>, <i>Leguminosae</i>, +<i>Rubiaceae</i>, <i>Scrophulariaceae</i> and <i>Euphorbiaceae</i>.</p> + +<p>Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a +height of 4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and +trees assume an altered character. The foliage of the latter is larger +and deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the hot +low country. The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns, +<i>Cyrtandreae</i>, <i>Compositae</i>, <i>Scitamineae</i> and <i>Urticaceae</i>. The dense +masses of lofty forest at that altitude are interspersed with large +open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives <i>patanas</i>, and +of value to them as affording pasturage for their cattle.</p> + +<p>Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to +be met with partaking of European forms, yet blended with tropical +characteristics. The guelder rose, St John’s wort, the <i>Nepenthes +distillatoria</i> or pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups, sundews, +ladies’ mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of <i>Magnoliaceae</i>, +<i>Ranunculaceae</i>, <i>Elaeocarpeae</i>, &c. The most beautiful +flowering shrub of this truly alpine region is the rhododendron, which +in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft. It is met with in +great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated land above +Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in June and July. There are +two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having its +leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty colour on the under side; +the other, peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the loftiest +elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the under side, +and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft. round the +stem. At these altitudes English flowers, herbs and vegetables have +been cultivated with perfect success, as also wheat, oats and barley. +English fruit-trees grow, but rarely bear. Grapes are grown successfully +in the north of the island. The vines were introduced by the +Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual summer by exposing +the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial winter.</p> + +<p>The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every +altitude from the sea-beach to the loftiest mountain peak. They +vary much in their hardiness and durability, from the common +cashew-nut tree, which when felled decays in a month, to the ebony +and satinwood, which for many years resist the attacks of insects +and climate. Many of the woods are valuable for furniture, and +house and shipbuilding, and are capable of standing long exposure +to weather. The most beautiful woods adapted to furniture work +are the calamander, ebony, flowered satinwood, tamarind, nedun, +dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &c.; the sack-yielding tree +(<i>Antiaris saccidora</i>), for a long time confounded with the far-famed +upas tree of Java (<i>Antiaris toxicaria</i>), grows in the Kurunegala +district of the island. The <i>Cocos nucifera</i>, or coco-nut palm, is a +native of the island, and may justly be considered the most valuable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span> +of its trees. It grows in vast abundance alone the entire sea-coast +of the west and south sides of the island, and furnishes almost all +that a Sinhalese villager requires. Its fruit, when green, supplies food +and drink; when ripe, it yields oil. The juice of the unopened +flower gives him toddy and arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit +when woven makes him ropes, nets, matting. The nut-shells form +drinking-vessels, spoons, &c. The plaited leaves serve as plates and +dishes, and as thatch for his cottage. The dried leaves are used as +torches, the large leaf-stalks as garden fences. The trunk of the tree +sawn up is employed for every possible purpose, from knife-handles +to door-posts; hollowed out it forms a canoe or a coffin. There are +four kinds of this palm—the common, the king, the dwarf and the +Maldive. The Palmyra and Areca palms grow luxuriantly and +abundantly, the former in the northern, the latter in the western +and central districts. The one is valuable chiefly for its timber, of +which large quantities are exported to the Indian coasts; the other +supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst natives of the eastern +tropics as a masticatory. The export trade in the latter to India and +eastern ports is very considerable. Next in importance to the coco-nut +palm among the indigenous products of Ceylon is the cinnamon +plant, yielding the well-known spice of that name.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the elephant, +which, though far inferior to those of Africa and the Indian continent, +is nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on account of its +strength, sagacity and docility. They are to be met with in greater +or less numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior. +Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds +and plantations, committing great damage. In order to protect +these lands, and at the same time keep up the government stud of +draught elephants, “kraals” or traps on a large scale are erected +in the forests, into which the wild herds are driven; and once secured +they are soon tamed and fit for service. The oxen are of small size, +but hardy, and capable of drawing heavy loads. Buffaloes exist in +great numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed +in a half-tame state for ploughing rice-fields and treading out the +corn. They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be maintained +on the village pasture-lands where oxen would not find +support. Of deer, Ceylon possesses the spotted kind (<i>Axis maculata</i>), +the muntjac (<i>Stylocerus muntjac</i>), a red deer (the Sambur of India), +popularly called the Ceylon elk (<i>Musa Aristotelis</i>), and the small +musk (<i>Moschus minima</i>). There are five species of monkeys, one +the small rilawa (<i>Macacus pileatus</i>), and four known in Ceylon by +the name of “wandaru” (<i>Presbytes ursinus</i>, <i>P. Thersites</i>, <i>P. cephalopterus</i>, +<i>P. Priamus</i>), and the small quadrumanous animal, the loris +(<i>Loris gracilis</i>), known as the “Ceylon sloth.” Of the Cheiroptera +sixteen species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette +or flying fox (<i>Pteropus Edwardsii</i>). Of the Carnivora the only one +dangerous to man is the small black bear (<i>Prochilus labiatus</i>). The +tiger is not known in Ceylon, but the true panther (<i>Felis pardus</i>) is +common, as is the jackal (<i>Canis aureus</i>) and the mongoose or ichneumon +(<i>Herpestes vitticollis</i>). Rats are numerous, as are the +squirrel and the porcupine, and the pig-rat or bandicoot (<i>Mus bandicota</i>), +while the scaly ant-eater (<i>Manis pentedactyla</i>), locally known +by the Malay name of pangolin, is occasionally found. The dugong +(<i>Halicore dugong</i>), is frequently seen on various points of the coast. +A game preservation society and the judicious action of government +have done much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer, +elephants, &c., by establishing a close season. It is estimated that +there must be 5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests. A licence +to shoot or capture and an export royalty are now levied by government.</p> + +<p>Captain V. Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many +of them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed +by the birds of South America and Northern India. The eagles are +small and rare, but hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter +is a remarkable brown species, the cry of which has earned for it +the name of the “devil-bird.” The esculent swift, which furnishes +in its edible nest the celebrated Chinese dainty, builds in caves in +Ceylon. Crows of various species are numerous, and in the wilder +parts pea-fowl are abundant. There are also to be mentioned king-fishers, +sun-birds, several beautiful fly-catchers and snatchers, the +golden oriole, parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are +at least a dozen species. The Ceylon jungle-fowl (<i>Gallus Lafayetti</i>) +is distinct from the Indian species. Ceylon is singularly rich in +wading and water birds—ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons +being frequently seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the +beach in long files, and on the deeper waters inland are found teal +and a countless variety of ducks and smaller fowl. Of the birds +familiar to European sportsmen there are partridge, quail and snipe +in abundance, and the woodcock has been seen.</p> + +<p>The poisonous snakes of Ceylon are not numerous. Four species +have been enumerated—the ticpolonga (<i>Daboia elegans</i>), the cobra +di capello (<i>Naja tripudians</i>), the carawilla (<i>Trigonocephalus hypnale</i>), +and the <i>Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus</i>, which is so rare that it has +no popular name. The largest snake in Ceylon is the “boa,” or +“anaconda” of Eastern story (<i>Python reticulatus</i>); it is from +20 to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller +animals. Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large +fresh-water reservoirs which supply the rice-fields; there are two +species (<i>C. biporcatus</i> and <i>C. palustris</i>). Of lizards the most noteworthy +are the iguana, several bloodsuckers, the chameleon and the +familiar geckoes, which are furnished with pads to each toe, by +which they are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to +glass and ceilings.</p> + +<p>Insects exist in great numbers. The leaf and stick insects are of +great variety and beauty. Ceylon has four species of the ant-lion, +renowned for the predaceous ingenuity of its larvae; and the white +ants or termites, the ravages of which are most destructive, are at +once ubiquitous and innumerable in every place where the climate +is not too chilly or the soil too sandy for them to construct their +domed dwellings. They make their way through walls and floors, +and in a few hours destroy every vegetable substance within their +reach. Of all the insect pests that beset an unseasoned European +the most annoying are the mosquitoes. Ticks are also an intolerable +nuisance; they are exceedingly minute, and burrow under the skin. +In the lower ranges of the hill country land leeches are found in +tormenting profusion. But insects and reptiles do not trouble European +residents so much as in early years—at any rate in the towns, +while in the higher planting districts there is almost complete +exemption from their unwelcome attentions. Bungalows are more +carefully built to resist white ants, drainage and cleanliness prevent +mosquitoes and ticks from multiplying, while snakes and leeches +avoid cultivated, occupied ground.</p> + +<p>Of the fish in ordinary use for the table the finest is the seir, a +species of scomber (<i>Cybium guttatum</i>). Mackerel, dories, carp, +whitings, mullet (red and striped), soles and sardines are abundant. +Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and the huge saw fish (<i>Pristis +antiquorum</i>) infests the eastern coast of the island, where it attains +a length of 12 to 15 ft. There are also several fishes remarkable for +the brilliancy of their colouring; <i>e.g.</i> the Red Sea perch (<i>Holocentrum +rubrum</i>), of the deepest scarlet, and the great fire fish (<i>Scorpaena +miles</i>), of a brilliant red. Some are purple, others yellow, and numbers +with scales of a lustrous green are called “parrots” by the natives; +of these one (<i>Sparus Hardwickii</i>) is called the “flower parrot,” from +its exquisite colouring—irregular bands of blue, crimson and purple, +green, yellow and grey, crossed by perpendicular stripes of black. +The pearl fishery, as indicated below, is of great importance.</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—The total population of Ceylon in 1901, inclusive +of military, shipping and 4914 prisoners of war, was 3,578,333, +showing an increase of 18.8% in the decade. The population of +Colombo was 158,228.</p> + +<p>The population and area of the nine provinces was as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">District.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Western Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">925,342</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,432</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Central Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">623,011</td> <td class="tcl rb">2,299½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Northern Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">341,985</td> <td class="tcl rb">3,363¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Southern Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">566,925</td> <td class="tcl rb">2,146¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eastern Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">174,288</td> <td class="tcl rb">4,036½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North-Western Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">353,845</td> <td class="tcl rb">2,996<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Central Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,110</td> <td class="tcl rb">4,002¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Province of Uva</td> <td class="tcr rb">192,072</td> <td class="tcl rb">3,154½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Province of Sabaragamuwa</td> <td class="tcr rb">321,755</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,901<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb">3,578,333</td> <td class="tcl allb">25,332</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The table of nationality gives the principal groups as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Europeans</td> <td class="tcr">9,509</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Burghers and Eurasians</td> <td class="tcr">23,539</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Low-country Sinhalese</td> <td class="tcr">1,458,320</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kandyan Sinhalese</td> <td class="tcr">872,487</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tamils</td> <td class="tcr">953,535</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Moors (Mahommedan)</td> <td class="tcr">228,706</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Malays</td> <td class="tcr">11,963</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Veddahs (Aborigines)</td> <td class="tcr">3,971</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Altogether there are representatives of some seventy races in Ceylon. +The Veddahs, who run wild in the woods, are the aborigines of the +island.</p> + +<p><i>Language</i>.—The language of nearly 70% of the population is +Sinhalese, which is nearly allied to Pali (<i>q.v.</i>); of the remaining +30%, with the exception of Europeans, the language is Tamil. A +corrupt form of Portuguese is spoken by some natives of European +descent. The Veddahs, a small forest tribe, speak a distinct language, +and the Rodiyas, an outcast tribe, possess a large vocabulary of their +own. The Sinhalese possess several original poems of some merit, +and an extensive and most interesting series of native chronicles, but +their most valuable literature is written in Pali, though the greater +portion of it has been translated into Sinhalese, and is best known +to the people through these Sinhalese translations.</p> + +<p><i>Religion</i>.—The principal religions may be distributed as follows:—Christians, +349,239; Buddhists, 2,141,404; Hindus, 826,826; +Mahommedans, 246,118. Of the Christians, 287,419 are Roman +Catholics, and 61,820 are Protestants of various denominations; +and of these Christians 319,001 are natives, and 30,238 Europeans. +The Mahommedans are the descendants of Arabs (locally termed +Moormen) and the Malays. The Tamils, both the inhabitants of the +island and the immigrants from India, are Hindus, with the exception +of 93,000 Christians. The Sinhalese, numbering 70% of the whole +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span> +population, are, with the exception of 180,000 Christians, Buddhists. +Ceylon may properly be called a Buddhist country, and it is here that +Buddhism is found almost in its pristine purity. Ceylon was converted +to Buddhism in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the great Augustine +of Buddhism, Mahinda, son of the Indian king Asoka; and the extensive +ruins throughout Ceylon, especially in the ancient cities of +Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, bear witness to the sacrifices +which kings and people joined in making to create lasting monuments +of their faith. The Buddhist temples in the Kandyan country +possess valuable lands, the greater portion of which is held by +hereditary tenants on the tenure of service. These lands were given +out with much care to provide for all that was necessary to maintain +the temple and its connected monastery. Some tenants had to do +the blacksmiths’ work, others the carpenters’, while another set of +tenants had to cultivate the land reserved for supplying the monastery; +others again had to attend at the festivals, and prepare +decorations, and carry lamps and banners. In course of time +difficulties arose; the English courts were averse to a system under +which the rent of lands was paid by hereditary service, and a commission +was issued by Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards Lord +Rosmead) when governor, to deal with the whole question, to define +the services and to enable the tenants to commute these for a money +payment. The result of the inquiry was to show that the services, +except in a few instances, were not onerous, and that almost without +an exception the tenants were willing to continue the system. The +anomaly of an ecclesiastical establishment of Anglican and Presbyterian +chaplains with a bishop of Colombo paid out of the general +revenues has now been abolished in Ceylon, and only the bishop and +two or three incumbents remain on the list for life, or till they retire +on pension.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—There has been a great advance in public instruction +since 1875, through the multiplication of vernacular, Anglo-vernacular +and English schools by government, by the different +Christian missions and by the Buddhists and Hindus who have +come forward to claim the government grant. The government has +also started a technical college, and an agricultural school has been +reorganized. An agricultural department, recommended by a +commission, should profit by the services of the entomologist, +mycologist and chemical analyst added by the governor to the staff +of the royal botanic gardens at Peradeniya. There are industrial +and reformatory schools, which are partially supported by government. +In spite of the great advance that has been made, however, +at the census of 1901 no fewer than 2,790,235 of the total population +were entered as unable to read or write their own tongue. Of this +number 1,553,078 were females, showing a very unsatisfactory state +of things.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The natural soils of Ceylon are composed of quartzose +gravel, felspathic clay and sand often of a pure white, blended with +or overlaid by brown and red loams, resulting; from the +decay of vegetable matter, or the disintegration of the +<span class="sidenote">Soil.</span> +gneiss and hornblende formations. The whole of the great northern +extremity of the island consists of a sandy and calcareous admixture, +made to yield productive crops of grain, tobacco, cotton and vegetables +by the careful industry of the Tamil population, who spare +no pains in irrigating and manuring their lands. Between the +northern districts and the elevated mountain ranges which overlook +the Bintenne and Uva countries are extensive plains of alluvial soil +washed down from the table-lands above, where once a teeming population +produced large quantities of grain. The remains of ancient +works of irrigation bear testimony to the bygone agriculture of these +extensive regions now covered by swamps or dense jungle.</p> + +<p>The general character of the soil in the maritime provinces to the +east, south and west is sandy. Large tracts of quartzose sand spread +along the whole line of sea-coast, some of which, of a pure white, and +very deficient in vegetable matter, is admirably adapted to the +growth of the cinnamon plant. In the light sandy districts where +the soil is perfectly free, and contains a portion of vegetable and +mineral loam, the coco-nut palm flourishes in great luxuriance. +This is the case along the entire coast line from Kalpitiya to Point +de Galle, and farther eastward and northward to Matara, stretching +to a distance inland varying from 100 yds. to 3 m. From this light +sandy belt as far as the mountain-zone of the Kandyan country the +land is mainly composed of low hilly undulations of sandstone and +ferruginous clay, incapable of almost any cultivation, but intersected +in every direction with extensive valleys and wide plains of a more +generous soil, not highly fertile, but still capable, with a little +industry, of yielding ample crops of rice.</p> + +<p>The soil of the central province, although frequently containing +great quantities of quartzose sand and ferruginous clay, is in many +of the more elevated districts of a fine loamy character. Sand +sufficiently vegetable and light for rice culture may be seen at all +elevations in the hill districts; but the fine chocolate and brown +loams overlying gneiss or limestone formations, so admirably adapted +for coffee cultivation, are only to be found on the steep sides or along +the base of mountain ranges at an elevation varying from 2000 to +4000 ft. Such land, well-timbered, contains in its elements the decomposed +particles of the rocks above, blended with the decayed vegetable +matter of forests that have for centuries scattered beneath them +the germs of fertility. The quantity of really rich coffee land in these +districts is but small as compared with the extent of country—vast +tracts of open valleys consisting of an indifferent yellow tenacious +soil interspersed with many low ranges of quartz rock, but tea is a +much hardier plant than coffee, and grows on poorer soil.</p> + +<p><i>Irrigation</i>.—The native rulers covered the whole face of the +country with a network of irrigation reservoirs, by which Ceylon +was enabled in ancient times to be the great granary of southern +Asia. Wars, and the want of a strong hand to guide the agriculture +of the country, led to the decay of these ancient works, and large +tracts of land, which were formerly highly productive, became +swampy wastes or dense forests. The remains of some of the larger +irrigation works are amongst the most interesting of the memorials +of Ceylon’s former greatness. Some of the artificial lakes were of +great size. Minneri, formed by damming across the valleys between +the low hills which surround it with an embankment 60 ft. wide at +the top, is at this day 20 m. in circumference. It has recently been +restored by government, and is capable of irrigating 15,000 acres; +while the Giant’s Tank, which has also been restored, irrigates +20,000 acres. Another lake, with an embankment several miles in +length, the Kalawewa, was formed by damming back the waters of +the Kalaoya, but they have forced their way through the embankment, +and in the ancient bed of the lake, or tank, are now many small +villages. In connexion with these large tanks were numerous canals +and channels for supplying smaller tanks, or for irrigating large +tracts of fields. Throughout the district of Nuwarakalawiya every +village has its tank. The embankments have been formed with great +skill, and advantage has been taken to the utmost of the slightest +fall in the land; but they in common with the larger works had been +allowed to fall into decay, and were being brought to destruction +by the evil practice of cutting them every year to irrigate the fields. +The work of restoring these embankments was undertaken by the +government, and 100 village tanks were repaired every year, besides +eighteen larger works. In 1900 a sum of five million rupees was set +apart for these larger undertakings.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation and Products.</i>—The area of uncultivated land is little +over 3½ million acres, whereas fully four times that amount is capable +of cultivation. A great deal is waste, besides lagoons, tanks, backwaters, +&c. Thick forest land does not cover more than 5000 sq. m. +Scrub, or chena, and patana grass cover a very great area. Tea, +cacao, cardamoms, cinchona, coffee and indiarubber are the products +cultivated by European and an increasing number of native planters +in the hill country and part of the low country of Ceylon. A great +change has been effected in the appearance of the country by the +introduction of the tea plant in place of the coffee plant, after the +total failure of the latter owing to disease. For some time coffee +had been the most important crop. In the old days it grew wild like +cinnamon, and was exported so far back as the time of the Portuguese, +but was lightly esteemed as an article of European commerce, +as the berry was gathered unripe, was imperfectly cured and had +little flavour. In 1824 the governor, Sir E. Barnes, introduced coffee +cultivation on the West Indian plan; in 1834 the falling off of other +sources of supply drew general attention to Ceylon, and by 1841 +the Ceylon output had become considerable, and grew steadily (with +an interval in 1847 due to a commercial crisis) till 1877 when 272,000 +acres were under coffee cultivation, the total export amounting to +103,000,000 ℔ Then owing to disease came a crisis, and a rapid +decline, and now only a few thousand acres are left. On the failure +of the coffee crops planters began extensively to grow the tea plant, +which had already been known in the island for several years. By +1882 over 20,000 acres had been planted with tea, but the export +that year was under 700,000 ℔ Five years later the area planted +was 170,000 acres, while the export had risen to nearly 14,000,000 ℔ +By 1892 there were 262,000 acres covered with tea, and 71,000,000 ℔ +were that year exported. In 1897, 350,000 acres were planted, and +the export was 116,000,000 ℔ By the beginning of the 20th century, +the total area cultivated with tea was not under 390,000 acres, while +the estimate of shipments was put at 146,000,000 ℔ annually. +Nearly every plantation has its factory, with the machinery necessary +to prepare the leaf as brought in from the bushes until it becomes +the tea of commerce. The total amount of capital now invested in +the tea industry in Ceylon cannot be less than £10,000,000. The +tea-planting industry more than anything else has raised Ceylon +from the depressed state to which it fell in 1882.</p> + +<p>Before tea was proved a success, however, <i>cinchona</i> cultivation +was found a useful bridge from coffee to the Ceylon planter, who, +however, grew it so freely that in one year 15,000,000 ℔ bark was +shipped, bringing the price of quinine down from 16s. to 1s. 6d. an +ounce.</p> + +<p>In a few places, where the rainfall is abundant, rice cultivation +is allowed to depend on the natural supply of water, but in most +parts the cultivation is not attempted unless there is secured beforehand +a certain and sufficient supply, by means of canals or reservoirs. +In the hill country every valley and open plain capable of tillage is +made to yield its crops of grain, and the steep sides of the hills are +cut into terraces, on which are seen waving patches of green rice +watered by mountain streams, which are conducted by means of +channels ingeniously carried round the spurs of the hills and along +the face of acclivities, by earthen water-courses and bamboo aqueducts, +so as to fertilize the fields below. These works bear witness to +the patience, industry and skill of the Kandyan villagers. In the +low country to the north and east and north-west of the hills, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span> +irrigation works of a more expensive kind are necessary. In January +1892, the immemorial rent or tax on fields of <i>paddy</i> (rice in the husk) +was removed, but not the customs duty on imported rice. But even +with the advantage of protection to the extent of 10% in the local +markets, there has been no extension of paddy cultivation; on the +contrary, the import of grain from India has grown larger year by +year. Through the multiplication of irrigation works and the +northern railway, rice culture may be sufficiently extended to save +some of the large imports (8,000,000 to 9,000,000 bushels annually) +now required from India.</p> + +<p>Tobacco is extensively cultivated in various parts of the island, +and the growth of particular places, such as Dumbara and Uva, +is much prized for local consumption. The tobacco of export is +grown in the peninsula of Jaffna. The exports of this article in 1850 +were 22,176 cwts., valued at £20,698. The cultivation of the plant +has not greatly increased of recent years, and is almost entirely in +the hands of natives in the northern and parts of the central Province.</p> + +<p>Ceylon has been celebrated since the middle of the 14th century +for its cinnamon, and during the period of the Dutch occupation this +spice was the principal article of commerce; under their rule and +up to 1832 its cultivation was a government monopoly. With the +abolition of the monopoly the quantity exported increased, but the +value declined.</p> + +<p>Unlike the coffee plant, the hardy tea plant grows from sea-level +to 7000 ft. altitude; but crown forest-lands above 5000 ft. are no +longer sold, so that a very large area on the highest mountain ranges +and plateaus is still under forest. Moreover, on the tea plantations +arboriculture is attended to in a way unknown in 1875; the Australian +eucalypts, acacias and grevilleas, Indian and Japanese +conifers, and other trees of different lands, are now freely planted for +ornament, for protection from wind, for firewood or for timber. +A great advance has been made at Hakgalla and Nuwara Eliya, in +Upper Uva, and other high districts, in naturalizing English fruits +and vegetables. The calamander tree is nearly extinct, and ebony +and other fine cabinet woods are getting scarce; but the conservation +of forests after the Indian system has been taken in hand +under a director and trained officers, and much good has been done. +The cinnamon tree (wild in the jungles, cultivated as a shrub in +plantations) is almost the only one yielding a trade product which is +indigenous to the island. The coco-nut and nearly all other palms +have been introduced.</p> + +<p>Among other agricultural products mention must be made of +<i>cacao</i>, the growth and export of which have steadily extended since +coffee failed. Important also is the spice or aromatic product of +cardamoms.</p> + +<p>The culture of <i>indiarubber</i> was begun on low-country plantations, +and Ceylon rubber is of the best quality in the market. The area +of cultivation of the coco-nut palm has been greatly extended +since 1875 by natives as well as by Europeans. The products of this +palm that are exported, apart from those so extensively used in the +island itself, exceed in a good year £1,000,000 sterling in value. +Viticulture and cotton cultivation, as well as tobacco growing, are +being developed along the course of the new northern railway.</p> + +<p>Taking the trade in the products mentioned as a whole, no country +can compete with the United Kingdom as a customer of Ceylon. +But there is a considerable trade in nearly all products with Germany +and America; in cardamoms with India; in cinnamon with Spain, +Italy, Belgium, Australia, Austria and France; and in one or other +of the products of the coco-nut palm (coco-nuts, coco-nut oil, +copra, desiccated coco-nut, poonac, coir) with Belgium, Russia, +France, Austria, Australia and Holland.</p> + +<p><i>Pearl Fishery.</i>—Pearl oysters are found in the Tambalagam bay, +near Trincomalee, but the great banks on which these oysters are +usually found lie near Arippu, off the northern part of the west coast +of Ceylon, at a distance of from 16 to 20 m. from the shore. They +extend for many miles north and south, varying considerably in their +size and productiveness. It is generally believed that the oyster +arrives at maturity in its seventh year, that the pearl is then of full +size and perfect lustre, and that if the oyster be not then secured it +will shortly die, and the pearl be lost. It is certain that from some +unexplained cause the oysters disappear from their known beds for +years together. The Dutch had no fishery from 1732 to 1746, and +it failed them again for twenty-seven years from 1768 to 1796. +The fishery was again interrupted between 1820 and 1828, also from +1833 to 1854, from 1864 to 1873, and again from 1892 to 1900. The +fishery of 1903 was the first since 1891, and produced a revenue of +Rs. 829,348, being the third largest on record. In 1797 and 1798 +the government sold the privilege of fishing the oyster-beds for +£123,982 and £142,780 respectively. From that time the fishery +was conducted by the government itself until 1906, when it was +leased to the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries Company for twenty years at +a rent of £20,000 a year. Professor Herdman, F.R.S., was appointed +to inquire and report on the conservation and cultivation of the +Ceylon pearl-oyster, and visited Ceylon in January 1902. In +consequence of his report, a marine laboratory for the culture of the +pearl oysters was established in Galle harbour under the care of +Mr Hornell.</p> + +<p><i>Mineral Industries.</i>—Commercially there are two established +mineral industries:—(1) that of digging for precious stones; and +(2) the much more important industry of digging for plumbago or +graphite, the one mineral of commercial importance found. Further +developments may result in the shipment of the exceptionally pure +iron ore found in different parts of Ceylon, though still no coal has +been found to be utilized with it. Several places, too—Ruanwella, +Rangalla, Rangbodde, &c.—indicate where gold was found in the +time of the Kandyan kings; and geologists might possibly indicate +a paying quartz reef, as in Mysore. Owing to the greatly increased +demand in Europe and America, plumbago in 1899 more than doubled +in price, rising from £40 to £80, and even £100 a ton for the +finest. Latterly there has been a considerable fall, but the permanent +demand is likely to continue keen in consequence mainly of the Ceylon +kind being the best for making crucibles. The trade with Great +Britain and the United States has slightly decreased, but there has +been a rapid expansion in the exports to Belgium and Holland, +Russia, Japan and Victoria; and the industry seems to be established +on a sound basis. One consequence of its development has been +to bring European and American capitalists and Cornish and Italian +miners into a field hitherto almost entirely worked by Sinhalese. +Though some of the mines were carried to a depth of 1000 ft., the +work was generally very primitive in character, and Western +methods of working are sure to lead to greater safety and economy. +Besides a royalty or customs duty of 5 rupees (about 6s. 8d.) per +ton on all plumbago exported, the government issue licenses at +moderate rates for the digging of plumbago on crown lands, a certain +share of the resulting mineral also going to government. The plumbago +industry, in all its departments of mining, carting, preparing, +packing and shipping, gives employment to fully 100,000 men and +women, still almost entirely Sinhalese. The wealthiest mine-owners, +too, are Sinhalese land-owners or merchants.</p> + +<p>As regards <i>gems</i>, there are perhaps 500 gem pits or quarries worked +in the island during the dry season from November to June in the +Ratnapura, Rakwane and Matara districts. Some of these are on +a small scale; but altogether several thousands of Sinhalese find a +precarious existence in digging for gems. Rich finds of a valuable +ruby, sapphire, cat’s-eye, amethyst, alexandrite or star stone, are +comparatively rare; it is only of the commoner gems, such as +moonstone, garnet, spinels, that a steady supply is obtained. The +cat’s-eye in its finer qualities is peculiar to Ceylon, and is occasionally +in great demand, according to the fashion. The obstacle to the +investment of European capital in “gemming” has always been the +difficulty of preventing the native labourers in the pits—-even if +practically naked—from concealing and stealing gems. A Chamber of +Mines, with a suitable library, was established in Colombo during 1899.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—Little is done save in the preparation in factories +and stores, in Colombo or on the plantations, of the several products +exported. The manufacture of jewellery and preparation of precious +stones, and, among native women and children, of pillow lace, give +employment to several thousands. Iron and engineering works are +numerous in Colombo and in the planting districts. The Sinhalese +are skilful cabinetmakers and carpenters. The Moormen and Tamils +furnish good masons and builders.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—There has been rapid development since 1882, and +the returns for 1903 showed a total value of 22½ millions sterling. +The principal imports were articles of food and drink (chiefly rice +from India) manufactured metals (with specie), coal, cotton yarns +and piece goods from Manchester, machinery and millwork and +apparel. The Ceylon customs tariff for imports is one of 6½% <i>ad +valorem</i>, save in the case of intoxicating drinks, arms, ammunition, +opium, &c. The chief export is tea.</p> + +<p><i>Roads.</i>—The policy of the Sinhalese rulers of the interior was to +exclude strangers from the hill country. Prior to the British occupation +of the Kandyan territory in 1815, the only means of +access from one district to another was by footpaths through the +forests. The Portuguese do not appear to have attempted to +open up the country below the hills, and the Dutch confined themselves +to the improvement of the inland water-communications. +The British government saw from the first the necessity of making +roads into the interior for military purposes, and, more recently, for +developing the resources of the country. The credit of opening up +the country is due mainly to the governor, Sir Edward Barnes, by +whose direction the great military road from Colombo to Kandy +was made. Gradually all the military stations were connected by +broad tracks, which by degrees were bridged and converted into +good carriage roads. The governors Sir Henry Ward and Sir +Hercules Robinson recognized the importance of giving the coffee +planters every assistance in opening up the country, and the result +of their policy is that the whole of the hill country is now intersected +by a vast number of splendid roads, made at a cost of upwards of +£2000 per mile. In 1848 an ordinance was passed to levy from every +adult male in the colony (except Buddhist priests and British soldiers) +six days’ labour on the roads, or an equivalent in money. The labour +and money obtained by this wise measure have enabled the local +authorities to connect the government highways by minor roads, +which bring every village of importance into communication with +the principal towns.</p> + +<p><i>Railways.</i>—After repeated vain attempts by successive governors +to connect Colombo with the interior by railways, Sir Charles +MacCarthy successfully set on foot a railway of 75 m. in length from +Colombo to Kandy. The railway mileage had developed to 563 m. +in 1908, including one of the finest mountain lines in the world—over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span> +160 m. long, rising to 6200 ft. above sea-level, and falling at the +terminus to 4000 ft. The towns of Kandy, Matale, Gampola, Nawalapitiya, +Hatton and Haputale (and practically Nuwara Eliya) in the +hills, are thus connected by rail, and in the low country the towns of +Kurunegala, Galle, Matara, Kalutara, &c. Most of the debt on the +railways (all government lines) is paid off, and the traffic receipts +now make up nearly one-third of the general revenue. An Indo-Ceylon +railway to connect the Indian and Ceylon systems has been +the subject of separate reports and estimates by engineers serving +the Ceylon and Indian governments, who have pronounced the +work across the coral reef between Manaar and Rameswaram quite +feasible. A commission sat in 1903 to consider the gauge of an +Indo-Ceylon railway. Such a line promised to serve strategic as +well as commercial purposes, and to make Colombo more than ever +the port for southern India. The headquarters of the mail steamers +have been removed from Galle to Colombo, where the colonial +government have constructed a magnificent breakwater, and undertaken +other harbour works which have greatly augmented both +the external trade and the coasting trade of the island.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—Ceylon is a crown colony, that is, a possession of the +British crown acquired by conquest or cession, the affairs of which +are administered by a governor, who receives his appointment from +the crown, generally for a term of six years. He is assisted by an +executive and a legislative council. The executive council acts as +the cabinet of the governor, and consists of the attorney-general, +the three principal officers of the colony (namely, the colonial secretary, +the treasurer and the auditor-general), and the general in +command of the forces. The legislative council includes, besides +the governor as president and nine official members, eight unofficial +members—one for the Kandyan Sinhalese (or Highlanders) and one +for the “Moormen” having been added in 1890. The term of office +for the unofficial members is limited to five years, though the +governor may reappoint if he choose. The king’s advocate, the +deputy-advocate, and the surveyor-general are now respectively +styled attorney-general, solicitor-general, and director of public +works. The civil service has been reconstituted into five classes, +not including the colonial secretary as a staff appointment, nor ten +cadets; these five classes number seventy officers. The district +judges can punish up to two years’ imprisonment, and impose +fines up to Rs.1000. The police magistrates can pass sentences +up to six months’ imprisonment, and impose fines of Rs.150. The +criminal law has since 1890 been codified on the model of the Indian +penal code; criminal and civil procedure have also been the subject +of codification. There are twenty-three prisons in the island, mostly +small; but convict establishments in and near the capital take all +long-sentence prisoners.</p> + +<p><i>Banks and Currency.</i>—Ceylon has agencies of the National Bank +of India, Bank of Madras, Mercantile Bank of India, Chartered Bank +of India, Australia and China, and of the Hong-kong and Shanghai +Bank, besides mercantile agencies of other banks, also a government +savings bank at Colombo, and post-office savings banks all +over the island. In 1884, on the failure of the Oriental Bank, the +notes in currency were guaranteed by government, and a government +note currency was started in supersession of bank notes. The coin +currency of Ceylon is in rupees and decimals of a rupee, the value +of the standard following that fixed for the Indian rupee, about +1s. 4d. per rupee.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—With the disease of the coffee plant the general revenue +fell from Rs.1,70,00,000 in 1877 to Rs.1,20,00,000 in 1882, when +trade was in a very depressed state, and the general prosperity of +the island was seriously affected. Since then, however, the revenue +has steadily risen with the growing export of tea, cocoa-nut produce, +plumbago, &c., and in 1902 it reached a total of 28 millions of +rupees.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. F. D.; C. L.)</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The island of Ceylon was known to the Greeks and +Romans under the name of <i>Taprobane</i>, and in later times Serendib, +Sirinduil and Zeylan have been employed to designate it by +writers of the Western and Eastern worlds. Serendib is a +corruption of the Sanskrit <i>Sinhaladvïpa</i>. Like most oriental +countries, Ceylon possesses a great mass of ancient records, in +which fact is so confused with fable that they are difficult to +distinguish. The labours of George Turnour (1799-1843), +however, helped to dissipate much of this obscurity, and his +admirable edition (1836) of the <i>Mahavamsa</i> first made it possible +to trace the main lines of Sinhalese history.</p> + +<p>The Sinhalese inscriptional records, to which George Turnour +first called attention, and which, through the activity of Sir +William Gregory in 1874, began to be accurately transcribed +and translated, extend from the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards. +Among the oldest inscriptions discovered are those on the rock +cells of the Vessagiri Vihara of Anuradhapura, cut in the old +Brahma-lipi character. The inscriptions show how powerful +was the Buddhist hierarchy which dominated the government +and national life. The royal decrees of successive rulers are +mainly concerned with the safeguarding of the rights of the +hierarchy, but a few contain references to executive acts of the +kings, as in a slab inscription of Kassapa V. (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 929-939). +In an edict ascribed to Mahinda IV. (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 975-991) reference +is made to the Sinhalese palladium, the famous tooth-relic of +Buddha, now enshrined at Kandy, and the decree confirms +tradition as to the identity of the fine stone temple, east of the +Thuparama at Anuradhapura, with the shrine in which the +tooth was first deposited when brought from Kalinga in the +reign of Kirti Sri Meghavarna (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 304-324).</p> + +<p>The earliest inhabitants of Ceylon were probably the ancestors +of the modern Veddahs, a small tribe of primitive hunters who +inhabit the eastern jungles; and the discovery of palaeolithic +stone implements buried in some of their caves points to the fact +that they represent a race which has been in the island for untold +ages. As to subsequent immigrations, the great Hindu epic, +the <i>Ramayana</i>, tells the story of the conquest of part of the +island by the hero Rama and his followers, who took the capital +of its king Rawana. Whatever element of truth there may be +in this fable, it certainly represents no permanent occupation. +The authentic history of Ceylon, so far as it can be traced, +begins with the landing in 543 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> of Vijaya, the founder of the +Sinhalese dynasty, with a small band of Aryan-speaking followers +from the mainland of India. Vijaya married the daughter of a +native chief, with whose aid he proceeded to master the whole +island, which he parcelled out among his followers, some of whom +formed petty kingdoms. The Sinhalese introduced from the +mainland a comparatively high type of civilization, notably +agriculture. The earliest of the great irrigation tanks, near +Anuradhapura, was opened about 504 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the successor of +Vijaya; and about this time was established that system of +village communities which still obtains over a large part of Ceylon.</p> + +<p>The island was converted to Buddhism at the beginning of +the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the preaching of Mahinda, a son of the +great Buddhist emperor Asoka; a conversion that was followed +by an immense multiplication of <i>daghobas</i>, curious bell-shaped +reliquaries of solid stone, and of Buddhist monasteries. For +the rest, the history of ancient Ceylon is largely a monotonous +record of Malabar or Tamil invasions, conquests and usurpations. +Of these latter the first was in 237 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> when two officers in the +cavalry and fleet revolted, overthrew the Sinhalese ruler with +the aid of his own Tamil mercenaries, and reigned jointly, as +Sena I. and Guptika, until 215. The Sinhalese Asela then ruled +till 205, when he was overthrown by a Tamil from Tanjore, +Elala, who held the reins of power for 44 years. In 161 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Elala was defeated and slain by Dutegemunu, still remembered +as one of the great Sinhalese heroes of Ceylon. The ruins of the +great monastery, known as the Brazen Palace, at Anuradhapura, +remain a memorial of King Dutegemunu’s splendour and religious +zeal. He died in 137 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and thenceforth the history of Ceylon +is mainly that of further Tamil invasions, of the construction +of irrigation tanks, and of the immense development of the +Buddhist monastic system. A tragic episode in the royal family +in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> is, however, worthy of notice as connected +with one of Ceylon’s most interesting remains, the Sīgiri rock +and tank (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sīgiri</a></span>). In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 477 King Datu Sen was murdered +by his son, who mounted the throne as Kasyapa I., and when +he was driven from the capital by the inhabitants, infuriated +by his crime, built himself a stronghold on the inaccessible +Sīgiri rock, whence he ruled the country until in 495 he was +overthrown and slain by his brother Mugallana (495-513), who +at the time of his father’s murder had escaped to India.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the 10th century Ceylon was invaded by +Rajaraja the Great, the Chola king, and after a series of protracted +campaigns was annexed to his empire in 1005. The +island, did not, however, remain long under Tamil domination. +In 1071 Vijaya Bahu succeeded in re-establishing the Sinhalese +dynasty, and for a while Ceylon was freed from foreign intervention. +The most notable of the successors of Vijaya Bahu, +and indeed of all the long line of Sinhalese rulers, was Parakrama +Bahu I. (1155-1180), whose colossal statue still stands near +Polonnaruwa. He not only took advantage of the unaccustomed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span> +tranquillity of the country to restore the irrigation tanks and +the monasteries, but he availed himself of a disputed succession +to the Pandya throne of Madura to turn the tables on his Tamil +enemies by invading India. According to the <i>Mahavamsa</i> his +generals met with immediate and unbroken success; according +to the more probable account preserved in a long Chola inscription +at Arpakkam near Kanchi, they were, though at first +successful, ultimately driven out by a coalition of the southern +princes (V.A. Smith, <i>Early History of India</i>, ed. 1908, p. 411). +In any case, within thirty years of Parakrama Bahu’s death +his work was undone; the Malabar invaders were once more +able to effect a settlement in the island, and the Sinhalese capital +was moved farther and farther south, till in 1410 it had become +established at Kotta, now a suburb of Colombo. In 1408 a new +misfortune had befallen the Sinhalese dynasty; in revenge for +an insult offered to a Chinese envoy, a Chinese army invaded +the island and carried away King Vijaya Bahu IV. into captivity. +For thirty years from this date the Sinhalese kings of Ceylon +were tributary to China.</p> + +<p>When, in 1505, the Portuguese Francisco de Almeida landed +in Ceylon, he found the island divided into seven kingdoms. +Twelve years later the viceroy of Goa ordered the erection of a +fort at Colombo, for which permission was obtained from the +king of Kotta; and from this time until the advent of the Dutch +in the 17th century the Portuguese endeavoured, amid perpetual +wars with the native kings, who were assisted by Arab and other +traders jealous of European rivalry, to establish their control +over the island. They ultimately succeeded so far as the coast +was concerned, though their dominion scarcely penetrated inland. +Materially their gain was but small, for the trade of Ceylon was +quite insignificant; but they had the spiritual satisfaction of +prosecuting a vigorous propaganda of Catholicism, St Francis +Xavier being the most notable of the missionaries who at this +time laboured in the island.</p> + +<p>The fanatical zeal and the masterful attitude of the Portuguese +were a constant source of dissension with the native rulers, and +when the Dutch, under Admiral Spilberg, landed on the east +coast in 1602 and sought the alliance of the king of Kandy in +the interior of the island, every inducement was held out to them +to aid in expelling the Portuguese. Nothing seems to have come +of this until 1638-1639, when a Dutch expedition attacked and +razed the Portuguese forts on the east coast. In the following +year they landed at Negombo, without however establishing +themselves in any strong post. In 1644 Negombo was captured +and fortified by the Dutch, while in 1656 they took Colombo, +and in 1658 they drove the Portuguese from Jaffna, their last +stronghold in Ceylon.</p> + +<p>Pursuing a wiser policy than their predecessors, the Dutch +lost no opportunity of improving that portion of the country +which owned their supremacy, and of opening a trade with the +interior. More tolerant and less disposed to stand upon their +dignity than the Portuguese, they subordinated political to commercial +ends, flattered the native rulers by a show of deference, +and so far succeeded in their object as to render their trade +between the island and Holland a source of great profit. Many +new branches of industry were developed. Public works were +undertaken on a large scale, and education, if not universally +placed within the reach of the inhabitants of the maritime +provinces, was at least well cared for on a broad plan of government +supervision. That which they had so much improved by +policy, they were, however, unable to defend by force when the +British turned their arms against them. A century and a half +had wrought great changes in the physical and mental status +of the Dutch colonists. The territory which in 1658 they had +slowly gained by undaunted and obstinate bravery, they as +rapidly lost in 1796 by imbecility and cowardice.</p> + +<p>The first intercourse of the English with Ceylon was as far +back as 1763, when an embassy was despatched from Madras +to the king of Kandy, without, however, leading to any result. +On the rupture between Great Britain and Holland in 1795, a +force was sent against the Dutch possessions in Ceylon, where +the opposition offered was so slight that by the following year +the whole of their forts were in the hands of the English +commander.</p> + +<p>The abiding results of the occupation of Ceylon by the +Portuguese and Dutch is described by Sir Emerson Tennent +(<i>Ceylon</i>) as follows:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The dominion of the Netherlands in Ceylon was nearly equal in +duration with that of Portugal, about 140 years; but the policies +of the two countries have left a very different impress on the character +and institutions of the people amongst whom they lived. The +most important bequest left by the utilitarian genius of Holland is +the code of Roman Dutch law, which still prevails in the supreme +courts of justice, whilst the fanatical propagandism of the Portuguese +has reared for itself a monument in the abiding and expanding +influence of the Roman Catholic faith. This flourishes in every +hamlet and province where it was implanted by the Franciscans, +whilst the doctrines of the reformed church of Holland, never +preached beyond the walls of the fortresses, are already almost +forgotten throughout the island, with the exception of an expiring +community at Colombo. Already the language of the Dutch, which +they sought to extend by penal enactments, has ceased to be spoken +even by their direct descendants, whilst a corrupted Portuguese is +to the present day the vernacular of the lower classes in every town +of importance. As the practical and sordid government of the +Netherlands only recognized the interest of the native population +in so far as they were essential to uphold their trading monopolies, +their memory was recalled by no agreeable associations: whilst the +Portuguese, who, in spite of their cruelties, were identified with the +people by the bond of a common faith, excited a feeling of admiration +by the boldness of their conflicts with the Kandyans, and the +chivalrous though ineffectual defence of their beleaguered fortresses. +The Dutch and their proceedings have almost ceased to be remembered +by the lowland Sinhalese; but the chiefs of the south and +west perpetuate with pride the honorific title Don, accorded to them +by their first European conquerors, and still prefix to their ancient +patronymics the sonorous Christian names of the Portuguese.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The British forces by which the island had been conquered +were those of the East India Company, and Ceylon was therefore +at first placed under its jurisdiction and administered from +Madras. The introduction of the Madras revenue system, however, +together with a host of Malabar collectors, led to much +discontent, which culminated in rebellion; and in 1798 the +colony was placed directly under the crown. By the treaty of +Amiens, in 1803, this situation was regularized, from the international +point of view, by the formal cession to Great Britain +of the former Dutch possessions in the island. For a while the +British dominion was confined to the coast. The central tract +of hilly country, hedged in by impenetrable forests and precipitous +mountain ranges, remained in possession of Sri Vikrama +Raja Sinha, the last of the Sinhalese dynasty, who showed +no signs of encouraging communication with his European +neighbours.</p> + +<p>Minor differences led in 1803 to an invasion of the Kandyan +territory; but sickness, desertion and fatigue proved more +formidable adversaries to the British forces than the troops of +the Sinhalese monarch, and peace was eventually concluded upon +terms by no means favourable to the English. The cruelty and +oppression of the king now became so intolerable to his subjects +that disaffection spread rapidly amongst them. Punishments +of the most horrible kinds were inflicted, but failed to repress +the popular indignation; and in 1815 the British, at the urgent +request of many of the Adigars and other native chiefs, proceeded +against the tyrant, who was captured near Kandy, and subsequently +ended his days in exile. With him ended a long line of +sovereigns, whose pedigree may be traced through upwards of +two thousand years.</p> + +<p>By a convention entered into with the Kandyan chiefs on the +2nd of March 1815, the entire sovereignty of the island passed +into the hands of the British, who in return guaranteed to the +inhabitants civil and religious liberty. The religion of Buddha +was declared inviolable, and its rights, ministers and places of +worship were to be maintained and protected; the laws of the +country were to be preserved and administered according to +established forms; and the royal dues and revenues were to be +levied as before for the support of government.</p> + +<p>With the exception of a serious outbreak in some parts of the +interior in 1817, which lasted for upwards of a year, and of two +minor attempts at rebellion easily put down, in 1843 and 1848, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span> +the political atmosphere of Ceylon has remained undisturbed +since the deportation of the last king of Kandy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Major Thomas Skinner, <i>Fifty Years in Ceylon</i>, +edited by his son, A. Skinner (London, 1891); Constance F. Gordon +Gumming, <i>Two Happy Years in Ceylon</i> (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892); +H.W. Cave, <i>The Ruined Cities of Ceylon</i> (London, 1897), and <i>The +Book of Ceylon</i> (London, 1908); Sir Emerson Tennent, <i>Ceylon</i> +(2 vols. 4th ed., 1860); J. Ferguson, <i>Ceylon in 1903</i> (Colombo); +J.C. Willis, <i>Ceylon</i> (Colombo, 1907). See also E. Müller, <i>Ancient +Inscriptions in Ceylon</i>, published for the government (1883-1884), +and the important archaeological survey in <i>Epigraphia Zeylonica</i>, +part i., 1904, ii., 1907, iii., 1907, by Don Martino de Silva Wickremasinghe, +who in 1899 was appointed epigraphist to the Ceylon +government. Among other works on special subjects may be +mentioned H. Trimen, F.R.S., director of Ceylon Botanic Gardens, +<i>Ceylon Flora</i>, in 5 vols., completed by Sir Joseph Hooker; Captain +V. Legge, F.Z.S., <i>History of the Birds of Ceylon</i> (London, 1870); +Dr Copleston, bishop of Colombo, <i>Buddhism, Primitive and Present, +in Magadha and in Ceylon</i> (London, 1892); review by Sir West +Ridgeway, <i>Administration of Ceylon, 1896-1903</i>; Professor W.A. +Herdman, <i>Report on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries, 1903-1904</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHABAZITE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a mineral species belonging to the group of +zeolites. It occurs as white to flesh-red crystals which vary from +transparent to translucent and have a vitreous lustre. The +crystals are rhombohedral, and the predominating form is often +a rhombohedron (<i>r</i>) with interfacial angles of 85° 14′; they +therefore closely resemble cubes in appearance, and the mineral +was in fact early (in 1772) described as a cubic zeolite. A +characteristic feature is the twinning, the crystals being frequently +interpenetration twins with the principal axis as twin-axis +(figs, 1, 2). The appearance shown in fig. 1, with the corners +of small crystals in twinned position projecting from the faces +<i>r</i> of the main crystal, is especially characteristic of chabazite. +Such groups resemble the interpenetrating twinned cubes of +fluorspar, but the two minerals are readily distinguished by +their cleavage, fluorspar having a perfect octahedral cleavage +truncating the corners of the cube, whilst in chabazite there are +less distinct cleavages parallel to the rhombohedral (cube-like) +faces. Another type of twinned crystal is represented in fig. 2, +in which the predominating form is an obtuse hexagonal pyramid +(<i>t</i>); the faces of these flatter crystals are often rounded, giving +rise to lenticular shapes, hence the name phacolite (from <span class="grk" title="phakos">φακός</span>, +a lentil) for this variety of chabazite.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:507px; height:196px" src="images/img785.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Twinned Crystals of Chabazite.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The hardness of chabazite is 4½, and the specific gravity +2.08-2.16. As first noticed by Sir David Brewster in 1830, the +crystals often exhibit anomalous optical characters: instead +of being uniaxial, a basal section may be divided into sharply-defined +biaxial sectors. Heating of the crystals is attended by +a loss of water and a change in their optical characters; it is +probable therefore that the anomalous optical characters are +dependent on the amount of water present.</p> + +<p>Besides phacolite, mentioned above, other varieties of chabazite +are distinguished. Herschelite and seebachite are essentially +the same as phacolite. Haydenite is the name given to small +yellowish crystals, twinned on a rhombohedron plane <i>r</i>, from +Jones’s Falls near Baltimore in Maryland. Acadialite is a +reddish chabazite from Nova Scotia (the old French name of +which is Acadie).</p> + +<p>Chemically, chabazite is a complex hydrated calcium and +sodium silicate, with a small proportion of the sodium replaced by +potassium, and sometimes a small amount of the calcium replaced +by barium and strontium. The composition is however variable, +and is best expressed as an isomorphous mixture of the molecules +(Ca, Na<span class="su">2</span>) Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span> + 4H<span class="su">2</span>O and (Ca, Na<span class="su">2</span>) Al<span class="su">2</span>(Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">8</span>)<span class="su">2</span> + 8H<span class="su">2</span>O, +which are analogous to the felspars. Most analyses correspond +with a formula midway between these extremes, namely, +(Ca, Na<span class="su">2</span>)Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">4</span> + 6H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p> + +<p>Chabazite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal +cavities of basaltic rocks; occasionally it has been found in +gneisses and schists. Well-formed crystals are known from +many localities; for example, Kilmalcolm in Renfrewshire, the +Giant’s Causeway in Co. Antrim, and Oberstein in Germany. +Beautiful, clear glassy crystals of the phacolite (“seebachite”) +variety occur with phillipsite and radiating bundles of brown +calcite in cavities in compact basalt near Richmond, Melbourne, +Victoria. Small crystals have been observed lining the cavities +of fossil shells from Iceland, and in the recent deposits of the +hot springs of Plombières and Bourbonne-les-Bains in France.</p> + +<p>Gmelinite and levynite are other species of zeolites which may +be mentioned here, since they are closely related to chabazite, +and like it are rhombohedral and frequently twinned. Gmelinite +forms large flesh-red crystals usually of hexagonal habit, and +was early known as soda-chabazite, it having the composition +of chabazite but with sodium predominating over +calcium (Na<span class="su">2</span>, Ca)Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">4</span>6H<span class="su">2</span>O. The formula of levynite is +CaAl<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">10</span> + 5H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHABLIS, <a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span>a town of north-central France, in the department +of Yonne, on the left bank of the Serein, 14 m. E. by N. of Auxerre +by road. Pop. (1906) 2227. Its church of St Martin belongs +to the end of the 12th century. The town gives its name to a +well-known white wine produced in the neighbouring vineyards, +of which the most esteemed are Clos, Bouguerots, Moutonne, +Grenouille, Montmaires, Lys and Vaux-Désirs. There are +manufactures of biscuits.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHABOT, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1757-1794), French revolutionist, +had been a Franciscan friar before the Revolution, and after the +civil constitution of the clergy continued to act as “constitutional” +priest, becoming grand vicar of Henri Grégoire, bishop +of Blois. Then he was elected to the Legislative Assembly, +sitting at the extreme left, and forming with C. Bazire and Merlin +de Thionville the “Cordelier trio.” Re-elected to the Convention +he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and opposed the proposal +to prosecute the authors of the massacre of September, “because +among them there are heroes of Jemmapes.” Some of his +sayings are well known, such as that Christ was the first “<i>sans-culotte</i>.” +Compromised in the falsification of a decree suppressing +the India Company and in a plot to bribe certain members of +the Convention, especially Fabre d’Eglantine and C. Bazire, he +was arrested, brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal, and +was condemned and executed at the same time as the Dantonists, +who protested against being associated with such a “<i>fripon</i>.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> known as <span class="sc">Chabot de +l’Allier</span> (1758-1819), French jurist and statesman, was president +of the tribunal of Montluçon when he was elected as +a deputy <i>suppléant</i> to the National Convention. A member of +the council of the Ancients, then of the Tribunate, he was +president of the latter when the peace of Amiens was signed. +He had a resolution adopted, tending to give Napoleon Bonaparte +the consulship for life; and in 1804 supported the proposal +to establish a hereditary monarchy. Napoleon named him +inspector-general of the law schools, then judge of the court of +cassation. He published various legal works, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Tableau de la +législation ancienne sur les successions et de la législation nouvelle +établie par le code civil</i> (Paris, 1804), and <i>Questions fransitoires +sur le code Napoléon</i> (Paris, 1809).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de Brion, Count of +Charny and Buzançais</span> (c. 1492-1543), admiral of France. +The Chabot family was one of the oldest and most powerful in +Poitou. Philippe was a cadet of the Jarnac branch. He was a +companion of Francis I. as a child, and on that king’s accession +was loaded with honours and estates. After the battle of Pavia +he was made admiral of France and governor of Burgundy +(1526), and shared with Anne de Montmorency the direction of +affairs. He was at the height of his power in 1535, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span> +commanded the army for the invasion of the states of the duke of +Savoy; but in the campaigns of 1536 and 1537 he was eclipsed +by Montmorency, and from that moment his influence began to +wane. He was accused by his enemies of peculation, and +condemned on the 10th of February 1541 to a fine of 1,500,000 +livres, to banishment, and to the confiscation of his estates. +Through the good offices of Madam d’Étampes, however, he +obtained the king’s pardon almost immediately (March 1541), +was reinstated in his posts, and regained his estates and even +his influence, while Montmorency in his turn was disgraced. +But his health was affected by these troubles, and he died soon +afterwards on the 1st of June 1543. His tomb in the Louvre, +by an unknown sculptor, is a fine example of French Renaissance +work. It was his nephew, Guy Chabot, seigneur de Jarnac, +who fought the famous duel with François de Vivonne, seigneur +de la Châtaigneraie, in 1547, at the beginning of the reign of +Henry II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The main authorities for Chabot’s life are his MS. correspondence +in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and contemporary memoirs. +See also E de Barthélemy, “Chabot de Brion,” in the <i>Revue des +questions historiques</i> (vol. xx. 1876); Martineau, “L’Amiral Chabot,” +in the <i>Positions des thèses de l’École des Chartes</i> (1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHABRIAS<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a celebrated Athenian general. +In 388 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he defeated the Spartans at Aegina and commanded +the fleet sent to assist Evagoras, king of Cyprus, against the +Persians. In 378, when Athens entered into an alliance with, +Thebes against Sparta, he defeated Agesilaus near Thebes. On +this occasion he invented a manoeuvre, which consisted in +receiving a charge on the left knee, with shields resting on the +ground and spears pointed against the enemy. In 376 he +gained a decisive victory over the Spartan fleet off Naxos, but, +when he might have destroyed the Spartan fleet, remembering +the fate of the generals at Arginusae, he delayed to pick up the +bodies of his dead. Later, when the Athenians changed sides +and joined the Spartans, he repulsed Epaminondas before the +walls of Corinth. In 366, together with Callistratus, he was +accused of treachery in advising the surrender of Oropus to the +Thebans. He was acquitted, and soon after he accepted a +command under Tachos, king of Egypt, who had revolted +against Persia. But on the outbreak of the Social War (357) +he joined Chares in the command of the Athenian fleet. He lost +his life in an attack on the island of Chios.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cornelius Nepos, <i>Chabrias</i>; Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, v. 1-4; +Diod. Sic. xv. 29-34; and C. Rehdantz, <i>Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae, +et Timothei</i> (1845); art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>, section B, and authorities +there quoted.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1841-1894), French +composer, was born at Ambert, Puy de Dôme, on the 18th of +January 1841. At first he only cultivated music as an amateur, +and it was not until 1879 that he threw up an administration +appointment in order to devote himself entirely to the art. He +had two years previously written an <i>opéra bouffe</i> entitled <i>L’Étoile</i>, +which was performed at the Bouffes Parisiens. In 1881 he was +appointed chorus-master of the concerts then recently established +by Lamoureux. In 1883 he composed the brilliant orchestral +rhapsody entitled <i>España</i>, the themes of which he had jotted +down when travelling in Spain. His opera <i>Gwendoline</i> was +brought out with considerable success at Brussels on the 10th +of April 1886, and was given later at the Paris Grand Opéra. +The following year 1887, <i>Le Roi malgré lui</i>, an opera of a lighter +description, was produced in Paris at the Opéra Comique, its +run being interrupted by the terrible fire by which this theatre +was destroyed. His last opera, <i>Briseis</i>, was left unfinished, +and performed in a fragmentary condition at the Paris Opéra, +after the composer’s death in Paris on the 13th of September +1894. Chabrier was also the author of a set of piano pieces +entitled <i>Pièces pittoresques, Valses romantiques</i>, for two pianos, +a fantasia for horn and piano, &c. His great admiration for +Wagner asserted itself in <i>Gwendoline</i>, a work which, in spite of +inequalities due to want of experience, is animated by a high +artistic ideal, is poetically conceived, and shows considerable +harmonic originality, besides a thorough mastery over the +treatment of the orchestra. The characteristics of <i>Le Roi</i> +<i>malgré lui</i> have been well summed up by M. Joncières when he +alludes to “cette verve inépuisable, ces rythmes endiablés, cette +exubérance de gaieté et de vigueur, à laquelle venait se joindre +la note mélancolique et émue.” Chabrier’s premature death +prevented him from giving the full measure of his worth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHACMA,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the Hottentot name of the Cape baboon, <i>Papio +porcarius</i>, a species inhabiting the mountains of South Africa +as far north as the Zambezi. Of the approximate size of an +English mastiff, this powerful baboon is blackish grey in colour +with a tinge of green due to the yellow rings on most of the hairs. +Unlike most of its tribe, it is a good climber; and where wooded +cliffs are not available, will take up its quarters in tall trees. +Chacmas frequently strip orchards and fruit-gardens, break +and devour ostrich eggs, and kill lambs and kids for the sake of +the milk in their stomachs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHACO,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a territory of northern Argentina, part of a large +district known as the Gran Chaco, bounded N. by the territory +of Formosa, E. by Paraguay and Corrientes, S. by Santa Fé, +and W. by Santiago del Estero and Salta. The Bermejo river +forms its northern boundary, and the Paraguay and Paraná +rivers its eastern; these rivers are its only means of communication. +Pop. (1895) 10,422; (1904, est.) 13,937; area, 52,741 sq. +m. The northern part consists of a vast plain filled with numberless +lagoons; the southern part is slightly higher and is covered +with dense forests, occasionally broken by open grassy spaces. +Its forests contain many species of trees of great economic +value; among them is the <i>quebracho</i>, which is exported for the +tannin which it contains. The capital, Resistencia, with an +estimated population of 3500 in 1904, is situated on the Paraná +river opposite the city of Corrientes. There is railway communication +between Santa Fé and La Sabana, an insignificant timber-cutting +village on the southern frontier. In the territory there +are still several tribes of uncivilized Indians, who occasionally +raid the neighbouring settlements of Santa Fé.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHACONNE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (Span. <i>chacona</i>), a slow dance, introduced into +Spain by the Moors, now obsolete. It resembles the Passacaglia. +The word is used also of the music composed for this +dance—a slow stately movement in ¾ time. Such a movement +was often introduced into a sonata, and formed the conventional +finale to an opera or ballet until the time of Gluck.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAD<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Ceadda</span>], <span class="bold">SAINT</span> (d. 672), brother of Cedd, whom he +succeeded as abbot at Lastingham, was consecrated bishop of +the Northumbrians by Wine, the West Saxon bishop, at the +request of Oswio in 664. On the return of Wilfrid from France, +where he had been sent to be consecrated to the same see, a +dispute of course arose, which was settled by Theodore in favour +of Wilfrid after three years had passed. Chad thereupon retired +to Lastingham, whence with the permission of Oswio he was +summoned by Wulfhere of Mercia to succeed his bishop Jaruman, +who died 667. Chad built a monastery at Barrow in Lincolnshire +and fixed his see at Lichfield. He died after he had held +his bishopric in Mercia two and a half years, and was succeeded +by Wynfrith. Bede gives a beautiful character of Chad.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bede’s <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> edited by C. Plummer, iii. 23, 24, 28; iv. +2, 3 (Oxford, 1896); Eddius, <i>Vita Wilfridi</i>, xiv., xv. edited by +J. Raine, Rolls Series (London, 1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAD,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a lake of northern Central Africa lying between +12° 50′ and 14° 10′ N. and 13° and 15° E. The lake is situated +about 850 ft. above the sea in the borderland between the fertile +and wooded regions of the Sudan on the south and the arid +steppes which merge into the Sahara on the north. The area of +the lake is shrinking owing to the progressive desiccation of the +country, Saharan climate and conditions replacing those of the +Sudan. The drying-up process has been comparatively rapid +since the middle of the 19th century, a town which in 1850 was +on the southern margin of the lake being in 1905 over 20 m. from +it. On the west the shore is perfectly flat, so that a slight rise +in the water causes the inundation of a considerable area—a +fact not without its influence on the estimates made at varying +periods as to the size of the lake. Around the north-west and +north shores is a continuous chain of gently sloping sand-hills +covered with bush. This region abounds in big game and birds +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span> +are plentiful. In the east, the country of Kanem, the desiccation +has been most marked. Along this coast is a continuous chain +of islands running from north-west to south-east. But what +were islands when viewed by Overweg in 1851, formed in 1903 +part of the mainland and new islands had arisen in the lake. +They are generally low, being composed of sand and clay, and lie +from 5 to 20 m. from the shore, which throughout its eastern side +nowhere faces open water. The channels between the islands +do not exceed 2 m. in width. Two principal groups are distinguished, +the Kuri archipelago in the south, and the Buduma +in the north. The inhabitants of the last-named islands were +noted pirates until reduced to order by the French. The coast-line +is, in general, undefined and marshy, and broken into numerous +bays and peninsulas. It is also, especially on the east, +lined by lagoons which communicate with the lake by intricate +channels. The lake is nowhere of great depth, and about midway +numerous mud-banks, marshes, islands and dense growths of +aqueous plants stretch across its surface. Another stretch +of marsh usually cuts off the northernmost part of the lake from +the central sections. The open water varies in depth from 3 ft. +in the north-west to over 20 in the south, where desiccation +is less apparent. Fed by the Shari (<i>q.v.</i>) and other rivers, the +lake has no outlet and its area varies according to the season. +The flood water brought down by the Shari in December and +January causes the lake to rise to a maximum of 24 ft., the +water spreading over low-lying ground, left dry again in May or +June. But after several seasons of heavy rainfall the waters +have remained for years beyond their low-water level. Nevertheless +the secular shrinking goes on, the loss by evaporation and +percolation exceeding the amount of water received; whilst, +on the average, the rainfall is diminishing. In 1870 the lake +rose to an exceptional height, but since then, save in 1897, there +has been only the normal seasonal rise. The prevalent north-east +wind causes at times a heavy swell on the lake. Fish +abound in its waters, which are sweet, save at low-level, when +they become brackish. The lagoons are believed to act as +purifying pans in which the greater part of the salt in the water +is precipitated. In the south-west end of the lake the water is +yellow, caused by banks of clay; elsewhere it is clear.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:513px; height:533px" src="images/img787.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>The southern basin of Chad is described under the Shari, +which empties its waters into the lake about the middle of the +southern shore, forming a delta of considerable extent. Beyond +the south-east corner of the lake is a depression known as the +Bahr-el-Ghazal (not to be confounded with the Nile affluent of +the same name). This depression is the termination of what is +in all probability the bed of one of the dried-up Saharan rivers. +Coming from the Tibesti highlands the Bahr-el-Ghazal has a +south-westerly trend to Lake Chad. Near the lake the valley +was formerly swampy, and at high-water the lake overflowed into +it. There was also at one time communication between the +Shari and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, so that the water of the first-named +stream reached Chad by way of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. +There is now neither inlet nor outlet to the lake in this direction, +the mouth of the Ghazal having become a fertile millet field. +There is still, however, a distinct current from the Shari delta +to the east end of the lake—known to the natives, like the depression +beyond, as the Bahr-el-Ghazal—indicative of the former +overflow outlet.</p> + +<p>Besides the Shari, the only important stream entering Lake +Chad is the Waube or Yo (otherwise the Komadugu Yobe), +which rises near Kano, and flowing eastward enters the lake on its +western side 40 m. north of Kuka. In the rains the Waube +carries down a considerable body of water to the lake.</p> + +<p>Lake Chad is supposed to have been known by report to +Ptolemy, and is identified by some writers with the Kura lake +of the middle ages. It was first seen by white men in 1823 +when it was reached by way of Tripoli by the British expedition +under Dr Walter Oudney, R.N., the other members being Captain +Hugh Clapperton and Major (afterwards Lieut.-Colonel) Dixon +Denham. By them the lake was named Waterloo. In 1850 +James Richardson, accompanied by Heinrich Barth and Adolf +Overweg, reached the lake, also via Tripoli, and Overweg was +the first European to navigate its waters (1851). The lake was +visited by Eduard Vogel (1855) and by Gustav Nachtigal (1870), +the last-named investigating its hydrography in some detail. +In 1890-1893 its shores were divided by treaty between Great +Britain, France and Germany. The first of these nations to +make good its footing in the region was France. A small steamer, +brought from the Congo by Emile Gentil, was in 1897 launched +on the Shari, and reaching the Chad, navigated the southern +part of the lake. Communication between Algeria and Lake Chad +by way of the Sahara was opened, after repeated failures, by the +French explorer F. Foureau in 1899-1900. At the same time +a French officer, Lieut. Joalland, reached the lake from the +middle Niger, continuing his journey round the north end to +Kanem. A British force under Colonel T.L.N. Morland visited +the lake at the beginning of 1902, and in May of the same year +the Germans first reached it from Cameroon. In 1902-1903 +French officers under Colonel Destenave made detailed surveys +of the south-eastern and eastern shores and the adjacent islands. +In 1903 Captain E. Lenfant, also a French officer, succeeded in +reaching the lake (which he circumnavigated) via the Benue, +proving the existence of water communication between the Shari +and the Niger. In 1905 Lieut. Boyd Alexander, a British +officer, further explored the lake, which then contained few +stretches of open water. The lake is bordered W. and S.W. by +Bornu, which is partly in the British protectorate of Nigeria +and partly in the German protectorate of Cameroon. Bagirmi +to the S.E. of the lake and Kanem to the N.E. are both French +possessions. The north and north-west shores also belong to +France. One of the ancient trade routes across the Sahara—that +from Tripoli to Kuka in Bornu—strikes the lake at its north-west +corner, but this has lost much of its former importance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the works of Denham, Clapperton, Barth and Nachtigal cited +in the biographical notices; <i>Geog. Journal</i>, vol. xxiv. (1904); Capt. +Tilho in <i>La Géographie</i> (March 1906); Boyd Alexander, <i>From the +Niger to the Nile</i>, vol. i. (London, 1907); A. Chevalier, <i>Mission +Chari-Lac Tchad 1902-1904</i> (Paris 1908); E. Lenfant, <i>La Grande +Route du Tchad</i> (Paris, 1905); H. Freydenberg, <i>Étude sur le Tchad +et le bassin du Chari</i> (Paris, 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHADDERTON,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> an urban district of Lancashire, England, +within the parliamentary borough of Oldham (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. +(1901) 24,892. Cotton and chemical works, and the coal-mines +of the neighbourhood, employ the large industrial population.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHADERTON, LAURENCE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (?1536-1640), Puritan divine, was +born at Lees Hall, in the parish of Oldham, Lancashire, probably +in September 1536, being the second son of Edmund Chaderton, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span> +a gentleman of an ancient and wealthy family, and a zealous +Catholic. Under the tuition of Laurence Vaux, a priest, he +became an able scholar. In 1564 he entered Christ’s College, +Cambridge, where, after a short time, he formally adopted the +reformed doctrines and was in consequence disinherited by his +father. In 1567 he was elected a fellow of his college, and +subsequently was chosen lecturer of St Clement’s church, +Cambridge, where he preached to admiring audiences for many +years. He was a man of moderate views, though numbering +among his friends extremists like Cartwright and Perkins. So +great was his reputation that when Sir Walter Mildmay founded +Emmanuel College in 1584 he chose Chaderton for the first +master, and on his expressing some reluctance, declared that if +he would not accept the office the foundation should not go on. +In 1604 Chaderton was appointed one of the four divines for +managing the cause of the Puritans at the Hampton Court +conference; and he was also one of the translators of the Bible. +In 1578 he had taken the degree of B.D., and in 1613 he was +created D.D. At this period he made provision for twelve +fellows and above forty scholars in Emmanuel College. Fearing +that he might have a successor who held Arminian doctrines, +he resigned the mastership in favour of John Preston, but +survived him, and lived also to see the college presided over +successively by William Sancroft (or Sandcroft) and Richard +Holdsworth. He died on the 13th of November 1640 at the age +of about 103, preserving his bodily and mental faculties to the end.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Chaderton published a sermon preached at St Paul’s Cross about +1580, and a treatise of his <i>On Justification</i> was printed by +Anthony Thysius, professor of divinity at Leiden. Some other works by +him on theological subjects remain in manuscript.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1800-1890), English sanitary +reformer, was born at Longsight, near Manchester, on the 24th +of January 1800. Called to the bar without any independent +means, he sought to support himself by literary work, and his +essays in the <i>Westminster Review</i> (mainly on different methods +of applying scientific knowledge to the business of government) +introduced him to the notice of Jeremy Bentham, who engaged +him as a literary assistant and left him a handsome legacy. In +1832 he was employed by the royal commission appointed to +inquire into the operation of the poor laws, and in 1833 he was +made a full member of that body. In conjunction with Nassau +W. Senior he drafted the celebrated report of 1834 which procured +the reform of the old poor law. His special contribution was the +institution of the union as the area of administration. He +favoured, however, a much more centralized system of +administration than was adopted, and he never ceased to complain +that the reform of 1834 was fatally marred by the rejection of +his views, which contemplated the management of poor-law +relief by salaried officers controlled from a central board, +the boards of guardians acting merely as inspectors. In 1834 +he was appointed secretary to the poor law commissioners. +Finding himself unable to administer in accordance with his +own views an act of which he was largely the author, his relations +with his official chiefs became much strained, and the disagreement +led, among other causes, to the dissolution of the poor law +commission in 1846. Chadwick’s chief contribution to political +controversy was his constant advocacy of entrusting certain +departments of local affairs to trained and selected experts, +instead of to representatives elected on the principle of local +self-government. While still officially connected with the poor +law he had taken up the question of sanitation in conjunction +with Dr Southwood Smith, and their joint labours produced a +most salutary improvement in the public health. His report +on “The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population” +(1842) is a valuable historical document. He was a commissioner +of the Board of Health from its establishment in 1848 to its +abolition in 1854, when he retired upon a pension, and occupied +the remainder of his life in voluntary contributions to sanitary +and economical questions. He died at East Sheen, Surrey, on +the 6th of July 1890. He had been made K.C.B. in 1889.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See a volume on <i>The Evils of Disunity in Central and Local +Administration ... and the New Centralization for the People</i>, by +Edwin Chadwick (1885); also <i>The Health of Nations, a Review of the +Works of Edwin Chadwick, with a Biographical Introduction</i>, by +Sir B.W. Richardson (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAEREMON,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> Athenian dramatist of the first half of the +4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is generally considered a tragic poet. +Aristotle (<i>Rhetoric</i>, iii. 12) says his works were intended for +reading, not for representation. According to Suidas, he was +also a comic poet, and the title of at least one of his plays (<i>Achilles +Slayer of Thersites</i>) seems to indicate that it was a satyric drama. +His <i>Centaurus</i> is described by Aristotle (<i>Poet.</i> i. 12) as a rhapsody +in all kinds of metres. The fragments of Chaeremon are distinguished +by correctness of form and facility of rhythm, but +marred by a florid and affected style reminiscent of Agathon. +He especially excelled in descriptions (irrelevantly introduced) +dealing with such subjects as flowers and female beauty. It is +not agreed whether he is the author of three epigrams in the +Greek Anthology (Palatine vii. 469, 720, 721) which bear +his name.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Bartsch, <i>De Chaeremone Poëta tragico</i> (1843); fragments +in A. Nauck, <i>Fragmenta Tragicorum Graecorum</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAEREMON,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> of Alexandria (1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), Stoic philosopher +and grammarian. He was superintendent of the portion +of the Alexandrian library that was kept in the temple of +Serapis, and as custodian and expounder of the sacred books +(<span class="grk" title="ierogrammateus">ἱερογραμματέύς</span> sacred scribe) belonged to the higher ranks of +the priesthood. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 49 he was summoned to Rome, with +Alexander of Aegae, to become tutor to the youthful Nero. +He was the author of a <i>History of Egypt</i>; of works on <i>Comets, +Egyptian Astrology</i>, and <i>Hieroglyphics</i>; and of a grammatical +treatise on <i>Expletive Conjunctions</i> (<span class="grk" title="syndesmoi paraplêrôpaeromatikoi">συνδεσμοὶ παραπληρωματικοί</span>). +Chaeremon was the chief of the party which explained the +Egyptian religious system as a mere allegory of the worship of +nature. His books were not intended to represent the ideas of his +Egyptian contemporaries; their chief object was to give a +description of the sanctity and symbolical secrets of ancient +Egypt. He can hardly be identical with the Chaeremon who +accompanied (c. 26 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; Strabo xvii. p. 806) Aelius Gallus, +praefect of Egypt, on a journey into the interior of the country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in C. Müller, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, iii. +495-499.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAERONEIA,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chaeronea</span>, an ancient town of Boeotia, +said by some to be the Homeric Arne, situated about 7 m. W. +of Orchomenus. Until the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was a dependency +of Orchomenus, and at all times it played but a subordinate +part in Boeotian politics. Its importance lay in its strategic +position near the head of the defile which presents the last serious +obstacle to an invader in central Greece. Two great battles +were fought on this site in antiquity. In 338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Philip II. +and Alexander of Macedon were confronted by a confederate +host from central Greece and Peloponnese under the leadership +of Thebes and Athens, which here made the last stand on behalf +of Greek liberty. A hard-fought conflict, in which the Greek +infantry displayed admirable firmness, was decided in favour +of Philip through the superior organization of his army. In 86 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla defeated the army of +Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, near Chaeroneia. The latter’s +enormous numerical superiority was neutralized by Sulla’s +judicious choice of ground and the steadiness of his legionaries; +the Asiatics after the failure of their attack were worn down and +almost annihilated. Chaeroneia is also notable as the birthplace +of Plutarch, who returned to his native town in old age, +and was held in honour by its citizens for many successive +generations. Pausanias (ix. 40) mentions the divine honours +accorded at Chaeroneia to the sceptre of Agamemnon, the work +of Hephaestus (cf. <i>Iliad</i>, ii. 101). The site of the town is partly +occupied by the village of Kapraena; the ancient citadel was +known as the Petrachus, and there is a theatre cut in the rock. +A colossal seated lion a little to the S.E. of the site marks the +grave of the Boeotians who fell fighting against Philip; this +lion was found broken to pieces; the tradition that it was blown +up by Odysseus Androutsos is incorrect (see Murray, <i>Handbook +for Greece</i>, ed. 5, 1884, p. 409). It has now been restored and +re-erected (1905).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Thucydides iv. 76; Diodorus xvi. 85-86; Plutarch, +<i>Alexander</i>, ch. 9; <i>Sulla</i>, chs. 16-19; Appian, <i>Mithradatica</i>, +chs. 42-45; W.M. Leake, <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i> (London, 1835), +ii. 112-117, 192-201; B.V. Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i> (Oxford, 1887), +p. 292; J. Kromayer, <i>Antike Schlachtfelder in Griechenland</i> (Berlin, +1903), pp. 127-195; G. Sotiriades in <i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> 1903, pp. 301 ff.; +1905, p. 120; 1906, p. 396; <span class="grk" title="Ephêm. Archaiol.">Έφημ. Άρχαιολ.</span>, 1908, p. 65.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:180px; height:711px" src="images/img789.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><i>Spadella cephaloptera</i> +(Busch).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>St</i>, Septa dividing + body-cavity transversely.</p> +<p><i>g</i>², Cerebral ganglia.</p> +<p><i>n</i>¹, Commissure uniting + this with ventral + ganglion (not + shown in fig.).</p> +<p><i>n</i>², Nerve uniting cerebral + ganglia with + small ganglia on + head.</p> +<p><i>nr</i>, Olfactory nerve.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Alimentary canal.</p> +<p><i>r</i>, Olfactory organ.</p> +<p><i>te</i>, Tentacle.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, Tactile hairs springing + from surface + of body.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Ovary.</p> +<p><i>el</i>, Oviduct.</p> +<p><i>ho</i>, Testes.</p> +<p><i>sg</i>, Vas deferens.</p> +<p><i>f</i>², <i>f</i>³, Lateral and caudal + fins.</p> +<p><i>sb</i>, Seminal pouch.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1">The eyes are indicated +as black dots +behind the cerebral +ganglia.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CHAETOGNATHA,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the name given by R. Leuckhart to a small +group of transparent and for the most part pelagic organisms, +whose position in the animal kingdom is +a very isolated one. Only three genera, +<i>Sagitta</i>, <i>Spadella</i> and <i>Krohnia</i>, are recognised, +and the number of species is small. +Nevertheless these animals exist in extraordinary +quantities, so that at certain +seasons and under certain conditions the +surface of the sea seems almost stiff with +the incredible multitude of organisms +which pervade it. Rough seas, &c., cause +them to seek safety in dropping into +deeper water. Deep-sea forms also occur, +but in spite of this the group is essentially +pelagic.</p> + + + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>As a rule the body is some 1 to 2 or 3 cm. +in length, though some species are larger, by +4 or 5 mm. in breadth, and it is shaped +something like a torpedo with side flanges +and a slightly swollen, rounded head. It +can be divided into three regions—(i.) head, +(ii.) trunk, and (iii.) tail, separated from one +another by two transverse septa. The +almost spherical head is covered by a hood +which can be retracted; it bears upon its +side a number of sickle-shaped, chitinous +hooks and one or more short rows of low +spines—both of these features are used in +characterizing the various species. A pair +of eyes lie dorsally and behind them is a +closed circlet, often pulled out into various +shapes, of modified epidermis, to which an +olfactory function has been attributed. The +interior of the head is filled up with masses +of muscle fibres which are mainly occupied +with moving the sickle-shaped hooks. The +trunk contains a spacious body-cavity filled +during the breeding season by the swollen +ovaries, and the same is true of the tail if +we substitute testes for ovaries.</p> + +<p>The skin consists of a transparent cuticle +excreted by the underlying ectoderm, the +cells of which though usually one-layered +may be heaped up into several layers in +the head; beneath this is a basement +membrane, and then a layer of longitudinal +muscle fibres which are limited inside by a +layer of peritoneal cells. The muscles are +striated and arranged in four quadrants, +two dorso-lateral and two ventro-lateral, +an arrangement which recalls that of the +Nematoda, whilst in their histology they +somewhat resemble the muscles of the +Oligochaeta. Along each side of the body +stretches a horizontal fin and a similar +flange surrounds the tail. Into these fins, +which are largely cuticular and strengthened +by radiating bars, a single layer of ectoderm +cells projects.</p> + +<p>The mouth, a longitudinal slit, opens on +to the ventral surface of the head. It leads +into a straight alimentary canal whose walls +consist of a layer of ciliated cells ensheathed +in a thin layer of peritoneal cells. There is +no armature, and no glands, and the whole +tract can only be divided into an oesophagus +and an intestine. The latter runs with no +twists or coils straight to the anus, which is +situated at the junction of the trunk with +the tail. A median mesentery running dorso-ventrally +supports the alimentary canal and +is continued behind it into the tail, thus +dividing the body cavity into two lateral +halves.</p> + +<p>There are no specialized circulatory, +respiratory or excretory organs.</p> + +<p>The nervous system consists of a cerebral ganglion in the head, +a conspicuous ventral ganglion in the trunk, and of lateral commissures +uniting these ganglia on each side. The whole of this +system has retained its primitive connexion with the ectoderm. +The cerebral ganglion also gives off a nerve on each side to a pair of +small-ganglia, united by a median commissure, which have sunk +into and control the muscles of the head. As in other animals there +is a minute but extensive nervous plexus, which permeates the whole +body and takes its origin from the chief ganglia. In addition to the +eyes and the olfactory circle on the head scattered tactile papillae +are found on the ectoderm.</p> + +<p>Chaetognatha are hermaphrodite. The ovaries are attached to +the side walls of the trunk region; between them and the body wall +lie the two oviducts whose inner and anterior end is described as +closed, their outer ends opening one on each side of the anus, where +the trunk joins the tail. According to Miss N.M. Stevens the so-called +oviduct acts only as a “sperm-duct” or receptaculum seminis. +The spermatozoa enter it and pass through its walls and traverse a +minute duct formed of two accessory cells, and finally enter the +ripe ovum. Temporary oviducts are formed between the “sperm-duct” +and the germinal epithelium at each oviposition. A number +of ova ripen simultaneously. The two testes lie in the tail and are +formed by lateral proliferations of the living peritoneal cells. These +break off and, lying in the coelomic fluid, break up into spermatozoa. +They pass out through short vasa deferentia with internal ciliated +funnels, sometimes an enlargement on their course—the seminal +vesicles—and a minute external pore situated on the side of the tail.</p> + +<p>With hardly an exception the transparent eggs are laid into the +sea and float on its surface. The development is direct and there is +no larval stage. The segmentation is complete; one side of the +hollow blastosphere invaginates and forms a gastrula. The blastopore +closes, a new mouth and a new anus subsequently arising. +The archenteron gives off two lateral pounchs and thus becomes +trilobed. The middle lobe forms the alimentary canal; it closes +behind and opens to the exterior anteriorly and so makes the mouth. +The two lateral lobes contain the coelom; each separates off in front +a segment which forms the head and presumably then divides again +to form anteriorly the trunk, and posteriorly the tail regions. An +interesting feature of the development of Chaetognaths is that, +as in some insects, the cells destined to form the reproductive organs +are differentiated at a very early period, being apparent even in the +gastrula stage.</p> + +<p>The great bulk of the group is pelagic, as the transparent nature +of all their tissues indicates. They move by flexing their bodies. +<i>Spadella cephaloptera</i> is, however, littoral and oviposits on seaweed, +and the “Valdivia” brought home a deep-sea species.</p> + +<p>The three genera are differentiated as follows:—</p> + +<p><i>Sagitta</i> M. Slabber, with two pairs of lateral fins. This genus was +named as long ago as 1775.</p> + +<p><i>Krohnia</i> P. Langerhans, with one lateral fin on each side, extending +on to the tail.</p> + +<p><i>Spadella</i> P. Langerhans, with a pair of lateral fins on the tail and +a thickened ectodermic ridge running back on each side from the +head to the anterior end of the fin.</p> + +<p>The group is an isolated one and should probably be regarded as a +separate phylum. It has certain histological resemblances with +the Nematoda and certain primitive Annelids, but little stress must +be laid on these. The most that can be said is that the Chaetognaths +begin life with three segments, a feature they share with such widely-differing +groups as the Brachiopoda, the Echinoderma and the +Enteropneusta, and probably Vertebrata generally.</p> + +<p>See O. Hertwig, <i>Die Chaetognathen, eine Monographie</i> (Jena, +1880); B.J. Grassi, <i>Chetognathi: Flora u. Fauna d. Golfes von +Neapel</i> (1883); S. Strodtman, <i>Arch. Naturg.</i> lviii., 1892; N.M. +Stevens, <i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> xviii., 1903, and xxi., 1905.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAETOPODA<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="chaitê">χαίτη</span>, hair, <span class="grk" title="pous">πούς</span>, foot), a zoological class, +including the majority of the Annelida (<i>q.v.</i>), and indeed, save +for the Echiuroidea (<i>q.v.</i>), co-extensive with that group as +usually accepted. They are divisible into the Haplodrili (<i>q.v.</i>) +or Archiannelida, the Polychaeta containing the marine worms, +the Oligochaeta or terrestrial and fresh-water annelids (see +EARTHWORM), the Hirudinea or leeches (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leech</a></span>), and a small +group of parasitic worms, the Myzostomida (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The distinctive characters of the class Chaetopoda as a whole +are partly embodied in the name. They possess (save for certain +Archiannelida, most Hirudinea, and other very rare exceptions) +setae or chaetae implanted in epidermal pits. The setae are +implanted metamerically in accordance with the metamerism +of the body, which consists of a prostomium followed by a number +of segments. The number of segments in an individual is frequently +more or less definite. The anterior end of body always +shows some “cephalization.” The internal organs are largely +repeated metamerically, in correspondence with the external +metamerism. Thus the body cavity is divided into a sequence +of chambers by transverse septa; and even among the Hirudinea, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span> +where this condition is usually not to be observed, there is +embryological evidence that the existing state of affairs is derived +from this. Commonly the nephridia are strictly paired a single +pair to each segment, while the branches of the blood vascular +system are similarly metameric. The alimentary canal is nearly +always a straight tube running from the mouth, which is surrounded +by the first segment of the body and overhung by the +prostomium, to the anus, which is then either surrounded by the last +segment of the body or opens dorsally a little way in front of this.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The Class as a Whole</span>.—The Chaetopoda are with but few +exceptions (Myzostomida in part, <i>Sternaspis</i>) elongated worms, +flattened or, more usually, cylindrical, and bilaterally symmetrical. +The body consists of a number of exactly similar +or closely similar segments, which are never fused and metamorphosed, +as in the Arthropoda, to form specialized regions +of the body. It is, however, always possible to recognize a +head, which consists at least of the peristomial segment with a +forward projection of the same, the prostomium. A thorax also +is sometimes to be distinguished from an abdomen. Where +locomotive appendages (the parapodia of the Polychaeta) exist, +they are never jointed, as always in the Arthropoda; nor are +they modified anteriorly to form jaws, as in that group.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:487px; height:288px" src="images/img790.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—A, side view of the head region of <i>Nereis cultrifera</i>; +B, dorsal view of the same.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>E</i>, Eye.</p> +<p><i>M</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>d.c</i>, Dorcal cirrus.</p> +<p><i>per</i>, Peristomium, probably equal + to two segments,</p> +<p><i>per.c</i>, Peristomial cirri.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>pl</i>, Prostomial palp.</p> +<p><i>pp</i>, Parapodium.</p> +<p><i>pr</i>, Prostomium.</p> +<p><i>pr.t</i>, Prostomial tentacle.</p> +<p><i>t.s</i>, Trunk segment.</p> +<p><i>v.c</i>, Ventral cirrus.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The prostomium overhangs the mouth, and is often of considerable +size and, as a rule, quite distinct from the segment following, being +separated by an external groove, and containing, at least temporarily, +the brain, which always arises there. Its cavity also is at first +independent of the coelom though later invaded by the latter. In +any case the cavity of the prostomium is single, and not formed, +as is the cavity of the segments of the body, by paired coelomic +chambers. It has, however, been alleged that this cavity is formed +by a pair of mesoblastic somites (N. Kleinenberg), in which case there +is more reason for favouring the view that would assign an equality +between the prostomium and the (in that case) other segments of the +body. The peculiar prostomium of <i>Tomopteris</i> is described below. +The body wall of the Chaetopoda consists of a “dermo-muscular” +tube which is separated from the gut by the coelom and its peritoneal +walls, except in most leeches. A single layer of epidermic cells, some +of which are glandular, forms the outer layer. Rarely are these +ciliated, and then only in limited tracts. They secrete a cuticle +which never approaches in thickness the often calcified cuticle of +Arthropods. Below this is a circular, and below that again a longitudinal, +layer of muscle fibres. These muscles are not striated, as +they are in the Arthropoda.</p> + +<p><i>Setae</i>.—These chitinous, rod-like, rarely squat and then hook-like +structures are found in the majority of the Chaetopoda, being absent +only in certain Archiannelida, most leeches, and a very few Oligochaeta. +They exist in the Brachiopoda (which are probably not +unrelated to the Chaetopoda), but otherwise are absolutely distinctive +of the Chaetopods. The setae are invariably formed each within +an epidermic cell, and they are sheathed in involutions of the epidermis. +Their shape and size varies greatly and is often of use in +classification. The setae are organs of locomotion, though their +large size and occasionally jagged edges in some of the Polychaeta +suggest an aggressive function. They are disposed in two groups on +either side, corresponding in the Polychaeta to the parapodia; +the two bundles are commonly reduced among the earthworms to +two pairs of setae or even to a single seta. On the other hand, in +certain Polychaeta the bundles of setae are so extensive that they +nearly form a complete circle surrounding the body; and in the +Oligochaet genus <i>Perichaeta</i> (= <i>Pheretima</i>), and some allies, there +is actually a complete circle of setae in each segment broken only by +minute gaps, one dorsal, the other ventral.</p> + +<p><i>Coelom</i>.—The Chaetopoda are characterized by a spacious coelom, +which is divided into a series of chambers in accordance with the +general metamerism of the body. This is the typical arrangement, +which is exhibited in the majority of the Polychaeta and Oligochaeta; +in these the successive chambers of the coelom are separated +by the intersegmental septa, sheets of muscle fibres extending from +the body wall to the gut and thus forming partitions across the body. +The successive cavities are not, however, completely closed from +each other; there is some communication between adjoining segments, +and the septa are sometimes deficient here and there. Thus +in the Chaetopoda the perivisceral cavity is coelomic; in this +respect the group contrasts with the Arthropoda and Molluscs, +where the perivisceral cavity is, mainly at least, part of the vascular +or haemal system, and agrees with the Vertebrata. The coelom is +lined throughout by cells, which upon the intestine become large +and loaded with excretory granules, and are known as chloragogen +cells. Several forms of cells float freely in the fluid of the coelom. +In another sense also the coelom is not a closed cavity, for it communicates +in several ways with the external medium. Thus, among +the Oligochaeta there are often a series of dorsal pores, or a single +head pore, present also among the Polychaeta (in <i>Ammochares</i>). +In these and other Chaetopods the coelom is also put into indirect +relations with the outside world by the nephridia and by the gonad +ducts. In these features, and in the fact that the gonads are local +proliferations of the coelomic epithelium, which have undergone no +further changes in the simpler forms, the coelom of this group shows +in a particularly clear fashion the general characters of the coelom +in the higher Metazoa. It has been indeed largely upon the conditions +characterizing the Chaetopoda that the conception of the +coelom in the Coelomocoela has been based.</p> + +<p>Among the simpler Chaetopoda the coelom retains the character +of a series of paired chambers, showing the above relations to the +exterior and to the gonads. There are, however, further complications +in some forms. Especially are these to be seen in the +more modified Oligochaeta and in the much more modified Hirudinea. +In the Polychaeta, which are to be regarded as structurally simpler +forms than the two groups just referred to, there is but little subdivision +of the coelom of the segments, indeed a tendency in the +reverse direction, owing to the suppression of septa. Among the +Oligochaeta the dorsal vessel in <i>Dinodrilus</i> and <i>Megascolides</i> is +enclosed in a separate coelomic chamber which may or may not +communicate with the main coelomic cavity. To this pericardial +coelom is frequently added a gonocoel enclosing the gonads and the +funnels of their ducts. This condition is more fully dealt with below +in the description of the Oligochaeta. The division and, indeed, +partial suppression of the coelom culminates in the leeches, which +in this, as in some other respects, are the most modified of Annelids.</p> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—In all Chaetopods this system consists of +cerebral ganglia connected by a circumoesophageal commissure +with a ventral ganglionated cord. The plan of the central nervous +system is therefore that of the Arthropoda. Among the Archiannelida, +in <i>Aeolosoma</i> and some Polychaetes, the whole central nervous system +remains imbedded in the epidermis. In others, it lies in the coelom, +often surrounded by a special and occasionally rather thick sheath. +The cerebral ganglia constitute an archicerebrum for the most part, +there being no evidence that, as in the Arthropoda, a movement +forward of post-oral ganglia has taken place. In the leeches, however, +there seems to be the commencement of the formation of a syncerebrum. +In the latter, the segmentally arranged ganglia are more +sharply marked off from the connectives than in other Chaetopods, +where nerve cells exist along the whole ventral chain, though more +numerous in segmentally disposed swellings.</p> + +<p><i>Vascular System.</i>—In addition to the coelom, another system of +fluid-holding spaces lies between the body wall and the gut in the +Chaetopoda. This is the vascular or haemal system (formerly and +unnecessarily termed pseudhaemal). With a few exceptions among +the Polychaeta the vascular system is always present among the +Chaetopoda, and always consists of a system of vessels with definite +walls, which rarely communicate with the coelom. It is in fact +typically a closed system. The larger trunks open into each other +either directly by cross branches, or a capillary system is formed. +There are no lacunar blood spaces with ill-defined or absent walls +except for a sinus surrounding the intestine, which is at least frequently +present. The principal trunks consist of a dorsal vessel +lying above the gut, and a ventral vessel below the gut but above the +nervous cord. These two vessels in the Oligochaeta are united in +the anterior region of the body by a smaller or greater number of +branches which surround the oesophagus and are, some of them at +least, contractile and in that case wider than the rest. The dorsal +vessel also communicates with the ventral vessel indirectly by the +intestinal sinus, which gives off branches to both the longitudinal +trunks, and by tegementary vessels and capillaries which supply the +skin and the nephridia. In the smaller and simpler forms the +capillary networks are much reduced, but the dorsal and ventral +vessels are usually present. The former, however, is frequently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span> +developed only in the anterior region of the body where it emerges +from the peri-intestinal blood sinus. On the other hand, additional +longitudinal trunks are sometimes developed, the chief one of which +is a supra-intestinal vessel lying below the dorsal vessel and closely +adherent to the walls of the oesophagus in which region it appears. +The capillaries sometimes (in many leeches and Oligochaeta) extend +into the epidermis itself. Usually they do not extend outwards of +the muscular layers of the body wall. The main trunks of the +vascular system often possess valves at the origin of branches which +regulate the direction of the blood flow. Among many Oligochaeta +the dorsal blood-vessel is partly or entirely a double tube, which is +a retention of a character shown by F. Vezhdovský to exist in the +embryo of certain forms. The blood in the Chaetopoda consists +of a plasma in which float a few corpuscles. The plasma is coloured +red by haemoglobin: it is sometimes (in <i>Sabella</i> and a few other +Polychaeta) green, which tint is due to another respiratory pigment. +The plasma may be pink (<i>Magelona</i>) or yellow (<i>Aphrodite</i>) in which +cases the colour is owing to another pigment. In <i>Aeolosoma</i> it is +usually colourless. The vascular system is in the majority of +Chaetopods a closed system. It has been asserted (and denied) that +the cellular rod which is known as the “Heart-body” (<i>Herzkorper</i>), +and is to be found in the dorsal vessel of many Oligochaeta and +Polychaeta, is formed of cells which are continuous with the chloragogen +cells, thus implying the existence of apertures of communication +with the coelom. The statement has been often made and +denied, but it now seems to have been placed on a firm basis (E.S. +Goodrich), that among the Hirudinea the coelom, which is largely +broken up into narrow tubes, may be confluent with the tubes of +the vascular system. This state of affairs has no antecedent improbability +about it, since in the Vertebrata the coelom is unquestionably +confluent with the haemal system through the lymphatic +vessels. Finally, there are certain Polychaeta, <i>e g.</i> the <i>Capitellidae</i>, +in which the vascular system has vanished altogether, leaving a +coelom containing haemoglobin-impregnated corpuscles. It has +been suggested (E. Ray Lankester) that this condition has been +arrived at through some such intermediate stage as that offered by +Polychaet <i>Magelona</i>. In this worm the ventral blood-vessel is so +swollen as to occupy nearly the whole of the available coelom. +Carry the process but a little farther and the coelom disappears and +its place is taken by a blood space or haemocoel. It has been held +that the condition shown in certain leeches tend to prove that the +coelom and haemocoel are primitively one series of spaces which +have been gradually differentiated. The facts of development, +however, prove their distinctness, though those same facts do not +speak clearly as to the true nature of the blood system. One view +of the origin of the latter (largely based upon observations upon the +development of <i>Polygordius</i>) sees in the blood system a persistent +blastocoel. F. Vezhdovský has lately seen reasons for regarding +the blood system as originating entirely from the hypoblast by the +secretion of fluid, the blood, from particular intestinal cells and the +consequent formation of spaces through pressure, which become +lined with these cells.</p> + +<p><i>Nephridia and Coelomoducts</i>.—The name “Nephridium” was +originally given by Sir E. Ray Lankester to the members of a series +of tubes, proved in some cases to be excretory in nature, which +exist typically to the number of a single pair in most of the segments +of the Chaetopod body, and open each by a ciliated orifice into the +coelom on the one hand, and by a pore on to the exterior of the +body on the other. In its earlier conception, this view embraced +as homologous organs (so far as the present group is concerned) not +only the nephridia of Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, which are obviously +closely similar, but the wide tubes with an intercellular lumen and +large funnels of certain Polychaeta, and (though with less assurance) +the gonad ducts in Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. The function of +nitrogenous excretion was not therefore a necessary part of the +view—though it may be pointed out that there are grounds for +believing that the gonad ducts are to some extent also organs of +excretion (see below). Later, the investigations of E. Meyer and +E.S. Goodrich, endorsed by Lankester, led to the opinion that under +the general morphological conception of “nephridium” were +included two distinct sets of organs, viz. nephridia and coelomoducts. +The former (represented by, <i>e.g.</i> the “segmental organs” +of <i>Lumbricus</i>) have been asserted to be “ultimately, though not +always, actually traceable to the ectoderm”; the latter (represented +by, <i>e.g.</i> the oviduct of <i>Lumbricus</i>) are parts of the coelomic +wall itself, which have grown out to the exterior. The nephridia, in +fact, on this view, are <i>ectodermic ingrowths</i>, the coelomoducts <i>coelomic +outgrowths</i>. The cavity of the former has nothing to do with coelom. +The cavity of the latter is coelom.</p> + +<p>The embryological facts upon which this view has been based, +however, have been differently interpreted. According to C.O. +Whitman the entire nephridial system (in the leech <i>Clepsine</i>) is +formed by the differentiation of a continuous epiblastic band on +each side. The exact opposite is maintained by R.S. Bergh (for +<i>Lumbricus</i> and <i>Criodrilus</i>), whose figures show a derivation of the +entire nephridium from mesoblast, and an absence of any connexion +between successive nephridia by any continuous band, epiblastic +or mesoblastic. A midway position is taken up by Wilson, who +asserts the mesoblastic formation of the funnel, but also asserts +the presence of a continuous band of epiblast from which certainly +the terminal vesicle of the nephridium, and doubtfully the glandular +part of the tube is derived. Vezhdovský’s figures of <i>Rhynchelmis</i> +agree with those of Bergh in showing the backward growth of the +nephridium from the funnel cell. There are thus substantial reasons +for believing that the nephridium grows backwards from a funnel +as does the coelomoduct. It is therefore by no means certain that +so profound a difference embryologically can be asserted to exist +between the excretory nephridia and the ducts leading from the +coelom to the exterior, which are usually associated with the extrusion +of the genital products among the Chaetopoda.</p> + +<p>There are, however, anatomical and histological differences to be +seen at any rate at the extremes between the undoubted nephridia +of Goodrich, Meyer and Lankester, and the coelomoducts of the same +authors.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:464px; height:532px" src="images/img791.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2. (from Goodrich).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Diagram of the nephridium +of <i>Nereis diversicolor</i>.</p> + +<p>B, Diagram of the nephridium of +<i>Alciope</i>, into which opens the +large genital funnel (coelomostome).</p> + +<p>C, Small portion of the nephridium +of <i>Glycera siphonostoma</i>, +showing the canal cut +through, and the solenocytes +on the outer surface.</p> + +<p>D, Optical section of a branch of +the nephridium of <i>Nephthys +scolopendroides</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c.s</i>, Cut surface.</p> + +<p><i>cst</i>, Coelomostome.</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, Flagellum.</p> + +<p><i>g.f</i>, Genital funnel.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, Neck of solenocyte.</p> + +<p><i>n.c</i>, Nephridial canal.</p> + +<p><i>n.p</i>, Nephridiopore.</p> + +<p><i>nst</i>, Nephridiostome.</p> + +<p><i>nu</i>, Nucleus of solenocyte.</p> + +<p><i>s</i>, Solenocytes.</p> + +<p><i>t</i>, Tube.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>I. <i>Nephridia</i>.—Excretory organs which are undisputed nephridia +are practically universal among the Oligochaeta, Hirudinea and +Archiannelida, and occur in many Polychaeta. Their total absence +has been asserted definitely only in <i>Paranais littoralis</i>. Usually these +organs are present to the number of a single pair per somite, and are +commonly present in the majority of the segments of the body, +failing often among the Oligochaeta in a varying number of the +anterior segments. They are considerably reduced in number in +certain Polychaeta. Essentially, a nephridium is a tube, generally very +long and much folded upon itself, composed of a string of cells placed +end to end in which the continuous lumen is excavated. Such cells +are termed “drain pipe” cells. Frequently the lumen is branched +and may form a complicated anastomosing network in these cells. +Externally, the nephridium opens by a straight part of the tube, +which is often very wide, and here the intracellular lumen becomes +intercellular. Rarely the nephridium does not communicate with +the coelom; in such cases the nephridium ends in a single cell, like +the “flame cell” of a Platyhelminth worm, in which there is a lumen +blocked at the coelomic end by a tuft of fine cilia projecting into the +lumen. This is so with <i>Aeolosoma</i> (Vezhdovský). The condition +is interesting as a persistence of the conditions obtaining in the +provisional nephridia of <i>e.g.</i> <i>Rhynchelmis</i>, which afterwards become +by an enlargement and opening up of the funnel the permanent +nephridia of the adult worm. In some Polychaets (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Glycera</i>, +see fig. 2) there are many of these flame cells to a single nephridium +which are specialized in form, and have been termed “solenocytes” +(Goodrich). They are repeated in <i>Polygordius</i>, and are exactly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span> +to be compared with similarly-placed cells in the nephridia of +<i>Amphioxus</i>.</p> + +<p>More usually, and indeed in nearly every other case among the +Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, the coelomic aperture of the nephridium +consists of several cells, ciliated like the nephridium itself for a greater +or less extent, forming a funnel. The funnel varies greatly in size +and number of its component cells. There are so many differences +of detail that no line can be drawn between the one-celled funnel +of <i>Aeolosoma</i> and the extraordinarily large and folded funnel of the +posterior nephridia in the Oligochaete <i>Thamnodrilus</i>. In the last-mentioned +worm the funnels of the anterior nephridia are small and +but few celled; it is only the nephridia in and behind the 17th +segment of the body which are particularly large and with a sinuous +margin, which recall the funnels of the gonad ducts (<i>i.e.</i> coelomoducts).</p> + +<p>Among the Polychaeta the nephridium of <i>Nereis</i> (see fig. 2) is like +that of the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in that the coiled glandular +tube has an intracellular duct which is ciliated in the same way in +parts. The Polychaeta, however, present us with another form +of nephridium seen, for example, in <i>Arenicola</i>, where a large funnel +leads into a short and wide excretory tube whose lumen is intercellular. +In the young stages of this worm which have been investigated +by W.B. Benham, the tube, though smaller, and with a +but little pronounced funnel, has still an intercellular duct. That +these organs in Polychaeta serve for the removal of the generative +products to the exterior is proved not only by the correspondence +in number to them of the gonads, but by actual observation of the +generative products in transit. This form of nephridia leads to the +shorter but essentially similar organs in the Polychaete <i>Sternaspis</i>, +and to those of the Echiuroidea (<i>q.v.</i>) and of the Gephyrea (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Though the paired arrangement of the nephridia is the prevalent +one in the Chaetopoda, there are many examples, among the Oligochaeta, +of species and genera in which there are several, even many, +nephridia in each segment of the body, which may or may not be +connected among themselves, but have in any case separate orifices +on to the exterior.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Coelomoducis.</i>—In this category are included (by Goodrich +and Lankester) the gonad ducts of the Oligochaeta, certain funnels +without any aperture to the exterior that have been detected in +<i>Nereis</i>, &c., funnels with wide and short ducts attached to nephridia +in other Polychaeta, gonad ducts in the <i>Capitellidae</i>, the gonad +ducts of the leeches. In all these cases we have a duct which has +a usually wide, always intercellular, lumen, generally, if not +always, ciliated, which opens directly into the coelom on the one +hand and on to the exterior of the body on the other. These characters +are plain in all the cases cited, excepting only the leeches +which will be considered separately.</p> + +<p>There is not a great deal of difference between most of these +structures and true nephridia. It is not clear, for example, to which +category it is necessary to refer the excretory organs of <i>Arenicola</i>, +or <i>Polynoe</i>. Both series of organs consist essentially of a ciliated +tube leading from the coelom to the exterior. Both series of organs +grow back centrifugally from the funnel. In both the cavity originally +or immediately continuous with the coelom appears first in the +funnel and grows backwards. In some cases, <i>e.g.</i> oviducts of Oligochaeta, +sperm ducts of <i>Phreoryctes</i>, the coelomoducts occupy, like +the nephridia, two segments, the funnel opening into that in front +of the segment which carries the external pore. It is by no means +certain that a hard and fast line can be drawn between intra- and +intercellular lumina. Finally, in function there are some points of likeness. +The gonad ducts of <i>Lumbricus</i>, &c., must perform one function +of nephridia; they must convey to the exterior some of the coelomic +fluid with its disintegrated products of waste. There is no possibility +that sperm and ova can escape by these tubes not in company +with coelomic fluid. In the case of many Oligochaeta where there +is no vascular network surrounding the nephridium, this function +must be the chief one of those glands, the more elaborate process +of excretion taking place in the case of nephridia surrounded by a +rich plexus of blood capillaries. A consideration of the mode of +development and appearance of the coelomoducts that have thus +far been enumerated (with the possible exception of those of the +leeches) seems to show that there is a distinct though varying relation +between them and the nephridia. It has been shown that in <i>Tubifex</i>, +and some other aquatic Oligochaeta, the genital segments are at first +provided with nephridia, and that these disappear on the appearance +of the generative ducts, which are coelomoducts. In <i>Lumbricus</i> +the connexion is a little closer; the funnel of the nephridium, in the +segments in which the funnels of the gonad ducts are to be developed, +persists and is continuous with the gonad duct funnels on their first +appearance. In the development of the Acanthodrilid earthworm +<i>Octochaetus</i> (F.E. Beddard) the funnels of the pronephridia disappear +except in the genital segments, where they seem to be actually +converted into the genital funnels. At the least there is no doubt +that the genital funnels are developed precisely where the nephridial +funnels formerly existed. If the genital funnels are not wholly or +partly formed out of the nephridial funnels they have replaced them. +In the genital segments of <i>Eudrilus</i> the nephridia are present, but +the funnels have not been found though they are obvious in other +segments. Here also the genital funnels have either replaced or +been formed out of nephridial funnels. In <i>Haplotaxis heterogyne</i> +(W.B. Benham) the sperm ducts are hardly to be distinguished from +nephridia; they are sinuous tubes with an intra-cellular duct. But +the funnel is large and thus differs from the funnels of the nephridia +in adjoining segments. Here again the nephridial funnel seems to +have been converted into or certainly replaced by a secondarily +developed funnel. This example is similar to cases among the Polychaeta +where a true nephridium is provided with a large funnel, +coelomostome, according to the nomenclature of Lankester. The +whole organ, having, as is thought but not known, this double origin, +is termed a nephromixium. The various facts, however, seem to be +susceptible of another interpretation. It may be pointed out that +the several examples described recall a phenomenon which is not +uncommon and is well known to anatomists. That is the replacement +of an organ by, sometimes coupled with its partial conversion +into, a similar or slightly different organ performing the same or an +analogous function. Thus the postcaval vein of the higher vertebrata +is partly a new structure altogether, and is partly formed out +of the pre-existing posterior cardinals. The more complete replacements, +such as the nephridia of the genital segment of <i>Tubifex</i> by +a subsequently formed genital duct, may be compared with the +succession of the nesonephros to the pronephros in vertebrates, and +of the metanephros to the mesonephros in the higher vertebrates. +It might be well to term these structures, mostly serving as gonad +ducts, which have an undoubted resemblance to nephridia, and for +the most part an undoubted connexion with nephridia, “Nephrodinia,” +to distinguish them from another category of “ducts” +which are communications between the coelom and the exterior, +and which have no relation whatever to nephridia or to the organs +just discussed. For these latter, the term coelomoducts might +well be reserved. To this category belong certain sacs and pouches +in many, perhaps most, genera of the Oligochaeta family, <i>Eudrilidae</i>, +and possibly the gonad ducts in the Hirudinea. As an example of +the former it has been shown (Beddard) that a large median sac in +<i>Lybiodrilus</i> is at first freely open to the coelom, that it later becomes +shut off from the same, that it then acquires an external orifice, and, +finally, that it encloses the ovary or ovaries, between which and the +exterior a passage is thus effected. To this category will belong the +oviducts in Teleostean fishes and probably the gonad ducts in several +groups of invertebrates.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Polychaeta</span>.—This group may be thus defined and the +definition contrasted and compared with those of the other +divisions of the Chaetopoda. Setae always present and often +very large, much varied in form and very numerous, borne by +the dorsal and ventral parapodia (when present). The prostomium +and the segments generally often bear processes sensory +and branchial. Eyes often present and comparatively complicated +in structure. Clitellum not present as a definite organ, +as in Oligochaeta. The anus is mostly terminal, and there are +no anterior and posterior suckers. Nervous system often +imbedded in the epidermis. Vascular system generally present +forming a closed system of tubes. Alimentary canal rarely +coiled, occasionally with glands which are simple caeca and +sometimes serve as air reservoirs; jaws often present and an +eversible pharynx. Nephridia sometimes of the type of those +of the Oligochaeta; in other cases short, wide tubes with a large +funnel serving also entirely or in part as gonad ducts. Frequently +reduced in number of pairs; rarely (<i>Capitellidae</i>) more +than one pair per segment. Gonads not so restricted in position +as in Oligochaets, and often more abundant; the individuals +usually unisexual. No specialized system of spermathecae, +sperm reservoirs, and copulatory apparatus, as in Oligochaeta; +development generally through a larval form; reproduction by +budding also occurs. Marine (rarely fresh-water) in habit.</p> + +<p>The Polychaeta contrast with the Oligochaeta by the great +variety of outward form and by the frequency of specialization +of different regions of the body. The head is always recognizable +and much more conspicuous than in other Chaetopoda. As in +the Oligochaeta the peristomial segment is often without setae, +but this character is not by any means so constant as in the +Oligochaeta. The prostomium bears often processes, both +dorsal and ventral, which in the Sabellids are split into the circle +of branchial plumes, which surround or nearly surround the +mouth in those tube-dwelling Annelids. <i>Tomopteris</i> is remarkable +for the fact that the hammer-shaped prostomium has paired +ventral processes each with a single seta. It is held, however, +that these are a pair of parapodia which have shifted forwards. +The presence of parapodia distinguish this from other groups +of Chaetopoda. Typically, the parapodium consists of two +processes of the body on each side, each of which bears a bundle +of setae; these two divisions of the “limb” are termed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span> +respectively notopodium and neuropodium. The notopodium may +be rudimentary or absent and the entire parapodium reduced to +the merest ridge or even completely unrepresented. Naturally, +it is among the free living forms that the parapodium is best +developed, and least developed among the tubicolous +Polychaeta. To each division of the parapodium +belongs typically a long tentacle, the cirrus, which +may be defective upon one or other of the notopodium +or neuropodium, and may be developed into +an arborescent gill or into a flat scale-like process, +the elytron (in <i>Polynoe</i>, &c.). There are other gills +developed in addition to those which represent the +cirri.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:76px; height:429px" src="images/img793a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:184px; height:194px" src="images/img793b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—<i>a</i>, Bristle of <i>Pionosyllis +Malmgreni</i>; <i>b</i>, Hook of <i>Terebella</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Setae</i>.—The setae of the Polychaeta are disposed in +two bundles in many genera, but in only one bundle in +such forms as have no notopodium (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Syllis</i>). In +some genera the setae are in vertical rows, and in certain +<i>Capitellidae</i> these rows so +nearly meet that an arrangement +occurs reminiscent of +the continuous circle of setae +in the perichaetous Oligochaeta. +The setae vary much +in form and are often longer +and stronger than in the Oligochaetes. +Jointed setae and +very short hooks or “uncini” +(see fig. 3) are among the most +remarkable forms. Simple +bifid setae, such as those of +Oligochaetes, are also present +in certain forms.</p> + +<p>Among the burrowing and +tubicolous forms it is not uncommon for the body to be distinguishable +into two or more regions; a “thorax,” for example, is sharply +marked off from an “abdomen” in the Sabellids. In these forms +the bundles of setae are either capilliform or uncinate, and the dorsal +setae of the thorax are like the ventral setae of the abdomen. It is +a remarkable and newly-ascertained fact that in regeneration (in +<i>Potamilla</i>) the thorax is not replaced by the growth of uninjured +thoracic segments; but that the anterior segments of the abdomen +take on the same characters, the setae dropping out and being +replaced in accordance with the plan of the setae in the thorax of +uninjured worms. Among the Oligochaeta the sexually mature +worm is distinguished from the immature worm by the clitellum +and by the development of genital setae. Among the Polychaeta +the sexual worm is often more marked from the asexual form, so +much so that these latter have been placed in different species or +even genera. The alteration in form does not only affect structures +used in generation; but the form of the parapodia, &c., alter. +There are even dimorphic forms among the Syllids where the sexes +are, as in many Polychaets, separate.</p> + +<p><i>Nephridia</i>.—The nephridia of the Polychaeta have been generally +dealt with above in considering the nephridial system of the Chaetopoda +as a whole. They contrast with those of the Oligochaeta and +Hirudinea by reason of their frequently close association with the +gonads, the same organ sometimes serving the two functions of +excretion and conveyance of the ova and spermatozoa out of the +body. On the hypothesis that such a form as <i>Dinophilus</i> (see +Haplodrili) has preserved the characters of the primitive Chaetopod +more nearly than any existing Polychaet or Oligochaet, it is clear +that the nephridia in the Oligochaeta have preserved the original +features of those organs more nearly than most Polychaeta. Thus +<i>Nereis</i> among the latter worms, from the resemblance which its +excretory system bears to that of the Oligochaeta, may be made the +starting-point of a series. In this worm the paired nephridia exist +in most of the segments of the body, and their form (see fig. 2) is much +like that of the nephridia in the <i>Enchytraeidae</i>. The funnel, which +is not large, appears to open, as a rule at least, into the segment in +front of that which bears the external orifice. Quite independent +of these are certain large dorsally situate funnel-like folds of the +coelomic epithelium, ciliated, but of which no duct has been discovered +leading to the exterior. It is possible that we have here +gonad ducts distinct from nephridia which at the time of sexual +maturity do open on to the exterior.</p> + +<p>In <i>Polynoe</i> the nephridia are short tubes with a slightly folded +funnel whose lumen is intercellular, and this intercellular lumen +is characteristic of the Polychaetes as contrasted with leeches and +Oligochaetes. Among the Terebelloidea there is a remarkable +differentiation of the nephridia into two series. One set lies in front +of the diaphragm, which is the most anterior and complete septum, +the rest having disappeared or being much less developed. The +anterior nephridia, of which there are one to three pairs, contrast +with the posterior series by their small funnels and large size, the +posterior nephridia having a large funnel followed by a short tube. +In <i>Chaetozone setosa</i> the anterior nephridia occupy five segments. +There is usually a gap between the two series, several segments being +without nephridia. It seems that the posterior nephridia are mainly +gonad ducts, and the gonads are developed in close association with +the funnels. The same arrangement is found in some other Polychaetes; +for instance, in <i>Sabellaria</i> there is a single pair of large +anterior nephridia, which open by a common pore, followed after an +interval by large-funnelled and short nephridia. This differentiation +is not, however, peculiar to the Polychaetes; for in several Oligochaetes +the anterior nephridia are of large size, and opening as they +do into the buccal cavity clearly play a different function to those +which follow. In <i>Thamnodrilus</i>, as has been pointed out, there are +two series of nephridia which resemble those of the Terebelloidea +in the different sizes of their funnels. In <i>Lanice conchilega</i> the +posterior series of nephridia are connected by a thick longitudinal +duct, which seems to be seen in its most reduced form in <i>Owenia</i>, +where a duct on each side runs in the epidermis, being in parts a +groove, and receives one short tubular nephridium only and occupies +only one segment. This connexion of successive nephridia (in +<i>Lanice</i>) has its counterpart in <i>Allolobophora, Lybiodrilus</i>, and +apparently in the Lumbriculids <i>Teleuscolex</i> and <i>Styloscolex</i>, among +the Oligochaeta. Among the <i>Capitellidae</i>, which in several respects +resemble the Oligochaeta, wide and short gonad ducts coexist in +the same segments with nephridia, the latter being narrower and +longer. It is noteworthy that in this family only among the Polychaeta, +the nephridia are not restricted to a single pair in each segment; +so that the older view that the gonad ducts are metamorphosed +nephridia is not at variance with the anatomical facts +which have been just stated.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:359px; height:639px" src="images/img793c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—<i>Dasychone +infracta</i>, Kr. (After +Malmgren.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Alimentary Canal.</i>—The alimentary canal of Polychaetes is usually +a straight tube running from the anterior mouth to the posterior +anus. But in some forms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sternaspis</i>, the gut is coiled. In others, +again, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Cobangia</i>, the anus is anterior and ventral. A gizzard is +present in a few forms. The buccal cavity is sometimes armed with +jaws. The oesophagus is provided often with caeca which in Syllids +and <i>Hesionidae</i> have been found to contain air, and possibly therefore +perform the function of the fish’s air-bladder. In other Polychaetes +one or more pairs of similar outgrowths are glandular. The intestine +is provided with numerous branched caeca in <i>Aphrodite</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Reproduction.</i>—As is the case with the Oligochaeta, the Polychaeta +furnish examples of species which multiply asexually by +budding. There is +a further resemblance +between the +two orders of Chaetopoda +in that this +budding is not a +general phenomenon, +but confined +to a few forms +only. Budding, in +fact, among the +Polychaetes is +limited to the +family <i>Syllidae</i>. In +the Oligochaetes +it is only the +families <i>Aeolosomatidae</i> +and <i>Naididae</i> +that show +the same phenomenon. It has been mentioned +that in the Nereids a sexual form +occurs which differs structurally from the +asexual worms, and was originally placed in +a separate genus, <i>Heteronereis</i>; hence the +name “Heteronereid” for the sexual worm. +In <i>Syllis</i> there is also a “Heterosyllid” form +in which the gonads are limited to a posterior +region of the body which is further marked +off from the anterior non-sexual segments +by the oak-like setae. In some Syllids this +posterior region separates off from the rest, +producing a new head; thus a process of +fission occurs which has been termed schizogamy. +A similar life history distinguishes +certain Sabellid worms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Filigrana</i>. Among +the Syllids this simple state of affairs is +further complicated. In <i>Autolytus</i> there is, +to begin with, a conversion of the posterior +half of the body to form a sexual zooid. But +before this separates off a number of other +zooids are formed from a zone of budding +which appears between the two first-formed +individuals. Ultimately, a chain of sexual +zooids is thus formed. A given stock only +produces zooids of one sex. In <i>Myrianida</i> there is a further +development of this process. The conversion of the posterior +end of the simple individual into a sexual region is dispensed +with; but from a preanal budding segment a series of sexual buds +are produced. The well-known Syllid, discovered during the voyage +of the “Challenger,” shows a modification of this form of budding. +Here, however, the buds are lateral, though produced from a budding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span> +zone, and they themselves produce other buds, so that a ramifying +colony is created.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:502px" src="images/img794a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—A, <i>Autolytus</i> (after Mensch) with numerous buds. B, +Portion of a colony of <i>Syllis ramosa</i> (from M‘Intosh). <i>b.z</i>, Budding +zone; <i>p</i>, anterior region of the parent worm; 1-5, buds.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Quite recently, another mode of budding has been described in +<i>Trypanosyllis gemmipara</i>, where a crowd of some fifty buds arising +symmetrically are produced at the tail end of the worm. In some +Syllids, such as <i>Pionosyllis gestans</i>, the ova are attached to the body +of the parent in a regular line, and develop in situ; this process, +which has been attributed to budding, is an “external gestation,” +and occurs in a number of species.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:467px; height:347px" src="images/img794b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—A, Side view of the larva of <i>Lopadorhynchus</i> (from Kleinenberg), +showing the developing trunk region. B, Side view of the +trochophore larva of <i>Eupomatus uncinatus</i> (from Hatschek).<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>A</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>E</i>, Eye.</p> +<p><i>M</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>ap</i>, Apical organ.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, “Head Kidney.”</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>me</i>, Mesoblast.</p> +<p><i>ms</i>, Larval muscle.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Otocyst.</p> +<p><i>pp</i>, Parapodium.</p> +<p><i>pr</i>, Praeoral ciliated ring, or prototroch.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:107px; height:660px" src="images/img794c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—<i>Nereis +pelagica</i>, L. (After +Oersted.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">As is very frequently the case with marine forms, as compared +with their fresh-water and terrestrial allies, the Polychaeta differ +from the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in possessing a free living +larval form which is hatched at an early stage in development. +This larva is termed the Trochosphere larva, and typically (as it is +held) is an egg-shaped larva with two bands of cilia, one preoral and +one postoral, with an apical nervous plate surmounted by a tuft of +longer cilia, and with a simple bent alimentary canal, with lateral +mouth and posterior anus, between which and the ectoderm is a +spacious cavity (blastocoel) traversed by muscular strands and often +containing a larval kidney. The segmentation is of the mesoblast +to begin with, and appears later behind the mouth, the part anterior +to this becoming the prostomium of the adult. The chief modifications +of this form are seen in the <i>Mitraria</i> +larva of <i>Ammochares</i> with only the preoral band, +which is much folded and which has provisional +and long setae; the atrochous larva, where the +covering of cilia is uniform and not split into +bands; and the polytrochous larva where there +are several bands surrounding the body. There +are also other modifications.</p> + +<p><i>Classification</i>.—The older arrangement of the +Polychaeta into Errantia or free living and +Tubicola or tube-dwelling forms will hardly fit +the much increased knowledge of the group. +W.B. Benham’s division into Phanerocephala +in which the prostomium is plain, and Crytocephala +in which the prostomium is hidden by +the peristomium adopted by Sedgwick, can only +be justified by the character used; for the Terebellids, +though phanerocephalous, have many +of the features of the Sabellids. It is perhaps +safer to subdivide the Order into 6 Suborders +(in the number of these following Benham, except +in combining the Sabelliformia and Hermelliformia). +Of these 6, the two first to be considered +are very plainly separable and represent +the extremes of Polychaete organization, (1) +<i>Nereidiformia</i>.—“Errant” Polychaetes with +well-marked prostomium possessing tentacles +and palps with evident and locomotor parapodia, +supported (with few exceptions) by strong +spines, the aciculi; muscular pharynx usually +armed with jaws; septa and nephridia regularly +metameric and similar throughout body; +free living and predaceous. (2) <i>Cryptocephala</i>.—Tube-dwelling +with body divided into thorax +and abdomen marked by the setae, which are +reversed in position in the neuropodium and +notopodium respectively in the two regions. +Parapodia hardly projecting; palps of prosomium +forming branched gills; no pharynx or +eversible buccal region; no septa in thorax, +septa in abdomen regularly disposed. Nephridia +in two series; large, anterior nephridia followed +by small, short tubes in abdomen. The remaining +groups are harder to define, with the exception +of the (3) <i>Capitelliformia</i>, which are mud-living +worms of an “oligochaetous” appearance, and +with some affinities to that order. The peristomium has no setae, and +the setae generally are hair-like or uncinate, often forming almost complete +rings. The genital ducts are limited to one segment (the 8th in +<i>Capitella capitata</i>), and there are genital setae on this and the next +segment. In other forms genital ducts and nephridia coexist in the +same segment. The nephridia are sometimes numerous in each segment. +There is no blood system, and the coelomic corpuscles contain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span> +haemoglobin. (4) <i>Terebelliformia</i>. These worms are in some +respects like the Sabellids (Cryptocephala). The parapodia, as in +the Capitellidae, are hardly developed. The buccal region is unarmed +and not eversible. The prostomium has many long filaments +which recall the gills of the Sabellids, &c. The nephridia are specialized +into two series, as in the last-mentioned worms. (5) <i>Spioniformia</i> +(including <i>Chaetopterus</i>, <i>Spio</i>, &c.) and (6) <i>Scoleciformia</i> +(<i>Arenicola</i>, <i>Chloraema</i>, <i>Sternaspis</i>) are the remaining groups. In +both, the nephridia are all alike; there are no jaws; the prostomium +rarely has processes. The body is often divisible into +regions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:189px; height:487px" src="images/img794d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:109px; height:498px" src="images/img794e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—<i>Sabella vesiculosa</i>, Mont. +(After Montagu.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9. +<i>Arenicola marina</i>, L.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—W.B. Benham, “Polychaeta” in <i>Cambridge +Natural History</i>; E. Claparède, <i>Annélides chétopodes du golfe de +Naples</i> (1868 and 1870); E. Ehlers, <i>Die Börstenwürmer</i> (1868); +H. Eisig, <i>Die Capitelliden</i> (Naples Monographs), and development +of do. in <i>Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel</i> (1898); W.C. M’Intosh, <i>”Challenger” +Reports</i> (1885); E.R. Lankester, Introductory Chapter in +<i>A Treatise on Zoology</i>; E.S. Goodrich, <i>Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.</i> +(1897-1900); E. Meyer, <i>Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel</i> (1887, 1888), as +well as numerous other memoirs by the above and by J.T. Cunningham, +de St Joseph, A. Malaquin, A. Agassiz, A.T. Watson, Malmgren, +Bobretsky and A.F. Marion, E.A. Andrews, L.C. Cosmovici, +R. Horst, W. Michaelsen, G. Gilson, F. Buchanan, H. Levinsen, +Joyeux-Laffuie, F.W. Gamble, &c.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:393px" src="images/img795a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 10.—Diagrams of various Earthworms, +to illustrate external characters. +A, B, C, anterior segments from the +ventral surface; D, hinder end of body +of <i>Urochaeta</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, <i>Lumbricus</i>: 9, 10, segments containing +spermathecae, the orifices of +which are indicated; 14, segment +bearing oviducal pores; 15, segment +bearing male pores; 32, 37, +first and last segments of clitellum.</p> + +<p>B, <i>Acanthodrilus</i>: <i>cp</i>, orifices of spermathecae; +♀, oviducal pores; +♂, male pores; on 17th and 19th +segments are the apertures of the +atria.</p> + +<p>C, <i>Perichaeta</i>: the spermathecal pores +are between segments 6 and 7, 7 +and 8, 8 and 9, the oviducal pores +upon the 14th and the male pores +upon the 18th segment.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1">In all the figures the nephridial pores +are indicated by dots and the setae by +strokes.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Oligochaeta</span>.—As contrasted with the other subdivisions +of the Chaetopoda, the Oligochaeta may be thus defined. Setae +very rarely absent (genus +<i>Achaeta</i>) and as a rule not +so large or so numerous in +each segment as in the +Polychaeta, and different +in shape. Eyes rarely +present and then rudimentary. +Prostomium generally +small, sometimes prolonged, +but never bearing +tentacles or processes. +Appendages of body reduced +to branchiae, present +only in four species, and +to the ventral copulatory +appendages of <i>Alma</i> and +<i>Criodrilus</i>. Clitellum +always present, extending +over two (many limicolous +forms) to forty-five segments +(<i>Alma</i>). Segments +of body numerous and not +distinctive of species, being +irregular and not fixed in +numbers. In terrestrial +forms dorsal pores are usually +present; in aquatic +forms a head pore only. +Anus nearly always terminal, +rarely dorsal, at a +little distance from end +of body. Suckers absent. +Nervous system rarely +(<i>Aeolosoma</i>) in continuity +with epidermis. Vascular +system always present, +forming a closed system, +more complicated in the +larger forms than in the +aquatic genera. Several +specially large contractile +trunks in the anterior segments uniting the dorsal and ventral +vessels. Nephridia generally paired, often very numerous in each +segment, in the form of long, much-coiled tubes with intracellular +lumen. Gonads limited in number of pairs, testes and ovaries +always present in the same individual. Special sacs developed +from the intersegmental septa lodge the developing ova and +sperm. Special gonad ducts always present. Male ducts often +open on to exterior through a terminal chamber which is +variously specialized, and sometimes with a penis.</p> + +<p>Generative pores usually paired, sometimes single and median. +Spermathecae nearly always present. Alimentary canal straight, +often with appended glands of complicated or simpler structure; +no jaws. Eggs deposited in a cocoon after copulation. Development +direct. Reproduction by budding also occurs. Fresh-water +(rarely marine) and terrestrial.</p> + +<p>The Oligochaeta show a greater variety of size than any other +group of the Chaetopoda. They range from a millimetre or +so (smaller species of <i>Aeolosoma</i>) to 6 ft. or even rather more +(<i>Microchaeta rappi</i>, &c.) in length.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:426px; height:359px" src="images/img795b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 11.—Setae of <i>Oligochaeta.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Penial seta of <i>Perichaeta ceylonica.</i></p> +<p><i>b</i>, Extremity of penial seta of <i>Acanthodrilus</i> (after Horst).</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Seta of <i>Urochaeta</i> (Perier).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d</i>, Seta of <i>Lumbricus.</i></p> +<p><i>e</i>, Seta of <i>Criodrilus.</i></p> +<p><i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, Setae of <i>Bohemilla comata.</i></p> +<p><i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>j</i>, Setae of <i>Psammoryctes barbatus</i> (f to j after Vezhdovský).</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Setae.</i>—The setae, which are always absent from the peristomial +segment, are also sometimes absent from a greater number of the +anterior segments of the body, and have completely disappeared in +<i>Achaeta cameranoi.</i> When present they are either arranged in four +bundles of from one to ten or even more setae, or are disposed in continuous +lines completely encircling each segment of the body. This +latter arrangement characterizes many genera of the family <i>Megascolicidae</i> +and one genus (<i>Periscolex</i>) of the <i>Glossoscolicidae.</i> It has +been shown (Bourne) that the “perichaetous” condition is probably +secondary, inasmuch as in worms which are, when adult, +“perichaetous” the setae develop in pairs so that the embryo +passes through a stage in which it has four bundles of setae, two +to each bundle, the prevalent condition in the group. Rarely there +is an irregular disposition of the setae which are not paired, though +the total number is eight to a segment (fig. 10), <i>e.g.</i> <i>Pontoscolex.</i> +The varying forms of the setae are illustrated in fig. 11.</p> + +<p><i>Structure.</i>—The body wall consists of an epidermis which secretes +a delicate cuticle and is only ciliated in <i>Aeolosoma</i>, and in that genus +only on the under surface of the prostomium. The epidermis contains +numerous groups of sense cells; beneath the epidermis there +is rarely (<i>Kynotus</i>) an extensive connective tissue dermis. Usually +the epidermis is immediately followed by the circular layer of muscles, +and this by the longitudinal coat. Beneath this again is a distinct +peritoneum lining the coelom, which appears to be wanting as a +special layer in some Polychaetes (Benham, Gilson). The muscular +layers are thinner in the aquatic forms, which possess only a single +row of longitudinal fibres, or (<i>Enchytracidae</i>) two layers. In the +earthworms, on the other hand, this coat is thick and composed of +many layers.</p> + +<p>The clitellum consists of a thickening of the epidermis, and is of +two forms among the Oligochaeta. In the aquatic genera the +epidermis comes to consist entirely of glandular cells, which are, +however, arranged in a single layer. In the earthworms, on the other +hand, the epidermis becomes specialized into several layers of cells, +all of which are glandular. It is therefore obviously much thicker +than the clitellum in the limicolous forms. The position of the +clitellum, which is universal in occurrence, varies much as does the +number of component segments. As a rule—to which, however, +there are exceptions—the clitellum consists of two or three segments +only in the small aquatic Oligochaeta, while in the terrestrial forms +it is as a general rule, to which again there are exceptions, a more +extensive, sometimes much more extensive, region.</p> + +<p>In the Oligochaeta there is a closer correspondence between external +metamerism and the divisions of the coelom than is apparent +in some Chaetopods. The external segments are usually definable +by the setae; and if the setae are absent, as in the anterior segments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span> +of several <i>Geoscolicidae</i>, the nephridiopores indicate the segments; +to each segment corresponds internally a chamber of the coelom +which is separated from adjacent segments by transverse septa, which +are only unrecognizable in the genus <i>Aeolosoma</i> and in the head +region of other Oligochaeta. In the latter case, the numerous bands +of muscle attaching the pharynx to the parietes have obliterated the +regular partition by means of septa.</p> + +<p><i>Nephridia</i>.—The nephridia in this group are invariably coiled tubes +with an intracellular lumen and nearly invariably open into the +coelom by a funnel. There are no renal organs with a wide intercellular +lumen, such as occur in the Polychaeta, nor is there ever any +permanent association between nephridia and ducts connected with +the evacuation of the generative products, such as occur in <i>Alciope</i>, +<i>Saccocirrus</i>, &c. In these points the Oligochaeta agree with the +Hirudinea. They also agree in the general structure of the nephridia. +It has been ascertained that the nephridia of Oligochaeta are preceded +in the embryo by a pair of delicate and sinuous tubes, also found in +the Hirudinea and Polychaeta, which are larval excretory organs. +It is not quite certain whether these are to be regarded as the remnant +of an earlier excretory system, replaced among the Oligochaeta by +the subsequently developed paired structures, or whether these +“head kidneys” are the first pair of nephridia precociously developed. +The former view has been extensively held, and it is +supported by the fact that in <i>Octochaetus</i> the first segment of the +body has a pair of nephridia which is exactly like those which follow, +and, like them, persists. On the other hand, in most Oligochaeta the +first segment has in the adult no nephridium, and in the case of +<i>Octochaetus</i> the existence of a “head kidney” antedating the subsequently +developed nephridia of the first and other segments has +neither been seen nor proved to be absent. In any case the nephridia +which occupy the segments of the body generally are first of all +represented by paired structures, the “pronephridia,” in which the +funnel is composed of but one cell, which is flagellate. This stage +has at any rate been observed in <i>Rhynchelmis</i> and <i>Lumbricus</i> (in +its widest sense) by Vezhdovský. It is further noticeable that in +<i>Rhynchelmis</i> the covering of vesicular cells which clothes the drain-pipe +cells of the adult nephridium is cut off from the nephridial +cells themselves and is not a peritoneal layer surrounding the +nephridium. Thus the nephridia, in this case at least, are a part +of the coelom and are not shut off from it by a layer of peritoneum, +as are other organs which lie in it, <i>e.g.</i> the gut. A growth both of +the funnel, which becomes multicellular, and of the rest of the nephridium +produces the adult nephridia of the genera mentioned. The +paired disposition of these organs is the prevalent one among the +Oligochaeta, and occurs in all of twelve out of the thirteen families +into which the group is divided.</p> + +<p>Among the <i>Megascolicidae</i>, however, which in number of genera +and species nearly equals the remaining families taken together, +another form of the excretory system occurs. In the genera <i>Pheretima, +Megascolex</i>, <i>Dichogaster</i>, &c., each segment contains a large +number of nephridia, which, on account of the fact that they are +necessarily smaller than the paired nephridia of <i>e.g.</i> <i>Lumbricus</i>, have +been termed micronephridia, as opposed to meganephridia; there is, +however, no essential difference in structure, though micronephridia +are not uncommonly (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Megascolides</i>, <i>Octochaetus</i>) unprovided +with funnels. It is disputed whether these micronephridia are or +are not connected together in each segment and from segment to +segment. In any case they have been shown in three genera to develop +by the growth and splitting into a series of original paired +pronephridia. A complex network, however, does occur in <i>Lybiodrilus</i> +and certain other <i>Eudrilidae</i>, where the paired nephridia +possess ducts leading to the exterior which ramify and anastomose +on the thickness of the body wall. The network is, however, of the +duct of the nephridium, possibly ectodermic in origin, and does not +affect the glandular tubes which remain undivided and with one +coelomic funnel each.</p> + +<p>The Oligochaeta are the only Chaetopods in which undoubted +nephridia may possess a relationship with the alimentary canal. +Thus, in <i>Octochaetus multiporus</i> a large nephridium opens anteriorly +into the buccal cavity, and numerous nephridia in the same worm +evacuate their contents into the rectum. The anteriorly-opening +and usually very large nephridia are not uncommon, and have +been termed “peptonephridia.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 450px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:421px" src="images/img796.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Female reproductive system +of <i>Heliodrilus</i>.—XI-XIV, eleventh to fourteenth +segments, <i>sperm</i>, spermatheca; +<i>sp.o</i>, its external orifice; <i>sp.sac</i>, spermathecal +sac; <i>ov</i>, sac containing ovary; +<i>r.o</i>, egg sac; <i>od</i>, oviduct.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Gonads and Gonad Ducts</i>.—The Oligochaeta agree with the leeches +and differ from most Polychaeta in that they are hermaphrodite. +There is no exception to this generalization. The gonads are, moreover, +limited and fixed in numbers, and are practically invariably +attached to the intersegmental septa, usually to the front septum +of a segment, more rarely to the posterior septum. The prevalent +number of testes is one pair in the aquatic genera and two pairs in +earthworms. But there are exceptions; thus a species of <i>Lamprodrilus</i> +has four pairs of testes. The ovaries are more usually one +pair, but two are sometimes present. The segments occupied by +the gonads are fixed, and are for earthworms invariably X, XI, or one +of them for the testes, and XIII for the ovaries The position +varies in the aquatic Oligochaeta. The Oligochaeta contrast with +the Polychaeta in the general presence of outgrowths of the septa +in the genital segments, which are either close to, or actually involve, +the gonads, and into which may also open the funnels of the gonad +ducts. These sacs contain the developing sperm cells or eggs, and +are with very few exceptions universal in the group. The testes +are more commonly thus involved than are the ovaries. It is indeed +only among the <i>Eudrilidae</i> that the enclosure of the ovaries in septal +sacs is at all general. Recently the same thing has been recorded in +a few species of <i>Pheretima</i> (= <i>Perichaeta</i>), but details are as yet +wanting. We can thus speak in these worms of <i>gonocoels</i>, <i>i.e.</i> +coelomic cavities connected only with the generative system. These +cavities communicate with the exterior through the gonad ducts, +which have nothing to do with them, but whose coelomic funnels are +taken up by them in the course of their growth. There are, however, +in the <i>Eudrilidae</i>, as already mentioned, sacs envolving the ovaries +which bore their own way to the exterior, and thus may be termed +coelomoducts. These sacs are dealt with later under the description +of the spermathecae, which function they appear to perform. The +gonad ducts are male and female, and open opposite to or, rarely, +alongside of the gonads, whose products they convey to the exterior. +The oviducts are always short trumpet-shaped tubes and are sometimes +reduced (<i>Enchytraeidae</i>) to merely the external orifices. It +is possible, however, that those oviducts belong to a separate morphological +category, more comparable to the dorsal pores and to +abdominal pores in some fishes. The sperm ducts are usually longer +than the oviducts; but in Limicolae both series of tubes opening +by the funnel into one segment and on to the exterior in the following +segment. While the oviducts always open directly on to the exterior, +it is the rule for the sperm ducts to open on to the exterior +near to or through certain +terminal chambers, which +have been variously +termed atrium and prostate, +or spermiducal +gland. The distal extremity +of this apparatus +is sometimes eversible as +a penis. Associated with +these glands are frequently +to be found bundles or +pairs of long and variously +modified setae which are +termed penial setae, to distinguish +them from other +setae sometimes but not +always associated with +rather similar glands which +are found anteriorly to +these, and often in the +immediate neighbourhood +of the spermathecae; the +latter are spoken of as +genital setae.</p> + +<p><i>Spermathecae.</i>—These +structures appear to be +absolutely distinctive of +the Oligochaeta, unless +the sacs which contain +sperm and open in common +with the nephridia of <i>Saccocirrus</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Haplodrili</a></span>) +are similar. Spermathecae +are generally present in +the Oligochaeta and are absent only in comparatively few genera and +species. Their position varies, but is constant for the species, and +they are rarely found behind the gonads. They are essentially +spherical, pear-shaped or oval sacs opening on to the exterior but +closed at the coelomic end. In a few <i>Enchytraeidae</i> and <i>Lumbriculidae</i> +the spermathecae open at the distal extremity into the +oesophagus, which is a fact difficult of explanation. Among the +aquatic Oligochaeta and many earthworms (the families <i>Lunibricidae</i>, +<i>Geoscolicidae</i> and a few other genera) the spermathecae are +simple structures, as has been described. In the majority of the +<i>Megascolicidae</i> each sac is provided with one or more diverticula, +tubular or oval in form, of a slightly different histological character +in the lining epithelium, and in them is invariably lodged the sperm.</p> + +<p>The spermathecae are usually paired structures, one pair to each +of the segments where they occur. In many <i>Geoscolicidae</i>, however, +and certain <i>Lumbricidae</i> and <i>Perichaetidae</i>, there are several, even +a large number, of pairs of very small spermathecae to each of the +segments which contain them.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Eudrilidae</i> there are spermathecae of different morphological +value. In figs. 12 and 13 are shown the spermathecae of the +genera <i>Hyperiodrilus</i> and <i>Heliodrilus</i>, which are simple sacs ending +blindly as in other earthworms, but of which there is only one median +opening in the thirteenth segment or in the eleventh. In <i>Heliodrilus</i> +the blind extremity of the spermatheca is enclosed in a coelomic sac +which is in connexion with the sacs envolving the ovaries and oviducts. +In <i>Hyperiodrilus</i> the whole spermatheca is thus included +in a corresponding sac, which is of great extent. In such other +genera of the family as have been examined, the true spermatheca +has entirely disappeared, and the sac which contains it in <i>Hyperiodrilus</i> +alone remains. This sac has been already referred to as a +coelomoduct. Its orifice on to the exterior is formed by an involution +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span> +(as it appears) of the epidermis, and that it performs the function +of a spermatheca is shown by its containing spermatozoa, or, in +<i>Stuhlmannia</i>, a spermatophore. In <i>Polytoreutus</i>, also, spermatophores +have been found in these spermathecal sacs. We have thus +the replacement of a spermatheca, corresponding to those of the +remaining families of Oligochaeta, and derived, as is believed, from +the epidermis, by a structure performing the same function, but +derived from the mesoblastic tissues, and with a cavity which is +coelom.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:290px" src="images/img797.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Female reproductive system +of <i>Hyperiodrilus</i>.—XIII, XIV, thirteenth +and fourteenth segments.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>sp</i>, Spermatheca.</p> + +<p><i>sp’</i>, Spermathecal sac +involving the last.</p> + +<p><i>ov</i>, Ovary.</p> + +<p><i>r.o</i>, Egg sac.</p> + +<p><i>od</i>, Oviduct.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Alimentary Canal.</i>—The alimentary canal is always a straight tube, +and the anus, save in the genera <i>Criodrilus</i> and <i>Dero</i>, is completely +terminal. A buccal cavity, a pharynx, an oesophagus and an +intestine are always distinguishable. Commonly among the terrestrial +forms there is a gizzard, or two gizzards, or a larger number, +in the oesophageal region. There is no armed protrusible pharynx, +such as exists in some other Chaetopods. This may be associated +with mud-eating habits; but it is not wholly certain that this is the +case; for in <i>Chaetogaster</i> and <i>Agriodrilus</i>, which are predaceous +worms, there is no protrusible pharynx, though in the latter the +oesophagus is thickened through its extent with muscular fibres. +The oesophagus is often furnished with glandular diverticula, the +“glands of Morren,” which are often of complex structure through +the folding of their walls. Among the purely aquatic families such +structures are very rare, and are represented by two caeca in the +genus <i>Limnodriloides</i>. It is a remarkable fact, not yet understood, +that in certain <i>Enchytraeidae</i> and <i>Lumbriculidae</i> the spermathecae +open into the oesophagus as well as on to the exterior. The only +comparable fact among other worms is the Laurer’s canal or genito-intestinal +canal in the Trematoda. The intestine is usually in +the higher forms provided +with a typhlosole, in +which, in <i>Pontoscolex</i>, runs +a ciliated canal or canals +communicating with the +intestine. It is possible +that this represents the +syphon or supplementary +intestine of <i>Capitellidae</i>, +which has been shown to +develop as a grooving of +the intestine ultimately +cut off from it. The intestine +has a pair of caeca +or two or three pairs (but +all lie in one segment) in +the genus <i>Pheretima</i> and +in one species of <i>Rhinodrilus</i>. +In <i>Typhoeus</i> and +<i>Megascolex</i> there are complex +glands appended to +the intestine.</p> + +<p>In <i>Benhamia caecifera</i> +and at least one other +earthworm there are +numerous caeca, one pair +to each segment.</p> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—The classifications of Adolf Eduard, Grube and +Claparède separated into two subdivisions the aquatic and the terrestrial +forms. This scheme, opposed by many, has been reinstated by +Sedgwick. The chief difficulty in this scheme is offered by the +Moniligastridae, which in some degree combine the characters of +both the suborders, into neither of which will they fit accurately. +The following arrangement is a compromise:—</p> + +<p>Group I. <i>Aphaneura.</i>—This group is referred by A. Sedgwick to the +Archiannelida. It is, however, though doubtless near to the base +of the Oligochaetous series, most nearly allied in the reproductive +system to the Oligochaeta. It contains but one family, <i>Aeolosomatidae</i>. +There are three pairs of spermathecae situated in segments +III-V, a testis in V and an ovary in VI. There are a clitellum +and sperm ducts which though like nephridia have a larger funnel +and a less complexly wound duct. This family consists of only one +well-known genus, <i>Aeolosoma</i>, which contains several species. They +are minute worms with coloured oil drops (green, olive green or +orange) contained in the epidermis. The nervous system is embedded +in the epidermis, and the pairs of ganglia are separated as +in <i>Serpula</i>, &c.; each pair has a longish commissure between its +two ganglia. The intersegmental septa are absent save for the +division of the first segment. The large prostomium is ciliated +ventrally. The setae are either entirely capillary or there are in +addition some sigmoid setae even with bifid free extremities. This +genus also propagates asexually, like <i>Ctenodrilus</i>, which may possibly +belong to the same family. Asexual reproduction universal.</p> + +<p>Group II. <i>Limicolae.</i>—With a few exceptions the Limicolae are, +as the name denotes, aquatic in habit. They are small to moderate-sized +Oligochaeta, with a smaller number of segments than in the +Terricolae. The alimentary canal is simple and a gizzard or oesophageal +diverticula rarely developed. The vascular system is simple +with as a rule direct communication between dorsal and ventral +vessels in each segment. Nerve cord lies in coelom; brain in first +segment or prostomium in many forms. Clitellum generally only +two or three segments and more anterior in position than in Terricolae. +Nephridia always paired and without plexus of blood capillaries. +Spermatheca rarely with diverticula; sperm ducts as a rule +occupying two segments only, usually opening by means of an +atrium. Sperm sacs generally occupying a good many segments +and with simple interior undivided by a network of trabeculae. +Ova large and with much yolk. Asexual reproduction only in Naids. +Egg sacs as large or nearly so as sperm sacs. Testes and ovaries +always free. The following families constitute the group, viz. +<i>Naididae</i>, <i>Enchytraeidae</i>, <i>Tubificidae</i>, <i>Lumbriculidae</i>, <i>Phreoryctidae</i>, +<i>Phreodrilidae</i>, <i>Alluroididae</i>, the latter possibly not referable to this +group.</p> + +<p>Group III. <i>Moniligastres.</i>—Moderate-sized to very large Oligochaeta, +terrestrial in habit, with the appearance of Terricolae. +Generative organs anterior in position as in Limicolae. Sperm +ducts and atria as in Limicolae; egg sacs large; body wall thick; +vascular system and nephridia as in Terricolae. Only one family, +<i>Moniligastridae</i>.</p> + +<p>Group IV. <i>Terricolae.</i>—Earthworms, rarely aquatic in habit. +Of small to very large size. Clitellum commonly extensive and +more posterior in position than in other groups. Vascular system +complicated without regular connexion between dorsal and ventral +vessels, except in anterior segments. Nephridia as a rule with +abundant vascular supply. Testes, and occasionally ovaries, enclosed +in sacs. Sperm sacs generally limited to one or two segments +with interior subdivided by trabeculae. Sperm ducts traverse several +segments on their way to exterior. They open in common with, +or near to, or, more rarely, into, glands which are not certainly +comparable to the atria of the Limicolae. Egg sacs minute and +functionless(?). Eggs minute with little yolk. Nephridia sometimes +very numerous in each segment. Spermathecae often with +diverticula.</p> + +<p>Earthworms are divided into the following families, viz. <i>Megascolicidae</i>, +<i>Geoscolicidae</i>, <i>Eudrilidae</i>, <i>Lumbricidae</i>.</p> + +<p>As an appendix to the Oligochaeta, and possibly referable to that +group, though their systematic position cannot at present be determined +with certainty, are to be placed the <i>Bdellodrilidae</i> (<i>Discodrilidae</i> +auct.), which are small parasites upon crayfish. These worms +lay cocoons like the Oligochaeta and leeches, and where they depart +from the structure of the Oligochaeta agree with that of leeches. +The body is composed of a small and limited number of segments +(not more than fourteen), and there is a sucker at each end of the +body. There are no setae and apparently only two pairs of nephridia, +of which the anterior pair open commonly by a common pore on the +third segment after the head, whose segments have not been accurately +enumerated. The intervening segments contain the genitalia, +which are on the Oligochaeta plan in that the gonads are independent +of their ducts and that there are special spermathecae, one pair. +The male ducts are either one pair or two pairs, which open by a +common and complicated efferent terminal apparatus furnished +with a protrusible penis. The ganglia are crowded at the posterior +end of the body as in leeches, and there is much tendency to the +obliteration of the coelom as in that group. <i>Pterodrilus</i> and <i>Cirrodrilus</i> +bear a few, or circles of, external processes which may be +branchiae; <i>Bdellodrilus</i> and <i>Astacobdella</i> have none. The vascular +system is as in the lower Oligochaeta. There are two chitinous +jaws in the buccal cavity, a dorsal and a ventral, which are of +specially complicated structure in <i>Cirrodrilus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—F.E. Beddard, <i>A Monograph of the Oligochaeta</i> +(Oxford, 1895), also <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1886-1895, and <i>Proc. +Zool. Soc.</i>, 1885-1906; W.B. Benham, <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, +1886-1905; W. Michaelsen, “Oligochaeta” in <i>Das Tierreich</i>, +1900, and <i>Mitth. Mus.</i> (Hamburg, 1890-1906); A.G. Bourne, <i>Quart. +Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1894; H.J. Moore, <i>Journ. Morph.</i>, 1895; F. +Vezhdovský, <i>System d. Oligochaeten</i> (Prague, 1884), and <i>Entwicklungsgeschichtliche +Untersuchungen</i>; and numerous papers by the +above and by G. Eisen, E. Perrier, D. Rosa, R. Horst, L. Cognetti, +U. Pierantoni, W. Baldwin Spencer, H. Ude, &c., and embryological +memoirs by R.S. Bergh, E.B. Wilson, N. Kleinenberg, &c.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Hirudinea</span>.—The leeches are more particularly to be compared +with the Oligochaeta, and the following definition embraces the +main features in which they agree and disagree with that group. +Setae are only present in the genus <i>Acanthobdella</i>. Eyes are +present, but hardly so complex as in certain genera of Polychaetes. +The appendages of the body are reduced to branchiae, present +in certain forms. A clitellum is present. The segments of body +are few (not more than thirty-four) and fixed in number. The +anus is dorsal. One or two (anterior and posterior) suckers +always present. Nervous system always in coelom. Coelom +generally reduced to a system of tubes, sometimes communicating +with vascular system; in <i>Acanthobdella</i> and <i>Ozobranchus</i> a series +of metamerically arranged chambers as in Oligochaeta. Nephridia +always paired, rarely (<i>Pontobdella</i>) forming a network +communicating from segment to segment; lumen of nephridia +always intracellular, funnels pervious or impervious. Alimentary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span> +canal sometimes with protrusible proboscis; never with gizzard +or oesophageal glands; intestine with caeca as a rule. Jaws +often present. Testes several pairs, rarely one pair, continuous +with sperm ducts; ovaries, one pair, continuous with oviducts; +generative pores single and median. No separate spermathecae +or septal chambers for the development of the ova and sperm. +Eggs deposited in a cocoon. Development direct. No asexual +generation. Fresh-water, marine and terrestrial. Parasitic +or carnivorous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In external characters the Hirudinea are unmistakable and not +to be confused with other Annelids, except perhaps with the <i>Bdellodrilidae</i>, +which resemble them in certain particulars. The absence +of setae—save in <i>Acanthobdella</i>, where five of the anterior segments +possess each four pairs of setae with reserve setae placed close behind +them (fig. 14), and the presence of an anterior and posterior sucker, +produce a looping mode of progression similar to that of a Geometrid +larva. The absence of setae and the great secondary annulation +render the mapping of the segments a subject of some difficulty. +The most reliable test appears to be the nerve ganglia, which are +more distinct from the intervening connectives than in other +Annelids.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:287px" src="images/img798a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—<i>Acanthobdella</i>, from the ventral +surface, showing the five sets of setae +(<i>S</i><span class="su">1</span> to <i>S</i><span class="su">5</span>) and the replacing setae (<i>Sr</i>) +behind them. The three pairs of pigmented +spots show the position of the +eyes on the dorsal surface. (After +Kovalevsky.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the middle of the body, where the limits of the somites can be +checked by a comparison with the arrangement of the nephridia +and the gonads, and where the ganglia are quite distinct and separated +by long connectives, each ganglion is seen to consist of six +masses of cells enclosed by capsules and to give off three nerves on +each side. This corresponds +to the usual presence +(in the <i>Rhynchobdellidae</i>) +of three annuli +to each segment. Anteriorly +and posteriorly +separate ganglia have +fused. The brain consists +not only of a group +of six capsules corresponding +to the archicerebrum +of the Oligochaeta, +but of a further +mass of cells surrounding +and existing below the +alimentary canal, which +can be analysed into five +or six more separate ganglia. +The whole mass lies +in the seventh or eighth +segment. At the posterior +end of the body +there are likewise seven +separate ganglia partially +fused to form a single +ganglionic mass, which +innervates the segments lying behind the anus and corresponding +to the posterior sucker. So that a leech in which only +twenty-seven segments are apparent by the enumeration of the +annuli, separate ganglia, nephridia, lines of sensillae upon the body, +really possesses an additional seven lying behind that which is +apparently the last of the series and crowded together into a minute +space. The annuli into which segments are externally divided are +so deeply incised as to render it impossible to distinguish, as can be +readily done in the Oligochaeta as a rule, the limits of an annulus +from that of a true segment. As remarked, the prevalent number +of annuli to a segment is three in the <i>Rhynchobdellidae</i>. But in that +group (<i>Cystobranchus</i>) there may be as many as eight annuli. In +the <i>Gnathobdellidae</i> the prevailing number of annuli to a segment +is five; but here again the number is often increased, and <i>Trocheta</i> +has no less than eleven. The reason for this excessive annulation +has been seen in the limited number of segments (thirty-four) of +which the body is composed, which are laid down early and do not +increase. In the Oligochaeta, on the other hand, there is growth of +new segments. It is important to notice that the metameric plan +of growth of Chaetopods is still preserved.</p> + +<p>The nephridia are like those of the Oligochaeta in general structure; +that is to say, they consist of drain-pipe cells which are placed +end to end and are perforated by their duct. The internal funnel +varies in the same way as in the Oligochaeta in the number of cells +which form it. In <i>Clepsine</i> (<i>Glossiphonia</i>) there are only three cells, +and in <i>Nephelis</i> five to eight cells. In <i>Hirudo</i> the funnel is not +pervious and is composed of a large number of cells. Externally, +the nephridium opens by a vesicle, as in many Oligochaetes whose +lumen is intercellular. In <i>Pontobdella</i> and <i>Branchellion</i> the nephridia +form a network extending from segment to segment, but there is +only one pair of funnels in each segment. Slight differences in form +have been noted between nephridia of different segments; but the +Hirudinea do not show the marked differentiation that is to be seen +in some other Chaetopods; nor do the nephridia ever acquire any +relations to the alimentary canal.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:285px" src="images/img798b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Section of <i>Acanthobdella</i> (after Kovalevsky).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, Coelom.</p> +<p><i>c.ch</i>, Coelomic epithelium (yellow-cells).</p> +<p><i>cg</i>, Glandular cells.</p> +<p><i>cl</i>, Muscle cells of lateral line.</p> +<p><i>cp</i>, Pigment cells.</p> +<p><i>ep</i>, Ectoderm.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>g</i>, Nerve cord.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>mc</i>, Circular muscle.</p> +<p><i>ml</i>, Longitudinal muscle.</p> +<p><i>vd</i>, Dorsal vessel.</p> +<p><i>vv</i>, Ventral vessel.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:416px; height:355px" src="images/img798c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Section of <i>Acanthobdella</i> (after Kovalevsky). Identical +letters as in fig. 2; in addition, +<i>cn</i>, nerve cord; +<i>in</i>, intestine; +<i>nf</i>, parts of nephridium; +<i>on</i>, external opening of nephridium; +<i>ov</i>, ova; +<i>t</i>, testis.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Coelom.</i>—The coelom of the Hirudinea differs in most genera from +that of the Oligochaeta and Polychaeta. The difference is that it is +broken up into a complex sinus system. The least modified type +is shown by <i>Acanthobdella</i>, a leech, parasitic upon fishes, in which +transverse sections (see figs. 15 and 16) show the gut, the nervous +system, &c., lying in a spacious chamber which is the coelom. This +coelom is lined by peritoneal cells and is divided into a series of +metameres by septa which correspond to the segmentation of the +body, the arrangement being thus precisely like that of typical +Chaetopoda. Moreover, upon the intestine the coelomic cells are +modified into chloragogen cells. In <i>Acanthobdella</i> the testes are, +however, not contained in the general coelom, and the nephridia +lie in the septa. It is remarkable, in view of the spaciousness of the +coelom, that the funnels of the latter have not been seen. +<i>Ozobranchus</i> possesses a coelom which is less typically chaetopodous +than that of <i>Acanthobdella</i>, but more so than in other leeches. There +is a spacious cavity surrounding the gut and containing also blood-vessels, +and to some extent the generative organs, and the nervous +cord. Furthermore, in the mid region of the body this coelom is +broken up by metamerically arranged septa, as in <i>Acanthobdella</i>. +These septa are, however, rather incomplete and are not fastened +to the gut; and, as in <i>Acanthobdella</i>, the nephridia are embedded +in them. In addition to the median lacuna there are two lateral +lacunae, one upon each side. These regions of the coelom end at the +ends of the body and communicate with each other by means of a +branched system of coelomic sinuses, which are in places very fine +tubes. Neither in this genus nor in the last is there any communication +between coelom and vascular system. In <i>Clepsine</i> (<i>Glossiphonia</i>) +there is a further breaking up of the coelom. The median +lacuna no longer exists, but is represented by a dorsal and ventral +sinus. The former lodges the dorsal, the latter the ventral, blood-vessel. +The gut has no coelomic space surrounding it. A complex +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span> +network places these sinuses and the lateral sinuses in communication. +Here also the blood system has no communication with the +sinus system of the coelom. In <i>Hirudo</i> and the <i>Gnathobdellidae</i> +there is only one system of cavities which consist of four principal +longitudinal trunks, of which the two lateral are contractile, which +communicate with a network ramifying everywhere, even among +the cells of the epidermis. The network is partly formed out of +pigmented cells which are excavated and join to form tubes, the so-called +botryoidal tissue, not found among the <i>Rhynchobdellidae</i> at +all. It seems clear from the recent investigations of A.G. Bourne +and E.S. Goodrich that the vascular system and the coelom are in +communication (as in vertebrates by means of the lymph system). +On the other hand, it has been held that in these leeches there is no +vascular system at all and that the entire system of spaces is coelom. +In favour of regarding the vascular system as totally absent, is the +fact that the median coelomic channels contain no dorsal and +ventral vessel. In favour of seeing in the lateral trunks and their +branches a vascular system, is the contractility of the former, and +the fact of the intrusion of the latter into the epidermis, matched +among the Oligochaeta, where undoubted blood capillaries perforate +the epidermis. A further fact must be considered in deciding this +question, which is the discovery of ramifying coelomic tubes, approaching +close to, but not entering, the epidermis in the Polychaete +<i>Arenicola</i>. These tubes are lined by flattened epithelium and often +contain blood capillaries; they communicate with the coelom and +are to be regarded as prolongation of it into the thickness of the +body wall.</p> + +<p><i>Gonads and Gonad Ducts.</i>—The gonads and their ducts in the +Hirudinea invariably form a closed system of cavities entirely shut +off from the coelom in which they lie. There is thus a broad resemblance +to the <i>Eudrilidae</i>, to which group of Oligochaeta the Hirudinea +are further akin by reason of the invariably unpaired condition +of the generative apertures, and the existence of a copulatory +apparatus (both of which characters, however, are present occasionally +in other Oligochaeta).</p> + +<p>The testes are more numerous than the ovaries, of which latter +there are never more than one pair. The testes vary in numbers of +pairs. Four (<i>Ozobranchus</i>) to six (<i>Glossiphonia</i>) or ten (<i>Philaemon</i>) +are common numbers. In <i>Acanthobdella</i>, however, the testes of each +side of the body have grown together to form a continuous band, +which extends in front of external pore. Each testis communicates +by means of an efferent duct with a common collecting duct of its +side of the body, which opens on to the exterior by means of a protrusible +penis, and to which is sometimes appended a seminal vesicle. +The efferent ducts are ciliated, and there is a patch of cilia at the +point where they communicate with the cavity of each testis. The +ovaries are more extensive in some forms (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Ozobranchus</i>) than +in others, where they are small rounded bodies. The two ducts +continuous with the gonads open by a common vagina on to the +exterior behind the male pores. This “vagina” is sometimes of +exaggerated size. Thus, in <i>Philaemon pungens</i> (Lambert) it has +the form of a large sac, into which open by a single orifice the conjoined +oviducts. From this vagina arises a narrow duct leading to +the exterior. In <i>Ozobranchus</i> the structures in question are still +more complicated. The two long ovarian sacs communicate with +each other by a transverse bridge before uniting to form the terminal +canal. Into each ovarian sac behind the transverse junction opens +a slender tube, which is greatly coiled, and, in its turn, opens into +a spherical “spermathecal sac.” From this an equally slender tube +proceeds, which joins its fellow of the opposite side, and the two form +a thick, walled tube, which opens on to the exterior within the bursa +copulatrix through which the penis protrudes. These two last-mentioned +types show features which can be, as it seems, matched +in the Eudrilidae.</p> + +<p>The gonads develop (O. Bürger) in coelomic spaces close to +nephridial funnels, which have, however, no relation to the gonad +ducts. The ovaries are solid bodies, of which the outer layer becomes +separated from the plug of cells lying within; thus a cavity is formed +which is clearly coelom. This cavity and its walls becomes prolonged +to form the oviducts. A stage exactly comparable to the +stage in the leeches, where the ovary is surrounded by a closed sac, +has been observed in <i>Eudrilus</i>. In this Annelid later the sac in +question joins its fellow, passing beneath the nerve cord exactly +as in the leech, and also grows out to reach the exterior. The sole +difference is therefore that in <i>Eudrilus</i> the ovarian sac gives rise +to a tube which bifurcates, one branch meeting a corresponding +branch of the other ovary of the pair, while the second branch +reaches the exterior. In the leech the two branches are fused into +one. We have here clearly a case of a true coelomoduct performing +the function of an oviduct in both leeches and <i>Eudrilidae</i>. The facts +just referred to suggest further comparisons between the Hirudinea +and <i>Eudrilidae</i>. The large sacs which have been termed vagina +are suggestive of the large coelomic spermathecae in Eudrilids, a +comparison which needs, however, embryological data, not at +present forthcoming, for its justification. It is at least clear that in +<i>Ozobranchus</i> this comparison is justifiable; but only probable, or +perhaps possible, in the case of <i>Philaemon</i>. In the former, the duct, +leading from the ovarian sac, and swelling along its course into the +spherical sac, the “spermatheca,” is highly suggestive of the oviduct +and receptaculum of the <i>Eudrilidae</i>.</p> + +<p>The testes during development become hollowed out and are +prolonged into the vasa efferentia. These ducts therefore have not +their exact counterparts in the Oligochaeta, unless we are to assume +that they collectively are represented by the seminal vesicles of +earthworms and the vasa deferentia. It is to be noted that the +Hirudinea differ from the Oligochaeta in that the male pore is in +advance of the gonads (except in <i>Acanthobdella</i>, which here, as in +so many points, approximates to the Oligochaeta), whereas in +Oligochaeta that pore is behind the gonads (again with an exception, +<i>Allurus</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Classification</i>.—The Hirudinea may be divided into three families:—</p> + +<p>(i.) <i>Rhynchobdellidae</i>.—A protrusible proboscis exists, but there +are no jaws. The blood is colourless. <i>Pontobdella</i>, <i>Glossiphonia</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>(ii.) <i>Gnathobdellidae</i>.—A proboscis absent, but jaws usually +present. Blood coloured red with haemoglobin. <i>Hirudo</i>, <i>Nephelis</i>, +&c.</p> + +<p>(iii.) <i>Acanthobdellidae</i>.—Proboscis present, but short. Paired +setae of Oligochaetous pattern present in anterior segments. Blood +red. <i>Acanthobdella</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—A.O. Kovalevsky, <i>Bull. Imp. Sci.</i> (St Petersburg, +November 1896) (<i>Acanthobdella</i>); A.G. Bourne, <i>Quart. Journ. +Micr. Sci.</i>, 1884; A. Oka, <i>Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.</i>, 1894; E.S. Goodrich, +<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1899; W.E. Castle, <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. +Zool.</i>, 1900; A.M. Lambert, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> (Victoria, 1897); C.O. +Whitman, <i>Journ. Morph.</i>, 1889 and 1891; O. Bürger, <i>Zeitschr. wiss. +Zool.</i>, 1902, and other memoirs by the above, and by St V. Apáthy, +R. Blanchard, H. Bolsius, A. Dendy, R.S. Bergh, &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. E. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:384px" src="images/img799.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1 f80">From <i>Cambridge Natural +History</i>, vol. ii. “Worms.” +by permission of Macmillan & +Co., Ltd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Mature female of +<i>Chaetosoma daparedii</i>, +(From Mechnikov.) <i>a</i>, +Oesophagus; <i>b</i>, intestine; +<i>c</i>, anus; <i>d</i>, ovary; +<i>e</i>, generative pore; <i>f</i>, +ventral bristles.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CHAETOSOMATIDA,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a small group of minute, free-living, +aquatic organisms which are usually placed as an annex to +the Nematoda. Indeed Mechnikov, to +whom we owe much of our knowledge +of these forms, calls them “creeping +Nematoda.” They are usually found +amongst seaweed in temperate seas, but +they are probably widely distributed; +some are fresh-water. The genus <i>Chaetosoma</i>, +with the two species <i>Ch. claparedii</i> +and <i>Ch. ophicephalum</i> and the genus +<i>Tristicochaeta</i>, have swollen heads. The +third genus <i>Rhabdogaster</i> has no such +distinct head, though the body may be +swollen anteriorly. The mouth is terminal +and anterior and surrounded by a +ring of spicules or a half-ring of hooks. +Scattered hairs cover the body. Just in +front of the anus there is in <i>Chaetosoma</i> +a double, and in <i>Tristicochaeta</i> a triple +row of about fifteen stout cylindrical +projections upon which the animals +creep. The females are a little larger +than the males; in <i>Ch. claparedii</i> the +former attain a length of 1.5 mm., the +latter of 1.12 mm. The mouth opens +into an oesophagus which passes into an +intestine; this opens by a ventral anus +situated a little in front of the posterior +end. The testis is single, and its duct +opens with the anus, and is provided +with a couple of spicules. The ovary is +double, and the oviducts open by a median ventral pore about +the middle of the body; in this region there is a second swelling +both in <i>Chaetosoma</i> and in <i>Rhabdogaster</i>. The last-named form +is in the female 0.36 mm. in length. In it the hairs are confined +to the dorsal middle line and the creeping setae are hooked, of +a finer structure than in <i>Chaetosoma</i>, and situated so far forward +that the vagina opens amongst them. <i>Ch. ophicephalum</i> has +been taken in the English Channel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Mechnikov, <i>Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.</i> xvii., 1867, p. 537; +Panceri, <i>Atti Acc. Napoli</i>, vii., 1878, p. 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAFER,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a word used in modern speech to distinguish the +beetles of the family <i>Scarabaeidae</i>, and more especially those +species which feed on leaves in the adult state. The word is +derived from the O. Eng. <i>ceafor</i>, and it is interesting to note +that the cognate Ger. <i>Käfer</i> is applied to beetles of all kinds. +For the characters of the <i>Scarabaeidae</i> see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>. This +family includes a large number of beetles, some of which feed on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span> +dung and others on vegetable tissues. The cockchafers and their +near allies belong to the subfamily <i>Melolonthinae</i>, and the +rose-chafers to the <i>Cetoniinae</i>; in both the beetles eat leaves, and +their grubs spend a long life underground devouring roots. +In Britain the Melolonthines that are usually noted as injurious +are the two species of cockchafer (<i>Melolontha vulgaris</i> and <i>M. +hippocastani</i>), large heavy beetles with black pubescent pro-thorax, +brown elytra and an elongated pointed tail-process; +the summer-chafer (<i>Rhizotrogus solstitialis</i>), a smaller pale +brown chafer; and the still smaller garden-chafer or “cocker-bundy” +(<i>Phyllopertha horticola</i>), which has a dark green pro-thorax +and brown elytra. Of the Cetoniines, the beautiful +metallic green rose-chafer, <i>Cetonia aurata</i>, sometimes causes +damage, especially in gardens. The larvae of the chafers are +heavy, soft-skinned grubs, with hard brown heads provided with +powerful mandibles, three pairs of well-developed legs, and a +swollen abdomen. As they grow, the larvae become strongly +flexed towards the ventral surface, and lie curled up in their +earthen cells, feeding on roots. The larval life lasts several +years, and in hard frosts the grubs go deep down away from the +surface. Pupation takes place in the autumn, and though the +perfect insect emerges from the cuticle very soon afterwards, +it remains in its underground cell for several months, not making +its way to the upper air until the ensuing summer. After pairing, +the female crawls down into the soil to lay her eggs. The grubs +of chafers, when turned up by the plough, are greedily devoured +by poultry, pigs and various wild birds. When the beetles +become so numerous as to call for destruction, they are usually +shaken off the trees where they rest on to sheets or tarred boards. +On the continent of Europe chafers are far more numerous than +in the United Kingdom, and the rural governments in France +give rewards for their destruction. D. Sharp states that in the +department of Seine-inférieure 867,173,000 cockchafers and +647,000,000 larvae were killed in the four years preceding 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The anatomy of <i>Melolontha</i> is very fully described in a classical +memoir by H.E. Strauss-Dürckheim (Paris, 1828).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAFF<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (from the A.S. <i>ceaf</i>, allied to the O. High Ger. <i>cheva</i>, +a husk or pod), the husks left after threshing grain, and also hay +and straw chopped fine as food for cattle; hence, figuratively, +the refuse or worthless part of anything. The colloquial use +of the word, to chaff, in the sense of to banter or to make fun of a +person, may be derived from this figurative sense, or from +“to chafe,” meaning to vex or irritate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAFFARINAS,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Zaitarines</span>, a group of islands belonging +to Spain off the north coast of Morocco, near the Algerian +frontier, 2½ m. to the north of Cape del Agna. The largest of +these isles, Del Congreso, is rocky and hilly. It has a watch-house +on the coast nearest to Morocco. Isabella II., the central +island, contains several batteries, barracks and a penal convict +settlement. The Spanish government has undertaken the construction +of breakwaters to unite this island with the neighbouring +islet of El Rey, with a view to enclose a deep and already sheltered +anchorage. This roadstead affords a safe refuge for many large +vessels. The Chaffarinas, which are the <i>Tres Insulae</i> of the +Romans and the <i>Zafrān</i> of the Arabs, were occupied by Spain +in 1848. The Spanish occupation anticipated by a few days a +French expedition sent from Oran to annex the islands to Algeria. +The population of the islands is under 1000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1842-  ), American general, +was born at Orwell, Ohio, on the 14th of April 1842. At the +outbreak of the Civil War he entered the United States cavalry +as a private, and he rose to commissioned rank in 1863, +becoming brevet captain in 1865. He remained in the army +after the war and took part with distinction in many Indian +campaigns. His promotion was, however, slow, and he was at +the age of fifty-six still a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. But in +1898, at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, he was made +brigadier-general and soon afterwards major-general of volunteers. +In the Cuban campaign he won particular distinction, and the +victory of the Americans in the action of El Caney was in large +measure due to his careful personal reconnaissances of the ground +to be attacked and to the endurance of his own brigade. After +reverting for a time to the rank of brigadier-general, he was made +a major-general U.S.V. again in 1900 and was appointed to +command the United States contingent in China. He took a +brilliant and successful part in the advance on Peking and the +relief of the Legations. In 1901 he became a major-general in +the regular army, and in 1901-1902 commanded the Division of +the Philippines. In 1902-1903 he commanded the Department of +the East, and from 1904 to 1906 was chief of the general staff +of the army. In 1904 he received the rank of lieutenant-general +in the United States army, being the first enlisted man of the +regular army to attain this, the highest rank in the service. +He was retired at his own request on the 1st of February 1906, +after more than forty years’ service.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAFFINCH<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (<i>Fringilla coelebs</i>), the common English name +of a bird belonging to the family <i>Fringillidae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Finch</a></span>), and +distinguished, in the male sex, by the deep greyish blue of its +crown feathers, the yellowish green of its rump, the white of the +wing coverts, so disposed as to form two conspicuous bars, and +the reddish brown passing into vinous red of the throat and +breast. The female is drab, but shows the same white markings +as the male, and the young males resemble the females until +after the first autumn moult, when they gradually assume the +plumage of their sex. The chaffinch breeds early in the season, +and its song may often be heard in February. Its nest, which +is a model of neatness and symmetry, it builds on trees and bushes, +preferring such as are overgrown with moss and lichens. It is +chiefly composed of moss and wool, lined internally with grass, +wool, feathers, and whatever soft material the locality affords. +The outside consists of moss and lichens, and according to Selby, +“is always accordant with the particular colour of its situation.” +When built in the neighbourhood of towns the nest is somewhat +slovenly and untidy, being often composed of bits of dirty straw, +pieces of paper and blackened moss; in one instance, near +Glasgow, the author of the <i>Birds of the West of Scotland</i> found +several postage-stamps thus employed. It lays four or five eggs +of a pale purplish buff, streaked and spotted with purplish red. +In spring the chaffinch is destructive to early flowers, and to +young radishes and turnips just as they appear above the surface; +in summer, however, it feeds principally on insects and their +larvae, while in autumn and winter its food consists of grain and +other seeds. On the continent of Europe the chaffinch is a +favourite song-bird, especially in Germany, where great attention +is paid to its training.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAFING-DISH<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>chaufer</i>, to make warm), +a kind of portable grate heated with charcoal, and used for +cooking or keeping food warm. In a light form, and heated +over a spirit lamp, it is also used for cooking various dainty +dishes at table. The employment of the chafing-dish for the +latter purpose has been largely restored in modern cookery.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAGOS,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, belonging to +Britain, disposed in circular form round the Chagos bank, in +4° 44′ to 7° 39′ S., and 70° 55′ to 72° 52′ E. The atolls on the +south and east side of the bank, which has a circumference of +about 270 m., have disappeared through subsidence; a few—Egmont, +Danger, Eagle, and Three Brothers—still remain on +the east side, but most of the population (about 700) is centred +on Diego Garcia, which lies on the south-east side, and is nearly +13 m. long by 6 m. wide. The lagoon, which is enclosed by two +coral barriers and accessible to the largest vessels on the north +side, forms one of the finest natural harbours in the world. The +group, which has a total land area of 76 sq. m., is dependent for +administrative purposes on Mauritius, and is regularly visited +by vessels from that colony. The only product is cocoa-nut oil, +of which about 106,000 gallons are annually exported. The +French occupied the islands in 1791 from Mauritius, and the oil +industry (from which the group is sometimes called the Oil Islands) +came into the hands of French Creoles.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAGRES,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a village of the Republic of Panama, on the +Atlantic coast of the Isthmus, at the mouth of the Chagres +river, and about 8 m. W. of Colon. It has a harbour from 10 to +12 ft. deep, which is difficult to enter, however, on account of +bars at its mouth. The port was discovered by Columbus in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span> +1502, and was opened for traffic with Panama, on the Pacific +coast, by way of the Chagres river, in the 16th century. +With the decline of Porto Bello in the 18th century +Chagres became the chief Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and was +at the height of its importance during the great rush of gold-hunters +across the Isthmus to California in 1849 and the years +immediately following. With the completion of the Panama +railway in 1855, however, travel was diverted to Colon, and +Chagres soon became a village of miserable huts, with no evidence +of its former importance. On a high rock at the mouth of the +river stands the castle of Lorenzo, which was destroyed by Sir +Henry Morgan when he captured the town in 1671, but +was rebuilt soon afterwards by the Spaniards. Chagres was +again captured in 1740 by British forces under Admiral Edward +Vernon.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAIN<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (through the O. Fr. <i>choeine</i>, <i>choene</i>, &c., from Lat. +<i>catena</i>), a series of links of metal or other material so connected +together that the whole forms a flexible band or cord. Chains +are used for a variety of purposes, such as fastening, securing, +or connecting together two or more objects, supporting or lifting +weights, transmitting mechanical power, &c.; or as an ornament +to serve as a collar, as a symbol of office or state, or as part of +the insignia of an order of knighthood; or as a device from +which to hang a jewelled or other pendant, a watch, &c. (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Collar</a></span>). Ornamental chains are made with a great variety of +links, but those intended for utilitarian purposes are mostly of +two types. In stud chains a stud or brace is inserted across each +link to prevent its sides from collapsing inwards under strain, +whereas in open link chains the links have no studs. The addition +of studs is reckoned to increase the load which the chain can +safely bear by 50%. Small chains of the open-link type are +to a great extent made by machinery. For larger sizes the +smith cuts off a length of iron rod of suitable diameter, forms it +while hot to the shape of the link by repeated blows of his hammer, +and welds together the two ends of the link, previously slipped +inside its fellow, by the aid of the same tool; in some cases the +bending is done in a mechanical press and the welding under a +power hammer (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cable</a></span>). Weldless chains are also made; +in A.G. Strathern’s process, for instance, cruciform steel bars +are pressed, while hot, into links, each without join and engaging +with its neighbours. Chains used for transmitting power are +known as pitch-chains; the chain of a bicycle (<i>q.v.</i>) is an example.</p> + +<p>From the use of the chain as employed to bind or fetter a +prisoner or slave, comes the figurative application to anything +which serves as a constraining or restraining force; and from +its series of connected links, to any series of objects, events, +arguments, &c., connected by succession, logical sequence or +reasoning. Specific uses are for a measuring line in land-surveying, +consisting of 100 links, <i>i.e.</i> iron rods, 7.92 in. in length, +making 22 yds. in all, hence a lineal measure of that length; +and, as a nautical term, for the contrivance by which the lower +shrouds of a mast are extended and secured to the ship’s +sides, consisting of dead-eyes, chain-plates, and chain-wale or +“channel.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAIR<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (in. Mid. Eng. <i>choere</i>, through O. Fr. <i>chaëre</i> or <i>chaiere</i>, +from Lat. <i>cathedra</i>, later <i>caledra</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kathedra">καθέδρα</span>, seat, cf. “cathedral”; +the modern Fr. form <i>chaise</i>, a chair, has been adopted in English +with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; <i>chaire</i> in French +is still used of a professorial or ecclesiastical “chair,” or <i>cathedra</i>), +a movable seat, usually with four legs, for a single person, the +most varied and familiar article of domestic furniture. The +chair is of extreme antiquity, although for many centuries and +indeed for thousands of years it was an appanage of state and +dignity rather than an article of ordinary use. “The chair” is +still extensively used as the emblem of authority in the House +of Commons and in public meetings. It was not, in fact, until +the 16th century that it became common anywhere. The chest, +the bench and the stool were until then the ordinary seats of +everyday life, and the number of chairs which have survived +from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most of such examples +are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Our knowledge +of the chairs of remote antiquity is derived almost entirely from +monuments, sculpture and paintings. A few actual examples +exist in the British Museum, in the Egyptian museum at Cairo, +and elsewhere. In ancient Egypt they appear to have been of +great richness and splendour. Fashioned of ebony and ivory, +or of carved and gilded wood, they were covered with costly +stuffs and supported upon representations of the legs of beasts +of the chase or the figures of captives. An arm-chair in fine +preservation found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is +astonishingly similar, even in small details, to that “Empire” +style which followed Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt. The +earliest monuments of Nineveh represent a chair without a back +but with tastefully carved legs ending in lions’ claws or bulls’ +hoofs; others are supported by figures in the nature of caryatides +or by animals. The earliest known form of Greek chair, +going back to five or six centuries before Christ, had a back but +stood straight up, front and back. On the frieze of the Parthenon +Zeus occupies a square seat with a bar-back and thick turned +legs; it is ornamented with winged sphinxes and the feet of +beasts. The characteristic Roman chairs were of marble, also +adorned with sphinxes; the curule chair was originally very +similar in form to the modern folding chair, but eventually +received a good deal of ornament.</p> + +<p>The most famous of the very few chairs which have come down +from a remote antiquity is the reputed chair of St Peter in St +Peter’s at Rome. The wooden portions are much decayed, but +it would appear to be Byzantine work of the 6th century, and +to be really an ancient <i>sedia gestatoria</i>. It has ivory carvings +representing the labours of Hercules. A few pieces of an earlier +oaken chair have been let in; the existing one, Gregorovius +says, is of acacia wood. The legend that this was the curule +chair of the senator Pudens is necessarily apocryphal. It is not, +as is popularly supposed, enclosed in Bernini’s bronze chair, +but is kept under triple lock and exhibited only once in a century. +Byzantium, like Greece and Rome, affected the curule form of +chair, and in addition to lions’ heads and winged figures of +Victory and dolphin-shaped arms used also the lyre-back which +has been made familiar by the pseudo-classical revival of the +end of the 18th century. The chair of Maximian in the cathedral +of Ravenna is believed to date from the middle of the 6th century. +It is of marble, round, with a high back, and is carved in high +relief with figures of saints and scenes from the Gospels—the +Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, the flight into Egypt +and the baptism of Christ. The smaller spaces are filled with +carvings of animals, birds, flowers and foliated ornament. +Another very ancient seat is the so-called “Chair of Dagobert” in +the Louvre. It is of cast bronze, sharpened with the chisel and +partially gilt; it is of the curule or faldstool type and supported +upon legs terminating in the heads and feet of animals. The +seat, which was probably of leather, has disappeared. Its attribution +depends entirely upon the statement of Suger, abbot of +St Denis in the 12th century, who added a back and arms. Its +age has been much discussed, but Viollet-le-Duc dated it to early +Merovingian times, and it may in any case be taken as the oldest +faldstool in existence. To the same generic type belongs +the famous abbots’ chair of Glastonbury; such chairs might +readily be taken to pieces when their owners travelled. The +<i>faldisterium</i> in time acquired arms and a back, while retaining +its folding shape. The most famous, as well as the most ancient, +English chair is that made at the end of the 13th century for +Edward I., in which most subsequent monarchs have been +crowned. It is of an architectural type and of oak, and was +covered with gilded <i>gesso</i> which long since disappeared.</p> + +<p>Passing from these historic examples we find the chair monopolized +by the ruler, lay or ecclesiastical, to a comparatively +late date. As the seat of authority it stood at the head of the +lord’s table, on his dais, by the side of his bed. The seigneurial +chair, commoner in France and the Netherlands than in England, +is a very interesting type, approximating in many respects to +the episcopal or abbatial throne or stall. It early acquired a +very high back and sometimes had a canopy. Arms were invariable, +and the lower part was closed in with panelled or +carved front and sides—the seat, indeed, was often hinged and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span> +sometimes closed with a key. That we are still said to sit “in” +an arm-chair and “on” other kinds of chairs is a reminiscence of +the time when the lord or seigneur sat “in his chair.” These +throne-like seats were always architectural in character, and as +Gothic feeling waned took the distinctive characteristics of +Renaissance work. It was owing in great measure to the Renaissance +that the chair ceased to be an appanage of state, and +became the customary companion of whomsoever could afford +to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily +came into general use, and almost at once began to reflect the +fashions of the hour. No piece of furniture has ever been so +close an index to sumptuary changes. It has varied in size, +shape and sturdiness with the fashion not only of women’s dress +but of men’s also. Thus the chair which was not, even with its +arms purposely suppressed, too ample during the several reigns +of some form or other of hoops and farthingale, became monstrous +when these protuberances disappeared. Again, the costly laced +coats of the dandy of the 18th and early 19th centuries were so +threatened by the ordinary form of seat that a “conversation +chair” was devised, which enabled the buck and the ruffler to sit +with his face to the back, his valuable tails hanging unimpeded +over the front. The early chair almost invariably had arms, and +it was not until towards the close of the 16th century that the +smaller form grew common.</p> + +<p>The majority of the chairs of all countries until the middle of +the 17th century were of oak without upholstery, and when it became +customary to cushion them, leather was sometimes employed; +subsequently velvet and silk were extensively used, and at a +later period cheaper and often more durable materials. Leather +was not infrequently used even for the costly and elaborate +chairs of the faldstool form—occasionally sheathed in thin plates +of silver—which Venice sent all over Europe. To this day, +indeed, leather is one of the most frequently employed materials +for chair covering. The outstanding characteristic of most +chairs until the middle of the 17th century was massiveness and +solidity. Being usually made of oak, they were of considerable +weight, and it was not until the introduction of the handsome +Louis XIII. chairs with cane backs and seats that either weight +or solidity was reduced. Although English furniture derives +so extensively from foreign and especially French and Italian +models, the earlier forms of English chairs owed but little to +exotic influences. This was especially the case down to the end +of the Tudor period, after which France began to set her mark +upon the British chair. The squat variety, with heavy and +sombre back, carved like a piece of panelling, gave place to a +taller, more slender, and more elegant form, in which the framework +only was carved, and attempts were made at ornament +in new directions. The stretcher especially offered opportunities +which were not lost upon the cabinet-makers of the Restoration. +From a mere uncompromising cross-bar intended to strengthen +the construction it blossomed, almost suddenly, into an elaborate +scroll-work or an exceedingly graceful semicircular ornament +connecting all four legs, with a vase-shaped knob in the centre. +The arms and legs of chairs of this period were scrolled, the +splats of the back often showing a rich arrangement of spirals +and scrolls. This most decorative of all types appears to have +been popularized in England by the cavaliers who had been in +exile with Charles II. and had become familiar with it in the +north-western parts of the European continent. During he +reign of William and Mary these charming forms degenerated +into something much stiffer and more rectangular, with a solid, +more or less fiddle-shaped splat and a cabriole leg with pad feet. +The more ornamental examples had cane seats and ill-proportioned +cane backs. From these forms was gradually developed +the Chippendale chair, with its elaborately interlaced back, its +graceful arms and square or cabriole legs, the latter terminating +in the claw and ball or the pad foot. Hepplewhite, Sheraton +and Adam all aimed at lightening the chair, which, even in the +master hands of Chippendale, remained comparatively heavy. +The endeavour succeeded, and the modern chair is everywhere +comparatively slight. Chippendale and Hepplewhite between +them determined what appears to be the final form of the chair, +for since their time practically no new type has lasted, and in +its main characteristics the chair of the 20th century is the direct +derivative of that of the later 18th.</p> + +<p>The 18th century was, indeed, the golden age of the chair, +especially in France and England, between which there was +considerable give and take of ideas. Even Diderot could not +refrain from writing of them in his <i>Encyclopédie</i>. The typical +Louis Seize chair, oval-backed and ample of seat, with descending +arms and round-reeded legs, covered in Beauvais or some such +gay tapestry woven with Boucher or Watteau-like scenes, is a +very gracious object, in which the period reached its high-water +mark. The Empire brought in squat and squabby shapes, +comfortable enough no doubt, but entirely destitute of inspiration. +English Empire chairs were often heavier and more sombre +than those of French design. Thenceforward the chair in all +countries ceased to attract the artist. The <i>art nouveau</i> school +has occasionally produced something of not unpleasing simplicity; +but more often its efforts have been frankly ugly or even +grotesque. There have been practically no novelties, with the +exception perhaps of the basket-chair and such like, which have +been made possible by modern command over material. So +much, indeed, is the present indebted to the past in this +matter that even the revolving chair, now so familiar in +offices, has a pedigree of something like four centuries (see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sedan-chair</a></span>).</p> +<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAISE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (the French for “chair,” through a transference from +a “sedan-chair” to a wheeled vehicle), a light two- or four-wheeled +carriage with a movable hood or “calash”; the “post-chaise” +was the fast-travelling carriage of the 18th and early 19th +centuries. It was closed and four-wheeled for two or four horses +and with the driver riding postillion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAKRATA,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a mountain cantonment in the Dehra Dun +district of the United Provinces of India, on the range of hills +overlooking the valleys of the Jumna and the Tons, at an +elevation of 7000 ft. It was founded in 1866 and first occupied +in April 1869.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALCEDON,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> more correctly <span class="sc">Calchedon</span> (mod. <i>Kadikeui</i>), an +ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost +directly opposite Byzantium, south of Scutari. It was a Megarian +colony founded on a site so obviously inferior to that which was +within view on the opposite shore, that it received from the +oracle the name of “the City of the Blind.” In its early history +it shared the fortunes of Byzantium, was taken by the satrap +Otanes, vacillated long between the Lacedaemonian and the +Athenian interests, and was at last bequeathed to the Romans +by Attalus III. of Pergamum (133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). It was partly destroyed +by Mithradates, but recovered during the Empire, and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451 +was the seat of the Fourth General Council. It fell under the +repeated attacks of the barbarian hordes who crossed over after +having ravaged Byzantium, and furnished an encampment to +the Persians under Chosroes, c. 616-626. The Turks used it as +a quarry for building materials for Constantinople. The site +is now occupied by the village of Kadikeui (“Village of the +Judge”), which forms the tenth “cercle” of the municipality +of Constantinople. Pop. about 33,000, of whom 8000 are +Moslems. There is a large British colony with a church, and +also Greek and Armenian churches and schools, and a training +college for Roman Catholic Armenians. To the S. are the ruins +of Panteichion (mod. <i>Pendik</i>), where Belisarius is said to have +lived in retirement.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. von Hammer, <i>Constantinopolis</i> (Pesth, 1822); Murray’s +<i>Handbook for Constantinople</i> (London, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the fourth ecumenical council of +the Catholic Church, was held in 451, its occasion being the +Eutychian heresy and the notorious “Robber Synod” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eutyches</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ephesus, Council of</a></span>), which called forth +vigorous protests both in the East and in the West, and a loud +demand for a new general council, a demand that was ignored +by the Eutychian Theodosius II., but speedily granted by his +successor, Marcian, a “Flavianist.” In response to the imperial +summons, five to six hundred bishops, all Eastern, except the +Roman legates and two Africans, assembled in Chalcedon on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span> +8th of October 451. The bishop of Rome claimed for his legates +the right to preside, and insisted that any act that failed to receive +their approval would be invalid. The first session was tumultuous; +party feeling ran high, and scurrilous and vulgar epithets +were bandied to and fro. The acts of the Robber Synod were +examined; fraud, violence and coercion were charged against +it; its entire proceedings were annulled, and, at the third +session, its leader, Dioscurus, was deposed and degraded. The +emperor requested a declaration of the true faith; but the +sentiment of the council was opposed to a new symbol. It +contented itself with reaffirming the Nicene and Constantinopolitan +creeds and the Ephesine formula of 431, and accepting, +only after examination, the Christological statement contained +in the <i>Epistola Dogmatica</i> of Leo I. (<i>q.v.</i>) to Flavianus. Thus +the council rejected both Nestorianism and Eutychianism, and +stood upon the doctrine that Christ had two natures, each +perfect in itself and each distinct from the other, yet perfectly +united in one person, who was at once both God and man. With +this statement, which was formally subscribed in the presence +of the emperor, the development of the Christological doctrine +was completed, but not in a manner to obviate further controversy +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monophysites</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monothelites</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The remaining sessions, vii.-xvi., were occupied with matters +of discipline, complaints, claims, controversies and the like. +Canons were adopted, thirty according to the generally received +tradition, although the most ancient texts contain but twenty-eight, +and, as Hefele points out, the so-called twenty-ninth and +thirtieth are properly not canons, but repetitions of proposals +made in a previous session.</p> + +<p>The most important enactments of the council of Chalcedon +were the following: (1) the approval of the canons of the first +three ecumenical councils and of the synods of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, +Changra, Antioch and Laodicea; (2) forbidding trade, +secular pursuits and war to the clergy, bishops not even being +allowed to administer the property of their dioceses; (3) forbidding +monks and nuns to marry or to return to the world; +likewise forbidding the establishment of a monastery in any +diocese without the consent of the bishop, or the disestablishment +of a monastery once consecrated; (4) punishing with +deposition an ordination or clerical appointment made for +money; forbidding “absolute ordination” (<i>i.e.</i> without assignment +to a particular charge), the translation of clerics except +for good cause, the enrolment of a cleric in two churches at once, +and the performance of sacerdotal functions outside of one’s +diocese without letters of commendation from one’s bishop; +(5) confirming the jurisdiction of bishops over all clerics, regular +and secular alike, and punishing with deposition any conspiracy +against episcopal authority; (6) establishing a gradation of +ecclesiastical tribunals, viz. bishop, provincial synod, exarch +of the diocese, patriarch of Constantinople (obviously the council +could not here have been legislating for the entire church); +forbidding clerics to be running to Constantinople with complaints, +without the consent of their respective bishops; (7) +confirming the possession of rural parishes to those who had +actually administered them for thirty years, providing for the +adjudication of conflicting claims, and guaranteeing the integrity +of metropolitan provinces; (8) confirming the third canon of +the second ecumenical council, which accorded to Constantinople +equal privileges (<span class="grk" title="isa presbeia">ἴσα πρεσβεῖα</span>) with Rome, and the second +rank among the patriarchates, and, in addition, granting to +Constantinople patriarchal jurisdiction over Pontus, Asia and +Thrace.</p> + +<p>The Roman legates, who were absent (designedly?) when this +famous twenty-eighth canon was adopted, protested against +it, but in vain, the imperial commissioners deciding in favour of +its regularity and validity. Leo I., although he recognized the +council as ecumenical and confirmed its doctrinal decrees, rejected +canon xxviii. on the ground that it contravened the sixth canon +of Nicaea and infringed the rights of Alexandria and Antioch. +In what proportion zeal for the ancient canons and the rights +of others, and jealous fear of encroachment upon his own jurisdiction, +were mixed in the motives of Leo, it would be interesting +to know. The canon was universally received in the East, and +was expressly confirmed by the Quinisext Council, 692 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constantinople, Councils of</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The emperor Marcian approved the doctrinal decrees of the +council and enjoined silence in regard to theological questions. +Eutyches and Dioscurus and their followers were deposed and +banished. But harmony was not thus to be restored; hardly +had the council dissolved when the church was plunged into the +Monophysite controversy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mansi vi. pp. 529-1102, vii. pp. 1-868; Hardouin ii. pp. 1-772; +Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 394-578 (English translation, iii. pp. 268-464); +also extended bibliographies in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +3rd ed., <i>s.v.</i> “Eutyches” (by Loofs) and <i>s.v.</i> “Nestorianer” +(by Kessler).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALCEDONY,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Calcedony</span> (sometimes called by old +writers cassidoine), a variety of native silica, often used as an +ornamental stone. The present application of the term is comparatively +modern. The “chalcedonius” of Pliny was quite +a different mineral, being a green stone from the copper-mines +of Chalcedon, in Asia Minor, whence the name. There has been +some confusion between chalcedony and the ancient “carcedonia,” +a stone which seems to have been a carbuncle from Africa, +brought by way of Carthage (<span class="grk" title="Karchêdôn">Καρχηδών</span>). Our chalcedony +was probably included by the ancients among the various kinds +of jasper and agate, especially the varieties termed “leucachates” +and “cerachates.”</p> + +<p>By modern mineralogists the name chalcedony is restricted +to those kinds of silica which occur not in distinct crystals like +ordinary quartz, but in concretionary, mammillated or stalactitic +forms, which break with a fine splintery fracture, and +display a delicate fibrous structure. Chalcedony may be regarded +as a micro-crystalline form of quartz. It is rather softer and +less dense than crystallized quartz, its hardness being about +6.5 and its specific gravity 2.6, the difference being probably +due to the presence of a small amount of opaline silica between +the fibres. Chalcedony is a translucent substance of rather +waxy lustre, presenting great variety of colours, though usually +white, grey, yellow or brown. A rare blue chalcedony is sometimes +polished under the name of “sapphirine”—a term applied +also to a distinct mineral (an aluminium-magnesium silicate) +from Greenland.</p> + +<p>Chalcedony occurs as a secondary mineral in volcanic rocks, +representing usually the silica set free by the decomposition of +various silicates, and deposited in cracks, forming veins, or in +vesicular hollows, forming amygdales. Its occurrence gives the +name to Chalcedony Park, Arizona. It is found in the basalts +of N. Ireland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland: it is common in +the traps of the Deccan in India, and in volcanic rocks in Uruguay +and Brazil. Certain flat oval nodules from a decomposed lava +(augite-andesite) in Uruguay present a cavity lined with quartz +crystals and enclosing liquid (a weak saline solution), with a +movable air-bubble, whence they are called “enhydros” or +water-stones. Very fine examples of stalactitic chalcedony, in +whimsical forms, have been yielded by some of the Cornish +copper-mines. The surface of chalcedony is occasionally coated +with a delicate bluish bloom. A chalcedonic deposit in the form +of concentric rings, on fossils and fragments of limestone in S. +Devon, is known as “orbicular silica” or “beekite,” having +been named after Dr Henry Beeke, dean of Bristol, who first +directed attention to such deposits. Certain pseudomorphs of +chalcedony after datolite, from Haytor in Devonshire, have +received the name of “haytorite.” Optical examination of +many chalcedonic minerals by French mineralogists has shown +that they are aggregates of various fibrous crystalline bodies +differing from each other in certain optical characters, whence +they are distinguished as separate minerals under such names +as calcedonite, pseudocalcedonite, quartzine, lutecite and lussatite. +Many coloured and variegated chalcedonies are cut and polished +as ornamental stones, and are described under special headings. +Chalcedony has been in all ages the commonest of the stones used +by the gem-engraver.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agate</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bloodstone</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnelian</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chrysoprase</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heliotrope</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mocha Stone</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Onyx</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sard</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sardonyx</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CHALCIDICUM,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> in Roman architecture, the vestibule or +portico of a public building opening on to the forum; as in the +basilica of Eumactria at Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine +at Rome, where it was placed at one end.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALCIS, <a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, +situated on the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point. +The name is preserved from antiquity and is derived from the +Greek <span class="grk" title="chalkos">χαλκός</span> (copper, bronze), though there is no trace of +any mines in the neighbourhood. Chalcis was peopled by an +Ionic stock which early developed great industrial and colonizing +activity. In the 8th and 7th centuries it founded thirty town-ships +on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and several important cities +in Sicily (<i>q.v.</i>). Its mineral produce, metal-work, purple and +pottery not only found markets among these settlements, but +were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth +and Samos. With the help of these allies Chalcis engaged the +rival league of its neighbour Eretria (<i>q.v.</i>) in the so-called +Lelantine War, by which it acquired the best agricultural district +of Euboea and became the chief city of the island. Early in the +6th century its prosperity was broken by a disastrous war with +the Athenians, who expelled the ruling aristocracy and settled +a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently became a member +of both the Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period +it gained <span class="correction" title="amended from inportance">importance</span> as a fortress by which the Macedonian +rulers controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus +III. of Syria (192) and Mithradates VI. of Pontus (88) as a base +for invading Greece. Under Roman rule Chalcis retained a +measure of commercial prosperity; since the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +it again served as a fortress for the protection of central Greece +against northern invaders. From 1209 it stood under Venetian +control; in 1470 it passed to the Ottomans, who made it the +seat of a pasha. In 1688 it was successfully held against a +strong Venetian attack. The modern town has about 10,000 +inhabitants, and maintains a considerable export trade which +received an impetus from the establishment of railway connexion +with Athens and Peiraeus (1904). It is composed of two parts—the +old walled town towards the Euripus, called the Castro, +where the Jewish and Turkish families who have remained there +mostly dwell; and the more modern suburb that lies outside it, +which is chiefly occupied by the Greeks. A part of the walls of +the Castro and many of the houses within it were shaken down +by the earthquake of 1894; part has been demolished in the +widening of the Euripus. The most interesting object is the +church of St Paraskeve, which was once the chief church of the +Venetians; it dates from the Byzantine period, though many +of its architectural features are Western. There is also a Turkish +mosque, which is now used as a guard-house.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Strabo vii. fr. 11, x. p. 447; Herodotus v. 77; +Thucydides i. 15; <i>Corpus Inscr. Atticarum</i>, iv. (1) 27a, iv. (2) 10, iv. +(2) p. 22; W.M. Leake, <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i> (London, 1835), +ii. 254-270; E. Curtius in <i>Hermes</i>, x. (1876), p. 220 sqq.; A. Holm, +<i>Lange Fehde</i> (Berlin, 1884); H. Dondorff, <i>De Rebus Chalcidensium</i> +(Göttingen, 1869); for coinage, B.V. Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i> +(Oxford, 1887), pp. 303-5; and art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: <i>Greek</i> § Euboea.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALCONDYLES<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (or <span class="sc">Chalcocondylas</span>), <span class="bold">LAONICUS,</span> the +only Athenian Byzantine writer. Hardly anything is known +of his life. He wrote a history, in ten books, of the period from +1298-1463, describing the fall of the Greek empire and the rise +of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the centre of the narrative, +down to the conquest of the Venetians and Mathias, king of +Hungary, by Mahommed II. The capture of Constantinople +he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching +importance, although the comparison of it to the fall of Troy is +hardly appropriate. The work incidentally gives a quaint and +interesting sketch of the manners and civilization of England, +France and Germany, whose assistance the Greeks sought to +obtain against the Turks. Like that of other Byzantine writers, +Chalcondyles’ chronology is defective, and his adherence to the +old Greek geographical nomenclature is a source of confusion. +For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain information +from his father, who was one of the most prominent +men in Athens during the struggles between the Greek and +Frankish nobles. His model is Thucydides (according to Bekker, +Herodotus); his language is tolerably pure and correct, his +style simple and clear. The text, however, is in a very corrupt +state.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Editio princeps</i>, ed. J.B. Baumbach (1615); in Bonn <i>Corpus +Scriptorum Hist. Byz.</i> ed. I. Bekker (1843); Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, +clix. There is a French translation by Blaise de Vigenère (1577, +later ed. by Artus Thomas with valuable illustrations on Turkish +matters); see also F. Gregorovius, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Athen im +Mittelalter</i>, ii. (1889); Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, ch. 66; C. Krumbacher, +<i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897). There is a +biographical sketch of Laonicus and his brother in Greek by Antonius +Calosynas, a physician of Toledo, who lived in the latter part +of the 16th century (see C. Hopf, <i>Chroniques gréco-romanes</i>, 1873).</p> +</div> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Demetrius Chalcondyles</span> (1424-1511), was +born in Athens. In 1447 he migrated to Italy, where Cardinal +Bessarion gave him his patronage. He became famous as a +teacher of Greek letters and the Platonic philosophy; in 1463 +he was made professor at Padua, and in 1479 he was summoned +by Lorenzo de’ Medici to Florence to fill the professorship +vacated by John Argyropoulos. In 1492 he removed to Milan, +where he died in 1511. He was associated with Marsilius +Ficinus, Angelus Politianus, and Theodorus Gaza, in the revival +of letters in the western world. One of his pupils at Florence +was the famous John Reuchlin. Demetrius Chalcondyles +published the editio princeps of Homer, Isocrates, and Suidas, +and a Greek grammar (<i>Erotemata</i>) in the form of question and +answer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Hody, <i>De Graecis illustribus</i> (1742); C. Hopf, <i>Chroniques +gréco-romanes</i> (1873); E. Legrand, <i>Bibliographic hellénique</i>, i. +(1885).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A shortened form of Chalcocondyles, from <span class="grk" title="chalkos">χαλκός</span>, copper, and +<span class="grk" title="kondylos">κόνδυλος</span>, knuckle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALDAEA.<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> The expressions “Chaldaea’” and “Chaldaeans” +are frequently used in the Old Testament as equivalents for +“Babylonia” and “Babylonians.” Chaldaea was really the +name of a country, used in two senses. It was first applied to +the extreme southern district, whose ancient capital was the +city of <i>Bīt Yakīn</i>, the chief seat of the renowned Chaldaean +rebel Merodach-baladan, who harassed the Assyrian kings +Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not as yet possible to fix the +exact boundaries of the original home of the Chaldaeans, but +it may be regarded as having been the long stretch of alluvial +land situated at the then separate mouths of the Tigris and +Euphrates, which rivers now combine to flow into the Persian +Gulf in the waters of the majestic <i>Shatt el ‘Arab</i>.</p> + +<p>The name “Chaldaea,” however, soon came to have a more +extensive application. In the days of the Assyrian king Rammān-nirāri +III. (812-783 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the term <i>mat Kaldū</i> covered practically +all Babylonia. Furthermore, Merodach-baladan was called by +Sargon II. (722-705 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) “king of the land of the Chaldaeans” +and “king of the land of Bīt Yakīn” after the old capital city, +but there is no satisfactory evidence that Merodach-baladan +had the right to the title “Babylonian.” The racial distinction +between the Chaldaeans and the Babylonians proper seems to +have existed until a much later date, although it is almost +certain that the former were originally a Semitic people. That +they differed from the Arabs and Aramaeans is also seen from the +distinction made by Sennacherib (705-681 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) between the +Chaldaeans and these races. Later, during the period covering +the fall of Assyria and the rise of the Neo-Babylonian empire, +the term <i>mat Kaldū</i> was not only applied to all Babylonia, +but also embraced the territory of certain foreign nations who +were later included by Ezekiel (xxiii. 23) under the expression +“Chaldaeans.”</p> + +<p>As already indicated, the Chaldaeans were most probably +a Semitic people. It is likely that they first came from Arabia, +the supposed original home of the Semitic races, at a very early +date along the coast of the Persian Gulf and settled in the +neighbourhood of Ur (“Ur of the Chaldees,” Gen. xi. 28), whence +they began a series of encroachments, partly by warfare and +partly by immigration, against the other Semitic Babylonians. +These aggressions after many centuries ended in the Chaldaean +supremacy of Nabopolassar and his successors (c. 626 ff.), +although there is no positive proof that Nabopolassar was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span> +purely Chaldaean in blood. The sudden rise of the later Babylonian +empire under Nebuchadrezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, +must have tended to produce so thorough an amalgamation of +the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, who had theretofore been +considered as two kindred branches of the same original Semite +stock, that in the course of time no perceptible differences +existed between them. A similar amalgamation, although in +this case of two peoples originally racially distinct, has taken +place in modern times between the Manchu Tatars and the +Chinese. It is quite evident, for example, from the Semitic +character of the Chaldaean king-names, that the language of +these Chaldaeans differed in no way from the ordinary Semitic +Babylonian idiom which was practically identical with that of +Assyria. Consequently, the term “Chaldaean” came quite +naturally to be used in later days as synonymous with “Babylonian.” +When subsequently the Babylonian language went +out of use and Aramaic took its place, the latter tongue was +wrongly termed “Chaldee” by Jerome, because it was the only +language known to him used in Babylonia. This error was +followed until a very recent date by many scholars.</p> + +<p>The derivation of the name “Chaldaean” is extremely +uncertain. Peter Jensen has conjectured with slight probability +that the Chaldaeans were Semitized Sumerians, <i>i.e.</i> a non-Semitic +tribe which by contact with Semitic influences had lost +its original character. There seems to be little or no evidence +to support such a view. Friedrich Delitzsch derived the name +“Chaldaean” = <i>Kasdīm</i> from the non-Semitic Kaššites who +held the supremacy over practically all Babylonia during an +extended period (c. 1783-1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). This theory seems also +to be extremely improbable. It is much more likely that the +name “Chaldaean” is connected with the Semitic stem <i>kasādu</i> +(conquer), in which case <i>Kaldi-Kašdi</i>, with the well-known +interchange of <i>l</i> and <i>š</i>, would mean “conquerors.” It is also +possible that <i>Kašdu-Kaldu</i> is connected with the proper name +Chesed, who is represented as having been the nephew of +Abraham (Gen. xxii. 22). There is no connexion whatever +between the Black Sea peoples called “Chaldaeans” by Xenophon +(<i>Anab</i>. vii. 25) and the Chaldaeans of Babylonia.</p> + +<p>In Daniel, the term “Chaldaeans” is very commonly employed +with the meaning “astrologers, astronomers,” which sense also +appears in the classical authors, notably in Herodotus, Strabo +and Diodorus. In Daniel i. 4, by the expression “tongue of +the Chaldaeans,” the writer evidently meant the language in +which the celebrated Babylonian works on astrology and divination +were composed. It is now known that the literary idiom +of the Babylonian wise men was the non-Semitic Sumerian; +but it is not probable that the late author of Daniel (c. 168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +was aware of this fact.</p> + +<p>The word “Chaldaean” is used in Daniel in two senses. It is +applied as elsewhere in the Old Testament as a race-name to the +Babylonians (Dan. iii. 8, v. 30, ix. 1); but the expression is +used oftener, either as a name for some special class of magicians, +or as a term for magicians in general (ix. 1). The transfer of the +name of the people to a special class is perhaps to be explained +in the following manner. As just shown, “Chaldaean” and +“Babylonian” had become in later times practically synonymous, +but the term “Chaldaean” had lived on in the secondary restricted +sense of “wise men.” The early <i>Kaldi</i> had seized and +held from very ancient times the region of old Sumer, which +was the centre of the primitive non-Semitic culture. It seems +extremely probable that these Chaldaean Semites were so strongly +influenced by the foreign civilization as to adopt it eventually as +their own. Then, as the Chaldaeans soon became the dominant +people, the priestly caste of that region developed into a Chaldaean +institution. It is reasonable to conjecture that southern +Babylonia, the home of the old culture, supplied Babylon and +other important cities with priests, who from their descent were +correctly called “Chaldaeans.” This name in later times, owing +to the racial amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, +lost its former national force, and became, as it occurs in Daniel, +a distinctive appellation of the Babylonian priestly class. It is +possible, though not certain, that the occurrence of the word <i>kalū</i> +(priest) in Babylonian, which has no etymological connexion +with <i>Kaldū</i>, may have contributed paronomastically towards +the popular use of the term “Chaldaeans” for the Babylonian +Magi. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astrology</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Delattre, <i>Les Chaldéens jusqu’à la fond. de l’emp. +de Nebuch.</i> (1889); Winckler, <i>Untersuchungen zur altor. Gesch.</i> +(1889), pp. 49 ff.; <i>Gesch. Bab. u. Assyr.</i> (1892), pp. 111 ff.; Prince, +<i>Commentary on Daniel</i> (1899), pp. 59-61; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia and +Assyria</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sumer and Sumerian</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. D. Pr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALDEE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a term sometimes applied to the Aramaic portions +of the biblical books of Ezra and Daniel or to the vernacular +paraphrases of the Old Testament (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Targum</a></span>). The explanation +formerly adopted and embodied in the name Chaldee is +that the change took place in Babylon. That the so-called +Biblical Chaldee, in which considerable portions of the books of +Ezra and Daniel are written, was really the language of Babylon +was supposed to be clear from Dan. ii. 4, where the Chaldaeans +are said to have spoken to the king in Aramaic. But the cuneiform +inscriptions show that the language of the Chaldaeans was +Assyrian; and an examination of the very large part of the +Hebrew Old Testament written later than the exile proves conclusively +that the substitution of Aramaic for Hebrew as the +vernacular of Palestine took place very gradually. Hence +scholars are now agreed that the term “Chaldee” is a misnomer, +and that the dialect so called is really the language of the South-Western +Arameans, who were the immediate neighbours of the +Jews (W. Wright, <i>Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages</i>, +p. 16). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Semitic Languages</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALICE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (through a central O. Fr. form of the Lat. <i>calix</i>, +<i>calicis</i>, cup), a drinking-vessel of the cup or goblet form, now only +used of the cup used in the celebration of the Eucharist (<i>q.v.</i>). +For the various forms which the “chalice” so used has taken, +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drinking-Vessels</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>. When, in the eucharistic +service, water is mixed with the wine, the “chalice” is known +as the “mixed chalice.” This has been customary both in the +Eastern and Western Churches from early times. The Armenian +Church does not use the “mixed chalice.” It was used in the +English Church before the Reformation. According to the +present law of the English Church, the mixing of the water with +wine is lawful, if this is not done as part of or during the services, +<i>i.e.</i> if it is not done ceremonially (<i>Martin</i> v. <i>Mackonochie</i>, 1868, +L.R. 2 P.C. 365; <i>Read</i> v. <i>Bp. of Lincoln</i>, 1892, A C. 664).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALIER, JOSEPH<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1747-1793), French Revolutionist. He +was destined by his family for the church, but entered business, +and became a partner in a firm at Lyons for which he travelled +in the Levant, in Italy, Spain and Portugal. He was in Paris in +1789, and entered into relations with Marat, Camille Desmoulins +and Robespierre. On his return to Lyons, Chalier was the first +to be named member of the municipal bureau. He organized +the national guard, applied the civil constitution of the clergy, +and regulated the finances of the city so as to tax the rich heavily +and spare the poor. Denounced to the Legislative Assembly +by the directory of the department of Rhone-et-Loire for having +made a nocturnal domiciliary perquisition, he was sent to the +bar of the Assembly, which approved of his conduct. In the +election for mayor of Lyons, in November 1792, he was defeated +by a Royalist. Then Chalier became the orator and leader of +the Jacobins of Lyons, and induced the other revolutionary clubs +and the commune of his city to arrest a great number of Royalists +in the night of the 5th and 6th of February 1793. The mayor, +supported by the national guard, opposed this project. Chalier +demanded of the Convention the establishment of a revolutionary +tribunal and the levy of a revolutionary army at Lyons. The +Convention refused, and the anti-revolutionary party, encouraged +by this refusal, took action. On the 29th and 30th of May 1793 +the sections rose; the Jacobins were dispossessed of the municipality +and Chalier arrested. On the 15th of July, in spite +of the order of the Convention, he was brought before the +criminal tribunal of the Rhone-et-Loire, condemned to death, +and guillotined the next day. The Terrorists paid a veritable +worship to his memory, as to a martyr of Liberty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N. Wahl, “Étude sur Chalier,” in <i>Revue historique</i>, t. xxxiv.; +and <i>Les Premières Années de la Révolution à Lyon</i> (Paris, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CHALK,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> the name given to any soft, pulverulent, pure white +limestone. The word is an old one, having its origin in the +Saxon <i>cealc</i>, and the hard form “kalk” is still in use amongst +the country folk of Lincolnshire. The German <i>Kalk</i> comprehends +all forms of limestone; therefore a special term, <i>Kreide</i>, is employed +for chalk—French <i>craie</i>. From being used as a common +name, denoting a particular material, the word was subsequently +utilized by geologists as an appellation for the <i>Chalk formation</i>; +and so prominent was this formation in the eyes of the earlier +workers that it imposed its name upon a whole system of rocks, +the Cretaceous (Lat. <i>creta</i>, chalk), although this rock itself is by +no means generally characteristic of the system as a whole.</p> + +<p>The Chalk formation, in addition to the typical chalk material—<i>creta +scriptoria</i>—comprises several variations; argillaceous +kinds—<i>creta marga</i> of Linnaeus—known locally as malm, marl, +clunch, &c.; and harder, more stony kinds, called rag, freestone, +rock, hurlock or harrock in different districts. In certain parts +of the formation layers of nodular flints (<i>q.v.</i>) abound; in parts, +it is inclined to be sandy, or to contain grains of glauconite +which was originally confounded with another green mineral, +chlorite, hence the name “chloritic marl” applied to one of the +subdivisions of the chalk. In its purest form chalk consists of +from 95 to 99% of calcium carbonate (carbonate of lime); in +this condition it is composed of a mass of fine granular particles +held together by a somewhat feeble calcareous cement. The +particles are mostly the broken tests of foraminifera, along with +the débris of echinoderm and molluscan shells, and many minute +bodies, like coccoliths, of somewhat obscure nature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest attempts at subdivision of the Chalk formation +initiated by Wm. Phillips were based upon lithological characters, +and such a classification as “Upper Chalk with Flints,” “Lower +Chalk without Flints,” “Chalk marl or Grey chalk,” was generally +in use in England until W. Whitaker established the following order +in 1865:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl bb1" colspan="2">Upper Chalk, with flints</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm bb1">Lower Chalk</td> +<td class="tclm bb1">chalk rock<br /> +chalk with few flints<br /> +chalk without flints</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm" style="padding-top: 1em">Chalk Marl</td> +<td class="tclm" style="padding-top: 1em">Totternhoe stone<br /> +Totternhoe marl</td></tr></table> + +<p>In France, a similar system of classification was in vogue, the +subdivisions being <i>craie blanche</i>, <i>craie tufan</i>, <i>craie chloritée</i>, until +1843 when d’Orbigny proposed the term <i>Senonien</i> for the Upper +Chalk and <i>Turonien</i> for the Lower; later he divided the <i>Turonien</i>, +giving the name <i>Cénomanien</i> to the lower portion. The subdivisions +of d’Orbigny were based upon the fossil contents and not upon the +lithological characters of the rocks. In 1876 Prof. Ch. Barrois +showed how d’Orbigny’s classification might be applied to the +British chalk rocks; and this scheme has been generally adopted +by geologists, although there is some divergence of opinion as to +the exact position of the base line of the Cenomanian.</p> + +<p>The accompanying table shows the classification now adopted in +England, with the zonal fossils and the continental names of the +substages:—</p> +</div> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Zonal fossils used in Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Stages.</td> <td class="tccm allb">N. France<br />and<br />Belgium.*</td> +<td class="tccm allb">S.E. and<br />S. France.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb bb1">A.</td> +<td class="tclm rb bb1"><i>Ostrea lunata</i> (Norfolk)<br /><br /> +<i>Belemnitella mucronata</i><br /> +<i>Actinocamax quadratus</i><br /> += <i>Inoceramus lingua</i> in Yorkshire <br /> +<i>Marsupites testudinarium</i><br /> +  {<i>Marsupites</i>, <i>Uintacrinus</i>}</td> + +<td class="tcl rb bb" rowspan="2"> +Danian?<br /> +(Trimingham)<br /><br /> +Upper Chalk<br /> +Senonian<br /> +<i>Craie blanche</i></td> + +<td class="tccm rb cl" rowspan="2"> +Flint-<br />bearing<br />chalk.</td> + +<td class="tccm rb bb" rowspan="5"> +Marls, sandstones<br />and limestones<br />(not chalky)<br />with <i>Hippurites</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb bb">B.</td> +<td class="tclm rb bb"><i>Micraster cor-anguinum</i><br /> +<i>Micraster cor-testudinarium</i><br /> +<i>Holaster planus</i>, Chalk rock</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb bb"> </td> +<td class="tclm rb bb"> +<i>Terebratulina gracilis</i><br /><br /> +<i>Rhynchonella Cuvieri</i>, Melbourne rock</td> + +<td class="tclm rb bb"> +Middle Chalk<br /> +Turonian<br /> +<i>Craie marneuse</i></td> +<td class="rb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb"> </td> +<td class="tclm rb"> </td> +<td class="tclm rb"> +Lower Chalk,<br /> +Chalk Marl and<br /> +Cambridge Greensand</td> +<td class="tccm rb bb cl" rowspan="2">Marly<br />chalk.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb bb"> </td> +<td class="tclm rb bb"> +<i>Actinocamax plenus</i><br /> +<i>Holaster subglobosus</i>, Totternhoe stone.<br /> +<i>Schloenbachia varians</i>.</td> +<td class="tcl rb bb"> +Cenomanian<br /> +<i>Craie glauconieuse</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="5">*(See table in article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretaceous System</a></span>.) +</td></tr></table> + +<p>Since Prof. Barrois introduced the zonal system of subdivision +(C. Evans had used a similar scheme six years earlier), our knowledge +of the English chalk has been greatly increased by the work +of Jukes-Browne and William Hill, and particularly by the +laborious studies of Dr A.W. Rowe. Instead of employing the +mixed assemblage of animals indicated as zone fossils in the +table, A. de Grossouvre proposed a scheme for the north of +France based upon ammonite faunas alone, which he contended +would be of more general applicability (<i>Recherches sur la Craie +Supérieure</i>, Paris, 1901).</p> + +<p>The Upper Chalk has a maximum thickness in England of +about 1000 ft., but post-cretaceous erosion has removed much +of it in many districts. It is more constant in character, and +more typically chalky than the lower stages; flints are abundant, +and harder nodular beds are limited to the lower portions, where +some of the compact limestones are known as “chalk rock.” +The thickness of the Middle Chalk varies from about 100 to 240 ft.; +flints become scarcer in descending from the upper to the lower +portions. The whole is more compact than the upper stage, +and nodular layers are more frequent—the “chalk rock” of +Dorset and the Isle of Wight belong to this stage. At the base +is the hard “Melbourne rock.” The thickness of the Lower +Chalk in England varies from 60 to 240 ft. This stage includes +part of the “white chalk without flints,” the “chalk marl,” +and the “grey chalk.” The Totternhoe stone is a hard freestone +found locally in this stage. The basement bed in Norfolk is a +pure limestone, but very frequently it is marly with grains of +sand and glauconite, and often contains phosphatic nodules; +this facies is equivalent to the “Cambridge Greensand” of +some districts and the “chloritic marl” of others. In Devonshire +the Lower Chalk has become thin sandy calcareous series.</p> + +<p>The chalk can be traced in England from Flamborough Head +in Yorkshire, in a south-westerly direction, to the coast of Dorset; +and it not only underlies the whole of the S.E. corner, where it +is often obscured by Tertiary deposits, but it can be followed +across the Channel into northern France. Rocks of the same +age as the chalk are widespread (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretaceous System</a></span>); +but the variety of limestone properly called by this name is +almost confined to the Anglo-Parisian basin. Some chalk occurs +in the great Cretaceous deposits of Russia, and in Kansas, Iowa, +Nebraska and S. Dakota in the United States. Hard white +chalk occurs in Ireland in Antrim, and on the opposite shore of +Scotland in Mull and Morven.</p> + +<p><i>Economic Products of the Chalk.</i>—Common chalk has been +frequently used for rough building purposes, but the more +important building stones are “Beer stone,” from Beer Head +in Devonshire, “Sutton stone” from a little north of Beer, and +the “Totternhoe stone.” It is burned for lime, and when mixed +with some form of clay is used for the manufacture of cement; +chalk marl has been used alone for this purpose. As a manure, +it has been much used as a dressing for +clayey land. Flints from the chalk are used +for road metal and concrete, and have been +employed in building as a facing for walls. +Phosphatic nodules for manure have been +worked from the chloritic marl and Cambridge +Greensand, and to some extent from +the Middle Chalk. The same material is +worked at Ciply in Belgium and Picardy in +France. Chalk is employed in the manufacture +of carbonate of soda, in the preparation +of carbon dioxide, and in many other +chemical processes; also for making paints, +crayons and tooth-powder. <i>Whiting</i> or +<i>Spanish white</i>, used to polish glass and +metal, is purified chalk prepared by triturating +common chalk with a large quantity of +water, which is then decanted and allowed +to deposit the finely-divided particles it +holds in suspension.</p> + +<p><i>Chalk Scenery.</i>—Where exposed at the +surface, chalk produces rounded, smooth, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span> +grass-covered hills as in the Downs of southern England and the +Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The hills are often intersected +by clean-cut dry valleys. It forms fine cliffs on the coast +of Kent, Yorkshire and Devonshire.</p> + +<p>Chalk is employed medicinally as a very mild astringent either +alone or more usually with other astringents. It is more often +used, however, for a purely mechanical action, as in the preparation +hydrargyrum cum creta. As an antacid its use has been +replaced by other drugs.</p> + +<p><i>Black chalk</i> or <i>drawing slate</i> is a soft carbonaceous schist, +which gives a black streak, so that it can be used for drawing or +writing. <i>Brown chalk</i> is a kind of umber. <i>Red chalk</i> or <i>reddle</i> +is an impure earthy variety of haematite. <i>French chalk</i> is a +soft variety of steatite, a hydrated magnesium silicate.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most comprehensive account of the British chalk is contained +in the <i>Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom</i>, +“The Cretaceous Rocks of Britain,” vol. ii. 1903, vol. iii. 1904 +(with bibliography), by Jukes-Browne and Hill. See also “The +White Chalk of the English Coast,” several papers in the <i>Proceedings +of the Geologists’ Association</i>, London, (1) Kent and Sussex, xvi. 1900, +(2) Dorset, xvii., 1901, (3) Devon, xviii., 1903, (4) Yorkshire, xviii., +1904.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALKHILL, JOHN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (fl. 1600?), English poet. Two songs by +him are included in Izaak Walton’s <i>Compleat Angler</i>, and in 1683 +appeared “Thealma and Clearchus. A Pastoral History in +smooth and easie Verse. Written long since by John Chalkhill, +Esq., an Acquaintant and Friend of Edmund Spencer” (1683), +with a preface written five years earlier by Walton. Another +poem, “Alcilia, Philoparthens Loving Follie” (1595, reprinted +in vol. x. of the <i>Jahrbuch des deutschen Shakespeare-Vereins</i>), was +at one time attributed to him. Nothing further is known of the +poet, but a person of his name occurs as one of the coroners for +Middlesex in the later years of Queen Elizabeth’s reign. Professor +Saintsbury, who included <i>Thealma and Clearchus</i> in vol. ii. +of his <i>Minor Poets of the Caroline Period</i> (Oxford, 1906), points out +a marked resemblance between his work and that of William +Chamberlayne.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALKING THE DOOR,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a Scottish custom of landlord and +tenant law. In former days the law was that “a burgh officer, in +presence of witnesses, chalks the most patent door forty days +before Whit Sunday, having made out an execution of ‘chalking,’ +in which his name must be inserted, and which must be subscribed +by himself and two witnesses.” This ceremony now +proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The +execution of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal +will be pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the +tenant may be ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1818-1894), +French historian, was born in Paris on the 18th of March +1818. His writings consist chiefly of popular works, which +enjoyed great success. The value of some of his books is enhanced +by numerous illustrations, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Histoire-museé de la +Révolution française</i>, which appeared in 50 numbers in 1841-1842 +(3rd ed., in 72 numbers, 1857-1858); <i>Histoire de la mode en +France; la toilette des femmes depuis l’époque gallo-romaine +jusqu’à nos jours</i> (1874, with 12 plates; new ed., 1880, with +21 coloured plates). His <i>Mémoires du peuple française</i> (1865-1873) +and <i>La France et les Français a travers les siécles</i> (1882) at +least have the merit of being among the first books written on +the social history of France. In this sense Challamel was a +pioneer, of no great originality, it is true, but at any rate of +fairly wide information. He died on the 20th of October 1894.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1827-1896), French +statesman, was born at Avranches on the 19th of May 1827. +After passing through the École Normale Supérieure he became +professor of philosophy successively at Pau and at Limoges. +The <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851 caused his expulsion from France for his +republican opinions. He travelled on the continent, and in 1856 +settled down as professor of French literature at the Polytechnic +of Zürich. The amnesty of 1859 enabled him to return to France, +but a projected course of lectures on history and art was immediately +suppressed. He now supported himself by his pen, and +became a regular contributor to the reviews. On the fall of the +Second Empire in September 1870 the government of national +defence appointed him prefect of the department of the Rhone, +in which capacity he had to suppress the Communist rising at +Lyons. Resigning his post on the 5th of February 1871, he was +in January 1872 elected to the National Assembly, and in 1876 +to the Senate. He sat at first on the Extreme Left; but his +philosophic and critical temperament was not in harmony with +the recklessness of French radicalism, and his attitude towards +political questions underwent a steady modification, till the close +of his life saw him the foremost representative of moderate +republicanism. During Gambetta’s lifetime, however, Challemel-Lacour +was one of his warmest supporters, and he was for a time +editor of Gambetta’s organ, the <i>République française</i>. In 1879 +he was appointed French ambassador at Bern, and in 1880 +was transferred to London; but he lacked the suppleness and +command of temper necessary to a successful diplomatist. He +resigned in 1882, and in February 1883 became minister of foreign +affairs in the Jules Ferry cabinet, but retired in November +of the same year. In 1890 he was elected vice-president of the +Senate, and in 1893 succeeded Jules Ferry as its president. His +influence over that body was largely due to his clear and reasoned +eloquence, which placed him at the head of contemporary French +orators. In 1893 he also became a member of the French +Academy. He distinguished himself by the vigour with which he +upheld the Senate against the encroachments of the chamber, but +in 1895 failing health forced him to resign, and he died in Paris on +the 26th of October 1896. He published a translation of A. +Heinrich Ritter’s <i>Geschichte der Philosophie</i> (1861); <i>La Philosophie +individualiste: étude sur Guillaume de Humboldt</i> (1864); +and an edition of the works of Madame d’Épinay (1869).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1897 appeared Joseph Reinach’s edition of the <i>Œuvres oratoires +de Challemel-Lacour</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALLENGE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>chalonge, calenge</i>, &c., from Lat. <i>calumnia</i>, +originally meaning trickery, from <i>calvi</i>, to deceive, hence a false +accusation, a “calumny”), originally a charge against a person +or a claim to anything, a defiance. The term is now particularly +used of an invitation to a trial of skill in any contest, or to a +trial by combat as a vindication of personal honour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duel</a></span>), +and, in law, of the objection to the members of a jury allowed +in a civil action or in a criminal trial (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jury</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">“CHALLENGER” EXPEDITION.<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> The scientific results of +several short expeditions between 1860 and 1870 encouraged +the council of the Royal Society to approach the British government, +on the suggestion of Sir George Richards, hydrographer +to the admiralty, with a view to commissioning a vessel for +a prolonged cruise for oceanic exploration. The government +detailed H.M.S. “Challenger,” a wooden corvette of 2306 tons, +for the purpose. Captain (afterwards Sir) George Nares was +placed in command, with a naval crew; and a scientific staff +was selected by the society with Professor (afterwards Sir) C. +Wyville Thomson as director. The staff included Mr (afterwards +Sir) John Murray and Mr H.N. Moseley, biologists; Dr von +Willemoes-Suhm, Commander Tizard, and Mr J.Y. Buchanan, +chemist and geologist. A complete scheme of instructions was +drawn up by the society. The “Challenger” sailed from Portsmouth +in December 1872. For nearly a year the work of the +expedition lay in the Atlantic, which was crossed several times. +Teneriffe, the Bermudas, the Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd +Islands, Bahia and Tristan da Cunha were successively visited, +and in October 1873 the ship reached Cape Town. Steering then +south-east and east she visited the various islands between 45° +and 50° S., and reached Kerguelen Island in January 1874. +She next proceeded southward about the meridian of 80° E. +She was the first steamship to cross the Antarctic circle, but +the attainment of a high southerly latitude was not an object of +the voyage, and early in March the ship left the south polar +regions and made for Melbourne. Extensive researches were +now made in the Pacific. The route led by New Zealand, the +Fiji Islands, Torres Strait, the Banda Sea, and the China Sea to +Hong Kong. The western Pacific was then explored northward +to Yokohama, after which the “Challenger” struck across the +ocean by Honolulu and Tahiti to Valparaiso. She then coasted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span> +southward, penetrated the Straits of Magellan, touched at +Montevideo, recrossed the Atlantic by Ascension and the Azores, +and reached Sheerness in May 1876. This voyage is without +parallel in the history of scientific research. The <i>”Challenger” +Report</i> was issued in fifty volumes (London, 1880-1895), mainly +under the direction of Sir John Murray, who succeeded Wyville +Thomson in this work in 1882. Specialists in every branch of +science assisted in its production. The zoological collections +alone formed the basis for the majority of the volumes; the +deep-sea soundings and samples of the deposits, the chemical +analysis of water samples, the meteorological, water-temperature, +magnetic, geological, and botanical observations were fully +worked out, and a summary of the scientific results, narrative +of the cruise and indices were also provided.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Lord G. Campbell, <i>Log Letters from the “Challenger”</i>, +(1876); W.J.J. Spry, <i>Cruise of H.M.S. “Challenger”</i> (1876); +Sir C. Wyville Thomson, <i>Voyage of the “Challenger,” The Atlantic, +Preliminary Account of General Results</i> (1877); J.J. Wild, <i>At +Anchor; Narrative of Experiences afloat and ashore during the +Voyage of H.M.S. “Challenger”</i> (1878); H.N. Moseley, <i>Notes by a +Naturalist on the “Challenger”</i> (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALLONER, RICHARD<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1691-1781), English Roman +Catholic prelate, was born at Lewes, Sussex, on the 29th of +September 1691. After the death of his father, who was a rigid +Dissenter, his mother, left in poverty, lived with some Roman +Catholic families. Thus it came about that he was brought up +as a Roman Catholic, chiefly at the seat of Mr Holman at +Warkworth, Northamptonshire, where the Rev. John Gother, +a celebrated controversialist, officiated as chaplain. In 1704 he +was sent to the English College at Douai, where he was ordained +a priest in 1716, took his degrees in divinity, and was appointed +professor in that faculty. In 1730 he was sent on the English +mission and stationed in London. The controversial treatises +which he published in rapid succession attracted much attention, +particularly his <i>Catholic Christian Instructed</i> (1737), which was +prefaced by a witty reply to Dr Conyers Middleton’s <i>Letters from +Rome, showing an Exact Conformity between Popery and Paganism</i>. +Middleton is said to have been so irritated that he endeavoured +to put the penal laws in force against his antagonist, who +prudently withdrew from London. In 1741 Challoner was raised +to the episcopal dignity at Hammersmith, and nominated co-adjutor +with right of succession to Bishop Benjamin Petre, +vicar-apostolic of the London district, whom he succeeded in +1758. He resided principally in London, but was obliged to +retire into the country during the “No Popery” riots of 1780. +He died on the 12th of January 1781, and was buried at Milton, +Berkshire. Bishop Challoner was the author of numerous controversial +and devotional works, which have been frequently +reprinted and translated into various languages. He compiled +the <i>Garden of the Soul</i> (1740 ?), which continues to be the most +popular manual of devotion among English-speaking Roman +Catholics, and he revised an edition of the Douai version of the +Scriptures (1749-1750), correcting the language and orthography, +which in many places had become obsolete. Of his historical +works the most valuable is one which was intended to be a Roman +Catholic antidote to Foxe’s well-known martyrology. It is +entitled <i>Memoirs of Missionary Priests and other Catholicks of +both Sexes who suffered Death or Imprisonment in England on +account of their Religion, from the year 1577 till the end of +the reign of Charles II.</i> (2 vols. 1741, frequently reprinted). +He also published anonymously, in 1745, the lives of English, +Scotch and Irish saints, under the title of <i>Britannia Sancta</i>, an +interesting work which has, however, been superseded by that of +Alban Butler.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a complete list of his writings see J. Gillow’s <i>Bibl. Dict. of +Eng. Cath.</i> i. 452-458; Barnard, <i>Life of R. Challoner</i> (1784); +Flanagan, <i>History of the Catholic Church in England</i> (1857); there +is also a critical history of Challoner by Rev. E. Burton.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, ALEXANDER<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1750-1834), Scottish writer, +was born in Aberdeen on the 29th of March 1759. He was +educated as a doctor, but gave up this profession for journalism, +and he was for some time editor of the <i>Morning Herald</i>. Besides +editions of the works of Shakespeare, Beattie, Fielding, Johnson, +Warton, Pope, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, he published <i>A General +Biographical Dictionary</i> in 32 vols.(1812-1817); a <i>Glossary to +Shakspeare</i> (1797); an edition of Steevens’s Shakespeare +(1809); and the <i>British Essayists</i>, beginning with the <i>Tatler</i> and +ending with the <i>Observer</i>, with biographical and historical prefaces +and a general index. He died in London on the 19th of December +1834.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, GEORGE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1742-1825), Scottish antiquarian and +political writer, was born at Fochabers, a village in the county of +Moray, in 1742. His father, James Chalmers, was a grandson of +George Chalmers of Pittensear, a small estate in the parish of +Lhanbryde, now St Andrews-Lhanbryde, in the same county, +possessed by the main line of the family from about the beginning +of the 17th to the middle of the 18th century. After completing +the usual course at King’s College, Aberdeen, young Chalmers +studied law in Edinburgh for several years. Two uncles on the +father’s side having settled in America, he visited Maryland in +1763, with the view, it is said, of assisting to recover a tract of +land of some extent about which a dispute had arisen, and was in +this way induced to commence practice as a lawyer at Baltimore, +where for a time he met with much success. Having, however, +espoused the cause of the Royalist party on the breaking out of +the American War of Independence, he found it expedient to +abandon his professional prospects in the New World, and return +to his native country. For the losses he had sustained as a +colonist he received no compensation, and several years elapsed +before he obtained an appointment that placed him in a state of +comfort and independence.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Chalmers applied himself with great diligence +and assiduity to the investigation of the history and establishment +of the English colonies in North America; and enjoying +free access to the state papers and other documents preserved +among what were then termed the plantation records, he became +possessed of much important information. His work entitled +<i>Political Annals of the present United Colonies from their Settlement +to the Peace of 1763</i>, 4to, London, 1780, was to have formed two +volumes; but the second, which should have contained the period +between 1688 and 1763, never appeared. The first volume, +however, is complete in itself, and traces the original settlement of +the different American colonies, and the progressive changes in +their constitutions and forms of government as affected by the +state of public affairs in the parent kingdom. Independently of +its value as being compiled from original documents, it bears +evidence of great research, and has been of essential benefit to +later writers. Continuing his researches, he next gave to the +world <i>An Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Britain during +the Present and Four Preceding Reigns</i>, London, 1782, which passed +through several editions. At length, in August 1786, Chalmers, +whose sufferings as a Royalist must have strongly recommended +him to the government of the day, was appointed chief clerk to +the committee of privy council on matters relating to trade, a +situation which he retained till his death in 1825, a period of +nearly forty years. As his official duties made no great demands +on his time, he had abundant leisure to devote to his favourite +studies,—the antiquities and topography of Scotland having +thenceforth special attractions for his busy pen.</p> + +<p>Besides biographical sketches of Defoe, Sir John Davies, Allan +Ramsay, Sir David Lyndsay, Churchyard and others, prefixed to +editions of their respective works, Chalmers wrote a life of +Thomas Paine, the author of the <i>Rights of Man</i>, which he published +under the assumed name of Francis Oldys, A.M., of the +University of Pennsylvania; and a life of Ruddiman, in which +considerable light is thrown on the state of literature in Scotland +during the earlier part of the last century. His life of Mary, +Queen of Scots, in two 4to vols., was first published in 1818. It is +founded on a MS. left by John Whitaker, the historian of Manchester; +but Chalmers informs us that he found it necessary to +rewrite the whole. The history of that ill-fated queen occupied +much of his attention, and his last work, <i>A Detection of the Love-Letters +lately attributed in Hugh Campbell’s work to Mary Queen of +Scots</i>, is an exposure of an attempt to represent as genuine some +fictitious letters said to have passed between Mary and Bothwell +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span> +which had fallen into deserved oblivion. In 1797 appeared his +<i>Apology for the Believers in the Shakespeare Papers which were +exhibited in Norfolk Street</i>, followed by other tracts on the same +subject. These contributions to the literature of Shakespeare +are full of curious matter, but on the whole display a great waste of +erudition, in seeking to show that papers which had been proved +forgeries might nevertheless have been genuine. Chalmers also +took part in the Junius controversy, and in <i>The Author of Junius +Ascertained, from a Concatenation of Circumstances amounting +to Moral Demonstration</i>, Lond. 1817, 8vo, sought to fix the authorship +of the celebrated letters on Hugh Boyd. In 1824 he published +<i>The Poetical Remains of some of the Scottish Kings, now first +collected</i>; and in the same year he edited and presented as a +contribution to the Bannatyne Club <i>Robene and Makyne and the +Testament of Cresseid, by Robert Henryson</i>. His political writings +are equally numerous. Among them may be mentioned <i>Collection +of Treaties between Great Britain and other Powers</i>, Lond. +1790, 2 vols. 8vo; <i>Vindication of the Privileges of the People in +respect to the Constitutional Right of Free Discussion</i>, &c., Lond. +1796, 8vo, published anonymously; <i>A Chronological Account of +Commerce and Coinage in Great Britain from the Restoration till +1810</i>, Lond. 1810, 8vo; <i>Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on various +points of English Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies, +Fisheries, and Commerce of Great Britain</i>, Lond. 1814, 2 vols. +8vo; <i>Comparative Views of the State of Great Britain before and +since the War</i>, Lond. 1817, 8vo.</p> + +<p>But Chalmers’s greatest work is his <i>Caledonia</i>, which, however, +he did not live to complete. The first volume appeared in 1807, +and is introductory to the others. It is divided into four books, +treating successively of the Roman, the Pictish, the Scottish +and the Scoto-Saxon periods, from 80 to 1306 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> In these we are +presented, in a condensed form, with an account of the people, +the language and the civil and ecclesiastical history, as well as +the agricultural and commercial state of Scotland during the +first thirteen centuries of our era. Unfortunately the chapters +on the Roman period are entirely marred by the author’s having +accepted as genuine Bertram’s forgery <i>De Situ Britanniae</i>; +but otherwise his opinions on controverted topics are worthy of +much respect, being founded on a laborious investigation of all +the original authorities that were accessible to him. The second +volume, published in 1810, gives an account of the seven +south-eastern counties of Scotland—Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, +Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Peebles and Selkirk—each of them being +treated of as regards name, situation and extent, natural objects, +antiquities, establishment as shires, civil history, agriculture, +manufactures and trade, and ecclesiastical history. In 1824, +after an interval of fourteen years, the third volume appeared, +giving, under the same headings, a description of the seven +south-western counties—Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigtown, +Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew and Dumbarton. In the preface to this +volume the author states that the materials for the history of +the central and northern counties were collected, and that he +expected the work would be completed in two years, but this +expectation was not destined to be realized. He had also been +engaged on a history of Scottish poetry and a history of printing +in Scotland. Each of them he thought likely to extend to two +large quarto volumes, and on both he expended an unusual +amount of enthusiasm and energy. He had also prepared for the +press an elaborate history of the life and reign of David I. In +his later researches he was assisted by his nephew James, son of +Alexander Chalmers, writer in Elgin.</p> + +<p>George Chalmers died in London on the 31st of May 1825. +His valuable and extensive library he bequeathed to his nephew, +at whose death in 1841 it was sold and dispersed. Chalmers was a +member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies of London, an +honorary member of the Antiquarian Society of Scotland, and +a member of other learned societies. In private life he was +undoubtedly an amiable man, although the dogmatic tone that +disfigures portions of his writings procured him many opponents. +Among his avowed antagonists in literary warfare the most +distinguished were Malone and Steevens, the Shakespeare editors; +Mathias, the author of the <i>Pursuits of Literature</i>; Dr Jamieson, +the Scottish lexicographer; Pinkerton, the historian; Dr Irving, +the biographer of the Scottish poets; and Dr Currie of Liverpool, +But with all his failings in judgment Chalmers was a valuable +writer. He uniformly had recourse to original sources of information; +and he is entitled to great praise for his patriotic +and self-sacrificing endeavours to illustrate the history, literature +and antiquities of his native country.</p> +<div class="author">(J. M‘D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1836-1878), Scottish painter, +was born at Montrose, and studied at Edinburgh. His landscapes +are now more valued than the portraits which formed his +earlier work. The best of these are “The End of the Harvest” +(1873), “Running Water” (1875), and “The Legend” (in the +National Gallery, Edinburgh). He became an associate (1867) +and a full member (1871) of the Scottish Academy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, JAMES<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1841-1901), Scottish missionary to +New Guinea, was born at Ardrishaig in Argyll. After serving +in the Glasgow City Mission he passed through Cheshunt College, +and, being accepted by the London Missionary Society, was +appointed to Rarotonga in the South Pacific in 1866. Here the +natives gave him the well-known name “Tamate.” After ten +years’ service, especially in training native evangelists, he was +transferred to New Guinea. In addition to his enthusiastic but +sane missionary work, Chalmers did much to open up the island, +and, with his colleague W.G. Lawes, gave valuable aid in the +British annexation of the south-east coast of the island. On +the 8th of April 1901, in company with a brother missionary, +Oliver Tomkins, he was killed by cannibals at Goaribari Island. +R.L. Stevenson has left on record his high appreciation of +Chalmers’s character and work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Chalmers’s <i>Autobiography and Letters</i> were edited by Richard +Lovett in 1902, who also wrote a popular life called <i>Tamate</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, THOMAS<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1780-1847), Scottish divine, was born +at Anstruther in Fifeshire, on the 17th of March 1780. At the +age of eleven he was entered as a student at St Andrews, where he +devoted himself almost exclusively to mathematics. In January +1799 he was licensed as a preacher of the Gospel by the St +Andrews presbytery. In May 1803, after attending further +courses of lectures in Edinburgh, and acting as assistant to the +professor of mathematics at St Andrews, he was ordained as +minister of Kilmany in Fifeshire, about 9 m. from the university +town, where he continued to lecture. His mathematical lectures +roused so much enthusiasm that they were discontinued by order +of the authorities, who disliked the disturbance of the university +routine which they involved. Chalmers then opened mathematical +classes on his own account which attracted many students; +at the same time he delivered a course of lectures on chemistry, +and ministered to his parish at Kilmany. In 1805 he became a +candidate for the vacant professorship of mathematics at +Edinburgh, but was unsuccessful. In 1808 he published an +<i>Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of National Resources</i>, a +contribution to the discussion created by Bonaparte’s commercial +policy. Domestic bereavements and a severe illness then turned +his thoughts in another direction. At his own request the article +on Christianity was assigned to him in Dr Brewster’s <i>Edinburgh +Encyclopaedia</i>, and in studying the credentials of Christianity he +received a new impression of its contents. His journal and letters +show how he was led from a sustained effort to attain the morality +of the Gospel to a profound spiritual revolution. After this his +ministry was marked by a zeal which made it famous. The +separate publication of his article in the <i>Edinburgh Encyclopaedia</i>, +and contributions to the <i>Edinburgh Christian Instructor</i> +and the <i>Eclectic Review</i>, enhanced his reputation as an author. +In 1815 he became minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow, in +spite of determined opposition to him in the town council on the +ground of his evangelical teaching. From Glasgow his repute +as a preacher spread throughout the United Kingdom. A +series of sermons on the relation between the discoveries of +astronomy and the Christian revelation was published in January +1817, and within a year nine editions and 20,000 copies were in +circulation. When he visited London Wilberforce wrote, “all +the world is wild about Dr Chalmers.”</p> + +<p>In Glasgow Chalmers made one of his greatest contributions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span> +to the life of his own time by his experiments in parochial organization. +His parish contained about 11,000 persons, and of +these about one-third were unconnected with any church. He +diagnosed this evil as being due to the absence of personal influence, +spiritual oversight, and the want of parochial organizations +which had not kept pace in the city, as they had done in rural +parishes, with the growing population. He declared that twenty +new churches, with parishes, should be erected in Glasgow, and +he set to work to revivify, remodel and extend the old parochial +economy of Scotland. The town council consented to build one +new church, attaching to it a parish of 10,000 persons, mostly +weavers, labourers and factory workers, and this church was +offered to Dr Chalmers that he might have a fair opportunity +of testing his system.</p> + +<p>In September 1819 he became minister of the church and +parish of St John, where of 2000 families more than 800 had no +connexion with any Christian church. He first addressed himself +to providing schools for the children. Two school-houses +with four endowed teachers were established, where 700 children +were taught at the moderate fees of 2s. and 3s. per quarter. +Between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools were opened, where +more than 1000 children were taught the elements of secular and +religious education. The parish was divided into 25 districts +embracing from 60 to 100 families, over each of which an elder +and a deacon were placed, the former taking oversight of their +spiritual, the latter of their physical needs. Chalmers was the +mainspring of the whole system, not merely superintending the +visitation, but personally visiting all the families, and holding +evening meetings, when he addressed those whom he had visited. +This parochial machinery enabled him to make a singularly +successful experiment in dealing with the problem of poverty. +At this time there were not more than 20 parishes north of the +Forth and Clyde where there was a compulsory assessment for +the poor, but the English method of assessment was rapidly +spreading. Chalmers believed that compulsory assessment +ended by swelling the evil it was intended to mitigate, and that +relief should be raised and administered by voluntary means. +His critics replied that this was impossible in large cities. When +he undertook the management of the parish of St John’s, the +poor of the parish cost the city £1400 per annum, and in four +years, by the adoption of his method, the pauper expenditure +was reduced to £280 per annum. The investigation of all new +applications for relief was committed to the deacon of the district, +and every effort was made to enable the poor to help themselves. +When once the system was in operation it was found that a +deacon, by spending an hour a week among the families committed +to his charge, could keep himself acquainted with their +character and condition.</p> + +<p>In 1823, after eight years of work at high pressure, he was glad +to accept the chair of moral philosophy at St Andrews, the +seventh academic offer made to him during his eight years in +Glasgow. In his lectures he excluded mental philosophy and +included the whole sphere of moral obligation, dealing with +man’s duty to God and to his fellow-men in the light of Christian +teaching. Many of his lectures are printed in the first and +second volumes of his published works. In ethics he made contributions +to the science in regard to the place and functions of +volition and attention, the separate and underived character of +the moral sentiments, and the distinction between the virtues +of perfect and imperfect obligation. His lectures kindled the +religious spirit among his students, and led some of them to +devote themselves to missionary effort. In November 1828 he +was transferred to the chair of theology in Edinburgh. He then +introduced the practice of following the lecture with a viva voce +examination on what had been delivered. He also introduced +text-books, and came into stimulating contact with his people; +perhaps no one has ever succeeded as he did by the use of these +methods in communicating intellectual, moral and religious impulse +to so many students.</p> + +<p>These academic years were prolific also in a literature of various +kinds. In 1826 he published a third volume of the <i>Christian and +Civic Economy of Large Towns</i>, a continuation of work begun +at St John’s, Glasgow. In 1832 he published a <i>Political Economy</i>, +the chief purpose of which was to enforce the truth that the +right economic condition of the masses is dependent on their +right moral condition, that character is the parent of comfort, +not vice versa. In 1833 appeared a treatise on <i>The Adaptation of +External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man</i>. +In 1834 Dr Chalmers was elected fellow of the Royal Society of +Edinburgh, and in the same year he became corresponding +member of the Institute of France; in 1835 Oxford conferred on +him the degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he became leader of the +evangelical section of the Scottish Church in the General +Assembly. He was appointed chairman of a committee for +church extension, and in that capacity made a tour through +a large part of Scotland, addressing presbyteries and holding +public meetings. He also issued numerous appeals, with the +result that in 1841, when he resigned his office as convener of the +church extension committee, he was able to announce that in +seven years upwards of £300,000 had been contributed, and 220 +new churches had been built. His efforts to induce the Whig +government to assist in this effort were unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>In 1841 the movement which ended in the Disruption was +rapidly culminating, and Dr Chalmers found himself at the +head of the party which stood for the principle that “no minister +shall be intruded into any parish contrary to the will of the +congregation” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Free Church of Scotland</a></span>). Cases of conflict +between the church and the civil power arose in Auchterarder, +Dunkeld and Marnoch; and when the courts made it +clear that the church, in their opinion, held its temporalities +on condition of rendering such obedience as the courts required, +the church appealed to the government for relief. In January +1843 the government put a final and peremptory negative on +the church’s claims for spiritual independence. On the 18th of +May 1843 470 clergymen withdrew from the general assembly +and constituted themselves the Free Church of Scotland, with +Dr Chalmers as moderator. He had prepared a sustentation +fund scheme for the support of the seceding ministers, and this +was at once put into successful operation. On the 30th of May +1847, immediately after his return from the House of Commons, +where he had given evidence as to the refusal of sites for Free +Churches by Scottish landowners, he was found dead in bed.</p> + +<p>Dr Chalmers’ action throughout the Free Church controversy +was so consistent in its application of Christian principle and +so free from personal or party animus, that his writings are a +valuable source for argument and illustration on the question +of Establishment. “I have no veneration,” he said to the +royal commissioners in St Andrews, before either the voluntary +or the non-intrusive controversies had arisen, “for the Church of +Scotland <i>qua</i> an establishment, but I have the utmost veneration +for it <i>qua</i> an instrument of Christian good.” He was transparent +in character, chivalrous, kindly, firm, eloquent and sagacious; +his purity of motive and unselfishness commanded absolute confidence; +he had originality and initiative in dealing with new and +difficult circumstances, and great aptitude for business details.</p> + +<p>During a life of incessant activity Chalmers scarcely ever +allowed a day to pass without its modicum of composition; +at the most unseasonable times, and in the most unlikely places, +he would occupy himself with literary work. His writings +occupy more than 30 volumes. He would have stood higher as +an author had he written less, or had he indulged less in that +practice of reiteration into which he was constantly betrayed by +his anxiety to impress his ideas upon others. As a political +economist he was the first to unfold the connexion that subsists +between the degree of the fertility of the soil and the social +condition of a community, the rapid manner in which capital +is reproduced (see Mill’s <i>Political Economy</i>, i. 94), and the +general doctrine of a limit to all the modes by which national +wealth may accumulate. He was the first also to advance that +argument in favour of religious establishments which meets +upon its own ground the doctrine of Adam Smith, that religion +like other things should be left to the operation of the natural +law of supply and demand. In the department of natural +theology and the Christian evidences he ably advocated that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span> +method of reconciling the Mosaic narrative with the indefinite +antiquity of the globe which William Buckland (1784-1856) +advanced in his Bridgewater Treatise, and which Dr Chalmers +had previously communicated to him. His refutation of Hume’s +objection to the truth of miracles is perhaps his intellectual +<i>chef-d’œuvre</i>. The distinction between the laws and dispositions +of matter, as between the ethics and objects of theology, he was +the first to indicate and enforce, and he laid great emphasis on +the superior authority as witnesses for the truth of Revelation of +the Scriptural as compared with the Extra-Scriptural writers, and +of the Christian as compared with the non-Christian testimonies. +In his <i>Institutes of Theology</i>, no material modification is attempted +on the doctrines of Calvinism, which he received with all simplicity +of faith as revealed in the Divine word, and defended as in +harmony with the most profound philosophy of human nature +and of the Divine providence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For biographical details see Dr W. Hanna’s <i>Memoirs</i> (Edinburgh, +4 vols., 1849-1852); there is a good short <i>Life</i> by Mrs Oliphant +(1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Ha.; D. Mn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALONER, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1521-1565), English statesman +and poet, was the son of Roger Chaloner, mercer of London, +a descendant of the Denbighshire Chaloners. No details are +known of his youth except that he was educated at both Oxford +and Cambridge. In 1540 he went, as secretary to Sir Henry +Knyvett, to the court of Charles V., whom he accompanied in +his expedition against Algiers in 1541, and was wrecked on the +Barbary coast. In 1547 he joined in the expedition to Scotland, +and was knighted, after the battle of Musselburgh, by the +protector Somerset, whose patronage he enjoyed. In 1549 he +was a witness against Dr Bonner, bishop of London; in 1551 +against Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester; in the spring +of the latter year he was sent as a commissioner to Scotland, and +again in March 1552. In 1553 he went with Sir Nicholas Wotton +and Sir William Pickering on an embassy to France, but was +recalled by Queen Mary on her accession. In spite of his Protestant +views, Chaloner was still employed by the government, +going to Scotland in 1555-1556, and providing carriages for +troops in the war with France, 1557-1558. In 1558 he went as +Elizabeth’s ambassador to the emperor Ferdinand at Cambrai, +from July 1559 to February 1559/60 he was ambassador to +King Philip at Brussels, and in 1561 he went in the same capacity +to Spain. His letters are full of complaints of his treatment +there, but it was not till 1564, when in failing health, that he +was allowed to return home. He died at his house in Clerkenwell +on the 14th of October 1565. He acquired during his years of +service three estates, Guisborough in Yorkshire, Steeple Claydon +in Buckinghamshire, and St Bees in Cumberland. He married +(1) Joan, widow of Sir Thomas Leigh; and (2) Etheldreda, daughter +of Edward Frodsham, of Elton, Cheshire, by whom he had one +son, Sir Thomas Chaloner (1561-1615), the naturalist. Chaloner +was the intimate of most of the learned men of his day, and with +Lord Burghley he had a life-long friendship. Throughout his +busy official life he occupied himself with literature, his Latin +verses and his pastoral poems being much admired by his contemporaries. +Chaloner’s “Howe the Lorde Mowbray ... was ... banyshed +the Realme,” printed in the 1559 edition of William +Baldwin’s <i>Mirror for Magistrates</i> (repr. in vol. ii. pt. 1 of Joseph +Haslewood’s edition of 1815), has sometimes been attributed +to Thomas Churchyard. His most important work, <i>De Rep. +Anglorum instauranda libri decem</i>, written while he was in Spain, +was first published by William Malim (1579, 3 pts.), with complimentary +Latin verses in praise of the author by Burghley and +others. Chaloner’s epigrams and epitaphs were also added to +the volume, as well as <i>In laudem Henrici octavi ... carmen +Panegericum</i>, first printed in 1560. Amongst his other works +are <i>The praise of folie, Moriae encomium</i> ... by Erasmus.... Englished +by Sir Thomas Chaloner, Knight (1549, ed. Janet E. +Ashbee, 1901); <i>A book of the Office of Servantes</i> (1543), translated +from Gilbert Cognatus; and <i>An homilie of Saint John Chrysostome</i>.... Englished +by T.C. (1544).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St Bees,” by William +Jackson, in <i>Transactions of the Cumberland Assoc. for the Advancement +of Literature and Science</i>, pt. vi. pp. 47-74, 1880-1881.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a town of north-eastern France, +capital of the department of Marne, 107 m. E. of Paris on the +main line of the Eastern railway to Nancy, and 25 m. S.S.E. of +Reims. Pop. (1906) 22,424. Châlons is situated in a wide level +plain principally on the right bank of the Marne, its suburb of +Marne, which contains the railwaystations of the Eastern and Est-État +railways, lying on the left bank. The town proper is bordered +on the west by the lateral canal of the Marne, across which lies +a strip of ground separating it from the river itself. Châlons +is traversed by branches of the canal and by small streams, and +its streets are for the most part narrow and irregular, but it is +surrounded by ample avenues and promenades, the park known +as the Jard, in the south-western quarter, being especially +attractive. Huge barracks lie to the north and east. There are +several interesting churches in the town. The cathedral of St +Étienne dates chiefly from the 13th century, but its west façade +is in the classical style and belongs to the 17th century. There +are stained-glass windows of the 13th century in the north +transept. Notre-Dame, of the 12th and 13th centuries, is conspicuous +for its four Romanesque towers, two flanking the apse; +the other two, surmounted by tall lead spires, flanking the +principal façade. The churches of St. Alpin, St Jean and St +Loup date from various periods between the 11th and the 17th +centuries. The hôtel-de-ville (1771), facing which stands a +monument to President Carnot; the prefecture (1750-1764), once +the residence of the intendants of Champagne; the college, once +a Jesuit establishment; and a training college which occupies +the Augustinian abbey of Toussaints (16th and 17th centuries), +are noteworthy civil buildings. The houses of Châlons are +generally ill-built of timber and plaster, or rough-cast, but some +old mansions, dating from the 15th to the 16th centuries, remain. +The church of Ste Pudentienne, on the left bank of the river, is a +well-known place of pilgrimage. The town is the seat of a bishop +and a prefect, and headquarters of the VI. army corps; it has +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of +commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a museum, a library, +training colleges, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a communal +college and an important technical school. The principal industry +is brewing, which is carried on in the suburb of Marne. Galleries +of immense length, hewn in a limestone hill and served by lines +of railway, are used as store-houses for beer. The preparation +of champagne, the manufacture of boots and shoes, brushes, +wire-goods and wall-paper also occupy many hands. There is +trade in cereals.</p> + +<p>Châlons-sur-Marne occupies the site of the chief town of the +Catalauni, and some portion of the plains which lie between it +and Troyes was the scene of the defeat of Attila in the conflict +of 451. In the 10th and following centuries it attained great +prosperity as a kind of independent state under the supremacy +of its bishops, who were ecclesiastical peers of France. In 1214 +the militia of Châlons served at the battle of Bouvines; and in +the 15th century the citizens maintained their honour by twice +(1430 and 1434) repulsing the English from their walls. In the +16th century the town sided with Henry IV., king of France, +who in 1589 transferred thither the parlement of Paris, which +shortly afterwards burnt the bulls of Gregory XIV. and Clement +VIII. In 1856 Napoleon III. established a large camp, known +as the Camp of Châlons, about 16 m. north of the town by the +railway to Reims. It was situated in the immediate neighbourhood +of Grand Mourmelon and Petit Mourmelon, and occupied +an area of nearly 30,000 acres. The “Army of Châlons,” formed +by Marshal MacMahon in the camp after the first reverses of the +French in 1870, marched thence to the Meuse, was surrounded +by the Germans at Sedan, and forced to capitulate. The camp +is still a training-centre for troops.</p> + +<p>About 5 m. E. of Châlons is L’Epine, where there is a beautiful +pilgrimage church (15th and 16th centuries, with modern restoration) +with a richly-sculptured portal. In the interior there is +a fine choir-screen, an organ of the 16th century, and an ancient +and much-venerated statue of the Virgin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a town of east-central France, capital +of an arrondissement in the department of Saône-et-Loire, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span> +81 m. N. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) +26,538. It is a well-built town, with fine quays, situated in an +extensive plain on the right bank of the Saône at its junction +with the Canal du Centre. A handsome stone bridge of the 15th +century, decorated in the 18th century with obelisks, connects +it with the suburb of St Laurent on an island in the river. The +principal building is the church of St Vincent, once the cathedral. +It dates mainly from the 12th to the 15th centuries, but the +façade is modern and unpleasing. The old bishop’s palace is +a building of the 15th century. The church of St Pierre, with +two lofty steeples, dates from the late 17th century. Chalon preserves +remains of its ancient ramparts and a number of old houses. +The administrative buildings are modern. An obelisk was erected +in 1730 to commemorate the opening of the canal. There is a +statue of J.N. Niepce, a native of the town. Chalon is the seat +of a sub-prefect and a court of assizes, and there are tribunals +of first instance and commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, +a chamber of commerce, communal colleges for boys and girls, +a school of drawing, a public library and a museum. Chalon +ranks next to Le Creusot among the manufacturing towns of +Burgundy; its position at the junction of the Canal du Centre +and the Saône, and as a railway centre for Lyons, Paris, Dôle, +Lons-le-Saunier and Roanne, brings it a large transit trade. The +founding and working of copper and iron is its main industry; +the large engineering works of Petit-Creusot, a branch of those +of Le Creusot, construct bridges, tug-boats and torpedo-boats; +distilleries, glass-works, chemical works, straw-hat manufactories, +oil-works, tile-works and sugar refineries also occupy many +hands. Wine, grain, iron, leather and timber are among the +many products for which the town is an entrepôt. About 2 m. +east of Chalon is St Marcel (named after the saint who in the +2nd century preached Christianity at Chalon), which has a church +of the 12th century, once belonging to a famous abbey.</p> + +<p>Chalon-sur-Saône is identified with the ancient <i>Cabillonum</i>, +originally an important town of the Aedui. It was chosen in +the 6th century by Gontram, king of Burgundy, as his capital; +and it continued till the 10th to pay for its importance by being +frequently sacked. The bishopric, founded in the 4th century, was +suppressed at the Revolution. In feudal times Chalon was the +capital of a countship. In 1237 it was given in exchange for other +fiefs in the Jura by Jean le Sage, whose descendants nevertheless +retained the title. Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy, the other +party to the exchange, gave the citizens a communal charter +in 1256. In its modern history the most important event was +the resistance offered to a division of the Austrian army in +1814.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALUKYA,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> the name of an Indian dynasty which ruled +in the Deccan from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 550 to 750, and again from 973 to 1190. +The Chalukyas themselves claimed to be Rajputs from the north +who imposed their rule on the Dravidian inhabitants of the +Deccan tableland, and there is some evidence for connecting +them with the Chapas, a branch of the foreign Gurjaras. The +dynasty was founded by a chief named Pulakesin I., who +mastered the town of Vatapi (now Badami, in the Bijapur +district) about 550. His sons extended their principality east +and west; but the founder of the Chalukya greatness was his +grandson Pulakesin II., who succeeded in 608 and proceeded +to extend his rule at the expense of his neighbours. In 609 he +established as his viceroy in Vengi his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana, +who in 615 declared his independence and established +the dynasty of Eastern Chalukyas, which lasted till 1070. In +620 Pulakesin defeated Harsha (<i>q.v.</i>), the powerful overlord of +northern India, and established the Nerbudda as the boundary +between the South and North. He also defeated in turn the +Chola, Pandya and Kerala kings, and by 630 was beyond +dispute the most powerful sovereign in the Deccan. In 642, +however, his capital was taken and he himself killed by the +Pallava king Narasimhavarman. In 655 the Chalukya power was +restored by Pulakesin’s son Vikramaditya I.; but the struggle +with the Pallavas continued until, in 740, Vikramaditya II. +destroyed the Pallava capital. In 750 Vikramaditya’s son, +Kirtivarman Chalukya, was overthrown by the Rashtrakutas.</p> + +<p>In 973, Taila or Tailapa II. (d. 995), a scion of the royal +Chalukya race, succeeded in overthrowing the Rashtrakuta +king Kakka II., and in recovering all the ancient territory of +the Chalukyas with the exception of Gujarat. He was the founder +of the dynasty known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +1000 a formidable invasion by the Chola king Rajaraja the +Great was defeated, and in 1052 Somesvara I., or Ahamavalla +(d. 1068), the founder of Kalyani, defeated and slew the Chola +Rajadhiraja. The reign of Vikramaditya VI., or Vikramanka, +which lasted from 1076 to 1126, formed another period of +Chalukya greatness. Vikramanka’s exploits against the Hoysala +kings and others, celebrated by the poet Bilhana, were held to +justify him in establishing a new era dating from his accession. +With his death, however, the Chalukya power began to decline. +In 1156 the commander-in-chief Bijjala (or Vijjana) Kalachurya +revolted, and he and his sons held the kingdom till 1183. In +this year Somesvara IV. Chalukya recovered part of his patrimony, +only to succumb, about 1190, to the Yadavas of Devagiri +and the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra. Henceforth the Chalukya +rajas ranked only as petty chiefs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.F. Fleet, <i>Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts</i>; Prof. R.G. +Bhandarker, “Early History of the Deccan,” in the <i>Bombay +Gazetteer</i> (1896), vol. i. part ii.; Vincent A. Smith, <i>Early Hist. of +India</i> (Oxford, 1908), pp. 382 ff.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1796-1862), German +philosopher, was born at Pfaffroda in Saxony. For some years +he taught at Dresden, and won a high reputation by his lectures +on the history of philosophy in Germany. In 1839 he became +professor in Kiel University, where, with the exception of one +brief interval, when he was expelled with several colleagues +because of his German sympathies, he remained till his death. +His first published work, <i>Historische Entwickelung der spekulativen +Philosophic von Kant bis Hegel</i> (1837, 5th ed. 1860), which +still ranks among the best expositions of modern German thought, +has been twice translated into English, by A. Tulk (London, +1854), and by A. Edersheim (Edinburgh, 1854). His chief works +are <i>Entwurf eines Systems der Wissenschaftslehre</i> (Kiel, 1846) +and <i>System der spekulativen Ethik</i> (2 vols., 1850). He opposed +both the extreme realism of Herbart and what he regarded as +the one-sided idealism of Hegel, and endeavoured to find a mean +between them, to discover the ideal or formal principle which +unfolds itself in the real or material world presented to it. +His <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>, accordingly, divides itself into (1) +<i>Principlehre</i>, or theory of the one principle; (2) <i>Vermittelungslehre</i>, +or theory of the means by which this principle realizes +itself; and (3) <i>Teleologie</i>. The most noticeable point is the position +assigned by Chalybäus to the “World Ether,” which is defined +as the infinite in time and space, and which, he thinks, must +be posited as necessarily coexisting with the Infinite Spirit or +God. The fundamental principle of the <i>System der Ethik</i> is +carried out with great strength of thought, and with an unusually +complete command of ethical material.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.E. Erdmann, <i>Grundriss der Gesch. d. Philos.</i> ii. 781-786; +K. Prantl, in <i>Allgem. deutsch. Biog.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:213px; height:162px" src="images/img813.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Crystal of Chalybite.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CHALYBITE,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of iron carbonate +(FeCO<span class="su">3</span>) and forming an important ore of iron. It was early +known as spathose iron, spathic iron or steel ore. F.S. Beudant +in 1832 gave the name siderose (from <span class="grk" title="sidêros">σίδηρος</span>, iron), which was +modified by W. Haidinger in 1845 to siderite. Chalybite (from +<span class="grk" title="chalyps">χάλυψ</span>, <span class="grk" title="chalybos">χάλυβος</span>, Lat. <i>chalybs</i>, steel) is of slightly later date, +having been given by E.F. Glocker in 1847. The name siderite +is in common use, but it is open to objection since it had earlier +been applied to several other species, and is also now used as a +group name for meteoric irons. Chalybite crystallizes in the +rhombohedral system and is isomorphous with calcite; like this +it possesses perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the primitive +rhombohedron, the angles between which are 73° 0′. Crystals +are usually rhombohedral in habit, and the primitive rhombohedron +<i>r</i>{100} is a common form, the faces being often curved +as represented in the figure. Acute rhombohedra in combination +with the basal pinacoid are also frequent, giving crystals of +octahedral aspect. The mineral often occurs in cleavable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span> +masses with a coarse or fine granular texture; also in botryoidal +or globular (sphaerosiderite) and oolitic forms. When compact +and mixed with much clay and sand it constitutes the well-known +clay ironstone. Chalybite is usually yellowish-grey or +brown in colour; it is translucent and has a vitreous lustre. +Hardness 3½; sp. gr. 3.8. The double refraction (ω − ε = 0.241) +is stronger than that of calcite. When pure it contains 48.2% +of iron, but this is often partly +replaced isomorphously by manganese, +magnesium or calcium: the +varieties known as oligon-spar or +oligonite, sideroplesite and siderodote +contain these elements respectively +in large amount. These +varieties form a passage to ankerite +(<i>q.v.</i>) and mesitite, and all are +referred to loosely as brown-spar.</p> + +<p>Chalybite is a common gangue mineral in metalliferous veins, +and well-crystallized specimens are found with ores of copper, +lead, tin, &c., in Cornwall, the Harz, Saxony and many other +places. It also occurs alone as large masses in veins and beds +in rocks of various kinds. The clay ironstone so extensively +worked as an ore of iron occurs as nodules and beds in the Coal +Measures of England and the United States, and the oolitic iron +ore of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire forms beds in the Lias. +The mineral is occasionally found as concretionary masses +(sphaerosiderite) in cavities in basic igneous rocks such as +dolerite.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBA,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a native state of India, within the Punjab, amid +the Himalayas, and lying on the southern border of Kashmir. +It has an area of 3216 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 127,834. The sanatorium +of Dalhousie, though within the state, is attached to the +district of Gurdaspur. Chamba is entirely mountainous; in +the east and north, and in the centre, are snowy ranges. The +valleys in the west and south are fertile. The chief rivers are the +Chandra and Ravi. The country is much in favour with sportsmen. +The principal crops are rice, maize and millet. Mineral +ores of various kinds are known, but unworked. Trade is +chiefly in forest produce. The capital of the state is Chamba +(pop. 6000), situated above the gorge of the Ravi. External +communications are entirely by road. The state was founded +in the 6th century, and, though sometimes nominally subject +to Kashmir and afterwards tributary to the Mogul empire, +always practically maintained its independence. Its chronicles +are preserved in a series of inscriptions, mostly engraved on +copper. It first came under British influence in 1846, when it +was declared independent of Kashmir. The line of the rajas of +Chamba was founded in the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> by Marut, of +an ancient family of Rajputs. In 1904 Bhuri Singh, K.C.S.I., +C.I.E., an enlightened and capable ruler, succeeded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBAL,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a river of India, one of the principal tributaries +of the Jumna. Rising amid the summits of the Vindhya +mountains in Malwa, it flows north, and after being joined by +the Chambla and Sipra, passes through the gorges of the Mokandarra +hills. After receiving the waters of the Kali-Sind, Parbati +and Banas, its principal confluents, the Chambal becomes a +great river, enters the British district of Etawah, and joins +the Jumna 40 m. below Etawah town, its total length being +650 m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1836-  ), British statesman, +third son of Joseph Chamberlain, master of the Cordwainers’ +Company, was born at Camberwell Grove, London, on the 8th +of July 1836. His father was a well-to-do man of business, a +Unitarian in religion and a Liberal in politics. Young Chamberlain +was educated at Canonbury from 1845 to 1850, and at +University College school, London, from 1850 to 1852. After +two years in his father’s office in London, he was sent to Birmingham +to join his cousin Joseph Nettlefold in a screw business in +which his father had an interest; and by degrees, largely owing +to his own intelligent management, this business became very +successful. Nettlefold & Chamberlain employed new methods +of attracting customers, and judiciously amalgamated rival +firms with their own so as to reduce competition, with the result +that in 1874, after twenty-two years of commercial life, Mr +Chamberlain was able to retire with an ample fortune. Meanwhile +he had in 1861 married his first wife, Miss Harriet Kenrick +(she died in 1863), and had gradually come to take an increasingly +important part in the municipal and political life of Birmingham. +He was a constant speaker at the Birmingham and Edgbaston +Debating Society; and when in 1868 the Birmingham Liberal +Association was reorganized, he became one of its leading +members. In 1869 he was elected chairman of the executive +council of the new National Education League, the outcome +of Mr George Dixon’s movement for promoting the education +of the children of the lower classes by paying their school fees, +and agitating for more accommodation and a better national +system. In the same year he was elected a member of the town +council, and married his second wife—a cousin of his first—Miss +Florence Kenrick (d. 1875).</p> + +<p>In 1870 he was elected a member of the first school board for +Birmingham; and for the next six years, and especially after +1873, when he became leader of a majority and chairman, he +actively championed the Nonconformist opposition to denominationalism. +He was then regarded as a Republican—the term +signifying rather that he held advanced Radical opinions, which +were construed by average men in the light of the current +political developments in France, than that he really favoured +Republican institutions. His programme was “free Church, +free land, free schools, free labour.” At the general election of +1874 he stood as a parliamentary candidate for Sheffield, but +without success. Between 1869 and 1873 he was a prominent +advocate in the Birmingham town council of the gospel of +municipal reform preached by Mr Dawson, Dr Dale and Mr +Bunce (of the <i>Birmingham. Post</i>); and in 1873 his party obtained +a majority, and he was elected mayor, an office he retained until +June 1876. As mayor he had to receive the prince and princess +of Wales on their visit in June 1874, an occasion which excited +some curiosity because of his reputation as a Republican; but +those who looked for an exhibition of bad taste were disappointed, +and the behaviour of the Radical mayor satisfied the requirements +alike of <i>The Times</i> and of <i>Punch</i>.</p> + +<p>The period of his mayoralty was one of historic importance +in the growth of modern Birmingham. New municipal buildings +were erected, Highgate Park was opened as a place of recreation, +the free library and art gallery were developed. But the great +work carried through by Mr Chamberlain for Birmingham was +the municipalization of the supply of gas and water, and the +improvement scheme by which slums were cleared away and +forty acres laid out in new streets and open spaces. The prosperity +of modern Birmingham dates from 1875 and 1876, when +these admirably administered reforms were initiated, and by +his share in them Mr Chamberlain became not only one of its +most popular citizens but also a man of mark outside. An orator +of a business-like, straightforward type, cool and hard-hitting, +his spare figure, incisive features and single eye-glass soon made +him a favourite subject for the caricaturist; and in later life +his aggressive personality, and the peculiarly irritating effect it +had on his opponents, made his actions and speeches the object +of more controversy than was the lot of any other politician of +his time. His hobby for orchid-growing at his house “Highbury” +near Birmingham also became famous. In private life his loyalty +to his friends, and his “genius for friendship” (as John Morley +said) made a curious contrast to his capacity for arousing the +bitterest political hostility. It may be added here that the +interest taken by him in Birmingham remained undiminished +during his life, and he was largely instrumental in starting the +Birmingham University (1900), of which he became chancellor. +His connexion with Birmingham University was indeed peculiarly +appropriate to his character as a man of business; but in +spite of his representing a departure among men of the front +rank in politics from the “Eton and Oxford” type, his general +culture sometimes surprised those who did not know him. +In later life Oxford and Cambridge gave him their doctors’ +degrees; and in 1897 he was made lord rector of Glasgow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span> +University (delivering an address on “Patriotism” at his +installation).</p> + +<p>In 1876 Mr Dixon resigned his seat in parliament, and Mr +Chamberlain was returned for Birmingham in his place unopposed, +as John Bright’s colleague. He made his maiden speech in the +House of Commons on the 4th of August 1876, on Lord Sandon’s +Education Bill. At this period, too, he paid much attention +to the question of licensing reform, and in 1876 he examined the +Gothenburg system in Sweden, and advocated a solution of the +problem in England on similar lines. During 1877 the new +federation of Liberal Associations which became known as the +“Caucus” was started under Mr Chamberlain’s influence in +Birmingham—its secretary, Mr Schnadhorst, quickly making +himself felt as a wire-puller of exceptional ability; and the new +organization had a remarkable effect in putting life into the +Liberal party, which since Mr Gladstone’s retirement in 1874 +had been much in need of a stimulus. When the general election +came in 1880, Mr Schnadhorst’s powers were demonstrated in +the successes won under his auspices. The Liberal party numbered +349, against 243 Conservatives and 60 Irish Nationalists; and +the Radical section of the Liberal party, led by Mr Chamberlain +and Sir Charles Dilke, was recognized by Mr Gladstone by his +inclusion of the former in his cabinet as president of the Board +of Trade, and the appointment of the latter as under secretary for +foreign affairs. In his new capacity Mr Chamberlain was responsible +for carrying such important measures as the Bankruptcy +Act 1883, and the Patents Act. Another bill which he +had much at heart, on merchant shipping, had to be abandoned, +and a royal commission substituted, but the subsequent legislation +in 1888-1894 owed much to his efforts. The Franchise +Act of 1884 was also one in which he took a leading part as a +champion of the opinions of the labouring class. At this time +he took the current advanced Radical views of both Irish and +foreign policy, hating “coercion,” disliking the occupation of +Egypt, and prominently defending the Transvaal settlement after +Majuba. Both before and after the defeat of Mr Gladstone’s +government on the Budget in June 1885, he associated himself +with what was known as the “Unauthorized Programme,” <i>i.e.</i> +free education, small holdings, graduated taxation and local +government. In June 1885 he made a speech at Birmingham, +treating the reforms just mentioned as the “ransom” that +property must pay to society for the security it enjoys—for +which Lord Iddesleigh called him “Jack Cade”; and he +continually urged the Liberal party to take up these Radical +measures. At the general election of November 1885 Mr +Chamberlain was returned for West Birmingham. The Liberal +strength generally was, however, reduced to 335 members, +though the Radical section held their own; and the Irish vote +became necessary to Mr Gladstone if he was to command a +majority. In December it was stated that Mr Gladstone intended +to propose Home Rule for Ireland, and in January Lord +Salisbury’s ministry was defeated on the Address, on an amendment +moved by Mr Chamberlain’s Birmingham henchman, +Mr Jesse Collings (b. 1831), embodying the “three acres and a +cow” of the Radical programme. Unlike Lord Hartington (afterwards +duke of Devonshire) and other Liberals, who declined to +join Mr Gladstone in view of the altered attitude he was adopting +towards Ireland, Mr Chamberlain entered the cabinet as president +of the Local Government Board (with Mr Jesse Collings +as parliamentary secretary), but on the 15th of March 1886 he +resigned, explaining in the House of Commons (8th April) that, +while he had always been in favour of the largest possible extension +of local government to Ireland consistently with the +integrity of the empire and the supremacy of parliament, and +had therefore joined Mr Gladstone when he believed that this +was what was intended, he was unable to consider that the +scheme communicated by Mr Gladstone to his colleagues maintained +those limitations. At the same time he was not irreconcilable, +and he invited Mr Gladstone even then to modify his bill +so as to remove the objections made to it. This indecisive +attitude did not last long, and the split in the party rapidly +widened. At Birmingham Mr Chamberlain was supported by +the “Two Thousand,” but deserted by the “Caucus” and Mr +Schnadhorst. In May the Radicals who followed Mr Bright +and Mr Chamberlain, and the Whigs who took their cue from +Lord Hartington, decided to vote against the second reading +of the Home Rule Bill, instead of allowing it to be taken and +then pressing for modifications in committee, and on 7th June +the bill was defeated by 343 to 313, 94 Liberal Unionists—as +they were generally called—voting against the government. +Mr Chamberlain was the object of the bitterest attacks from the +Gladstonians for his share in this result; he was stigmatized as +“Judas,” and open war was proclaimed by the Home Rulers +against the “dissentient Liberals”—the description used by Mr +Gladstone. The general election, however, returned to parliament +316 Conservatives, 78 Liberal Unionists, and only 276 +Gladstonians and Nationalists, Birmingham returning seven +Unionist members. When the House met in August, it was +decided by the Liberal Unionists, under Lord Hartington’s +leadership, that their policy henceforth was essentially to combine +with the Tories to keep Mr Gladstone out. The old Liberal feeling +still prevailing among them was too strong, however, for their +leaders to take office in a coalition ministry. It was enough for +them to be able to tie down the Conservative government to such +measures as were not offensive to Liberal Unionist principles. +It still seemed possible, moreover, that the Gladstonians might +be brought to modify their Home Rule proposals, and in January +1887 a Round Table conference (suggested by Mr Chamberlain) +was held between Mr Chamberlain, Sir G. Trevelyan, Sir William +Harcourt, Mr Morley and Lord Herschell. But no <i>rapprochement</i> +was effected, and reconciliation became daily more and +more difficult. The influence of Liberal Unionist views upon +the domestic legislation of the government was steadily bringing +about a more complete union in the Unionist party, and +destroying the old lines of political cleavage. Before 1892 Mr +Chamberlain had the satisfaction of seeing Lord Salisbury’s +ministry pass such important acts, from a progressive point of +view, as those dealing with Coal Mines Regulation, Allotments, +County Councils, Housing of the Working Classes, Free Education +and Agricultural Holdings, besides Irish legislation like the +Ashbourne Act, the Land Act of 1891, and the Light Railways +and Congested Districts Acts. In October 1887 Mr Chamberlain, +Sir L. Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper were selected by +the government as British plenipotentiaries to discuss with the +United States the Canadian fisheries dispute, and a treaty was +arranged by them at Washington on the 15th of February 1888. +The Senate refused to ratify it; but a protocol provided for a +<i>modus vivendi</i> pending ratification, giving American fishing vessels +similar advantages to those contemplated in the treaty; and on +the whole Mr Chamberlain’s mission to America was accepted +as a successful one in maintaining satisfactory relations with the +United States. He returned to England in March 1888, and was +presented with the freedom of the borough of Birmingham. The +visit also resulted, in November 1888, in his marriage with his +third wife, Miss Endicott, daughter of the United States secretary +of war in President Cleveland’s first administration.</p> + +<p>At the general election of 1892 Mr Chamberlain was again +returned, with an increased majority, for West Birmingham; +but the Unionist party as a whole came back with only 315 +members against 355 Home Rulers. In August Lord Salisbury’s +ministry was defeated; and on the 13th of February 1893 Mr +Gladstone introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which was +eventually read a third time on the 1st of September. During +the eighty-two days’ discussion in the House of Commons Mr +Chamberlain was the life and soul of the opposition, and his +criticisms had a vital influence upon the attitude of the country +when the House of Lords summarily threw out the bill. His +chief contribution to the discussions during the later stages of +the Gladstone and Rosebery ministries was in connexion with +Mr Asquith’s abortive Employers’ Liability Bill, when he foreshadowed +the method of dealing with this question afterwards +carried out in the Compensation Act of 1897. Outside parliament +he was busy formulating proposals for old age pensions, which +had a prominent place in the Unionist programme of 1895. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span> +that year, on the defeat of Lord Rosebery, the union of the +Unionists was sealed by the inclusion of the Liberal Unionist +leaders in Lord Salisbury’s ministry; and Mr Chamberlain +became secretary of state for the colonies. There had been much +speculation as to what his post would be, and his nomination +to the colonial office, then considered one of secondary rank, +excited some surprise; but Mr Chamberlain himself realized +how important that department had become. He carried with +him into the ministry his close Birmingham municipal associates, +Mr Jesse Collings (as under secretary of the home office), and Mr +J. Powell-Williams (1840-1904) as financial secretary to the war +office. Mr Chamberlain’s influence in the Unionist cabinet was +soon visible in the Workmen’s Compensation Act and other +measures. This act, though in Sir Matthew White Ridley’s charge +as home secretary, was universally and rightly associated with +Mr Chamberlain; and its passage, in the face of much interested +opposition from highly-placed, old-fashioned conservatives and +capitalists on both sides, was principally due to his determined +advocacy. Another “social” measure of less importance, which +formed part of the Chamberlain programme, was the Small +Houses Acquisition Act of 1899; but the problem of old age +pensions was less easily solved. This subject had been handed +over in 1893 to a royal commission, and further discussed by a +select committee in 1899 and a departmental committee in 1900, +but both of these threw cold water on the schemes laid before +them—a result which, galling enough to one who had made so +much play with the question in the country, offered welcome +material to his opponents for electioneering recrimination, as +year by year went by between 1895 and 1900 and nothing resulted +from all the confident talk on the subject in which Mr +Chamberlain had indulged when out of office. Eventually it +was the Liberal and not the Unionist party that carried an Old +Age Pensions scheme through parliament, during the 1908 +session, when Mr Chamberlain was <i>hors de combat</i>.</p> + +<p>From January 1896 (the date of the Jameson Raid) onwards +South Africa demanded the chief attention of the colonial +secretary (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>, and for details <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>). In +his negotiations with President Kruger one masterful temperament +was pitted against another. Mr Chamberlain had a very +difficult part to play, in a situation dominated by suspicion on +both sides, and while he firmly insisted on the rights of Great +Britain and of British subjects in the Transvaal, he was the +continual object of Radical criticism at home. Never has a +statesman’s personality been more bitterly associated by his +political opponents with the developments they deplored. +Attempts were even made to ascribe financial motives to Mr +Chamberlain’s actions, and the political atmosphere was thick +with suspicion and scandal. The report of the Commons committee +(July 1897) definitely acquitted both Mr Chamberlain +and the colonial office of any privity in the Jameson Raid, but +Mr Chamberlain’s detractors continued to assert the contrary. +Opposition hostility reached such a pitch that in 1899 there was +hardly an act of the cabinet during the negotiations with President +Kruger which was not attributed to the personal malignity +and unscrupulousness of the colonial secretary. The elections of +1900 (when he was again returned, unopposed, for West Birmingham) +turned upon the individuality of a single minister more +than any since the days of Mr Gladstone’s ascendancy, and Mr +Chamberlain, never conspicuous for inclination to turn his other +cheek to the smiter, was not slow to return the blows with interest.</p> + +<p>Apart from South Africa, his most important work at this time +was the successful passing of the Australian Commonwealth Act +(1900), in which both tact and firmness were needed to settle +certain differences between the imperial government and the +colonial delegates.</p> + +<p>Mr Chamberlain’s tenure of the office of colonial secretary +between 1895 and 1900 must always be regarded as a turning-point +in the history of the relations between the British colonies +and the mother country. His accession to office was marked by +speeches breathing a new spirit of imperial consolidation, embodied +either in suggestions for commercial union or in more +immediately practicable proposals for improving the “imperial +estate”; and at the Diamond Jubilee of 1897 the visits of the +colonial premiers to London emphasized and confirmed the new +policy, the fruits of which were afterwards seen in the cordial +support given by the colonies in the Boer War. Even in what +Mr Chamberlain called his “Radical days” he had never +supported the “Manchester” view of the value of a colonial +empire; and during the Gladstone ministry of 1882-1885 Mr +Bright had remarked that the junior member for Birmingham +was the only Jingo in the cabinet—meaning, no doubt, that +he objected to the policy of <i>laissez-faire</i> and the timidity of +what was afterwards known as “Little Englandism.” While he was +still under Mr Gladstone’s influence these opinions were kept in +subordination; but Mr Chamberlain was always an imperial +federationist, and from 1887 onwards he constantly gave expression +to his views on the desirability of drawing the different +parts of the empire closer together for purposes of defence and +commerce. In 1895 the time for the realization of these views +had come; and Mr Chamberlain’s speeches, previously remarkable +chiefly for debating power and directness of argument, +were now dominated by a new note of constructive statesmanship, +basing itself on the economic necessities of a world-wide empire. +Not the least of the anxieties of the colonial office during this +period was the situation in the West Indies, where the cane-sugar +industry was being steadily undermined by the European +bounties given to exports of continental beet; and though the +government restricted themselves to attempts at removing the +bounties by negotiation and to measures for palliating the worst +effects in the West Indies, Mr Chamberlain made no secret of his +repudiation of the Cobden Club view that retaliation would be +contrary to the doctrines of free trade, and he did his utmost +to educate public opinion at home into understanding that the +responsibilities of the mother country are not merely to be construed +according to the selfish interests of a nation of consumers. +As regards foreign affairs, Mr Chamberlain more than once (and +particularly at Leicester on 30th November 1899) indicated his +leanings towards a closer understanding between the British +empire, the United States and Germany,—a suggestion which +did not save him from an extravagant outburst of German +hostility during the Boer War. The unusually outspoken and +pointed expression, however, of his disinclination to submit to +Muscovite duplicity or to “pin-pricks” or “unmannerliness” +from France was criticized on the score of discretion by a wider +circle than that of his political adversaries.</p> + +<p>During the progress of the Boer War from 1899 to 1902, Mr +Chamberlain, as the statesman who had represented the cabinet +in the negotiations which led to it, remained the object of constant +attacks from his Radical opponents—the “little Englanders” +and “Pro-Boers,” as he called them—and he was supported by +the Imperialist and Unionist party with at least equal ardour. +But as colonial secretary, except in so far as his consistent +support of Lord Milner and his enthusiastic encouragement of +colonial assistance were concerned, he naturally played only a +subordinate part during the carrying out of the military operations. +Among domestic statesmen he was felt, however, to be the +backbone of the party in power. He was the hero of the one +side, just as he was the bugbear of the other. On the 13th of +February 1902 he was presented with an address in a gold casket +by the city corporation, and entertained at luncheon at the +Mansion House, an honour not unconnected with the strong +feeling recently aroused by his firm reply (at Birmingham, +January 11) to some remarks made by Count von Büllow, the +German chancellor, in the Reichstag (January 8), reflecting the +offensive allegations current in Germany against the conduct +of the army in South Africa. Mr Chamberlain’s speech, in answer +to what had been intended as a contemptuous rebuke, was universally +applauded. His own imperialism was intensified by the +way in which England’s difficulties resulted in calling forth +colonial assistance and so cementing the bonds of empire. The +domestic crisis, and the sharp cleavage between parties at home, +had driven the bent of his mind and policy further and further +away from the purely municipal and national ideals which he +had followed so keenly before he became colonial minister. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span> +problems of empire engrossed him, and a new enthusiasm for +imperial projects arose in the Unionist party under his inspiration. +No English statesman probably has ever been, at different +times in his career, so able an advocate of absolutely contradictory +policies, and his opponents were not slow to taunt him +with quotations from his earlier speeches. As the war drew to +its end, new plans for imperial consolidation were maturing in +his brain. Subsidiary points of utility, such as the formation of +the London and Liverpool schools of tropical medicine from 1899 +onwards, were taken up by him with characteristic vigour. +But the next step was to prove a critical one indeed for the +loyalty of the party which had so far been unanimous in his +favour.</p> + +<p>The settlement after the war was full of difficulties, financial +and others, in South Africa. When Mr Arthur Balfour succeeded +Lord Salisbury as prime minister in July 1902, Mr Chamberlain +agreed to serve loyally under him, and the friendship between +the two leaders was indeed one of the most marked features of the +political situation. In November 1902 it was arranged that Mr +Chamberlain should go out to South Africa, and it was hoped, +not without reason, that his personality would effect more good +than any ordinary official negotiations. At the time the best +results appeared to be secured. He went from place to place in +South Africa (December 26-February 25); arranged with the +leading Transvaal financiers that in return for support from the +British government in raising a Transvaal loan they would +guarantee a large proportion of a Transvaal debt of £30,000,000, +which should repay the British treasury so much of the cost of +the war; and when he returned in March 1903, satisfaction was +general in the country over the success of his mission. But +meantime two things had happened. He had looked at the +empire from the colonial point of view, in a way only possible +in a colonial atmosphere; and at home some of his colleagues +had gone a long way, behind the scenes, to destroy one of the +very factors on which the question of a practical scheme for +imperial commercial federation seemed to hinge. In the budget +of 1902 a duty of a shilling a quarter on imported corn had been +reintroduced. This small tax was regarded as only a registration +duty. Even by free-trade ministers like Gladstone it had been +left up to 1869 untouched, and its removal by Robert Lowe +(Lord Sherbrooke) had since then been widely regarded as a +piece of economic pedantry. Its reimposition, officially supported +for the sake of necessary revenue in war-time, and +cordially welcomed by the Unionist party, had justified itself, +as they contended, in spite of the criticisms of the Opposition +(who raised the cry of the “dear loaf”), by proving during the +year to have had no general or direct effect on the price of bread. +And the more advanced Imperialists, as well as the more old-fashioned +protectionists (like Mr Chaplin) who formed an integral +body of the Conservative party, had looked forward to this +tax being converted into a differential one between foreign and +colonial corn, so as to introduce a scheme of colonial preference +and commercial consolidation between the colonies and the +mother country. In South Africa—as in any other British +colony, since all of them were accustomed to tariffs of a protectionist +nature, and the idea of a preference (already started by +Canada) was fairly popular—Mr Chamberlain had found this +view well established. The agitation in England against the +tax had now blown over. The Unionist rank and file were +committed to its support,—many even advocating its increase +to two shillings at least. But Mr Ritchie, the chancellor of the +exchequer, having a surplus in prospect and taxation to take off, +carried the cabinet in favour of again remitting this tax on corn. +Mr Chamberlain himself had proposed only to take it off as +regards colonial, and not foreign corn,—thus inaugurating a +preferential system. But a majority of the cabinet supported +Mr Ritchie. The remission of this tax, after all the conviction +with which its restoration had been supported a year before, +was very difficult for the party itself to stomach, and on any +ground it was a distasteful act, loyally as the party followed +their leaders. But to those who had looked to it as providing +a lever for a gradual change in the established fiscal system, +the <i>volte-face</i> was a bitter blow, and at once there began, though +not at first openly, a split between the more rigid free-traders—advocates +of cheap food and free imports—and those who +desired to use the opportunities of a tariff, of however moderate +a kind, for attaining national and imperial and not merely +revenue advantages. This idea, which had for some time been +floating in Mr Chamberlain’s mind (see especially his speech +at Birmingham of May 16, 1902), now took full possession of it. +For the moment he remained in the cabinet, but the seed of +dissension was sown. The first public intimation of his views +was given in a speech to his constituents at Birmingham (May 15, +1903), when he outlined a plan for raising more money by a +rearranged tariff, partly to obtain a preferential system for the +empire and partly to produce funds for social reform at home. +On May 28th in the House of Commons he spoke on the same +subject, and declared “if you are to give a preference to the +colonies, you must put a tax on food.” Considered in the light +of after events, this putting the necessity of food-taxes in the +forefront was decidedly injudicious; but imperialist conviction +and enthusiasm were more conspicuous than electioneering tact +in the launching of Mr Chamberlain’s new scheme.</p> + +<p>The movement grew quickly, its supporters including a +number of the cleverest younger politicians and journalists in +the Unionist party. The idea of tariff reform—to broaden the +basis of taxation, to introduce a preference, and to stimulate +home industries and increase employment—took firm root; +and the political economists of the party—Prof. W. Cunningham, +Prof. W. Ashley and Prof. W.A.S. Hewins, in particular—brought +effective criticism to bear on the one-sided “free trade” +in vogue. The first demand was for inquiry. The country was +still bearing an income-tax of elevenpence in the pound; it +appeared that the old sources of revenue were inadequate; and +meanwhile the statistics of trade, it was argued, showed that +the English free-import system hampered English trade while +providing the foreigner with a free market. Mr Chamberlain +and his supporters argued that since 1870 certain other countries +(Germany and the United States), with protective tariffs, had +increased their trade in much larger proportion, while English +trade had only been maintained by the increased business done +with British colonies. A scientific inquiry into the facts was +needed. By the Opposition, who now found themselves the +defenders of conservatism in the established fiscal policy of the +country, this whole argument was scouted; but for a time the +demand merely for inquiry, and the production of figures, gave +no sufficient occasion for dissension among Unionists, even when, +like Sir M. Hicks Beach, they were convinced free-importers +on purely economic grounds; and Mr Balfour (<i>q.v.</i>), as premier, +managed to hold his colleagues and party together by taking the +line that particular opinions on economic subjects should not +be made a test of party loyalty. The Board of Trade was set +to work to produce fiscal Blue-books, and hum-drum politicians +who had never shown any genius for figures suddenly blossomed +out into arithmeticians of the deepest dye. The Tariff Reform +League was founded in order to further Mr Chamberlain’s +policy, holding its inaugural meeting on July 21st; and it +began to take an active part in issuing leaflets and in work at +by-elections. Discussion proceeded hotly on the merits of a +preferential tariff, and on August 15th a manifesto appeared +against it signed by fourteen professors or lecturers on political +economy, including Mr Leonard Courtney, Professor Edgeworth, +Professor Marshall, Professor Bastable, Professor Smart, +Professor J.S. Nicholson, Professor Conner, Mr Bowley, Mr E. +Cannan and Mr L.R. Phelps,—men of admitted competence, +yet, after all, of no higher authority than the economists supporting +Mr Chamberlain, such as Dr Cunningham and Professor +Ashley.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the death of Lord Salisbury (August 22) removed +a weighty figure from the councils of the Unionist party. The +cabinet met several times at the beginning of September, and +the question of their attitude towards the fiscal problem became +acute. The public had its first intimation of impending events +in the appearance on September 16th of Mr Balfour’s <i>Economic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span> +Notes on Insular Free Trade</i>, which had been previously circulated +as a cabinet memorandum. The next day appeared +the Board of Trade Fiscal Blue-book. And on the 18th the +resignations were announced, not only of the more rigid free-traders +in the cabinet, Mr Ritchie and Lord George Hamilton, +but also of Mr Chamberlain. Letters in cordial terms were +published, which had passed between Mr Chamberlain (September +9) and Mr Balfour (September 16). Mr Chamberlain pointed +out that he was committed to a preferential scheme involving +new duties on food, and could not remain in the government +without prejudice while it was excluded from the party programme; +remaining loyal to Mr Balfour and his general objects, +he could best promote this course from outside, and he suggested +that the government might confine its policy to the “assertion +of our freedom in the case of all commercial relations with +foreign countries.” Mr Balfour, while reluctantly admitting +the necessity of Mr Chamberlain’s taking a freer hand, expressed +his agreement in the desirability of a closer fiscal union with the +colonies, but questioned the immediate practicability of any +scheme; he was willing to adopt fiscal reform so far as it covered +retaliatory duties, but thought that the exclusion of taxation +of food from the party programme was in existing circumstances +necessary, so long as public opinion was not ripe. At the same +time he welcomed the fact that Mr Chamberlain’s son, Mr +Austen Chamberlain, was ready to remain a member of the +government. Mr Austen Chamberlain (b. 1863) accordingly +became the new chancellor of the exchequer; he was already +in the cabinet as postmaster-general, having previously made +his mark as civil lord of the admiralty (1895-1900), and financial +secretary to the treasury (1900-1902).</p> + +<p>From the turning-point of Mr Chamberlain’s resignation, it is +not necessary here to follow in detail the discussions and dissensions +in the party as a whole in its relations with the prime +minister (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balfour, A.J.</a></span>). It is sufficient to say that while +Mr Balfour’s sympathetic “send off” appeared to indicate his +inclination towards Mr Chamberlain’s programme, if only further +support could be gained for it, his endeavour to keep the party +together, and the violent opposition which gathered against +Mr Chamberlain’s scheme, combined to make his real attitude +during the next two years decidedly obscure, both sections of the +party—free-traders and tariff reformers—being induced from +time to time to regard him as on their side. The tariff reform +movement itself was now, however, outside the purely official +programme, and Mr Chamberlain (backed by a majority of the +Unionist members) threw himself with impetuous ardour into a +crusade on its behalf, while at the same time supporting Mr +Balfour in parliament, and leaving it to him to decide as to the +policy of going to the country when the time should be ripe. +In his own words, he went in front of the Unionist army as a +pioneer, and if his army was attacked he would go back to it; in +no conceivable circumstances would he allow himself to be put in +any sort of competition, direct or indirect, with Mr Balfour, his +friend and leader, whom he meant to follow (October 6).</p> + +<p>On October 6th he opened his campaign with a speech at +Glasgow. Analysing the trade statistics as between 1872 and +1902, he insisted that British progress involved a relative decline +compared with that of protectionist foreign countries like Germany +and the United States; Great Britain exported less and +less of manufactured goods, and imported more and more; the +exports to foreign countries had decreased, and it was only the +increased exports to the colonies that maintained the British +position. This was the outcome of the working of a one-sided +free-trade system. Now was the time, and it might soon be lost, +for consolidating British trade relations with the colonies. +If the mother country and her daughter states did not draw +closer, they would inevitably drift apart. A further increase of +£26,000,000 a year in the trade with the colonies might be +obtained by a preferential tariff, and this meant additional +employment at home for 166,000 workmen, or subsistence for a +population of a far larger number. His positive proposals were: +(1) no tax on raw materials; (2) a small tax on food other than +colonial, <i>e.g.</i> two shillings a quarter on foreign corn but excepting +maize, and 5% on meat and dairy produce excluding bacon; (3) +a 10% general tariff on imported manufactured goods. To meet +any increased cost of living, he proposed to reduce the duties on +tea, sugar and other articles of general consumption, and he +estimated that his scheme would in no case increase a working-man’s +expenditure, and in most cases would reduce it. “The +colonies,” he said, “are prepared to meet us; in return for a very +moderate preference, they will give us a substantial advantage +in their markets.” This speech, delivered with characteristic +vigour and Imperialistic enthusiasm, was the type of others +which followed in quick succession during the year. At Greenock +next day he emphasized the necessity of retaliating against +foreign tariffs—“I never like being hit without striking back.” +The practice of “dumping” must be fairly met; if foreign goods +were brought into England to undersell British manufacturers, +either the Fair Wages Clause and the Factory Acts and the Compensation +Act would have to be repealed, or the workmen would +have to take lower wages, or lose their work. “Agriculture has +been practically destroyed, sugar has gone, silk has gone, iron is +threatened, wool is threatened, cotton will go! How long are +you going to stand it?” On October 20th he spoke at Newcastle, +on the 21st at Tynemouth, on the 27th at Liverpool, +insisting that free-trade had never been a working-class measure +and that it could not be reconciled with trade-unionism; on +November 4th at Birmingham, on the 20th at Cardiff, on the +21st at Newport, and on December 16th at Leeds. In all these +speeches he managed to point his argument by application to +local industries. In the Leeds speech he announced that, with a +view to drawing up a scientific model tariff, a non-political +commission of representative experts would be appointed under +the auspices of the Tariff Reform League to take evidence from +every trade; it included many heads of businesses, and Mr Charles +Booth, the eminent student of social and industrial London, with +Sir Robert Herbert as chairman, and Professor W.A.S. Hewins +as secretary. The name of “Tariff Commission,” given to this +voluntary and unofficial body, was a good deal criticized, but +though flouted by the political free-traders it set to work in +earnest, and accumulated a mass of evidence as to the real facts +of trade, which promised to be invaluable to economic inquirers. +On January 18th, 1904, Mr Chamberlain ended his series of +speeches by a great meeting at the Guildhall, in the city of +London, the key-note being his exhortation to his audience to +“think imperially.”</p> + +<p>All this activity on Mr Chamberlain’s part represented a great +physical and intellectual feat on the part of a man now sixty-seven +years of age; but his bodily vigour and comparatively +youthful appearance were essential features of his personality. +Nothing like this campaign had been known in the political world +since Mr Gladstone’s Midlothian days; and it produced a great +public impression, stirring up both supporters and opponents. +Free-trade unionists like Lord Goschen and Lord Hugh Cecil, and +the Liberal leaders—for whom Mr Asquith became the principal +spokesman, though Lord Rosebery’s criticisms also had considerable +weight—found new matter in Mr Chamberlain’s speeches +for their contention that any radical change in the traditional +English fiscal policy, established now for sixty years, would only +result in evil. The broad fact remained that while Mr Chamberlain’s +activity gathered round him the bulk of the Unionist +members and an enthusiastic band of economic sympathizers, +the country as a whole remained apathetic and unconvinced. +One reason was the intellectual difficulty of the subject and the +double-faced character of all arguments from statistics, which +were either incomprehensible or disputable; another was the +fact that substantially this was a political movement, and that +tariff reform was, after all, only one in a complexity of political +issues, most of which during this period were being interpreted +by the electorate in a sense hostile to the Unionist party. Mr +Chamberlain had relied on his personal influence, which from +1895 to 1902 had been supreme; but his own resignation, and the +course of events, had since 1903 made his personality less authoritative, +and new interests—such as the opposition to the Education +Act, to the heavy taxation, and to Chinese labour in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span> +Transvaal, and indignation over the revelations concerned with +the war—were monopolizing attention, to the weakening of his +hold on the public. The revival in trade, and the production of +new statistics which appeared to stultify Mr Chamberlain’s +prophecies of progressive decline, enabled the free-trade +champions to reassure their audiences as to the very foundation +of his case, and to represent the whole tariff reform movement as +no less unnecessary than risky. Moreover, the split in the +Unionist party brought the united Liberal party in full force into +the field, and at last the country began to think that the danger +of Irish Home Rule was practically over, and that a Liberal +majority might be returned to power in safety, with the prospect +of providing an alternative government which would assure +commercial repose (Lord Rosebery’s phrase), relief from extravagant +expenditure, and—as the working-classes were led to +believe—a certain amount of labour legislation which the Tory +leaders would never propose. On the other hand the colonies +took a great interest in the new movement, though without +putting any such pressure on the home public as Mr Chamberlain +might have expected. At the opening of 1904 he was officially +invited by Mr Deakin, the prime minister of the Commonwealth, +to pay a visit to Australia, in order to expound his scheme, +being promised an enthusiastic welcome “as the harbinger of +commercial reciprocity between the mother country and her +colonies.” Mr Chamberlain, however, declined; his work at +home was too pressing.</p> + +<p>From the end of Mr Chamberlain’s series of expository speeches +on his scheme of tariff reform, onwards during the various fiscal +debates and discussions of 1904, it is unnecessary to follow +events in detail. The scheme was now before the country, and +Mr Chamberlain was anxious to take its verdict. Time was not +on his side at his age, and if he had to be beaten at one election +he was anxious to get rid of the other issues which would encumber +the popular vote, and to press on to a second when he would +be on the attacking side. But he would make no move which +would embarrass Mr Balfour in parliament, and adhered to his +promise of loyalty. The result was a long drawn out interval, +while the government held on and its supporters became more +embittered over their differences. Mr Chamberlain needed a rest, +and was away in Italy and Egypt from March to May, and again +in November. He made three important speeches at Welbeck +(August 4), at Luton (October 5), and at Limehouse (December +15), but he had nothing substantial to add to his case, and +the party situation continued in all its embarrassments. Mr +Balfour’s introduction of his promise (at Edinburgh on October 3) +to convene an imperial conference after the general election if the +Unionists came back to power, in order to discuss a scheme for +fiscal union, represented an academic rather than a practical +advance, since the by-elections showed that the Unionists were +certain to be defeated. The one important new development +concerned the Liberal-Unionist organization. In January some +correspondence was published between Mr Chamberlain and +the duke of Devonshire, dating from the previous October, as +to difficulties arising from the central Liberal-Unionist organization +subsidizing local associations which had adopted the programme +of tariff reform. The duke objected to this departure +from neutrality, and suggested that it was becoming “impossible +with any advantage to maintain under existing circumstances +the existence of the Liberal-Unionist organization.” Mr Chamberlain +retorted that this was a matter for a general meeting of +delegates to decide; if the duke was outvoted he might resign +his presidency; for his own part he was prepared to allow the +local associations to be subsidized impartially, so long as they +supported the government, but he was not prepared for the +violent disruption, which the duke apparently contemplated, +of an association so necessary to the success of the Unionist +cause. The duke was in a difficult position as president of the +organization, since most of the local associations supported +Mr Chamberlain, and he replied that the differences between +them were vital, and he would not be responsible for dividing +the association into sections, but would rather resign. Mr +Chamberlain then called a general meeting on his own responsibility +in February, when a new constitution was proposed; +and in May, at the annual meeting of the Liberal-Unionist council, +the free-food Unionists, being in a minority, retired, and the +association was reorganized under Mr Chamberlain’s auspices, +Lord Lansdowne and Lord Selborne (both of them cabinet +ministers) becoming vice-presidents. On July 14th the reconstituted +Liberal-Unionist organization held a great demonstration +in the Albert Hall, and Mr Chamberlain’s success in ousting +the duke of Devonshire and the other free-trade members of +the old Liberal-Unionist party, and imposing his own fiscal +policy upon the Liberal-Unionist caucus, was now complete.</p> + +<p>During the spring and summer of 1905 Mr Chamberlain’s +more active supporters were in favour of forcing a dissolution +by leaving the government in a minority, but he himself preferred +to leave matters to take their course, so long as the prime minister +was content to be publicly identified with the policy of eventually +fighting on tariff reform lines. Speaking at the Albert Hall in +July Mr Chamberlain pushed somewhat further than before +his “embrace” of Mr Balfour; and in the autumn, when foreign +affairs no longer dominated the attention of the government, +the crisis rapidly came to a head. In reply to Mr Balfour’s +appeal for the sinking of differences (Newcastle, November 14), +Mr Chamberlain insisted at Bristol (November 21) on the adoption +of his fiscal policy; and Mr Balfour resigned on December 4. +on the ground that he no longer retained the confidence of the +party. At the crushing Unionist defeat in the general election +which followed in January 1906, Mr Chamberlain was triumphantly +returned for West Birmingham, and all the divisions of +Birmingham returned Chamberlainite members. Amid the wreck +of the party—Mr Balfour and several of his colleagues themselves +losing their seats—he had the consolation of knowing that the +tariff reformers won the only conspicuous successes of the election. +But he had no desire to set himself up as leader in Mr Balfour’s +place, and after private negotiations with the ex-prime minister, +a common platform was arranged between them, on which +Mr Balfour, for whom a seat was found in the City of London, +should continue to lead the remnant of the party. The formula +was given in a letter from Mr Balfour of February 14th (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balfour, A.J.</a></span>) which admitted the necessity of making fiscal +reform the first plank in the Unionist platform, and accepted a +general tariff on manufactured goods and a small duty on foreign +corn as “not in principle objectionable.”</p> + +<p>It may be left to future historians to attempt a considered +judgment on the English tariff reform movement, and on Mr +Chamberlain’s responsibility for the Unionist <i>débâcle</i> of 1906. +But while his enemies taunted him with having twice wrecked his +party—first the Radical party under Mr Gladstone, and secondly +the Unionist party under Mr Balfour—no well-informed critic +doubted his sincerity, or failed to recognize that in leaving the +cabinet and embarking on his fiscal campaign he showed real +devotion to an idea. In championing the cause of imperial +fiscal union, by means involving the abandonment of a system +of taxation which had become part of British orthodoxy, he +followed the guidance of a profound conviction that the stability +of the empire and the very existence of the hegemony of the +United Kingdom depended upon the conversion of public +opinion to a revision of the current economic doctrine. There +were doubtless miscalculations at the outset as to the resistance +to be encountered. But from the purely party point of view +he was entitled to say that he followed the path of loyalty to +Mr Balfour which he had marked out from the moment of his +resignation, and that he persistently, refused to be put in competition +with him as leader. Even in the absence of the new issue, +defeat was foredoomed for Mr Balfour’s administration by the +ordinary course of political events; and it might fairly be claimed +that “Chinese slavery,” “passive resistance,” and labour +irritation at the Taff Vale judgment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trade Unions</a></span>) were +mainly responsible for the Unionist collapse. Time alone would +show whether the system of free imports could be permanently +reconciled with British imperial policy or commercial prosperity. +It remained the fact that Mr Chamberlain staked an already +established position on his refusal to compromise with his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span> +convictions on a question which appeared to him of vital and +immediate importance.</p> + +<p>Mr Chamberlain’s own activity in the political field was cut +short in the middle of the session of 1906 by a serious attack of +gout, which was at first minimized by his friends, but which, +it was gradually discovered, had completely crippled him. +Though encouragement was given to the idea that he might +return to the House of Commons, where he continued to retain +his seat for Birmingham, he was quite incapacitated for any +public work; and this invalid condition was protracted throughout +1907, 1908 and 1909. But he remained in the background as +the inspirer and adviser of the Tariff Reformers. The cause +made continuous headway at by-elections, and though the general +election of January 1910 gave the Unionists no majority it saw +them returned in much increased strength, which was chiefly +due to the support obtained for tariff reform principles. Mr +Chamberlain himself was returned unopposed for West Birmingham +again.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1828-  ), American +soldier and educationalist, was born at Brewer, Maine, +on the 8th of September 1828. He graduated at Bowdoin College +in 1852, and at the Bangor Theological Seminary in 1855, and +was successively tutor in logic and natural theology (1855-1856), +professor of rhetoric and oratory (1856-1861), and professor +of modern languages (1861-1865), at Bowdoin. In 1862 he +entered the Federal army as lieutenant-colonel of the 20th +Maine Infantry. His military career was marked by great +personal bravery and energy and intrepidity as a leader. He +was six times wounded, and participated in all the important +battles in the East from Antietam onwards, including Fredericksburg, +Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, the Wilderness, Cold Harbor, +Petersburg and Five Forks. For his conduct at Petersburg, +where he was severely wounded, he was promoted to be brigadier-general +of volunteers. He was breveted major-general of +volunteers on the 29th of March 1865, and led the Federal +advance in the final operations against General R.E. Lee. +In 1893 he received a Congressional medal of honour “for daring +heroism and great tenacity in holding his position on the Little +Round Top and carrying the advance position on the Great +Round Top at the Battle of Gettysburg.” After the war he was +again professor of rhetoric and oratory at Bowdoin in 1865-1866, +and in 1867-1870 was governor of Maine, having been elected +as a Republican. From 1871 to 1883 he was president of Bowdoin +College, and during 1874-1879 was professor of mental and moral +philosophy also. Appointed in 1880 by Alonzo Garcelon, the +retiring governor, to protect the property and institutions of the +state until a new governor should be duly qualified, and acting +as major-general of the state militia, Chamberlain did much to +avert possible civil war, at a time of great political excitement +and bitter partisan feeling. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maine</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) In 1883-1885 +he was a lecturer on political science and public law at +Bowdoin, and in 1900 became surveyor of customs for the district +of Portland, Maine. He published <i>Maine, Her Place in History</i> +(1877), and edited <i>Universities and Their Sons</i> (6 vols., 1898).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1820-1902), +British field marshal, was the third son of Sir Henry Chamberlain, +first baronet, consul-general and chargé d’affaires in Brazil, and +was born at Rio on the 10th of January 1820. He entered the +Indian army in 1837, served as a subaltern in the first Afghan +War (1839-42), and was wounded on six occasions. He was +attached to the Governor-General’s Bodyguard at the battle +of Maharajpur, in the Gwalior campaign of 1843, was appointed +military secretary to the governor of Bombay in 1846, and +honorary aide-de-camp to the governor-general of India in 1847. +He served on the staff throughout the Punjab campaign of 1848-49, +and was given a brevet majority. In 1850 he was appointed +commandant of the Punjab military police, and in 1852 military +secretary to the Punjab government. Promoted lieut.-colonel in +1854, he was given the command of the Punjab Frontier Force +with rank of brigadier-general, and commanded in several +expeditions against the frontier tribes. In the Indian Mutiny +he succeeded Colonel Chester as adjutant-general of the Indian +army, and distinguished himself at the siege of Delhi, where he +was severely wounded. He was rewarded with a brevet-colonelcy, +the appointment of A.D.C. to the queen, and the C.B. +He was reappointed to the command of the Punjab Frontier +Force in 1858, and commanded in the Umbeyla campaign (1863), +in which he was severely wounded. He was now made major-general +for distinguished service and a K.C.B. He was made +K.C.S.I. in 1866, lieut.-general in 1872, G.C.S.I. in 1873, G.C.B +in 1875, and general in 1877. From 1876 to 1881 he was commander-in-chief +of the Madras army, and in 1878 was sent on +a mission to the amir of Afghanistan, whose refusal to allow +him to enter the country precipitated the second Afghan War. +He was for some time acting military member of the council of +the governor-general of India. He retired in 1886, was made +a field marshal in 1900, and died on the 18th of February 1902.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An excellent biography by G.W. Forrest appeared in 1909.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAIN<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>chamberlain, chamberlenc</i>, Mod. Fr. +<i>chambellan</i>, from O.H. Ger. <i>Chamarling, Chamarlinc</i>, whence +also the Med. Lat. <i>cambellanus, camerlingus, camerlengus</i>; Ital. +<i>camerlingo</i>; Span, <i>camerlengo</i>, compounded of O.H. Ger. +<i>Chamara, Kamara</i> [Lat. <i>camera</i>, “chamber”], and the Ger. +suffix <i>-ling</i>), etymologically, and also to a large extent historically, +an officer charged with the superintendence of domestic affairs. +Such were the chamberlains of monasteries or cathedrals, who +had charge of the finances, gave notice of chapter meetings, and +provided the materials necessary for the various services. In +these cases, as in that of the apostolic chamberlain of the Roman +see, the title was borrowed from the usage of the courts of the +western secular princes. A royal chamberlain is now a court +official whose function is in general to attend on the person of +the sovereign and to regulate the etiquette of the palace. He is +the representative of the medieval <i>camberlanus, cambellanus</i>, +or <i>cubicularius</i>, whose office was modelled on that of the <i>praefectus +sacri cubiculi</i> or <i>cubicularius</i> of the Roman emperors. But +at the outset there was another class of chamberlains, the +<i>camerarii</i>, <i>i.e.</i> high officials charged with the administration of +the royal treasury (<i>camera</i>). The <i>camerarius</i> of the Carolingian +emperors was the equivalent of the <i>hordere</i> or <i>thesaurarius</i> +(treasurer) of the Anglo-Saxon kings; he develops into the +<i>Erzkämmerer</i> (<i>archicamerarius</i>) of the Holy Roman Empire, +an office held by the margraves of Brandenburg, and the <i>grand +chambrier</i> of France, who held his <i>chamberie</i> as a fief. Similarly +in England after the Norman conquest the <i>hordere</i> becomes the +chamberlain. This office was of great importance. Before the +Conquest he had been, with the marshal, the principal officer of +the king’s court; and under the Norman sovereigns his functions +were manifold. As he had charge of the administration of the +royal household, his office was of financial importance, for a +portion of the royal revenue was paid, not into the exchequer, but +in <i>camera regis</i>. In course of time the office became hereditary +and titular, but the complexities of the duties necessitated a +division of the work, and the office was split up into three: the +hereditary and sinecure office of <i>magister camerarius</i> or lord +great chamberlain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Great Chamberlain</a></span>), the more +important domestic office of <i>camerarius regis</i>, king’s chamberlain +or lord chamberlain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Chamberlain</a></span>), and the chamberlains +(<i>camerarii</i>) of the exchequer, two in number, who were +originally representatives of the chamberlain at the exchequer, +and afterwards in conjunction with the treasurer presided over +that department. In 1826 the last of these officials died, when +by an act passed forty-four years earlier they disappeared.</p> + +<p>In France the office of <i>grand chambrier</i> was early overshadowed +by the <i>chamberlains (cubicularii, cambellani</i>, but sometimes +also <i>camerarii</i>), officials in close personal attendance on the king, +men at first of low rank, but of great and ever-increasing influence. +As the office of <i>grand chambrier</i>, held by great feudal +nobles seldom at court, became more and more honorary, the +chamberlains grew in power, in numbers and in rank, until, +in the 13th century, one of them emerges as a great officer +of state, the <i>chambellan de France</i> or <i>grand chambellan</i> (also +<i>magister cambellanorum, mestre chamberlenc</i>), who at times shares +with the <i>grand chambrier</i> the revenues derived from certain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span> +trades in the city of Paris (see <i>Regestum Memoralium Camerae +computorum</i>, quoted in du Cange, s. <i>Cameranus</i>). The honorary +office of <i>grand chambrier</i> survived till the time of Henry II., +who was himself the last to hold it before his accession; that of +<i>grand chambellan</i>, which in its turn soon became purely honorary, +survived till the Revolution. Among the prerogatives of the +<i>grand chambellan</i> which survived to the last not the least +valued was the right to hand the king his shirt at the ceremonial +levée. The offices of <i>grand chambellan, premier chambellan</i>, and +<i>chambellan</i> were revived by Napoleon, continued under the +Restoration, abolished by Louis Philippe, and again restored +by Napoleon III.</p> + +<p>In the papal Curia the apostolic chamberlain (Lat. <i>camerarius</i>, +Ital. <i>camerlingo</i>) occupies a very important position. He is at +the head of the treasury (<i>camera thesauraria</i>) and, in the days of +the temporal power, not only administered the papal finances +but possessed an extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction. +During a vacancy of the Holy See he is at the head of the administration +of the Roman Church. The office dates from the +11th century, when it superseded that of archdeacon of the +Roman Church, and the close personal relations of the <i>camerarius</i> +with the pope, together with the fact that he is the official +guardian of the ceremonial vestments and treasures, point to +the fact that he is also the representative of the former <i>vestararius</i> +and <i>vice-dominus</i>, whose functions were merged in the new +office, of which the idea and title were probably borrowed from +the usage of the secular courts of the West (Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, +i. 405, &c.). There are also attached to the papal household +(<i>famiglia pontificia</i>) a large number of chamberlains whose +functions are more or less ornamental. These are divided into +several categories: privy chamberlains (<i>camerieri segreti</i>), +chamberlains, assistant and honorary chamberlains. These +are gentlemen of rank and belong to the highest class of the +household (<i>famiglia nobile</i>).</p> + +<p>In England the modern representatives of the <i>cubicularii</i> are +the gentlemen and grooms of the bed-chamber, in Germany the +<i>Kammerherr</i> (<i>Kämmerer</i>, from <i>camerarius</i>, in Bavaria and Austria) +and <i>Kammerjunker</i>. The insignia of their office is a gold key +attached to their coats behind.</p> + +<p>Many corporations appoint a chamberlain. The most +important in England is the chamberlain of the corporation +of the city of London, who is treasurer of the corporation, +admits persons entitled to the freedom of the city, and, in +the chamberlain’s court, of which he and the vice-chamberlain +are judges, exercises concurrent jurisdiction with the police +court in determining disputes between masters and apprentices. +Formerly nominated by the crown, since 1688 he has been elected +annually by the liverymen. He has a salary of £2000 a year. +Similarly in Germany the administration of the finances of a +city is called the <i>Kämmerei</i> and the official in charge of it the +<i>Kämmerer</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">State, Great Officers of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Household, Royal</a></span>; Du +Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s. “Camerarius” and “Cambellanus”; Père +Anselme (Pierre de Guibours), <i>Hist. généalogique et chronologique de +la maison royale de France, &c</i>. (9 vols., 3rd ed., 1726-1733); A. +Luchaire, <i>Manuel des institutions françaises</i> (Paris, 1892); W.R. +Anson, <i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i> (Oxford, 1896); Hinschius, +<i>Kirchenrecht</i>, i. 405 (Berlin, 1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1619-1679), English poet, +was born in 1619. Nothing is known of his history except that +he practised as a physician at Shaftesbury in Dorsetshire, and +fought on the Royalist side at the second battle of Newbury. +He died on the 11th of July 1679. His works are: <i>Pharonnida</i> +(1659), a verse romance in five books; <i>Love’s Victory</i> (1658), a +tragi-comedy, acted under another title in 1678 at the Theatre +Royal; <i>England’s Jubilee</i> (1660), a poem in honour of the +Restoration. A prose version of <i>Pharonnida</i>, entitled <i>Eromena</i>, +or the <i>Noble Stranger</i>, appeared in 1683. Southey speaks of him +as “a poet to whom I am indebted for many hours of delight.” +<i>Pharonnida</i> was reprinted by S.W. Singer in 1820, and again +in 1905 by Prof. G. Saintsbury in <i>Minor Poets of the Caroline +Period</i> (vol. i.). The poem is loose in construction, but contains +some passages of great beauty.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (d. 1740), English encyclopaedist, +was born at Kendal, Westmorland, in the latter part of the 17th +century. He was apprenticed to a globe-maker in London, but +having conceived the plan of his Cyclopaedia, or <i>Universal +Dictionary of Arts and Sciences</i>, he devoted himself entirely to it. +The first edition appeared by subscription in 1728, in two vols. +fol., and dedicated to the king (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Encyclopaedia</a></span>). The +<i>Encyclopédie</i> of Diderot and d’Alembert owed its inception to a +French translation of Chambers’s work. In addition to the <i>Cyclopaedia</i>, +Chambers wrote for the <i>Literary Magazine</i> (1735-1736), +and translated the <i>History and Memoirs of the Royal Academy of +Sciences at Paris</i> (1742), and the <i>Practice of Perspective</i> from the +French of Jean Dubreuil. He died on the 15th of May 1740.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS, GEORGE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1803-1840), English marine painter, +born at Whitby, Yorkshire, was the son of a seaman, and for +several years he pursued his father’s calling. While at sea he +was in the habit of sketching the different classes of vessels. His +master, observing this, gratified him by cancelling his indentures, +and thus set him free to follow his natural bent. Chambers then +apprenticed himself to an old woman who kept a painter’s shop +in Whitby, and began by house-painting. He also took lessons +of a drawing-master, and found a ready sale for small and cheap +pictures of shipping. Coming afterwards to London, he was +employed by Thomas Horner to assist in painting the great +panorama of London for the Colosseum (the exhibition building +in Regent’s Park, demolished towards 1860), and he next became +scene-painter at the Pavilion theatre. In 1834 he was elected +an associate, and in 1836 a full member, of the Water-colour +Society. His best works represent naval battles. Two of these—the +“Bombardment of Algiers in 1816,” and the “Capture of +Porto Bello”—are in Greenwich hospital. Not long before his +death he was introduced to William IV., and his professional +prospects brightened; but his constitution, always frail, gave +way, and he died on the 28th of October 1840.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A <i>Life</i>, by John Watkins, was published in 1841.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS, ROBERT<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1802-1871), Scottish author and +publisher, was born at Peebles on the 10th of July 1802. He +was sent to the local schools, and gave evidence of unusual +literary taste and ability. A small circulating library in the +town, and a copy of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> which his +father had purchased, furnished him with stores of reading of +which he eagerly availed himself. Long afterwards he wrote +of his early years—“Books, not playthings, filled my hands in +childhood. At twelve I was deep, not only in poetry and fiction, +but in encyclopaedias.” Robert had been destined for the +church, but this design had to be abandoned for lack of means. +The family removed to Edinburgh in 1813, and in 1818 Robert +began business as a bookstall-keeper in Leith Walk. He was +then only sixteen, and his whole stock consisted of a few old +books belonging to his father. In 1819 his elder brother William +had begun a similar business, and the two eventually united as +partners in the publishing firm of W. & R. Chambers. Robert +Chambers showed an enthusiastic interest in the history and +antiquities of Edinburgh, and found a most congenial task in +his <i>Traditions of Edinburgh</i> (2 vols., 1824), which secured for him +the approval and the personal friendship of Sir Walter Scott. +A <i>History of the Rebellions in Scotland from 1638 to 1745</i> (5 +vols., 1828) and numerous other works followed.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of 1832 William Chambers started a weekly +publication under the title of <i>Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal</i> +(known since 1854 as <i>Chambers’s Journal of Literature, Science +and Arts</i>), which speedily attained a large circulation. Robert +was at first only a contributor. After fourteen numbers had +appeared, however, he was associated with his brother as joint-editor, +and his collaboration contributed more perhaps than +anything else to the success of the <i>Journal</i>.</p> + +<p>Among the other numerous works of which Robert was in +whole or in part the author, the <i>Biographical Dictionary of +Eminent Scotsmen</i> (4 vols., Glasgow, 1832-1835), the <i>Cyclopaedia +of English Literature</i> (1844), the <i>Life and Works of Robert Burns</i> +(4 vols., 1851), <i>Ancient Sea Margins</i> (1848), the <i>Domestic Annals +of Scotland</i> (3 vols., 1859-1861) and the <i>Book of Days</i> (2 vols., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span> +1862-1864) were the most important. <i>Chambers’s Encyclopaedia</i> +(1859-1868), with Dr Andrew Findlater as editor, was carried +out under the superintendence of the brothers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Encyclopaedia</a></span>). +The <i>Cyclopaedia of English Literature</i><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> contains a +series of admirably selected extracts from the best authors of +every period, “set in a biographical and critical history of the +literature itself.” For the <i>Life of Burns</i> he made diligent and +laborious original investigations, gathering many hitherto +unrecorded facts from the poet’s sister, Mrs Begg, to whose +benefit the whole profits of the work were generously devoted. +Robert Chambers was a scientific geologist, and availed himself +of tours in Scandinavia and Canada for the purpose of geological +exploration. The results of his travels were embodied in +<i>Tracings of the North of Europe</i> (1851) and <i>Tracings in Iceland +and the Faroe Islands</i> (1856). His knowledge of geology was +one of the principal grounds on which the authorship of the +<i>Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</i> (2 vols., 1843-1846) +was eventually assigned to him. The book was published +anonymously. Robert Chambers was aware of the storm that +would probably be raised at the time by a rational treatment +of the subject, and did not wish to involve his firm in the discredit +that a charge of heterodoxy would bring with it. The arrangements +for publication were made through Alexander Ireland +of Manchester, and the secret was so well kept that such different +names as those of Prince Albert and Sir Charles Lyell were +coupled with the book. Ireland in 1884 issued a 12th edition, +with a preface giving an account of its authorship, which there +was no longer any reason for concealing. The <i>Book of Days</i> was +Chambers’s last publication, and perhaps his most elaborate. +It was a miscellany of popular antiquities in connexion with the +calendar, and it is supposed that his excessive labour in connexion +with this book hastened his death, which took place at St Andrews +on the 17th of March 1871. Two years before, the university +of St Andrews had conferred upon him the degree of doctor of +laws, and he was elected a member of the Athenaeum club in +London. It is his highest claim to distinction that he did so +much to give a healthy tone to the cheap popular literature +which has become so important a factor in modern civilization.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">William Chambers</span> (1800-1883) was born at +Peebles, on the 16th of April 1800. He was the financial genius +of the publishing firm. He laid the city of Edinburgh under the +greatest obligations by his public spirit and munificence. As +lord provost he procured the passing in 1867 of the Improvement +Act, which led to the reconstruction of a great part of the Old +Town, and at a later date he proposed and carried out, largely +at his own expense, the restoration of the noble and then +neglected church of St Giles, making it in a sense “the Westminster +Abbey of Scotland.” This service was fitly acknowledged +by the offer of a baronetcy, which he did not live to receive, +dying on the 20th of May 1883, three days before the reopening +of the church. He was the author of a history of St Giles’s, of +a memoir of himself and his brother (1872), and of many other +useful publications. On his death in 1883 Robert Chambers +(1832-1888), son of Robert Chambers, succeeded as head of the +firm, and edited the <i>Journal</i> until his death. His eldest son, +Charles Edward Stuart Chambers (b. 1859), became editor of +the <i>Journal</i> and chairman of W. & R. Chambers, Limited.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>Memoir of Robert Chambers, with Autobiographic Reminiscences +of William Chambers</i> (1872), the 13th ed. of which (1884) has +a supplementary chapter; Alexander Ireland’s preface to the 12th +ed. (1884) of the <i>Vestiges of Creation</i>; the <i>Story of a Long and Busy +Life</i> (1884), by William Chambers; and some discriminating +appreciation in James Payn’s <i>Some Literary Recollections</i> (1884), +chapter v. The <i>Select Writings of Robert Chambers</i> were published +in 7 vols. in 1847, and a complete list of the works of the brothers +is added to <i>A Catalogue of Some of the Rarer Books ... in the Collection +of C.E.S. Chambers</i> (Edinburgh, 1891).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A new and enlarged edition of this work, edited by David +Patrick, LL. D., appeared in 1903.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1726-1796), British architect, +was the grandson of a rich merchant who had financed the +armies of Charles XII., but was paid in base money, and whose +son remained in Sweden many years endeavouring to obtain +redress. In 1728 the latter returned to England and settled at +Ripon, where William, who was born in Stockholm, was educated. +At the age of sixteen he became supercargo to the Swedish East +India Company, and voyaging to Canton made drawings of Chinese +architecture, furniture and costume which served as basis for +his <i>Designs for Chinese Buildings</i>, &c. (1757). Two years later +he quitted the sea to study architecture seriously, and spent a +long time in Italy, devoting special attention to the buildings +of classical and Renaissance architects. He also studied under +Clérisseau in Paris, with whom and with the sculptor Wilton he +lived at Rome. In 1755 he returned to England with Cipriani +and Wilton, and married the beautiful daughter of the latter. +His first important commission was a villa for Lord Bessborough +at Roehampton, but he made his reputation by the grounds +he laid out and the buildings he erected at Kew between +1757 and 1762 for Augusta, princess dowager of Wales. Some +of them have since been demolished, but the most important, +the pagoda, still survives. The publication in a handsome +volume of the designs for these buildings assured his position in +the profession. He was employed to teach architectural drawing +to the prince of Wales (George III.), and gained further professional +distinction in 1759 by the publication of his <i>Treatise +of Civil Architecture</i>. He began to exhibit with the Society of +Artists in 1761 at Spring Gardens, and was one of the original +members and treasurer of the Royal Academy when it was +established in 1768. In 1772 he published his <i>Dissertation on +Oriental Gardening</i>, which attempted to prove the inferiority +of European to Chinese landscape gardening. As a furniture +designer and internal decorator he is credited with the creation +of that “Chinese Style” which was for a time furiously popular, +although Thomas Chippendale (<i>q.v.</i>) had published designs in +that manner at a somewhat earlier date. It is not unreasonable +to count the honours as divided, since Chippendale unquestionably +adapted and altered the Chinese shapes in a manner +better to fit them for European use. To the rage for every +possible form of <i>chinoiserie</i>, for which he is chiefly responsible, +Sir William Chambers owed much of his success in life. He +became architect to the king and queen, comptroller of his +majesty’s works, and afterwards surveyor-general. In 1775 he +was appointed architect of Somerset House, his greatest monument, +at a salary of £2000 a year. He also designed town +mansions for Earl Gower at Whitehall and Lord Melbourne in +Piccadilly, built Charlemont House, Dublin, and Duddingston +House near Edinburgh. He designed the market house at +Worcester, was employed by the earl of Pembroke at Wilton, by +the duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, and by the duke of Bedford +in Bloomsbury. The state coach of George III., his constant +patron, was his work; it is now in the Victoria and Albert +Museum. Although his practice was mainly Classic, he made +Gothic additions to Milton Abbey in Dorset. Sir William Chambers +achieved considerable distinction as a designer of furniture. In +addition to his work in the Chinese style and in the contemporary +fashions, he was the author of what is probably the most +ambitious and monumental piece of furniture ever produced in +England. This was a combined bureau, dressing-case, jewel-cabinet +and organ, made for Charles IV., king of Spain, in 1793. +These combination pieces were in the taste of the time, and the +effort displays astonishing ingenuity and resource. The panels +were painted by W. Hamilton, R.A., with representations of the +four seasons, night and morning, fire and water, Juno and Ceres, +together with representations of the Golden Fleece and the +Immaculate Conception. The organ, in the domed top, is in a +case decorated with ormolu and Wedgwood. This remarkable +achievement, which possesses much sober elegance, formed part +of the loan collection of English furniture at the Franco-British +Exhibition in London in 1908. Sir William Chambers +numbered among his friends Dr Johnson, Goldsmith, Sir Joshua +Reynolds, David Garrick and Dr Burney.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (the Fr. <i>chambre</i>, from Lat. <i>camera</i>, a room), a +term used generally of rooms or apartments, but especially in +law of the offices of a lawyer or the semi-private rooms in which +judges or judicial officers deal with questions of practice and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span> +other matters not of sufficient importance to be dealt with in +court. It is a matter of doubt at what period the practice of +exercising jurisdiction “in chambers” commenced in England; +there is no statutory sanction before 1821, though the custom +can be traced back to the 17th century. An act of 1821 provided +for sittings in chambers between terms, and an act of 1822 +empowered the sovereign to call upon the judges by warrant to +sit in chambers on as many days in vacation as should seem fit, +while the Law Terms Act 1830 defined the jurisdiction to be +exercised at chambers. The Judges’ Chambers Act 1867 was +the first act, however, to lay down proper regulations for chamber +work, and the Judicature Act 1873 preserved that jurisdiction +and gave power to increase it as might be directed or authorized +by rules of court to be thereafter made. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancery</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">King’s Bench, Court of</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERSBURG,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a borough and the county-seat of Franklin +county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of Conoco-cheague +Creek and Falling Spring, 52 m. S.W. of Harrisburg. +Pop. (1890) 7863; (1900) 8864, of whom 769 were negroes; +(1910) 11,800. It is served by the Cumberland Valley and +the Western Maryland railways, and is connected by electric +lines with Greencastle, Waynesboro, Caledonia, a beautiful park +in the Pennsylvania timber reservation, on South Mountain, +12 m. east of Chambersburg, and Pen Mar, a summer resort, +on South Mountain, near the boundary line between Pennsylvania +and Maryland. Chambersburg is built on an elevated +site in the broad and fertile Cumberland Valley, and commands +a fine view of the distant hills and dales. The borough is the +seat of Chambersburg Academy, a preparatory school; Penn +Hall, a school for girls; and Wilson College, a Presbyterian +institution for women, opened in 1870. The Wilson College +campus, the former estate of Col. A.K. McClure (1828-1909), +a well-known journalist, was laid out by Donald G. Mitchell +(“Ik Marvel”), who was an enthusiastic landscape gardener. +The shops of the Cumberland Valley railway are at Chambersburg, +and among the borough’s manufactures are milling machinery, +boilers, engines, hydraulic presses, steam-hammers, engineering +and bridge supplies, hosiery, shoes, gloves, furniture, flour, +paper, leather, carriages and agricultural implements; the +total value of its factory product in 1905 was $1,085,185. The +waterworks and the electric-lighting plant are owned and +operated by the municipality. A settlement was founded here +in 1730 by Benjamin Chambers, in whose honour the borough +was named, and who, immediately after General Edward +Braddock’s defeat in 1755, built a stone fort and surrounded it +with a stockade for the protection of the community from the +Indians. Chambersburg was laid out in 1764 and was incorporated +as a borough in 1803. On the 30th of July 1864 Chambersburg +was occupied by a Confederate cavalry force under +General McCausland (acting under General Jubal A. Early’s +orders), who, upon the refusal of the citizens to pay $100,000 +for immunity, burned a large part of the borough.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBÉRY,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city of France, capital of the department of +Savoie, pleasantly situated in a fertile district, between two +hills, on the rivers Leysse and Albane, 79 m. by rail S.S.W. +of Geneva. Pop. (1906) town, 16,852; commune, 23,027. The +town is irregularly built, and has only two good streets—the +Place Saint-Léger and the Rue de Boigne, the latter being named +after General Benoît Boigne (1741-1830), who left a fortune +of 3,400,000 francs (accumulated in India) to the town. The +principal buildings are the cathedral, dating from the 14th and +15th centuries; the Hôtel-Dieu, founded in 1647; the castle, +a modern building serving as the prefecture, and preserving +only a great square tower belonging to the original structure; +the palace of justice, the theatre, the barracks, and the covered +market, which dates from 1863. Several of the squares are +adorned with fountains; the old ramparts of the city, destroyed +during the French Revolution, have been converted into public +walks; and various promenades and gardens have been constructed. +Chambéry is the seat of an archbishop (raised to that +dignity from a bishopric in 1817) and of a superior tribunal. +It has also a Jesuit college, a royal academical society, a society +of agriculture and commerce, a public library with 60,000 volumes, +a museum (antiquities and paintings), a botanic garden, and +many charitable institutions. It manufactures silk-gauze, lace, +leather and hats, and has a considerable trade in liqueurs, wine, +lead, copper and other articles. Overlooking the town on the +north is the Rocher de Lémenc, which derives its name from the +<i>Lemincum</i> of the Romans; and in the vicinity is Les Charmettes, +for some time (1736-1740) the residence of Rousseau.</p> + +<p>The origin of Chambéry is unknown, but its lords are mentioned +for the first time in 1029. In 1232 it was sold to the count of +Savoy, Thomas I., who bestowed several important privileges on +the inhabitants. As capital of the duchy of Savoy, it has passed +through numerous political vicissitudes. Between 1536 and 1713 +it was several times occupied by the French; in 1742 it was +captured by a Franco-Spanish army; and in 1792 it was occupied +by the Republican forces, and became the capital of the department +of Mont Blanc. Restored to the house of Savoy by the +treaties of Vienna and Paris, it was again surrendered to France +in 1860. Among the famous men whom it has given to France, +the most important are Vaugelas (1585-1650), Saint-Réal (1639-1692), +and the brothers Joseph (1754-1821) and Xavier (1763-1852) +de Maistre.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE +DIEUDONNÉ<a name="ar117a" id="ar117a"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1820-1883), the “King Henry V.” of the +French legitimists, was born in Paris on the 29th of September +1820. His father was the duc de Berry, the elder son of the comte +d’Artois (afterwards Charles X.); his mother was the princess +Caroline Ferdinande Louise of Naples. Born seven months after +the assassination of his father, he was hailed as the “enfant du +miracle,” and was made the subject of one of Lamartine’s most +famous poems. He was created duc de Bordeaux, and in 1821, +as the result of a subscription organized by the government, +received the château of Chambord. He was educated by tutors +inspired by detestation of the French Revolution and its principles, +and from the duc de Damas in particular imbibed those +ideas of divine right and of devotion to the Church to which +he always remained true. After the revolution of July, Charles +X. vainly endeavoured to save the Bourbon cause by abdicating +in his favour and proclaiming him king under the title of Henry V. +(August 2, 1830). The comte de Chambord accompanied his +grandfather into exile, and resided successively at Holyrood, +Prague, and Görz. In 1841, during an extensive tour through +Europe, he broke his leg—an accident that resulted in permanent +lameness. The death of his grandfather, Charles X., in 1836, +and of his uncle, the duc d’Angoulême, in 1844, left him the last +male representative of the elder branch of the Bourbon family; +and his marriage with the archduchess Maria Theresa, eldest +daughter of the duke of Modena (November 7, 1846), remained +without issue. The title to the throne thus passed to the comte +de Paris, as representative of the Orleans branch of the house of +Bourbon, and the history of the comte de Chambord’s life is +largely an account of the efforts made to unite the Royalist party +by effecting a reconciliation between the two princes. Though he +continued to hold an informal court, both on his travels and at +his castle of Frohsdorf, near Vienna, yet he allowed the revolution +of 1848 and the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851 to pass without any decisive +assertion of his claims. It was the Italian war of 1859, with its +menace to the pope’s independence, that roused him at last to +activity. He declared himself ready “to pay with his blood for +the triumph of a cause which was that of France, the Church, +and God himself.” Making common cause with the Church, the +Royalists now began an active campaign against the Empire. +On the 9th of December 1866 he addressed a manifesto to General +Saint-Priest, in which he declared the cause of the pope to be that +of society and liberty, and held out promises of retrenchment, +civil and religious liberty, “and above all honesty.” Again, on +the 4th of September 1870, after the fall of the Empire, he invited +Frenchmen to accept a government “whose basis was right and +whose principle was honesty,” and promised to drive the enemy +from French soil. These vague phrases, offered as a panacea to a +nation fighting for its life, showed conclusively his want of all +political genius; they had as little effect on the French as his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span> +protest against the bombardment of Paris had on the Germans. +Yet fortune favoured him. The elections placed the Republican +party in a minority in the National Assembly; the abrogation of +the law of exile against the royal family permitted him to return +to his castle of Chambord; and it was thence that on the 5th of +July 1871 he issued a proclamation, in which for the first time he +publicly posed as king, and declared that he would never abandon +the white standard of the Bourbons, “the flag of Henry IV., +Francis I., and Joan of Arc,” for the tricolour of the Revolution. +He again quitted France, and answered the attempts to make +him renounce his claims in favour of the comte de Paris by the +declaration (January 25, 1872) that he would never abdicate. +In the following month he held a great gathering of his adherents +at Antwerp, which was the cause of serious disturbances. A +constitutional programme, signed by some 280 members of the +National Assembly, was presented for his acceptance, but without +result. The fall of Thiers in May 1873, however, offered an opportunity +to the Royalists by which they hastened to profit. The +comte de Paris and the prince de Joinville journeyed to Frohsdorf, +and were formally reconciled with the head of the family (August +5). The Royalists were united, the premier (the duc de Broglie) +an open adherent, the president (MacMahon) a benevolent neutral. +MM. Lucien Brun and Chesnelong were sent to interview the +comte de Chambord at Salzburg, and obtain the definite assurances +that alone were wanting. They returned with the news +that he accepted the principles of the French Revolution and the +tricolour flag. But a letter to Chesnelong, dated Salzburg, 27th +of October, declared that he had been misunderstood: he would +give no guarantees; he would not inaugurate his reign by an act +of weakness, nor become “le roi légitime de la Révolution.” +“Je suis le pilote nécessaire,” he added, “le seul capable de +conduire le navire au port, parce que j’ai mission et autorité pour +cela.” This outspoken adherence to the principle of divine right +did credit to his honesty, but it cost him the crown. The duc de +Broglie carried the septennate, and the Republic steadily established +itself in popular favour. A last effort was made in the +National Assembly in June 1874 by the duc de la Rochefoucauld-Bisaccia, +who formally moved the restoration of the monarchy. +The comte de Chambord on the 2nd of July issued a fresh manifesto, +which added nothing to his former declarations. The +motion was rejected by 272 to 79, and on the 25th of February +1875 the Assembly definitely adopted the Republic as the national +form of government. From this time the comte de Chambord, +though continuing to publish letters on political affairs, made no +further effort to regain the throne. He died at Frohsdorf on the +24th of August 1883.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Manifestes et programmes politiques de M. le comte de Chambord, +1848-1873</i> (1873), and <i>Correspondance de la famille royale et +principalement de Mgr. le comte de Chambord avec le comte de Bouillé</i> +(1884). Of the enormous literature relating to him, mention may +be made of <i>Henri V et la monarchie traditionnelle</i> (1871), <i>Le Comte de +Chambord étudié dans ses voyages et sa correspondance</i> (1880), and +<i>Henri de France</i>, by H. de Pène (1885).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Sy.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBORD,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a village of central France, in the department +of Loir-et-Cher, on the left bank of the Cosson, 10 m. E. by N. +of Blois by road. The village stands in the park of Chambord, +which is enclosed by a wall 21 m. in circumference. The celebrated +château (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>: <i>Renaissance Architecture +in France</i>) forms a parallelogram flanked at the angles by +round towers and enclosing a square block of buildings, the +façade of which forms the centre of the main front. The profusion +of turrets, pinnacles, and dormer windows which decorates the +roof of this, the chief portion of the château, constitutes the main +feature of the exterior, while in the interior are a well-preserved +chapel of the 16th century and a famous double staircase, the +construction of which permits two people to ascend and descend +respectively without seeing one another. There are 440 apartments, +containing pictures of the 17th century and souvenirs +of the comte de Chambord. The château was originally a hunting-box +of the counts of Blois, the rebuilding of which was begun +by Francis I. in 1526, and completed under Henry II. It was +the residence of several succeeding monarchs, and under Louis +XIV. considerable alterations were made. In the same reign +Molière performed <i>Monsieur de Pourceaugnac</i> and <i>Le Bourgeois +gentilhomme</i> for the first time in the theatre. Stanislaus, king +of Poland, lived at Chambord, which was bestowed by his son-in-law, +Louis XV., upon Marshal Saxe. It was given by Napoleon +to Marshal Berthier, from whose widow it was purchased by +subscription in 1821, and presented to the duc de Bordeaux, +the representative of the older branch of the Bourbons, who +assumed from it the title of comte de Chambord. On his death +in 1883 it came by bequest into the possession of the family of +Parma.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMBRE ARDENTE<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (Fr. “burning chamber”), the term +for an extraordinary court of justice in France, mainly held for +the trials of heretics. The name is perhaps an allusion to the +fact that the proceedings took place in a room from which all +daylight was excluded, the only illumination being from torches, +or there may be a reference to the severity of the sentences in +<i>ardente</i>, suggesting the burning of the prisoners at the stake. +These courts were originated by the Cardinal of Lorraine, the +first of them meeting in 1535 under Francis I. The <i>Chambre +Ardente</i> co-operated with an inquisitorial tribunal also established +by Francis I., the duty of which was to discover cases of heresy +and hand them over for final judgment to the <i>Chambre Ardente</i>. +The reign of Henry II. of France was particularly infamous for +the cruelties perpetrated by this court on the Huguenots. The +marquise de Brinvilliers (<i>q.v.</i>) and her associates were tried +in the <i>Chambre Ardente</i> in 1680. The court was abolished in +1682.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N. Weiss, <i>La Chambre Ardente</i> (Paris, 1889), and F. Ravaisson, +<i>Archives de la Bastille</i> (Paris, 1866-1884, 16 vols.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:268px; height:191px" src="images/img823.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Left Forefoot of <i>Chamaeleon +o’shaughenesii</i>, outer view.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CHAMELEON,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> the common name of one of the three suborders +of Lacertilia or lizards. The chief genus is <i>Chamaeleon</i>, containing +most of the fifty to sixty species of the whole group, and with +the most extensive range, +all through Africa and +Madagascar into Arabia, +southern India and Ceylon. +The Indian species is <i>Ch. +calcaratus</i>; the dwarf +chameleon of South Africa +is <i>Ch. pumilus</i>; the giant of +the whole tribe, reaching a +total length of 2 ft., is +<i>Ch. parsoni</i> of Madagascar. +The commonest species in +the trade is <i>Ch. vulgaris</i> of North Africa, introduced into +southern Andalusia. A few queer genera, with much stunted +tail, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Rhampholeon</i>, in tropical Africa and <i>Brookesia</i> in +Madagascar are the most aberrant. The common chameleon is +the most typical. The head is raised into a pyramidal crest far +beyond the occiput, there is no outer ear, nor a drum-cavity. +The limbs are very long and slender, and the digits form stout +grasping bundles; on the hand the first three form an inner +bundle, opposed to the remaining two; on the foot the inner +bundle is formed by the first and second toe, the outer by the +other three toes. The tail is prehensile, by being rolled downwards; +it is not brittle and cannot be renewed. The eyeballs are +large, but the lids are united into one concentric fold, leaving only +the small pupil visible. The right and left eyes are incessantly +moved separately from each other and literally in every direction, +up and down, forwards and straight backwards, producing the +most terrible squinting. Chameleons alone of all reptiles can +focus their eyes upon one spot, and conformably they alone +possess a retinal <i>macula centralis</i>, or spot of acutest, binocular +vision. The tongue has attained an extraordinary development. +It is club-shaped, covered with a sticky secretion, and based +upon a very narrow root, which is composed of extremely elastic +fibres and telescoped over the much elongated, style-shaped, +copular piece of the hyoid. The whole apparatus is kept in +a contracted state like a spring in a tube. When the spring +is released, so to speak, by filling the apparatus with blood and +by the play of the hyoid muscles, the heavy thick end shoots out +upon the insect prey and is withdrawn by its own elasticity. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span> +The whole act is like a flash. An ordinary chameleon can shoot +a fly at the distance of fully 6 in., and it can manage even a big +sphinx moth.</p> + +<p>Another remarkable feature is their changing of colour. This +proverbial power is greatly exaggerated. They cannot assume +in succession all the colours of the rainbow, nor are the changes +quick. The common chameleon may be said to be greenish grey, +changing to grass-green or to dull black, with or without maroon +red, or brown, lateral series of patches. At night the same +specimen assumes as a rule a more or less uniform pale straw-colour. +After it has been watched for several months, when all +its possibilities seem exhausted, it will probably surprise us by +a totally new combination, for instance, a black garb with many +small yellow specks, or green with many black specks. Pure +red and blue are not in the register of this species, but they are +rather the rule upon the dark green ground colour of the South +African dwarf chameleon. The changes are partly under control +of the will, partly complicated reflex actions, intentionally +adaptive to the physical and psychical surroundings. The +mechanism is as follows. The cutis contains several kinds of +specialized cells in many layers, each filled with minute granules +of guanine. The upper cells are the smallest, most densely +filled with crystals, and cause the white colour by diffusion +of direct light; near the Malpighian layer the cells are charged +with yellow oil drops; the deeper cells are the largest, tinged +light brown, and acting as a turbid medium they cause a blue +colour, which, owing to the superimposed yellow drops, reaches +our eye as green; provided always that there is an effective +screen at the back, and this is formed by large chromatophores +which lie at the bottom and send their black pigment half-way +up, or on to the top of the layers of guanine and oil containing +cells. When all the pigment is shifted towards the surface, as +near the epidermis as possible, the creature looks black; when +the black pigment is withdrawn into the basal portions of the +chromatophores the skin appears yellow.</p> + +<p>The lungs are very capacious, and end in several narrow +blind sacs which extend far down into the body cavity, so that +not only the chest but the whole body can be blown up. This +happens when the animals hiss and fight, as they often do. But +when they know themselves discovered, they make themselves +as thin as possible by compressing the chest and belly vertically +by means of their peculiarly elongated ribs. The whole body +is then put into such a position that it presents only its narrow +edge to the enemy, and with the branch of the tree or shrub +interposed. They are absolutely arboreal, but they hibernate +in the ground.</p> + +<p>The usual mode of propagation is by eggs, which are oval, +numerous, provided with a calcareous shell, and buried in humus, +whence they are hatched about four months later. But a few +species, <i>e.g.</i> the dwarf chameleon, are viviparous.</p> + +<p>Chameleons are insectivorous. They prefer locusts, grass-hoppers +and lepidoptera, but are also fond of flies and mealworms. +They are notoriously difficult to keep in good health. They +want not only warmth, but sunshine, and they must have water, +which they lick up in drops from the edges of wet leaves whenever +they have a chance. The silliness of the fable that they live on +air is shown by the fact that they usually die in an absolutely +emaciated and parched condition after three or four months’ +starvation.</p> +<div class="author">(H. F. G.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In astronomy, “Chamaeleon” is a constellation situated near +the south pole and surrounded by the constellations of Octans, +Mensa, Piscis volans, Carina (Nauta), Musca and Apus. In +chemistry, “chameleon mineral” is a name applied to the green mass +which is obtained when pyrolusite (manganese dioxide) is fused with +nitre, since a solution in water assumes a purple tint on exposure to +the air; this change is due to the oxidation of the manganate, which +is first formed, to a permanganate.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMFER,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> <span class="sc">Champfer</span> or <span class="sc">Chaumfer</span> (Fr. <i>chanfrein</i>; possibly +from Lat. <i>cantus</i>, corner, and <i>frangere</i>, to break), an architectural +term; when the edge or arris of any work is cut off at an angle +of 45° in a small degree, it is said to be “chamfered,” while it +would be “canted” if on a large scale. The chamfer is much +used in medieval work, and is sometimes plain, sometimes +hollowed out and sometimes moulded. Chamfers are sometimes +“stopped” by a bead or some moulding, but when cut short by +a slope they are generally known as “stop chamfer.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1741-1794), +French man of letters, was born at a little village near Clermont +in Auvergne in 1741. He was, according to a baptismal certificate +found among his papers, the son of a grocer named Nicolas. A +journey to Paris resulted in the boy’s obtaining a bursary at the +Collège des Grassins. He worked hard, although he wrote later +in one of his most contemptuous epigrams—<i>”Ce que j’ai appris +je ne le sais plus; le peu que je sais je l’ai diviné.”</i> His college +career ended, Chamfort assumed the dress of a <i>petit abbé. “C’est +un costume, et non point un état,”</i> he said; and to the principal +of his college who promised him a benefice, he replied that he +would never be a priest, inasmuch as he preferred honour to +honours—<i>”j’aime l’honneur et non les honneurs.”</i> About this +time he assumed the name of Chamfort.</p> + +<p>For some time he contrived to exist by teaching and as a +booksellers’ hack. His good looks and ready wit, however, soon +brought him into notice; but though endowed with immense +strength—“Hercule sous la figure d’Adonis,” Madame de Craon +called him—he lived so hard that he was glad of the chance of +doing a “cure” at Spa when the Belgian minister in Paris, +M. van Eyck, took him with him to Germany in 1761. On his +return to Paris he produced a comedy, <i>La Jeune Indienne</i> (1764), +which was performed with some success, and this was followed +by a series of “epistles” in verse, essays and odes. It was not, +however, until 1769, when he won the prize of the French +Academy for his <i>Éloge</i> on Molière, that his literary reputation +was established.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile he had lived from hand to mouth, mainly on the +hospitality of people who were only too glad to give him board +and lodging in exchange for the pleasure of the conversation +for which he was famous. Thus Madame Helvétius entertained +him at Sèvres for some years. In 1770 another comedy, <i>Le +Marchand de Smyrne</i>, brought him still further into notice, and +he seemed on the road to fortune, when he was suddenly smitten +with a horrible disease. His distress was relieved by the generosity +of a friend, who made over to him a pension of 1200 livres charged +on the <i>Mercure de France</i>. With this assistance he was able to +go to the baths of Contrexéville and to spend some time in the +country, where he wrote an <i>Éloge</i> on La Fontaine which won the +prize of the Academy of Marseilles (1774). In 1775, while taking +the waters at Barèges, he met the duchesse de Grammont, sister +of Choiseul, through whose influence he was introduced at court. +In 1776 his poor tragedy, <i>Mustapha et Zeangir</i>, was played at +Fontainebleau before Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette; the +king gave him a further pension of 1200 livres, and the prince de +Condé made him his secretary. But he was a Bohemian naturally +and by habit, the restraints of the court irked him, and with +increasing years he was growing misanthropical. After a year +he resigned his post in the prince’s household and retired into +solitude at Auteuil. There, comparing the authors of old with +the men of his own time, he uttered the famous <i>mot</i> that proclaims +the superiority of the dead over the living as companions; and +there too he presently fell in love. The lady, attached to the +household of the duchesse du Maine, was forty-eight years old, +but clever, amusing, a woman of the world; and Chamfort +married her. They left Auteuil, and went to Vaucouleurs, +where in six months Madame Chamfort died. Chamfort lived in +Holland for a time with M. de Narbonne, and returning to Paris +received in 1781 the place at the Academy left vacant by the +death of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye, the author of the <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités françaises</i>. In 1784, through the influence +of Calonne, he became secretary to the king’s sister, Madame +Elizabeth, and in 1786 he received a pension of 2000 livres from the +royal treasury. He was thus once more attached to the court, +and made himself friends in spite of the reach and tendency of +his unalterable irony; but he quitted it for ever after an unfortunate +and mysterious love affair, and was received into the +house of M. de Vaudreuil. Here in 1783 he had met Mirabeau, with +whom he remained to the last on terms of intimate friendship. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span> +whom he assisted with money and influence, and one at least +of whose speeches—that on the Academies—he wrote.</p> + +<p>The outbreak of the Revolution made a profound change in +the relations of Chamfort’s life. Theoretically he had long been +a republican, and he now threw himself into the new movement +with almost fanatical ardour, devoting all his small fortune to +the revolutionary propaganda. His old friends of the court he +forgot. “Those who pass the river of revolutions,” he said, +“have passed the river of oblivion.” Until the 31st of August +1791 he was secretary of the Jacobin club; he became a street +orator and entered the Bastille among the first of the storming +party. He worked for the <i>Mercure de France</i>, collaborated with +Ginguené in the <i>Feuille villageoise</i>, and drew up for Talleyrand +his <i>Adresse au peuple français</i>.</p> + +<p>With the reign of Marat and Robespierre, however, his uncompromising +Jacobinism grew critical, and with the fall of the +Girondins his political life came to an end. But he could not +restrain the tongue that had made him famous; he no more +spared the Convention than he had spared the court. His +notorious republicanism failed to excuse the sarcasms he lavished +on the new order of things, and denounced by an assistant in +the Bibliothèque Nationale, to a share in the direction of which +he had been appointed by Roland, he was taken to the Madelonnettes. +Released for a moment, he was threatened again +with arrest; but he had determined to prefer death to a repetition +of the moral and physical restraint to which he had been subjected. +He attempted suicide with pistol and with poniard; +and, horribly hacked and shattered, dictated to those who came +to arrest him the well-known declaration—<i>”Moi, Sebastien-Roch-Nicolas +Chamfort, déclare avoir voulu mourir en homme libre plutôt +que d’être reconduit en esclave dans une maison d’arrêt”</i>—which +he signed in a firm hand and in his own blood. He did not die +at once, but lingered on until the 13th of April 1794 in charge +of a gendarme, for whose wardship he paid a crown a day. To +the Abbé Sieyès Chamfort had given fortune in the title of a +pamphlet (“<i>Qu’est-ce que le Tiers-État? Tout. Qu’a-t-il? +Rien</i>”), and to Sieyès did Chamfort retail his supreme sarcasm, +the famous “<i>Je m’en vais enfin de ce monde où il faut que le cœur +se brise ou se bronze.</i>” The maker of constitutions followed the +dead wit to the grave.</p> + +<p>The writings of Chamfort, which include comedies, political +articles, literary criticisms, portraits, letters, and verses, are +colourless and uninteresting in the extreme. As a talker, however, +he was of extraordinary force. His <i>Maximes et Pensées</i>, +highly praised by John Stuart Mill, are, after those of La Rochefoucauld, +the most brilliant and suggestive sayings that have +been given to the modern world. The aphorisms of Chamfort, +less systematic and psychologically less important than those of +La Rochefoucauld, are as significant in their violence and +iconoclastic spirit of the period of storm and preparation that +gave them birth as the <i>Réflexions</i> in their exquisite restraint and +elaborate subtlety are characteristic of the tranquil elegance of +their epoch; and they have the advantage in richness of colour, +in picturesqueness of phrase, in passion, in audacity. Sainte-Beuve +compares them to “well-minted coins that retain their +value,” and to keen arrows that “<i>arrivent brusquement et sifflent +encore.</i>”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An edition of his works—<i>Œuvres complètes de Nicolas Chamfort</i>—Was +published at Paris in five volumes in 1824-1825. Selections—<i>Œuvres +de Chamfort</i>—in one volume, appeared in 1852, with a biographical +and critical preface by Arsène Houssaye, reprinted from +the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>; and <i>Oeuvres choisies</i> (2 vols.), with a +preface and notes by M. de Lescure (1879). See also Sainte-Beuve, +<i>Causeries du Lundi</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMIER, FREDERICK<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1796-1870), English novelist, was +the son of an Anglo-Indian official. In 1809 he entered the navy, +and was in active service until 1827. He retired in 1833, and +was promoted to be captain in 1856. On his retirement he +settled near Waltham Abbey, and wrote several nautical novels +on the lines popularized by Marryat, that had considerable +success. These were <i>The Life of a Sailor</i> (1832), <i>Ben Brace</i> (1836), +<i>The Arethusa</i> (1837), <i>Jack Adams</i> (1838), <i>Tom Bowling</i> (1841) +and <i>Jack Malcolm’s Log</i> (1846). He wrote a number of other +books, and edited and brought down to 1827 James’s <i>Naval +History</i> (1837).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMILLART, MICHEL<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1652-1721), French statesman, +minister of Louis XIV., was born at Paris of a family of the +noblesse of recent elevation. Following the usual career of a +statesman of his time he became in turn councillor of the parlement +of Paris (1676), master of requests (1686), and intendant +of the generality of Rouen (January 1689). Affable, of polished +manners, modest and honest, Chamillart won the confidence of +Madame de Maintenon and pleased the king. In 1690 he was +made intendant of finances, and on the 5th of September 1699 +the king appointed him controller-general of finances, to which +he added on the following 7th of January the ministry of war. +From the first Chamillart’s position was a difficult one. The +deficit amounted to more than 53 million livres, and the credit +of the state was almost exhausted. He lacked the great intelligence +and energy necessary for the situation, and was unable +to moderate the king’s warlike tastes, or to inaugurate economic +reforms. He could only employ the usual expedients of the +time—the immoderate sale of offices, the debasement of the +coinage (five times in six years), reduction of the rate of interest +on state debts, and increased taxation. He attempted to force +into circulation a kind of paper money, <i>billets de monnaie</i>, but +with disastrous results owing to the state of credit. He studied +Vauban’s project for the royal tithe and Boisguillebert’s proposition +for the <i>taille</i>, but did not adopt them. In October 1706 +he showed the king that the debts immediately due amounted +to 288 millions, and that the deficit already foreseen for 1707 +was 160 millions. In October 1707 he saw with consternation +that the revenue for 1708 was already entirely eaten up by +anticipation, so that neither money nor credit remained for 1708. +In these conditions Chamillart, who had often complained of +the overwhelming burden he was carrying, and who had already +wished to retire in 1706, resigned his office of controller-general. +Public opinion attributed to him the ruin of the country, though +he had tried in 1700 to improve the condition of commerce by +the creation of a council of commerce. As secretary of state +for war he had to place in the field the army for the War of the +Spanish Succession, and to reorganize it three times, after the +great defeats of 1704, 1706 and 1708. With an empty treasury +he succeeded only in part, and he frankly warned the king that +the enemy would soon be able to dictate the terms of peace. +He was reproached with having secured the command of the +army which besieged Turin (1706) for his son-in-law, the incapable +duc de la Feuillade. Madame de Maintenon even became hostile +to him, and he abandoned his position on the 10th of June 1709, +retiring to his estates. He died on the 14th of April 1721.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Chamillart’s papers have been published by G. Esnault, <i>Michel +Chamillart, contrôleur général et secrétaire d’état de la guerre, correspondance +et papiers inédits</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1885); and by A. de Boislisle +in vol. 2 of his <i>Correspondance des contrôleurs généraux</i> (1883). +See D’Auvigny, <i>Vies des hommes illustres</i> (1739), tome vi. pp. 288-402; +E. Moret, <i>Quinze années du règne de Louis XIV</i> (Paris, 1851); and +the new edition of the <i>Mémoires de St-Simon</i>, by A. de Boislisle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMINADE, CÉCILE<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1861-  ), French musical composer, +was born at Paris on the 8th of August 1861. She studied in +Paris, her musical talent being shown at the age of eight by the +writing of some church music which attracted Bizet’s attention; +and at eighteen she came out in public as a pianist. Her own +compositions, both songs (in large numbers) and instrumental +pieces, were soon produced in profusion: melodious and interesting, +and often charming, they became very popular, without +being entitled to rank with the greater style of music. Both +in Paris and in England Mlle Chaminade and her works became +well known at the principal concerts. In 1908 she visited +America and was warmly welcomed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Louis Charles Adelaide de</span>] +(1781-1838), German poet and botanist, was born at the château +of Boncourt in Champagne, France, the ancestral seat of his +family, on the 30th of January 1781. Driven from France by +the Revolution, his parents settled in Berlin, where in 1796 +young Chamisso obtained the post of page-in-waiting to the +queen, and in 1798 entered a Prussian infantry regiment as ensign. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span> +His family were shortly afterwards permitted to return to France; +he, however, remained behind and continued his career in the +army. He had but little education, but now sought distraction +from the soulless routine of the Prussian military service +in assiduous study. In collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense, +he founded in 1803 the <i>Berliner Musenalmanach</i>, in which his +first verses appeared. The enterprise was a failure, and, interrupted +by the war, it came to an end in 1806. It brought +him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities +of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet. He +had become lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 accompanied his +regiment to Hameln, where he shared in the humiliations following +the treasonable capitulation of that fortress in the ensuing +year. Placed on parole he went to France, where he found that +both his parents were dead; and, returning to Berlin in the +autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from the service +early in the following year. Homeless and without a profession, +disillusioned and despondent, he lived in Berlin until 1810, when, +through the services of an old friend of the family, he was offered +a professorship at the <i>lycée</i> at Napoléonville in La Vendée. He +set out to take up the post, but drawn into the charmed circle +of Madame de Staël, followed her in her exile to Coppet in +Switzerland, where, devoting himself to botanical research, he +remained nearly two years. In 1812 he returned to Berlin, +where he continued his scientific studies. In the summer of the +eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative <i>Peter Schlemihl</i>, +the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of all his +works, has been translated into most European languages +(English by W. Howitt). It was written partly to divert his +own thoughts and partly to amuse the children of his friend +Hitzig. In 1815 Chamisso was appointed botanist to the Russian +ship “Rurik,” which Otto von Kotzebue (son of August von +Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the world. +His diary of the expedition (<i>Tagebuch</i>, 1821) affords some interesting +glimpses of England and English life. On his return in 1818 +he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and +was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1820 +he married. Chamisso’s travels and scientific researches restrained +for a while the full development of his poetical talent, +and it was not until his forty-eighth year that he turned again +to literature. In 1829, in collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and +from 1832 in conjunction with Franz von Gaudy, he brought +out the <i>Deutsche Musenalmanach</i>, in which his later poems were +mainly published. He died on the 21st of August 1838.</p> + +<p>As a scientist Chamisso has not left much mark, although his +<i>Bemerkungen und Ansichten</i>, published in an incomplete form +in O. von Kotzebue’s <i>Entdeckungsreise</i> (Weimar, 1821) and more +completely in Chamisso’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> (1836), and the +botanical work, <i>Übersicht der nutzbarsten und schädlichsten +Gewächse in Norddeutschland</i> (1829) are esteemed for their +careful treatment of the subjects with which they deal. As +a poet Chamisso’s reputation stands high, <i>Frauen Liebe und +Leben</i> (1830), a cycle of lyrical poems, which was set to music +by Schumann, being particularly famous. Noteworthy are +also <i>Schloss Boncourt</i> and <i>Salas y Gomez</i>. In estimating his +success as a writer, it should not be forgotten that he was cut +off from his native speech and from his natural current of +thought and feeling. He often deals with gloomy and sometimes +with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in his +lighter and gayer <span class="correction" title="Amended from proudctions">productions</span> there is an undertone of sadness +or of satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions +he displays a fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with +true feeling a tale of love or vengeance. <i>Die Löwenbraut</i> may +be taken as a sample of his weird and powerful simplicity; and +<i>Vergeltung</i> is remarkable for a pitiless precision of treatment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first collected edition of Chamisso’s works was edited by J.E. +Hitzig, 6 vols. (1836); 6th edition (1874); there are also excellent +editions by M. Koch (1883) and O.F. Walzel (1892). On Chamisso’s +life see J.E. Hitzig, “Leben und Briefe von Adelbert yon Chamisso” +(in the <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>); K. Fulda, <i>Chamisso und seine Zeit</i> (1881); +G. Hofmeister, <i>Adelbert von Chamisso</i> (1884); and, for the scientific +side of Chamisso’s life, E. du Bois-Raymond, <i>Adelbert von Chamisso +als Naturforscher</i> (1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMKANNI,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of +the North-West Province of India. They inhabit the western +part of the Kurmana Valley in the Orakzai portion of Tirah, +but are supposed to be a distinct race. They took part in the +frontier risings of 1897, and during the Tirah expedition of +that year a brigade under General Gaselee was sent to punish +them.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMOIS,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> the Franco-Swiss name of an Alpine ruminant +known in the German cantons as <i>Gemse</i>, and to naturalists as +<i>Rupicapra tragus</i> or <i>R. rupicapra tragus</i>. It is the only species +of its genus, and typifies a subfamily, <i>Rupicaprinae</i>, of hollow-horned +ruminants in some degree intermediate between antelopes +and goats (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antelope</a></span>). About equal in height to a roebuck, +and with a short black tail, the chamois is readily distinguishable +from all other ruminants by its vertical, backwardly-hooked, +black horns, which are common to males and females, although +smaller in the latter. Apart from black and white face-markings, +and the black tail and dorsal stripe, the prevailing colour of the +Alpine chamois is chestnut brown in summer, but lighter and +greyer in winter. In the Pyrenees the species is represented by a +small race locally known as the izard; a very brightly-coloured +form, <i>R.t. picta</i>, inhabits the Apennines; the Carpathian +chamois is very dark-coloured, and the one from the Caucasus +is the representative of yet another race. A thick under-fur is +developed in the winter-coat, as in all other ruminants dwelling +at high altitudes. Chamois are gregarious, living in herds of 15 +or 20, and feeding generally in the morning or evening. The old +males, however, live alone except in the rutting season, which +occurs in October, when they join the herds, driving off the +younger bucks, and engaging in fierce contests with each other, +that often end fatally for one at least of the combatants. The +period of gestation is twenty weeks, when the female, beneath +the shelter generally of a projecting rock, produces one and +sometimes two young. In summer they ascend to the limits of +perpetual snow, being only exceeded in the loftiness of their +haunts by the ibex; and during that season they show their +intolerance of heat by choosing such browsing-grounds as have +a northern exposure. In winter they descend to the wooded +districts that immediately succeed the region of glaciers, and it +is there only they can be successfully hunted. Chamois are +exceedingly shy; and their senses, especially those of sight and +smell, very acute. The herd never feeds without having a +sentinel posted on some prominence to give notice of the approach +of danger; which is done by stamping on the ground with the +forefeet, and uttering a shrill whistling note, thus putting the +entire herd on the alert. No sooner is the object of alarm scented +or seen than each one seeks safety in the most inaccessible +situations, which are often reached by a series of astounding +leaps over crevasses, up the faces of seemingly perpendicular +rocks, or down the sides of equally precipitous chasms. The +chamois will not hesitate, it is said, thus to leap down 20 or even +30 ft., and this it effects with apparent ease by throwing itself +forward diagonally and striking its feet several times in its +descent against the face of the rock. Chamois-shooting is most +successfully pursued when a number of hunters form a circle +round a favourite feeding ground, which they gradually narrow; +the animals, scenting the hunters to windward, fly in the opposite +direction, only to encounter those coming from leeward. +Chamois-hunting, in spite of, or perhaps owing to the great +danger attending it, has always been a favourite pursuit among +the hardy mountaineers of Switzerland and Tirol, as well as of +the amateur sportsmen of all countries, with the result that the +animal is now comparatively rare in many districts where it was +formerly common. Chamois feed in summer on mountain-herbs +and flowers, and in winter chiefly on the young shoots and buds +of fir and pine trees. They are particularly fond of salt, and +in the Alps sandstone rocks containing a saline impregnation +are often met with hollowed by the constant licking of these +creatures. The skin of the chamois is very soft; made into +leather it was the original <i>shammy</i>, which is now made, however, +from the skins of many other animals. The flesh is prized as +venison.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMOMILE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Camomile Flowers</span>, the <i>flores anthemidis</i> +of the British Pharmacopoeia, the flower-heads of <i>Anthemis +nobilis</i> (Nat. Ord. <i>Compositae</i>), a herb indigenous to England +and western Europe. It is cultivated for medicinal purposes +in Surrey, at several places in Saxony, and in France and +Belgium,—that grown in England being much more valuable +than any of the foreign chamomiles brought into the market. +In the wild plant the florets of the ray are ligulate and white, +and contain pistils only, those of the disk being tubular and +yellow; but under cultivation the whole of the florets tend to +become ligulate and white, in which state the flower-heads are +said to be double. The flower-heads have a warm aromatic +odour, which is characteristic of the entire plant, and a very +bitter taste. In addition to a bitter extractive principle, they +yield about 2% of a volatile liquid, which on its first extraction +is of a pale blue colour, but becomes a yellowish brown on +exposure to light. It has the characteristic odour of the flowers, +and consists of a mixture of butyl and amyl angelates and +valerates. Angelate of potassium has been obtained by treatment +of the oil with caustic potash, and angelic acid may be isolated +from this by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid. Chamomile +is used in medicine in the form of its volatile oil, of which the +dose is ½-3 minims. There is an official extract which is never +used. Like all volatile oils the drug is a stomachic and carminative. +In large doses the infusion is a simple emetic.</p> + +<p>Wild chamomile is <i>Matricaria Chamomilla</i>, a weed common +in waste and cultivated ground especially in the southern counties +of England. It has somewhat the appearance of true chamomile, +but a fainter scent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMONIX,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a mountain valley in south-east France, its chief +village, of the same name, being the capital of a canton of the +arrondissement of Bonneville in the department of Haute-Savoie. +The valley runs from N.E. to S.W., and is watered by +the Arve, which rises in the Mer de Glace. On the S.E. towers +the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, and on the N.W. the less lofty, +but rugged chain of the Brévent and of the Aiguilles Rouges. +Near the head of the valley is the village of Argentière (4101 +ft.), which is connected with Switzerland by “char” (light +carriage) roads over the Tête Noire and past Salvan, and by a +mule path over the Col de Balme, which joins the Tête Noire +route near Trient and then crosses by a “char” road the Col de la +Forclaz to Martigny in the Rhone valley. The principal village, +Chamonix (3416 ft.), is 6 m. below Argentière by electric railway +(which continues via Finhaut to Martigny) and is visited annually +by a host of tourists, as it is the best starting-point for the +exploration of the glaciers of the Mont Blanc chain, as well as +for the ascent of Mont Blanc itself. It is connected with Geneva +by a railway (55 m.). In 1906 the population of the village was +806, of the commune 3482.</p> + +<p>The valley is first heard of about 1091, when it was granted by +the count of the Genevois to the great Benedictine house of St +Michel de la Cluse, near Turin, which by the early 13th century +established a priory therein. But in 1786 the inhabitants bought +their freedom from the canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory +had been transferred in 1519. In 1530 the inhabitants obtained +from the count of the Genevois the privilege of holding two fairs +a year, while the valley was often visited by the civil officials and +by the bishops of Geneva (first recorded visit in 1411, while +St Francis de Sales came thither in 1606). But travellers for +pleasure were long rare. The first party to publish (1744) an +account of their visit was that of Dr R. Pococke, Mr W. Windham +and other Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741. +In 1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760 +H.B. de Saussure, and rather later Bourrit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.A. Bonnefoy and A. Perrin, <i>Le Prieuré de Chamonix</i> (2 vols., +Chambery, 1879 and 1883); A. Perrin, <i>Histoire de la vallée et du +prieuré de Chamonix</i> (Chambéry, 1887); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, +<i>Carte de la chaîne du Mont Blanc</i> (1896; new ed., 1905); L. Kurz, +<i>Climbers’ Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc</i> (London, 1892); also +works referred to under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Blanc, Mont</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPAGNE,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> an ancient province of the kingdom of France, +bounded N. by Liége and Luxemburg; E. by Lorraine; S. by +Burgundy; and W. by Picardy and Isle de France. It now +forms the departments of Ardennes, Marne, Aube and Haute +Marne, with part of Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne and Meuse. +Its name—in Latin Campania, “country of plains”—is derived +from the immense plains near Reims, Châlons and Troyes. It +was constituted towards the end of the middle ages by joining +to the countship of Champagne the ecclesiastical duchies of +Reims and Langres, together with the ecclesiastical countship of +Châlons. Documents of the 12th and 13th centuries make it +possible to determine the territorial configuration of the countship +of Champagne with greater accuracy than in the case of any other +fief of the crown of France. Formed at random by the acquisitions +of the counts of the houses of Vermandois and Blois, +Champagne reckoned among its dependencies, from 1152 to 1234, +the countship of Blois and Chartres, of which Touraine was a fief, +the countship of Sancerre, and various scattered fiefs in the +Bourbonnais and in Burgundy. Officially called the “countship of +Champagne and Brie” since 1217, this state was formed by the +union of the countships of Troyes and Meaux, to which the greater +part of the districts embraced in the country known, since the +beginning of the middle ages, by the name of Champagne and Brie +came in course of time to be attached. Placed under the authority +of a single count in 960, the countships of Troyes and Meaux +were not again separated after 1125. For the counts of Troyes +before the 11th century see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Troyes</a></span>. We confine ourselves here +to the counts of Champagne of the house of Blois.</p> + +<p>About 1020 Eudes or Odo I. (Odo II., count of Blois) became +count of Champagne. He disputed the kingdom of Burgundy +with the emperor Conrad, and died in 1037, in a battle near Bar-le-Duc. +In 1037 he was succeeded by his younger son, Stephen +II. About 1050 Odo II., son of Stephen II., became count. +This prince, guilty of murder, found refuge in Normandy, where +he received the castle of Aumale. He took part in 1066 in the +conquest of England, and became earl of Holderness. About +1063 Theobald (Thibaud) I., count of Blois and Meaux, eldest son +of Odo I., became count of Champagne. In 1077 he seized the +countships of Vitry and Bar-sur-Aube, left vacant by Simon of +Valois, who had retired to a monastery. In 1089 Odo III., second +son of Theobald II., became count, and was succeeded about +1093 by his younger brother, Hugh, who became a templar in +1125, and gave up the countship to his suzerain, the count of Blois. +In 1125 the countship of Champagne passed to Theobald II. the +Great, already count of Blois and Meaux, and one of the most +powerful French barons of his time. He was related to the royal +house of England, and incurred the displeasure of the king of +France, who in 1142 invaded Champagne and burnt the town +of Vitry. After Theobald the Great the countship of Blois ceased +to be the dominant fief of his house and became the appanage +of a younger branch. In 1152 Henry the Liberal, eldest son of +Theobald II., became count of Champagne; he married Mary, +daughter of Louis VII. of France, and went to the crusade in 1178. +He was taken prisoner by the Turks, recovered his liberty through +the good offices of the emperor of the East, and died a few days +after his return to Champagne. In 1181 his eldest son, Henry II., +succeeded him under the tutelage of Mary of France. In 1190 +he went to the Holy Land, and became king of Jerusalem in 1192 +by his marriage with Isabelle, widow of the marquis of Montferrat. +He died in 1197 in his town of Acre from the results of an +accident. In 1197 Theobald III., younger son of Henry I., became +count, and was succeeded in 1201 by Theobald IV., “le +Chansonnier” (the singer), who was the son of Theobald III. and +Blanche of Navarre, and was born some days after the death of +his father. From 1201 to 1222 he remained under the tutelage +of his mother, who governed Champagne with great sagacity. +The reign of this prince was singularly eventful. The two +daughters of count Henry II. successively claimed the countship, +so that Theobald had to combat the claims of Philippa, wife of +Erard of Brienne, seigneur of Rameru, from 1216 to 1222, and +those of Alix, queen dowager of Cyprus, in 1233 and 1234. In +1226 he followed king Louis VII. to the siege of Avignon, and after +the death of that monarch played a prominent part during the +reign of St Louis. At first leagued with the malcontent barons, +he allowed himself to be gained over by the queen-mother, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span> +thus came into collision with his old allies. He became king of +Navarre in 1234 by the death of his maternal uncle, Sancho VII. +but by the onerous treaty which he concluded in that year with +the queen of Cyprus he was compelled to cede to the king, in return +for a large sum of money, the overlordship of the countships of +Blois, Chartres and Sancerre, and the viscounty of Châteaudun. +In 1239 and 1240 he took part in an expedition to the Holy Land, +probably accompanied St Louis in 1242 in the campaign of +Saintonge against the English, and died on the 14th of July 1254 +at Pampeluna. If the author of the <i>Grandes chroniques de +France</i> can be believed, Theobald IV. conceived a passion for +Queen Blanche, the mother of St Louis,—a passion which she +returned, and which explains the changes in his policy; but this +opinion apparently must be relegated to the category of historical +fables. The witty and courtly songs he composed place him in +the front rank of the poets of that class, in which he showed +somewhat more originality than his rivals. In 1254 Theobald V. +the Young, eldest son of Theobald IV. and, like his father, king +of Navarre, became count of Champagne. He married Isabelle of +France, daughter of St Louis, and followed his father-in-law to +Tunis to the crusade, dying on his return. In 1270 he was +succeeded by Henry III. the Fat, king of Navarre. Henry was +succeeded in 1274 by his only daughter, Joan of Navarre, under +the tutelage of her mother, Blanche of Artois, and afterwards of +Edmund, earl of Lancaster, her mother’s second husband. In +1284 she married the heir-presumptive to the throne of France, +Philip the Fair, to whom she brought the countship of Champagne +as well as the kingdom of Navarre. She became queen of France +in 1285, and died on the 4th of April 1305, when her eldest son +by King Philip, Louis Hutin, became count of Champagne. He +was the last independent count of the province, which became +attached to the French crown on his accession to the throne of +France in 1314.</p> + +<p>The celebrated fairs of Champagne, which flourished in the 12th +and 13th centuries, were attended by merchants from all parts +of civilized Europe. They were six in number: two at Troyes, +two at Provins, one at Lagny-sur-Marne, and one at Bar-sur-Aube. +They formed a kind of continuous market, divided into +six periods, and passed in turn from Lagny to Bar, from Bar to +Provins, from Provins to Troyes, from Troyes to Provins and +from Provins to Troyes, to complete the year. It was, in fact, +a perpetual fair, which had at once unity and variety, offering to +the different parts of the countship the means of selling successively +the special productions of their soil or their industry, and of +procuring in exchange riches and comforts. These fairs had +special legislation; and special magistrates, called “masters of +the fairs,” had control of the police.</p> + +<p>For the wine “champagne” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wine</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Histoire des ducs et des +comtes de Champagne</i> (1859-1866); A. Longnon, <i>Documents relatifs +au comté de Champagne et de Brie</i> (1901 seq.; vol. i. with map); F. +Bourquelot, <i>Études sur les foires de Champagne</i> (1865).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Lo.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1756-1834), +French politician, was born at Roanne, and entered the navy in +1774. He fought through the war in America and resigned in +1787. Elected deputy by the <i>noblesse</i> of Forex to the states-general +in 1789, he went over to the third estate on the 21st of +June and collaborated in the work of the Constituent Assembly, +especially occupying himself with the reorganization of the navy. +A political career seems to have attracted him little; he remained +in private life from 1791 to 1799, when Napoleon named him +member of the council of state. From July 1801 to August 1804 +he was ambassador of France at Vienna, and directed with great +intelligence the incessant negotiations between the two courts. +In August 1804 Napoleon made him minister of the interior, and +in this position, which he held for three years, he proved an +administrator of the first order. In addition to the ordinary +charges of his office, he had to direct the recruitment of the army, +organize the industrial exhibition of 1808, and to complete the +public works undertaken in Paris and throughout France. He +was devoted to Napoleon, on whom he lavished adulation in his +speeches. In August 1807 the emperor chose him to succeed +Talleyrand as minister for foreign affairs. He directed the +annexation of the Papal States in April 1808, worked to secure the +abdication of Charles IV. of Spain in May 1808, negotiated the +peace of Vienna (1809) and the marriage of Napoleon. In April +1811 a quarrel with the emperor led to his retirement, and he +obtained the sinecure office of intendant general of the crown. +In 1814, after the abdication, the empress sent him on a fruitless +mission to the emperor of Austria. Then he went over to the +Bourbons. During the Hundred Days he again joined Napoleon. +This led to his exclusion by Louis XVIII., but in 1819 he recovered +his dignity of peer. He died in Paris in 1834. He had +three sons who became men of distinction. François (1804-1882) +was a well-known author, who was made a member of the +French Academy in 1869. His great work was a history of the +Roman empire, in three parts, (1) <i>Les Césars</i> (1841-1843, 4 vols.), +(2) <i>Les Antonins</i> (1863, 3 vols.), (3) <i>Les Césars du IIIe siècle</i> +(1870, 3 vols.). Napoléon (1806-1872) published a <i>Traité de la +police municipale</i> in 4 volumes (1844-1861), and was a deputy in +the Corps Législatif from 1852 to 1870. Jérome Paul (1809-1886) +was also deputy in the Corps Législatif from 1853 to 1870, +and was made honorary chamberlain in 1859. He worked at the +official publication of the correspondence of Napoleon I.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPAIGN,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> a city of Champaign county, Illinois, U.S.A., +about 125 m. S. by W. of Chicago, on the head-waters of the +Vermilion river. Pop. (1890) 5839; (1900) 9098, of whom 973 +were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,421. It is served by the +Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Wabash, and +the Illinois Central railways (the last having repair shops here), +and by the Illinois (electric) Traction System from Danville, +Illinois, to St Louis, Missouri. In 1906 the city covered 3.5 sq. m.; +it is situated in a rich agricultural region, and has small manufacturing +interests. Immediately east of Champaign is the city +of Urbana, the county-seat of Champaign county, served by +the Wabash and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis +railways, with repair shops of the latter. In 1890 the population +of Urbana was 3511; in 1900, 5728 (300 foreign-born); in 1910, +8245. Partly in Urbana and partly in Champaign is the University +of Illinois (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Illinois</a></span>); immediately south of its +campus is the 400-acre farm of the university. Each city has a +public library, and in Champaign are the Burnham Athenaeum, +the Burnham hospital, the Garwood home for old ladies, and +several parks, all gifts of former citizens. Champaign was +founded in 1855, incorporated as a city in 1860, and re-chartered +in 1883. Urbana secured a city charter in 1855.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1602-1674), Belgian painter +of the French school, was born at Brussels of a poor family. He +was a pupil of J. Fouquières; and, going to Paris in 1621, was +employed by N. Du Chesne to paint along with Nicholas Poussin +in the palace of the Luxembourg. His best works are to be +found at Vincennes, and in the church of the Carmelites at Paris, +where is his celebrated Crucifix, a signal perspective success, on +one of the vaultings. After the death of Du Chesne, Philippe +became first painter to the queen of France, and ultimately +rector of the Academy of Paris. As his age advanced and his +health failed, he retired to Port Royal, where he had a daughter +cloistered as a nun, of whom (along with Catherine Agnès Arnauld) +he painted a celebrated picture, now in the Louvre, highly remarkable +for its solid unaffected truth. This, indeed, is the general +character of his work,—grave reality, without special elevation or +depth of character, or charm of warm or stately colour. He produced +an immense number of paintings, religious and other +subjects as well as portraits, dispersed over various parts of +France, and now over the galleries of Europe. Philippe was a +good man, indefatigable, earnest and scrupulously religious. +He died on the 12th of August 1674.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPARAN,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chumparun</span>, a district of British India, +in the Patna division of Bengal, occupying the north-west +corner of Behar, between the two rivers Gandak and Baghmati +and the Nepal hills. It has an area of 3531 sq. m. In 1901 the +population was 1,790,463, showing a decrease of 4% in the +decade. A broad grass-covered road or embankment defines the +Nepal frontier, except where rivers or streams form a natural +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span> +boundary. The district is a vast level except in the N. and N.W., +where it undulates, and gradually assumes a rugged appearance +as it approaches the mountains and forests of Nepal. Wide +uncultivated tracts cover its north-western corner; the southern +and western parts are carefully cultivated, and teem with an +active agricultural population. The principal rivers are the +Gandak, navigable all the year round, the Buri Gandak, Panch +Nadi, Lalbagia, Koja and Teur. Old beds of rivers intersect +Champaran in every direction, and one of these forms a chain +of lakes which occupy an area of 139 sq. m. in the centre of the +district. Champaran, with the rest of Bengal and Behar, was +acquired by the British in 1765. Up to 1866 it remained a +subdivision of Saran. In that year it was separated and formed +into a separate district. The administrative headquarters are +at Motihari (population, 13,730); Bettia is the centre of a very +large estate; Segauli, still a small military station, was the +scene of a massacre during the Mutiny. Champaran was the +chief seat of indigo planting in Behar before the decline of that +industry. There are about 40 saltpetre refineries. The district +suffered severely from drought in 1866 and 1874, and again in +1897. In the last year a small government canal was opened, +and a canal from the Gandak has also been constructed. The +district is traversed almost throughout its length to Bettia by +the Tirhoot state railway. A considerable trade is conducted +with Nepal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gulielmus Campellensis</span>] +(c. 1070-1121), French philosopher and theologian was born +at Champeaux near Melun. After studying under Anselm of +Laon and Roscellinus, he taught in the school of the cathedral +of Notre Dame, of which he was made canon in 1103. Among +his pupils was Abelard. In 1108 he retired into the abbey of +St Victor, where he resumed his lectures. He afterwards +became bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne, and took part in the +dispute concerning investitures as a supporter of Calixtus II., +whom he represented at the conference of Mousson. His only +printed works are a fragment on the Eucharist (inserted by +Jean Mabillon in his edition of the works of St Bernard), and the +<i>Moralia Abbreviata</i> and <i>De Origine Animae</i> (in E. Martène’s +<i>Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum</i>, 1717, vol. 5). In the last of +these he maintains that children who die unbaptized must be lost, +the pure soul being denied by the grossness of the body, and +declares that God’s will is not to be questioned. He upholds +the theory of Creatianism (that a soul is specially created for +each human being). Ravaisson-Mollien has discovered a +number of fragments by him, among which the most important is the +<i>De Essentia Dei et de Substantia Dei</i>; a <i>Liber Sententiarum</i>, +consisting of discussions on ethics and Scriptural interpretation, +is also ascribed to Champeaux. He is reputed the founder of +Realism. For his views and his controversy with Abelard, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abelard</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Victor Cousin, introduction to his <i>Ouvrages inédits d’Abélard</i> +(1836), and <i>Fragments pour servir à l’histoire de la philosophie</i> +(1865); G.A. Patru, <i>Wilhelmi Campellensis de natura et de origine rerum +placita</i> (1847); E. Michaud, <i>Guillaume de Champeaux et les écoles +de Paris au XIIe siècle</i> (2nd ed., 1868); “William of Champeaux +and his Times” in <i>Christian Observer</i>, lxxii. 843; B. Hauréau, <i>De +la philosophie scolastique</i> (Paris, 1850); Opuscula in J.P. Migne’s +<i>Patrologia</i>, clxiii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPERTY,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Champarty</span> (Lat. <i>campi partitio</i>, O. Fr. +<i>champ parti</i>), in English law, a bargain between a plaintiff or +defendant in a cause and another person, to divide the land +(<i>campum partiri</i>) or other matter sued for, if they prevail, in +consideration of that person carrying on or defending the suit +at his own expense. It is a misdemeanour punishable by fine +or imprisonment. It differs only from maintenance (<i>q.v.</i>), in +that the recompense for the service which has been given is +always part of the matter in suit, or some profit growing out of +it. So an agreement by a solicitor not to charge costs on +condition of retaining for himself a share of the sums recovered +would be illegal and void. It is not, however, champerty to +charge the subject-matter of a suit in order to obtain the means +of prosecuting it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Fifth Report of the Criminal Law Commissioners</i>, pp. 34-9.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPION<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (Fr. <i>champion</i>, Late Lat. <i>campio</i> from <i>campus</i>, +a field or open space, <i>i.e.</i> one “who takes the field” or fights; +cf. Ger. <i>Kampf</i>, battle, and <i>Kämpfer</i>, fighter), in the +judicial combats of the middle ages the substitute for a party to the suit +disabled from bearing arms or specially exempt from the duty +to do so (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>). Hence the word has come to be applied +to any one who “champions,” or contends on behalf of, any +person or cause. In the laws of the Lombards (lib. ii. tit. 56 +§§ 38, 39), those who by reason of youth, age or infirmity could +not bear arms were allowed to nominate champions, and the +same provision was made in the case of women (lib. i. tit. +3 § 6, tit. 16, §2). This was practically the rule laid down in all +subsequent legislation on the subject. Thus the <i>Assize of +Jerusalem</i> (cap. 39) says: “These are the people who may defend +themselves through champions; a woman, a sick man, a man +who has passed the age of sixty, &c.” The clergy, too, whether +as individuals or corporations, were represented by champions; +in the case of bishops and abbots this function was part of the +duties of the <i>advocatus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Advocate</a></span>). Du Cange gives +instances of mercenary champions (<i>campiones conductitii</i>), who +were regarded as “infamous persons” and sometimes, in case +of defeat, were condemned to lose hand or foot. Sometimes +championships were “serjeanties,” <i>i.e.</i> rendered service to lords, +churches or cities in consideration of the grant of certain fiefs, or +for annual money payments, the champion doing homage to the +person or corporation represented by him (<i>campiones homagii</i>).</p> + +<p>The office of “king’s champion” (<i>campio regis</i>) is peculiar +to England. The function of the king’s champion, when the +ceremonial of the coronation was carried out in its completeness, +was to ride, clad in complete armour, on his right the high +constable, on his left the earl marshal, into Westminster Hall +during the coronation banquet, and challenge to single combat +any who should dispute the king’s right to reign. The challenge +was thrice repeated by the herald, at the entrance to the hall, +in the centre, and at the foot of the dais. On picking up his +gauntlet for the third time the champion was pledged by the +king in a gilt-covered cup, which was then presented to him as +his fee by the king. If he had had occasion to fight, and was +victorious, his fee would have been the armour he wore and the +horse he rode, the second best in the royal stables; but no such +occasion has ever arisen. This picturesque ceremonial was last +performed at the coronation of George IV. The office of king’s +champion is of great antiquity, and its origins are involved in +great obscurity. It is said to have been held under William the +Conqueror by Robert or Roger Marmion, whose ancestors had +been hereditary champions in Normandy. The first authentic +record, however is a charter of Henry I., signed by Robert +Marmion (<i>Robertus de Bajucis campio regis</i>). Of the actual +exercise of the office the earliest record dates from the coronation +of Richard II. On this occasion the champion, Sir John Dymoke, +appeared at the door of the Abbey immediately after the coronation +mass, but was peremptorily told to go away and return +later; moreover, in his bill presented to the court of claims, he +stated that the champion was to ride in the procession before +the service, and make his challenge to all the world. This seems +to show that the ceremony, as might be expected, was originally +performed <i>before</i> the king’s coronation, when it would have had +some significance. The office of king’s champion is hereditary, +and is now held by the family of Dymoke (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Campio”; L.G. Wickham Legg, +<i>English Coronation Records</i> (Westminster, 1901); J.H.T. Perkins, +<i>The Coronation Book</i> (London, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1762-1800), French +general, enlisted in the army at an early age and served in the +great siege of Gibraltar. When the Revolution broke out he +took a prominent part in the movement, and was elected by the +men of a battalion to command them. In May 1793 he was +charged with the suppression of the disturbances in the Jura, +which he quelled without bloodshed. Under Pichegru he took +part in the Rhine campaign of that year as a brigade commander, +and at Weissenburg and in the Palatinate won the warm commendation +of Lazare Hoche. At Fleurus his stubborn fighting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span> +in the centre of the field contributed greatly to Jourdan’s victory. +In the subsequent campaigns he commanded the left wing of the +French armies on the Rhine between Neuwied and Düsseldorf, +and took a great part in all the successful and unsuccessful +expeditions to the Lahn and the Main. In 1798 Championnet +was named commander-in-chief of the “army of Rome” which +was protecting the infant Roman republic against the Neapolitan +court and the British fleet. Nominally 32,000 strong, the army +scarcely numbered 8000 effectives, with a bare fifteen cartridges +per man. The Austrian general Mack had a tenfold superiority +in numbers, but Championnet so well held his own that he ended +by capturing Naples itself and there setting up the Parthenopean +Republic. But his intense earnestness and intolerance of +opposition soon embroiled him with the civilians, and the +general was recalled in disgrace. The following year, however, +saw him again in the field as commander-in-chief of the “army +of the Alps.” This, too, was at first a mere paper force, but after +three months’ hard work it was able to take the field. The +campaign which followed was uniformly unsuccessful, and, +worn out by the unequal struggle, Championnet died at Antibes +on the 9th of January 1800. In 1848 a statue was erected in his +honour at Valence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.R.C. de St Albin, <i>Championnet, ou les Campagnes de +Hollande, de Rome et de Naples</i> (Paris, 1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1567-1635), French explorer, +colonial pioneer and first governor of French Canada, was born +at Brouage, a small French port on the Bay of Biscay, in 1567. +His father was a sea captain, and the boy was early skilled in +seamanship and navigation. He entered the army of Henry IV., +and served in Brittany under Jean d’Aumont, François de St +Luc and Charles de Brissac. When the army of the League +was disbanded he accompanied his uncle, who had charge of the +ships in which the Spanish allies were conveyed home, and on +reaching Cadiz secured (1599) the command of one of the vessels +about to make an expedition to the West Indies. He was gone +over two years, visiting all the principal ports and pushing +inland from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. The MS. account +of his adventures, <i>Bref Discours des Choses plus remarquables +que Samuel Champlain de Brouage a recognues aux Indes Occidentales</i>, +is in the library at Dieppe. It was not published in +French until 1870, although an English translation was printed +by the Hakluyt Society in 1859. It contains a suggestion of a +Panama Canal, “by which the voyage to the South Sea would +be shortened by more than 1500 leagues.” In 1603 Champlain +made his first voyage to Canada, being sent out by Aymar de +Clermont, seigneur de Chastes, on whom the king had bestowed +a patent. Champlain at once established friendly relations +with the Indians and explored the St Lawrence to the rapids +above Montreal. On his return he published an interesting +and historically valuable little book, <i>Des sauvages, ou voyage de +Samuel Champlain de Brouage fait en la France Nouvelle</i>. During +his absence de Chastes had died, and his privileges and fur trade +monopolies were conferred upon Pierre de Guast, sieur de Monts +(1560-1611). With him, in 1604, Champlain was engaged in +exploring the coast as far south as Cape Cod, in seeking a site +for a new settlement, and in making surveys and charts. They +first settled on an island near the mouth of the St Croix river, +and then at Port Royal—now Annapolis, N.S.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Basques and Bretons, asserting that they were +being ruined by de Monts’ privileges, got his patent revoked, +and Champlain returned with the discouraged colonists to Europe. +When, however, in modified form, the patent was re-granted to +his patron Champlain induced him to abandon Acadia and +establish a settlement on the St Lawrence, of the commercial +advantages of which, perhaps even as a western route to China +and Japan, he soon convinced him. Champlain was placed in +command of one of the two vessels sent out. He was to explore +and colonize, while the other vessel traded, to pay for the expedition. +Champlain fixed on the site of Quebec and founded +the first white settlement there in July 1608, giving it its present +name. In the spring he joined a war party of Algonquins and +Hurons, discovered the great lake that bears his name, and, near +the present Ticonderoga, took with his arquebus an important +part in the victory which his savage friends obtained over the +Iroquois. The Iroquois naturally turned first to the Dutch and +then to the English for allies. “Thus did new France rush into +collision with the redoubted warriors of the Five Nations. Here +was the beginning, and in some measure doubtless the cause, of +a long suite of murderous conflicts, bearing havoc and flame to +generations yet unborn” (Parkman). Champlain returned to +France and again related to Henry IV.—who had previously +learned his worth and had pensioned him—his exciting adventures. +De Monts failed to secure a renewal of his patent, but resolved +to proceed without it. Champlain was again (1611) in Canada, +fighting for and against the Indians and establishing a trading +post at Mont Royal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montreal</a></span>). He was the third white +man to descend, and the second to descend successfully, the +Lachine Rapids. De Monts, now governor of Paris, was too busy +to occupy himself in the waning fortunes of the colony, and left +them entirely to his associate. An influential protector was +needed; and Champlain prevailed upon Charles de Bourbon, +comte de Soissons, to interest himself to obtain from the king +the appointment of lieutenant-general in New France. The +comte de Soissons died almost immediately, and was succeeded +in the office by Henri de Bourbon, prince de Condé, and he, like +his predecessors and successors, retained Champlain as lieutenant-governor. +“In Champlain alone was the life of New France. +By instinct and temperament he was more impelled to the +adventurous toils of exploration than to the duller task of +building colonies. The profits of trade had value in his eyes only +as means to these ends, and settlements were important chiefly +as a base of discovery. Two great objects eclipsed all others,—to +find a route to the Indies, and to bring the heathen tribes +into the embraces of the Church, since, while he cared little for +their bodies, his solicitude for their souls knew no bounds” +(Parkman).</p> + +<p>In 1613 Champlain again crossed the Atlantic and endeavoured +to confirm Nicolas de Vignau’s alleged discovery of a short route +to the ocean by the Ottawa river, a great lake at its source, and +another river flowing north therefrom. That year he got as +far as Allumette Island in the Ottawa, but two years later, with +a “Great War Party” of Indians, he crossed Lake Nipissing +and the eastern ends of Lakes Huron and Ontario, and made a +fierce but unsuccessful attack on an Onondaga fortified town +a few miles south of Lake Oneida. This was the end of his +wanderings. He now devoted himself to the growth and +strengthening of Quebec. Every year he went to France with +this end in view. He was one of the hundred associates of the +Company of New France, created by Richelieu to reform abuses +and take over all his country’s interests in the new world. These +ill-defended possessions England now prepared to seize. Three +ships were sent out under letters of marque commanded by +David, Lewis and Thomas Kirke, and Quebec, already on the +verge of starvation, was compelled to surrender (1629). Champlain +was taken to England a prisoner, but when Canada was +restored to the French he returned (1633) to his post, where he +died on the 25th of December 1635. He had married in 1610, +Hélène Boullé, then but twelve years old. She did not leave +France for Canada, however, until ten years later. After his +death she became a nun.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Champlain’s complete works in 6 vols. were published under the +patronage of the university of Laval in 1870. There is a careful +translation of <i>Champlain’s Voyages</i>, by Professor and Mrs E.G. +Bourne in the “Trailmaker” series edited by Prof. J.B. McMaster. +See F. Parkman, <i>Pioneers of France in the New World</i> (1865); J. +Winsor, <i>Cartier to Frontenac</i> (1894); N.E. Dionne, <i>Champlain</i> +(1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. E. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPLAIN,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a lake lying between the states of New York +and Vermont, U.S.A., and penetrating for a few miles into +Canada. It extends about 130 m. from N. to S., varies from +¼ m. to 1 m. in width for 40 m. from its S. terminus, and then +widens until it reaches a maximum width of about 11 m. near +Ausable Point. Its area is about 500 sq. m. Its surface is 96 +ft. above the sea. In the north part it is generally from 200 to +300 ft. deep; opposite Essex, N.Y., near its middle, the depth +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span> +increases to 400 ft.; but farther south it is much less; throughout +the greater part of the lake there is a depth of water of more +than 100 ft. Since the lake is caused by the ponding of water +in a broad irregular valley, the shore line is nearly everywhere +much broken, and in the northern portion are several islands, +both large and small, most of which belong to Vermont. These +islands divide the lake’s northern end into two large arms +which extend into Canada. From the western arm the Richelieu +river flows out, carrying the water of Champlain to the St +Lawrence. The waters abound in salmon, salmon-trout, sturgeon +and other fish, and are navigated from end to end by large +steamboats and vessels of considerable tonnage. The lake +was formerly the seat of extensive traffic, especially in lumber, +but navigation has greatly decreased; the tonnage entering and +clearing at the lake was twice as great in the early ’70’s as it +was thirty years later. The principal ports are Burlington, Vt., +and Plattsburg, N.Y. Lake Champlain lies in a valley from 1 to +30 m. wide, between the Green Mountains on the east and the +Adirondack Mountains on the west, and the scenery is most +picturesque. On the east side is a rather gradual ascent for 20 m. +or more from shore to summit, while on the west side the ascent +is by a succession of hills, in some places from the water’s edge. +North of Crown Point low mountains rise 1000 to 1600 ft. above +the lake, and behind these are the higher peaks of the Adirondacks, +reaching an elevation of more than 5000 ft. Lake George is +a tributary on the south, several small streams flow in from each +side; the Champlain Canal, 63 m. in length, connects the lake +with the Hudson river; and through the Richelieu it has a +natural outlet to the north into the St Lawrence.</p> + +<p>Lake Champlain was named from Samuel de Champlain, who +discovered it in July 1609. The valley is a natural pathway +between the United States and Canada, and during the various +wars which the English have waged in America it had great +strategic importance. In 1731 the French built a fort at Crown +Point; in 1756, another at Ticonderoga; and both were important +strategic points in the French and Indian War as well as in +the American War of Independence. On the 11th of October +1776, the first battle between an American and a British fleet, +the battle of Valcour Island, was fought on the lake. Benedict +Arnold, the American commander, with a decidedly inferior +force, withstood the British under Thomas Pringle for about +seven hours, and then during the night escaped through the +enemy’s line. Although overtaken the next day he again, after +a fight of a few hours, made a successful retreat.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the War of 1812 the American naval +force on the lake, though very small, was superior to that of the +British, but on the 3rd of June 1813 the British captured two +American sloops in the narrow channel at the northern end and +gained supremacy. Both sides now began to build and equip +vessels for a decisive contest; by May 1814 the Americans +had regained supremacy, and four months later a British land +force of 11,000 men under Sir George Prevost (1767-1816) and a +naval force of 16 vessels of about 2402 tons with 937 men and +92 guns under Captain George Downie (d. 1814) confronted an +American land force of 1500 men under Brigadier-General +Alexander Macomb (1782-1841), strongly entrenched at Plattsburg, +and an American naval force (anchored in Plattsburg Bay) +of 14 vessels of about 2244 tons with 882 men and 86 guns under +Commodore Thomas Macdonough (1783-1825). In the open +lake the British naval force should have been the superior, but +at anchor in the bay the Americans had a decided advantage. +Expecting the British land force to drive the American fleet +from its anchorage, Captain Downie, on the 11th of September +1814, began the battle of Lake Champlain. It had continued +only fifteen minutes when he was killed; the land force failed +to co-operate, and after a severe fight at close range for 2½ hours, +during which the British lost about 300 men, the Americans 200 +and the vessels of both sides were greatly shattered, the British +retreated both by land and by water, abandoning their plan of +invading New York.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.E. Peet, “Glacial and Post-Glacial History of the Hudson +and Champlain Valleys,” in vol. xii. of the <i>Journal of Geology</i> +(Chicago, 1904); P.S. Palmer, <i>History of Lake Champlain</i> (Albany. +1866); and Capt. A.T. Mahan, <i>Sea Power in its Relations to the War +of 1812</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1642-1698), French actress, was +born in Rouen of a good family. Her father’s name was Desmares. +She made her first appearance on the stage at Rouen with +Charles Chevillet (1645-1701), who called himself sieur de +Champmeslé, and they were married in 1666. By 1669 they +were playing in Paris at the Théatre du Marais, her first appearance +there being as Venus in Boyer’s <i>Fête de Venus</i>. The next +year, as Hermione in Racine’s <i>Andromaque</i>, she had a great +success at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Her intimacy with Racine +dates from then. Some of his finest tragedies were written for +her, but her repertoire was not confined to them, and many an +indifferent play—like Thomas Corneille’s <i>Ariane</i> and <i>Comte +d’Essex</i>—owed its success to “her natural manner of acting, +and her pathetic rendering of the hapless heroine.” <i>Phèdre</i> +was the climax of her triumphs, and when she and her husband +deserted the Hôtel de Bourgogne (see BÉJART <i>ad fin.</i>), it was +selected to open the Comédie Française on the 26th of August +1680. Here, with Mme Guérin as the leading comedy actress, +she played the great tragic love parts for more than thirty years, +dying on the 15th of May 1698. La Fontaine dedicated to her +his novel <i>Belphégor</i>, and Boileau immortalized her in verse. +Her husband distinguished himself both as actor and playwright, +and his <i>Parisien</i> (1682) gave Mme Guérin one of her greatest +successes.</p> + +<p>Her brother, the actor <span class="sc">Nicolas Desmares</span> (c. 1650-1714), +began as a member of a subsidized company at Copenhagen, but +by her influence he came to Paris and was received in 1685 +<i>sans début</i>—the first time such an honour had been accorded—at +the Comédie Française, where he became famous for peasant +parts. His daughter, to whom Christian V. and his queen stood +sponsors, <span class="sc">Christine Antoinette Charlotte Desmares</span> (1682-1753), +was a fine actress in both tragedy and soubrette parts. +She made her début at the Comédie Française in 1699, in La +Grange Chancel’s <i>Oreste et Pylade</i>, and was at once received as +<i>sociétaire</i>. She retired in 1721.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1790-1832), French +Egyptologist, called <span class="sc">Le Jeune</span> to distinguish him from Champollion-Figeac +(<i>q.v.</i>), his elder brother, was born at Figeac, in the +department of Lot, on the 23rd of December 1790. He was +educated by his brother, and was then appointed government +pupil at the Lyceum, which had recently been founded. His +first work (1804) was an attempt to show by means of their +names that the giants of the Bible and of Greek mythology were +personifications of natural phenomena. At the age of sixteen +(1807) he read before the academy of Grenoble a paper in which +he maintained that the Coptic was the ancient language of +Egypt. He soon after removed to Paris, where he enjoyed the +friendship of Langlès, De Sacy and Millin. In 1809 he was +made professor of history in the Lyceum of Grenoble, and there +published his earlier works. Champollion’s first decipherment +of hieroglyphics dates from 1821. In 1824 he was sent by Charles +X. to visit the collections of Egyptian antiquities in the museums +of Turin, Leghorn, Rome and Naples; and on his return he +was appointed director of the Egyptian museum at the Louvre. +In 1828 he was commissioned to undertake the conduct of a +scientific expedition to Egypt in company with Rosellini, who +had received a similar appointment from Leopold II., grand +duke of Tuscany. He remained there about a year. In March +1831 he received the chair of Egyptian antiquities, which had +been created specially for him, in the Collège de France. He +was engaged with Rosellini in publishing the results of Egyptian +researches at the expense of the Tuscan and French governments, +when he was seized with a paralytic disorder, and died at Paris +in 1832. Champollion, whose claims were hotly disputed for +many years after his death, is now universally acknowledged +to have been the founder of Egyptology.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He wrote <i>L’Égypte sous les Phraons</i> (2 vols. 8vo, 1814); <i>Sur +l’écriture hiératique</i> (1821); <i>Sur l’écriture démotique</i>; <i>Précis du systéme +hiéroglyphique</i>, &c. (1824); <i>Panthéon égyptien, ou collection +des personnages mythologiques de l’ancienne Egypte</i> (incomplete); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span> +<i>Monumens de l’Égypte et de la Nubie considérés par rapport a l’histoire, +la religion, &c.</i>; <i>Grammaire égyptienne</i> (1836), and <i>Dictionnaire +égyptienne</i>(1841), edited by his brother; <i>Analyse méthodique du +texte démotique de Rosette</i>; <i>Aperçu des résultats historiques de la +découverte de l’alphabet hiéroglyphique</i> (1827); <i>Mémoires sur les signes +employés par les Égyptiens dans leurs trois systèmes graphiques à la +notation des principales divisions du temps</i>; <i>Lettres ecrites d’Égypte +et de Nubie</i> (1833); and also seveial letters on Egyptian subjects, +addressed at different periods to the duc de Blacas and others.</p> + +<p>See H. Hartleben, <i>Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk</i> (2 vols., +1906); also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Language and Writing</i> (<i>ad init.</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1778-1867), +French archaeologist, elder brother of Jean François Champollion, +was born at Figeac in the department of Lot, on the +5th of October 1778. He became professor of Greek and librarian +at Grenoble, but was compelled to retire in 1816 on account of +the part he had taken during the Hundred Days. He afterwards +became keeper of manuscripts at the Bibliothèque Nationale in +Paris, and professor of palaeography at the École des Chartes. +In 1849 he became librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau. +He edited several of his brother’s works, and was also author of +original works on philological and historical subjects, among +which may be mentioned <i>Nouvelles recherches sur les patois ou +idiomes vulgaires de la France</i> (1809), <i>Annales de Lagides</i> (1819) +and <i>Chartes latines sur papyrus du VI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle de l’ère chrétienne</i>. +His son <span class="sc">Aimé</span> (1812-1894) became his father’s assistant at the +Bibliothèque Nationale, and besides a number of works on +historical subjects wrote a biographical and bibliographical study +of his family in <i>Les Deux Champollion</i> (Grenoble, 1887).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANCE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (through the O. Fr. <i>chéance</i>, from the Late Lat. +<i>cadentia</i>, things happening, from <i>cadere</i>, to fall out, happen; +cf. “case”), an accident or event, a phenomenon which has no +apparent or discoverable cause; hence an event which has not +been expected, a piece of good or bad fortune. From the popular +idea that anything of which no assignable cause is known has +therefore no cause, chance (Gr. <span class="grk" title="tuchê">τύχη</span>) was regarded as having a +substantial objective existence, being itself the source of such +uncaused phenomena. For the philosophic theories relating to +this subject see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accidentalism</a></span>.</p> + +<p>“Chance,” in the theory of probability, is used in two ways. +In the stricter, or mathematical usage, it is synonymous with +probability; <i>i.e.</i> if a particular event may occur in <i>n</i> ways in an +aggregate of <i>p</i> events, then the “chance” of the particular event +occurring is given by the fraction <i>n/p</i>. In the second usage, the +“chance” is regarded as the ratio of the number of ways which +a particular event may occur to the number of ways in which it +may not occur; mathematically expressed, this chance is +<i>n/(p-n)</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Probability</a></span>). In the English law relating to gaming +and wagering a distinction is drawn between games of chance +and games of skill (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaming and Wagering</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANCEL<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (through O. Fr. from Lat. plur. <i>cancelli</i>, dim. of +<i>cancer</i>, grating, lattice, probably connected with an Indo-European +root <i>Kar</i>-, to bend; cf. circus, curve, &c.), in the +earliest and strictest sense that part of a church near the altar +occupied by the deacons and sub-deacons assisting the officiating +priest, this space having originally been separated from the rest +of the church by <i>cancelli</i> or lattice work. The word <i>cancelli</i> is +used in classical Latin of a screen, bar or the like, set to mark +off an enclosed space in a building or in an open place. It is +thus used of the bar in a court of justice (Cicero, <i>Verres</i>, ii. 3 seq.). +It is particularly used of the lattice or screen in the ancient +basilica, which separated the <i>bema</i>, or raised tribunal, from the +rest of the building. The use of the name in ecclesiastical +buildings is thus natural, for the altar stood in the place occupied +by the <i>bema</i> in the apse of the basilica. From the screen the +term was early transferred to the space <i>inter cancellos</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the +<i>locus altaris cancellis septus</i>. This railed-off space is now generally +known among Roman Catholics as the “sanctuary,” the +word chancel being little used. In the Church of England, +however, the word chancel survived the Reformation, and is +applied, both in the ecclesiastical and the architectural sense, +to that part of the church occupied by the principal altar or +communion table and by the clergy and singers officiating at the +chief services; it thus includes presbytery, chancel proper and +choir (<i>q.v.</i>), and in this sense, in the case of cathedrals and +other large churches, is often used synonymously with choir. +In this more inclusive sense the early basilican churches had no +chancels, which were a comparatively late development; the +<i>cancelli</i>, <i>e.g.</i> of such a church as San Clemente at Rome are +equivalent not to the “chancel screen” of a medieval church +but to the “altar rails” that divide off the sanctuary. In +churches of the type that grew to its perfection in the middle +ages the chancels are clearly differentiated from the nave by +structural features: by the raising of the floor level, by the +presence of a “chancel arch,” and by a chancel or rood screen +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rood</a></span>). The chancel screen might be no more than a low +barrier, some 4 ft. high, or a light structure of wood or wrought +iron; sometimes, however, they were massive stone screens, +which in certain cases were continued on either side between the +piers of the choir and (on the European continent) round the +east end of the sanctuary, as in the cathedrals of Paris, Bourges, +Limoges, Amiens and Chartres. These screens served the +purpose, in collegiate and conventual churches, of cutting off +the space reserved for the services conducted for and by the +members of the chapter or community. For popular services a +second high altar was usually set up to the west of the screen, +as formerly at Westminster Abbey. In parish churches the +screen was set, partly to differentiate the space occupied by the +clergy from that reserved for the laity, partly to support the +representation of the crucifixion known as the Rood. In these +churches, too, the chancel is very usually structurally differentiated +by being narrower and, sometimes, less high than the nave.</p> + +<p>In the Church of England, the duty of repairing the chancel +falls upon the parson by custom, while the repair of the body +of the church falls on the parishioners. In particular cases, +as in certain London churches, the parishioners also have to +repair the chancel. Where there are both a rector and a vicar +the repairs are shared between them, and this is also the case +where the rector is a lay impropriator. By the rubric of the +English Prayer Book “the chancels shall remain as they have +done in times past,” <i>i.e.</i> distinguished from the body of the +church by some partition sufficient to separate the two without +interfering with the view of the congregation. At the Reformation, +and for some time after, this distinction was regarded by +the dominant Puritan party as a mark of sacerdotalism, and +services were commonly said in other parts of the church, the +chancels being closed and disused. The rubric, however, directs +that “’Morning and Evening Prayer’ shall be used in the +accustomed place in the church, chapel or chancel, except it +shall be otherwise determined by the Ordinary.” Chancel screens, +with or without gates, are lawful, but chancellors of dioceses +have refused to grant a faculty to erect gates, as unnecessary or +inexpedient.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANCELLOR<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. <i>canceler</i>, <i>chanceler</i>, Fr. +<i>chancelier</i>, Lat. <i>cancellarius</i>), an official title used by most of the +peoples whose civilization has arisen directly or indirectly out of +the Roman empire. At different times and in different countries +it has stood and stands for very various duties, and has been, and +is, borne by officers of various degrees of dignity. The original +chancellors were the <i>cancelarii</i> of Roman courts of justice, +ushers who sat at the <i>cancelli</i> or lattice work screens of a +“basilica” or law court, which separated the judge and counsel +from the audience (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancel</a></span>). In the later Eastern empire +the <i>cancellarii</i> were promoted at first to notarial duties. The +barbarian kingdoms which arose on the ruin of the empire in the +West copied more or less intelligently the Roman model in all +their judicial and financial administration. Under the Frankish +kings of the Merovingian dynasty the <i>cancellarii</i> were subordinates +of the great officer of state called the <i>referendarius</i>, +who was the predecessor of the more modern chancellor. The +office became established under the form <i>archi-cancellarius</i>, or +chief of the <i>cancellarii</i>. Stubbs says that the Carolingian +chancellor was the royal notary and the arch-chancellor keeper +of the royal seal. His functions would naturally be discharged +by a cleric in times when book learning was mainly confined to +the clergy. From the reign of Louis the Pious the post was held +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span> +by a bishop. By an equally natural process he became the chief +secretary of the king and of the queen, who also had her chancellor. +Such an office possessed an obvious capacity for developing on +the judicial as well as the administrative side. Appeals and +petitions of aggrieved persons would pass through the chancellor’s +hands, as well as the political correspondence of the king. Nor +was the king the only man who had need of a chancellor. Great +officers and corporations also had occasion to employ an agent to +do secretarial, notarial and judicial work for them, and called +him by the convenient name of chancellor. The history of the +office in its many adaptations to public and private service is the +history of its development on judicial, administrative, political, +secretarial and notarial lines.</p> + +<p>The model of the Carolingian court was followed by the +medieval states of Western Europe. In England the office of +chancellor dates back to the reign of Edward the Confessor, +the first English king to use the Norman practice +<span class="sidenote">The chancellor in England.</span> +of sealing instead of signing documents; and from the +Norman Conquest onwards the succession of chancellors +is continuous. The chancellor was originally, and long continued +to be, an ecclesiastic, who combined the functions of the most +dignified of the royal chaplains, the king’s secretary in secular +matters, and keeper of the royal seal. From the first, then, +though at the outset overshadowed by that of the justiciar, the +office of chancellor was one of great influence and importance. +As chaplain the chancellor was keeper of the king’s conscience; +as secretary he enjoyed the royal confidence in secular affairs; +as keeper of the seal he was necessary to all formal expressions +of the royal will. By him and his staff of chaplains the whole +secretarial work of the royal household was conducted, the +accounts were kept under the justiciar and treasurer, writs were +drawn up and sealed, and the royal correspondence was carried on. +He was, in fact, as Stubbs puts it, a sort of secretary of state for +all departments. “This is he,” wrote John of Salisbury (d. 1180), +“who cancels (<i>cancellat</i>) the evil laws of the realm, and +makes equitable (<i>aequa</i>) the commands of a pious prince,” a +curious anticipation of the chancellor’s later equitable jurisdiction. +Under Henry II., indeed, the chancellor was already +largely employed in judicial work, either in attendance on the +king or in provincial visitations; though the peculiar jurisdiction +of the chancery was of later growth. By this time, however, +the chancellor was “great alike in Curia and Exchequer”; he +was <i>secundus a rege</i>, <i>i.e.</i> took precedence immediately after the +justiciar, and nothing was done either in the Curia or the exchequer +without his consent. So great was his office that William +FitzStephen, the biographer of Becket, tells us that it was not +purchasable (<i>emenda non est</i>), a statement which requires modification, +since it was in fact more than once sold under Henry I., +Stephen, Richard and John (Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist.</i> i. pp. 384-497; +Gneist, <i>Const. Hist. of England</i>, p. 219), an evil precedent which +was, however, not long followed.</p> + +<p>The judicial duties of the chancellor grew out of the fact that +all petitions addressed to the king passed through his hands. +The number and variety of these became so great that in 1280, +under Edward I., an ordinance was issued directing the chancellor +and the justices to deal with the greater number of them; those +which involved the use of the great seal being specially referred +to the chancellor. The chancellor and justices were to determine +which of them were “so great, and of grace, that the chancellor +and others would not despatch them without the king,” and these +the chancellor and other chief ministers were to carry in person to +the king (Stubbs ii. 263, note, and p. 268). At this period the +chancellor, though employed in equity, had ministerial functions +only; but when, in the reign of Edward III., the chancellor +ceased to follow the court, his tribunal acquired a more definite +character, and petitions for grace and favour began to be addressed +primarily to him, instead of being merely examined and +passed on by him to the king; and in the twenty-second year of +this reign matters which were of grace were definitely committed +to the chancellor for decision. This is the starting-point of +the equitable jurisdiction of the chancellor, whence developed +that immense body of rules, supplementing the deficiencies or +modifying the harshness of the common law, which is known +as Equity (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The position of the chancellor as speaker or prolocutor of the +House of Lords dates from the time when the ministers of the +royal Curia formed <i>ex officio</i> a part of the <i>commune +concilium</i> and parliament. The chancellor originally +<span class="sidenote">The chancellor in parliament.</span> +attended with the other officials, and he continued to +attend <i>ex officio</i> after they had ceased to do so. If he +chanced to be a bishop, he was summoned regularly <i>qua</i> bishop; +otherwise he attended without summons. When not a peer the +chancellor had no place in parliament except as chancellor, and +the act of 31 Henry VIII. cap. 10 (1539) laid down that, if not +a peer, he had “no interest to give any assent or dissent in +the House.” Yet Sir Robert Bourchier (d. 1349), the first lay +chancellor, had protested in 1341 against the first statute of 15 +Edward III. (on trial by peers, &c.), on the ground that it had not +received his assent and was contrary to the laws of the realm. +From the time, however, of William, Lord Cowper (first lord +high chancellor of Great Britain in 1705, created Baron Cowper +in 1706), all chancellors have been made peers on their elevation +to the woolsack. Sometimes the custody of the great seal has +been transferred from the chancellor to a special official, the lord +keeper of the great seal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Keeper</a></span>); this was notably +the case under Queen Elizabeth (cf. the French <i>garde des sceaux</i>, +below). Sometimes it is put into commission, being affixed by +lords commissioners of the great seal. By the Catholic Emancipation +Act of 1829 it was enacted that none of these offices could +be held by a Roman Catholic (see further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord High +Chancellor</a></span>). The office of lord chancellor of Ireland, and that +of chancellor of Scotland (who ceased to be appointed after the +Act of Union of 1707) followed the same lines of development.</p> + +<p>The title of chancellor, without the predicates “high” or +“lord,” is also applied in the United Kingdom to a number of +other officials and functionaries of varying rank and +importance. Of these the most important is the +<span class="sidenote">Chancellor of the exchequer.</span> +chancellor of the exchequer, an office which originated +in the separation of the chancery from the exchequer +in the reign of Henry III. (1216-1272). His duties consisted +originally in the custody and employment of the seal of the +exchequer, in the keeping of a counter-roll to check the roll kept +by the treasurer, and in the discharge of certain judicial functions +in the exchequer of account. So long as the treasury board was +in active working, the chancellorship of the exchequer was an +office of small importance, and even during a great part of the +19th century was not necessarily a cabinet office, unless held in +conjunction with that of first lord of the treasury. At the present +time the chancellor of the exchequer is minister of finance, and +therefore always of cabinet rank (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exchequer</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster is the representative +of the crown in the management of its lands and the control +of its courts in the duchy of Lancaster, the property +of which is scattered over several counties. These +<span class="sidenote">Chancellor of the duchy.</span> +lands and privileges, though their inheritance has +always been vested in the king and his heirs, have +always been kept distinct from the hereditary revenues of the +sovereign, whose palatine rights as duke of Lancaster were +distinct from his rights as king. The Judicature Act of 1873 left +only the chancery court of the duchy, but the chancellor can +appoint and dismiss the county court judges within the limits +of the duchy; he is responsible also for the land revenues of +the duchy, which are the private property of the sovereign, +and keeps the seal of the duchy. His appointment is by letters +patent, and his salary is derived from the revenue of the duchy. +As the judicial and estate work is done by subordinate officials, +the office is practically a sinecure and is usually given to a minister +whose assistance is necessary to a government, but who for one +reason or another cannot undertake the duties of an important +department. John Bright described him as the maid-of-all-work +of the cabinet.</p> + +<p>The chancellor of a diocese is the official who presides over +the bishop’s court and exercises jurisdiction in his name. +This use of the word is comparatively modern, and, though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span> +employed in acts of parliament, is not mentioned in the commission, +<span class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical chancellors.</span> +having apparently been adopted on the analogy of the +like title in the state. The chancellor was originally +the keeper of the archbishop or bishop’s seals; but +the office, as now understood, includes two other +offices distinguished in the commission by the titles +of vicar-general and official principal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical +Jurisdiction</a></span>). The chancellor of a diocese must be distinguished +from the chancellor of a cathedral, whose office is the +same as that of the ancient <i>scholasticus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The chancellor of an order of knighthood discharges notarial +duties and keeps the seal. The chancellor of a university is +an official of medieval origin. The appointment was +originally made by the popes, and the office from the +<span class="sidenote">Academic, &c.</span> +first was one of great dignity and originally of great +power. The chancellor was, as he remains, the head of the +university; he had the general superintendence of its studies +and of its discipline, could make and unmake laws, try and +punish offences, appoint to professorial chairs and admit students +to the various degrees (see Du Cange, s. “<i>Cancellarii Academiarum</i>”). +In England the chancellorship of the universities +is now a more or less ornamental office and is conferred on noblemen +or statesmen of distinction, whose principal function is to +look after the general interests of the university, especially +in its relations with the government. The chancellor is represented +in the university by a vice-chancellor, who performs the +administrative and judicial functions of the office. In the United +States the heads of certain educational establishments have +the title of chancellor. In Scotland the foreman of a jury is +called its chancellor. In the United States the chancellors are +judges of the chancery courts of the states, <i>e.g.</i> Delaware and +New Jersey, where these courts are still maintained as distinct +from the courts of common law. In other states, <i>e.g.</i> New York +since 1847, the title has been abolished, and there is no federal +chancellor.</p> + +<p>In diplomacy generally the chancellor of an embassy or +legation is an official attached to the suite of an ambassador or +minister. He performs the functions of a secretary, archivist, +notary and the like, and is at the head of the chancery, or +chancellery (Fr. <i>chancellerie</i>), of the mission. The functions +of this office are the transcribing and registering of official +despatches and other documents, and generally the transaction +of all the minor business, <i>e.g.</i> marriages, passports and the like, +connected with the duties of a diplomatic agent towards his +nationals in a foreign country. The dignified connotation of the +title chancellor has given to this office a prestige which in itself +it does not deserve; and “chancery” or “chancellery” is +commonly used as though it were synonymous with embassy, +while diplomatic style is sometimes called <i>style de chancellerie</i>, +though as a matter of fact the chanceries have nothing to do +with it.</p> + +<p><i>France.</i>—The country in which the office of chancellor followed +most closely the same lines as in England is France. He had +become a great officer under the Carolingians, and he grew still +greater under the Capetian sovereigns. The great chancellor, +<i>summus cancellarius</i> or <i>archi-cancellarius</i>, was a dignitary who +had indeed little real power. The post was commonly filled by +the archbishop of Reims, or the bishop of Paris. The <i>cancellarius</i>, +who formed part of the royal court and administration, was +officially known as the <i>sub-cancellarius</i> in relation to the <i>summus +cancellarius</i>, but as <i>proto-cancellarius</i> in regard to his subordinate +<i>cancellarii</i>. He was a very great officer, an ecclesiastic who was +the chief of the king’s chaplains or king’s clerks, who administered +all ecclesiastical affairs; he had judicial powers, and from the +12th century had the general control of foreign affairs. The +chancellor in fact became so great that the Capetian kings, who +did not forget the mayor of the palace, grew afraid of him. +Few of the early ecclesiastical chancellors failed to come into +collision with the king, or parted with him on good terms. +Philip Augustus suspended the chancellorship throughout the +whole of his reign, and appointed a keeper of the seals (<i>garde +des sceaux</i>). The office was revived under Louis VIII., but the +ecclesiastical chancellorship was finally suppressed in 1227. +The king of the 13th century employed only keepers of the seal. +Under the reign of Philip IV. le Bel lay chancellors were first +appointed. From the reign of Charles V. to that of Louis XI. the +French <i>chancelier</i> was elected by the royal council. In the 16th +century he became irremovable, a distinction more honourable +than effective, for though the king could not dismiss him from +office he could, and on some occasions did, deprive him of the +right to exercise his functions, and entrusted them to a keeper of +the seal. The <i>chancelier</i> from the 13th century downwards was +the head of the law, and performed the duties which are now +entrusted to the minister of justice. His office was abolished +when in 1790 the whole judicial system of France was swept +away by the Revolution. The smaller <i>chanceliers</i> of the provincial +parlements and royal courts disappeared at the same time. But +when Napoleon was organizing the empire he created an arch-chancellor, +an office which was imitated rather from the <i>Erz-Kanzler</i> +of the Holy Roman Empire than from the old French +<i>chancelier</i>. At the Restoration the office of chancellor of France +was restored, the chancellor being president of the House of +Peers, but it was finally abolished at the revolution of 1848. +The administration of the Legion of Honour is presided over by +a <i>grand chancelier</i>, who is a grand cross of the order, and who +advises the head of the state in matters concerning the affairs +of the order. The title of <i>chancelier</i> continues also to be used +in France for the large class of officials who discharge notarial +duties in some public offices, in embassies and consulates. They +draw up diplomas and prepare all formal documents, and have +charge of the registration and preservation of the archives.</p> + +<p><i>Spain.</i>—In Spain the office of chancellor, <i>canciller</i>, was introduced +by Alphonso VII. (1126-1157), who adopted it from the +court of his cousins of the Capetian dynasty of France. The +<i>canciller</i> did not in Spain go beyond being the king’s notary. +The chancellor of the privy seal, <i>canciller del sello de la puridad</i> +(literally the secret seal), was the king’s secretary, and sealed +all papers other than diplomas and charters. The office was +abolished in 1496, and its functions were transferred to the royal +secretaries. The <i>cancelario</i> was the chancellor of a university. +The <i>canciller</i> succeeded the <i>maesescuela</i> or <i>scholasticus</i> of a church +or monastery. <i>Canciller mayor de Castilla</i> is an honorary title +of the archbishops of Toledo. The <i>gran canciller de las Indias</i>, +high chancellor of the Indies, held the seal used for the American +dominions of Spain, and presided at the council in the absence +of the president. The office disappeared with the loss of Spain’s +empire in America.</p> + +<p><i>Italy, Germany, &c.</i>—In central and northern Europe, and in +Italy, the office had different fortunes. In southern Italy, where +Naples and Sicily were feudally organized, the chancellors of +the Norman kings, who followed Anglo-Norman precedents very +closely, and, at least in Sicily, employed Englishmen, were such +officers as were known in the West. The similarity is somewhat +concealed by the fact that these sovereigns also adopted names +and offices from the imperial court at Constantinople. Their +chancellor was officially known as Protonotary and Logothete, +and their example was followed by the German princes of the +Hohenstaufen family, who acquired the kingdoms of Naples and +Sicily. The papal or apostolic chancery is dealt with in the +article on the Curia Romana (<i>q.v.</i>). It may be pointed out here, +however, that the close connexion of the papacy with the Holy +Roman Empire is illustrated by the fact that the archbishop +of Cologne, who by right of his see was the emperor’s arch-chancellor +(<i>Erz-Kanzler</i>) for Italy, was confirmed as papal arch-chancellor +by a bull of Leo IX. in 1052. The origin and duration +of this connexion are, however, obscure; it appears to have +ceased before 1187. The last record of a papal chancellor in +the middle ages dates from 1212, from which time onward, for +reasons much disputed, the head of the papal chancery bore +the title vice-chancellor (Hinschius i. 439), until the office of +chancellor was restored by the constitution <i>Sapientius</i> of Pius X. +in 1908.</p> + +<p>The title of arch-chancellor (<i>Erz-Kanzler</i>) was borne by three +great ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Holy Roman Empire. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span> +The archbishop of Mainz was arch-chancellor for Germany. +The archbishop of Cologne held the dignity for Italy, and the +archbishop of Trier for Gaul and the kingdom of Arles. The +second and third of these dignities became purely formal with +the decline of the Empire in the 13th century. But the arch-chancellorship +of Germany remained to some extent a reality +till the Empire was finally dissolved in 1806. The office continued +to be attached to the archbishopric of Mainz, which was an +electorate. Karl von Dalberg, the last holder of the office, and +the first prince primate of the Confederation of the Rhine, +continued to act in show at least as chancellor of that body, +and was after a fashion the predecessor of the <i>Bundes Kanzler</i>, +or chancellor of the North German Confederation. The duties +imposed on the imperial chancery by the very complicated +constitution of the Empire were, however, discharged by a vice-chancellor +who was attached to the court of the emperor. The +abbot of Fulda was chancellor to the empress.</p> + +<p>The house of Austria in their hereditary dominions, and in +those of their possessions which they treated as hereditary, +even where the sovereignty was in theory elective, made a large +and peculiar use of the title chancellor. The officers so called +were of course distinct from the arch-chancellor and vice-chancellor +of the Empire, although the imperial crown became +in practice hereditary in the house of Habsburg. In the family +states their administration was, to use a phrase familiar to the +French, “polysynodic.” As it was when fully developed, and +as it remained until the March revolution of 1848, it was +conducted through boards presided over by a chancellor. There +were three aulic chancellorships for the internal affairs of their +dominions, “a united aulic chancellorship for all parts of the +empire (<i>i.e.</i> of Austria, not the Holy Roman) not belonging to +Hungary or Transylvania, and a separate chancellorship for +each of those last-mentioned provinces” (Hartig, <i>Genesis of +the Revolution in Austria</i>). There were also a house, a court, and +a state chancellor for the business of the imperial household +and foreign affairs, who were not, however, the presidents of a +board. These “aulic” (<i>i.e.</i> court) officers were in fact secretaries +of the sovereign, and administrative or political rather than +judicial in character, though the boards over which they presided +controlled judicial as well as administrative affairs. In the case of +such statesmen as Kaunitz and Metternich, who were house, +court, and state chancellors as well as “united aulic” chancellors, +the combination of offices made them in practice prime ministers, +or rather lieutenants-general, of the sovereign. The system +was subject to modifications, and in the end it broke down +under its own complications. We are not dealing here with +the confusing history of the Austrian administration, and these +details are only quoted to show how it happened that in Austria +the title chancellor came to mean a political officer and minister. +There is obviously a vast difference between such an official +as Kaunitz, who as house, court, and state chancellor was +minister of foreign affairs, and as “united aulic” chancellor had a +general superiority over the whole machinery of government, and +the lord high chancellor in England, the <i>chancelier</i> in France, or +the <i>canciller mayor</i> in Castile, though the title was the same. The +development of the office in Austria must be understood in order +to explain the position and functions of the imperial chancellor +(<i>Reichs Kanzler</i>) of the modern German empire. Although the +present empire is sometimes rhetorically and absurdly spoken of +as a revival of the medieval Empire, it is in reality an adaptation +of the Austrian empire, which was a continuation under a new +name of the hereditary Habsburg monarchy. The <i>Reichs Kanzler</i> +is the immediate successor of the <i>Bundes Kanzler</i>, or chancellor +of the North German Confederation (<i>Bund</i>). But the <i>Bundes +Kanzler</i>, who bore no sort of resemblance except in mere +name to the <i>Erz-Kanzler</i> of the old Empire, was in a position +not perhaps actually like that of Prince Kaunitz, but capable of +becoming much the same thing. When the German empire was +established in 1871 Prince Bismarck, who was <i>Bundes Kanzler</i> +and became <i>Reichs Kanzler</i>, took care that his position should +be as like as possible to that of Prince Kaunitz or Prince Metternich. +The constitution of the German empire is separately +dealt with, but it may be pointed out here that the <i>Reichs +Kanzler</i> is the federal minister of the empire, the chief of the +federal officials, and a great political officer, who directs the +foreign affairs, and superintends the internal affairs, of the +empire.</p> + +<p>In these German states the title of chancellor is also given as +in France to government and diplomatic officials who do notarial +duties and have charge of archives. The title of chancellor has +naturally been widely used in the German and Scandinavian +states, and in Russia since the reign of Peter the Great. It has +there as elsewhere wavered between being a political and a +judicial office. Frederick the Great of Prussia created a <i>Gross +Kanzler</i> for judicial duties in 1746. But there was in Prussia +a state chancellorship on the Austrian model. It was allowed +to lapse on the death of Hardenberg in 1822. The Prussian +chancellor after his time was one of the four court ministries +(<i>Hofämter</i>) of the Prussian monarchy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Cancellarius”; +W. Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist. of England</i> (1874-1878); Rudolph Gneist, +<i>Hist. of the English Constitution</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1891); +L.O. Pike, <i>Const. Hist. of the House of Lords</i> (London, 1894); +Sir William R. Anson, <i>The Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>, +vol. ii. part i. (Oxford, 1907); A. Luchaire, <i>Manuel des institutions +françaises</i> (Paris, 1892); K.F. Stumpf, <i>Die Reichs Kanzler</i> (3 vols., +Innsbruck, 1865-1873); G. Sceliger, <i>Erzkanzler und Reichskanzleien</i> +(ib. 1889); P. Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i> (Berlin, 1869); Sir R.J. +Phillimore, <i>Eccles. Law</i> (London, 1895); P. Pradier-Fodéré, <i>Cours +de droit diplomatique</i>, ii. 542 (Paris, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANCELLORSVILLE,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a village of Spottsylvania county, +Virginia, U.S.A., situated almost midway between Washington +and Richmond. It was the central point of one of the greatest +battles of the Civil War, fought on the 2nd and 3rd of May 1863, +between the Union Army of the Potomac under Major-General +Hooker, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia under +General Lee. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness</a></span>.) +General “Stonewall” Jackson was mortally wounded in this +battle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANCE-MEDLEY<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (from the A.-Fr. <i>chance-medlée</i>, a mixed +chance, and not from <i>chaude-medlée</i>, a hot affray), an accident +of a mixed character, an old term in English law for a form of +homicide arising out of a sudden affray or quarrel. The homicide +has not the characteristic of “malice prepense” which would +raise the death to murder, nor the completely accidental nature +which would reduce it to homicide by misadventure. It was +practically identical, therefore, with manslaughter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANCERY,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> in English law, the court of the lord chancellor +of England, consolidated in 1873 along with the other superior +courts in the Supreme Court of Judicature. Its origin is noticed +under the head of Chancellor.</p> + +<p>It has been customary to say that the court of chancery +consists of two distinct tribunals—one a court of common law, +the other a court of equity. From the former have issued all +the original writs passing under the great seal, all commissions +of sewers, lunacy, and the like—some of these writs being originally +kept in a <i>hanaper</i> or hamper (whence the “hanaper office”), +and others in a little sack or bag (whence the “petty-bag office”). +The court had likewise power to hold pleas upon <i>scire facias</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) +for repeal of letters patent, &c. “So little,” says Blackstone, +“is commonly done on the common law side of the court that +I have met with no traces of any writ of error being actually +brought since the fourteenth year of Queen Elizabeth.”</p> + +<p>The equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was +founded on the supposed superiority of conscience and equity +over the strict law. The appearance of equity in England is in +harmony with the general course of legal history in progressive +societies. What is remarkable is that, instead of being incorporated +with or superseding the common law, it gave rise to a +wholly independent set of tribunals. The English dislike of the +civil law, and the tendency to follow precedent which has never +ceased to characterize English lawyers, account for this unfortunate +separation. The claims of equity in its earlier stages +are well expressed in the little treatise called <i>Doctor and Student</i>, +published in the reign of Henry VIII.:—“Conscience never +resisteth the law nor addeth to it, but only when the law is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span> +directly in itself against the <i>law of God</i>, or <i>law of reason</i>.” So also +King James, speaking in the Star Chamber, says: “Where the +rigour of the law in many cases will undo a subject, then the +chancery tempers the law with equity, and so mixes mercy with +justice, as it preserves a man from destruction.” This theory +of the essential opposition between law and equity, and of the +natural superiority of the latter, remained long after equity had +ceased to found itself on natural justice, and had become as +fixed and rigid as the common law itself. The jealousy of the +common lawyers came to a head in the time of Lord Ellesmere, +when Coke disputed the right of the chancery to give relief +against a judgment of the court of queen’s bench obtained +by gross fraud and imposition. James I., after consultation, +decided in favour of the court of equity. The substitution of +lay for clerical chancellors is regarded by G. Spence (<i>Equitable +Jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery</i>, 2 vols., 1846-1849) as having +at first been unfortunate, inasmuch as the laymen were ignorant +of the principles on which their predecessors had acted. Lord +Nottingham (1621-1682) is usually credited with the first attempt +to reduce the decisions of the court to order, and his work was +continued by Lord Hardwicke (1690-1764). By the time of +Lord Eldon equity had become fixed, and the judges, like their +brethren in the common law courts, strictly followed the precedents. +Henceforward chancery and common law courts have +exhibited the anomaly of two co-ordinate sets of tribunals, +empowered to deal with the same matters, and compelled to +proceed in many cases on wholly different principles. The court +of chancery could in most cases prevent a person from taking +advantage of a common law right, not approved of by its own +system. But if a suitor chose to go to a court of common law, +he might claim such unjust rights, and it required the special +intervention of the court of equity to prevent his enforcing them. +In many cases also a special application had to be made to +chancery for facilities which were absolutely necessary to the +successful conduct of a case at common law. Another source of +difficulty and annoyance was the uncertainty in many cases +whether the chancery or common law courts were the proper +tribunal, so that a suitor often found at the close of an expensive +and protracted suit that he had mistaken his court and must go +elsewhere for relief. Attempts more or less successful were made to +lessen those evils by giving the powers to both sets of courts; but +down to the consolidation effected by the Judicature Act, the +English judicial system justified the sarcasm of Lord Westbury, +that one tribunal was set up to do injustice and another to stop it.</p> + +<p>The equitable jurisdiction of chancery was commonly divided +into <i>exclusive</i>, <i>concurrent</i> and <i>auxiliary</i>. Chancery had exclusive +jurisdiction when there were no forms of action by which relief +could be obtained at law, in respect of rights which ought to be +enforced. Trusts were the most conspicuous example of this +class. It also included the rights of married women, infants +and lunatics. Chancery had concurrent jurisdiction when the +common law did not give <i>adequate</i> relief, <i>e.g.</i> in cases of fraud, +accident, mistake, specific performance of contracts, &c. It had +auxiliary jurisdiction when the administrative machinery of the +law courts was unable to procure the necessary evidence.</p> + +<p>The Judicature Act 1873 enacted (§ 24) that in every civil +cause or matter commenced in the High Court of Justice, law +and equity should be administered by the High Court of Justice +and the court of appeal respectively, according to the rules therein +contained, which provide for giving effect in all cases to “equitable +rights and other matters of equity.” The 25th section +declared the law hereafter to be administered in England on +certain points, and ordained that “generally in all matters not +hereinbefore particularly mentioned in which there is any conflict +or variance between the rules of equity and the rules of +the common law with reference to the same matter, the rules +of equity shall prevail.” The 34th section specifically assigned +to the chancery division the following causes and matters:—The +administration of the estates of deceased persons; the +dissolution of partnerships, or the taking of partnership, or +other accounts; the redemption or foreclosure of mortgages; +the raising of portions, or other charges on land; the sale +and distribution of the proceeds of property subject to any +lien or charge; the execution of trusts, charitable or private; +the rectification, or setting aside, or cancellation of deeds or +other written instruments; the specific performance of contracts +between vendors and purchasers of real estates, including contracts +for leases; the partition or sale of real estates; the wardship +of infants and the care of infants’ estates.</p> + +<p>The chancery division originally consisted of the lord chancellor +as president and the master of the rolls, and the three vice-chancellors. +The master of the rolls was also a member of the +court of appeal, but Sir George Jessel, who held that office when +the new system came into force, regularly sat as a judge of +first instance until 1881, when, by the act of that year (sec. 2), +the master of the rolls became a member of the court of appeal +only, and provision was made for the appointment of a judge +to supply the vacancy thus occasioned (sec. 3). Sir James Bacon +(1798-1895) was the last survivor of the vice-chancellors. He +retained his seat on the bench until the year 1886, when he +retired after more than seventeen years’ judicial service. For +some reason the solicitors, when they had the choice, preferred +to bring their actions in the chancery division. The practice +introduced by the Judicature Act of trying actions with oral +evidence instead of affidavits, and the comparative inexperience +of the chancery judges and counsel in that mode of trial, tended +to lengthen the time required for the disposal of the business. +Demand was consequently made for more judges in the chancery +division. By an act of 1877 the appointment of an additional +judge in that division was authorized, and Sir Edward Fry +(afterwards better known as a lord justice) was appointed. +In August 1899 the crown consented to the appointment of a +new judge of the High Court in the chancery division on an +address from both Houses of Parliament, pursuant to the 87th +section of the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The chancery +division, therefore, consists of the lord chancellor and six puisne +judges. The latter are styled and addressed in the same manner +as was customary in the old common law courts.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Formerly +there were only four judges of this division (being the successors +of the master of the rolls and the three vice-chancellors) to whom +chambers were attached. The fifth judge heard only causes +with witnesses transferred to him from the overflowing of the +lists of his four brethren. In each set of chambers there were +three chief clerks, with a staff of assistant clerks under them. +The chief clerks had no original jurisdiction, but heard applications +only on behalf of the judge to whose chambers they belonged, +and theoretically every suitor had the right to have his application +heard by the judge himself in chambers. But the appointment +of a sixth judge enabled the lord chancellor to carry out +a reform recommended by a departmental committee which +reported in 1885. The great difficulty in the chancery division +always was to secure the continuous hearing of actions with +witnesses, as nearly one-half of the judge’s time was taken up +with cases adjourned to him from chambers and other administrative +business and non-witness actions and motions. The interruption +of a witness action for two or three days, particularly +in a country case, occasioned great expense, and had other +inconveniences. It was a simple remedy to link the judges in +pairs with one list of causes and one set of chambers assigned to +each pair. This reform was effected by the alteration of a few +words in certain rules of court. There are therefore, only three +sets of chambers, each containing four chief clerks, or, as they +are now styled, masters of the Supreme Court, and one of the +linked judges, by arrangement between themselves, continuously +tries the witness actions in their common list, while the other +attends in chambers, and also hears the motions, petitions, +adjourned summonses and non-witness cases.</p> + +<p>Although styled masters it does not appear that the chief +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span> +clerks have any larger or different jurisdiction than they had +before. They are still the representatives of and responsible +to the judges to whom the chambers are attached. The judge +may either hear an application in chambers, or may direct any +matter which he thinks of sufficient importance to be argued +before him in court, or a party may move in court to discharge +an order made in chambers with a view to an appeal, but this is +not required if the judge certifies that the matter was sufficiently +discussed before him in chambers.</p> + +<p>Under the existing rules of court many orders can now be +made on summons in chambers which used formerly to require +a suit or petition in court (see Order LV. as to foreclosure, +administration, payment out of money in court and generally). +The judge is also enabled to decide any particular question arising +in the administration of the estate of a deceased person or execution +of the trusts of a settlement without directing administration +of the whole estate or execution of the trusts generally by the +court (Order LV. rule 10), and where an application for accounts +is made by a dissatisfied beneficiary or creditor to order the +accounts to be delivered out of court, and the application to +stand over till it can be seen what questions (if any) arise upon +the accounts requiring the intervention of the court (Order LV. +2, 10a). Delay and consequent worry and expense are thus +saved to the parties, and, at the same time, a great deal of routine +administration is got rid of and a larger portion of the judicial +term can be devoted to hearing actions and deciding any question +of importance in court. The work of the chambers staff of the +judges has probably been increased; but, on the other hand, +it has been lightened by the removal of the winding-up business. +The chancery division has also inherited from the court of +chancery a staff of registrars and taxing masters.</p> + +<p>In the United States “chancery” is generally used as the +synonym of “equity.” Chancery practice is practice in cases +of equity. Chancery courts are equity courts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equity</a></span>). +For the diplomatic sense of chancery (chancellery) see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancellor</a></span>.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The comte de Franqueville comments on the misuse of the title +“Lord” in addressing judges as another anomaly which only adds to +the confusion, but perhaps unnecessarily. According to Foss (vol. +viii. p. 200) it was only in the 18th century that the judges began to +be addressed by the title of “Your Lordship.” In the Year Books (he +adds) they are constantly addressed by the title of “Sir.” “Sir, +vous voyez bien,” &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDA,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur +division of the Central Provinces. In 1901 the town had a +population of 17,803. It is situated at the junction of the Virai +and Jharpat rivers. It was the capital of the Gond kingdom +of Chanda, which was established on the ruins of a Hindu state +in the 11th or 12th century, and survived until 1751 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gondwana</a></span>). +The town is still surrounded by a stone wall 5½m. in +circuit. It has several old temples and tombs, and the district +at large is rich in remains of antiquity. There are manufactures +of cotton, silk, brass-ware and leather slippers, and a considerable +local trade.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Chanda</span> has an area of 10,156 sq. m. Excepting +in the extreme west, hills are thickly dotted over the country, +sometimes in detached ranges, occasionally in isolated peaks +rising sheer out from the plain. Towards the east they increase +in height, and form a broad tableland, at places 2000 ft. above +sea-level. The Wainganga river flows through the district from +north to south, meeting the Wardha river at Seoni, where their +streams unite to form the Pranhita. Chanda is thickly studded +with fine tanks, or rather artificial lakes, formed by closing the +outlets of small valleys, or by throwing a dam across tracts +intersected by streams. The broad clear sheets of water thus +created are often very picturesque in their surroundings of wood +and rock. The chief architectural objects of interest are the +cave temples at Bhandak, Winjbasani, Dewala and Ghugus; +a rock temple in the bed of the Wardha river below Ballalpur; +the ancient temples at Markandi, Ambgaon and elsewhere; +the forts of Wairagarh and Ballalpur; and the old walls of the +city of Chanda, its system of waterworks, and the tombs of the +Gond kings. In 1901 the population was 601,533, showing a +decrease of 15% in the decade. The principal crops are rice, +millet, pulse, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. The district contains +the coalfield of Warora, which was worked by government till +1906, when it was closed. Other fields are known, and iron ores +also occur. The district suffered severely from famine in 1900, +when in April the number of persons relieved rose to 90,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDAUSI,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Moradabad +district of the United Provinces, 28 m. south of Moradabad. +Pop. (1901) 25,711. It is an important station on the Oudh & +Rohilkhand railway, with a junction for Aligarh. Its chief +exports are of cotton, hemp, sugar and stone. There is a factory +for pressing cotton.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAND BARDAI<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (fl. c. 1200), Hindu poet, was a native of +Lahore, but lived at the court of Prithwi Raja (Prithiraj), the +last Hindu sovereign of Delhi. His <i>Prithiraj Rasau</i>, a poem of +some 100,000 stanzas, chronicling his master’s deeds and the +contemporary history of his part of India, is valuable not only +as historical material but as the earliest monument of the Western +Hindi language, and the first of the long series of bardic +chronicles for which Rajputana is celebrated. It is written in +ballad form, and portions of it are still sung by itinerant bards +throughout north-western India and Rajputana.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lieut.-Col. James Tod, <i>Annals and Antiquities of Rajast’han</i> +(2 vols., London, 1829-1832; repub. by Lalit Mohan Auddy, 2 vols. +ib., 1894-1895), where good translations are given.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDELIER,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a frame of metal, wood, crystal, glass or china, +pendent from roof or ceiling for the purpose of holding lights. +The word is French, but the appliance has lost its original +significance of a candle-holder, the chandelier being now chiefly +used for gas and electric lighting. Clusters of hanging lights +were in use as early as the 14th century, and appear originally +to have been almost invariably of wood. They were, however, +so speedily ruined by grease that metal was gradually subsituted, +and fine and comparatively early examples in beaten +iron, brass, copper and even silver are still extant. Throughout +the 17th century the hanging candle-holder of brass or bronze +was common throughout northern Europe, as innumerable +pictures and engravings testify. In the great periods of the art +of decoration in France many magnificent chandeliers were +made by Boulle, and at a later date by Gouthière and Thomire +and others among the extraordinarily clever <i>fondeurs-ciseleurs</i> +of the second half of the 18th century. The chandelier in rock +crystal and its imitations had come in at least a hundred years +before their day, and continued in favour to the middle of the +19th century, or even somewhat later. It reached at last the +most extreme elaboration of banality, with ropes of pendants +and hanging faceted drops often called lustres. When many +lights were burning in one of these chandeliers an effect of +splendour was produced that was not out of place in a ballroom, +but the ordinary household varieties were extremely ugly and +inartistic. The more purely domestic chandelier usually carries +from two to six lights. The rapidly growing use of electricity +as an illuminating medium and the preference for smaller clusters +of lights have, however, pushed into the background an appliance +which had grown extremely commonplace in design, and +had become out of character with modern ideas of household +decoration.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDERNAGORE,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chandarnagar</span>, a French settlement +in India, with a small adjoining territory, situated on the right +bank of the river Hugli, 20 m. above Calcutta, in 22° 51′ 40″ N, +and 88° 24′ 50″ E. Area 3 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 25,000. Chandernagore +has played an important part in the European history of +Bengal. It became a permanent French settlement, in 1688, but +did not rise to any importance till the time of Dupleix, during +whose administration more than two thousand brick houses were +erected in the town and a considerable maritime trade was carried +on. In 1757 Chandernagore was bombarded by an English fleet +under Admiral Watson and captured; the fortifications and +houses were afterwards demolished. On peace being established +the town was restored to the French in 1763. When hostilities +afterwards broke out in 1794, it was again taken possession of by +the English, and was held by them till 1816, when it was a second +time given up to the French; it has ever since remained in their +possession. All the former commercial grandeur of Chandernagore +has now passed away, and at present it is little more +than a quiet suburb of Calcutta, without any external trade. The +European town is situated at the bottom of a beautiful reach of +the Hugli, with clean wide thoroughfares, and many elegant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span> +residences along the river-bank. The authorities of Chandernagore +are subject to the jurisdiction of the governor-general of +Pondicherry, to whom is confided the general government of +all the French possessions in India.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1828-1889), English scholar, +was born in London on the 31st of January 1828. In 1848 he +entered Pembroke College, Oxford, where he was elected fellow +in 1853. In 1867 he succeeded H.L. Mansel as Waynflete professor +of moral and metaphysical philosophy, and in 1884 was +appointed curator of the Bodleian library. He died by his own +hand in Oxford on the 16th of May 1889. He was chiefly known +as an Aristotelian scholar, and his knowledge of the Greek commentators +on Aristotle was profound. He collected a vast amount +of material for an edition of the fragments of his favourite author, +but on the appearance of Valentine Rose’s work in 1886 he +abandoned the idea. Two works on the bibliography of Aristotle, +<i>A Catalogue of Editions of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and of +Works illustrative of them printed in the 15th century</i> (1868), and +<i>A Chronological Index to Editions of Aristotle’s Nicomachean +Ethics, and of Works illustrative of them from the Origin of Printing +to 1799</i> (1878), are of great value. Chandler’s collection of works +on Aristotelian literature is now in the library of Pembroke +College. His <i>Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation</i> (1862, +ed. min. 1877) is the standard work in English.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDLER, RICHARD<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1738-1810), British antiquary, was +born in 1738 at Elson in Hampshire, and educated at Winchester +and at Queen’s and Magdalen Colleges, Oxford. His first work +consisted of fragments from the minor Greek poets, with notes +(<i>Elegiaca Graeca</i>, 1759); and in 1763 he published a fine edition +of the Arundelian marbles, <i>Marmora Oxoniensia</i>, with a Latin +translation, and a number of suggestions for supplying the lacunae. +He was sent by the Dilettanti Society with Nicholas Revett, +an architect, and Pars, a painter, to explore the antiquities of +Ionia and Greece (1763-1766); and the result of their work was +the two magnificent folios of Ionian antiquities published in 1769. +He subsequently held several church preferments, including the +rectory of Tylehurst, in Berkshire, where he died on the 9th of +February 1810. Other works by Chandler were <i>Inscriptiones +Antiquae pleraeque nondum editae</i> (Oxford, 1774); <i>Travels in +Asia Minor</i> (1775); <i>Travels in Greece</i> (1776); <i>History of Ilium</i> +(1803), in which he asserted the accuracy of Homer’s geography. +His <i>Life of Bishop Waynflete</i>, lord high chancellor to Henry VI., +appeared in 1811.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition (with notes by Revett) of the <i>Travels in Asia +Minor and Greece</i> was published by R. Churton (Oxford, 1825), with +an “Account of the Author.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDLER, SAMUEL<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1693-1766), English Nonconformist +divine, was born in 1693 at Hungerford, in Berkshire, where his +father was a minister. He was sent to school at Gloucester, +where he began a lifelong friendship with Bishop Butler and +Archbishop Secker; and he afterwards studied at Leiden. His +talents and learning were such that he was elected fellow of the +Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and was made D.D. of Edinburgh +and Glasgow. He also received offers of high preferment in +the Church of England. These he refused, remaining to the end +of his life in the position of a Presbyterian minister. He was +moderately Calvinistic in his views and leaned towards Arianism. +He took a leading part in the deist controversies of the time, and +discussed with some of the bishops the possibility of an act of +comprehension. From 1716 to 1726 he preached at Peckham, and +for forty years he was pastor of a meeting-house in Old Jewry. +During two or three years, having fallen into pecuniary distress +through the failure of the South Sea scheme, he kept a book-shop +in the Poultry. On the death of George II. in 1760 Chandler +published a sermon in which he compared that king to King David. +This view was attacked in a pamphlet entitled <i>The History of the +Man after God’s own Heart</i>, in which the author complained of the +parallel as an insult to the late king, and, following Pierre Bayle, +exhibited King David as an example of perfidy, lust and cruelty. +Chandler condescended to reply first in a review of the tract +(1762) and then in <i>A Critical History of the Life of David</i>, which is +perhaps the best of his productions. This work was just completed +when he died, on the 8th of May 1766. He left 4 vols. of +sermons (1768), and a paraphrase of the Epistles to the Galatians +and Ephesians (1777), several works on the evidences of Christianity, +and various pamphlets against Roman Catholicism.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1813-1879), American politician, +was born at Bedford, New Hampshire, on the 10th of December +1813. In 1833 he removed to Detroit, Michigan, where he became +a prosperous dry-goods merchant. He took a prominent part as +a Whig in politics (serving as mayor in 1851), and, impelled by +his strong anti-slavery views, actively furthered the work of +the “Underground Railroad,” of which Detroit was one of the +principal “transfer” points. He was one of the organizers in +Michigan of the Republican party, and in 1857 succeeded Lewis +Cass in the United States Senate, serving until 1875, and at once +taking his stand with the most radical opponents of slavery +extension. When the Civil War became inevitable he endeavoured +to impress upon the North the necessity of taking extraordinary +measures for the preservation of the Union. After the fall of +Fort Sumter he advocated the enlistment of 500,000 instead of +75,000 men for a long instead of a short term, and the vigorous +enforcement of confiscation measures. In July 1862 he made a +bitter attack in the Senate on General George B. McClellan, +charging him with incompetency and lack of “nerve.” Throughout +the war he allied himself with the most radical of the Republican +faction in opposition to President Lincoln’s policy, and +subsequently became one of the bitterest opponents of President +Johnson’s plan of reconstruction. From October 1875 to March +1877 he was secretary of the interior in the cabinet of President +Grant, succeeding Columbus Delano (1809-1896). In 1876, as +chairman of the national republican committee, he managed +the campaign of Hayes against Tilden. In February 1879 he was +re-elected to the Senate to succeed Isaac P. Christiancy (1812-1890), +and soon afterwards, in a speech concerning Mexican +War pensions, bitterly denounced Jefferson Davis. He died at +Chicago, Illinois, on the 1st of November 1879. By his extraordinary +force of character he exercised a wide personal influence +during his lifetime, but failed to stamp his personality upon any +measure or policy of lasting importance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF.<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> The English title of +Chandos began as a barony in 1554, and was continued in the +family of Brydges (becoming a dukedom in 1719) till 1789. In +1822 the dukedom was revived in connexion with that of +Buckingham.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Brydges</span>, 1st Baron Chandos (c. 1490-1557), a son of +Sir Giles Brydges, or Bruges (d. 1511), was a prominent figure +at the English court during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI. +and Mary. He took part in suppressing the rebellion of Sir +Thomas Wyat in 1554, and as lieutenant of the Tower of London +during the earlier part of Mary’s reign, had the custody, not only +of Lady Jane Grey and of Wyat, but for a short time of the +princess Elizabeth. He was created Baron Chandos of Sudeley +in 1554, one of his ancestors, Alice, being a grand-daughter of +Sir Thomas Chandos (d. 1375), and he died in March 1557. The +three succeeding barons, direct descendants of the 1st baron, +were all members of parliament and persons of some importance. +Grey, 5th Baron Chandos (c. 1580-1621), lord-lieutenant of +Gloucestershire, was called the “king of the Cotswolds,” owing +to his generosity and his magnificent style of living at his +residence, Sudeley Castle. He has been regarded by Horace +Walpole and others as the author of some essays, <i>Horae Subsecivae</i>. +His elder son George, 6th Baron Chandos (1620-1655), +was a supporter of Charles I. during his struggle with Parliament, +and distinguished himself at the first battle of Newbury in 1643. +He had six daughters but no sons, and after the death of his +brother William in 1676 the barony came to a kinsman, Sir +James Brydges, Bart. (1642-1714), who was English ambassador +to Constantinople from 1680 to 1685.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">James Brydges</span>, 1st duke of Chandos (1673-1744), son and +heir of the last-named, had been member of parliament for +Hereford from 1698 to 1714, and, three days after his father’s +death, was created Viscount Wilton and earl of Carnarvon. +For eight years, from 1705 to 1713, during the War of the Spanish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span> +Succession, he was paymaster-general of the forces abroad, +and in this capacity he amassed great wealth. In 1719 he was +created marquess of Carnarvon and duke of Chandos. The duke +is chiefly remembered on account of his connexion with Handel +and with Pope. He built a magnificent house at Canons near +Edgware in Middlesex, and is said to have contemplated the +construction of a private road between this place and his unfinished +house in Cavendish Square, London. For over two +years Handel, employed by Chandos, lived at Canons, where +he composed his oratorio <i>Esther</i>. Pope, who in his <i>Moral Essays</i> +(<i>Epistle to the Earl of Burlington</i>) doubtless described Canons +under the guise of “Timon’s Villa,” referred to the duke in the +line, “Thus gracious Chandos is belov’d at sight”; but Swift, +less complimentary, called him “a great complier with every +court.” The poet was caricatured by Hogarth for his supposed +servility to the duke. Chandos, who was lord-lieutenant of the +counties of Hereford and Radnor, and chancellor of the university +of St Andrews, became involved in financial difficulties, and after +his death on the 9th of August 1744 Canons was pulled down. +He was succeeded by his son Henry, 2nd duke (1708-1771), and +grandson James, 3rd duke (1731-1789). On the death of the +latter without sons in September 1789 all his titles, except +that of Baron Kinloss, became extinct, although a claimant +arose for the barony of Chandos of Sudeley. The 3rd duke’s only +daughter, Anna Elizabeth, who became Baroness Kinloss on +her father’s death, was married in 1796 to Richard Grenville, +afterwards marquess of Buckingham; and in 1822 this nobleman +was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buckingham, +Dukes of</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898); and J.R. +Robinson, <i>The Princely Chandos</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the 1st duke (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDOS, SIR JOHN<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (?-1370), one of the most celebrated +English commanders of the 14th century. He is found at the +siege of Cambrai in 1337, and at the battle of Crécy in 1346. +At the battle of Poitiers, in 1356, it was he who decided the +day and saved the life of the Black Prince. For these services +Edward III. made him a knight of the Garter, gave him the lands +of the viscount of Saint Sauveur in Cotentin, and appointed +him his lieutenant in France and vice-chamberlain of the royal +household. In 1362 he was made constable of Aquitaine, and +won the victories of Auray (1364) and Navaret in Spain (1367) +over Duguesclin. He was seneschal of Poitou in 1369, and was +mortally wounded at the bridge of Lussac near Poitiers on the +31st of December. He died on the following day, the 1st of +January 1370.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Benjamin Fillon, “John Chandos, Connétable d’Aquitaine +et Sénéchal de Poitou,” in the <i>Revue des provinces de l’ouest</i> (1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (reigned 321-296 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), known +to the Greeks as Sandracottus, founder of the Maurya empire +and first paramount ruler of India, was the son of a king of +Magadha by a woman of humble origin, whose caste he took, +and whose name, Mura, is said to have been the origin of that of +Maurya assumed by his dynasty. As a youth he was driven into +exile by his kinsman, the reigning king of Magadha. In the +course of his wanderings he met Alexander the Great, and, +according to Plutarch (<i>Alexander</i>, cap. 62), encouraged him to +invade the Ganges kingdom by enlarging on the extreme unpopularity +of the reigning monarch. During his exile he collected +a large force of the warlike clans of the north-west frontier, and +on the death of Alexander attacked the Macedonian garrisons +and conquered the Punjab. He next attacked Magadha, dethroned +and slew the king, his enemy, with every member of +his family, and established himself on the throne (321). The +great army acquired from his predecessor he increased until it +reached the total of 30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, and 600,000 +infantry; and with this huge force he overran all northern India, +establishing his empire from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of +Bengal. In 305 Seleucus Nicator crossed the Indus, but was +defeated by Chandragupta and forced to a humiliating peace +(303), by which the empire of the latter was still farther extended +in the north. About six years later Chandragupta died, leaving +his empire to his son Bindusura.</p> + +<p>An excellent account of the court and administrative system +of Chandragupta has been preserved in the fragments of Megasthenes, +who came to Pataliputra as the envoy of Seleucus shortly +after 303. The government was, of course, autocratic and even +tyrannous, but it was organized on an elaborate system, army +and civil service being administered by a series of boards, while +the cities were governed by municipal commissioners responsible +for public order and the upkeep of public works. Chandragupta +himself is described as living in barbaric splendour, +appearing in public only to hear causes, offer sacrifice, or to go +on military and hunting expeditions, and withal so fearful of +assassination that he never slept two nights running in the same +room.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.W. MacCrindle, <i>Ancient India as described by Megasthenes +and Arrian</i> (Calcutta, 1877); V.A. Smith, <i>Early Hist. of India</i> +(Oxford, 1908); also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">India</a></span>: <i>History</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span>: +<i>Indian</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1793-1877), +French general, was born at Autun on the 26th of April 1793. +Educated at St Cyr, he served for a short time in the bodyguard +of Louis XVIII., and entered the line as a lieutenant in January +1815. He achieved distinction in the Spanish campaign of 1823, +and became captain in 1825. In 1830 he entered the Royal +Guard and was sent to Africa, where he took part in the Mascara +expedition. Promoted commandant in 1835, he distinguished +himself under Marshal Clausel in the campaign against Ahmed +Pasha, bey of Constantine, and became lieutenant-colonel in +1837. The part he took in the expedition of Portes-de-Fer +gained him a colonelcy, and his success against the Hajutas and +Kabyles, the cross of the Legion of Honour. Three more years +of brilliant service in Africa won for him the rank of <i>maréchal +de camp</i> in 1840, and of lieutenant-general in 1843. In 1847 he +held the Algiers divisional command. He visited France early +in 1848, assisted the provisional government to establish order, +and returned to Africa in May to succeed General Cavaignac in +the government of Algeria. He was speedily recalled on his +election to the general assembly for the department of the Seine, +and received the command of the National Guard of Paris, to +which was added soon afterwards that of the troops in Paris, +altogether nearly 100,000 men. He held a high place and +exercised great influence in the complicated politics of the next +two years. In 1849 he received the grand cross of the Legion +of Honour. An avowed enemy of republican institutions, he +held a unique position in upholding the power of the president; +but in January 1851 he opposed Louis Napoleon’s policy, was +in consequence deprived of his double command, and at the +<i>coup d’état</i> in December was arrested and sent to Mazas, until +his banishment from France by the decree of the 9th of January +1852. He returned to France after the general amnesty, and +resided in his estate in the department of Saône-et-Loire. In +1870 he held no command, but was present with the headquarters, +and afterwards with Bazaine in Metz. He was employed on an +unsuccessful mission to Prince Frederick Charles, commanding +the German army which besieged Metz, and on the capitulation +became a prisoner of war. At the armistice he returned to Paris, +and in 1871 was elected to the National Assembly by four departments, +and sat for the Somme. He took an active part in politics, +defended the conduct of Marshal Bazaine, and served on the +committee which elaborated the monarchical constitution. When +the comte de Chambord refused the compromise, he moved +the resolution to extend the executive power for ten years to +Marshal MacMahon. He was elected a life senator in 1875. He +died in Paris on the 14th of February 1877.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANG-CHOW,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a town of China, in the province of Fu-kien, +on a branch of the Lung Kiang, 35 m. W. of Amoy. It is +surrounded by a wall 4½ m. in circumference, which, however, +includes a good deal of open ground. The streets are paved with +granite, but are very dirty. The river is crossed by a curious +bridge, 800 ft. long, constructed of wooden planks supported on +twenty-five piles of stones about 30 ft. apart. The city is a centre +of the silk-trade, and carries on an extensive commerce in different +directions. Brick-works and sugar-factories are among its chief +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span> +industrial establishments. Its population is estimated at about +1,000,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANG CHUN, KIU<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1148-1227), Chinese Taoist sage and +traveller, was born in 1148. In 1219 he was invited by Jenghiz +Khan, founder of the Mongol empire and greatest of Asiatic +conquerors, to visit him. Jenghiz’ letter of invitation, dated the +15th of May 1219 (by present reckoning), has been preserved, +and is among the curiosities of history; here the terrible warrior +appears as a meek disciple of wisdom, modest and simple, +almost Socratic in his self-examination, alive to many of the +deepest truths of life and government. Chang Chun obeyed this +summons; and leaving his home in Shantung (February 1220) +journeyed first to Peking. Learning that Jenghiz had gone far +west upon fresh conquests, the sage stayed the winter in Peking. +In February 1221 he started again and crossed eastern Mongolia +to the camp of Jenghiz’ brother Ujughen, near Lake Bör or Buyur +in the upper basin of the Kerulun-Amur. Thence he travelled +south-westward up the Kerulun, crossed the Karakorum region +in north-central Mongolia, and so came to the Chinese Altai, +probably passing near the present Uliassutai. After traversing +the Altai he visited Bishbalig, answering to the modern Urumtsi, +and moved along the north side of the Tian Shan range to lake +Sairam, Almalig (or Kulja), and the rich valley of the Ili. We +then trace him to the Chu, over this river to Talas and the +Tashkent region, and over the Jaxartes (or Syr Daria) to Samarkand, +where he halted for some months. Finally, through the +“Iron Gates” of Termit, over the Oxus, and by way of Balkh +and northern Afghanistan, Chang Chun reached Jenghiz’ camp +near the Hindu Kush. Returning home he followed much the +same course as on his outward route: certain deviations, however, +occur, such as a visit to Kuku-khoto. He was back in Peking +by the end of January 1224. From the narrative of his expedition +(the <i>Si yu ki</i>, written by his pupil and companion Li +Chi Chang) we derive some of the most faithful and vivid pictures +ever drawn of nature and man between the Great Wall of China +and Kabul, between the Aral and the Yellow Sea: we may +particularly notice the sketches of the Mongols, and of the +people of Samarkand and its neighbourhood; the account of +the fertility and products of the latter region, as of the Ili valley, +at or near Almalig-Kulja; and the description of various great +mountain ranges, peaks and defiles, such as the Chinese Altai, +the Tian Shan, Mt Bogdo-ola (?), and the Iron Gates of Termit. +There is, moreover, a noteworthy reference to a land apparently +identical with the uppermost valley of the Yenisei. After his +return Chang Chun lived at Peking till his death on the 23rd of +July 1227. By order of Jenghiz some of the former imperial +garden grounds were made over to him, for the foundation of a +Taoist monastery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Bretschneider, <i>Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic +Sources</i>, vol. i. pp. 35-108, where a complete translation of the +narrative is given, with a valuable commentary; C.R. Beazley +<i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, iii. 539.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANGE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. <i>cambium, +cambiare</i>, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from +the root which appears in the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kamptein">κάμπτειν</span>, to bend), properly +the substitution of one thing for another, hence any alteration +or variation, so applied to the moon’s passing from one phase to +another. The use of the word for a place of commercial business +has usually been taken to be a shortened form of Exchange (<i>q.v.</i>) +and so is often written ’Change. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> +points out that “change” appears earlier than “exchange” +in this sense. “Change” is particularly used of coins of lower +denomination given in substitution for those of larger denomination +or for a note, cheque, &c., and also for the balance of a sum +paid larger than that which is due. A further application is that +in bell-ringing, of the variations in order in which a peal of bells +may be rung. The term usually excludes the ringing of the bells +according to the diatonic scale in which they are hung (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bell</a></span>). +It is from a combination of these two meanings that the thieves’ +slang phrase “ringing the changes” arises; it denotes the +various methods by which wrong change may be given or +extracted, or counterfeit coin passed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANGELING,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> the term used of a child substituted or changed +for another, especially in the case of substitutions popularly +supposed to be through fairy agency. There was formerly a +widespread superstition that infants were sometimes stolen +from their cradles by the fairies. Any specially peevish or weakly +baby was regarded as a changeling, the word coming at last to +be almost synonymous with imbecility. It was thought that +the elves could only effect the exchange before christening, and +in the highlands of Scotland babies were strictly watched till +then. Strype states that in his time midwives had to take an +oath binding themselves to be no party to the theft or exchange +of babies. The belief is referred to by Shakespeare, Spenser +and other authors. Pennant, writing in 1796, says: “In this +very century a poor cottager, who lived near the spot, had a +child who grew uncommonly peevish; the parents attributed +this to the fairies and imagined it was a changeling. They took +the child, put it in a cradle, and left it all night beneath the +“Fairy Oak” in hopes that the <i>tylwydd têg</i> or fairy family +would restore their own before morning. When morning came +they found the child perfectly quiet, so went away with it, quite +confirmed in their belief” (<i>Tour in Scotland</i>, 1796, p. 257).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Wirt Sikes, <i>British Goblins</i> (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANGOS,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians who appear +to have originally inhabited the Peruvian coast. A few of them +still live on the coast of Atacama, northern Chile. They are a +dwarfish race, never exceeding 5 ft. in height. Their sole occupation +is fishing, and in former times they used boats of inflated +sealskins, lived in sealskin huts, and slept on heaps of dried +seaweed. They are a hospitable and friendly people, and never +resisted the whites.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANGRA,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kanghari</span> (anc. <i>Gangra</i>; called also till the +time of Caracalla, <i>Germanicopolis</i>, after the emperor Claudius), +the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Kastamuni +vilayet, Asia Minor, situated in a rich, well-watered valley; +altitude 2500 ft. The ground is impregnated with salt, and +the town is unhealthy. Pop. (1894) 15,632, of whom 1086 are +Christians (Cuinet). Gangra, the capital of the Paphlagonian +kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus, son of Castor, was taken +into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 6-5 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +The earlier town, the name of which signified “she-goat,” was +built on the hill behind the modern city, on which are the ruins +of a late fortress; while the Roman city occupied the site of the +modern. In Christian times Gangra was the metropolitan see +of Paphlagonia. In the 4th century the town was the scene of +an important ecclesiastical synod.</p> + +<p><i>Synod of Gangra.</i>—Conjectures as to the date of this synod +vary from 341 to 376. All that can be affirmed with certainty +is that it was held about the middle of the 4th century. The +synodal letter states that twenty-one bishops assembled to take +action concerning Eustathius (of Sebaste?) and his followers, +who contemned marriage, disparaged the offices of the church, +held conventicles of their own, wore a peculiar dress, denounced +riches, and affected especial sanctity. The synod condemned +the Eustathian practices, declaring however, with remarkable +moderation, that it was not virginity that was condemned, but +the dishonouring of marriage; not poverty, but the disparagement +of honest and benevolent wealth; not asceticism, but +spiritual pride; not individual piety, but dishonouring the +house of God. The twenty canons of Gangra were declared +ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mansi ii. pp. 1095-1122; Hardouin i. pp. 530-540; Hefele +2nd ed., i. pp. 777 sqq. (English trans. ii. pp. 325 sqq.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANNEL ISLANDS<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (French <i>Îles Normandes</i>), a group of +islands in the English Channel, belonging (except the Îles Chausey) +to Great Britain. (For map, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England</a></span>, Section VI.) They +lie between 48° 50′ and 49° 45′ N., and 1° 50′ and 2° 45′ W., +along the French coast of Cotentin (department of Manche), +at a distance of 4 to 40 m. from it, within the great rectangular +bay of which the northward horn is Cape La Hague. The greater +part of this bay is shallow, and the currents among the numerous +groups of islands and rocks are often dangerous to navigation. +The nearest point of the English coast to the Channel Islands +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span> +is Portland Bill, a little over 50 m. north of the northernmost +outlier of the islands. The total land area of the islands is about +75 sq. m. (48,083 acres), and the population in 1901 was 95,618. +The principal individual islands are four:—<span class="sc">Jersey</span> (area 45 +sq. m., pop. 52,576), <span class="sc">Guernsey</span> (area 24.5 sq. m., pop. 40,446), +<span class="sc">Alderney</span> (area 3.06 sq. m., pop. 2062), and <span class="sc">Sark</span> (area nearly +2 sq. m., pop. 504). Each of these islands is treated in a separate +article. The chief town and port of Jersey is St Helier, and of +Guernsey St Peter Port; a small town on Alderney is called +St Anne. Regular communication by steamer with Guernsey +and Jersey is provided on alternate days from Southampton and +Weymouth, by steamers of the London & South-Western and +Great Western railway companies of England. Railway communications +within the islands are confined to Jersey. Regular +steamship communications are kept up from certain French +ports, and locally between the larger islands. In summer the +islands, especially Jersey, Guernsey and Sark, are visited by +numerous tourists, both from England and from France.</p> + +<p>The islands fall physically into four divisions. The northernmost, +lying due west of Cape La Hague, and separated therefrom +by the narrow Race of Alderney, includes that island, Burhou +and Ortach, and numerous other islets west of it, and west again +the notorious Casquets, <span class="correction" title="amended from 'and'">an</span> angry group of jagged rocks, on the +largest of which is a powerful lighthouse. Doubtful tradition +places here the wreck of the “White Ship,” in which William, +son of Henry I., perished in 1120; in 1744 the “Victory,” a +British man-of-war, struck on one of the rocks, and among +calamities of modern times the wreck of the “Stella,” a passenger +vessel, in 1899, may be recalled. The second division of islands +is also the most westerly; it includes Guernsey with a few islets +to the west, and to the east, Sark, Herm, Jethou (inhabited +islands) and others. The strait between Guernsey and Herm +is called Little Russel, and that between Herm and Sark Great +Russel. Sark is famous for its splendid cliffs and caves, while +Herm possesses the remarkable phenomenon of a shell-beach, or +shore, half-a-mile in length, formed wholly of small shells, +which accumulate in a tidal eddy formed at the north of the +island. To the south-east of these, across the channel called La +Déroute, lies Jersey, forming, with a few attendant islets, of +which the Ecréhou to the north-east are the chief, the third +division. The fourth and southernmost division falls into two +main subdivisions. The Minquiers, the more western, are a +collection of abrupt rocks, the largest of which, Maîtresse Ile, +affords a landing and shelter for fishermen. Then eastern subdivision, +the Îles Chausey, lies about 9 m. west by north of +Granville (to which commune they belong) on the French coast, +and belongs to France. These rocks are close set, low and +curiously regular in form. On Grande Ile, the only permanently +inhabited island (pop. 100), some farming is carried on, and +several of the islets are temporarily inhabited by fishermen. +There is also a little granite-quarrying, and seaweed-burning +employs many.</p> + +<p>None of the islands is mountainous, and the fine scenery for +which they are famous is almost wholly coastal. In this respect +each main island has certain distinctive characteristics. Bold +cliffs are found on the south of Alderney; in Guernsey they +alternate with lovely bays; Sark is specially noted for its +magnificent sea-caves, while the coast scenery of Jersey is on +the whole more gentle than the rest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology</i>.—Geologically, the Channel Islands are closely related +to the neighbouring mainland of Normandy. With a few exceptions, +to be noted later, all the rocks are of pre-Cambrian, perhaps in part of +Archean age. They consist of massive granites, gneisses, diorites, +porphyrites, schists and phyllites, all of which are traversed by +dykes and veins. In Jersey we find in the north-west corner a +granitic tract extending from Grosnez to St Mary and St John, +beyond which it passes into a small granulitic patch. South of the +granites is a schistose area, by St Ouen and St Lawrence, and reaching +to St Aubin’s Bay. Granitic masses again appear round St Brelade’s +Bay. The eastern half of the island is largely occupied by +porphyrites and similar rocks (hornstone porphyry) with rhyolites +and denitrified obsidians; some of the latter contain large spherulites +with a diameter of as much as 24 in.; these are well exposed in +Bouley Bay; a complex igneous and intrusive series of rocks lies +around St Helier. In the north-east corner of the island a conglomerate, +possibly of Cambrian age, occurs between Bouley Bay +and St Catherine’s Bay. Tracts of blown-sand cover the ground +for some distance north of St Clement’s Bay and again east of +St Ouen’s Bay. In the sea off the latter bay a submerged forest +occurs. The northern half of Guernsey is mainly dioritic, the +southern half, below St Peter, is occupied by gneisses. Several +patches of granite and granulite fringe the western coast, the largest +of these is a hornblende granite round Rocquaine Bay. Hornblende +gneiss from St Sampson and quartz diorite from Capelles, +Corvée and elsewhere are transported to England for road metal. +Sark is composed almost wholly of hornblende-schists and gneisses +with hornblendic granite at the north end of the island, in Little +Sark and in the middle of Bréchou. Dykes of diabase and diorite +are abundant. Alderney consists mainly of hornblende granite and +granulite, which are covered on the east by two areas of sandstone +which may be of Cambrian age. An enstatite-augite-diorite is sent +from Alderney for road-making. Besides the submerged forest on +the coast of Jersey already mentioned, there are similar occurrences +near St Peter Port and St Sampson’s harbour, and in Vazon Bay +in Guernsey. Raised beaches are to be seen at several points in the +islands.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate is mild and very pleasant. In Jersey +the mean temperature for twenty years is found to be—in January +(the coldest month) 42.1° F., in August (the hottest) 63°, mean +annual 51.7°. In Guernsey the figures are, for January 42.5°, +for August 59.7°, mean annual 49.5°. The mean annual rainfall +for twenty-five years in Jersey is 34.21 in., and in Guernsey 38.64 +in. The average amount of sunshine in Jersey is considerably +greater than in the most favoured spots on the south coast of +England; and in Guernsey it is only a little less than in Jersey. +Snow and frost are rare, and the seasons of spring and autumn +are protracted. Thick sea-fogs are not uncommon, especially +in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The flora of the islands is remarkably rich, +considering their extent, nearly 2000 different species of plants +having been counted throughout the group. Of timber properly +speaking there is little, but the evergreen oak, the elm and the +beech are abundant. Wheat is the principal grain in cultivation; +but far more ground is taken up with turnips and potatoes, +mangold, parsnip and carrot. The tomato ripens as in France, +and the Chinese yam has been successfully grown. There is a +curious cabbage, chiefly cultivated in Jersey, which shoots up +into a long woody stalk from 10 to 15 ft. in height, fit for walking-sticks +or palisades. Grapes and peaches come to perfection in +greenhouses without artificial heat; and not only apples and +pears but oranges and figs can be reared in the open air. The +arbutus ripens its fruit, and the camellia clothes itself with +blossom, as in more southern climates; the fuchsia reaches a +height of 15 or 20 ft., and the magnolia attains the dimensions +of a tree. Of the flowers, both indigenous and exotic, that +abound throughout the islands, it is sufficient to mention the +Guernsey lily with its rich red petals, which is supposed to have +been brought from Japan.</p> + +<p>The number of the species of the mammalia is little over +twenty, and several of these have been introduced by man. +There is a special breed of horned cattle, and each island has its +own variety, which is carefully kept from all intermixture. The +animals are small and delicate, and marked by a peculiar yellow +colour round the eyes and within the ears. The red deer was once +indigenous, and the black rat is still common in Alderney, Sark +and Herm. The list of birds includes nearly 200 species, nearly +100 of which are permanent inhabitants of the islands. There +are few localities in the northern seas which are visited by a +greater variety of fish, and the coasts abound in crustacea, +shell-fish and zoophytes.</p> + +<p><i>Government</i>.—For the purposes of government the Channel +Islands (excluding the French Chauseys) are divided into two +divisions:—(1) Jersey, and (2) the bailiwick of Guernsey, which +includes Alderney, Sark, Herm and Jethou with the island of +Guernsey. The constitutions of each division are peculiar and +broadly similar, but differing in certain important details; they +may therefore be considered together for the sake of comparison. +Until 1854 governors were appointed by the crown; now a +separate military lieutenant-governor is appointed for each +division on the recommendation of the war office after consultation +with the home office. The other crown officials are the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span> +bailiff (<i>bailli</i>) or chief magistrate, the <i>procureur du roi</i>, representing +the attorney-general, and the <i>avocat du roi</i>, or in Guernsey +the <i>contrôle</i>, representing the solicitor-general. In Jersey the +<i>vicomte</i> is also appointed by the crown, in the position of a high +sheriff (and coroner); but his counterpart in Guernsey, the +<i>prévôt</i>, is not so appointed. The bailiff in each island is president +of the royal court, which is composed of twelve jurats, elected for +life, in Jersey by the ratepayers of each parish, in Guernsey by +the Elective States, a body which also elects the <i>prévôt</i>, who, +with the jurats, serves upon it. The rest of the body is made up +of the rectors of the parishes, the <i>douzaines</i>, or elected parish +councils (“dozens,” from the original number of their members) +of the town parish of St Peter Port, the four cantons, and the +county parishes, and certain other officials. The royal court +administers justice (but in Jersey there is a trial by jury for +criminal cases), and in Guernsey can pass temporary ordinances +subject to no higher body. It also puts forward <i>projets de loi</i> +for the approval of the Deliberative States. Alderney and Sark +have a separate legal existence with courts dependent on the +royal court of Guernsey. In both Jersey and Guernsey the chief +administrative body is the Deliberative States. The Jersey States +is composed of the lieutenant-governor (who has a veto on the +deliberation of any question, but no vote), the bailiff, jurats, +parish rectors, parish constables and deputies, the <i>procureur</i> +and <i>avocat</i>, with right to speak but no vote, and the <i>vicomte</i>, +with right of attendance only. Besides the veto of the lieutenant-governor, +the bailiff has the power to dissent from any measure, +in which case it is referred to the privy council. In Guernsey the +States consists of the bailiff, jurats, eight out of ten rectors, the +<i>procureur</i> and deputies; while the lieutenant-governor is always +invited and may speak if he attends. By both States local +administration is carried on (largely through committees); and +relations with the British parliament are maintained through the +privy council. Acts of parliament are transmitted to the islands +by an order in council to be registered in the rolls of the royal +court, and are not considered to be binding until this is done; +moreover, registration may be held over pending discussion by +the States if any act is considered to menace the privileges of +the islands. The right of the crown to legislate by order in council +is held to be similarly limited. In cases of encroachment on +property, a remarkable form of appeal of very ancient origin +called <i>Clameur de Haro</i> survives (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Haro, Clameur de</a></span>). The +islands are in the diocese of Winchester, and there is a dean +in both Jersey and Guernsey, who is also rector of a parish.</p> + +<p>These peculiar constitutions are of local development, the +history of which is obscure. The bailiff was originally assisted +in his judicial work by itinerant justices; their place was later +taken by the elected jurats; later still the practice of summoning +the States to assist in the passing of Ordinances was established +by the bailiff and jurats, and at last the States claimed the +absolute right of being consulted. This was confirmed to them +in 1771.</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of these islands that there should be +compulsory service in the militia. In Jersey and Alderney every +man between the ages of sixteen and forty-five is liable, but in +Jersey after ten years’ service militiamen are transferred to the +reserve. In Guernsey the age limit is from sixteen to thirty-three, +and the obligation is extended to all who are British +subjects, and draw income from a profession practised in the +island. Garrisons of regular troops are maintained in all three +islands. Taxation is light in the islands, and pauperism is +practically unknown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1904 the revenue of Jersey was £70,191, and its expenditure +£69,658; the revenue of Guernsey was £79,334, and the expenditure +£43,385. The public debt in the respective islands was £322,070 +and £195,794. In Jersey the annual revenues from crown rights +(principally seigneurial dues, houses and lands and tithes) amount +to about £2700, and about £360 is remitted to the paymaster-general. +In Guernsey these revenues, in which the principal item is fines on +transference of property (<i>treizièmes</i> or fees), amount to about £4500, +and about £1000 is remitted. In Alderney the revenues (chiefly from +harbour dues) amount to about £1400.</p> + +<p>In Jersey the English gold and silver coinage are current, but there +is a local copper coinage and local one-pound notes are issued. +Guernsey has also such notes, and its copper coinage consists of +pence, halfpence, two-double and one-double (one-eighth of a penny) +pieces. A Guernsey pound is taken as equal to 24 francs, and +English and French currency pass equally throughout the islands.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Industry</i>.—The old Norman system of land-tenure has survived, +and the land is parcelled out among a great number of +small proprietors; holdings ranging from 5 to 25 acres as a rule. +The results of this arrangement seem to be favourable in the +extreme. Every corner of the ground is carefully and intelligently +cultivated, and a considerable proportion is allotted to +market-gardening. The cottages are neat and comfortable, +the hedges well-trimmed, and the roads kept in excellent repair. +There is a considerable export trade in agricultural produce and +stock, including vegetables and fruit, in fish (the fisheries +forming an important industry) and in stone. There is no +manufacture of importance. The inhabitants share in common +the right of collecting and burning seaweed (called <i>vraic</i>) for +manure. The cutting of the weed (vraicking) became a ceremonial +occasion, taking place at times fixed by the government, +and connected with popular festivities.</p> + +<p><i>Language</i>.—The language spoken in ordinary life by the +inhabitants of the islands is in great measure the same as the old +Norman French. The use of the <i>patois</i> has decreased naturally +in modern times. Modern French is the official language, used +in the courts and states, and English is taught in the parochial +schools, and is familiar practically to all. The several islands +have each its own dialect, differing from that of the others +in vocabulary and idiom; differences are also observable in +different localities within the same island, as between the north +and the south of Guernsey. None of the dialects has received +much literary cultivation, though Jersey is proud of being the +birthplace of one of the principal Norman poets, Wace, who +flourished in the 12th century.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The original ethnology and pre-Christian history +of the Channel Islands are largely matters of conjecture and +debate. Of early inhabitants abundant proof is afforded by the +numerous megalithic monuments—cromlechs, kistvaens and +maenhirs—still extant. But little trace has been left of Roman +occupation, and such remains as have been discovered are mainly +of the portable description that affords little proof of actual +settlement, though there may have been an unimportant garrison +here. The constant recurrence of the names of saints in the +place-names of the islands, and the fact that pre-Christian names +do not occur, leads to the inference that before Christianity was +introduced the population was very scanty. It may be considered +to have consisted originally of Bretons (Celts), and to +have received successively a slight admixture of Romans and +Legionaries, Saxons and perhaps Jutes and Vandals. Christianity +may have been introduced in the 5th century. Guernsey +is said to have been visited in the 6th century by St Sampson of +Dol (whose name is given to a small town and harbour in the +island), St Marcou or Marculfus and St Magloire, a friend and +fellow-evangelist of St Sampson, who founded monasteries at +Sark and at Jersey, and died in Jersey in 575. Another evangelist +of this period was St Helerius, whose name is borne by the chief +town of Jersey, St Helier. In his life it is stated that the population +of the island when he reached it was only 30. In 933 the +islands were made over to William, duke of Normandy (d. 943), +and after the Norman conquest of England their allegiance shifted +between the English crown and the Norman coronet according to +the vicissitudes of war and policy. During the purely Norman +period they had been enriched with numerous ecclesiastical +buildings, some of which are still extant, as the chapel of Rozel +in Jersey.</p> + +<p>In the reign of John of England the future of the islands was +decided by their attachment to the English crown, in spite of the +separation of the duchy of Normandy. To John it has been usual +to ascribe a document, at one time regarded by the islanders as +their Magna Carta; but modern criticism leaves little doubt +that it is not genuine. An unauthenticated “copy” of uncertain +origin alone has been discovered, and there is little proof of +there ever having been an original. The reign of Edward I. was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span> +full of disturbance; and in 1279 Jersey and Guernsey received +from the king, by letters patent, a public seal as a remedy for the +dangers and losses which they had incurred by lack of such a +certificate. Edward II. found it necessary to instruct his +collectors not to treat the islanders as foreigners: his successor, +Edward III., fully confirmed their privileges, immunities and +customs in 1341; and his charter was recognized by Richard II. +in 1378. In 1343 there was a descent of the French on Guernsey; +the governor was defeated, and Castle Cornet besieged. In 1372 +there was another attack on Guernsey, and in 1374 and 1404 the +French descended on Jersey. None of these attempts, however, +resulted in permanent settlement. Henry V. confiscated the +alien priories which had kept up the same connexion with Normandy +as before the conquest, and conferred them along with the +regalities of the islands on his brother, the duke of Bedford. +During the Wars of the Roses, Queen Margaret, the consort of +Henry VI., made an agreement with Pierre de Brézé, comte de +Maulevrier, the seneschal of Normandy, that if he afforded +assistance to the king he should hold the islands independently +of the crown. A force was accordingly sent to take possession of +Mont Orgueil. It was captured and a small part of the island +subjugated, and here Maulevrier remained as governor from 1460 +to 1465; but the rest held out under Sir Philip de Carteret, +seigneur of St Ouen, and in 1467 the vice-admiral of England, +Sir Richard Harliston, recaptured the castle and brought the +foreign occupation to an end. In 1482-1483 Pope Sixtus IV., at +the instance of King Edward IV., issued a bull of anathema +against all who molested the islands; it was formally registered +in Brittany in 1484, and in France in 1486; and in this way the +islands acquired the right of neutrality, which they retained till +1689. In the same reign (Edward IV.) Sark was taken by the +French, and only recovered in the reign of Mary, by the strategy +(according to tradition) of landing from a vessel a coffin nominally +containing a body for burial, but in reality filled with arms. +By a charter of 1494, the duties of the governors of Jersey were +defined and their power restricted; and the educational interests +of the island were furthered at the same time by the foundation +of two grammar schools. The religious establishments in the +islands were dissolved, as in England, in the reign of Henry VIII. +The Reformation was heartily welcomed in the islands. The +English liturgy was translated into French for their use. In the +reign of Mary there was much religious persecution; and in that of +Elizabeth Roman Catholics were maltreated in their turn. In +1568 the islands were attached to the see of Winchester, being +finally separated from that of Coutances, with which they had +long been connected, with short intervals in the reign of John, +when they had belonged to the see of Exeter, and that of Henry +VI., when they had belonged to Salisbury.</p> + +<p>The Presbyterian form of church government was adopted +under the influence of refugees from the persecution of Protestantism +on the continent. It was formally sanctioned in St Helier and +St Peter Port by Queen Elizabeth; and in 1603 King James +enacted that the whole of the islands “should quietly enjoy +their said liberty.” During his reign, however, disputes arose. +An Episcopal party had been formed in Jersey, and in 1619 +David Bandinel was declared dean of the island. A body of +canons which he drew up agreeable to the discipline of the Church +of England was accepted after considerable modification by the +people of his charge; but the inhabitants of Guernsey maintained +their Presbyterian practices. Of the hold which this form of +Protestantism had got on the minds of the people even in Jersey +abundant proof is afforded by the general character of the worship +at the present day.</p> + +<p>In the great struggle between king and parliament, Presbyterian +Guernsey supported the parliament; in Jersey, however, there +were at first parliamentarian and royalist factions. Sir Philip de +Carteret, lieutenant-governor, declared for the king, but Dean +Bandinel and Michael Lemprière, a leader of the people, headed +the parliamentary party. They received a commission for the +apprehension of Carteret, who established himself in Elizabeth +Castle; but after some fighting had taken place he died in the +castle in August 1643. Meanwhile in Guernsey Sir Peter Osborne, +the governor, was defying the whole island and maintaining +himself in Castle Cornet. A parliamentarian governor, Leonard +Lydcott, arrived in Jersey immediately after Sir Philip de +Carteret’s death. But the dowager Lady Carteret was holding +Mont Orgueil; George Carteret, Sir Philip’s nephew, arrived +from St Malo to support the royalist cause, and Lydcott and +Lemprière presently fled to England. George Carteret established +himself as lieutenant-governor and bailiff. Bandinel was +imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and killed himself in trying to +escape. Jersey was now completely royalist. In 1646 the prince +of Wales, afterwards Charles II., arrived secretly at Jersey, and +remained over two months at Elizabeth Castle. He went on to +France, but returned in 1649, having been proclaimed king by +George Carteret, and at Elizabeth Castle he signed the declaration +of his claims to the throne on the 29th of October. In 1651, +when Charles had fled to France again after the battle of +Worcester, parliamentarian vessels of war appeared at Jersey. +The islanders, weary of the tyrannical methods of their governor, +now Sir George Carteret, offered little resistance. On the 15th of +December the royalist remnant yielded up Elizabeth Castle; +and at the same time Castle Cornet, Guernsey, which had been +steadily held by Osborne, capitulated. In each case honourable +terms of surrender were granted. Both islands had suffered +severely from the struggle, and the people of Guernsey, appealing +to Cromwell on the ground of their support of his cause, complained +that two-thirds of the land was out of cultivation, and +that they had lost “their ships, their traffic and their trading.” +After the Restoration there was considerable improvement, and +in the reign of James II. the islanders got a grant of wool for the +manufacture of stockings—4000 tods<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of wool being annually +allowed to Jersey, 2000 to Guernsey, 400 to Alderney and 200 to +Sark. Alderney, which had been parliamentarian, was granted +after the Restoration to the Carteret family; and it continued to +be governed independently till 1825.</p> + +<p>By William of Orange the neutrality of the islands was +abolished in 1689, and during the war between England and +France (1778-1783) there were two unsuccessful attacks on +Jersey, in 1779 and 1781, the second, under Baron de Rullecourt, +being famous for the victory over the invaders due to the bravery +of the young Major Peirson, who fell when the French were on the +point of surrender. During the revolutionary period in France +the islands were the home of many refugees. In the 18th century +various attempts were made to introduce the English custom-house +system; but proved practically a failure, and the islands +throve on smuggling and privateering down to 1800.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Heylin, <i>Relation of two Journeys</i> (1656); P. Falle, +<i>Account of the Island of Jersey</i> (1694; notes, &c., by E. Durell, +Jersey, 1837); J. Duncan, <i>History of Guernsey</i> (London, 1841); +P. le Geyt, <i>Sur les constitutions, les lois et les usages de cette île</i> [Jersey], +ed. R.P. Marett (Jersey, 1846-1847); F.B. Tupper, <i>Chronicles of +Castle Cornet, Guernsey</i> (2nd ed. London, 1851), and <i>History of +Guernsey and its Bailiwick</i> (Guernsey, 1854); S.E. Hoskins, +<i>Charles II. in the Channel Islands</i> (London, 1854), and other works; +Delacroix, <i>Jersey, ses antiquités, &c.</i> (Jersey, 1859); T. le Cerf, +<i>L’archipel des Îles Normandes</i> (Paris, 1863); G. Dupont, <i>Le Cotentin +et ses îles</i> (Caen, 1870-1885); J.P.E. Havet, <i>Les Cours royales des +Îles Normandes</i> (Paris, 1878); E. Pégot-Ogier, <i>Histoire des Îles de +la Manche</i> (Paris, 1881); C. Noury, <i>Géologie de Jersey</i> (Paris and +Jersey, 1886); D.T. Ansted and R.G. Latham, <i>Channel Islands</i> +(1865; 3rd ed., rev. by E.T. Nicolle, London, 1893), the principal +general work of reference; Sir E. MacCulloch, <i>Guernsey Folklore</i>, +ed. Edith F. Carey (London, 1903); E.F. Carey, <i>Channel Islands</i> +(London, 1904).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A tod generally equalled 28 ℔</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1780-1842), American +divine and philanthropist, was born in Newport, Rhode Island, +on the 7th of April 1780. His maternal grandfather was William +Ellery, a signer of the Declaration of Independence; his mother, +Lucy Ellery, was a remarkable woman; and his father, William +Channing, was a prominent lawyer in Newport. Channing had as +a child a refined delicacy of feature and temperament, and seemed +to have inherited from his father simple and elegant tastes, +sweetness of temper, and warmth of affection, and from his +mother that strong moral discernment and straightforward +rectitude of purpose and action which formed so striking a feature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span> +of his character. From his earliest years he delighted in the +beauty of the scenery of Newport, and always highly estimated +its influence upon his spiritual character. His father was a strict +Calvinist, and Dr Samuel Hopkins, one of the leaders of the old +school Calvinists, was a frequent guest in his father’s house. +He was, even as a child, he himself says, “quite a theologian, +and would chop logic with his elders according to the fashion of +that controversial time.” He prepared for college in New London +under the care of his uncle, the Rev. Henry Channing, and in +1794, about a year after the death of his father, entered Harvard +College. Before leaving New London he came under religious +influences to which he traced the beginning of his spiritual life. +In his college vacations he taught at Lancaster, Massachusetts, +and in term time he stinted himself in food that he might need +less exercise and so save time for study,—an experiment which +undermined his health, producing acute dyspepsia. From his +college course he thought that he got little good, and said “when +I was in college, only three books that I read were of any moment +to me: ... Ferguson on <i>Civil Society</i>, ... Hutcheson’s +<i>Moral Philosophy</i>, and Price’s <i>Dissertations</i>. Price saved me +from Locke’s philosophy.”</p> + +<p>After graduating in 1798, he lived at Richmond, Virginia, as +tutor in the family of David Meade Randolph, United States +marshal for Virginia. Here he renewed his ascetic habits and +spent much time in theological study, his mind being greatly +disturbed in regard to Trinitarian teachings in general and +especially prayer to Jesus. He returned to Newport in 1800 +“a thin and pallid invalid,” spent a year and a half there, and +in 1802 went to Cambridge as regent (or general proctor) in +Harvard; in the autumn of 1802 he began to preach, having +been approved by the Cambridge Association. On the 1st of +June 1803, having refused the more advantageous pastorate of +Brattle Street church, he was ordained pastor of the Federal +Street Congregational church in Boston. At this time it seems +certain that his theological views were not fixed, and in 1808, +when he preached a sermon at the ordination of the Rev. John +Codman (1782-1847), he still applied the title “Divine Master” +to Jesus Christ, and used such expressions as “shed for souls” of +the blood of Jesus, and “the Son of God himself left the abodes +of glory and expired a victim of the cross.” But his sermon +preached in 1819 at Baltimore at the ordination of the Rev. +Jared Sparks was in effect a powerful attack on Trinitarianism, +and was followed in 1819 by an article in <i>The Christian Disciple</i>, +“Objections to Unitarian Christianity Considered,” and in 1820 +by another, “The Moral Argument against Calvinism”—an +excellent evidence of the moral (rather than the intellectual) +character of Unitarian protest. In 1814 he had married a rich +cousin, Ruth Gibbs, but refused to make use of the income from +her property on the ground that clergymen were so commonly +accused of marrying for money.</p> + +<p>He was now entering on his public career. Even in 1810, in a +Fast Day sermon, he warned his congregation of Bonaparte’s +ambition; two years later he deplored “this country taking part +with the oppressor against that nation which has alone arrested +his proud career of victory”; in 1814 he preached a thanksgiving +sermon for the overthrow of Napoleon; and in 1816 he +preached a sermon on war which led to the organization of the +Massachusetts Peace Society. His sermon on “Religion, a +Social Principle,” helped to procure the omission from the state +constitution of the third article of Part I., which made compulsory +a tax for the support of religious worship. In 1821 he delivered +the Dudleian lecture on the “Evidences of Revealed Religion” +at Harvard, of whose corporation he had been a member since +1813; he had received its degree of S.T.D. in 1820. In August +1821 he undertook a journey to Europe, in the course of which +he met in England many distinguished men of letters, especially +Wordsworth and Coleridge. Both of these poets greatly influenced +him personally and by their writings, and he prophesied +that the Lake poets would be one of the greatest forces in a +forming spiritual reform. Coleridge wrote of him, “He has the +love of wisdom and the wisdom of love.”</p> + +<p>On his return to America in August 1823, Dr Channing resumed +his duties as pastor, but with a more decided attention than +before to literature and public affairs, especially after receiving +as colleague, in 1824, the Rev. Ezra Stiles Gannett. In 1830, +because of his wife’s bad health, Channing went to the West +Indies. Negro slavery, as he saw it there, and as he had seen it +in Richmond, more than thirty years before, so strongly impressed +him that he began to write his book <i>Slavery</i> (1835). +In this he insists that “not what is profitable, but what is right” +is “the first question to be proposed by a rational being”; that +slavery ought to be discussed “with a deep feeling of responsibility, +and so done as not to put in jeopardy the peace of the slave-holding +states”; that “man cannot be justly held and used as +property”; that the tendency of slavery is morally, intellectually, +and domestically, bad; that emancipation, however, +should not be forced on slave-holders by governmental interference, +but by an enlightened public conscience in the South +(and in the North), if for no other reason, because “slavery +should be succeeded by a friendly relation between master and +slave; and to produce this the latter must see in the former his +benefactor and deliverer.” He declined to identify himself +with the Abolitionists, whose motto was “Immediate Emancipation” +and whose passionate agitation he thought unsuited to +the work they were attempting. The moderation and temperance +of his presentation of the anti-slavery cause naturally resulted in +some misunderstanding and misstatement of his position, such as +is to be found in Mrs Chapman’s <i>Appendix</i> to the <i>Autobiography +of Harriet Martineau</i>, where Channing is represented as actually +using his influence on behalf of slavery. In 1837 he published +<i>Thoughts on the Evils of a Spirit of Conquest, and on Slavery: A +Letter on the Annexation of Texas to the United States</i>, addressed +to Henry Clay, and arguing that the Texan revolt from Mexican +rule was largely the work of land-speculators, and of those who +resolved “to throw Texas open to slave-holders and slaves”; +that the results of annexation must be war with Mexico, embroiling +the United States with England and other European powers, +and at home the extension and perpetuation of slavery, not alone +in Texas but in other territories which the United States, once +started at conquest, would force into the Union. But he still +objected to political agitation by the Abolitionists, preferring +“unremitting appeals to the reason and conscience,” and, even +after the prominent part he took in the meeting in Faneuil Hall, +called to protest against the murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, he +wrote to <i>The Liberator</i>, counselling the Abolitionists to “disavow +this resort to force by Mr Lovejoy.” Channing’s pamphlet +<i>Emancipation</i> (1840) dealt with the success of emancipation +in the West Indies, as related in Joseph John Gurney’s <i>Familiar +Letters to Henry Clay of Kentucky, describing a Winter in the +West Indies</i> (1840), and added his own advice “that we should +each of us bear our conscientious testimony against slavery,” +and that the Free States “abstain as rigidly from the use of +political power against Slavery in the States where it is established, +as from exercising it against Slavery in foreign communities,” +and should free themselves “from any obligation +to use the powers of the national or state governments in any +manner whatever for the support of slavery.” In 1842 he published +<i>The Duty of the Free States</i>, or <i>Remarks Suggested by the +Case of the Creole</i>, a careful analysis of the letter of complaint from +the American to the British government, and a defence of the +position taken by the British government. On the 1st of August +1842 he delivered at Lenox, Massachusetts, an address celebrating +the anniversary of emancipation in the British West Indies. +Two months later, on the 2nd of October 1842, he died at +Bennington, Vermont.</p> + +<p>Physically Channing was short and slight; his eyes were unnaturally +large; his voice wonderfully clear, and like his face, +filled with devotional spirit. He was not a great pastor, and +lacked social tact, so that there were not many people who +became his near friends; but by the few who knew him well, +he was almost worshipped. As a preacher Channing was often +criticised for his failure to deal with the practical everyday +duties of life. But his sermons are remarkable for their rare +simplicity and gracefulness of style as well as for the thought +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span> +that they express. The first open defence of Unitarians was +not based on doctrinal differences but on the peculiar nature +of the attack on them made in June 1815 by the conservatives +in the columns of <i>The Panoplist</i>, where it was stated that Unitarians +were “operating only in secret, ... guilty of hypocritical +concealment of their sentiments.” His chief objection to the +doctrine of the Trinity (as stated in his sermon at the ordination +of the Rev. Jared Sparks) was that it was no longer used philosophically, +as showing God’s relation to the triple nature of +man, but that it had lapsed into mere Tritheism. To the name +“Unitarian” Channing objected strongly, thinking “unity” +as abstract a word as “trinity” and as little expressing the +close fatherly relation of God to man. It is to be noted that +he strongly objected to the growth of “Unitarian orthodoxy” +and its increasing narrowness. His views as to the divinity +of Jesus were based on phrases in the Gospels which to his mind +established Christ’s admission of inferiority to God the Father,—for +example, “Knoweth no man, neither the Son, but the +Father”; at the same time he regarded Christ as “the sinless +and spotless son of God, distinguished from all men by that +infinite peculiarity—freedom from moral evil.” He believed +in the pre-existence of Jesus, and that it differed from the pre-existence +of other souls in that Jesus was actually conscious +of such pre-existence, and he reckoned him one with God the +Father in the sense of spiritual union (and not metaphysical +mystery) in the same way that Jesus bade his disciples “Be ye +one, even as I am one.” Bunsen called him “the prophet in the +United States for the presence of God in mankind.” Channing +believed in historic Christianity and in the story of the resurrection, +“a fact which comes to me with a certainty I find in few +ancient histories.” He also believed in the miracles of the +Gospels, but held that the Scriptures were not inspired, but +merely records of inspiration, and so saw the possibility of error +in the construction put upon miracles by the ignorant disciples. +But in only a few instances did he refuse full credence of the +plain gospel narrative of miracles. He held, however, that the +miracles were facts and not “evidences” of Christianity, and +he considered that belief in them followed and did not lead up to +belief in Christianity. His character was absolutely averse from +controversy of any sort, and in controversies into which he was +forced he was free from any theological odium and continually +displayed the greatest breadth and catholicity of view. The +differences in New England churches he considered were +largely verbal, and he said that “would Trinitarians tell us what +they mean, their system would generally be found little else +than a mystical form of the Unitarian doctrine.”</p> + +<p>His opposition to Calvinism was so great that even in 1812 +he declared “existence a curse” if Calvinism be true. Possibly +his boldest and most elaborate defence of Unitarianism was +his sermon on <i>Unitarianism most favourable to Piety</i>, preached in +1826, criticizing as it did the doctrine of atonement by the +sacrifice of an “infinite substitute”; and the Election Sermon +of 1830 was his greatest plea for spiritual and intellectual +freedom.</p> + +<p>Channing’s reputation as an author was probably based +largely on his publication in <i>The Christian Examiner</i> of <i>Remarks +on the Character and Writings of John Milton</i> (1826), <i>Remarks on +the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte</i> (1827-1828), and +an <i>Essay on the Character and Writings of Fénelon</i> (1829). An +<i>Essay on Self-Culture</i> (1838) was an address introducing the +Franklin Lectures delivered in Boston September 1838. Channing +was an intimate friend of Horace Mann, and his views on +the education of children are stated, by no less an authority +than Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, to have anticipated those of +Froebel. His <i>Complete Works</i> have appeared in various editions +(5 vols., Boston, 1841; 2 vols., London, 1865; 1 vol., New +York, 1875).</p> + +<p>Among members of his family may be mentioned his two +nephews William Henry (1810-1884), son of his brother Francis +Dana, and William Ellery, commonly known as Ellery (1818-1901), +son of his brother Walter, a Boston physician (1786-1876). +The former, whose daughter married Sir Edwin Arnold, the +English poet, became a Unitarian pastor, for some time in +America, and also in England, where he died; he was deeply +interested in Christian Socialism, and was a constant writer, +translating Jouffroy’s <i>Ethics</i> (1840), and assisting in editing the +<i>Memoirs of Margaret Fuller</i> (1852); and he wrote the biography +of his uncle (see O.B. Frothingham’s <i>Memoir</i>, 1886). Ellery +Channing married Margaret Fuller’s sister (1842), and besides +critical essays and poems published an intimate sketch of +Thoreau in 1873.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Memoir</i> by William Henry Channing (3 vols., London, +1848; republished in one volume, New York, 1880); Elizabeth +Palmer Peabody, <i>Reminiscences of the Rev. William Ellery Channing, +D.D</i>. (Boston, 1880), intimate but inexact; John White Chadwick, +<i>William Ellery Channing, Minister of Religion</i> (Boston, 1903); and +William M. Salter, “Channing as a Social Reformer” (<i>Unitarian +Review</i>, March 1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. We.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANSONS DE GESTE,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> the name given to the epic chronicles +which take so prominent a place in the literature of France from +the 11th to the 15th century. Gaston Paris defined a chanson +de geste as a song the subject of which is a series of historical +facts or <i>gesta</i>. These facts form the centre around which are +grouped sets of poems, called cycles, and hence the two terms +have in modern criticism become synonymous for the epic +family to which the hero of the particular group or cycle belongs. +The earliest chansons de geste were founded on the fusion of the +Teutonic spirit, under a Roman form, into the new Christian +and French civilization. It seems probable that as early as the +9th century epic poems began to be chanted by the itinerant +minstrels who are known as jongleurs. It is conjectured that +in a base Latin fragment of the 10th century we possess a translation +of a poem on the siege of Girona. Gaston Paris dates from +this lost epic the open expression of what he calls “the epic +fermentation” of France. But the earliest existing chanson +de geste is also by far the noblest and most famous, the <i>Chanson +de Roland</i>; the conjectural date of the composition of this poem +has been placed between the years 1066 and 1095. That the +author, as has been supposed, was one of the conquerors of +England, it is perhaps rash to assert, but undoubtedly the poem +was composed before the First Crusade, and the writer lived at +or near the sanctuary of Mont Saint-Michel. The <i>Chanson de +Roland</i> stands at the head of modern French literature, and its +solidity and grandeur give a dignity to the whole class of poetry +of which it is the earliest and by far the noblest example. But +it is in the crowd of looser and later poems, less fully characterized, +less steeped in the individuality of their authors, that we +can best study the form of the typical chanson de geste. These +epics sprang from the soil of France; they were national and +historical; their anonymous writers composed them spontaneously, +to a common model, with little regard to the artificial +niceties of style. The earlier examples, which succeed the +<i>Roland</i>, are unlike that great work in having no plan, no system +of composition. They are improvisations which wander on at +their own pace, whither accident may carry them. This mass of +medieval literature is monotonous, primitive and superficial. +As Léon Gautier has said, in the rudimentary psychology of +the chansons de geste, man is either entirely good or entirely +bad. There are no fine shades, no observation of character. +The language in which these poems are composed is extremely +simple, without elaboration, without ornament. Everything +is sacrificed to the telling of a story by a narrator of little skill, +who helps himself along by means of a picturesque, but almost +childish fancy, and a primitive sentiment of rhythm. Two great +merits, however, all the best of these poems possess, force and +lucidity; and they celebrate, what they did much to create, that +unselfish elevation of temper which we call the spirit of chivalry.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most important cycle of chansons de geste was +that which was collected around the name of Charlemagne, and +was known as the <i>Geste du roi</i>. A group of this cycle dealt with +the history of the mother of the emperor, and with Charlemagne +himself down to the coming of Roland. To this group belong +<i>Bertha Greatfoot</i> and <i>Aspremont</i>, both of the 12th century, and +a variety of chansons dealing with the childhood of Charlemagne +and of Ogier the Dane. A second group deals with the struggle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span> +of Charlemagne with his rebellious vassals. This is what has +been defined as the Feudal Epic; it includes <i>Girars de Viane</i> +and <i>Ogier the Dane</i>, both of the 13th century, or the end of the +12th. A third group follows Charlemagne and his peers to the +East. It is in the principal of these poems, <i>The Pilgrimage to +Jerusalem</i>, that Alexandrine verse first makes its appearance in +French literature. This must belong to the beginning of the +12th century. A fourth group, antecedent to the Spanish war, +is of the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th; +it includes <i>Aiquin</i>, <i>Fierabras</i> and <i>Otinel</i>. The fifth class discusses +the war in Spain, and it is to this that <i>Roland</i> belongs; there are +different minor epics dealing with the events of Roncevaux, and +independent chansons of <i>Gui de Bourgogne</i>, <i>Gaidon</i> and <i>Anseïs +de Carthage</i>. The <i>Geste du Roi</i> comprises a sixth and last group, +proceeding with events up to the death of Charlemagne; this +contains <i>Huon de Bordeaux</i> and a vast number of poems of +minor originality and importance.</p> + +<p>Another cycle is that of Duke William Shortnose, <i>La Geste de +Guillaume</i>. This includes the very early and interesting <i>Departure +of the Aimeri Children</i>, <i>Aliscans</i> and <i>Rainoart</i>. It is +thought that this cycle, which used to be called the <i>Geste de +Garin de Monglane</i>, is less artificial than the others; it deals +with the heroes of the South who remained faithful in their +vassalage to the throne. The poems belonging to this cycle are +extremely numerous, and some of them are among the earliest +which survive. These chansons find their direct opposites in +those which form the great cycle of <i>La Geste de Doon de Mayence</i>, +sometimes called “la faulse geste,” because it deals with the +feats of the traitors, of the rebellious family of Ganelon. This +is the geste of the Northmen, always hostile to the Carlovingian +dynasty. It comprises some of the most famous of the chansons, +in particular <i>Parise la duchesse</i> and <i>The Four Sons of Aymon</i>. +Several of its sections are the production of a known poet, +Raimbert of Paris. From this triple division of the main body +of the chansons de geste into <i>La Geste du Roi</i>, <i>La Geste de Guillaume</i> +and <i>La Geste de Doon</i>, are excluded certain poems of minor +importance,—some provincial, such as <i>Amis and Amiles</i> and +<i>Garin</i>, some dealing with the Crusades, such as <i>Antioche</i>, and +some which are not connected with any existing cycle, such as +<i>Ciperis de Vignevaux</i>; most of this last category, however, are +works of the decadence.</p> + +<p>The analysis which is here sketched is founded on the latest +theories of Léon Gautier, who has given the labour of a lifetime +to the investigation of this subject. The wealth of material is +baffling to the ordinary student; of the medieval chansons de +geste many hundreds of thousands of lines have been preserved. +The habit of composing became in the 14th century, as has been +said, no longer an art but a monomania. Needless to add that +a very large proportion of the surviving poems have never yet +been published. All the best of the early chansons de geste are +written in ten-syllable verse, divided into stanzas or <i>laisses</i> of +different length, united by a single assonance. Rhyme came +in with the 13th century, and had the effect in languid bards of +weakening the narrative; the sing-song of it led at last to the +abandonment of verse in favour of plain historical prose. The +general character of the chansons de geste, especially of those +of the 12th century, is hard, coarse, inflexible, like the march +of rough men stiffened by coats of mail. There is no art and +little grace, but a magnificent display of force. These poems +enshrine the self-sufficiency of a young and powerful people; +they are full of Gallic pride, they breathe the spirit of an indomitable +warlike energy. All their figures belong to the same +social order of things, and all illustrate the same fighting +aristocracy. The moving principle is that of chivalry, and what +is presented is, invariably, the spectacle of the processional life +of a medieval soldier. The age described is a disturbed one; +the feudal anarchy of Europe is united, for a moment, in defending +western civilization against the inroads of Asia, against “the +yellow peril.” But it is a time of transition in Europe also, and +Charlemagne, the immortal but enfeebled emperor, whose beard +is whiter than lilies, represents an old order of things against +which the rude barons of the North are perpetually in successful +revolt. The loud cry of the dying Ronald, as E. Quinet said, +rings through the whole poetical literature of medieval France; +it is the voice of the individuality of the great vassal, who, in +the decay of the empire, stands alone with himself and with +his sword.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>,—Léon Gautier, <i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (4 vols., +1878-1894); Gaston Paris, <i>La Littérature française au moyen âge</i> +(1890); Paul Meyer, <i>Recherches sur l’épopée française</i> (1867); +G. Paris, <i>Histoire poétique de Charlemagne</i> (1865); A. Longnon, <i>Les +Quatre Fits Aimon</i>, &c. (1879).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANT<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. <i>cantare</i>, to +sing; an old form is “chaunt”), a song or melody, particularly +one sung according to the rules of church service-books. For +an account of the chant or <i>cantus firmus</i> of the Roman Church +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plain-Song</a></span>. In the English church “chants” are the tunes +set to the unmetrical verses of the psalms and canticles. The +chant consisted of an “intonation” followed by a reciting note +of indefinite length; a “mediation” closed the first part of the +verse, leading to a second reciting note; a “termination” closed +the second part of the verse. In the English chant the “intonation” +disappeared. Chants are “single,” if written for one +verse only, “double,” if for two. “Quadruple” chants for four +verses have also been written.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANTABUN,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chantaburi</span>, the principal town of the +Siamese province of the same name, on the E. side of the Gulf +of Siam, in 102° 6′ E., 12° 38′ N. Pop. about 5000. The town +lies about 12 m. from the sea on a river which is navigable for +boats and inside the bar of which there is good anchorage for +light-draft vessels. The trade is chiefly in rubies and sapphires +from the mines of the Krat and Pailin districts, and in pepper, +of which about 500 tons are exported annually. Cardamoms +and rosewood are also exported. In 1905 Chantabun was made +the headquarters of a high commissioner with jurisdiction extending +over the coast districts from the Nam Wen on the East +to Cape Liant on the West, which were thus united to form a +provincial division (<i>Monton</i>). In 1893 Chantabun was occupied +by a French force of four hundred men, a step taken by France +as a guarantee for the execution by Siam of undertakings entered +into by the treaty of that year. The occupation, which was +merely military and did not affect the civil government, lasted +until January 1905, when, in accordance with the provisions of +the Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904, the garrison of occupation +was withdrawn. Chantabun has been since the 17th century, +and still is, a stronghold of the Roman Catholic missionaries, +and the Christian element amongst the population is greater +here than anywhere else in Siam.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANTADA,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province +of Lugo, on the left bank of the Río de Chantada, a small right-hand +tributary of the river Miño, and on the main road from +Orerse, 18 m. S. by W., to Lugo, 28 m. N. by E. Pop. (1900) +15,003. Chantada is the chief town of the fertile region between +the Miño and the heights of El Faro, which mark the western +border of the province. Despite the lack of railway communication, +it has a thriving trade in grain, flax, hemp, and dairy +produce.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANTAGE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (a Fr. word from <i>chanter</i>, to sing, slang for a +criminal making an avowal under examination), a demand for +money backed by the threat of scandalous revelations, the +French equivalent of “blackmail.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANTARELLE,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> an edible fungus, known botanically as +<i>Cantharellus cibarius</i>, found in woods in summer. It is golden +yellow, somewhat inversely conical in shape and about 2 in. +broad and high. The cap is flattened above with a central +depression and a thick lobed irregular margin. Running down +into the stem from the cap are a number of shallow thick gills. +The substance of the fungus is dry and opaque with a peculiar +smell suggesting ripe apricots or plums. The flesh is whitish +tinged with yellow. The chantarelle is sold in the markets on +the continent of Europe, where it forms a regular article of food, +but seems little known in Britain though often plentiful in the +New Forest and elsewhere. Before being cooked they should be +allowed to dry, and then thrown into boiling water. They may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span> +then be stewed in butter or oil, or cut up small and stewed with +meat. No fungus requires more careful preparation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M.C. Cooke, <i>British Edible Fungi</i>, (1891), pp. 104-105.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANTAVOINE, HENRI<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1850-  ), French man of letters, +was born at Montpellier on the 6th of August 1850, and was +educated at the École Normale Supérieure. After teaching in +the provinces he moved, in 1876, to the Lycée Charlemagne in +Paris, and subsequently became professor of rhetoric at the +Lycée Henri IV. and <i>maître de conferences</i> at the École Normale +at Sèvres. He was associated with the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i> from its +foundation in 1879, and he joined the <i>Journal des débats</i> in 1884. +His poems include <i>Poèmes sincères</i> (1877), <i>Satires contemporaines</i> +(1881), <i>Ad memoriam</i> (1884), <i>Au fil des jours</i> (1889).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANTILLY,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of +Oise, 25 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway to St Quentin. +Pop. (1906) 4632. It is finely situated to the north of the forest +of Chantilly and on the left bank of the river Nonette, and is one +of the favourite Parisian resorts. Its name was long associated +with the manufacture, which has now to a great extent decayed, +of lace and blonde; it is still more celebrated for its château and +its park (laid out originally by A. Le Nôtre in the second half of +the 17th century), and as the scene of the great annual races of +the French Jockey Club. The château consists of the palace +built from 1876 to 1885 and of an older portion adjoining it +known as the châtelet. The old castle must have been in existence +in the 13th century, and in the reign of Charles VI. the lordship +belonged to Pierre d’Orgemont, chancellor of France. In 1484 +it passed to the house of Montmorency, and in 1632 from +that family to the house of Condé. Louis II., prince de Condé, +surnamed the Great, was specially attached to the place, and did +a great deal to enhance its beauty and splendour. Here he +enjoyed the society of La Bruyère, Racine, Molière, La Fontaine, +Boileau, and other great men of his time; and here his steward +Vatel killed himself in despair, because of a hitch in the preparations +for the reception of Louis XIV. The stables close to the +racecourse were built from 1719 to 1735 by Louis-Henri, duke +of Bourbon. Of the two splendid mansions existing at that period +known as the grand château and the châtelet, the former was +destroyed about the time of the Revolution, but the latter, +built for Anne de Montmorency by Jean Bullant, still remains +as one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in +France. The château d’Enghien, facing the entrance to the +grand château, was built in 1770 as a guest-house. On the death +in 1830 of the duke of Bourbon, the last representative of the +house of Condé, the estate passed into the hands of Henri, duc +d’Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe. In 1852 the house of +Orleans was declared incapable of possessing property in France, +and Chantilly was accordingly sold by auction. Purchased by +the English bankers, Coutts & Co., it passed back into the hands +of the duc d’Aumale, in 1872. By him a magnificent palace, +including a fine chapel in the Renaissance style, was erected on +the foundations of the ancient grand château and in the style +of the châtelet. It is quadrilateral in shape, consisting of four +unequal sides flanked by towers and built round a courtyard. +The whole group of buildings as well as the pleasure-ground +behind them, known as the Parterre de la Volière, is surrounded +by fosses supplied with water from the Nonette. On the terrace +in front of the château there is a bronze statue of the constable +Anne de Montmorency. The duc d’Aumale installed in the +châtelet a valuable library, specially rich in incunabula and 16th +century editions of classic authors, and a collection of the paintings +of the great masters, besides many other objects of art. +By a public act in 1886 he gave the park and château with its +superb collections to the Institute of France in trust for the +nation, reserving to himself only a life interest; and when he +died in 1897 the Institute acquired full possession.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1782-1841), English +sculptor, was born on the 7th of April 1782 at Norton near +Sheffield, where his father, a carpenter, cultivated a small farm. +His father died when he was eight years of age; and his mother +having married again, his profession was left to be chosen by his +friends. In his sixteenth year he was on the point of being +apprenticed to a grocer in Sheffield, when, having seen some +wood-carving in a shop-window, he requested to be made a carver +instead, and was accordingly placed with a Mr Ramsey, wood-carver +in Sheffield. In this situation he became acquainted with +Raphael Smith, a distinguished draftsman in crayon, who gave +him lessons in painting; and Chantrey, eager to commence his +course as an artist, procured the cancelling of his indentures, and +went to try his fortune in Dublin and Edinburgh, and finally +(1802) in London. Here he first obtained employment as an +assistant wood-carver, but at the same time devoted himself +to portrait-painting, bust-sculpture, and modelling in clay. He +exhibited pictures at the Academy for some years from 1804, +but from 1807 onwards devoted himself mainly to sculpture. +The sculptor Nollekens showed particular zeal in recognizing +his merits. In 1807 he married his cousin, Miss Wale, who had +some property of her own. His first imaginative work in sculpture +was the model of the head of Satan, which was exhibited at the +Royal Academy in 1808. He afterwards executed for Greenwich +hospital four colossal busts of the admirals Duncan, Howe, +Vincent and Nelson; and so rapidly did his reputation spread +that the next bust which he executed, that of Horne Tooke, +procured him commissions to the extent of £12,000. From this +period he was almost uninterruptedly engaged in professional +labour. In 1819 he visited Italy, and became acquainted with +the most distinguished sculptors of Florence and Rome. He was +chosen an associate (1815) and afterwards a member (1818) +of the Royal Academy, received the degree of M.A. from +Cambridge, and that of D.C.L. from Oxford, and in 1835 +was knighted. He died after an illness of only two hours’ +duration on the 25th of November 1841, having for some years +suffered from disease of the heart, and was buried in a tomb +constructed by himself in the church of his native village.</p> + +<p>The works of Chantrey are extremely numerous. The principal +are the statues of Washington in the State-house at Boston, +U.S.A.; of George III. in the Guildhall, London; of George IV. +at Brighton; of Pitt in Hanover Square, London; of James +Watt in Westminster Abbey and in Glasgow; of Roscoe and +Canning in Liverpool; of Dalton in Manchester; of Lord +President Blair and Lord Melville in Edinburgh, &c. Of his equestrian +statues the most famous are those of Sir Thomas Munro +in Calcutta, and the duke of Wellington in front of the London +Exchange. But the finest of Chantrey’s works are his busts, +and his delineations of children. The figures of two children +asleep in each other’s arms, which form a monumental design in +Lichfield cathedral, have always been lauded for beauty, simplicity +and grace. So is also the statue of the girlish Lady Louisa +Russell, represented as standing on tiptoe and fondling a dove +in her bosom. Both these works appear, in design, to have +owed something to Stothard; for Chantrey knew his own +scantiness of ideal invention or composition, and on system +sought aid from others for such attempts. In busts, his leading +excellence is facility—a ready unconstrained air of life, a prompt +vivacity of ordinary expression. Allan Cunningham and Weekes +were his chief assistants, and were indeed the active executants +of many works that pass under Chantrey’s name. Chantrey +was a man of warm and genial temperament, and is said to have +borne noticeable though commonplace resemblance to the +usual portraits of Shakespeare.</p> + +<p><i>Chantrey Bequest.</i>—By the will dated the 31st of December +1840, Chantrey (who had no children) left his whole residuary +personal estate after the decease or on the second marriage of his +widow (less certain specified annuities and bequests) in trust for +the president and trustees of the Royal Academy (or in the event +of the dissolution of the Royal Academy, to such society as might +take its place), the income to be devoted to the encouragement of +British fine art in painting and sculpture only, by “the purchase +of works of fine art of the highest merit ... that can be obtained.” +The funds might be allowed to accumulate for not more than five +years; works by British or foreign artists, dead or living, might be +acquired, so long as such works were entirely executed within the +shores of Great Britain, the artists having been in residence there +during such execution and completion. The prices to be paid +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span> +were to be “liberal,” and no sympathy for an artist or his family +was to influence the selection or the purchase of works, which +were to be acquired solely on the ground of intrinsic merit. No +commission or orders might be given: the works must be finished +before purchase. Conditions were made as to the exhibition of +the works, in the confident expectation that as the intention of +the testator was to form and establish a “public collection of +British Fine Art in Painting and Sculpture,” the government or +the country would provide a suitable gallery for their display; +and an annual sum of £300 and £50 was to be paid to the president +of the Royal Academy and the secretary respectively, for the +discharge of their duties in carrying out the provisions of the +will.</p> + +<p>Lady Chantrey died in 1875, and two years later the fund +became available for the purchase of paintings and sculptures. +The capital sum available amounted to £105,000 in 3% Consols, +which (since reduced to 2½%) produces an available annual +income varying from £2500 to £2100. Galleries in the Victoria +and Albert Museum at South Kensington were at first adopted +as the depository of the works acquired, until in 1898 the Royal +Academy arranged with the treasury, on behalf of the government, +for the transference of the collection to the National +Gallery of British Art, which had been erected by Sir Henry +Tate at Millbank. It was agreed that the “Tate Gallery” should +be its future home, and that “no power of selection or elimination +is claimed on behalf of the trustees and director of the National +Gallery” (Treasury Letter, 18054-98, 7th December 1898) in +respect of the pictures and sculptures which were then to be +handed over and which should, from time to time, be sent to +augment the collection. Inasmuch as it was felt that the provision +that all works must be complete to be eligible for purchase +militated against the most advantageous disposition of the fund +in respect of sculpture, in the case of wax models or plaster casts +before being converted into marble or bronze, it was sought in +the action of <i>Sir F. Leighton</i> v. <i>Hughes</i> (tried by Mr Justice +North, judgment May 7th, 1888, and in the court of appeal, +before the master of the rolls, Lord Justice Cotton, and Lord +Justice Fry, judgment June 4th, 1889—the master of the rolls +dissenting) to allow of sculptors being commissioned to complete +in bronze or marble a work executed in wax or plaster, such +“completion” being more or less a mechanical process. The +attempt, however, was abortive.</p> + +<p>A growing discontent with the interpretation put by the +Royal Academy upon the terms of the will as shown in the works +acquired began to find expression more than usually forcible and +lively in the press during the year 1903, and a debate raised in the +House of Lords by the earl of Lytton led to the appointment of a +select committee of the House of Lords, which sat from June to +August 1904. The committee consisted of the earls of Carlisle, +Lytton, and Crewe, and Lords Windsor, Ribblesdale, Newton, +and Killanin, and the witnesses represented the Royal Academy +and representative art institutions and art critics. The report +(ordered to be printed on the 8th of August 1904) made certain +recommendations with a view to the prevention of certain former +errors of administration held to have been sustained, but dismissed +other charges against the Academy. In reply thereto a +memorandum was issued by the Royal Academy (February +1905, ordered to be printed on the 7th of August 1905—Paper +166) disagreeing with certain recommendations, but allowing +others, either intact or in a modified form.</p> + +<p>Up to 1905 inclusive 203 works had been bought—all except +two from living painters—at a cost of nearly £68,000. Of these, +175 were in oil-colours, 12 in water-colours, and 16 sculptures +(10 in bronze and 6 marble).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Administration of the Chantrey Bequest</i>, by D.S. MacColl +(l6mo, London, 1904), a highly controversial publication by the +leading assailant of the Royal Academy: <i>Chantrey and His Bequest</i>, +by Arthur Fish, a complete illustrated record of the purchases, &c. +(London, 1904); <i>The Royal Academy, its Uses and Abuses</i>, by H.J. +Laidlay (London, 1898), controversial; <i>Report from the Select Committee +of the House of Lords on the Chantrey Trust; together with the +Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix</i> +(Wyman & Sons, 1904), and <i>Index</i> (separate publication, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANT ROYAL,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> one of the fixed forms of verse invented by +the ingenuity of the poets of medieval France. It is composed +of five strophes, identical in arrangement, of eleven verses each, +and of an envoi of five verses. All the strophes are written on the +five rhymes exhibited in the first strophe, the entire poem, +therefore, consisting of sixty lines in the course of which five +rhymes are repeated. It has been conjectured that the chant +royal is an extended ballade, or rather a ballade conceived upon a +larger scale; but which form preceded the other appears to be +uncertain. On this point Henri de Croï, who wrote about these +forms of verse in his <i>Art et science de rhétorique</i> (1493), throws no +light. He dwells, however, on the great dignity of what he calls +the “Champt Royal,” and says that those who defy with success +the ardour of its rules deserve crowns and garlands for their +pains. Étienne Pasquier (1529-1615) points out the fact that the +Chant Royal, by its length and the rigidity of its structure, is +better fitted than the ballade for solemn and pompous themes. +In Old French, the most admired chants royal are those of Clement +Marot; his <i>Chant royal chrestien</i>, with its refrain</p> + +<p class="center">“Santé au corps, et Paradis à l’âme,”</p> + +<p class="noind">was celebrated. Théodore de Banville defines the chant royal as +essentially belonging to ages of faith, when its subjects could be +either the exploits of a hero of royal race or the processional +splendours of religion. La Fontaine was the latest of the French +poets to attempt the chant royal, until it was resuscitated in +modern times.</p> + +<p>This species of poem was unknown in English medieval literature +and was only introduced into Great Britain in the last +quarter of the 19th century. The earliest chant royal in English +was that published by Edmund Gosse in 1877; it is here +given to exemplify the structure and rhyme-arrangement of the +form:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">The Praise of Dionysus</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Behold, above the mountains there is light,</p> +<p class="i05">A streak of gold, a line of gathering fire,</p> +<p class="i05">And the dim East hath suddenly grown bright</p> +<p class="i05">With pale aerial flame, that drives up higher</p> +<p class="i05">The lurid mists which all the night long were</p> +<p class="i05">Breasting the dark ravines and coverts bare;</p> +<p class="i05">Behold, behold! the granite gates unclose,</p> +<p class="i05">And down the vales a lyric people flows,</p> +<p class="i05">Who dance to music, and in dancing fling</p> +<p class="i05">Their frantic robes to every wind that blows,</p> +<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p> + +<p class="i05 s">Nearer they press, and nearer still in sight,</p> +<p class="i05">Still dancing blithely in a seemly choir;</p> +<p class="i05">Tossing on high the symbol of their rite,</p> +<p class="i05">The cone-tipp’d thyrsus of a god’s desire;</p> +<p class="i05">Nearer they come, tall damsels flushed and fair,</p> +<p class="i05">With ivy circling their abundant hair,</p> +<p class="i05">Onward, with even pace, in stately rows,</p> +<p class="i05">With eye that flashes, and with cheek that glows,</p> +<p class="i05">And all the while their tribute-songs they bring,</p> +<p class="i05">And newer glories of the past disclose</p> +<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p> + +<p class="i05 s">The pure luxuriance of their limbs is white,</p> +<p class="i05">And flashes clearer as they draw the nigher,</p> +<p class="i05">Bathed in an air of infinite delight,</p> +<p class="i05">Smooth without wound of thorn, or fleck of mire,</p> +<p class="i05">Borne up by song as by a trumpet’s blare,</p> +<p class="i05">Leading the van to conquest, on they fare,</p> +<p class="i05">Fearless and bold, whoever comes or goes,</p> +<p class="i05">These shining cohorts of Bacchantes close,</p> +<p class="i05">Shouting and shouting till the mountains ring,</p> +<p class="i05">And forests grim forget their ancient woes,</p> +<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p> + +<p class="i05 s">And youths there are for whom full many a night</p> +<p class="i05">Brought dreams of bliss, vague dreams that haunt and tire</p> +<p class="i05">Who rose in their own ecstasy bedight,</p> +<p class="i05">And wandered forth through many a scourging briar,</p> +<p class="i05">And waited shivering in the icy air,</p> +<p class="i05">And wrapped the leopard-skin about them there,</p> +<p class="i05">Knowing for all the bitter air that froze,</p> +<p class="i05">The time must come, that every poet knows,</p> +<p class="i05">When he shall rise and feel himself a king,</p> +<p class="i05">And follow, follow where the ivy grows,</p> +<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span></p> + +<p class="i05 s">But oh! within the heart of this great flight,</p> +<p class="i05">Whose ivory arms hold up the golden lyre?</p> +<p class="i05">What form is this of more than mortal height?</p> +<p class="i05">What matchless beauty, what inspiréd ire?</p> +<p class="i05">The brindled panthers know the prize they bear,</p> +<p class="i05">And harmonize their steps with tender care;</p> +<p class="i05">Bent to the morning, like a living rose,</p> +<p class="i05">The immortal splendour of his face he shows;</p> +<p class="i05">And, where he glances, leaf and flower and wing</p> +<p class="i05">Tremble with rapture, stirred in their repose,</p> +<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p> + +<p class="center ptb1"><i>Envoi</i>.</p> + +<p class="i05"><span class="sc">Prince</span> of the flute and ivy, all thy foes</p> +<p class="i05">Record the bounty that thy grace bestows,</p> +<p class="i05">But we, thy servants, to thy glory cling,</p> +<p class="i05">And with no frigid lips our songs compose,</p> +<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i>”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>In the middle ages the chant royal was largely used for the +praise of the Virgin Mary. Eustache Deschamps (1340-1410) +distinguishes these Marian chants royaux, which were called +“serventois,” by the absence of an envoi. These poems are first +mentioned by Rutebeuf, a <i>trouvère</i> of the 13th century. The +chant royal is practically unknown outside French and English +literature.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANTRY<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (Fr. <i>chanterie</i>, from <i>chanter</i>, to sing; Med. Lat. <i>cantuaria</i>), +a small chapel built out from a church, endowed in pre-Reformation +times for the express purpose of maintaining priests +for the chanting of masses for the soul of the founder or of some one +named by him. It generally contained the tomb of the founder, +and, as the officiator or mass-priest was often unconnected with +the parochial clergy, had an entrance from the outside. The +word passed through graduations of meaning. Its first sense was +singing or chanting. Then it meant the endowment funds, next +the priests, and then the church or chapel itself.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANUTE,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a city of Neosho county, Kansas, U.S.A., 1 m. +from the Neosho river, and about 120 m. S.S.W. of Kansas city. +Pop. (1890) 2826; (1900) 4208, of whom 210 were foreign-born +and 171 were negroes; (1910 census) 9272. Chanute is served +by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the Missouri, Kansas +& Texas railways, the former having large repair shops. The +city is in the Kansas-Oklahoma oil and gas field, and is +surrounded by a fine farming and dairying region, in which +special attention is given to the raising of small fruit; oil, gas, +cement rock and brick shale are found in the vicinity. Among +the city’s manufactures are refined oil, Portland cement, vitrified +brick and tile, glass, asphalt, ice, cigars, drilling machinery, and +flour. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks, +a natural gas plant, and an electric lighting plant. Four towns— +New Chicago, Tioga, Chicago Junction and Alliance—were +started here about the same time (1870). In 1872 they were +consolidated, and the present name was adopted in honour of +Octave Chanute (b. 1832), the civil engineer and aeronautist +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flight and Flying</a></span>), then the engineer of the Lawrence, +Leavenworth & Galveston railway (now part of the Atchison +system). Chanute was incorporated as a city of the third class +in 1873, and its charter was revised in 1888. Natural gas and +oil were found here in 1899, and Chanute became one of the +leaders of the Kansas independent refineries in their contest +with the Standard Oil Company.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1823-1883), French +general, was born at Nouart (Ardennes) on the 18th of March +1823. The son of a cavalry officer, he was educated at the naval +school at Brest, but enlisted in the artillery, and, subsequently +passing through St Cyr, was commissioned in the Zouaves in +1843. He saw a good deal of fighting in Algeria, and was promoted +lieutenant in 1848, and captain in 1851. He became +<i>chef de bataillon</i> in 1856, and served in the Lombardy campaign +of 1859, being present at Magenta and Solferino. He took part +in the Syrian campaign of 1860-61 as a lieutenant-colonel; and +as colonel commanded the 48th regiment at Rome in 1864. +He returned to Algeria as general of brigade, assisted to quell +the Arab insurrection, and commanded the subdivisions of Bel +Abbes and Tlemçen in 1868. Although he had acquired a good +professional reputation, he was in bad odour at the war office +on account of suspected contributions to the press, and at the +outbreak of the Franco-German War he was curtly refused a +brigade command. After the revolution, however, the government +of national defence called him from Algeria, made him +a general of division, and gave him command of the XVI. corps +of the army of the Loire. (For the operations of the Orleans +campaign which followed, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>.) The +Loire army won the greatest success of the French during the +whole war at Coulmiers, and followed this up with another +victorious action at Patay; in both engagements General +Chanzy’s corps took the most brilliant part. After the second +battle of Orleans and the separation of the two wings of the +French army, Chanzy was appointed to command that in the +west, designated the second army of the Loire. His enemies, +the grand duke of Mecklenburg, Prince Frederick Charles, and +General von der Tann, all regarded Chanzy as their most formidable +opponent. He displayed conspicuous moral courage +and constancy, not less than technical skill, in the fighting from +Beaugency to the Loire, in his retreat to Le Mans, and in +retiring to Laval behind the Mayenne. As Gambetta was +the soul, Chanzy was the strong right arm of French resistance +to the invader. He was made a grand officer of the Legion of +Honour, and was elected to the National Assembly. At the +outbreak of the Commune, Chanzy, then at Paris, fell into the +hands of the insurgents, by whom he was forced to give his +parole not to serve against them. It was said that he would +otherwise have been appointed instead of MacMahon to command +the army of Versailles. A ransom of £40,000 was also paid by +the government for him. In 1872 he became a member of the +committee of defence and commander of the VII. army corps, +and in 1873 was appointed governor of Algeria, where he remained +for six years. In 1875 he was elected a life senator, in +1878 received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and in +1879, without his consent, was nominated for the presidency of +the republic, receiving a third of the total votes. For two years +he was ambassador at St Petersburg, during which time he +received many tokens of respect, not only from the Russians, +but also from the German emperor, William I., and Prince +Bismarck. He died suddenly, while commanding the VI. army +corps (stationed nearest to the German frontier), at Châlons-sur-Marne, +on the 4th of January 1883, only a few days after Gambetta, +and his remains received a state funeral. He was the +author of <i>La Deuxième Armée de la Loire</i> (1872). Statues of +General Chanzy have been erected at Nouart and Le Mans.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAOS,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> in the Hesiodic theogony, the infinite empty space, +which existed before all things (<i>Theog.</i> 116, 123). It is not, +however, a mere abstraction, being filled with clouds and darkness; +from it proceed Erebus and Nyx (Night), whose children +are Aether (upper air) and Hemera (Day). In the Orphic +cosmogony the origin of all goes back to Chronos, the personification +of time, who produces Aether and Chaos. In the Aristophanic +parody (<i>Birds</i>, 691) the winged Eros in conjunction with +gloomy Chaos brings forth the race of birds. The later Roman +conception (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> i. 7) makes Chaos the original +undigested, amorphous mass, into which the architect of the +world introduces order and harmony, and from which individual +forms are created. In the created world (cosmos, order of the +universe) the word has various meanings:—the universe; +the space between heaven and earth; the under-world and its +ruler. Metaphorically it is used for the immeasurable darkness, +eternity, and the infinite generally. In modern usage “chaos” +denotes a state of disorder and confusion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPBOOK<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>chap</i>, to buy and sell), the +comparatively modern name applied by booksellers and bibliophiles +to the little stitched tracts written for the common people +and formerly circulated in England, Scotland and the American +colonies by itinerant dealers or chapmen, consisting chiefly of +vulgarized versions of popular stories, such as <i>Tom Thumb</i>, +<i>Jack the Giant Killer</i>, <i>Mother Shipton</i>, and <i>Reynard the +Fox</i>—travels, biographies and religious treatises. Few of the older +chapbooks exist. Samuel Pepys collected some of the best and +had them bound into small quarto volumes, which he called +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span> +Vulgaria; also four volumes of a smaller size, which he lettered +<i>Penny Witticisms, Penny Merriments, Penny Compliments</i> and +<i>Penny Godlinesses</i>. The early chapbooks were the direct +descendants of the black-letter tracts of Wynkyn de Worde. It +was in France that the printing-press first began to supply +reading for the common people. At the end of the 15th century +there was a large popular literature of farces, tales in verse and +prose, satires, almanacs, &c., stitched together so as to contain +a few leaves, and circulated by itinerant booksellers, known as +colporteurs. Most early English chapbooks are adaptations or +translations of these French originals, and were introduced into +England early in the 16th century. The chapbooks of the 17th +century present us with valuable illustrations of the manners +of the time; one of the best known is that containing the story +of Dick Whittington. Others which had a great vogue are <i>Jack +the Giant Killer, Little Red Riding Hood</i>, and <i>Mother Shipton</i>. +Those of the 18th century are far inferior in every way, both as +regards the literature and the printing; and unfortunately it +is these which form the bulk of what is now known to us in +collections as chapbooks. They have never exercised any great +influence in England nor received much attention, owing no +doubt to their poor literary character. In France, on the other +hand, their French equivalents have been the object of close and +systematic study, and <i>L’Histoire des livres populaires ou de la +littérature du colportage</i> by Charles Nisard (1854) goes deeply into +the subject. Amongst English books may be mentioned <i>Notices +of Fugitive Tracts and Chapbooks</i>, by J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps +(1849); <i>Chapbooks of the 18th Century</i>, by John Ashton (1882), +and some reprints by the Villon Society in 1885. The word “chapbook” +has not been noticed earlier than 1824, when Dibdin, the +celebrated bibliographer, described a work as being “a chapbook, +printed in rather a neat black-letter.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>chape</i>, a hood, cope or sheath), a cover +or metal plate, such as the cap upon the needle in the compass, +also the transverse guard of a sword which protects the hand. +From the original meaning comes the use of the word as a support +or catch to attach one thing to another, as the hook on a belt +to which the sword is fastened. The word is also used for the tip +of a fox’s brush.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPEL,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> a place of religious worship,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a name properly applied +to that of a Christian religious body, but sometimes to any small +temple of pagan worship (Lat. <i>sacellum</i>). The word is derived +through the O. Fr. <i>chapele</i>, modern <i>chapelle</i>, from the Late Lat. +<i>capelle</i> or <i>cappella</i>, diminutive of <i>cappa</i>, a cape, particularly that +of a monk. This word was transferred to any sanctuary containing +relics, in the early history of the Frankish Church, +because the cloak of St Martin, <i>cappa brevior Sancti Martini</i>, +one of the most sacred relics of the Frankish kings, was carried +in a sanctuary or shrine wherever the king went; and oaths were +taken on it (see Ducange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> <i>Capella</i>). Such a +sanctuary was served by a priest, who was hence called <i>capellanus</i>, +from which is derived the English “chaplain” (<i>q.v.</i>). The strict +application of the word to a sanctuary containing relics was +extended to embrace any place of worship other than a church, +and it was synonymous, therefore, with “oratory” (<i>oratorium</i>), +especially one attached to a palace or to a private dwelling-house. +The celebrated Sainte Chapelle in Paris, attached to what is now +the Palais de Justice, well illustrates the early and proper meaning +of the word. It was built (consecration, 1248) by St Louis +of France to contain the relic of the Crown of Thorns, ransomed +by the king from the Venetians, who held it in pawn from the +Latin emperor of the East, John of Brienne, lately dead. The +chapel served as the sanctuary of the relic lodged in the +upper chapel, and the whole building was attached as the place +of worship to the king’s palace. This, the primary meaning, +survives in the chapels usually placed in the aisles of cathedrals +and large churches. They were originally built either to contain +relics of a particular saint to whom they were dedicated, or +the tomb of a particular family.</p> + +<p>In the Church of England the word is applied to a private +place of worship, attached either to the palaces of the sovereign, +“chapels royal,” or to the residence of a private person, to a +college, school, prison, workhouse, &c. Further, the word has +particular legal applications, though in each case the building +might be and often is styled a church. These are places of +worship supplementary to a parish church, and may be either +“chapels of ease,” to ease or relieve the mother-church and serve +those parishioners who may live far away, “parochial chapels,” +the “churches” of ancient divisions of a very large and widely +scattered parish, or “district chapels,” those of a district of a +parish divided under the various church building acts. A “free +chapel” is one founded by the king and by his authority, and +visited by him and not by the bishop. A “proprietary chapel” +is one that belongs to a private person. They are anomalies +to the English ecclesiastical law, have no parish rights, and can +be converted to other than religious purposes, but a clergyman +may be licensed to perform duty in such a place of worship. In +the early and middle part of the 19th century such proprietary +chapels were common, but they have practically ceased to exist. +“Chapel” was early and still is in England the general name of +places of worship other than those of the established Church, +but the application of “church” to all places of worship without +distinction of sect is becoming more and more common. The +word “chapel” was in this restricted sense first applied to places +of worship belonging to the Roman Church in England, and was +thus restricted to those attached to foreign embassies, or to those +of the consorts of Charles I. and II. and James II., who were +members of that church. The word is still frequently the general +term for Roman Catholic churches in Great Britain and always +so in Ireland. The use of “chapel” as a common term for all +Nonconformist places of worship was general through most of the +19th century, so that “church and chapel” was the usual phrase +to mark the distinction between members of the established +Church and those of Nonconformist bodies. Here the widened +use of “church” noticed above has been especially marked. +Most of the recent buildings for worship erected by Nonconformist +bodies will be found to be styled Wesleyan, Congregational, +&c., churches. It would appear that while the word +“chapel” was not infrequent in the early history of Nonconformity, +“meeting-house” was the more usual term.</p> + +<p>From the architectural point of view the addition of chapels +to a cathedral or large church assumes some historical importance +in consequence of the changes it involved in the plan. It was +the introduction of the apsidal chapels in the churches of France +which eventually led to the <i>chevet</i> or cluster of eastern chapels +in many of the great cathedrals, and also sometimes to the +extension of the transept so as to include additional apsidal +chapels on the east side. In France, and to a certain extent in +Italy, the multiplication of chapels led to their being placed on +the north and south side of the aisles, and in some cases, as at +Albi in France, to the suppression of the aisles and the instalment +of the chapels in their place. The chapels of the colleges at +Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes of large dimensions and +architecturally of great importance, that of Christ Church being +actually the cathedral of Oxford; among others may be mentioned +the chapel of Merton College, and the new chapel of Exeter +College, both in Oxford, and the chapel of King’s College, +Cambridge, which is roofed over with perhaps the finest fan-vault +in England. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span>, Plate II., fig. 19.)</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The only other English sense is that of a printer’s workshop, or +the body of compositors in it, who are presided over by a “father +of the chapel.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPELAIN, JEAN<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1595-1674), French poet and man of +letters, the son of a notary, was born in Paris on the 4th of +December 1595. His father destined him for his own profession; +but his mother, who had known Ronsard, had determined +otherwise. At an early age Chapelain began to qualify himself +for literature, learning, under Nicolas Bourbon, Greek and Latin, +and teaching himself Italian and Spanish. Having finished his +studies, he was engaged for a while in teaching Spanish to a +young nobleman. He was then appointed tutor to the two sons +of a M. de la Trousse, grand provost of France. Attached for +the next seventeen years to the family of this gentleman, the +administration of whose fortune was wholly in his hands, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span> +seems to have published nothing during this period, yet to have +acquired a great reputation as a probability. His first work +given to the public was a preface for the <i>Adone</i> of Marini, who +printed and published that notorious poem at Paris. This was +followed by an excellent translation of Mateo Aleman’s novel, +<i>Guzmán de Alfarache</i>, and by four extremely indifferent odes, +one of them addressed to Richelieu. The credit of introducing +the law of the dramatic unities into French literature has been +claimed for many writers, and especially for the Abbé d’Aubignac, +whose <i>Pratique du théâtre</i> appeared in 1657. The theory had +of course been enunciated in the <i>Art poétique</i> of J.C. Scaliger +in 1561, and subsequently by other writers, but there is no doubt +that it was the action of Chapelain that transferred it from the +region of theory to that of actual practice. In a conversation +with Richelieu in about 1632, reported by the abbé d’Olivet, +Chapelain maintained that it was indispensable to maintain the +unities of time, place and action, and it is explicitly stated that +the doctrine was new to the cardinal and to the poets who were +in his pay. French classical drama thus owes the riveting of its +fetters to Chapelain. Rewarded with a pension of a thousand +crowns, and from the first an active member of the newly-constituted +Academy, Chapelain drew up the plan of the grammar +and dictionary the compilation of which was to be a principal +function of the young institution, and at Richelieu’s command +drew up the <i>Sentiments de l’Académie sur le Cid</i>. In 1656 he +published, in a magnificent form, the first twelve cantos of his +celebrated epic <i>La Pucelle</i>,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> on which he had been engaged during +twenty years. Six editions of the poem were disposed of in +eighteen months. But this was the end of the poetic reputation +of Chapelain, “the legist of Parnassus”. Later the slashing +satire of Boileau (in this case fairly master of his subject) did +its work, and Chapelain (“<i>Le plus grand poète Français qu’ ait +jamais été et du plus solide jugement</i>,” as he is called in Colbert’s +list) took his place among the failures of modern art.</p> + +<p>Chapelain’s reputation as a critic survived this catastrophe, +and in 1663 he was employed by Colbert to draw up an account +of contemporary men of letters, destined to guide the king in +his distribution of pensions. In this pamphlet, as in his letters, +he shows to far greater advantage than in his unfortunate epic. +His prose is incomparably better than his verse; his criticisms +are remarkable for their justice and generosity; his erudition +and kindliness of heart are everywhere apparent; the royal +attention is directed alike towards the author’s firmest friends +and bitterest enemies. To him young Racine was indebted +not only for kindly and seasonable counsel, but also for that +pension of six hundred livres which was so useful to him. The +catholicity of his taste is shown by his <i>De la lecture des vieux +romans</i> (pr. 1870), in which he praises the <i>chansons de geste</i>, +forgotten by his generation. Chapelain refused many honours, +and his disinterestedness in this and other cases makes it necessary +to receive with caution the stories of Ménage and Tallemant des +Réaux, who assert that he was in his old age a miser, and that +a considerable fortune was found hoarded in his apartments +when he died on the 22nd of February 1674.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is a very favourable estimate of Chapelain’s merits as a +critic in George Saintsbury’s <i>History of Criticism</i>, ii. 256-261. +An analysis of <i>La Pucelle</i> is given in pp. 23-79 of Robert Southey’s +<i>Joan of Arc</i>. See also <i>Les Lettres de Jean Chapelain</i> (ed. P. Tanuzey +de Larroque, 1880-1882); <i>Lettres inédites ... à P.D. Huet</i> (1658-1673, +ed. by L.G. Pellissier, 1894); Julien Duchesne, <i>Les Poèmes +épiques du XVIIe siècle</i> (1870); the abbé A. Fabre, <i>Les Ennemis de +Chapelain</i> (1888), <i>Chapelain et nos deux premières Académies</i> (1890); +and A. Muehlan,<i> Jean Chapelain</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The last twelve cantos of <i>La Pucelle</i> were edited (1882) from the +MS. with corrections and a preface in the author’s autograph, in the +<i>Bibliothèque Nationale</i>, by H. Herluison. Another edition, by E. de +Molènes (2 vols.), was published in 1892.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> a market town in the High Peak +parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 20 m. S.E. of +Manchester, on the London & North-Western and Midland +railways. Pop. (1901) 4626. It lies in an upland valley of the +Peak district, the hills of which rise above 1200 ft. in its immediate +vicinity. There are paper-works and ironworks, and +brewing is carried on. The foundation of the church of St +Thomas of Canterbury is attributed to the foresters of the royal +forest or frith of the Peak early in the 13th century; and from +this the town took name. After the defeat of the Scottish forces +at Preston by Cromwell in 1648, it is said that 1500 prisoners +were confined in the church at Chapel-en-le-Frith.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPEL HILL,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a town of Orange county, North Carolina, +U.S.A., about 28 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1900) 1099; (1910) +1149. It is served by a branch of the Southern railway, connecting +at University, 10 m. distant, with the Greensboro & Goldsboro +division. The town is best known as the seat of the University +of North Carolina (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">North Carolina</a></span>), whose campus contains +48 acres. There are cotton and knitting mills and lumber interests +of some importance. Chapel Hill was settled late in the 18th +century, and was first incorporated in 1851.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPELLE ARDENTE<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (Fr. “burning chapel”), the chapel +or room in which the corpse of a sovereign or other exalted +personage lies in state pending the funeral service. The name is +in allusion to the many candles which arc lighted round the +catafalque. This custom is first chronicled as occurring at the +obsequies of Dagobert I. (602-638).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPERON,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> originally a cap or hood (Fr. <i>chape</i>) worn by +nobles and knights of the Garter in full dress, and after the 16th +century by middle-aged ladies. The modern use of the word is +of a married or elderly lady (cf. “duenna”) escorting or protecting +a young and unmarried girl in public places and in society.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPLAIN,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> strictly one who conducts service in a chapel +(<i>q.v.</i>), <i>i.e.</i> a priest or minister without parochial charge who is +attached for special duties to a sovereign or his representatives +(ambassadors, judges, &c.), to bishops, to the establishments of +nobles, &c., to institutions (<i>e.g.</i> parliament, congress, colleges, +schools, workhouses, cemeteries), or to the army and the navy. +In some cases a parish priest is also appointed to a chaplaincy, +but in so far as he is a chaplain he has no parochial duties. Thus +a bishop of the English Church appoints examining chaplains +who conduct the examination of candidates for holy orders; +such officials generally hold ordinary benefices also. The British +sovereign has 36 “Chaplains in Ordinary,” who perform service +at St James’s in rotation, as well as “Honorary Chaplains” +and “Chaplains of the Household.” There are also royal chaplains +in Scotland and Ireland. The Scottish chaplains in ordinary +are on the same basis as those in England, but the Irish chaplains +are attached to the household of the lord-lieutenant. The Indian +civil service appoints a number of clergymen of the Church of +England and the Church of Scotland. These clergymen are +known as Chaplains, and are subject to the same conditions as +other civil servants, being eligible for a retiring pension after 23 +years of service. Chaplains are also appointed under the foreign +office to embassies, legations, consulates, &c.</p> + +<p>Workhouse chaplains are appointed by overseers and guardians +on the direction of the Local Government Board, to which alone +such chaplains are responsible. Prison chaplains are appointed +by the home secretary.</p> + +<p>In the British army there are two kinds of chaplains, permanent +and occasional. The former, described as Chaplains to the Forces, +hold commissions, serving throughout the empire except in +India: they include a Chaplain-General who ranks as a major-general, +and four classes of subordinate chaplains who rank +respectively as colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors and captains. +There are about 100 in all. Special chaplains (Acting Chaplains +for Temporary Service) may be appointed by a secretary of state +under the Army Chaplains Act of 1868 to perform religious +service for the army in particular districts. The permanent +chaplains may be Church of England, Roman Catholic, or +Presbyterian; Wesleyans (if they prefer not to accept commissions) +may be appointed Acting Chaplains. The Church of +England chaplains report to the chaplain-general, while other +chaplains report to the War Office direct. In the navy, chaplains +are likewise appointed but do not hold official rank. They must +have a special ecclesiastical licence from the archbishop of +Canterbury. In 1900 a Chaplains’ Department of the Territorial +Force was formed; there is no denominational restriction.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span></p> + +<p>In the armies and navies of all Christian countries chaplains +are officially appointed, with the single exception of France, +where the office was abolished on the separation of Church and +State. In the army of the United States of America chaplains +are originally appointed by the president, and subsequently are +under the authority of the secretary of war, who receives recommendations +as regards transfer from department commanders. +By act of Congress, approved in April 1904, the establishment of +chaplains was fixed at 57 (15 with the rank of major), 12 for the +artillery corps and 1 each for the cavalry and infantry regiments. +There is no distinction of sect. In the U.S. navy the chaplains +are 24 in number, of whom 13 rank as lieutenants, 7 as commanders, +4 as captains.</p> + +<p>In the armies of Roman Catholic countries there are elaborate +regulations. Where the chaplains are numerous a chaplain-major +is generally appointed, but in the absence of special sanction +from the pope such officer has no spiritual jurisdiction. Moreover, +chaplains must be approved by the ordinary of the locality. In +Austria there are Roman Catholic, Greek Church, Jewish and +Mahommedan chaplains. The Roman Catholic chaplains are +classed as parish priests, curates and assistants, and are subject +to an army Vicar Apostolic. In war, at an army headquarters +there are a “field-rabbi,” a “military imam,” an evangelical +minister, as well as the Roman Catholic hierarchy. By a decree +of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda (May 15, 1906), the +archbishop of Westminster is the ecclesiastical superior of all +commissioned Roman Catholic chaplains in the British army and +navy, and he is empowered to negotiate with the civil authorities +concerning appointments.</p> + +<p>In Germany, owing to the fact that there are different religions +in the different states, there is no uniform system. In Prussia +there are two <i>Feldprobste</i> (who are directly under the war +minister), one Lutheran, one Roman Catholic. The latter is a +titular bishop, and has sole spiritual authority over soldiers. +There are also army corps and divisional chaplains of both +faiths. Bavaria and Saxony, both Roman Catholic states, have +no special spiritual hierarchy; in Bavaria, the archbishop of +Munich and Freysing is <i>ex officio</i> bishop of the army.</p> + +<p>The origin of the office of <i>capellanus</i> or <i>cappellanus</i> in the +medieval church is generally traced (see Du Cange, <i>Gloss, med. +et infim. Latin</i>.) to the appointment of persons to watch over +the sacred cloak (<i>cappa</i> or <i>capella</i>) of St Martin of Tours, which +was preserved as a relic by the French monarchs. In time of war +this cloak was carried with the army in the field, and was kept +in a tent which itself came to be known as a <i>cappella</i> or <i>capella</i>. +It is also suggested that the <i>capella</i> was simply the tent or canopy +which the French kings erected over the altar in the field for the +worship of the soldiers. However this may be, the name <i>capellanus</i> +was generally applied to those who were in charge of sacred +relics: such officials were also known as <i>custodes, martyrarii, +cubicularii</i>. Thus we hear of a <i>custos palatinae capellae</i> who was +in charge of the palace chapel relics, and guarded them in the +field; the chief of these <i>custodes</i> was sometimes called the <i>archicapellanus</i>. +From the care of sacred relics preserved in royal +chapels, &c. (<i>sacella</i> or <i>capellae</i>), the office of <i>capellanus</i> naturally +extended its scope until it covered practically that of the modern +court chaplain, and was officially recognized by the Church. +These clerics became the confessors in royal and noble houses, +and were generally chosen from among bishops and other high +dignitaries. The arch-chaplain not only received jurisdiction +within the royal household, but represented the authority of the +monarch in religious matters, and also acquired more general +powers. In France the arch-chaplain was grand-almoner, and +both in France and in the Holy Roman Empire was also high +chancellor of the realm. The office was abolished in France at the +Revolution in 1789, revived by Pius IX. in 1857, and again +abolished on the fall of the Second Empire.</p> + +<p>The Roman Catholic Church also recognizes a class of beneficed +chaplains, supported out of “pious foundations” for the specific +duty of saying, or arranging for, certain masses, or taking part in +certain services. These chaplains are classified as follows:— +<i>Ecclesiastical</i>, if the foundation has been recognized officially +as a benefice; <i>Lay</i>, if this recognition has not been obtained; +<i>Mercenary</i>, if the person who has been entrusted with the duty +of performing or procuring the desired celebration is a layman +(such persons also are sometimes called “Lay Chaplains”); +<i>Collative</i>, if it is provided that a bishop shall collate or confer the +right to act upon the accepted candidate, who otherwise could +not be recognized as an ecclesiastical chaplain. There are +elaborate regulations governing the appointment and conduct +of these chaplains.</p> + +<p>Other classes of chaplains are:—(1) <i>Parochial</i> or <i>Auxiliary +Chaplains</i>, appointed either by a parish priest (under a provision +authorized by the Council of Trent) or by a bishop to take over +certain specified duties which he is unable to perform; (2) +<i>Chaplains of Convents</i>, appointed by a bishop: these must be +men of mature age, should not be regulars unless secular priests +cannot be obtained, and are not generally to be appointed for +life; (3) <i>Pontifical Chaplains</i>, some of whom (known as Private +Chaplains) assist the pontiff in the celebration of Mass; others +attached directly to the pope are honorary private chaplains +who occasionally assist the private chaplains, private clerics of +the chapel, common chaplains and supernumerary chaplains. +The common chaplains were instituted by Alexander VII., +and in 1907 were definitely allowed the title “Monsignore” by +Pius X.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPLIN, HENRY<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1841-  ), English statesman, second +son of the Rev. Henry Chaplin, of Blankney, Lincolnshire, was +educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, and first entered +parliament in 1868 as Conservative member for Mid-Lincolnshire. +He represented this constituency (which under the Redistribution +Act of 1885 became the Sleaford division) till 1906, when he was +defeated, but in 1907 returned to the House of Commons as +member for Wimbledon at a by-election. In 1876 he married a +daughter of the 3rd duke of Sutherland, but lost his wife in +1881. Outside the House of Commons he was a familiar figure +on the Turf, winning the Derby with Hermit in 1867; and in +politics from the first the “Squire of Blankney” took an active +interest in agricultural questions, as a popular and typical +representative of the English “country gentleman” class. +Having filled the office of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster +in Lord Salisbury’s short ministry of 1885-1886, he became +president of the new Board of Agriculture in 1889, with a seat +in the cabinet, and retained this post till 1892. In the Conservative +cabinet of 1895-1900 he was president of the Local Government +Board, and was responsible for the Agricultural Rates Act +of 1896; but he was not included in the ministry after its +reconstruction in 1900. Mr Chaplin had always been an advocate +of protectionism, being in this respect the most prominent +inheritor of the views of Lord George Bentinck; and when in +1903 the Tariff Reform movement began under Mr Chamberlain’s +leadership, he gave it his enthusiastic support, becoming a +member of the Tariff Commission and one of the most strenuous +advocates in the country of the new doctrines in opposition +to free trade.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPMAN, GEORGE<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (? 1559-1634), English poet and +dramatist, was born near Hitchin. The inscription on the +portrait which forms the frontispiece of <i>The Whole Works of +Homer</i> states that he was then (1616) fifty-seven years of age. +Anthony à Wood (<i>Athen. Oxon.</i> ii. 575) says that about 1574 he +was sent to the university, “but whether first to this of Oxon, or +that of Cambridge, is to me unknown; sure I am that he +spent some time in Oxon, where he was observed to be most +excellent in the Latin and Greek tongues, but not in logic or +philosophy.” Chapman’s first extant play, <i>The Blind Beggar +of Alexandria</i>, was produced in 1596, and two years later Francis +Meres mentions him in <i>Palladis Tamia</i> among the “best for +tragedie” and the “best for comedie.” Of his life between +leaving the university and settling in London there is no account. +It has been suggested, from the detailed knowledge displayed +in <i>The Shadow of Night</i> of an incident in Sir Francis Vere’s +campaign, that he saw service in the Netherlands. There are +frequent entries with regard to Chapman in Henslowe’s diary for +the years 1598-1599, but his dramatic activity slackened during +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span> +the following years, when his attention was chiefly occupied by his +<i>Homer</i>. In 1604 he was imprisoned with John Marston for his +share in <i>Eastward Ho</i>, in which offence was given to the Scottish +party at court. Ben Jonson voluntarily joined the two, who +were soon released. Chapman seems to have enjoyed favour +at court, where he had a patron in Prince Henry, but in 1605 +Jonson and he were for a short time in prison again for “a play.” +Beaumont, the French ambassador in London, in a despatch of +the 5th of April 1608, writes that he had obtained the prohibition +of a performance of <i>Biron</i> in which the queen of France was +represented as giving Mademoiselle de Verneuil a box on the +ears. He adds that three of the actors were imprisoned, but that +the chief culprit, the author, had escaped (Raumer, <i>Briefe aus +Paris</i>, 1831, ii. 276). Among Chapman’s patrons was Robert +Carr, earl of Somerset, to whom he remained faithful after his +disgrace. Chapman enjoyed the friendship and admiration of +his great contemporaries. John Webster in the preface to <i>The +White Devil</i> praised “his full and heightened style,” and Ben +Jonson told Drummond of Hawthornden that Fletcher and Chapman +“were loved of him.” These friendly relations appear to +have been interrupted later, for there is extant in the Ashmole +MSS. an “Invective written by Mr George Chapman against +Mr Ben Jonson.” Chapman died in the parish of St Giles +in the Fields, and was buried on the 12th of May 1634 in the +churchyard. A monument to his memory was erected by Inigo +Jones.</p> +<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div> + +<p>Chapman, his first biographer is careful to let us know, “was +a person of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate, +qualities rarely meeting in a poet”; he had also certain other +merits at least as necessary to the exercise of that profession. +He had a singular force and solidity of thought, an admirable +ardour of ambitious devotion to the service of poetry, a deep and +burning sense at once of the duty implied and of the dignity +inherent in his office; a vigour, opulence, and loftiness of phrase, +remarkable even in that age of spiritual strength, wealth and +exaltation of thought and style; a robust eloquence, touched +not unfrequently with flashes of fancy, and kindled at times +into heat of imagination. The main fault of his style is one more +commonly found in the prose than in the verse of his time,— +a quaint and florid obscurity, rigid with elaborate rhetoric and +tortuous with labyrinthine illustration; not dark only to the +rapid reader through closeness and subtlety of thought, like +Donne, whose miscalled obscurity is so often “all glorious +within,” but thick and slab as a witch’s gruel with forced and +barbarous eccentricities of articulation. As his language in the +higher forms of comedy is always pure and clear, and sometimes +exquisite in the simplicity of its earnest and natural grace, the +stiffness and density of his more ambitious style may perhaps +be attributed to some pernicious theory or conceit of the dignity +proper to a moral and philosophic poet. Nevertheless, many of +the gnomic passages in his tragedies and allegoric poems are of +singular weight and beauty; the best of these, indeed, would not +discredit the fame of the very greatest poets for sublimity of +equal thought and expression: witness the lines chosen by +Shelley as the motto for a poem, and fit to have been chosen as +the motto for his life.</p> + +<p>The romantic and sometimes barbaric grandeur of Chapman’s +<i>Homer</i> remains attested by the praise of Keats, of Coleridge +and of Lamb; it is written at a pitch of strenuous and laborious +exaltation, which never flags or breaks down, but never flies +with the ease and smoothness of an eagle native to Homeric +air. From his occasional poems an expert and careful hand +might easily gather a noble anthology of excerpts, chiefly +gnomic or meditative, allegoric or descriptive. The most +notable examples of his tragic work are comprised in the series +of plays taken, and adapted sometimes with singular licence, +from the records of such part of French history as lies between +the reign of Francis I. and the reign of Henry IV., ranging in date +of subject from the trial and death of Admiral Chabot to the +treason and execution of Marshal Biron. The two plays bearing +as epigraph the name of that famous soldier and conspirator are +a storehouse of lofty thought and splendid verse, with scarcely +a flash or sparkle of dramatic action. The one play of Chapman’s +whose popularity on the stage survived the Restoration is +<i>Bussy d’Ambois</i> (d’Amboise),—a tragedy not lacking in violence +of action or emotion, and abounding even more in sweet and sublime +interludes than in crabbed and bombastic passages. His +rarest jewels of thought and verse detachable from the context +lie embedded in the tragedy of <i>Caesar and Pompey</i>, whence the +finest of them were first extracted by the unerring and unequalled +critical genius of Charles Lamb. In most of his tragedies the +lofty and labouring spirit of Chapman may be said rather to +shine fitfully through parts than steadily to pervade the whole; +they show nobly altogether as they stand, but even better by +help of excerpts and selections. But the excellence of his best +comedies can only be appreciated by a student who reads them +fairly and fearlessly through, and, having made some small +deductions on the score of occasional pedantry and occasional +indecency, finds in <i>All Fools</i>, <i>Monsieur d’Olive</i>, <i>The Gentleman +Usher</i>, and <i>The Widow’s Tears</i> a wealth and vigour of humorous +invention, a tender and earnest grace of romantic poetry, which +may atone alike for these passing blemishes and for the lack of +such clear-cut perfection of character and such dramatic progression +of interest as we find only in the yet higher poets of the +English heroic age.</p> + +<p>So much it may suffice to say of Chapman as an original +poet, one who held of no man and acknowledged no master, but +from the birth of Marlowe well-nigh to the death of Jonson held +on his own hard and haughty way of austere and sublime ambition, +not without kindly and graceful inclination of his high +grey head to salute such younger and still nobler compeers as +Jonson and Fletcher. With Shakespeare we should never have +guessed that he had come at all in contact, had not the keen +intelligence of William Minto divined or rather discerned him +to be the rival poet referred to in Shakespeare’s sonnets with a +grave note of passionate satire, hitherto as enigmatic as almost +all questions connected with those divine and dangerous poems. +This conjecture Professor Minto fortified by such apt collocation +and confrontation of passages that we may now reasonably accept +it as an ascertained and memorable fact.</p> + +<p>The objections which a just and adequate judgment may +bring against Chapman’s master-work, his translation of Homer, +may be summed up in three epithets: it is romantic, laborious, +Elizabethan. The qualities implied by these epithets are the +reverse of those which should distinguish a translator of Homer; +but setting this apart, and considering the poems as in the main +original works, the superstructure of a romantic poet on the +submerged foundations of Greek verse, no praise can be too +warm or high for the power, the freshness, the indefatigable +strength and inextinguishable fire which animate this exalted +work, and secure for all time that shall take cognizance of English +poetry an honoured place in its highest annals for the memory +of Chapman.</p> +<div class="author">(A. C. S.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Chapman’s works include:—<span class="grk" title="Skia nyktos">Σκιά νυκτός</span>: <i>The Shadow of Night: +Containing two Poeticall Hymnes</i> ... (1594), the second of which +deals with Sir Francis Vere’s campaign in the Netherlands; <i>Ovid’s +Banquet of Sence. A Coronet for his Mistresse Philosophie; and +His Amorous Zodiacke with a translation of a Latine coppie, written +by a Fryer, Anno Dom. 1400</i> (1595, 2nd ed. 1639), a collection of +poems frequently quoted from in <i>England’s Parnassus</i> (1600); “De +Guiana, carmen epicum,” a poem prefixed to Lawrence Keymis’s +<i>A Relation of the second voyage to Guiana</i> (1596); <i>Hero and Leander. +Begun by Christopher Marloe; and finished by George Chapman</i> +(1598); <i>The Blinde begger of Alexandria, most pleasantly discoursing +his variable humours ...</i> (acted 1596, printed 1598), a popular +comedy; <i>A Pleasant Comedy entituled An Humerous dayes Myrth</i> +(identified by Mr Fleay with the “Comodey of Umero” noted by +Henslowe on the 11th of May 1597; printed 1599); <i>Al Fooles, A +Comedy</i> (paid for by Henslowe on the 2nd of July 1599, its original +name being “The World runs on wheels”; printed 1605); <i>The Gentleman +Usher</i> (c. 1601, pr. 1606), a comedy; <i>Monsieur d’Olive</i> (1604, +pr. 1606), one of his most amusing and successful comedies; <i>Eastward +Hoe</i> (1605), written in conjunction with Ben Jonson and +John Marston, an excellent comedy of city life; <i>Bussy d’Ambois,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span> +Tragedie</i> (1604, pr. 1607, 1608, 1616, 1641, &c.), the scene of which +is laid in the court of Henry III.; <i>The Revenge of Bussy d’Ambois. +A Tragedie</i> (pr. 1613, but probably written much earlier); <i>The +Conspiracie, And Tragedie of Charles Duke of Byron. Marshall of +France, ... in two plays</i> (1607 and 1608; pr. 1608 and 1625); +<i>May-Day, A witty Comedie</i> (pr. 1611; but probably acted as early +as 1601); <i>The widdowes Teares. A Comedie</i> (pr. 1612; produced +perhaps as early as 1605); <i>Caesar and Pompey: A Roman Tragedy, +declaring their warres. Out of whose events is evicted this Proposition. +Only a just man is a freeman</i> (pr. 1631), written, says Chapman in +the dedication, “long since,” but never staged.</p> + +<p><i>The Tragedy of Alphonsus Emperour of Germany</i> (see the edition +by Dr Karl Elye; Leipzig, 1867) and <i>Revenge for Honour</i> (1654)<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +both bear Chapman’s name on the title-page, but his authorship has +been disputed. In <i>The Ball</i> (lic. 1632; pr. 1639), a comedy, and +<i>The Tragedie of Chabot Admirall of France</i> (lic. 1635; pr. 1639) he +collaborated with James Shirley. <i>The memorable Masque of the two +Honourable Houses or Inns of Court; the Middle Temple and Lyncoln’s +Inne</i>, was performed at court in 1613 in honour of the marriage +of the Princess Elizabeth.</p> + +<p><i>The Whole Works of Homer: Prince of Poets. In his Iliads and +Odysseys ...</i> appeared in 1616, and about 1624 he added <i>The Crowne +of all Homers works Batrachomyomachia or the Battaile of Frogs and +Mise. His Hymns and Epigrams.</i> But the whole works had been +already published by instalments. <i>Seaven Bookes of the Iliades of +Homer</i> had appeared in 1598, <i>Achilles Shield</i> in the same year, +books i.-xii. about 1609; in 1611 <i>The Iliads of Homer, Prince of +Poets</i> ...; and in 1614 <i>Twenty-four Bookes of Homer’s Odisses</i> +were entered at Stationers’ Hall. In 1609 he addressed to Prince +Henry <i>Enthymiae Raptus; or the Teares of Peace</i>, and on the death +of his patron he contributed <i>An Epicede, or Funerall Song</i> (1612). +A paraphrase of <i>Petrarchs Seven Penitentiall Psalms</i> (1612), a poem +in honour of the marriage of Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, and +Frances, the divorced countess of Essex, indiscreetly entitled +<i>Andromeda Liberata</i> ... (1614), a translation of <i>The Georgicks of +Hesiod</i> (1618), <i>Pro Vere Autumni Lachrymae</i> (1622), in honour of +Sir Horatio Vere, <i>A justification of a Strange Action of Nero ... also ... the +fifth Satyre of Juvenall</i> (1629), and <i>Eugenia</i> ... (1614), +an elegy on Sir William Russell, complete the list of his separately +published works.</p> + +<p>Chapman’s <i>Homer</i> was edited in 1857 by the Rev. Richard Hooper; +and a reprint of his dramatic works appeared in 1873. The standard +edition of Chapman is the <i>Works</i>, edited by R.H. Shepherd (1874-1875), +the third volume of which contains an “Essay on the Poetical +and Dramatic works of George Chapman,” by Mr Swinburne, printed +separately in 1875. The selection of his plays (1895) for the Mermaid +Series is edited by Mr W.L. Phelps. For the sources of the plays +see Emil Koeppel, “Anellen Studien zu den Dramen George Chapman’s, +Philip Massinger’s und John Ford’s” in <i>Quellen und Forschungen +zur Sprach und Kulturgeschichte</i> (vol. 82, Strassburg, 1897). +The suggestion of W. Minto (see <i>Characteristics of the English Poets</i>, +1885) that Chapman was the “rival poet” of Shakespeare’s sonnets +is amplified in Mr A. Acheson’s <i>Shakespeare and the Rival Poet</i> (1903). +Much satire in Chapman’s introduction is there applied to Shakespeare. +For other criticisms of his translation of Homer see Matthew +Arnold, <i>Lectures on translating Homer</i> (1861), and Dr A. Lohff, +<i>George Chapman’s Ilias-Übersetzung</i> (Berlin, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Chapman’s source in this piece remains undetermined. It cannot +be the <i>Historia sui temporis</i> of Jacques de Thorn, for the 4th volume +of his work, which relates the story, was not published until 1609 +(see Koeppel, p. 14).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This play appears to have been issued in 1653 with the title +<i>The Parracide, or Revenge for Honour</i> as the work of Henry Glathorne.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPMAN<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>céap</i>, and Mid. Eng. <i>cheap</i>, to barter, +cf. “Cheapside” in London, and Ger. <i>Kaufmann</i>), one who buys +or sells, a trader or dealer, especially an itinerant pedlar. The +word “chap,” now a slang term, meant originally a customer.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPONE, HESTER<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1727-1801), English essayist, daughter +of Thomas Mulso, a country gentleman, was born at Twywell, +Northamptonshire, on the 27th of October 1727. She was a +precocious child, and at the age of nine wrote a romance +entitled <i>The Loves of Amoret and Melissa</i>. Hecky Mulso, +as she was familiarly called, developed a beautiful voice, which +earned her the name of “the linnet.” While on a visit to +Canterbury she made the acquaintance of the learned Mrs +Elizabeth Carter, and soon became one of the admirers of the +novelist Samuel Richardson. She was one of the little court +of women who gathered at North End, Fulham; and in Miss +Susannah Highmore’s sketch of the novelist reading <i>Sir Charles +Grandison</i> to his friends Miss Mulso is the central figure. She +corresponded with Richardson on “filial obedience” in letters +as long as his own, signing herself his “ever obliged and affectionate +child.” She admired, however, with discrimination, +and in the words of her biographer (<i>Posthumous Works</i>, 1807, +p. 9) “her letters show with what dignity, tempered with proper +humility, she could maintain her own well-grounded opinion.” +In 1760 Miss Mulso, with her father’s reluctant consent, married +the attorney, John Chapone, who had been befriended by +Richardson. Her husband died within a year of her marriage. +Mrs Chapone remained in London visiting various friends. +She had already made small contributions to various periodicals +when she published, in 1772, her best known work, <i>Letters on +the Improvement of the Mind.</i> This book brought her numerous +requests from distinguished persons to undertake the education +of their children. She died on the 25th of December 1801.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Posthumous Works of Mrs Chapone, containing her correspondence +with Mr Richardson; a series of letters to Mrs Elizabeth +Carter ... together with an account of her life and character drawn +up by her own family</i> (1807).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPPE, CLAUDE<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1763-1805), French engineer, was born +at Brûlon (Sarthe) in 1763. He was the inventor of an optical +telegraph which was widely used in France until it was superseded +by the electric telegraph. His device consisted of an +upright post, on the top of which was fastened a transverse bar, +while at the ends of the latter two smaller arms moved on pivots. +The position of these bars represented words or letters; and by +means of machines placed at intervals such that each was +distinctly visible from the next, messages could be conveyed +through 50 leagues in a quarter of an hour. The machine was +adopted by the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and in the following +year Chappe was appointed <i>ingénieur-télégraphe</i>; but the +originality of his invention was so much questioned that he +was seized with melancholia and (it is said) committed suicide +at Paris in 1805.</p> + +<p>His elder brother, Ignace Urbain Jean Chappe (1760-1829), +took part in the invention of the telegraph, and with a younger +brother, Pierre François, from 1805 to 1823 was administrator +of the telegraphs, a post which was also held by two other +brothers, René and Abraham, from 1823 to 1830. Ignace was +the author of a <i>Histoire de la télégraphie</i> (1824). An uncle, Jean +Chappe d’Auteroche (1728-1769), was an astronomer who +observed two transits of Venus, one in Siberia in 1761, and the +other in 1769 in California, where he died.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPPELL, WILLIAM<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1809-1888), English writer on music, +a member of the London musical firm of Chappell & Co., was born +on the 20th of November 1809, eldest son of Samuel Chappell (d. +1834), who founded the business. William Chappell is particularly +noteworthy for his starting the Musical Antiquarian +Society in 1840, and his publication of the standard work <i>Popular +Music of the Olden Time</i> (1855-1859)—an expansion of a collection +of “national English airs” made by him in 1838-1840. +The modern revival of interest in English folk-songs owes much +to this work, which has since been re-edited by Professor H.E. +Wooldridge (1893). W. Chappell died on the 20th of August +1888. His brother, Thomas Patey Chappell (d. 1902), meanwhile +had largely extended the publishing business, and had started +(1859) the Monday and Saturday Popular Concerts at St James’s +Hall, which were successfully managed by a younger brother, +S. Arthur Chappell, till they came to an end towards the close +of the century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPRA,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chupra</span>, a town of British India, the administrative +headquarters of Saran district in Bengal, near the left +bank of the river Gogra, just above its confluence with the +Ganges; with a railway station on the Bengal & North-Western +line towards Oudh. Pop. (1901) 45,901, showing a decrease of +21% in the decade. There are a government high school, a +German Lutheran mission, and a public library endowed by +a former maharaja of Hatwa. Chapra is the centre of trade in +indigo and saltpetre, and conducts a large business by water as +well as by rail.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de Chante-loup</span> +(1756-1832), French chemist and statesman, was born at +Nogaret, Lozère, on the 4th of June 1756. The son of an +apothecary, he studied chemistry at Montpellier, obtaining his +doctor’s diploma in 1777, when he repaired to Paris. In 1781 +the States of Languedoc founded a chair of chemistry for him +at the school of medicine in Montpellier, where he taught the +doctrines of Lavoisier. The capital he acquired by the death +of a wealthy uncle he employed in the establishment of chemical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span> +works for the manufacture of the mineral acids, alum, white-lead, +soda and other substances. His labours in the cause of applied +science were at length recognized by the French government, +which presented him with letters of nobility, and the cordon of +the order of Saint Michel. During the Revolution a publication +by Chaptal, entitled <i>Dialogue entre un Montagnard et un Girondin</i>, +caused him to be arrested; but being speedily set at liberty +through the intermission of his friends, he undertook, in 1793, +the management of the saltpetre works at Grenelle. In the +following year he went to Montpellier, where he remained till +1797, when he returned to Paris. After the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th +of Brumaire (November 9, 1799) he was made a councillor of state +by the First Consul, and succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as minister +of the interior, in which capacity he established a chemical +manufactory near Paris, a school of arts, and a society of industries; +he also reorganized the hospitals, introduced the metrical +system of weights and measures, and otherwise greatly +encouraged the arts and sciences. A misunderstanding between +him and Napoleon (who conferred upon him the title of comte de +Chanteloup) occasioned Chaptal’s retirement from office in 1804; +but before the end of that year he was again received into favour +by the emperor, who bestowed on him the grand cross of the +Legion of Honour, and made him treasurer to the conservative +senate. On Napoleon’s return from Elba, Chaptal was made +director-general of commerce and manufactures and a minister +of state. He was obliged after the downfall of the emperor to +withdraw into private life; and his name was removed from the +list of the peers of France until 1819. In 1816, however, he was +nominated a member of the Academy of Sciences by Louis XVIII. +Chaptal was especially a popularizer of science, attempting to +apply to industry and agriculture the discoveries of chemistry. +In this way he contributed largely to the development of modern +industry. He died at Paris on the 30th of July 1832.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His literary works exhibit both vigour and perspicuity of style; +he wrote, in addition to various articles, especially in the <i>Annales +de chimie, Élémens de chimie</i> (3 vols., 1790; new ed., 1796-1803); +<i>Traité du salpètre et des goudrons</i> (1796); <i>Tableau des principaux +sels terreux</i> (1798); <i>Essai sur le perfectionnement des arts chimiques +en France</i> (1800); <i>Art de faire, de gouverner, et de perfectionner les +vins</i> (1 vol., 1801; new ed., 1819); <i>Traité théorique et pratique sur +la culture de la vigne, &c.</i>, (2 vols., 1801; new ed., 1811); <i>Essai sur +le blanchiment</i> (1801); <i>La Chimie appliquée aux arts</i> (4 vols., 1806); +<i>Art de la teinture du coton en rouge</i> (1807); <i>Art du teinturier et du +dégraisseur</i> (1800); <i>De l’industrie française</i> (2 vols., 1819); <i>Chimie +appliquée a l’agriculture</i> (2 vols., 1823; new ed., 1829).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPTER<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (a shortened form of <i>chapiter</i>, a word still used in +architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. <i>chapitre</i>, Lat. +<i>capitellum</i>, diminutive of <i>caput</i>, head), a principal division or +section of a book, and so applied to acts of parliament, as forming +“chapters” or divisions of the legislation of a session of parliament. +The name “chapter” is given to the permanent body +of the canons of a cathedral or collegiate church, presided over, +in the English Church, by the dean, and in the Roman communion +by the provost or the dean, and also to the body of the members +of a religious order. This may be a “conventual” chapter of +the monks of a particular monastery, “provincial” of the +members of the order in a province, or “general” of the whole +order. This ecclesiastical use of the word arose from the custom +of reading a chapter of Scripture, or a head (<i>capitulum</i>) of the +<i>regula</i>, to the assembled canons or monks. The transference +from the reading to the assembly itself, and to the members +constituting it, was easy, through such phrases as <i>convenire +ad capitulum</i>. The title “chapter” is similarly used of the +assembled body of knights of a military or other order. (See +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dean</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPTER-HOUSE<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (Lat. <i>capitolium</i>, Ital. <i>capitolo</i>, Fr. <i>chapitre</i>, +Ger. <i>Kapitelhaus</i>), the chamber in which the chapter or heads +of the monastic bodies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbey</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>) assembled +to transact business. They are of various forms; some are +oblong apartments, as Canterbury, Exeter, Chester, Gloucester, +&c.; some octagonal, as Salisbury, Westminster, Wells, Lincoln, +York, &c. That at Lincoln has ten sides, and that at Worcester +is circular; most are vaulted internally and polygonal externally, +and some, as Salisbury, Wells, Lincoln, Worcester, &c., depend +on a single slight vaulting shaft for the support of the massive +vaulting. They are often provided with a vestibule, as at Westminster, +Lincoln, Salisbury and are almost exclusively English.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAPU,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> formerly an important maritime town of China, in +the province of Cheh-kiang, 50 m. N.W. of Chên-hai, situated +in one of the richest and best cultivated districts in the country. +It is the port of Hang-chow, with which it has good canal communication, +and it was formerly the only Chinese port trading +with Japan. The town has a circuit of about 5 m. exclusive of +the suburbs that lie along the beach; and the Tatar quarter is +separated from the rest by a wall. It was captured and much +injured by the British force in 1842, but was abandoned immediately +after the engagement. The sea around it has now +silted up, though in the middle of the 19th century it was +accessible to the light-draught ships of the British fleet.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAR<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (<i>Salvelinus</i>), a fish of the family Salmonidae, represented +in Europe, Asia and North America. The best known and most +widely distributed species, the one represented in British and +Irish lakes, is <i>S. alpinus</i>, a graceful and delicious fish, covered +with very minute scales and usually dark olive, bluish or purplish +black above, with or without round orange or red spots, pinkish +white or yellowish pink to scarlet or claret red below. When the +char go to sea, they assume a more silvery coloration, similar to +that of the salmon and sea trout; the red spots become very +indistinct and the lower parts are almost white. The very young +are also silvery on the sides and white below, and bear 11 to 15 +bars, or parr-marks, on the side. This fish varies much according +to localities; and the difference in colour, together with a few +points of doubtful constancy, have given rise to the establishment +of a great number of untenable so-called species, as many as +seven having been ascribed to the British and Irish fauna, viz. +<i>S. alpinus, nivalis, killinensis, willoughbyi, perisii, colii</i> and <i>grayi</i>, +the last from Lough Melvin, Ireland, being the most distinct. +<i>S. alpinus</i> varies much in size according to the waters it inhabits, +remaining dwarfed in some English lakes, and growing to 2 ft. +or more in other localities. In other parts of Europe, also, various +local forms have been distinguished, such as the “omble +chevalier” of the lakes of Switzerland and Savoy (<i>S. umbla</i>), the +“Säbling” of the lakes of South Germany and Austria (<i>S. salvelinus</i>), +the “kullmund” of Norway (<i>S. carbonarius</i>), &c., +while the North American <i>S. parkei, alipes, stagnalis, arcturus, +areolus, oquassa</i> and <i>marstoni</i> may also be regarded as varieties. +Taken in this wide sense, <i>S. alpinus</i> has a very extensive distribution. +In central Europe, in the British islands and in the greater +part of Scandinavia it is confined to mountain lakes, but farther +to the north, in both the Old World and the New, it lives in the sea +and ascends rivers to spawn. In Lapland, Iceland, Greenland +and other parts of the arctic regions, it ranks among the commonest +fishes. The extreme northern point at which char +have been obtained is 82° 34′ N. (Victoria lake and Floeberg +Beach, Arctic America). It reaches an altitude of 2600 ft. in the +Alps and 6000 ft. in the Carpathians.</p> + +<p>The American brook char, <i>S. fontinalis</i>, is a close ally of <i>S. +alpinus</i>, differing from it in having fewer and shorter gill-rakers, +a rather stouter body, the back more or less barred or marbled +with dark olive or black, and the dorsal and caudal fins mottled +or barred with black. Many local varieties of colour have been +distinguished. Sea-run individuals are often nearly plain bright +silvery. It is a small species, growing to about 18 in. abundant in +all clear, cold streams of North America, east of the Mississippi, +northward to Labrador. The fish has been introduced into other +parts of the United States, and also into Europe.</p> + +<p>Another member of the same section of Salmonidae is the Great +Lake char of North America, <i>S. namaycush</i>, one of the largest +salmonids, said to attain a weight of 100 ℔ The body is very +elongate and covered with extremely small scales. The colour +varies from grey to black, with numerous round pale spots, +which may be tinged with reddish; the dorsal and caudal fins +reticulate with darker. This fish inhabits the Great Lakes +regions and neighbouring parts of North America.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAR-À-BANC<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (Fr. for “benched carriage”), a large form of +wagonette-like vehicle for passengers, but with benched seats +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span> +arranged in rows, looking forward, commonly used for large +parties, whether as public conveyances or for excursions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARACTER<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="charaktêr">χαρακτήρ</span> from <span class="grk" title="charattein">χαράττειν</span>, to scratch), a +distinctive mark (spelt “caracter” up to the 16th century, with +other variants); so applied to symbols of notation or letters of +the alphabet; more figuratively, the distinguishing traits of +anything, and particularly the moral and mental qualities of an +individual human being, the sum of those qualities which distinguish +him as a personality. From the latter usage “a +character” becomes almost identical with “reputation”; and +in the sense of “giving a servant a character,” the word involves +a written testimonial. For the law relating to servants’ characters +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Master and Servant</a></span>. A further development +is the use of “character” to mean an “odd or eccentric person”; +or of a “character actor,” to mean an actor who plays a highly-coloured +strange part. The word is also used as the name of a +form of literature, consisting of short descriptions of types of +character. Well-known examples of such “characters” are +those of Theophrastus and La Bruyère, and in English, of Joseph +Hall (1574-1656) and Sir Thomas Overbury.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARADE,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a kind of riddle, probably invented in France +during the 18th century, in which a word of two or more syllables +is divined by guessing and combining into one word (the answer) +the different syllables, each of which is described, as an independent +word, by the giver of the charade. Charades may be +either in prose or verse. Of poetic charades those by W. Mackworth +Praed are well known and excellent examples, while the +following specimens in prose may suffice as illustrations. “My +<i>first</i>, with the most rooted antipathy to a Frenchman, prides +himself, whenever they meet, upon sticking close to his jacket; +my <i>second</i> has many virtues, nor is its least that it gives its name +to my first; my <i>whole</i> may I never catch!” “My <i>first</i> is +company; my <i>second</i> shuns company; my <i>third</i> collects company; +and my <i>whole</i> amuses company.” The solutions are +<i>Tar-tar</i> and <i>Co-nun-drum</i>. The most popular form of this +amusement is the acted charade, in which the meaning of the +different syllables is acted out on the stage, the audience being +left to guess each syllable and thus, combining the meaning of +all the syllables, the whole word. A brilliant example of the +acted charade is described in Thackeray’s <i>Vanity Fair</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARCOAL,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon +obtained by removing the volatile constituents of animal and +vegetable substances; wood gives origin to wood-charcoal; +sugar to sugar-charcoal; bone to bone-charcoal (which, however, +mainly consists of calcium phosphate); while coal gives “coke” +and “gas-carbon.” The first part of the word charcoal is of +obscure origin. The independent use of “char,” meaning to +scorch, to reduce to carbon, is comparatively recent, and must +have been taken from “charcoal,” which is quite early. The +<i>New English Dictionary</i> gives as the earliest instance of “char” +a quotation dated 1679. Similarly the word “chark” or “chak,” +meaning the same as “char,” is also late, and is probably due +to a wrong division of the word “charcoal,” or, as it was often +spelled in the 16th and 17th centuries, “charkole” and “charke-coal.” +No suggestions for an origin of “char” are satisfactory. +It may be a use of the word “chare,” which appears in “char-woman,” +the American “chore”; in all these words it means +“turn,” a turn of work, a job, and “charcoal” would have to +mean “turned coal,” <i>i.e.</i> wood changed or turned to coal, a +somewhat forced derivation, for which there is no authority. +Another suggestion is that it is connected with “chirk” or +“chark,” an old word meaning “to make a grating noise.”</p> + +<p><i>Wood-charcoal.</i>—In districts where there is an abundance of +wood, as in the forests of France, Austria and Sweden, the +operation of charcoal-burning is of the crudest description. The +method, which dates back to a very remote period, generally +consists in piling billets of wood on their ends so as to form a +conical pile, openings being left at the bottom to admit air, with +a central shaft to serve as a flue. The whole is covered with turf +of moistened soil. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, +and gradually spreads outwards and upwards. The success of +the operation—both as to the intrinsic value of the product and +its amount—depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under +average conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts by +volume, or 25 parts by weight, of charcoal. The modern process +of carbonizing wood—either in small pieces or as sawdust—in +cast iron retorts is extensively practised where wood is scarce, +and also by reason of the recovery of valuable by-products +(wood spirit, pyroligneous acid, wood-tar), which the process +permits. The question of the temperature of the carbonization +is important; according to J. Percy, wood becomes brown at +220° C., a deep brown-black after some time at 280°, and an easily +powdered mass at 310°. Charcoal made at 300° is brown, soft +and friable, and readily inflames at 380°; made at higher +temperatures it is hard and brittle, and does not fire until heated +to about 700°. One of the most important applications of wood-charcoal +is as a constituent of gunpowder (<i>q.v.</i>). It is also used +in metallurgical operations as a reducing agent, but its application +has been diminished by the introduction of coke, anthracite +smalls, &c. A limited quantity is made up into the form of +drawing crayons; but the greatest amount is used as a fuel.</p> + +<p>The porosity of wood-charcoal explains why it floats on the +surface of water, although it is actually denser, its specific gravity +being about 1.5. The porosity also explains the property of +absorbing gases and vapours; at ordinary temperatures ammonia +and cyanogen are most readily taken up; and Sir James Dewar +has utilized this property for the preparation of high vacua at +low temperatures. This character is commercially applied in +the use of wood-charcoal as a disinfectant. The fetid gases +produced by the putrefaction and waste of organic matter enter +into the pores of the charcoal, and there meet with the oxygen +previously absorbed from the atmosphere; oxidation ensues, +and the noxious effluvia are decomposed. Generally, however, +the action is a purely mechanical one, the gases being only +absorbed. Its pharmacological action depends on the same +property; it absorbs the gases of the stomach and intestines +(hence its use in cases of flatulence), and also liquids and solids. +Wood-charcoal has also the power of removing colouring matters +from solutions, but this property is possessed in a much higher +degree by animal-charcoal.</p> + +<p><i>Animal-charcoal</i> or <i>bone black</i> is the carbonaceous residue +obtained by the dry distillation of bones; it contains only about +10% of carbon, the remainder being calcium and magnesium +phosphates (80%) and other inorganic material originally present +in the bones. It is generally manufactured from the residues +obtained in the glue (<i>q.v.</i>) and gelatin (<i>q.v.</i>) industries. Its +decolorizing power was applied in 1812 by Derosne to the +clarification of the syrups obtained in sugar-refining; but its +use in this direction has now greatly diminished, owing to the +introduction of more active and easily managed reagents. It is +still used to some extent in laboratory practice. The decolorizing +power is not permanent, becoming lost after using for some +time; it may be revived, however, by washing and reheating.</p> + +<p><i>Lampblack</i> or <i>soot</i> is the familiar product of the incomplete +combustion of oils, pitch, resins, tallow, &c. It is generally +prepared by burning pitch residues (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal-tar</a></span>) and condensing +the product. Thus obtained it is always oily, and, before using +as a pigment, it must be purified by ignition in closed crucibles +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carbon</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (1825-1893), French physician, +was born in Paris on the 29th of November 1825. In 1853 he +graduated as M.D. of Paris University, and three years later was +appointed physician of the Central Hospital Bureau. In 1860 +he became professor of pathological anatomy in the medical +faculty of Paris, and in 1862 began that famous connexion with +the Salpêtrière which lasted to the end of his life. He was elected +to the Academy of Medicine in 1873, and ten years afterwards +became a member of the Institute. His death occurred suddenly +on the 16th of August 1893 at Morvan, where he had gone for a +holiday. Charcot, who was a good linguist and well acquainted +with the literature of his own as well as of other countries, excelled +as a clinical observer and a pathologist. His work at the +Salpêtrière exerted a great influence on the development of the +science of neurology, and his classical <i>Leçons sur les maladies du +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span> +système nerveux</i>, the first series of which was published in +1873, represents an enormous advance in the knowledge and +discrimination of nervous diseases. He also devoted much +attention to the study of obscure morbid conditions like +hysteria, especially in relation to hypnotism (<i>q.v.</i>); indeed, it is +in connexion with his investigation into the phenomena and +results of the latter that his name is popularly known. In addition +to his labours on neurological and even physiological problems +he made many contributions to other branches of medicine, his +published works dealing, among other topics, with liver and +kidney diseases, gout and pulmonary phthisis. As a teacher +he was remarkably successful, and always commanded an +enthusiastic band of followers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1847-1897), British +soldier, was born at Boxhill, near Plymouth, on the 21st of +December 1847, and in 1868 entered the Royal Engineers. In +1878 Lieutenant Chard was ordered to South Africa to take +part in the Zulu War, and was stationed at the small post of +Rorke’s Drift to protect the bridges across the Buffalo river, +and some sick men and stores. Here, with Lieutenant Gonville +Bromhead (1856-1891) and eighty men of the 2nd 24th Foot, +he heard, on the 22nd of January 1879, of the disaster of Isandhlwana +from some fugitives who had escaped the slaughter. +Believing that the victorious Zulus would attempt to cross into +Natal, they prepared, hastily, to hold the Drift until help +should come. They barricaded and loopholed the old church +and hospital, and improvised defences from wagons, mealie +sacks and bags of Indian corn. Early in the afternoon they were +attacked by more than 3000 Zulus, who, after hours of desperate +hand-to-hand fighting, carried the outer defences, an inner low +wall of biscuit boxes, and the hospital, room by room. The +garrison then retired to the stone kraal, and repulsed attack +after attack through the night. The next morning relieving +forces appeared, and the enemy retired. The spirited defence +of Rorke’s Drift saved Natal from a Zulu invasion, and Chard’s +and Bromhead’s gallantry was rewarded with the V.C. and +immediate promotion to the rank of captain and brevet-major. +On Chard’s return to England he became a popular hero. From +1893-1896 he commanded the Royal Engineers at Singapore, +and was made a colonel in 1897. He died the same year at +Hatch-Beauchamp, near Taunton, on the 1st of November.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARD,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the Southern +parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 142½ m. W. +by S. of London by the London & South Western railway. +Pop. (1901) 4437. It stands on high ground within 1 m. of the +Devonshire border. Its cruciform parish church of St Mary +the Virgin is Perpendicular of the 15th century. A fine east +window is preserved. The manufactures include linen, lace, +woollens, brassware and ironware. Chard is governed by a +mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 444 acres.</p> + +<p>Chard (<i>Cerdre</i>, <i>Cherdre</i>, <i>Cherde</i>) was commercial in origin, +being a trade centre near the Roman road to the west. There +are two Roman villas in the parish. There was a British camp +at Neroche in the neighbourhood. The bishop of Bath held +Chard in 1086, and his successor granted in 1234 the first charter +which made Chard a free borough, each burgage paying a rent +of 12d. Trade in hides was forbidden to non-burgesses. This +charter was confirmed in 1253, 1280 and 1285. Chard is said +to have been incorporated by Elizabeth, as the corporation seal +dates from 1570, but no Elizabethan charter can be found. +It was incorporated by grant of Charles I. in 1642, and Charles +II. gave a charter in 1683. Chard was a mesne borough, the +first overlord being Bishop Joceline, whose successors held it +(with a brief interval from 1545 to 1552) until 1801, when it was +sold to Earl Poulett. Parliamentary representation began in +1312, and was lost in 1328. A market on Monday and fair on the +25th of July were granted in 1253, and confirmed in 1642 and +1683, when two more fair days were added (November 2 and +May 3), the market being changed to Tuesday. The market day +is now Monday, fairs being held on the first Wednesday in May, +August and November, for corn and cattle only, their medieval +importance as centres of the cloth trade having departed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1699-1779), French <i>genre</i> painter, +was born in Paris, and studied under Pierre Jacques Cazes +(1676-1754), the historical painter, and Noël Nicolas Coypel. +He became famous for his still-life pictures and domestic +interiors, which are well represented at the Louvre, and for +figure-painting, as in his <i>Le Bénédicité</i> (1740).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARDIN, SIR JOHN<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1643-1713), French traveller, was +born at Paris in 1643. His father, a wealthy jeweller, gave him +an excellent education, and trained him in his own art; but +instead of settling down in the ordinary routine of the craft, +he set out in company with a Lyons merchant named Raisin +in 1665 for Persia and India, partly on business and partly to +gratify his own inclination. After a highly successful journey, +during which he had received the patronage of Shah Abbas II. +of Persia, he returned to France in 1670, and there published +in the following year <i>Récit du Couronnement du roi de Perse +Soliman III</i>. Finding, however, that his Protestant profession +cut him off from all hope of honours or advancement in his +native country, he set out again for Persia in August 1671. +This second journey was much more adventurous than the first, +as instead of going directly to his destination, he passed by +Smyrna, Constantinople, the Crimea, Caucasia, Mingrelia and +Georgia, and did not reach Ispahan till June 1673. After four +years spent in researches throughout Persia, he again visited +India, and returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope in +1677. The persecution of Protestants in France led him, in +1681, to settle in London, where he was appointed jeweller to +the court, and received from Charles II. the honour of knighthood. +In 1683 he was sent to Holland as representative of the English +East India Company; and in 1686 he published the first part +of his great narrative—<i>The Travels of Sir John Chardin into +Persia and the East Indies, &c.</i> (London). Sir John died in +London in 1713, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where +his monument bears the inscription <i>Nomen sibi fecit eundo</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It was not till 1711 that the complete account of Chardin’s travels +appeared, under the title of <i>Journal du voyage du chevalier Chardin</i>, +at Amsterdam. The Persian portion is to be found in vol. ii. of +Harris’s <i>Collection</i>, and extracts are reprinted by Pinkerton in vol. ix. +The best complete reprint is by Langlès (Paris, 1811). Sir John +Chardin’s narrative has received the highest praise from the most +competent authorities for its fulness, comprehensiveness and fidelity; +and it furnished Montesquieu, Rousseau, Gibbon and Helvétius +with most important material.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARENTE,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> an inland department of south-western France, +comprehending the ancient province of Angoumois, and inconsiderable +portions of Saintonge, Poitou, Marche, Limousin and +Périgord. It is bounded N. by the departments of Deux-Sèvres +and Vienne, E. by those of Vienne and Dordogne, S. by Dordogne +and W. by Charente-Inférieure. Area 2305 sq. m. Pop. (1906) +351,733. The department, though it contains no high altitudes, +is for the most part of a hilly nature. The highest points, many +of which exceed 1000 ft., are found in the Confolentais, the +granite region of the extreme north-east, known also as the +Terres Froides. In the Terres Chaudes, under which name +the remainder of the department is included, the levels vary +in general between 300 and 650 ft., except in the western plains—the +Pays-Bas and Champagne—where they range from 40 to +300 ft. A large part of Charente is thickly wooded, the principal +forests lying in its northern districts. The department, as its +name indicates, belongs mainly to the basin of the river Charente +(area of basin 3860 sq. m.; length of river 225 m.), the chief +affluents of which, within its borders, are the Tardoire, the +Touvre and the Né. The Confolentais is watered by the Vienne, +a tributary of the Loire, while the arrondissement of Barbexieux +in the south-west belongs almost wholly to the basin of the +Gironde.</p> + +<p>The climate is temperate but moist, the rainfall being highest +in the north-east. Agriculturally, Charente is prosperous. More +than half its surface is arable land, on the greater part of which +cereals are grown. The potato is an important crop. The +vine is predominant in the region of Champagne, the wine +produced being chiefly distilled into the famous brandy to which +the town of Cognac gives its name. The best pasture is found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span> +in the Confolentais, where horned cattle are largely reared. +The chief fruits are chestnuts, walnuts and cider-apples. The +poultry raised in the neighbourhood of Barbezieux is highly +esteemed. Charente has numerous stone quarries, and there +are peat workings and beds of clay which supply brick and +tile-works and earthenware manufactories. Among the other +industries, paper-making, which has its chief centre at Angoulême, +is foremost. The most important metallurgical establishment +is the large foundry of naval guns at Ruelle. Flour-mills and +leather-works are numerous. There are also many minor +industries subsidiary to paper-making and brandy-distilling, +and Angoulême manufactures gunpowder and confectionery. +Coal, salt and timber are prominent imports. Exports include +paper, brandy, stone and agricultural products. The department +is served chiefly by the Orlêans and Ouest-État railways, +and the Charente is navigable below Angoulême. Charente is +divided into the five arrondissements of Angoulême, Cognac, +Ruffec, Barbezieux and Confolens (29 cantons, 426 communes). +It belongs to the region of the XII. army corps, to the province +of the archbishop of Bordeaux, and to the académie (educational +division) of Poitiers. Its court of appeal is at Bordeaux.</p> + +<p>Angoulême (the capital), Cognac, Confolens, Jarnac and La +Rochefoucauld (<i>q.v.</i>) are the more noteworthy places in the department. +Barbezieux and Ruffec, capitals of arrondissements +and agricultural centres, are otherwise of little importance. The +department abounds in churches of Romanesque architecture, +of which those of Bassac, St Amant-de-Boixe (portions of which +are Gothic in style), Plassac and Gensac-la-Pallue may be +mentioned. There are remains of a Gothic abbey church at +La Couronne, and Roman remains at St Cybardeaux, Brossac +and Chassenon (where there are ruins of the Gallo-Roman town +of Cassinomagus).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> a maritime department of south-western +France, comprehending the old provinces of Saintonge +and Aunis, and a small portion of Poitou, and including the +islands of Ré, Oléron, Aix and Madame. Area, 2791 sq.m. +Pop. (1906) 453,793. It is bounded N. by Vendée, N.E. by +Deux-Sèvres, E. by Charente, S.E. by Dordogne, S.W. by +Gironde and the estuary of the Gironde, and W. by the Bay of +Biscay. Plains and low hills occupy the interior; the coast is +flat and marshy, as are the islands (Ré, Aix, Oléron) which lie +opposite to it. The department takes its name from the river +Charente, which traverses it during the last 61 m. of its course +and drains the central region. Its chief tributaries are on the +right the Boutonne, on the left the Seugne. The climate is +temperate and, except along the coast, healthy. There are +several sheltered bays on the coast, and several good harbours, +the chief of which are La Rochelle, Rochefort and Tonnay-Charente, +the two latter some distance up the Charente. Royan +on the north shore of the Gironde is an important watering-place +much frequented for its bathing.</p> + +<p>The majority of the inhabitants of Charente-Inférieure live +by agriculture. The chief products of the arable land are wheat, +oats, maize, barley and the potato. Horse and cattle-raising is +carried on and dairying is prosperous. A considerable quantity +of wine, most of which is distilled into brandy, is produced. +The department has a few peat-workings, and produces freestone, +lime and cement; the salt-marshes of the coast are important +sources of mineral wealth. Glass, pottery, bricks and earthenware +are prominent industrial products. Ship-building, brandy-distilling, +iron-founding and machine construction are also +carried on. Oysters and mussels are bred in the neighbourhood +of La Rochelle and Marennes, and there are numerous fishing +ports along the coast.</p> + +<p>The railways traversing the department belong to the +Ouest-État system, except one section of the Paris-Bordeaux +line belonging to the Orléans Company. The facilities of the +department for internal communication are greatly increased +by the number of navigable streams which water it. The +Charente, the Sèvre Niortaise, the Boutonne, the Seudre and +the Gironde furnish 142 m. of navigable waterway, to which +must be added the 56 m. covered by the canals of the coast. +There are 6 arrondissements (40 cantons, 481 communes), cognominal +with the towns of La Rochelle, Rochefort, Marennes, +Saintes, Jonzac and St Jean d’Angély—La Rochelle being +the chief town of the department. The department forms the +diocese of La Rochelle, and is attached to the 18th military +region, and in educational matters to the académie of Poitiers. +Its court of appeal is at Poitiers.</p> + +<p>La Rochelle, St Jean d’Angély, Rochefort and Saintes (<i>q.v.</i>) are +the principal towns. Surgères and Aulnay possess fine specimens +of the numerous Romanesque churches. Pons has a graceful +château of the 15th and 16th centuries, beside which there rises +a fine keep of the 12th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARENTON-LE-PONT,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> a town of northern France in the +department of Seine, situated on the right bank of the Marne, at +its confluence with the Seine, 1 m. S.E. of the fortifications of +Paris, of which it is a suburb. Pop. (1906) 18,034. It derives +the distinctive part of its name from the stone bridge of ten +arches which crosses the Marne and unites the town with Alfortville, +well known for its veterinary school founded in 1766. It +has always been regarded as a point of great importance for the +defence of the capital, and has frequently been the scene of +sanguinary conflicts. The fort of Charenton on the left bank +of the Marne is one of the older forts of the Paris defence. In the +16th and 17th centuries Charenton was the scene of the ecclesiastical +councils of the Protestant party, which had its principal +church in the town. At St Maurice adjoining Charenton is the +famous Hospice de Charenton, a lunatic asylum, the foundation +of which dates from 1641. Till the time of the Revolution it was +used as a general hospital, and even as a prison, but from 1802 +onwards it was specially appropriated to the treatment of lunacy. +St Maurice has two other national establishments, one for the +victims of accidents in Paris (<i>asile national Vacassy</i>), the other +for convalescent working-men (<i>asile national de Vincennes</i>). +Charenton has a port on the Canal de St Maurice, beside the +Marne, and carries on boat-building and the manufacture of +tiles and porcelain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARES,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> Athenian general, is first heard of in 366 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as +assisting the Phliasians, who had been attacked by Argos and +Sicyon. In 361 he visited Corcyra, where he helped the +oligarchs to expel the democrats, a policy which led to the +subsequent defection of the island from Athens. In 357, Chares +was appointed to the command in the Social War, together with +Chabrias, after whose death before Chios he was associated with +Iphicrates and Timotheus (for the naval battle in the Hellespont, +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timotheus</a></span>). Chares, having successfully thrown the blame +for the defeat on his colleagues, was left sole commander, but +receiving no supplies from Athens, took upon himself to join the +revolted satrap Artabazus. A complaint from the Persian king, +who threatened to send three hundred ships to the assistance of +the confederates, led to the conclusion of peace (355) between +Athens and her revolted allies, and the recall of Chares. In 349, he +was sent to the assistance of Olynthus (<i>q.v.</i>) against Philip II. of +Macedon, but returned without having effected anything; in the +following year, when he reached Olynthus, he found it already +in the hands of Philip. In 340 he was appointed to the command +of a force sent to aid Byzantium against Philip, but the inhabitants, +remembering his former plunderings and extortions, refused +to receive him. In 338 he was defeated by Philip at Amphissa, +and was one of the commanders at the disastrous battle of +Chaeroneia. Lysicles, one of his colleagues, was condemned +to death, while Chares does not seem to have been even accused. +After the conquest of Thebes by Alexander (335), Chares is said +to have been one of the Athenian orators and generals whose +surrender was demanded. Two years later he was living at +Sigeum, for Arrian (<i>Anabasis</i> i. 12) states that he went from there +to pay his respects to Alexander. In 332 he entered the service +of Darius and took over the command of a Persian force in +Mytilene, but capitulated on the approach of a Macedonian fleet +on condition of being allowed to retire unmolested. He is last +heard of at Taenarum, and is supposed to have died at Sigeum. +Although boastful and vain-glorious, Chares was not lacking in +personal courage, and was among the best Athenian generals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span> +of his time. At the best, however, he was “hardly more than an +ordinary leader of mercenaries” (A. Holm). He openly boasted +of his profligacy, was exceedingly avaricious, and his bad faith +became proverbial.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Diod. Sic. xv. 75, 95, xvi. 7, 21, 22, 85-88; Plutarch, <i>Phocion</i>, 14; +Theopompus, <i>ap.</i> Athenaeum, xii. p. 532; A. Schäfer, <i>Demosthenes +und seine Zeit</i> (1885); A. Holm, <i>History of Greece</i> (Eng. trans., +1896), vol. iii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARES,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> of Lindus in Rhodes, a noted sculptor, who fashioned +for the Rhodians a colossal bronze statue of the sun-god, the cost +of which was defrayed by selling the warlike engines left behind +by Demetrius Poliorcetes, when he abandoned the siege of the +city in 303 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiv. 41). The colossus was +seventy cubits (105 ft.) in height; and its fingers were larger than +many statues. The notion that the legs were planted apart, so +that ships could sail between them, is absurd. The statue was +thrown down by an earthquake after 56 years; but the remains +lay for ages on the spot.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARES,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> of Mytilene, a Greek belonging to the suite of +Alexander the Great. He was appointed court-marshal or +introducer of strangers to the king, an office borrowed from the +Persian court. He wrote a history of Alexander in ten books, +dealing mainly with the private life of the king. The fragments +are chiefly preserved in Athenaeus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Scriptores Rerum Alexandri</i> (pp. 114-120) in the Didot edition +of Arrian.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARGE<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. <i>carricare</i>, to +load in a <i>carrus</i> or wagon; cf. “cargo”), a load; from this, its +primary meaning, also seen in the word “charger,” a large dish, +come the uses of the word for the powder and shot to load a firearm, +the accumulation of electricity in a battery, the necessary +quantity of dynamite or other explosive in blasting, and a device +borne on an escutcheon in heraldry. “Charge” can thus mean +a burden, and so a care or duty laid upon one, as in “to be in +charge” of another. With a transference to that which lays such +a duty on another, “charge” is used of the instructions given by +a judge to a jury, or by a bishop to the clergy of his diocese. In +the special sense of a pecuniary burden the word is used of the +price of goods, of an encumbrance on property, and of the +expenses of running a business. Further uses of the word are of +the violent, rushing attack of cavalry, or of a bull or elephant, or +football player; hence “charger” is a horse ridden in a charge, +or more loosely a horse ridden by an officer, whether of infantry +or cavalry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARGÉ D’AFFAIRES<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> (Fr. for “in charge of business”), the +title of two classes of diplomatic agents, (1) <i>Chargés d’affaires</i> +(<i>ministres chargés d’affaires</i>), who were placed by the <i>règlement</i> +of the congress of Vienna in the 4th class of diplomatic agents, +are heads of permanent missions accredited to countries to which, +for some reason, it is not possible or not desirable to send agents +of a higher rank. They are distinguished from these latter by the +fact that their credentials are addressed by the minister for +foreign affairs of the state which they are to represent to the +minister for foreign affairs of the receiving state. Though still +occasionally accredited, ministers of this class are now rare. +They have precedence over the other class of <i>chargés d’affaires</i>. +(2) <i>Chargés d’affaires per interim</i>, or <i>chargés des affaires</i>, are those +who are presented as such, either verbally or in writing, by heads +of missions of the first, second or third rank to the minister for +foreign affairs of the state to which they are accredited, when +they leave their post temporarily, or pending the arrival of their +successor. It is usual to appoint a counsellor or secretary of +legation <i>chargé d’affaires</i>. Some governments are accustomed +to give the title of minister to such <i>chargés d’affaires</i>, which +ranks them with the other heads of legation. Essentially +<i>chargés d’affaires</i> do not differ from ambassadors, envoys or +ministers resident. They represent their nation, and enjoy the +same privileges and immunities as other diplomatic agents +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diplomacy</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARGING ORDER,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> in English law, an order obtained from +a court or judge by a judgment creditor under the Judgment +Acts 1838 and 1840, by which the property of the judgment +debtor in any stocks or funds stands charged with the payment +of the amount for which judgment shall have been recovered, +with interest. A charging order can only be obtained in respect +of an ascertained sum, but this would include a sum ordered to be +paid at a future date. An order can be made on stock standing +in the name of a trustee in trust for the judgment debtor, or on +cash in court to the credit of the judgment debtor, but not on +stock held by a debtor as a trustee. The application for a charging +order is usually made by motion to a divisional court, though +it may be made to a judge. The effect of the order is not that of +a contract to pay the debt, but merely of an instrument of charge +on the shares, signed by the debtor. An interval of six months +must elapse before any proceedings are taken to enforce the +charge, but, it necessary, a stop order on the fund and the dividends +payable by the debtor can be obtained by the creditor +to protect his interest A solicitor employed to prosecute any +suit, matter or proceeding in any court, is entitled, on declaration +of the court, to a charge for his costs upon the property recovered +or preserved in such suit or proceeding. (See <i>Rules of the +Supreme Court</i>, o. XLIX.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARIBERT<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (d. 567), king of the Franks, was the son of +Clotaire I. On Clotaire’s death in 561 his estates were divided +between his sons, Charibert receiving Paris as his capital, +together with Rouen, Tours, Poitiers, Limoges, Bordeaux and +Toulouse. Besides his wife, Ingoberga, he had unions with +Merofleda, a wool-carder’s daughter, and Theodogilda, the +daughter of a neatherd. He was one of the most dissolute of +the Merovingian kings, his early death in 567 being brought on +by his excesses.</p> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARIDEMUS,<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> of Oreus in Euboea, Greek mercenary leader. +About 367 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he fought under the Athenian general Iphicrates +against Amphipolis. Being ordered by Iphicrates to take the Amphipolitan +hostages to Athens, he allowed them to return to their own +people, and joined Cotys, king of Thrace, against Athens. Soon +afterwards he fell into the hands of the Athenians and accepted +the offer of Timotheus to re-enter their service. Having been +dismissed by Timotheus (362) he joined the revolted satraps +Memnon and Mentor in Asia, but soon lost their confidence, and +was obliged to seek the protection of the Athenians. Finding, +however, that he had nothing to fear from the Persians, he again +joined Cotys, on whose murder he was appointed guardian to his +youthful son Cersobleptes. In 357, on the arrival of Chares with +considerable forces, the Chersonese was restored to Athens. The +supporters of Charidemus represented this as due to his efforts, +and, in spite of the opposition of Demosthenes, he was honoured +with a golden crown and the franchise of the city. It was further +resolved that his person should be inviolable. In 351 he commanded +the Athenian forces in the Chersonese against Philip II. +of Macedon, and in 349 he superseded Chares as commander in +the Olynthian War. He achieved little success, but made himself +detested by his insolence and profligacy, and was in turn +replaced by Chares. After Chaeroneia the war party would +have entrusted Charidemus<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> with the command against Philip, +but the peace party secured the appointment of Phocion. He +was one of those whose surrender was demanded by Alexander +after the destruction of Thebes, but escaped with banishment. +He fled to Darius III., who received him with distinction. But, +having expressed his dissatisfaction with the preparations made +by the king just before the battle of Issus (333), he was put to +death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Diod. Sic. xvii. 30; Plutarch, <i>Phocion</i>, 16, 17; Arrian, +<i>Anabasis</i>, i. 10; Quintus Curtius iii. 2; Demosthenes, <i>Contra +Aristocratem</i>; A. Schäfer, <i>Demosthenes und seine Zeit</i> (1885).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to some authorities, this is a second Charidemus, the +first disappearing from history after being superseded by Chares in +the Olynthian war.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARING CROSS,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> the locality about the west end of the +Strand and the north end of Whitehall, on the south-east side +of Trafalgar Square, London, England. It falls within the +bounds of the city of Westminster. Here Edward I. erected +the last of the series of crosses to the memory of his queen, +Eleanor (d. 1290). It stood near the present entrance to Charing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span> +Cross station of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway, in the +courtyard of which a fine modern cross has been erected within +a few feet of the exact site. A popular derivation of the name +connected it with Edward’s “dear queen” (<i>chère reine</i>), and a +village of Cherringe or Charing grew up here later, but the true +origin of the name is not known. There is a village of Charing +in Kent, and the name is connected by some with that of a +Saxon family, Cerring.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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