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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7
+       "Cerargyrite" to "Charing Cross"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 6, 2010 [EBook #33365]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE CHALCIS: "Chalcis subsequently became a member of both the
+      Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period it gained importance as a
+      fortress by which the Macedonian rulers controlled central Greece".
+      'importance' amended from 'inportance'.
+
+    ARTICLE CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON: "He often deals with gloomy and
+      sometimes with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in his
+      lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or
+      of satire". 'productions' Amended from 'proudctions'.
+
+    ARTICLE CHANNEL ISLANDS: "... Burhou and Ortach, and numerous other
+      islets west of it, and west again the notorious Casquets, an angry
+      group of jagged rocks, on the largest of which is a powerful
+      lighthouse". 'an' amended from 'and'.
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME V, SLICE VII
+
+        Cerargyrite to Charing Cross
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CERARGYRITE                     CHAMBERS
+  CERBERUS                        CHAMBERSBURG
+  CERDIC                          CHAMBÉRY
+  CERDONIANS                      CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES DIEUDONNÉ
+  CEREALIS, PETILLIUS             CHAMBORD
+  CERES                           CHAMBRE ARDENTE
+  CERIGNOLA                       CHAMELEON
+  CERIGOTTO                       CHAMFER
+  CERINTHUS                       CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS
+  CERIUM                          CHAMIER, FREDERICK
+  CERNUSCHI, HENRI                CHAMILLART, MICHEL
+  CEROGRAPHY                      CHAMINADE, CÉCILE
+  CERRO DE PASCO                  CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON
+  CERTALDO                        CHAMKANNI
+  CERUSSITE                       CHAMOIS
+  CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE GIACHIMO      CHAMOMILE
+  CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE   CHAMONIX
+  CERVERA, PASCUAL TOPETE         CHAMPAGNE
+  CESAREVICH                      CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE
+  CESARI, GIUSEPPE                CHAMPAIGN
+  CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE            CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE
+  CESENA                          CHAMPARAN
+  CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI         CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF
+  CESPEDES, PABLO DE              CHAMPERTY
+  CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE  CHAMPION
+  CESS                            CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE
+  CESSIO BONORUM                  CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE
+  CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO            CHAMPLAIN
+  CESTIUS, LUCIUS                 CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE
+  CESTUI, CESTUY                  CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS
+  CETACEA                         CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH
+  CETHEGUS                        CHANCE
+  CETINA, GUTIERRE DE             CHANCEL
+  CETTE                           CHANCELLOR
+  CETTIGNE                        CHANCELLORSVILLE
+  CETUS                           CHANCE-MEDLEY
+  CETYWAYO                        CHANCERY
+  CEUTA                           CHANDA
+  CEVA                            CHANDAUSI
+  CÉVENNES                        CHAND BARDAI
+  CEYLON                          CHANDELIER
+  CHABAZITE                       CHANDERNAGORE
+  CHABLIS                         CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM
+  CHABOT, FRANÇOIS                CHANDLER, RICHARD
+  CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE         CHANDLER, SAMUEL
+  CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE             CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH
+  CHABRIAS                        CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF
+  CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL       CHANDOS, SIR JOHN
+  CHACMA                          CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
+  CHACO                           CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE
+  CHACONNE                        CHANG-CHOW
+  CHAD, SAINT                     CHANG CHUN, KIU
+  CHAD                            CHANGE
+  CHADDERTON                      CHANGELING
+  CHADERTON, LAURENCE             CHANGOS
+  CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN             CHANGRA
+  CHAEREMON (Athenian dramatist)  CHANNEL ISLANDS
+  CHAEREMON (Stoic philosopher)   CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY
+  CHAERONEIA                      CHANSONS DE GESTE
+  CHAETOGNATHA                    CHANT
+  CHAETOPODA                      CHANTABUN
+  CHAETOSOMATIDA                  CHANTADA
+  CHAFER                          CHANTAGE
+  CHAFF                           CHANTARELLE
+  CHAFFARINAS                     CHANTAVOINE, HENRI
+  CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA           CHANTILLY
+  CHAFFINCH                       CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT
+  CHAFING-DISH                    CHANT ROYAL
+  CHAGOS                          CHANTRY
+  CHAGRES                         CHANUTE
+  CHAIN                           CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED
+  CHAIR                           CHAOS
+  CHAISE                          CHAPBOOK
+  CHAKRATA                        CHAPE
+  CHALCEDON                       CHAPEL
+  CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF           CHAPELAIN, JEAN
+  CHALCEDONY                      CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH
+  CHALCIDICUM                     CHAPEL HILL
+  CHALCIS                         CHAPELLE ARDENTE
+  CHALCONDYLES                    CHAPERON
+  CHALDAEA                        CHAPLAIN
+  CHALDEE                         CHAPLIN, HENRY
+  CHALICE                         CHAPMAN, GEORGE
+  CHALIER, JOSEPH                 CHAPMAN
+  CHALK                           CHAPONE, HESTER
+  CHALKHILL, JOHN                 CHAPPE, CLAUDE
+  CHALKING THE DOOR               CHAPPELL, WILLIAM
+  CHALLAMEL, JEAN AUGUSTIN        CHAPRA
+  CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND    CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE
+  CHALLENGE                       CHAPTER
+  "CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION         CHAPTER-HOUSE
+  CHALLONER, RICHARD              CHAPU
+  CHALMERS, ALEXANDER             CHAR
+  CHALMERS, GEORGE                CHAR-À-BANC
+  CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL           CHARACTER
+  CHALMERS, JAMES                 CHARADE
+  CHALMERS, THOMAS                CHARCOAL
+  CHALONER, SIR THOMAS            CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN
+  CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE               CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT
+  CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE                CHARD
+  CHALUKYA                        CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON
+  CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ      CHARDIN, SIR JOHN
+  CHALYBITE                       CHARENTE
+  CHAMBA                          CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE
+  CHAMBAL                         CHARENTON-LE-PONT
+  CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH             CHARES
+  CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE    CHARES
+  CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES CHARES
+  CHAMBERLAIN                     CHARGE
+  CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM           CHARGÉ D'AFFAIRES
+  CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM               CHARGING ORDER
+  CHAMBERS, GEORGE                CHARIBERT
+  CHAMBERS, ROBERT                CHARIDEMUS
+  CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM           CHARING CROSS
+
+
+
+
+CERARGYRITE, a mineral species consisting of silver chloride; an
+important ore of silver. The name cerargyrite is a Greek form (from
+[Greek: keras], horn, and [Greek: argyros], silver) of the older name
+hornsilver, which was used by K. Gesner as far back as 1565. The
+chloro-bromide and bromide of silver were also included under this term
+until they were distinguished chemically in 1841 and 1842, and described
+under the names embolite and bromargyrite (or bromyrite) respectively;
+the chloride then came to be distinguished as chlorargyrite, though the
+name cerargyrite is often now applied to this alone. Chloro-bromo-iodide
+of silver has also been recognized as a mineral and called iodembolite.
+All these are strikingly alike in appearance and general characters,
+differing essentially only in chemical composition, and it would seem
+better to reserve the name cerargyrite for the whole group, using the
+names chlorargyrite (AgCl), embolite (Ag(Cl, Bl)), bromargyrite (AgBr)
+and iodembolite (Ag(Cl, Br, I)) for the different isomorphous members of
+the group. They are cubic in crystallization, with the cube and the
+octahedron as prominent forms, but crystals are small and usually
+indistinct; there is no cleavage. They are soft (H = 2½) and sectile to
+a high degree, being readily cut with a knife like horn. With their
+resinous to adamantine lustre and their translucency they also present
+somewhat the appearance of horn; hence the name hornsilver. The colour
+varies somewhat with the chemical composition, being grey or colourless
+in chlorargyrite, greenish-grey in embolite and bromargyrite, and
+greenish-yellow to orange-yellow in iodembolite. On exposure to light
+the colour quickly darkens. The specific gravity also varies with the
+composition: for the pure chloride it is 5.55, and the highest recorded
+for an iodembolite is 6.3.
+
+The hornsilvers all occur under similar conditions and are often
+associated together; they are found in metalliferous veins with native
+silver and ores of silver, and are usually confined to the upper
+oxidized parts of the lodes. They are important ores of silver (the pure
+chloride contains 75.3% of silver), and have been extensively mined at
+several places in Chile, also in Mexico, and at Broken Hill in New South
+Wales. The chloride and chloro-bromide have been found in several
+Cornish mines, but never in very large amounts.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CERBERUS, in Greek mythology, the dog who guarded the entrance to the
+lower world. He allowed all to enter, but seized those who attempted to
+escape. According to Hesiod (_Theog._ 311), he was a fifty-headed
+monster with a fearful bark, the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. He was
+variously represented with one, two or (usually) three heads, often
+with the tail of a snake or with snakes growing from his head or twined
+round his body. One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles was to fetch
+Cerberus from below to the upper world, a favourite subject of ancient
+vase-paintings.
+
+
+
+
+CERDIC (d. 534), founder of the West Saxon kingdom, is described as an
+ealdorman who in 495 landed with his son Cynric in Hampshire, where he
+was attacked at once by the Britons. Nothing more is heard of him until
+508, when he defeated the Britons with great slaughter. Strengthened by
+fresh arrivals of Saxons, he gained another victory in 519 at
+Certicesford, a spot which has been identified with the modern Charford,
+and in this year took the title of king. Turning westward, Cerdic
+appears to have been defeated by the Britons in 520 at Badbury or Mount
+Badon, in Dorset, and in 527 yet another fight with the Britons is
+recorded. His last work was the conquest of the Isle of Wight, probably
+in the interest of some Jutish allies. All the sovereigns of England,
+except Canute, Hardicanute, the two Harolds and William the Conqueror,
+are said to be descended from Cerdic.
+
+  See _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899);
+  Gildas, _De excidio Britanniae_, edited by Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1898);
+  Nennius, _Historia, Brittonum_, edited by Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1898);
+  Bede, _Historiae ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum libri v._, ed. C.
+  Plummer (Oxford, 1896); E. Guest, _Origines Celticae_ (London, 1883);
+  J.R. Green, _The Making of England_ (London, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+CERDONIANS, a Gnostic sect, founded by Cerdo, a Syrian, who came to Rome
+about 137, but concerning whose history little is known. They held that
+there are two first causes--the perfectly good and the perfectly evil.
+The latter is also the creator of the world, the god of the Jews, and
+the author of the Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the son of the good
+deity; he was sent into the world to oppose the evil; but his
+incarnation, and therefore his sufferings, were a mere appearance.
+Regarding the body as the work of the evil deity, the Cerdonians formed
+a moral system of great severity, prohibiting marriage, wine and the
+eating of flesh, and advocating fasting and other austerities. Most of
+what the Fathers narrate of Cerdo's tenets has probably been transferred
+to him from his famous pupil Marcion, like whom he is said to have
+rejected the Old Testament and the New, except part of Luke's Gospel and
+of Paul's Epistles. (See MARCION, and GNOSTICISM.)
+
+
+
+
+CEREALIS (CERIALIS), PETILLIUS (1st century A.D.), Roman general, a near
+relative of the emperor Vespasian. He is first heard of during the reign
+of Nero in Britain, where he was completely defeated (A.D. 61) by
+Boadicea. Eight years later he played an important part in the capture
+of Rome by the supporters of Vespasian. In 70 he put down the revolt of
+Civilis (q.v.). In 71, as governor of Britain, where he had as a
+subordinate the famous Agricola, he inflicted severe defeats upon the
+Brigantes, the most powerful of the tribes of Britain. Tacitus says that
+he was a bold soldier rather than a careful general, and preferred to
+stake everything on the issue of a single engagement. He possessed
+natural eloquence of a kind that readily appealed to his soldiers. His
+loyalty towards his superiors was unshakable.
+
+  Tacitus, _Annals_, xiv. 32; _Histories_, iii. 59, 78, iv. 71, 75, 86,
+  v. 21; _Agricola_, 8, 17.
+
+
+
+
+CERES, an old Italian goddess of agriculture. The name probably means
+the "creator" or "created," connected with _crescere_ and _creare_. But
+when Greek deities were introduced into Rome on the advice of the
+Sibylline books (in 495 B.C., on the occasion of a severe drought),
+Demeter, the Greek goddess of seed and harvest, whose worship was
+already common in Sicily and Lower Italy, usurped the place of Ceres in
+Rome, or rather, to Ceres were added the religious rites which the
+Greeks paid to Demeter, and the mythological incidents which originated
+with her. At the same time the cult of Dionysus and Persephone (see
+LIBER AND LIBERA) was introduced. The rites of Ceres were Greek in
+language and form. Her priestesses were Italian Greeks and her temple
+was Greek in its architecture and built by Greek artists. She was
+worshipped almost exclusively by plebeians, and her temple near the
+Circus Maximus was under the care of the plebeian aediles, one of whose
+duties was the superintendence of the corn-market. Her chief festivals
+were the _ludi Cereris_ or _Cerealia_ (more correctly, _Cerialia_),
+games held annually from April 12-19 (Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 392 ff.); a
+second festival, in August, to celebrate the reunion of Ceres and
+Proserpine, in which women, dressed in white, after a fast of nine days
+offered the goddess the first-fruits of the harvest (Livy xxii. 56); and
+the _Jejunium Cereris_, a fast also introduced (191 B.C.) by command of
+the Sibylline books (Livy xxvi. 37), at first held only every four
+years, then annually on the 4th of October. In later times Ceres was
+confused with Tellus. (See also DEMETER.)
+
+
+
+
+CERIGNOLA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, 26 m.
+S.E. by rail from the town of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 34,195. It was rebuilt
+after a great earthquake in 1731, and has a considerable agricultural
+trade. In 1503 the Spaniards under Gonzalo de Cordoba defeated the
+French under the duc de Nemours below the town--a victory which made the
+kingdom of Naples into a Spanish province in Italy. Cerignola occupies
+the site of Furfane, a station on the Via Traiana between Canusium and
+Herdoniae.
+
+
+
+
+CERIGOTTO, called locally LIUS (anc. _Aegilia_ or _Ogylos_; mod. Gr.
+officially _Antikythera_), an island of Greece, belonging to the Ionian
+group, and situated between Cythera (Cerigo) and Crete, about 20 m. from
+each. Some raised beaches testify to an upheaval in comparatively recent
+times. With an area of about 10 sq. m. it supports a population of about
+300, who are mainly Cretan refugees, and in favourable seasons exports a
+quantity of good wheat. It was long a favourite resort of Greek pirates.
+It is famous for the discovery in 1900, close to its coast, of the wreck
+of an ancient ship with a cargo of bronze and marble statues.
+
+
+
+
+CERINTHUS (c. A.D. 100), an early Christian heretic, contemporary with
+the closing years of the apostle John, who, according to the well-known
+story of Polycarp, reported by Irenaeus (iii. 3) and twice recorded in
+Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iii. 28, iv. 14), made a hasty exit from a bath
+in Ephesus on learning that Cerinthus was within. Other early accounts
+agree in making the province of Asia the scene of his activity, and
+Hippolytus (_Haer_. vii. 33) credits him with an Egyptian training.
+There can be no truth in the notice given by Epiphanius (_Haer_. xxviii.
+4) that Cerinthus had in earlier days at Jerusalem led the judaizing
+opposition against Paul.
+
+The difficulty of defining Cerinthus's theological position is due not
+only to the paucity of our sources but to the fact that the witness of
+the two principal authorities, Irenaeus (1. 26, iii. 11) and Hippolytus
+(_Syntagma_), does not agree. Further, Irenaeus himself in one passage
+fails to distinguish between Cerinthian and Valentinian doctrines. It
+would appear, however, that Cerinthus laid stress on the rite of
+circumcision and on the observance of the Sabbath. He taught that the
+world had been made by angels, from one of whom, the god of the Jews,
+the people of Israel had received their Law, which was not perfect. The
+only New Testament writing which he accepted was a mutilated Gospel of
+Matthew. Jesus was the offspring of Joseph and Mary, and on him at the
+baptism descended the Christ,[1] revealing the hitherto unknown Father,
+and endowing him with miraculous power. This Christ left Jesus again
+before the Passion, and the resurrection of Jesus was still in the
+future. Together with these somewhat gnostic ideas, Cerinthus, if we may
+trust the notices of Gaius the Roman presbyter (c. 290) and Dionysius of
+Alexandria (c. 340), held a violent and crude form of chiliasm. But the
+chief significance of the man is his "combination of zeal for legal
+observances with bold criticism of the Law itself as a whole and of its
+origin," which reminds us of the Clementine _Recognitions_. Cerinthus is
+a blend of judaizing christian and gnostic.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] So Irenaeus. According to Hippolytus and Epiphanius it was the
+    Holy Ghost that thus descended.
+
+
+
+
+CERIUM (symbol Ce, atomic weight 140.25), a metallic chemical element
+which occurs with the rare earths in the minerals cerite, samarskite,
+euxenite, monazite, parisite and many yttrium minerals. The particular
+earth containing cerium was discovered by M.H. Klaproth in 1803, whilst
+J. Berzelius at about the same time also examined it and came to the
+conclusion that it was the oxide of a new metal, which he termed
+cerium. The crude oxide of the metal is obtained from cerite, by
+evaporating the mineral with strong sulphuric acid, removing excess of
+acid and dissolving the residue in ice-cold water; sulphuretted hydrogen
+is passed through the solution, which is then filtered, acidified with
+hydrochloric acid, and precipitated as oxalate by oxalic acid; the
+oxalate is then converted into oxide by ignition. From the crude oxide
+so obtained (which contains lanthanum and didymium oxides) the cerium
+may be separated by conversion into its double sulphate on the addition
+of potassium sulphate, the sulphates of the cerium group being insoluble
+in a saturated solution of potassium sulphate. The sulphate is
+subsequently boiled with water, when a basic sulphate is precipitated.
+For the preparation of pure cerium compounds see Auer v. Welsbach,
+_Monatshefte_, 1884, v. 508.
+
+The metal was first obtained, in an impure state, by C.G. Mosander, by
+fusing its chloride with sodium. W.F. Hillebrand and T. Norton have
+prepared it by the electrolysis of the melted chloride (_Pogg. Ann._,
+1875, 156, p. 466); and C. Winkler (_Berichte_, 1891, xxiv. 884)
+obtained it by heating the dioxide with magnesium powder. The metal has
+somewhat the appearance of iron, and has a specific gravity of 6.628,
+which, after melting, is increased to 6.728. Its specific heat is
+0.04479 (W.F. Hillebrand). It is permanent in dry air, but tarnishes in
+moist air; it can be hammered and rolled; it melts at 623° C. It burns
+readily on heating, with a brilliant flame; and it also combines with
+chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus and cyanogen. In the case
+of the two former elements the combination is accompanied by combustion
+of the metal. With water it is slowly converted into the dioxide. Cold
+concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids are without action on the metal,
+but it reacts rapidly with dilute nitric and hydrochloric acids. The
+dioxide is used in incandescent gas mantles (see LIGHTING).
+
+  Three oxides of cerium are known. The sesquioxide, Ce2O3, is obtained
+  by heating the carbonate in a current of hydrogen. It is a
+  bluish-green powder, which on exposure rapidly combines with the
+  oxygen of the air. By the addition of caustic soda to cerous salts, a
+  white precipitate of cerous hydroxide is formed. Cerium dioxide, CeO2,
+  is produced when cerium carbonate, nitrate, sulphate or oxalate is
+  heated in air. It is a white or pale yellow compound, which becomes
+  reddish on heating. Its specific gravity is 6.739, and its specific
+  heat 0.0877. It is not reduced to the metallic condition on heating
+  with carbon. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves this oxide, forming
+  a yellowish solution and ozone. By suspending the precipitated cerous
+  hydroxide in water and passing chlorine through the solution, a
+  hydrated form of the dioxide, 2CeO2·3H2O, is obtained, which is
+  readily soluble in nitric and sulphuric acids, forming ceric salts,
+  and in hydrochloric acid, where it forms cerous chloride, with
+  liberation of chlorine. A higher hydrated oxide, CeO3·xH2O, is formed
+  by the interaction of cerous sulphate with sodium acetate and hydrogen
+  peroxide (Lecoq de Boisbaudran, _Comptes rendus_, 1885, 100, p. 605).
+
+  Cerous chloride, CeCl3, is obtained when the metal is burned in
+  chlorine; when a mixture of cerous oxide and carbon is heated in
+  chlorine; or by rapid heating of the dioxide in a stream of carbon
+  monoxide and chlorine. It is a colourless substance, which is easily
+  fusible. A hydrated chloride of composition 2CeCl3·15H2O is also
+  known, and is obtained when a solution of cerous oxide in hydrochloric
+  acid is evaporated over sulphuric acid. Double salts of cerous
+  chloride with stannic chloride, mercuric chloride, and platinic
+  chloride are also known. Cerous bromide, 2CeBr3·3H2O, and iodide,
+  CeI3·9H2O, are known. Cerous sulphide, Ce2S3, results on heating
+  cerium with sulphur or cerium oxide in carbon bisulphide vapour. It is
+  a red infusible mass of specific gravity 5.1, and is slowly decomposed
+  by warm water. The sulphate, Ce2(SO4)3, is formed on dissolving the
+  carbonate in sulphuric acid, or on dissolving the basic sulphate in
+  sulphuric acid, in the presence of sulphur dioxide, evaporating the
+  solution, and drying the product obtained, at high temperature (B.
+  Brauner, _Monatshefte_, 1885, vi. 793). It is a white powder of
+  specific gravity 3.912, easily soluble in cold water. Many hydrated
+  forms of the sulphate are known, as are also double salts of the
+  sulphate with potassium, sodium, ammonium, thallium and cadmium
+  sulphates. Ceric fluoride, CeF4·H2O, is obtained when the hydrated
+  dioxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and the solution evaporated
+  on the water bath (B. Brauner). The sulphate, Ce(SO4)2·4H2O, is formed
+  when the basic sulphate is dissolved in sulphuric acid; or when the
+  dioxide is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, and evaporated _in
+  vacuo_ over sulphuric acid. It forms yellow crystals soluble in water;
+  the aqueous solution on standing gradually depositing a basic salt.
+  Double sulphates of composition 2Ce(SO4)2·2K2SO4·2H2O,
+  Ce(SO4)2·3(NH4)2SO4·4H2O are known. Nitrates of cerium have been
+  described, as have also phosphates, carbonates and a carbide.
+
+  Cerium compounds may be recognized by the red precipitate of ceric
+  hydroxide, which is formed when sodium hypochlorite is added to a
+  colourless cerous salt. For the quantitative determination of the
+  metal, the salts are precipitated by caustic potash, the precipitate
+  washed, dried and heated, and finally weighed as the dioxide.
+
+  The atomic weight of cerium has been determined by B. Brauner (_Chem.
+  News_, 1895, lxxi. 283) from the analysis of the oxalate; the values
+  obtained varying from 140.07 to 140.35.
+
+
+
+
+CERNUSCHI, HENRI (1821-1896), Italian politician and economist, was born
+of wealthy parents at Milan in 1821, and was destined for the legal
+profession. During his studies he became involved in the revolutionary
+movement. He played a conspicuous part in the insurrection at Milan in
+1848, and also at Rome in 1849, where he had a seat in the National
+Assembly. On the collapse of the revolutionary government he was
+arrested (1850), but managed to escape to France, where he engaged in
+commerce and banking, became naturalized, and acquired a large fortune.
+He took a prominent part in opposing the Socialist movement, and in
+April 1870, having subscribed a large sum to the funds of a committee
+formed to combat the Napoleonic plebiscite, had to leave the country. In
+September the formation of the Third Republic enabled him to return, but
+he soon left Paris to travel in the East, whence he returned with a fine
+art collection, particularly of Japanese objects. Cernuschi is best
+known for his publications on financial questions, more especially
+bimetallism. Of the latter he was an ardent champion, and the word
+itself is commonly supposed to have originated with him--at least in its
+English form it is first found in his _Silver Vindicated_ (1876). Among
+his other works may be mentioned: _Mécanique de l'échange_ (1861);
+_Illusion des sociétés coopératives_ (1886); _Le Bimétallisme en
+Angleterre_ (1879); _Le Grand Procès de l'Union latine_ (1884). He died
+at Mentone on the 12th of May 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CEROGRAPHY (from the Gr. [Greek: kêros], wax, and [Greek: graphein], to
+write), the art of painting in wax. (See ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.)
+
+
+
+
+CERRO DE PASCO, or PASCO, a mining town of Peru, capital of the
+department of Junin, 107 m. (221 m. by rail, via Oroya) N.E. of Lima.
+Pop. (1907 est.) 10,000. It is situated on the plateau of Bombon, 14,280
+ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of one of the oldest and richest
+silver-mining districts of Peru. There were 342 silver mines in this
+district in 1890, and at the end of the 19th century the average annual
+output since the discovery of the mines in 1630 was estimated at
+1,600,000 oz. A decline in the silver production having set in, the
+American company which had become owners of three-fourths of the mining
+properties in the district turned its attention to the extensive copper
+deposits there, built a railway to Oroya 83 m. distant, another, 25 m.
+long, to the coal-fields of Gollarisquisga, north of Pasco, and then
+erected large smelting works (in which 2500 men were regularly employed
+in 1907) 8 m. out of town and 4 m. from limestone beds. The railway to
+Oroya was completed in 1903, the coal mine branch and smelter later on,
+and in 1907 the copper output was 20,152,000 lb. The town of Pasco is
+badly built and unattractive, and is inhabited chiefly by mining
+labourers and their families. Its population is increased 50% in times
+of great mining activity. The name Cerro de Pasco is that of a "knot" of
+mountains uniting the two great ranges of the Andes at this point.
+
+
+
+
+CERTALDO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, 35 m.
+S.S.W. by rail and 18 m. direct from the town of Florence. Pop. (1901)
+town, 4552; commune, 9120. It was the home of the family of Giovanni
+Boccaccio, who died and was buried here in 1375. His house (of red
+brick, like the other old houses of the town) was restored in 1823 and
+fitted up with old furniture. A statue of him was erected in the
+principal square in 1875. The Palazzo Pretorio, or Vicariale, the
+residence of the Florentine governors, recently restored to its original
+condition, has a picturesque facade and court adorned with coats of
+arms, and in the interior are various frescoes dating from the 13th to
+the 16th century. The town as a whole is picturesque, and lies on a hill
+426 ft. above sea-level.
+
+  See R. Pantini, _S. Gimignano e Certaldo_ (Bergamo, 1904), p. 101 seq.
+
+
+
+
+CERUSSITE, a mineral consisting of lead carbonate (PbCO3), and an
+important ore of lead. The name (sometimes erroneously spelt cerusite)
+is from the Lat. _cerussa_, "white lead." "Cerussa nativa" was mentioned
+by K. Gesner in 1565, and in 1832 F.S. Beudant applied the name céruse
+to the mineral, whilst the present form, cerussite, is due to W.
+Haidinger (1845). Popular names in early use were lead-spar and
+white-lead-ore.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+Cerussite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is isomorphous
+with aragonite. Like aragonite it is very frequently twinned, the
+compound crystals being pseudo-hexagonal in form. Three crystals are
+usually twinned together on two faces of the prism m{110}, producing
+six-rayed stellate groups (figs, 1 and 2) with the individual crystals
+intercrossing at angles of nearly 60°. Twinning on the faces of the
+prism r{130}, the angles of which are also nearly 60°, produces a
+similar kind of grouping, but is much less common. Crystals are of
+frequent occurrence, and they usually have very bright and smooth faces.
+The mineral also occurs in compact granular masses, and sometimes in
+fibrous forms. It is usually colourless or white, sometimes grey or
+greenish in tint; it varies from transparent to translucent, and has an
+adamantine lustre. It is very brittle, and has a conchoidal fracture.
+Hardness 3-3½; sp. gr. 6.5. A variety containing 7% of zinc carbonate,
+replacing lead carbonate, is known as iglesiasite, from Iglesias in
+Sardinia, where it is found.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The mineral may be readily recognized by its characteristic twinning, in
+conjunction with the adamantine lustre and high specific gravity. It
+dissolves with effervescence in dilute nitric acid. Before the blow-pipe
+it fuses very readily, and gives reactions for lead. Cerussite occurs in
+metalliferous veins in association with galena, and has been formed by
+the action of carbonated waters on the galena; it is therefore found in
+the upper parts of the lodes together with other secondary minerals,
+such as limonite. Finely crystallized specimens have been obtained from
+the Friedrichssegen mine near Ems in Nassau, Johanngeorgenstadt in
+Saxony, Mies in Bohemia, Phenixville in Pennsylvania, Broken Hill in New
+South Wales, and several other localities. Delicate acicular crystals of
+considerable length were found long ago in the Pentire Glaze mine near
+St Minver in Cornwall. It is often found in considerable quantities, and
+contains as much as 77½% of lead.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO (1738-1792), French author and
+politician, was born at Turin on the 13th of June 1738. He joined the
+Society of Jesus and became professor at the Jesuit college at Lyons. In
+1762, in reply to the attacks on his order, he published an _Apologie
+générale de l'institut et de la doctrine des Jésuites_, which won him
+much fame and some exalted patronage; notably that of the ex-king
+Stanislaus of Poland and of his grandson the dauphin. During the
+agitations that preceded the Revolution Cerutti took the popular side,
+and in 1788 published a pamphlet, _Mémoire pour le peuple français_, in
+which in a clear and trenchant style he advocated the claims of the
+_tiers état_. In May 1789 he presided over the electors of Paris, by
+whom in January 1791 he was chosen member of the administration of the
+department and afterwards deputy to the Legislative Assembly. He was a
+friend of Mirabeau, whose policy he supported and whose funeral oration
+he pronounced. He himself died on the 3rd of February 1792. Of Cerutti's
+literary enterprises the most interesting, and probably the most
+influential, was the popular newspaper founded by him, on the 30th of
+September 1790, in collaboration with Rabaut Saint-Étienne and Philippe
+Antoine Grouvelle. Its character and objects are explained by its
+title: _La Feuille villageoise, adressée chaque semaine à tous les
+villages de France pour les instruire des lois, des événements, des
+découvertes qui interessent tout ban citoyen, &c._ It was continued by
+Grouvelle after Cerutti's death, the last number appearing on the 2nd of
+August 1795.
+
+  Cerutti's works were published in 1793 in 3 volumes. On the _Mémoire
+  pour le peuple français_, see F.A. Aulard in _La Révolution
+  française_, tom. xv. (1888).
+
+
+
+
+CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE (1547-1616), Spanish novelist, playwright
+and poet, was born at Alcalá de Henares in 1547. The attempts of
+biographers to provide him with an illustrious genealogy are
+unsuccessful. The family history begins with the author's grandfather,
+Juan de Cervantes (b. 1490), a lawyer who at one time (1545-6)
+administered the estates of the duke de Osuna, and resided later at
+Cordova, where he died about 1555. Cervantes' father was Rodrigo de
+Cervantes, an apothecary-surgeon, who married Leonor de Cortinas in 1540
+or 1541. The children of this marriage were Andrés (b. 1543), Andrea (b.
+1544), Luisa (b. 1546), Miguel, Rodrigo (b. 1550), Magdalena (b. 1554)
+and Juan (of whom nothing is known beyond the mention of him in his
+father's will).
+
+The exact date of Cervantes' birth is not recorded: he was baptized on
+the 9th of October 1547, in the church of Santa Maria la Mayor at
+Alcalá. There are indications that Rodrigo de Cervantes resided at
+Valladolid in 1554, at Madrid in 1561, at Seville in 1564-1565, and at
+Madrid from 1566 onwards. It may be assumed that his family accompanied
+him, and it seems likely that either at Valladolid or at Madrid
+Cervantes saw the famous actor-manager and dramatist, Lope de Rueda, of
+whose performances he speaks enthusiastically in the preface to his
+plays. In 1569 a Madrid schoolmaster, Juan Lopez de Hoyos, issued a work
+commemorative of Philip II.'s third wife, Isabel de Valois, who had died
+on the 3rd of October 1568. This volume, entitled _Historia y relación
+verdadera de la enfermedad, felicisimo tránsito y sumptuosas exequias
+fúnebres de la Serenisima Reyna de Españia Doña Isabel de Valoys_,
+contains six contributions by Cervantes: a sonnet, four _redondillas_,
+and an elegy. Lopez de Hoyos introduces Cervantes as "our dear and
+beloved pupil," and the elegy is dedicated to Cardinal Espinosa "in the
+name of the whole school." It has been inferred that Cervantes was
+educated by Lopez de Hoyos, but this conclusion is untenable, for Lopez
+de Hoyos' school was not opened till 1567. On the 13th of October 1568,
+Giulio Acquaviva reached Madrid charged with a special mission to Philip
+II.; he left for Rome on the 2nd of December, and Cervantes is supposed
+to have accompanied him. This conjecture is based solely on a passage in
+the dedication of the _Galatea_, where the writer speaks of having been
+"_camarero_ to Cardinal Acquaviva at Rome." There is, however, no reason
+to think that Cervantes met Acquaviva in Madrid; the probability is that
+he enlisted as a supernumerary towards the end of 1568, that he served
+in Italy, and there entered the household of Acquaviva, who had been
+raised to the cardinalate on the 17th of May 1570. There exists a
+warrant (dated September 15, 1569) for the arrest of one Miguel de
+Cervantes, who had wounded Antonio de Sigura, and had been condemned in
+absence to have his right hand cut off and to be exiled from the capital
+for ten years; and it has been sought to identify the offender with the
+future author of _Don Quixote_. No evidence is available. All that is
+known with certainty is that Cervantes was in Rome at the end of 1569,
+for on the 22nd of December of that year the fact was recorded in an
+official information lodged by Rodrigo de Cervantes with a view to
+proving his son's legitimacy and untainted Christian descent.
+
+If it is difficult to say precisely when Cervantes was in Acquaviva's
+service, it is no less difficult to say when he left it to join the
+regular army. There is evidence, more or less satisfactory, that his
+enlistment took place in 1570; in 1571 he was serving as a private in
+the company commanded by Captain Diego de Urbina which formed part of
+Miguel de Moncada's famous regiment, and on the 16th of September he
+sailed from Messina on board the "Marquesa," which formed part of the
+armada under Don John of Austria. At the battle of Lepanto (October 7,
+1571) the "Marquesa" was in the thickest of the conflict. As the fleet
+came into action Cervantes lay below, ill with fever; but, despite the
+remonstrances of his comrades, he vehemently insisted on rising to take
+his share in the fighting, and was posted with twelve men under him in a
+boat by the galley's side. He received three gunshot wounds, two in the
+chest, and one which permanently maimed his right hand--"for the greater
+glory of the right," in his own phrase. On the 30th of October the fleet
+returned to Messina, where Cervantes went into hospital, and during his
+convalescence received grants-in-aid amounting to eighty-two ducats. On
+the 29th of April 1572 he was transferred to Captain Manuel Ponce de
+León's company in Lope de Figueroa's regiment; he shared in the
+indecisive naval engagement off Navarino on the 7th of October 1572, in
+the capture of Tunis on the 10th of October 1573, and in the
+unsuccessful expedition to relieve the Goletta in the autumn of 1574.
+The rest of his military service was spent in garrison at Palermo and
+Naples, and shortly after the arrival of Don John at Naples on the 18th
+of June 1575, Cervantes was granted leave to return to Spain; he
+received a recommendatory letter from Don John to Philip II., and a
+similar testimonial from the duke de Sessa, viceroy of Sicily. Armed
+with these credentials, Cervantes embarked on the "Sol" to push his
+claim for promotion in Spain.
+
+On the 26th of September 1575, near Les Trois Maries off the coast of
+Marseilles, the "Sol" and its companion ships the "Mendoza" and the
+"Higuera" encountered a squadron of Barbary corsairs under Arnaut Mami;
+Cervantes, his brother Rodrigo and other Spaniards were captured, and
+were taken as prisoners to Algiers. Cervantes became the slave of a
+Greek renegade named Dali Mami, and, as the letters found on him were
+taken to prove that he was a man of importance in a position to pay a
+high ransom, he was put under special surveillance. With undaunted
+courage and persistence he organized plans of escape. In 1576 he induced
+a Moor to guide him and other Christian captives to Oran; the Moor
+deserted them on the road, the baffled fugitives returned to Algiers,
+and Cervantes was treated with additional severity. In the spring of
+1577 two priests of the Order of Mercy arrived in Algiers with a sum of
+three hundred crowns entrusted to them by Cervantes' parents; the amount
+was insufficient to free him, and was spent in ransoming his brother
+Rodrigo. Cervantes made another attempt to escape in September 1577, but
+was betrayed by the renegade whose services he had enlisted. On being
+brought before Hassan Pasha, the viceroy of Algiers, he took the blame
+on himself, and was threatened with death; struck, however, by the
+heroic bearing of the prisoner, Hassan remitted the sentence, and bought
+Cervantes from Dali Mami for five hundred crowns. In 1577 the captive
+addressed to the Spanish secretary of state, Mateo Vazquez, a versified
+letter suggesting that an expedition should be fitted out to seize
+Algiers; the project, though practicable, was not entertained. In 1578
+Cervantes was sentenced to two thousand strokes for sending a letter
+begging help from Martín de Córdoba, governor of Oran; the punishment
+was not, however, inflicted on him. Meanwhile his family were not idle.
+In March 1578 his father presented a petition to the king setting forth
+Cervantes' services; the duke de Sessa repeated his testimony to the
+captive's merits; in the spring of 1579 Cervantes' mother applied for
+leave to export two thousand ducats' worth of goods from Valencia to
+Algiers, and on the 31st of July 1579 she gave the Trinitarian monks,
+Juan Gil and Antón de la Bella, a sum of two hundred and fifty ducats to
+be applied to her son's ransom. On his side Cervantes was indefatigable,
+and towards the end of 1579 he arranged to secure a frigate; but the
+plot was revealed to Hassan by Juan Blanco de Paz, a Dominican monk, who
+appears to have conceived an unaccountable hatred of Cervantes. Once
+more the conspirator's life was spared by Hassan who, it is recorded,
+declared that "so long as he had the maimed Spaniard in safe keeping,
+his Christians, ships and city were secure." On the 29th of May 1580 the
+two Trinitarians arrived in Algiers: they were barely in time, for
+Hassan's term of office was drawing to a close, and the arrangement of
+any ransom was a slow process, involving much patient bargaining. Hassan
+refused to accept less than five hundred gold ducats for his slave; the
+available funds fell short of this amount, and the balance was collected
+from the Christian traders of Algiers. Cervantes was already embarked
+for Constantinople when the money was paid on the 19th of September
+1580. The first use that he made of his liberty was to cause affidavits
+of his proceedings at Algiers to be drawn up; he sailed for Spain
+towards the end of October, landed at Denia in November, and made his
+way to Madrid. He signed an information before a notary in that city on
+the 18th of December 1580.
+
+These dates prove that he cannot, as is often alleged, have served under
+Alva in the Portuguese campaign of 1580: that campaign ended with the
+battle of Alcántara on the 25th of August 1580. It seems certain,
+however, that he visited Portugal soon after his return from Algiers,
+and in May 1581 he was sent from Thomar on a mission to Oran. Construed
+literally, a formal statement of his services, signed by Cervantes on
+the 21st of May 1590, makes it appear that he served in the Azores
+campaigns of 1582-83; but the wording of the document is involved, the
+claims of Cervantes are confused with those of his brother Rodrigo (who
+was promoted ensign at the Azores), and on the whole it is doubtful if
+he took part in either of the expeditions under Santa Cruz. In any case,
+the stories of his residence in Portugal, and of his love affairs with a
+noble Portuguese lady who bore him a daughter, are simple inventions.
+From 1582-3 to 1587 Cervantes seems to have written copiously for the
+stage, and in the _Adjunta al Parnaso_ he mentions several of his plays
+as "worthy of praise"; these were _Los Tratos de Argel, La Numancia, La
+Gran Turquesa, La Batalla naval, La Jerusalem, La Amaranta ó la de Mayo,
+El Bosque amoroso, La Unica y Bizarra Ársinda_--"and many others which I
+do not remember, but that which I most prize and pique myself on was,
+and is, one called _La Confusa_ which, with all respect to as many
+sword-and-cloak plays as have been staged up to the present, may take a
+prominent place as being good among the best." Of these only _Los Tratos
+de Argel_ (or _El Trato de Argel_) and _La Numancia_ have survived, and,
+though _La Numancia_ contains many fine rhetorical passages, both plays
+go to prove that the author's genius was not essentially dramatic. In
+February 1584 he obtained a licence to print a pastoral novel entitled
+_Primera parte de la Galatea_, the copyright of which he sold on the
+14th of June to Blas de Robles, a bookseller at Alcalá de Henares, for
+1336 _reales_. On the 12th of December he married Catalina de Palacios
+Salazar y Vozmediano of Esquivias, eighteen years his junior. The
+_Galatea_ was published in the spring of 1585, and is frequently said to
+relate the story of Cervantes' courtship, and to introduce various
+distinguished writers under pastoral names. These assertions must be
+received with great reserve. The birth of an illegitimate daughter,
+borne to Cervantes by a certain Ana Francisca de Rojas, is referred to
+1584, and earlier in that same year the _Galatea_ had passed the censor;
+with few exceptions, the identifications of the characters in the book
+with personages in real life are purely conjectural. These
+circumstances, together with the internal evidence of the work, point to
+the conclusion that the _Galatea_ was begun and completed before 1583.
+It was only twice reprinted--once at Lisbon (1590), and once at Paris
+(1611)--during the author's lifetime; but it won him a measure of
+repute, it was his favourite among his books, and during the thirty
+years that remained to him he repeatedly announced the second part which
+is promised conditionally in the text. However, it is not greatly to be
+regretted that the continuation was never published; though the
+_Galatea_ is interesting as the first deliberate bid for fame on the
+part of a great genius, it is an exercise in the pseudo-classic
+literature introduced into Italy by Sannazaro, and transplanted to Spain
+by the Portuguese Montemõr; and, ingenious or eloquent as the
+Renaissance prose-pastoral may be, its innate artificiality stifles
+Cervantes' rich and glowing realism. He himself recognized its defects;
+with all his weakness for the _Galatea_, he ruefully allows that "it
+proposes something and concludes nothing." Its comparative failure was
+a serious matter for Cervantes who had no other resource but his pen;
+his plays were probably less successful than his account of them would
+imply, and at any rate play-writing was not at this time a lucrative
+occupation in Spain. No doubt the death of his father on the 13th of
+June 1585 increased the burden of Cervantes' responsibilities; and the
+dowry of his wife, as appears from a document dated the 9th of August
+1586, consisted of nothing more valuable than five vines, an orchard,
+some household furniture, four beehives, forty-five hens and chickens,
+one cock and a crucible.
+
+It had become evident that Cervantes could not gain his bread by
+literature, and in 1587 he went to Seville to seek employment in
+connexion with the provisioning of the Invincible Armada. He was placed
+under the orders of Antonio de Guevara, and before the 24th of February
+was excommunicated for excessive zeal in collecting wheat at Écija.
+During the next few months he was engaged in gathering stores at Seville
+and the adjacent district, and after the defeat of the Armada he was
+retained as commissary to the galleys. Tired of the drudgery, and
+without any prospect of advancement, on the 21st of May 1590 Cervantes
+drew up a petition to the king, recording his services and applying for
+one of four posts then vacant in the American colonies: a place in the
+department of public accounts in New Granada, the governorship of
+Soconusco in Guatemala, the position of auditor to the galleys at
+Cartagena, or that of _corregidor_ in the city of La Paz. The petition
+was referred to the Council of the Indies, and was annotated with the
+words:--"Let him look for something nearer home." Cervantes perforce
+remained at his post; the work was hard, uncongenial and ill-paid, and
+the salary was in constant arrears. In November 1590 he was in such
+straits that he borrowed money to buy himself a suit of clothes, and in
+August 1592 his sureties were called upon to make good a deficiency of
+795 _reales_ in his accounts. His thoughts turned to literature once
+more, and on the 5th of September 1592, he signed a contract with
+Rodrigo Osorio undertaking to write six plays at fifty ducats each, no
+payment to be made unless Osorio considered that each of these pieces
+was "one of the best ever produced in Spain." Nothing came of this
+agreement, and it appears that, between the date of signing it and the
+19th of September, Cervantes was imprisoned (for reasons unknown to us)
+at Castro del Río. He was speedily released, and continued to
+perquisition as before in Andalusia; but his literary ambitions were not
+dead, and in May 1595 he won the first prize--three silver spoons--at a
+poetical tourney held in honour of St Hyacinth at Saragossa. Shortly
+afterwards Cervantes found himself in difficulties with the exchequer
+officials. He entrusted a sum of 7400 _reales_ to a merchant named Simón
+Freire de Lima with instructions to pay the amount into the treasury at
+Madrid; the agent became bankrupt and absconded, leaving Cervantes
+responsible for the deficit. By some means the money was raised, and the
+debt was liquidated on the 21st of January 1597. But Cervantes' position
+was shaken, and his unbusinesslike habits lent themselves to
+misinterpretation. On the 6th of September 1597 he was ordered to find
+sureties that he would present himself at Madrid within twenty days, and
+there submit to the exchequer vouchers for all official moneys collected
+by him in Granada and elsewhere. No such sureties being available, he
+was committed to Seville jail, but was released on the 1st of December
+on condition that he complied with the original order of the court
+within thirty days. He was apparently unable to find bail, was dismissed
+from the public service, and sank into extreme poverty. During a
+momentary absence from Seville in February 1590, he was again summoned
+to Madrid by the treasury, but does not appear to have obeyed: it is
+only too likely that he had not the money to pay for the journey. There
+is some reason to think that he was imprisoned at Seville in 1602, but
+nothing positive is known of his existence between 1600 and the 8th of
+February 1603: at the latter date he seems to have been at Valladolid,
+to which city Philip III. had removed the court in 1601.
+
+Since the publication of the _Galatea_ in 1585 Cervantes' contributions
+to literature had been limited to occasional poems. In 1591 he published
+a ballad in Andrés de Villalta's _Flor de varios y nuevos romances_; in
+1595 he composed a poem, already mentioned, to celebrate the
+canonization of St Hyacinth; in 1596 he wrote a sonnet ridiculing Medina
+Sidonia's tardy entry into Cadiz after the English invaders had retired,
+and in the same year his sonnet lauding Santa Cruz was printed in
+Cristóbal. Mosquera de Figueroa's _Comentario en breve compendio de
+disciplina militar_; to 1597 is assigned a sonnet (the authenticity of
+which is disputed) commemorative of the poet Herrera; in 1598 he wrote
+two sonnets and a copy of _quintillas_ on the death of Philip II.; and
+in 1602 a complimentary sonnet from his pen appeared in the second
+edition of Lope de Vega's _Dragontea_. Curiously enough, it is by Lope
+de Vega that _Don Quixote_ is first mentioned. Writing to an unknown
+correspondent (apparently a physician) on the 14th of August 1604, Lope
+de Vega says that "no poet is as bad as Cervantes, nor so foolish as to
+praise _Don Quixote_," and he goes on to speak of his own plays as being
+odious to Cervantes. It is obvious that the two men had quarrelled since
+1602, and that Lope de Vega smarted under the satire of himself and his
+works in Cervantes' forthcoming book; _Don Quixote_ may have been
+circulated in manuscript, or may even have been printed before the
+official licence was granted on the 26th of September 1604. It was
+published early in 1605, and was dedicated to the seventh duke de Béjar
+in phrases largely borrowed from the dedication in Herrera's edition
+(1580) of Garcilaso de la Vega, and from Francisco de Medina's preface
+to that work.
+
+The mention of Bernardo de la Vega's _Pastor de Iberia_ shows that the
+sixth chapter of _Don Quixote_ cannot have been written before 1591. In
+the prologue Cervantes describes his masterpiece as being "just what
+might be begotten in a jail"; on the strength of this passage, it has
+been thought that he conceived the story, and perhaps began writing it,
+during one of his terms of imprisonment at Seville between 1597 and
+1602. Within a few weeks of its publication at Madrid, three pirated
+editions of _Don Quixote_ were issued at Lisbon; a second authorized
+edition, imperfectly revised, was hurried out at Madrid; and another
+reprint appeared at Valencia with an _aprobación_ dated 18th July 1605.
+With the exception of Alemán's _Guzmán de Alfarache_, no Spanish book of
+the period was more successful. Modern criticism is prone to regard _Don
+Quixote_ as a symbolic, didactic or controversial work intended to bring
+about radical reforms in church and state. Such interpretations did not
+occur to Cervantes' contemporaries, nor to Cervantes himself. There is
+no reason for rejecting his plain statement that his main object was to
+ridicule the romances of chivalry, which in their latest developments
+had become a tissue of tiresome absurdities. It seems clear that his
+first intention was merely to parody these extravagances in a short
+story; but as he proceeded the immense possibilities of the subject
+became more evident to him, and he ended by expanding his work into a
+brilliant panorama of Spanish society as it existed during the 16th
+century. Nobles, knights, poets, courtly gentlemen, priests, traders,
+farmers, barbers, muleteers, scullions and convicts; accomplished
+ladies, impassioned damsels, Moorish beauties, simple-hearted
+country-girls and kindly kitchen-wenches of questionable morals--all
+these are presented with the genial fidelity which comes of sympathetic
+insight. The immediate vogue of _Don Quixote_ was due chiefly to its
+variety of incident, to its wealth of comedy bordering on farce, and
+perhaps also to its keen thrusts at eminent contemporaries; its reticent
+pathos, its large humanity, and its penetrating criticism of life were
+less speedily appreciated.
+
+Meanwhile, on the 12th of April 1605, Cervantes authorized his publisher
+to proceed against the Lisbon booksellers who threatened to introduce
+their piratical reprints into Castile. By June the citizens of
+Valladolid already regarded Don Quixote and Sancho Panza as proverbial
+types. Less gratifying experiences awaited the popular author. On the
+27th of June 1605 Gaspar de Ezpeleta, a Navarrese gentleman of dissolute
+life, was wounded outside the lodging-house in which Cervantes and his
+family lived; he was taken indoors, was nursed by Cervantes' sister
+Magdalena, and died on the 29th of June. That same day Cervantes, his
+natural daughter (Isabel de Saavedra), his sister Andrea and her
+daughter were lodged in jail on suspicion of being indirectly concerned
+in Ezpeleta's death; one of the witnesses made damaging charges against
+Cervantes' daughter, but no substantial evidence was produced, and the
+prisoners were released. Little is known of Cervantes' life between 1605
+and 1608. A _Relación_ of the festivities held to celebrate the birth of
+Philip IV., and a certain _Carta á don Diego Astudillo Carrillo_ have
+been erroneously ascribed to him; during these three years he apparently
+wrote nothing beyond three sonnets, and one of these is of doubtful
+authenticity. The depositions of the Valladolid enquiry show that he was
+living in poverty five months after the appearance of _Don Quixote_, and
+the fact that he borrowed 450 _reales_ from his publisher before
+November 1607 would convey the idea that his position improved slowly,
+if at all. But it is difficult to reconcile this view of his
+circumstances with the details concerning his illegitimate daughter
+revealed in documents recently discovered. Isabel de Saavedra was stated
+to be a spinster when arrested at Valladolid in June 1605; the
+settlement of her marriage with Luis de Molina in 1608 describes her as
+the widow of Diego Sanz, as the mother of a daughter eight months old,
+and as owning house-property of some value. These particulars are
+perplexing, and the situation is further complicated by the publication
+of a deed in which Cervantes declares that he himself is the real owner
+of this house-property, and that his daughter has merely a life-interest
+in it. This claim may be regarded as a legal fiction; it cannot easily
+be reconciled with Cervantes' statement towards the end of his life,
+that he was dependent on the bounty of the count de Lemos and of
+Bernardo de Sandoval, cardinal-archbishop of Toledo. In 1609 he joined
+the newly founded confraternity of the Slaves of the Most Blessed
+Sacrament; in 1610 Lemos was appointed viceroy of Naples, and Cervantes
+was keenly disappointed at not being chosen to accompany his patron. In
+1611 he lost his sister Magdalena, who was buried by the charity of the
+Tertiaries of Saint Francis; in 1612 he joined the Academia Selvaje, and
+there appears to have renewed his former friendly relations with Lope de
+Vega; in 1613 he dedicated his _Novelas exemplares_ to the count de
+Lemos, and disposed of his rights for 1600 _reales_ and twenty-four
+copies of the book. The twelve tales in this volume, some of them
+written very much later than others, are of unequal merit, but they
+contain some of the writer's best work, and the two picaresque
+stories--_Rinconete y Cortadillo_ and the _Coloquio de los perros_--are
+superb examples of their kind, and would alone entitle Cervantes to take
+rank with the greatest masters of Spanish prose. In 1614 he published
+the _Viage del Parnaso_, a burlesque poem suggested by the _Viaggio in
+Parnaso_ (1582) of the Perugian poet Cesare Caporali. It contains some
+interesting autobiographical passages, much flattery of contemporary
+poetasters, and a few happy satirical touches; but, though it is
+Cervantes' most serious bid for fame as a poet, it has seldom been
+reprinted, and would probably have been forgotten but for an admirably
+humorous postscript in prose which is worthy of the author at his best.
+In the preface to his _Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos_ (1615) he
+good-humouredly admits that his dramatic works found no favour with
+managers, and, when this collection was first reprinted (1749), the
+editor advanced the fantastic theory that the _comedias_ were deliberate
+exercises in absurdity, intended to parody the popular dramas of the
+day. This view cannot be maintained, but a sharp distinction must be
+drawn between the eight set plays and the eight interludes; with one or
+two exceptions, the _comedias_ or set plays are unsuccessful experiments
+in Lope de Vega's manner, while the _entremeses_ or _interludes_,
+particularly those in prose, are models of spontaneous gaiety and
+ingenious wit.
+
+In the preface to the _Novelas exemplares_ Cervantes had announced the
+speedy appearance of the sequel to _Don Quixote_ which he had vaguely
+promised at the end of the first part. He was at work on the fifty-ninth
+chapter of his continuation when he learned that he had been anticipated
+by Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda of Tordesillas, whose _Segunde tamo
+del ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha_ was published at
+Tarragona in 1614. On the assumption that Fernandez de Avellaneda is a
+pseudonym, this spurious sequel has been ascribed to the king's
+confessor, Luis de Aliaga, to Cervantes' old enemy, Blanco de Paz, to
+his old friend, Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola, to the three great
+dramatists, Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina and Ruiz de Alarcón, to Alonso
+Fernandez, to Juan José Martí, to Alfonso Lamberto, to Luis de Granada,
+and probably to others. Some of these attributions are manifestly
+absurd--for example, Luis de Granada died seventeen years before the
+first part of _Don Quixote_ was published--and all of them are
+improbable conjectures; if Avellaneda be not the real name of the
+author, his identity is still undiscovered. His book is not devoid of
+literary talent and robust humour, and possibly he began it under the
+impression that Cervantes was no more likely to finish _Don Quixote_
+than to finish the _Galatea_. He should, however, have abandoned his
+project on reading the announcement in the preface to the _Novelas
+exemplares_; what he actually did was to disgrace himself by writing an
+insolent preface taunting Cervantes with his physical defects, his moral
+infirmities, his age, loneliness and experiences in jail. He was too
+intelligent to imagine that his continuation could hold its own against
+the authentic sequel, and malignantly avowed his intention of being
+first in the field and so spoiling Cervantes' market. It is quite
+possible that _Don Quixote_ might have been left incomplete but for this
+insulting intrusion; Cervantes was a leisurely writer and was, as he
+states, engaged on _El Engaño à los ojos, Las Semanas del Jardín_ and
+_El Famoso Bernardo_, none of which have been preserved. Avellaneda
+forced him to concentrate his attention on his masterpiece, and the
+authentic second part of _Don Quixote_ appeared towards the end of 1615.
+No book more signally contradicts the maxim, quoted by the Bachelor
+Carrasco, that "no second part was ever good." It is true that the last
+fourteen chapters are damaged by undignified denunciations of
+Avellaneda; but, apart from this, the second part of _Don Quixote_ is an
+improvement on the first. The humour is more subtle and mature; the
+style is of more even excellence; and the characters of the bachelor and
+of the physician, Pedro Recio de Agüero, are presented with a more vivid
+effect than any of the secondary characters in the first part. Cervantes
+had clearly profited by the criticism of those who objected to "the
+countless cudgellings inflicted on Señor Don Quixote," and to the
+irrelevant interpolation of extraneous stories in the text. Don Quixote
+moves through the second part with unruffled dignity; Sancho Panza loses
+something of his rustic cunning, but he gains in wit, sense and manners.
+The original conception is unchanged in essentials, but it is more
+logically developed, and there is a notable progress in construction.
+Cervantes had grown to love his knight and squire, and he understood his
+own creations better than at the outset; more completely master of his
+craft, he wrote his sequel with the unfaltering confidence of a renowned
+artist bent on sustaining his reputation.
+
+The first part of _Don Quixote_ had been reprinted at Madrid in 1608; it
+had been produced at Brussels in 1607 and 1611, and at Milan in 1610; it
+had been translated into English in 1612 and into French in 1614.
+Cervantes was celebrated in and out of Spain, but his celebrity had not
+brought him wealth. The members of the French special embassy, sent to
+Madrid in February 1615, under the Commandeur de Sillery, heard with
+amazement that the author of the _Galatea_, the _Novelas exemplares_ and
+_Don Quixote_ was "old, a soldier, a gentleman and poor." But his trials
+were almost at an end. Though failing in health, he worked assiduously
+at _Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda_, which, as he had jocosely
+prophesied in the preface to the second part of _Don Quixote_, would be
+"either the worst or the best book ever written in our tongue." It is
+the most carefully written of his prose works, and the least animated or
+attractive of them; signs of fatigue and of waning powers are
+unmistakably visible. Cervantes was not destined to see it in print. He
+was attacked by dropsy, and, on the 18th of April 1616, received the
+sacrament of extreme unction; next day he wrote the dedication of
+_Persiles y Sigismunda_ to the count de Lemos--the most moving and
+gallant of farewells. He died at Madrid in the Calle del León on the
+23rd of April; he was borne from his house "with his face uncovered,"
+according to the rule of the Tertiaries of St Francis, and on the 24th
+of April was buried in the church attached to the convent of the
+Trinitarian nuns in the Calle de Cantarranas. There he rests--the story
+of his remains being removed in 1633 to the Calle del Humilladero has no
+foundation in fact--but the exact position of his grave is unknown.
+Early in 1617 _Persiles y Sigismunda_ was published, and passed through
+eight editions within two years; but the interest in it soon died away,
+and it was not reprinted between 1625 and 1719. Cervantes' wife died
+without issue on the 31st of October 1626; his natural daughter, who
+survived both the child of her first marriage and her second husband,
+died on the 20th of September 1652. Cervantes is represented solely by
+his works. The _Novelas exemplares_ alone would give him the foremost
+place among Spanish novelists; _Don Quixote_ entitles him to rank with
+the greatest writers of all time: "children turn its leaves, young
+people read it, grown men understand it, old folk praise it." It has
+outlived all changes of literary taste, and is even more popular to-day
+than it was three centuries ago.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Leopold Rius, _Bibliografía crítica de las obras de
+  Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_ (Madrid, 1895-1905, 3 vols.); _Obras
+  completas_ (Madrid, 1863-1864, 12 vols.), edited by Juan Eugenio
+  Hartzenbusch; _Complete Works_ (Glasgow, 1901-1906, 8 vols. in
+  progress), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid,
+  1833-1839, 6 vols.), edited by Diego Clemencíu; _Don Quixote_ (London,
+  1899-1900, 2 vols.), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly and John
+  Ormsby; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid, 1905-1906, 2 vols. in progress), edited
+  by Clemente Cortejón; _Rinconete y Cortadillo_ (Sevilla, 1905), edited
+  by Francisco Rodriguez Marín; _Epístola á Mateo Vázquez_ (Madrid,
+  1905), edited by E[milio] C[otarelo]; Julián Apráiz, _Estudio
+  histórico-crítico sobre las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_ (Madrid,
+  1901); Francisco A. de Icaza, _Las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_
+  (Madrid, 1901); Francisco Rodríguez Marín, _El Loaysa de "El Celoso
+  Extremeño"_ (Sevilla, 1901); Narciso Díaz de Escovar, _Apuntes
+  escénicos cervantinos_ (Madrid, 1905); Manuel José García, _Estudio
+  crítico acerca del entremés "El Vizcaino fingido"_ (Madrid, 1905);
+  Alfred Morel-Fatio, _L'Espagne de Don Quichotte_ in _Études sur
+  l'Espagne_ (Paris, 1895, 2me série); Julio Puyol y Alonso, _Estado
+  social que refleja "El Quijote"_ (Madrid, 1905); James
+  Fitzmaurice-Kelly, _Cervantes in England_ (London, 1905); Raymond
+  Foulché-Delbose, _Étude sur "La tia fingida,"_ in the _Revue
+  hispanique_ (Paris, 1899), vol. vi. pp. 256-306; Benedetto Croce, _Due
+  illustrazioni al "Viage del Parnaso,"_ in the _Homenaje á Menéndez y
+  Pelayo_ (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 161-193; Paul Groussac, _Une
+  Énigme littéraire: le Don Quichotte d'Avellaneda_ (Paris, 1903);
+  Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, _El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de
+  la Mancha_ (Barcelona, [1905]), edited by Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo;
+  Julio Cejador y Franca, _La Lengua de Cervantes_ (Madrid, 1905, &c.);
+  Martin Fernández de Navarrete, _Vida de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_
+  (Madrid, 1819); Cristóbal Perez Pastor, _Documentos Cervantinos hasta
+  ahora inéditos_ (Madrid, 1897-1902, 2 vols.); Emilio Cotardo y Mori,
+  _Efemérides Cervantinas_ (Madrid, 1905); Francisco Rodríguez Marín,
+  _Cervantes estudió en Sevilla, 1564-1565_ (Seville, 1905).
+       (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+
+
+CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE (1839-1909), Spanish admiral, was born
+at Medina Sidonia on the 18th of February 1839. He showed an early
+inclination for the sea, and his family sent him to the naval cadet
+school at the age of twelve. As a sub-lieutenant he took part in the
+naval operations on the coast of Morocco during the campaign of 1859-60.
+Then he was for some time engaged in operations in the Sulu Islands and
+the Philippines. Afterwards he was on the West Indian station during the
+early part of the first Cuban War (1868-78), returning to Spain in 1873
+to serve on the Basque coast against the Carlists. He distinguished
+himself in defending the Carraca arsenal near Cadiz against the Federals
+in 1873. He won each step in his promotion up to flag-rank through his
+steadiness and brilliant conduct in action, and was awarded the crosses
+of the Orders of Military and Naval Merit, Isabella the Catholic, and St
+Hermengilde, besides several medals. Cervera had a great reputation for
+decision, unbending temper and honesty, before he was placed at the head
+of the Bilbao building-yards. This post he resigned after a few months
+in order to become minister of marine in 1892, in a cabinet presided
+over by Sagasta. He withdrew from the cabinet when he found that his
+colleagues, from political motives, declined to support him in making
+reforms and, on the other hand, unwisely cut down the naval estimates.
+When in 1898 the Spanish-American War (q.v.) broke out, he was chosen to
+command a squadron composed of four first-class cruisers, the "Maria
+Theresa," his flagship, "Oquendo," "Vizcaya," and "Columbus," and
+several destroyers. This ill-fated squadron only started upon its
+reckless cruise across the ocean after its gallant commander had
+repeatedly warned both the minister of marine and the prime minister,
+Sagasta, in despatches from Cadiz and from the Canary and Cape Verde
+Islands, that the ships were insufficiently provided with coal and
+ammunition. Some of them, indeed, even lacked proper guns. In compliance
+with the instructions of the government, Admiral Cervera made for the
+landlocked harbour of Santiago de Cuba, where he co-operated in the
+defence, landing some guns and a naval brigade. In spite of his
+energetic representations, Cervera received an order from Madrid,
+dictated by political considerations, to sally forth. It meant certain
+destruction. The gallant squadron met forces trebly superior to it, and
+was totally destroyed. The admiral, three of his captains, and 1800
+sailors and marines were taken by the victors to Portsmouth, New
+Hampshire, U.S.A. After the war, Cervera and his captains were tried
+before the supreme naval and military court of the realm, which
+honourably acquitted them all. In 1901 he became vice-admiral, in 1902
+was appointed chief of staff of the Spanish navy, and in 1903 was made
+life senator. He died at Puerto Real on the 3rd of April 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CESAREVICH, or more properly TSESAREVICH, the title of the heir-apparent
+to the Russian throne. The full official title is _Nasliednik
+Tsesarevich_, i.e. "heir of Caesar," and in Russia the heir to the
+throne is commonly called simply _Nasliednik_, the word _Tsesarevich_
+never being used alone. _Tsarevich_, a form now much used in England,
+means simply any "king's son"; it is an antiquated term now out of use
+in Russia, and was last borne as heir to the throne by the unfortunate
+Alexius, son of Peter the Great. The style of the wife of the
+tsesarevich is _Tsesarevna_. The Cesarewitch handicap race at Newmarket,
+founded in 1839, was named after the prince who was afterwards Alexander
+II. of Russia, who paid a state visit to England that year.
+
+
+
+
+CESARI, GIUSEPPE, called Il Cavaliere d' Arpino (born in or about 1568
+and created a "Cavaliere di Cristo" by Pope Clement VIII.), also named
+Il Giuseppino, an Italian painter, much encouraged at Rome and
+munificently rewarded. His father had been a native of Arpino, but
+Giuseppe himself was born in Rome. Cesari is stigmatized by Lanzi as not
+less the corrupter of taste in painting than Marino was in poetry;
+indeed, another of the nicknames of Cesari is "Il Marino de' Pittori"
+(the pictorial Marino). There was spirit in Cesari's heads of men and
+horses, and his frescoes in the Capitol (story of Romulus and Remus,
+&c.), which occupied him at intervals during forty years, are well
+coloured; but he drew the human form ill. His perspective is faulty, his
+extremities monotonous, and his chiaroscuro defective. He died in 1640,
+at the age of seventy-two, or perhaps of eighty, at Rome. Cesari ranks
+as the head of the "Idealists" of his period, as opposed to the
+"Naturalists," of whom Michelangelo da Caravaggio was the leading
+champion,--the so-called "idealism" consisting more in reckless
+facility, and disregard of the common facts and common-sense of nature,
+than in anything to which so lofty a name could be properly accorded. He
+was a man of touchy and irascible character, and rose from penury to the
+height of opulence. His brother Bernardino assisted in many of his
+works.
+
+
+
+
+CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE (1730-1808), Italian poet, was born at Padua in
+1730, of a noble but impoverished family. At the university of his
+native place his literary progress procured for him at a very early age
+the chair of rhetoric, and in 1768 the professorship of Greek and
+Hebrew. On the invasion of Italy by the French, he gave his pen to their
+cause, received a pension, and was made knight of the iron crown by
+Napoleon I., to whom, in consequence, he addressed a bombastic and
+extravagantly flattering poem called _Pronea_. Cesarotti is best known
+as the translator of Homer and Ossian. Much praise cannot be given to
+his version of the _Iliad_, for he has not scrupled to add, omit and
+modernize. Ossian, which he held to be the finest of poems, he has, on
+the other hand, considerably improved in translation; and the appearance
+of his version attracted much attention in Italy and France, and raised
+up many imitators of the Ossianic style. Cesarotti also produced a
+number of works in prose, including a _Course of Greek Literature_, and
+essays _On the Origin and Progress of the Poetic Art_, _On the Sources
+of the Pleasure derived from Tragedy_, _On the Philosophy of Language_
+and _On the Philosophy of Taste_, the last being a defence of his own
+great eccentricities in criticism. His weakness was a straining after
+novelty. His style is forcible, but full of Gallicisms.
+
+  A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo. began to appear at
+  Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death. See
+  _Memoirs_, by Barbieri (Padua, 1810), and _Un Filosofo delle lettere_,
+  by Alemanni (Turin, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CESENA (anc. _Caesena_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in
+the province of Forlì, 12 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Forlì, on the
+line between Bologna and Rimini, 144 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1905)
+12,245 (town); 43,468 (commune). The town is picturesquely situated at
+the foot of the slopes of the Apennines, and is crowned by a medieval
+fortress (Rocca), begun by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa)
+probably, but altered and added to later. The cathedral has two fine
+marble altars by the Lombardi of Venice (or their school). The library,
+built for Domenico Malatesta in 1452 by Matteo Nuzio, is a fine early
+Renaissance building, and its internal arrangements, with the original
+desks to which the books are still chained, are especially well
+preserved (see J.W. Clark, _The Care of Books_, Cambridge, 1901, p.
+199). In it are valuable MSS., many of which were used by Aldus
+Manutius. It also contains a picture gallery with a good "Presentation
+in the Temple" by Francesco Francia. There are some fine palaces in the
+town. Three-quarters of a mile south-east on the hill stands the
+handsome church of S. Maria del Monte, after the style of Bramante, with
+carved stalls of the 16th century. Wine, hemp and silk are the main
+articles of trade. About the ancient Caesena little is said in classical
+authors: it is mentioned as a station on the Via Aemilia and as a
+fortress in the wars of Theodoric and Narses. During the middle ages it
+was at first independent. In 1357 it was unsuccessfully defended by the
+wife of Francesco Ordelaffi, lord of Forlì, against the papal troops
+under Albornoz. In 1377 it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva
+(afterwards Clement VII., antipope). It was then held by the Malatesta
+of Rimini until 1465, when it came under the dominion of the church.
+Both Pius VI. (1717) and Pius VII. (1742) were born at Cesena.
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI (1832-1904), Italian-American soldier and
+archaeologist, was born near Turin on the 29th of July 1832. Having
+served in the Austrian and Crimean Wars, in 1860 he went to New York,
+where he taught Italian and French and founded a military school for
+officers. He took part in the American Civil War as colonel of a cavalry
+regiment, and at Aldie (June 1863) was wounded and taken prisoner. He
+was released from Libby prison early in 1864, served in the Wilderness
+and Petersburg campaigns (1864-65) as a brigadier of cavalry, and at the
+close of the war was breveted brigadier-general. He was then appointed
+United States consul at Larnaca in Cyprus (1865-1877). During his stay
+in the island he carried on excavations, which resulted in the discovery
+of a large number of antiquities. The collection was purchased by the
+Metropolitan Museum of New York, and Cesnola became director in 1879.
+Doubt having been thrown by Gaston L. Feuerdant, in an article in the
+New York _Herald_ (August 1880), upon the genuineness of his
+restorations, the matter was referred to a special committee, which
+pronounced in his favour.[1] He is the author of _Cyprus, its ancient
+Cities, Tombs and Temples_ (1877), an interesting book of travel and of
+considerable service to the practical antiquary; and of a _Descriptive
+Atlas of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities_ (3 vols.,
+1884-6). He died in New York on the 21st of November 1904. He was a
+member of several learned societies in Europe and America, and in 1897
+he received a Congressional medal of honour for conspicuous military
+services.
+
+His brother, ALESSANDRO PALMA DI CESNOLA, born in 1839, conducted
+excavations at Paphos (where he was U.S. vice-consul) and Salamis on
+behalf of the British government. The results of these are described in
+_Salaminia_ (1882).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the Cesnola controversy see C.D. Cobham's _Attempt at a
+    Bibliography of Cyprus_ (4th ed., 1900). See also article CYPRUS.
+
+
+
+
+CESPEDES (in Ital. CEDASPE), PABLO DE (1538-1608), Spanish poet,
+painter, sculptor and architect, was born at Cordova, and was educated
+at Alcalá de Henares, where he studied theology and Oriental languages.
+On leaving the university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil
+and friend of Federigo Zuccaro, under whose direction he studied
+particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1560, while
+yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the Inquisition at
+Valladolid on account of a letter which, found among the papers of the
+archbishop of Toledo, had been written by Cespedes during the preceding
+year, and in which he had spoken with great freedom against the holy
+office and the inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdés. Cespedes remained
+in Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have treated
+the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he contrived to bring
+the proceedings to an end; he returned, however, to Spain a little
+before 1577, and in that year was installed in a prebend of the
+cathedral at Cordova, where he resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes
+has been called the most _savant_ of Spanish artists. According to his
+friend Francisco Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for the
+preservation of all of Cespedes's verse that is extant, the school of
+Seville owes to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He
+was a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master of
+colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the advantage of
+early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de Vera, Juan de Peñalosa
+and Zambrano were among his pupils. His best picture is a Last Supper at
+Cordova, but there are good examples of his work at Seville and at
+Madrid. Cespedes was author of several opuscules in prose on subjects
+connected with his profession. Of his poem on _The Art of Painting_
+enough was preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the
+whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and it has
+been compared, not disadvantageously, with the _Georgics_. It is written
+in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic declamatory vein of
+Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether so dull and lifeless as is most
+didactic verse. It contains a glowing eulogy of Michelangelo, and some
+excellent advice to young painters, insisting particularly on hard work
+and on the study of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting
+in all to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his
+treatise _Del arte de la pintura_, in 1649.
+
+
+
+
+CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE (1585?-1638), Spanish novelist, was born
+at Madrid about 1585. Nothing positive is known of him before the
+publication of his celebrated romance, the _Poema trágico del Español
+Gerardo, y desengaño del amor lascivo_ (1615-1617); there is evidence
+that he had been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the
+1st of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but the
+nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political
+questions in the _Historia apologética en los sucesos del reyno de
+Aragón, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, años de 91 y 92_ (1622), having led to
+the confiscation of the book, Céspedes took up his residence at
+Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection of short
+stories entitled _Historias peregrinas y exemplares_ (1623), the
+unfinished romance _Varia fortuna del soldado Píndaro_ (1626), and the
+first part of his _Historia de Felipe IV._ (1631), a fulsome eulogy
+which was rewarded by the author's appointment as official
+historiographer to the Spanish king. Céspedes died on the 27th of
+January 1638. His novels, though written in a ponderous, affected style,
+display considerable imagination and insight into character. The _Poema
+trágico_ has been utilized by Fletcher in _The Spanish Curate_ and in
+_The Maid of the Mill_.
+
+  The _Historias peregrinas_ has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable
+  introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori.
+
+
+
+
+CESS (a shortened form of "assess"; the spelling is due to a mistaken
+connexion with "census"), a tax; a term formerly more particularly
+applied to local taxation, in which sense it still is used in Ireland;
+otherwise it has been superseded by "rate." In India it is applied, with
+the qualifying word prefixed, to any taxation, such as "irrigation-cess"
+and the like, and in Scotland to the land-tax.
+
+
+
+
+CESSIO BONORUM (Latin for a "surrender of goods"), in Roman law, a
+voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his creditors. It did not
+amount to a discharge unless the property ceded was sufficient for the
+purpose, but it secured the debtor from personal arrest. The creditors
+sold the goods in satisfaction, _pro tanto_, of their claims. The
+procedure of _cessio bonorum_ avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his
+after-acquired property might be proceeded against, could not be
+deprived of the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman
+law of _cessio bonorum_ were adopted in Scots law, and also in the
+French legal system. (See further BANKRUPTCY.)
+
+
+
+
+CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO (1620?-1669?), Italian musical composer, was born
+at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil of Carissimi, and after holding a
+post somewhere in Florence as _maestro di cappella_ entered the papal
+chapel in 1660. In 1666 he became _Vice-Kapellmeister_ at Vienna, and
+died at Venice in 1669. Cesti is known principally as a composer of
+operas, the most celebrated of which were _La Dori_ (Venice, 1663) and
+_Il Pomo d' oro_ (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of
+chamber-cantatas, and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate
+style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the stage.
+
+
+
+
+CESTIUS, LUCIUS, surnamed Pius, Latin rhetorician, flourished during the
+reign of Augustus. He was a native of Smyrna, a Greek by birth.
+According to Jerome, he was teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 B.C.
+He must have been living after A.D. 9, since we are told that he taunted
+the son of Quintilius Varus with his father's defeat in the Teutoburgian
+forest (Seneca, _Controv._ i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of great
+ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he left Asia, he
+was invited to dinner by Cicero's son, then governor of the province.
+His host, being uncertain as to his identity, asked a slave who Cestius
+was; and on receiving the answer, "he is the man who said your father
+was illiterate," ordered him to be flogged (Seneca, _Suasoriae_, vii.
+13). As an orator in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and
+was worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him so
+slavishly that he was nicknamed "my monkey" by his teacher (Seneca,
+_Controv._ ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the other hand, he was a
+failure. Although a Greek, he always used Latin in his declamations,
+and, although he was sometimes at a loss for Latin words, he never
+suffered from lack of ideas. Numerous specimens of his declamations will
+be found in the works of Seneca the rhetorician.
+
+  See the monograph _De Lucio Cestio Pio_, by F.G. Lindner (1858); T.
+  Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 2 (1899);
+  Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Roman Lit._ (Eng. tr.), § 268, 6; M.
+  Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_, ii.
+
+
+
+
+CESTUI, CESTUY, an Anglo-French word, meaning "that person," which
+appears in the legal phrases _cestui que trust_, _use_, or _vie_. It is
+usually pronounced as "cetty." _Cestui que trust_ means literally "the
+person for whose benefit the trust" is created. The _cestui que trust_
+is the person entitled to the equitable, as opposed to the legal,
+estate. Thus, if land be granted unto, and to the use of A. in trust for
+B., B. is _cestui que trust_, and A. trustee. The term, principally
+owing to its cumbersomeness, is being gradually superseded in modern law
+by that of "beneficiary." _Cestui que use_ (sometimes _cestui à que
+use_) means "the person for whose benefit a use" is created (see TRUST).
+_Cestui que vie_ is "the person for whose life" lands are held by
+another (see REMAINDER).
+
+
+
+
+CETACEA (from the Gr. [Greek: ketos], a whale), the name of the
+mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &c. From
+their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adaptation to their
+purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded as fishes,
+although they are true mammals, with warm blood, and suckle their young.
+
+The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped body
+passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck, and
+posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the tail, which
+is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of skin supported
+by fibrous tissue, called "flukes," forming a horizontal triangular
+propelling organ, notched behind in the middle line. The head is
+generally large, in some cases attaining more than one-third the entire
+length; and the mouth is wide, and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The
+fore-limbs are reduced to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous
+skin, showing no external sign of division, and without trace of nails.
+There are no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the
+skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in many
+species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth which
+may persist through life or be present only in the young state.
+Immediately beneath the skin is a thick layer of fat, held together by a
+mesh of tissue, constituting the "blubber," which retains the heat of
+the body. In nearly all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The
+eye is small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The
+external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a short
+distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or by a single
+crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head.
+
+  The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being filled
+  with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short and
+  immobile, and the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in many
+  species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The odontoid
+  process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone is free, is
+  usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on the form and
+  function of the cervical vertebrae published in the _Jenaische
+  Zeitschrift_ for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the shortening and
+  soldering is most pronounced in species which, like the right-whales,
+  live entirely on minute organisms, to capture which there is no
+  necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly we find that in these
+  whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are fused into an immovable
+  solid mass, of which the compound elements, with the exception of the
+  first and second, are but little thicker than plates. On the other
+  hand, in the finner-whales, several of which live exclusively on fish,
+  and thus require a certain amount of mobility in the head and neck, we
+  find all the cervical vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate
+  from one another. Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white
+  whale, or beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the
+  great comparative length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are
+  completely free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure
+  is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk
+  with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in the
+  neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed to
+  feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require
+  mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On the
+  other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and mackerel,
+  which in their densely packed shoals must apparently fall an easy prey
+  with but little exertion on the part of their captor, and we
+  accordingly find all the neck-vertebrae very short, and at least six
+  out of the seven coalesced into a solid immovable mass. None of the
+  vertebrae are united to form a sacrum. The lumbar and caudal vertebrae
+  are numerous and large, and, as their arches are not connected by
+  articular processes (zygapophyses), they are capable of free motion in
+  all directions. The caps, or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral
+  bodies are flattened disks, not uniting until after the animal has
+  attained its full dimensions. There are largely developed
+  chevron-bones on the under side of the tail, the presence of which
+  indicates the distinction between caudal and lumbar vertebrae.
+
+  In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost
+  spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards
+  and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the
+  vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region; and
+  the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits.
+  The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or
+  less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae,
+  vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the upper
+  jaw or roof of the mouth.
+
+  There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the scapula
+  at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of the limb
+  are imperfect; the flattened ends of the bones coming in contact, with
+  fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any motion. The radius
+  and ulna are distinct, and about equally developed, and much
+  flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers. There are four, or
+  more commonly five, digits, and the number of the phalanges of the
+  second and third always exceeds the normal number in mammals,
+  sometimes considerably; they present the exceptional character of
+  having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis is represented by a pair of
+  small rod-like bones placed longitudinally, suspended below and at
+  some distance from the vertebral column at the commencement of the
+  tail. In some species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other
+  small bones or cartilages, the rudiments of the hind-limb.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--A Section of the Skull of a Black-Fish
+  (_Globicephalus melas_).
+
+    PMx, Premaxilla.
+    Mx, Maxilla.
+    ME, Ossified portion of the mesethmoid.
+    an, Nostrils.
+    Na, Nasal.
+    IP, Inter-parietal.
+    Fr, Frontal.
+    Pa, Parietal.
+    SO, Supra-occipital.
+    ExO, Ex-occipital.
+    BO, Basi-occipital.
+    Sq, Squamosal.
+    Per, Periotic.
+    AS, Alisphenoid.
+    PS, Presphenoid.
+    Pt, Pterygoid.
+    pn, Posterior nares.
+    Pl, Palatine.
+    Vo, Vomer.
+    s, Symphysis of lower jaw.
+    id, Inferior dental canal.
+    cp, Coronoid process of lower jaw.
+    cd, Condyle.
+    a, Angle.
+    sh, Stylo-hyal.
+    bh, Basi-hyal.
+    th, Thyro-hyal.]
+
+  Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. In
+  existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with conical
+  or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded by
+  milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent (except in the
+  foetal condition), and the palate is provided with numerous
+  transversely placed horny plates, forming the "whalebone." Salivary
+  glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach is complex, and the
+  intestine simple, and only in some species provided with a small
+  caecum. The liver is little fissured, and there is no gall-bladder.
+  The blood-vascular system is complicated by net-like expansions of
+  both arteries and veins, or _retia mirabilia_, The larynx is of
+  peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being
+  elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation, which projects into the
+  posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft palate forms a
+  continuous passage between the nostrils and the trachea, or wind-pipe,
+  in a more perfect manner. The brain is relatively large, round in
+  form, with its surface divided into numerous and complex convolutions.
+  The kidneys are deeply lobulated; the testes are abdominal; and there
+  are no vesiculae seminales nor an os penis. The uterus is bicornuate;
+  the placenta non-deciduate and diffuse. The two teats are placed in
+  depressions on each side of the genital aperture. The ducts of the
+  milk-glands are dilated during suckling into large reservoirs, into
+  which the milk collects, and from which it is injected by the action
+  of a muscle into the mouth of the young animal, so that sucking under
+  water is greatly facilitated.
+
+Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins and
+porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America and
+Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their life entirely
+in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. They have,
+however, to rise very frequently to the surface for the purpose of
+respiration; and, in relation to the upward and downward movement in the
+water thus necessitated, the principal instrument of motion, the tail,
+is expanded horizontally. The position of the nostril on the highest
+part of the head is important for this mode of life, as it is the only
+part of the body the exposure of which above the surface is absolutely
+necessary. Of numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history,
+few are so widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes
+water taken in at the mouth. But the "spouting," or "blowing," of whales
+is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration, which, taking place
+at longer intervals than land-animals, is performed with a greater
+emphasis. The moment the animal rises to the surface it forcibly expels
+from its lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration, which is
+charged with vapour in consequence of the respiratory changes. This
+rapidly condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is
+often observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken
+for water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the ocean
+is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its expiratory puff
+before the orifice has cleared the top of the water, some of which may
+thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending to complete the illusion.
+From photographs of spouting rorquals, it appears that the height and
+volume of the "spout" of all the species is much less than was supposed
+to be the case by the older observers; even that of the huge
+"sulphur-bottom" (_Balaenoptera sibbaldi_) averaging only about 14 ft.
+in height, although it may occasionally reach 20 ft.
+
+As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans for
+receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by the practice
+of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged in driving a shoal
+of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for the purpose of
+frightening their intended victims. As regards the possession of a voice
+by cetaceans, it is stated that one species, the "buckelwal" of the
+Germans, utters during the breeding-season a prolonged scream,
+comparable to the scream of a steam-siren, and embracing the whole
+musical scale, from base to treble. In respect of anatomical
+considerations, it is true that the external ear is much reduced, the
+"pinna" being absent, and the tube or "meatus" of very small calibre. On
+the other hand, the internal auditory organs are developed on the plan
+of those of ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications
+(notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone) for
+intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are received from
+the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident that whales must hear
+when in the water. This inference is confirmed by the comparatively
+small development of the other sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is
+very small, and can be of little use even at the comparatively small
+depths to which whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of
+smell, judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs,
+must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs comparable to the
+lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently, it would seem that when
+below the surface of the water they must depend chiefly upon the sense
+of hearing. Probably this sense is so highly developed as to enable the
+animals, in the midst of the vibrations made by the screw-like movements
+of the tail, or flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations)
+made by the impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in
+the case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water
+the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is
+difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the
+semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound coasts.
+
+  In the Christiania _Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, vol.
+  xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the
+  body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely
+  imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a
+  matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living
+  cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale
+  and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a pond
+  in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of procedure
+  is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have, accordingly,
+  to rely on _post-mortem_ observations. The layer of blubber by which
+  all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the _post-mortem_
+  refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than in most mammals,
+  so that such observations have a much higher value than might at first
+  be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the blood-temperature of a
+  specimen of Sibbald's rorqual three days after death still stood at
+  34° C. The various observations that have been taken have afforded the
+  following results in individual cases: Sperm-whale, 40° C.; Greenland
+  right-whale, 38.8° C.; porpoise, 35.6° C.; liver of a second
+  individual, 37.8° C.; common rorqual, 35.4° C.; dolphin, 35.6° C. The
+  average blood-temperature of man is 37° C., and that of other mammals
+  39° C.; while that of birds is 42 C. The record of 40° C. in the case
+  of the sperm-whale seems to indicate that at least some cetaceans have
+  a relatively high temperature.
+
+With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all the Cetacea
+are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of some kind. One kind
+alone (_Orca_) eats other warm-blooded animals, as seals, and even
+members of its own order, both large and small. Many feed on fish,
+others on small floating crustaceans, pteropods and jelly-fishes, while
+the principal staple of the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes
+and squids. In size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins
+scarcely exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal
+of all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are
+exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species exceed
+those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct dinosaurian
+reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are generally timid,
+inoffensive animals, active in their movements and affectionate in their
+disposition towards one another, especially the mother towards the
+young, of which there is usually but one, or at most two at a time. They
+are generally gregarious, swimming in herds or "schools," sometimes
+amounting to many thousands in number; though some species are met with
+either singly or in pairs.
+
+Commercially these animals are of importance on account of the oil
+yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone, spermaceti and
+ambergris are still more valuable products yielded by certain species.
+Within the last few years whalebone has been sold in America for £2900
+per ton, while it is also asserted that £3000 per ton has been paid for
+two and a quarter tons at Aberdeen, although there seems to be some
+degree of doubt attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the
+last century, the price of this commodity was as low as £150 per ton,
+but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to £620 with
+the introduction of "crinoline" into ladies' costume, and it has
+apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris, which is very largely
+used in perfumery, is solely a product of the sperm-whale, and appears
+to be a kind of biliary calculus. It generally contains a number of the
+horny beaks of the cuttle-fishes and squids upon which these whales
+chiefly feed. Its market-price is subject to considerable variation, but
+from £3 to £4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality.
+In 1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of ambergris
+weighing 270 lb., which was sold in Paris for about 85 s. per oz., or
+£18,360.
+
+  _Whalebone Whales_.--Existing Cetacea are divisible into two sections,
+  or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means clearly
+  apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales, or
+  Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although
+  there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished with
+  plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and the nasal
+  bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed upwards
+  and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not over, the
+  orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and distinct
+  from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic, which is
+  attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging processes.
+  The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two halves of the
+  lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends meeting at an
+  angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any symphysis. All the
+  ribs at their upper extremity articulate only with the transverse
+  processes of the vertebrae; their capitular processes when present not
+  articulating directly with the bodies of the vertebrae. The sternum is
+  composed of a single piece, and articulates only with a single pair of
+  ribs; and there are no ossified sternal ribs. External openings of
+  nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A short conical
+  caecum.
+
+  When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute teeth lying
+  in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws. They are best
+  developed about the middle of foetal life, after which they are
+  absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth. The
+  whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth; and consists
+  of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and four hundred
+  in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare interval along the
+  middle line. The plates are placed transversely to the long axis of
+  the palate, with short intervals between them. Each plate or blade is
+  somewhat triangular in form, with the base attached to the palate and
+  the apex hanging downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and
+  smooth, but the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres,
+  so that the roof of the whale's mouth looks as if covered with hair,
+  as described by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade
+  are two or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal
+  blades are longest near the middle of the series, and gradually
+  diminish towards the front and back of the mouth. The horny plates
+  grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix, which covers the palatal
+  surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-like processes, one of
+  which penetrates the base of each blade. Moreover, the free edges of
+  these processes are covered with long vascular thread-like papillae,
+  one of which forms the central axis of each of the hair-like fibres
+  mainly composing the blade. A transverse section of fresh whalebone
+  shows that it is made up of numbers of these soft vascular papillae,
+  circular in outline, and surrounded by concentrically arranged
+  epidermic cells, the whole bound together by other epidermic cells,
+  that constitute the smooth (so-called "enamel") surface of the blade,
+  which, disintegrating at the free edge, allows the individual fibres
+  to become loose and assume a hair-like appearance.
+
+  Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous membrane
+  of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial development. The
+  blades are supported and bound together for a certain distance from
+  their base, by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted by the
+  surface of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in the
+  intervals of the plate-like processes. This is the "gum" of the
+  whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in different species; in some
+  it is almost jet black, in others slate colour, horn colour, yellow,
+  or even creamy-white. In some descriptions the blades are variegated
+  with longitudinal stripes of different hues. It differs also greatly
+  in other respects, being short, thick, coarse, and stiff in some
+  cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in those species in
+  which it has attained its fullest development. Its function is to
+  strain the water from the small marine molluscs, crustaceans, or fish
+  upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales fill the immense
+  mouth with water containing shoals of these small creatures, and then,
+  on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so as to diminish the
+  cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through the narrow
+  intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone blades, and
+  escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be swallowed.
+
+  Although sometimes divided into two families, _Balaenidae_ and
+  _Balaenopteridae_, whalebone-whales are best included in a single
+  family group under the former name. The typical members of this family
+  are the so-called right-whales, forming the genus _Balaena_, in which
+  there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin; while the
+  cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers are
+  short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the
+  whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while the
+  scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process. This
+  genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (_B. mysticetus_)
+  of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so much valued
+  in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by having the head
+  somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with shorter whalebone and
+  a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit the temperate seas of both
+  northern and southern hemispheres, and have been divided into species
+  in accordance with their geographical distribution, such as _B.
+  biscayensis_ of the North Atlantic, _B. japonica_ of the North
+  Pacific, _B. australis_ of the South Atlantic, and _B. antipodarum_
+  and _novae-zelandiae_ of the South Pacific; but the differences
+  between them are so small that they may probably be regarded as races
+  of a single species, the black whale (_B. australis_). On the head
+  these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known to whalers as
+  the "bonnet." This is a large horny excrescence, worn into hollows
+  like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock, growing probably in the
+  neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More than one theory has been
+  suggested to account for its presence. One suggestion is that it
+  indicates the descent of whales from rhinoceros-like mammals; another
+  that this species of whale is in the habit of rubbing against rocks in
+  order to free itself from barnacles, and thus produces a kind of
+  corn--although why on the nose alone is not stated. Dr W.G. Ridewood,
+  however, considers that the structure is due to the fact that the
+  horny layers which are produced all over the skin are not shed on this
+  particular spot.
+
+  The pigmy whale (_Neobalaena marginata_) represents a genus agreeing
+  with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flutings, and with the
+  rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical vertebrae are
+  united, and there are only 43 vertebrae altogether. The flippers are
+  small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs remarkably expanded
+  and flattened; the scapula low and broad, with completely developed
+  acromion and coracoid processes. The whalebone is long, slender,
+  elastic and white. The species which inhabits the South American,
+  Australian and New Zealand seas is the smallest of the
+  whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in length.
+
+  In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (_Rachianectes
+  glaucus_) of the North Pacific, which combines the relatively small
+  head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin-whales, with the
+  smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the
+  right-whales. The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other
+  species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the
+  first two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony
+  shield. In the humpback-whale (_Megaptera longimana_ or _boops_) the
+  head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and wide, and
+  the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is fluted so as to
+  form an expansible pouch; there is a low back-fin; and the flippers,
+  which have four digits each, are extremely long, equalling about
+  one-fourth the total length of the animal. The acromion and coracoid
+  processes of the scapula are rudimentary. See HUMPBACK-WHALE.
+
+  The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of the
+  shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and are
+  consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and immovable
+  neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but with a smaller
+  head, and probably attains considerable speed owing to the length of
+  its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (_Balaenoptera_), which prey
+  largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the ocean
+  greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long and
+  attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are
+  furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They chiefly
+  differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and slender build,
+  small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing four digits, and
+  the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low and broad
+  scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among them are the
+  most gigantic of all animals, _B. sibbaldi_, which attains the length
+  of 80 ft., and the small _B. rostrata_, which does not exceed 30.
+  There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus,
+  represented by the two just mentioned, and by _B. musculus_ and _B.
+  borealis_, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether
+  almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific
+  Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct
+  awaits future researches, although some of these have already received
+  distinct names. See RORQUAL.
+
+  In the report on the zoology of the "Discovery" expedition, published
+  in 1907 by the British Museum, E.A. Wilson describes a whale
+  frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates a new
+  generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure about 20 or
+  30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a killer.
+
+  _Toothed Whales._--The second suborder is represented by the toothed
+  whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and teeth,
+  generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single pair, and
+  occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike that of the
+  whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more or less
+  unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or flattened
+  plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming any part of
+  the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards and
+  backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent. Hinder end of
+  the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of the orbital
+  plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either inseparable from the
+  jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the roof of the
+  orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic, which is usually
+  only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament. Two halves of the
+  lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height posteriorly, with a wide
+  funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal, and coming in contact in
+  front by a flat surface of variable length, but constituting a
+  symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with well-developed capitular
+  processes, which articulate with the bodies of the vertebrae. Sternum
+  almost always composed of several pieces, placed one behind the other,
+  with which several pairs of ribs are connected by well-developed
+  cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory aperture
+  single, the two nostrils uniting before they reach the surface,
+  usually in the form of a transverse sub-crescentic valvular aperture,
+  situated on the top of the head. Flippers with five digits, though the
+  first and fifth are usually little developed. No caecum, except in
+  _Platanista_.
+
+  The first family, _Physeteridae_, is typified by the sperm-whale, and
+  characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper jaw; the
+  lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in number. Bones of
+  the skull raised so as to form an elevated prominence or crest behind
+  the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced backwards, meeting in
+  the middle line, and not involuted to form the outer wall of the
+  post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed on their outer side.
+  Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal vertebrae, to which
+  the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing abruptly near the end
+  of the series, and replaced by processes on the body at a lower level,
+  and serially homologous anteriorly with the heads of the ribs, and
+  posteriorly with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae.
+  Costal cartilages not ossified.
+
+  The first group, or _Physeterinae_, includes the sperm-whale itself
+  and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth,
+  which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being
+  imperfectly divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by
+  the strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly
+  asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence of
+  the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size.
+
+  In the sperm-whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_) the upper teeth are
+  apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless, being
+  embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25 teeth on each side,
+  stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex until they are worn,
+  without enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave; its posterior and
+  lateral edges raised into a very high and greatly compressed
+  semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic processes of jugal
+  bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elongated, broad at the base,
+  and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower jaw exceedingly long and
+  narrow, the symphysis being more than half the length. Vertebrae: C 7,
+  D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas, or first vertebra, free; all the
+  other cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and spines into a
+  single mass. Eleventh pair of ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third
+  the length of the body; very massive, high and truncated, and rather
+  compressed in front; owing its huge size and form mainly to the
+  accumulation of a mass of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the
+  upper surface of the skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single
+  blow-hole is longitudinal, slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper
+  and anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle
+  line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the head,
+  considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers short, broad and
+  truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low protuberance. See
+  SPERM-WHALE.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Skull of Sperm-Whale (_Physeter
+  macrocephalus_).]
+
+  In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (_Cogia breviceps_) there may be a
+  pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw, while on each side of the
+  lower jaw there are from 9 to 12 rather long, slender, pointed and
+  curved teeth, with a coating of enamel. Upper surface of the skull
+  concave, with thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive
+  and rounded at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle
+  not longer than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base,
+  and rapidly tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal
+  rod-like. Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length.
+  Vertebrae: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the
+  cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and arches. The head is
+  about one-sixth of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in
+  front; the mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout; the
+  blow-hole crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in
+  advance of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the
+  flippers are bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This
+  species attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Bottle-nose (_Hyperoödon rostratus_). From a
+  specimen taken off the coast of Scotland, 1882.]
+
+  A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked
+  whales, and known as the _Ziphiinae_. In this group the lower teeth
+  are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely two,
+  pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male. There is
+  a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced into a
+  slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded eminence formed
+  by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front of the blow-hole
+  rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single, crescentic and
+  median, as in the _Delphinidae_. Flippers small, ovate, with five
+  digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal fin situated
+  considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on
+  each side of the skin of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly
+  meeting in front. In external characters and habits the whales of this
+  group closely resemble each other. They appear to be almost
+  exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and occur either singly, in
+  pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters
+  they are easily separated into four genera.
+
+  In the first of these, _Hyperoödon_, or bottle-nose, there is a small
+  conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw,
+  concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the
+  premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex and
+  expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their
+  anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils; the
+  right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow between
+  the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave in the
+  middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of the
+  right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla.
+  Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak,
+  extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other in
+  the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so massive
+  that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital notch
+  distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Vertebrae: C 7,
+  D 9, L 10, Ca 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae united. Upper
+  surface of the head in front of the blow-hole very prominent and
+  rounded, rising abruptly from above the small, distinct snout. Two
+  species are known. See BOTTLE-NOSE WHALE.
+
+  The typical representative of the beaked whales is _Ziphius cuvieri_,
+  in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side
+  close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards
+  and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and at
+  the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral
+  margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards,
+  the right being considerably more developed than the left. The
+  conjoint nasals form a pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of
+  the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above,
+  prominent and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a
+  notch on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not
+  distinct. Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base
+  to the apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum
+  raised into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely
+  ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of
+  the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The three
+  anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sowerby's Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon bidens_).]
+
+  In the numerous species of the allied genus _Mesoplodon_ there is a
+  much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw,
+  variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex;
+  its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasionally
+  developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the nostrils
+  is as in _Hyperoödon_, except that the nasals are narrow and more sunk
+  between the upper ends of the premaxillae; like those of _Hyperoödon_,
+  they are concave in the middle line in front and above. No maxillary
+  tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum long and
+  narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its entire length, and
+  coalescing with the surrounding bones. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10 or
+  11, Ca 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three anterior cervicals
+  united, the rest usually free.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Skull of a Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon
+  densirostris_).]
+
+  Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different members of
+  this genus agree in their essential structure, having a small and
+  pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of dentine, which, instead of
+  surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid
+  mass of osteo-dentine, the continuous growth of which greatly alters
+  the form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances, as in
+  the case of _M. layardi_, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like
+  teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over the rostrum,
+  and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one species (_M.
+  grayi_) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like those of
+  ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, is present even in the adults,
+  on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but embedded by
+  their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets. This, with the
+  frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species of this genus,
+  indicates that the beaked whales are derived from ancestral forms with
+  teeth of normal character in both jaws. The species are distributed in
+  both northern and southern hemispheres, but most frequent in the
+  latter. Among them are _M. bidens_, _M. europaeas_, _M. densirostris_,
+  _M. layardi_, _M. grayi_ and _M. hectori_; but there is still much to
+  be learned with regard to their characters and distribution. This
+  group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as attested by the frequency
+  with which the imperishable long, cylindrical rostrum of the skull, of
+  more than ivory denseness, is found among the rolled and waterworn
+  animal remains which compose the "bone-bed" at the base of the Red
+  Crag of Suffolk.
+
+  Finally, in Arnoux's beaked whale (_Berardius arnouxi_), of New
+  Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two
+  moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the
+  symphysis of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the
+  anterior being the larger of the two and close to the front of the
+  jaw. Upper ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately
+  elevated, slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils.
+  Nasals broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the
+  vertex of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle
+  line. Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid
+  partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the
+  upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D
+  10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals welded, the
+  rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale has the power of
+  thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to view when attacked.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Susu, or Ganges Dolphin (_Platanista
+  gangetica_).]
+
+  In a family by themselves--the _Platinistidae_--are placed three
+  cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the
+  following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the
+  vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at
+  the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in most
+  mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal bone is not
+  distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous
+  teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one exceeding half its
+  length. Externally the head is divided from the body by a slightly
+  constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated. Dorsal fin small
+  or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are fluviatile or estuarine. In
+  the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin (_Platanista gangetica_), the teeth
+  number about 30/30 on each side, are set near together, are rather
+  large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young, but in old animals
+  acquire a large laterally compressed base, which in the posterior part
+  of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots. As the conical
+  enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the young and old
+  animals have a totally different appearance. The beak and
+  tooth-bearing portion of the lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of
+  the two sides are almost in contact. Maxillae supporting large,
+  incurved, compressed bony crests, which overarch the nostrils and base
+  of the rostrum, and almost meet in the middle line above. Orbits very
+  small and eyes rudimentary, without crystalline lens. Blow-hole
+  longitudinal, linear. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 25; total 51. A
+  small caecum. No pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--River Plate Dolphin (_Stenodelphis
+  blainvillei_).]
+
+  The second genus is represented by _Inia geoffroyi_, of the Amazon, in
+  which the teeth vary from 26 to 33 pairs in each jaw; those at the
+  posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner side of the base
+  of the crown. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18; total 41. Transverse
+  processes of lumbar vertebrae very broad. Sternum short and broad, and
+  consisting of a single segment only. Dorsal fin a mere ridge. The long
+  cylindrical rostrum externally furnished with scattered, stout and
+  crisp hairs. The third type is _Stenodelphis blainvillei_, the River
+  Plate dolphin, a small brown species (fig. 7), with from 50 to 60
+  pairs of teeth in each jaw, furnished with a cingulum at the base of
+  the crown. Jaws very long and slender. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca
+  19; total 41. Transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae extremely
+  broad. Sternum elongated, composed of two segments, with four sternal
+  ribs attached. Dorsal fin rather small, triangular, pointed. Blow-hole
+  transverse. In several respects this species connects the two
+  preceding ones with the _Delphinidae_ (see DOLPHIN).
+
+  The last family of existing cetaceans is the above-mentioned
+  _Delphinidae_, which includes the true dolphins, porpoises, grampuses
+  and their relatives. As a rule there are numerous teeth in both jaws;
+  and the pterygoid bones of the skull are short, thin and involuted to
+  form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of the
+  post-palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of lower jaw short, or moderate,
+  never exceeding one-third the length of the jaw. Lacrymal bone not
+  distinct from the jugal. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae
+  gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the vertebrae
+  without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly continuous serially
+  with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Anterior ribs
+  attached to the transverse process by the tubercle, and to the body of
+  the vertebra by the head; the latter attachment lost in the posterior
+  ribs. Sternal ribs ossified. The blow-hole is transverse, crescentic,
+  with the horns of the crescent pointing forwards.
+
+  First on the long list is the narwhal, _Monodon monoceros_, in which,
+  apart from some irregular rudimentary teeth, the dentition is reduced
+  to a single pair of teeth which lie horizontally in the maxilla, and
+  in the female remain permanently concealed within the socket, so that
+  this sex is practically toothless, while in the male (fig. 8), the
+  right tooth usually remains similarly concealed while the left is
+  immensely developed, attaining a length equal to more than half that
+  of the entire animal, projecting horizontally from the head in the
+  form of a cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, without
+  enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and ridges,
+  running in a sinistral direction. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 6, Ca 26;
+  total 50. Cervical region comparatively long, and all the vertebrae
+  distinct, or with irregular unions towards the middle of the series,
+  the atlas and axis being usually free. Flipper small, short and broad,
+  with the second and third digits nearly equal, the fourth slightly
+  shorter. No dorsal fin. See NARWHAL.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Upper surface of the Skull of male Narwhal
+  (_Monodon monoceros_), with the whole of both teeth exposed by removal
+  of the upper wall of their alveolar cavities.]
+
+  Closely allied is the beluga or white-whale (_Delphinapterus leucas_),
+  of the Arctic seas, in which, however, there are from eight to ten
+  pairs of teeth in each jaw, occupying the anterior three-fourths of
+  the rostrum and corresponding portion of the lower jaw, rather small,
+  conical, and pointed when unworn, but usually become obliquely
+  truncated, separated by intervals considerably wider than the diameter
+  of the tooth, and implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining forwards
+  especially in the upper jaw. Skull rather narrow and elongated,
+  depressed. Premaxillae convex in front of the nostrils. Rostrum about
+  equal in length to the cranial portion of the skull, triangular, broad
+  at the base, and gradually contracting towards the apex, where it is
+  somewhat curved downwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 9, Ca 23; total 50.
+  Cervical vertebrae free. Flippers broad, short and rounded, all the
+  digits being tolerably well developed, except the first. Anterior part
+  of head rounded; no distinct snout. No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in
+  its place. See BELUGA.
+
+  In all the remaining genera of _Delphinidae_ the cervical region of
+  the vertebral column is very short, and the first two, and usually
+  more, of the vertebrae are firmly united. The common porpoise
+  (_Phocaena communis_, or _P. phocaena_) is the typical representative
+  of the first genus, in which the teeth vary from 18/18 to 25/25, are
+  small, and occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum, with
+  compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated from the root by a
+  constricted neck. Rostrum rather shorter than the cranium proper,
+  broad at the base and tapering towards the apex. Premaxillae raised
+  into tuberosities in front of the nostrils. The frontal bones form a
+  somewhat square elevated protuberance in the middle line of the skull
+  behind the nostrils, rising above the flattened nasals. Symphysis of
+  lower jaw very short. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 14, Ca 30; total 64.
+  First to sixth cervical vertebrae and sometimes the seventh also,
+  coalesced. Flippers of moderate size, oval, slightly sickle-shaped,
+  with the second and third digits nearly equal in length, and the
+  fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Head short, moderately
+  rounded in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin near the middle of the
+  back, triangular; its height considerably less than the length of the
+  base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with one or more rows of
+  conical horny tubercles.
+
+  The porpoise, which is so common in British waters and the Atlantic,
+  seldom enters the Mediterranean, and apparently never resides there.
+  There is, however, a porpoise in the Black Sea, which, according to Dr
+  O. Abel, is entitled to rank as a distinct species, with the name of
+  _Phocaena relicta_. This Black Sea porpoise is readily distinguished
+  from the Atlantic species by the contour of the profile of the head,
+  which, in place of forming a continuous curve from the muzzle to what
+  represents the neck, has a marked prominence above the angle of the
+  mouth, followed by an equally marked depression. The teeth are also
+  different in form and number. The absence of porpoises from the
+  Mediterranean is explained by Dr Abel on account of the greater
+  saltness of that sea as compared with the ocean in general; his idea
+  being that these cetaceans are near akin to fresh-water members of the
+  group, and therefore unsuited to withstand an excessively saline
+  medium. From the Taman Peninsula, on the north shore of the Black Sea,
+  the same writer has described an extinct type of ancestral porpoise,
+  under the name of _Palaeophocaena andrussowi_. Another species is the
+  wholly black _P. spinipennis_, typically from South America. Black is
+  also the hue of the Indian porpoise (_Neophocaena phocaenoides_),
+  which wants a dorsal fin, and has eighteen pairs of teeth rather
+  larger than those of the ordinary porpoise. (See PORPOISE.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Beluga or White-Whale (_Delphinapterus
+  leucas_). From a specimen taken in the river St Lawrence and exhibited
+  in London, 1877.]
+
+  Next comes the Indo-Malay genus _Orcella_, in which the 12/12 to
+  14/14, small, conical teeth are pointed, rather closely set, and
+  occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull sub-globular,
+  high. Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion of the
+  skull, tapering. Flippers of moderate size, not elongated, but
+  somewhat pointed, with all the bones of the digits broader than long,
+  except the first phalanges of the index and third fingers. Head
+  globular in front. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle
+  of the body. Two species, both of small size--_O. brevirostris_, from
+  the Bay of Bengal, and _O. fluminalis_, from the Irrawaddy river, from
+  300 to 900 m. from the sea.
+
+  In the grampus, or killer, _Orca gladiator_ (or _O. orca_) the teeth
+  form about twenty pairs, above and below, occupying nearly the whole
+  length of the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved
+  crowns and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather
+  hollowed, on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about equal
+  in length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened above,
+  rounded in front; premaxillae broad and rather concave in front of the
+  nostrils, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and expanding again
+  towards the apex. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 10, Ca 23; total 51 or
+  52; bodies of the first and second and sometimes the third cervical
+  vertebrae united; the rest free. Flippers very large, ovate, nearly as
+  broad as long, with all the phalanges and metacarpals broader than
+  long. General form of body robust. Face short and rounded. Dorsal fin
+  near the middle of the back, very high and pointed. See GRAMPUS.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--The Grampus or Killer (_Orca gladiator_).]
+
+  The lesser killer or black killer, _Pseudorca crassidens_, has its
+  8-12/8-12 teeth confined to the anterior half of the rostrum and
+  corresponding part of the lower jaw; they are small, conical, curved
+  and sharp-pointed when unworn, but sometimes deciduous in old age.
+  Skull broad and depressed; with the rostrum and cranial portions about
+  equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Premaxillae
+  concave in front of the nostrils, as wide at the middle of the rostrum
+  as at the base, and nearly or completely concealing the maxillae in
+  the anterior half of this region. Vertebrae: C 7, D II, L 12-14, Ca
+  28-29; total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or six cervical
+  vertebrae united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar and anterior
+  caudal vertebrae about equal to their width. Flippers very long and
+  narrow, with the second digit the longest, and having as many as 12 or
+  13 phalanges, the third shorter (with 9 phalanges), the first, fourth
+  and fifth very short. Fore part of the head round, in consequence of
+  the great development of a cushion of fat, placed on the rostrum of
+  the skull in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin low and triangular,
+  the length of its base considerably exceeding its vertical height.
+
+  Next comes the ca'ing whale, or black-fish (_Globicephalus melas_),
+  with about ten pairs of upper and lower teeth. Cranial and dental
+  characters generally like those of _Orca_, except that the roots of
+  the teeth are cylindrical. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 9, Ca 24; total 50;
+  first to sixth or seventh cervical vertebrae united; bodies of the
+  lumbar vertebrae distinguished from those of the preceding genera by
+  being more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2.
+  Flippers of moderate size, narrow and pointed. Dorsal fin situated
+  near the middle of the back, of moderate size, and sickle-shaped. Head
+  in front of the blow-hole high, and compressed anteriorly, the snout
+  truncated. See CA'ING WHALE.
+
+  Risso's dolphin, _Grampus griseus_, represents another genus,
+  characterized by the absence of teeth in the upper and the small
+  number of these in the lower jaw (3 to 7 on each side, and confined to
+  the region of the symphysis). Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, L 19, Ca 30; total
+  68. General external characters much as in _Globicephalus_, but the
+  fore part of the head less rounded, and the flippers less elongated.
+  _G. griseus_ is about 13 ft. long, and remarkable for its great
+  variability of colour. It has been found, though rarely, in the North
+  Atlantic and Mediterranean.
+
+  The common dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_) is the typical representative
+  of a large group of relatively small species, some of which are wholly
+  marine, while others are more or less completely fluviatile. They are
+  divided into a number of genera, such as _Prodelphinus_, _Steno_,
+  _Lagenorhynchus_, _Cephalorhynchus_, _Tursiops_, &c., best
+  distinguished from one another by the number and size of the teeth,
+  the form and relations of the bones on the hinder part of the palate,
+  the length of the beak and of the union of the two halves of the lower
+  jaw, and the number of vertebrae. For the distinctive characters of
+  these genera the reader may refer to one of the works mentioned below;
+  and it must suffice to state that, collectively, all these dolphins
+  are characterized by the following features. The teeth are numerous in
+  both jaws, and more than 20/20 in number, occupying nearly the whole
+  length of the rostrum, and small, close-set, conical, pointed and
+  slightly curved. Rostrum more or less elongated, and pointed in front,
+  usually considerably longer than the cranial portion of the skull.
+  Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-14, L and Ca variable; total 51 to 90. Flippers
+  of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat sickle-shaped, with the
+  first digit rudimentary, the second longest, third nearly equal, and
+  the fourth and fifth extremely short. Externally the head shows a
+  distinct beak or pointed snout, marked off from the antenasal fatty
+  elevation by a V-shaped groove. Dorsal fin rather large, triangular or
+  sickle-shaped, rarely wanting. A curiously marked brown and white
+  species, perhaps referable to _Lagenorhynchus_ is found on the fringe
+  of the Antarctic ice (see report on the zoology of the "Discovery,"
+  published in 1907 by the British Museum). See DOLPHIN.
+
+
+  _Extinct Cetacea._
+
+  At present we are totally in the dark as to the origin of the
+  whalebone-whales, not being even assured that they are derived from
+  the same stock as the toothed whales. It is noteworthy, however, that
+  some of the fossil representatives of the latter have nasal bones of a
+  type recalling those of the former. Such fossil whalebone-whales as
+  are known occur in Pliocene, and Miocene formations are either
+  referable to existing genera, or to more or less nearly related
+  extinct ones, such as _Plesiocetus_, _Herpetocetus_ and _Cetotherium_.
+
+  The toothed whales, on the other hand, are very largely represented in
+  a fossil state, reaching as low in the geological series as the upper
+  Cretaceous. Many of these present much more generalized characters
+  than their modern representatives, while others indicate apparently a
+  transition towards the still more primitive zeuglodonts, which, as
+  will be shown later, are themselves derived from the creodont
+  Carnivora. In the Pliocene deposits of Belgium and England are
+  preserved the teeth and other remains of a number of cetaceans, such
+  as _Physodon_, _Encetus_, _Dinoziphius_, _Hoplocetus_, _Balaenodon_
+  and _Scaldicetus_, more or less nearly related to the sperm-whale, but
+  presenting several primitive characters. A complete skull of a member
+  of this group from the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia, at first
+  referred to _Physodon_, but subsequently to _Scaldicetus_, has a full
+  series of enamelled teeth in the upper jaw; and it is probable that
+  the same was the case in other forms. This entails either a
+  modification of the definition of the _Physeteridae_ as given above,
+  or the creation of a separate family for these primitive sperm-whales.
+  In other cases, however, as in the Miocene _Prophyseter_ and
+  _Placoziphius_, the anterior portion or the whole of the upper jaw had
+  already become toothless; and these forms are regarded as indicating
+  the descent of the sperm-whales from the under-mentioned _Squalodon_.
+  The beaked whales, again, are believed to be independently descended
+  from the latter type, _Berardius_ being traced into the Miocene
+  _Mioziphius_, _Anoplonassa_ and _Palaeoziphius_, the last of which
+  shows signs in its dentition of approximating to the complicated
+  tooth-structure of the squalodonts.
+
+  Another line of descent from the latter, apparently culminating in the
+  modern _Platanistidae_, is represented by the family
+  _Eurhinodelphidae_, typified by the European Miocene
+  _Eurhinodelphis_, but also including the contemporary Patagonian
+  _Argyrocetus_ and the nearly allied European _Cyrtodelphis_. All these
+  were very long-beaked dolphins; and in _Argyrocetus_, at all events,
+  the occipital condyles, instead of being closely pressed to the skull,
+  are as prominent as in ordinary mammals, while the nasal bones,
+  instead of forming mere rudimentary nodules, were squared and roofed
+  over the hind part of the nasal chamber.
+
+  In the Miocene _Squalodon_, representing the family _Squalodontidae_,
+  the dentition is differentiated into incisors, canines and
+  cheek-teeth, the hinder ones of the latter series having double roots
+  and compressed crowns carrying serrations on the hinder edge;
+  generally the dental formula has been given as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4,
+  m. 7/7, the single-rooted cheek-teeth being regarded as premolars and
+  those with double roots as molars. Dr Abel is, however, of opinion
+  that the formula is better represented as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. (8 or
+  9)/9, m. 3/2; the teeth reckoned as molars corresponding to those of
+  the creodont Carnivora. The single-rooted cheek-teeth are regarded as
+  due, not to the division of double-rooted ones, but to the fusion of
+  the two roots of teeth of the latter type. In _Squalodon_ the nasal
+  bones were of the modern nodular type, but in the Miocene Patagonian
+  _Prosqualodon_ they partially covered the nasal chamber.
+
+  At present there is a gap between the most primitive squalodonts and
+  the Eocene zeuglodonts (_Zeuglodontidae_), which are regarded by
+  Messrs Max Weber, O. Abel and C.W. Andrews as the direct forerunners
+  of the modern-toothed whales, forming the suborder _Archaeoceti_. It
+  is, however, right to mention that some authorities refuse to admit
+  the relation of the Archaeoceti to the whales.
+
+  In the typical zeuglodonts the long and flat skull has large temporal
+  fossae, a strong sagittal crest, a long beak formed mainly by the
+  premaxillae (in place of the maxillae, as in modern whales), and long
+  nasal bones covering over the nasal chamber, so that the nostrils
+  opened about half-way down the beak. All the cervical vertebrae were
+  free. Normally the dentition in the typical genus _Zeuglodon_ (which
+  is common to the Eocene of North America and Egypt) is i. 3/3, c. 1/1,
+  p. 4/4, m. 3/3; the cheek-teeth being two-rooted, with compressed
+  pointed crowns, of which the fore-and-aft edges are coarsely serrated.
+  In the Egyptian _Zeuglodon osiris_ the number of the molars is,
+  however, reduced to 2/3, while some of the earlier cheek-teeth have
+  become single-rooted, as in the squalodonts. The probable transitional
+  form between the latter and the zeuglodonts is the small
+  _Microzeuglodon caucasicus_ described by the present writer, from the
+  Caucasus. As regards the origin of the zeuglodonts themselves, remains
+  discovered in the Eocene formations of Egypt indicate a practically
+  complete transition, so far at least as dental characters are
+  concerned, from these whale-like creatures to the creodont Carnivora.
+  In the earliest type, _Protocetus_, the skull is practically that of a
+  zeuglodont, the snout being in fact more elongated than in some of the
+  earliest representatives of the latter, although the nostrils are
+  placed nearer the tip. The incisors are unknown, but the cheek-teeth
+  are essentially those of a creodont, none of them having acquired the
+  serrated edges distinctive of the typical zeuglodonts; and the hinder
+  premolars and molars retaining the three roots of the creodonts. In
+  the somewhat later _Prozeuglodon_ the skull is likewise essentially of
+  the zeuglodont type, although the nostrils have shifted a little more
+  backwards; as regards the cheek-teeth, which have acquired serrated
+  crowns, the premolars at any rate retain the inner buttress supported
+  by a distinct third root, so that they are precisely intermediate
+  between _Protocetus_ and _Zeuglodon_. Yet another connecting form is
+  _Eocetus_, a very large animal from nearly the same horizon as
+  _Prozeuglodon_; its skull approaching that of _Zeuglodon_ as regards
+  the backward position of the nostrils, although the cheek-teeth are of
+  the creodont type, having inner, or third, roots. It is noteworthy
+  that _Zeuglodon_ apparently occurs in the same beds as these
+  intermediate types.
+
+  It follows from the foregoing that if zeuglodonts are the ancestors of
+  the true Cetacea--and the probability that they are so is very
+  great--the latter are derived from primitive Carnivora, and not, as
+  has been suggested, from herbivorous Ungulata. The idea that the
+  zeuglodonts were provided with a bony armour does not appear to be
+  supported by recent discoveries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. Flower in
+  the 9th edition of this work. See also W.H. Flower, "On the Characters
+  and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London,
+  1883); F.W. True, "Review of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. U.S.
+  Museum_, No. 36 (1889); R. Lydekker, "Cetacean Skulls from Patagonia,"
+  _Palaeontol. Argentina_, vol. ii: _An. Mus. La Plata_ (1893); W.
+  Dames, "Über Zeuglodonten aus Ägypten," _Paläontol. Abhandlungen_,
+  vol. i. (1894); F.E. Beddard, _A Book of Whales_ (London, 1900); O.
+  Abel, "Untersuchungen über die fossilen Platanistiden des Wiener
+  Beckens," _Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien._, vol. lxviii. (1899); "Les
+  Dauphins longirostres du Bolérien," _Mém. musée d'hist. nat. belgique_
+  (1901 and 1902); "Die phylogenetische Entwickelung des
+  Cetaceengebisses und die systematische Stellung der Physeteriden,"
+  _Verhandl. deutsch. zool. Gesellschaft_ (1905); E. Fraas, "Neue
+  Zeuglodonten aus dem unteren Mittelocean vom Mokattam bei Cairo,"
+  _Geol. und paläontol. Abhandl._ ser. 2, vol. vi. (1904); C.W.
+  Andrews, "Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the
+  Fayum" (British Museum, 1906).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CETHEGUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of the Cornelian gens.
+Like the younger Cato its members kept up the old Roman fashion of
+dispensing with the tunic and leaving the arms bare (Horace, _Ars
+Poëtica_, 50; Lucan, _Pharsalia_, ii. 543). Two individuals are of some
+importance:--
+
+(1) MARCUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, pontifex maximus and curule aedile, 213
+B.C. In 211, as praetor, he had charge of Apulia; later, he was sent to
+Sicily, where he proved a successful administrator. In 209 he was
+censor, and in 204 consul. In 203 he was proconsul in Upper Italy,
+where, in conjunction with the praetor P. Quintilius Varus, he gained a
+hard-won victory over Mago, Hannibal's brother, in Insubrian territory,
+and obliged him to leave Italy. He died in 196. He had a great
+reputation as an orator, and is characterized by Ennius as "the
+quintessence of persuasiveness" (_suadae medulla_). Horace (_Ars Poët._
+50; _Epistles_, ii. 2. 117) calls him an authority on the use of Latin
+words.
+
+  Livy xxv. 2, 41, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11, xxx. 18.
+
+(2) GAIUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, the boldest and most dangerous of
+Catiline's associates. Like many other youthful profligates, he joined
+the conspiracy in the hope of getting his debts cancelled. When Catiline
+left Rome in 63 B.C., after Cicero's first speech, Cethegus remained
+behind as leader of the conspirators with P. Lentulus Sura. He himself
+undertook to murder Cicero and other prominent men, but was hampered by
+the dilatoriness of Sura, whose age and rank entitled him to the chief
+consideration. The discovery of arms in Cethegus's house, and of the
+letter which he had given to the ambassadors of the Allobroges, who had
+been invited to co-operate, led to his arrest. He was condemned to
+death, and executed, with Sura and others, on the night of the 5th of
+December.
+
+  Sallust, _Catilina_, 46-55; Cicero, _In Cat._ iii. 5-7; Appian, _Bell.
+  Civ._ ii. 2-5; see CATILINE.
+
+
+
+
+CETINA, GUTIERRE DE (1518?-1572?), Spanish poet and soldier, was born at
+Seville shortly before 1520. He served under Charles V. in Italy and
+Germany, but retired from the army in 1545 to settle in Seville. Soon
+afterwards, however, he sailed for Mexico, where he resided for some ten
+years; he appears to have visited Seville in 1557, and to have returned
+to Mexico, where he died at some date previous to 1575. A follower of
+Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega, a friend of Jerónimo de Urrea and
+Baltavar del Alcázar, Cetina adopted the doctrines of the Italian school
+and, under the name of Vandalio, wrote an extensive series of poems in
+the newly introduced metres; his sonnets are remarkable for elegance of
+form and sincerity of sentiment, his other productions being in great
+part adaptations from Petrarch, Ariosto and Ludovico Dolce. His patrons
+were Antonio de Leyva, prince of Ascoli, Hurtado de Mendoza, and Alva's
+grandson, the duke de Sessa, but he seems to have profited little by
+their protection. His works have been well edited by Joaquín Hazañas y
+la Rúa in two volumes published at Seville (1895).
+
+
+
+
+CETTE, a seaport of southern France in the department of Hérault, 18 m.
+S.W. of Montpellier by the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 32,659. After
+Marseilles it is the principal commercial port on the south coast of
+France. The older part of Cette occupies the foot and slope of the Mont
+St Clair (the ancient _Mons Setius_), a hill 590 ft. in height, situated
+on a tongue of land that lies between the Mediterranean and the lagoon
+of Thau. This quarter with its wide streets and lofty stone buildings is
+bounded on the east by the Canal de Cette, which leads from the lagoon
+of Thau to the Old Basin and the outer harbour. Across the canal lie the
+newer quarters, which chiefly occupy two islands separated from each
+other by a wet dock and limited on the east by the Canal Maritime,
+parallel to the Canal de Cette. A lateral canal unites the northern ends
+of the two main canals. A breakwater running W.S.W. and E.N.E. protects
+the entrance to the harbour, which is one of the safest in France. The
+outer port and the Old Basin are enclosed by a mole to the south and by
+a jetty to the east. Behind the outer port lies an inner and more recent
+basin which communicates with the Canal Maritime. The entire area of the
+harbour, including the canals, is 111 acres with a quayage length of
+over 8000 yds. The public institutions of Cette include tribunals of
+commerce and of maritime commerce, councils of arbitration in commercial
+and fishing affairs, an exchange and chamber of commerce, a branch of
+the Bank of France and a large hospital. There are also a communal
+college, a naval school, and schools of music, commerce and industry,
+and navigation. Cette is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The town is
+connected with Lyons by the canal from the Rhone to Cette, and with
+Bordeaux by the Canal du Midi, and is a junction of the Southern and
+Paris-Lyon railways. The shipping trade is carried on with South
+America, the chief ports of the Mediterranean, and especially with
+Spain. The chief exports are wines and brandy, chemical products, skins
+and soap; the chief imports are wine, cereals, coal, timber, petroleum,
+sulphur, tar and chemical substances. In the five years 1901-1905 the
+average annual value of imports was £3,720,000 (£4,980,000 in years
+1896-1900), of exports £1,427,000 (£1,237,000 in 1896-1900). More than
+400 small craft are employed in the sardine, tunny, cod and other
+fisheries. Large quantities of shell-fish are obtained from the lagoon
+of Thau. There are factories for the pickling of sardines, for the
+manufacture of liqueurs and casks, and for the treatment of sulphur,
+phosphates, and nitrate of soda. The Schneider Company of Creusot also
+have metallurgical works at Cette, and the establishments for making
+wine give employment to thousands. The port of Cette was created in 1666
+by the agency of Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., and according to the
+plans of Vauban; toward the end of the 17th century its development was
+aided by the opening of the Canal du Midi.
+
+
+
+
+CETTIGNE (Servian, _Tsetinye_; also written _Cettinje_, _Tzetinje_, and
+_Tsettinye_), the capital of Montenegro; in a narrow plain deeply sunk
+in the heart of the limestone mountains, at a height of 2093 ft. above
+the sea. Pop. (1900) about 3200. The surrounding country is bare and
+stony, with carefully cultivated patches of rich red soil among the
+crevices of the rock. In winter it is often so deeply covered with snow
+as to be well-nigh inaccessible, while in spring and autumn it is
+frequently flooded by the waters of a small brook which becomes a
+torrent after rain or a thaw. Cettigne itself is little more than a
+walled village, consisting of a cluster of whitewashed cottages and some
+unadorned public buildings. These include a church; a fortified
+monastery which was founded in 1478, but so often burned and rebuilt as
+to seem quite modern, and which is visited by pilgrims to the tomb of
+Peter I. (1782-1830); residences for the archimandrite and the _vladika_
+or metropolitan of Cettigne; a palace built in 1863, which accommodates
+the ministries; the court of appeal, and a school modelled on the
+gymnasia of Germany and Austria; the newer palaces of the prince and his
+heir; foreign legations; barracks; a seminary for priests and teachers,
+established by the tsar Alexander II. (1855-1881), with a very
+successful girls' school founded and endowed by the tsaritsa Marie; a
+library and reading-room; a theatre, a museum and a hospital. In an open
+space near the old palace stood the celebrated plane tree, beneath which
+Prince Nicholas gave audience to his subjects, and administered justice
+until the closing years of the 19th century. A zigzag highway, regarded
+as a triumph of engineering, winds through the mountain passes between
+Cettigne and the Austrian seaport of Cattaro; and other good roads give
+access to the richest parts of the interior. There is, however, little
+trade, though mineral waters are manufactured.
+
+Cettigne owes its origin to Ivan the Black, who was forced, towards the
+end of the 15th century, to withdraw from Zhabliak, his former capital.
+It has often been taken and sacked by the Turks, but has seldom been
+occupied by them for long.
+
+
+
+
+CETUS ("The Whale"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern
+hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
+century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be the monster sent by
+Neptune to devour Andromeda, but which was slain by Perseus. Ptolemy
+catalogued 22 stars in this constellation; Tycho Brahe, 21; and
+Hevelius, 45. The most remarkable star of this constellation is
+_o-(Mira) Ceti_, a long-period variable, discovered by the German
+astronomer Fabricius; its magnitude varies between about 3 to 9, and its
+period is 331 days. _[tau]-Ceti_ is an irregular variable, its extreme
+magnitudes being 5 and 7; _[gamma]-Ceti_ is a beautiful double star,
+consisting of a yellow star of magnitude 3 and a blue of magnitude 6.8;
+_[nu]-Ceti_ is also a double star.
+
+
+
+
+CETYWAYO (  ?-1884), king of the Zulus, was the eldest son of King
+Umpande or Panda, and a nephew of the two previous kings, Dingaan and
+Chaka. Cetywayo was a young man when in 1840 his father was placed on
+the throne by the aid of the Natal Boers; and three years later Natal
+became a British colony. Cetywayo had inherited much of the military
+talent of his uncle Chaka, the organizer of the Zulu military system,
+and chafed under his father's peaceful policy towards his British and
+Boer neighbours. Suspecting Panda of favouring a younger son, Umbulazi,
+as his successor, Cetywayo made war on his brother, whom he defeated and
+slew at a great battle on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856. In
+the following year, at an assembly of the Zulus, it was resolved that
+Panda should retire from the management of the affairs of the nation,
+which were entrusted to Cetywayo, though the old chief kept the title of
+king. Cetywayo was, however, suspicious of the Natal government, which
+afforded protection to two of his brothers. The feeling of distrust was
+removed in 1861 by a visit from Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus
+Shepstone, secretary for native affairs in Natal, who induced Panda to
+proclaim Cetywayo publicly as the future king. Friendly relations were
+then maintained between the Zulus and Natal for many years. In 1872
+Panda died, and Cetywayo was declared king, August 1873, in the presence
+of Shepstone, to whom he made solemn promises to live at peace with his
+neighbours and to govern his people more humanely. These promises were
+not kept. Not only were numbers of his own people wantonly slain
+(Cetywayo returning defiant messages to the governor of Natal when
+remonstrated with), and the military system of Chaka and Dingaan
+strengthened, but he had a feud with the Transvaal Boers as to the
+possession of the territory between the Buffalo and Pongola rivers, and
+encouraged the chief Sikukuni (Secocoeni) in his struggle against the
+Boers. This feud with the Boers was inherited by the British government
+on the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877. Cetywayo's attitude became
+menacing; he allowed a minor chief to make raids into the Transvaal, and
+seized natives within the Natal border.
+
+Sir Bartle Frere, who became high commissioner of South Africa in March
+1877, found evidence which convinced him that the Kaffir revolt of that
+year on the eastern border of Cape Colony was part of a design or desire
+"for a general and simultaneous rising of Kaffirdom against white
+civilization"; and the Kaffirs undoubtedly looked to Cetywayo and the
+Zulus as the most redoubtable of their champions. In December 1878 Frere
+sent the Zulu king an ultimatum, which, while awarding him the territory
+he claimed from the Boers, required him to make reparation for the
+outrages committed within the British borders, to receive a British
+resident, to disband his regiments, and to allow his young men to marry
+without the necessity of having first "washed their spears." Cetywayo,
+who had found a defender in Bishop Colenso, vouchsafed no reply, and
+Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand, at the head of 13,000 troops, on the
+11th of January 1879 to enforce the British demands. The disaster of
+Isandhlwana and the defence of Rorke's Drift signalized the commencement
+of the campaign, but on the 4th of July the Zulus were utterly routed at
+Ulundi. Cetywayo became a fugitive, but was captured on the 28th of
+August. His kingdom was divided among thirteen chiefs and he himself
+taken to Cape Town, whence he was brought to London in August 1882. He
+remained in England less than a month, during which time the government
+(the second Gladstone administration) announced that they had decided
+upon his restoration. To his great disappointment, however, restoration
+proved to refer only to a portion of his old kingdom. Even there one of
+his kinsmen and chief enemies, Usibepu, was allowed to retain the
+territory allotted to him in 1879. Cetywayo was reinstalled on the 29th
+of January 1883 by Shepstone, but his enemies, headed by Usibepu,
+attacked him within a week, and after a struggle of nearly a year's
+duration he was defeated and his kraal destroyed. He then took refuge in
+the Native Reserve, where he died on the 8th of February 1884. For a
+quarter of a century he had been the most conspicuous native figure in
+South Africa, and had been the cause of long and bitter political
+controversy in Great Britain.
+
+His son DINIZULU afterwards attempted to become king, was exiled (1889)
+to St Helena, permitted to return (1898), and granted the position of a
+chief. In December 1907 Dinizulu was imprisoned at Maritzburg, being
+suspected of complicity in the revolt which had occurred in Zululand the
+previous year. He was kept many months waiting trial, there being
+considerable friction between the colonial government and the British
+government over the incident. He was eventually brought to trial in
+November 1908 before a special court, his defence (to the cost of which
+the British government contributed £2000) being undertaken by Mr W.P.
+Schreiner. The trial was not concluded until March 1909. The charge of
+high treason was not proved, but Dinizulu was convicted of harbouring
+rebels and was sentenced to four years' imprisonment.
+
+  _The Life of Sir Bartle Frere_, by John Martineau, vol. ii. chaps. 18
+  to 21, contains much information concerning Cetywayo.
+
+
+
+
+CEUTA (Arabic _Sebta_), a Spanish military and convict station and
+seaport on the north coast of Morocco, in 35° 54' N., 5° 18' W. Pop.
+about 13,000. It is situated on a promontory connected with the mainland
+by a narrow isthmus. This promontory marks the south-eastern end of the
+straits of Gibraltar, which between Ceuta and Gibraltar have a width of
+14 m. The promontory terminates in a bold headland, the Montagne des
+Singes, with seven distinct peaks. Of these the highest is the Monte del
+Hacko, the ancient _Abyla_, one of the "Pillars of Hercules," which
+faces Gibraltar and rises 636 ft. above the sea. On the westernmost
+point--Almina, 476 ft. high--is a lighthouse with a light visible for 23
+m. Ceuta consists of two quarters, the old town, covering the low ground
+of the isthmus, and the modern town, built on the hills forming the
+north and west faces of the peninsula. Between the old and new quarters
+and on the north side of the isthmus lies the port. The public buildings
+in the town, thoroughly Spanish in its character, are not striking: they
+include the cathedral (formerly a mosque), the governor's palace, the
+town hall, barracks, and the convict prison in the old convent of San
+Francisco. Ceuta has been fortified seaward, the works being furnished
+with modern artillery intended to command the entrance to the
+Mediterranean. Landward are three lines of defence, the inner line
+stretching completely across the isthmus. These fortifications, which
+date from the time of the Portuguese occupation, have been partly
+modernized. The citadel, El Hacho, built on the neck of the isthmus,
+dates from the 15th century. The garrison consists of between 3000 and
+4000 men, inclusive of a disciplinary corps of military convicts. Of the
+rest of the population about 2000 are civilian convicts; and there are
+colonies of Jews, negroes and Moors, the last including descendants of
+Moors transferred to Ceuta from Oran when Spain abandoned that city in
+1796.
+
+Ceuta occupies in part the site of a Carthaginian colony, which was
+succeeded by a Roman colony said to have been called _Ad Septem Fratres_
+and also _Exilissa_ or _Lissa Civitas_. From the Romans the town passed
+to the Vandals and afterwards to Byzantium, the emperor Justinian
+restoring its fortifications in 535. In 618 the town, then known as
+_Septon_, fell into the hands of the Visigoths. It was the last
+stronghold in North Africa which held out against the Arabs. At that
+date (A.D. 711) the governor of the town was the Count Julian who, in
+revenge for the betrayal of his daughter by King Roderick of Toledo,
+invited the Arabs to cross the straits under Tarik and conquer Spain for
+Islam. By the Arabs the town was called _Cibta_ or _Sebta_, hence the
+Spanish form _Ceuta_. From the date of its occupation by the Arabs the
+town had a stormy history, being repeatedly captured by rival Berber and
+Spanish-Moorish dynasties. It became nevertheless an important
+commercial and industrial city, being noted for its brass ware, its
+trade in ivory, gold and slaves. It is said to have been the first place
+in the West where a paper manufactory was established. In 1415 the town
+was captured by the Portuguese under John I., among those taking part in
+the attack being Prince Henry "the Navigator" and two of his brothers,
+who were knighted on the day following in the mosque (hastily dedicated
+as a Christian church). Ceuta passed to Spain in 1580 on the subjugation
+of Portugal by Philip II., and was definitely assigned to the Spanish
+crown by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688. The town has been several times
+unsuccessfully besieged by the Moors--one siege, under Mulai Ismail,
+lasting twenty-six years (1694-1720). In 1810, with the consent of
+Spain, it was occupied by British troops under General Sir J.F. Fraser.
+The town was restored to Spain by the British at the close of the
+Napoleonic Wars. As the result of the war between Spain and Morocco in
+1860 the area of Spanish territory around the town was increased. The
+military governor of the town also commands the troops in the other
+Spanish stations on the coast of Morocco. For civil purposes Ceuta is
+attached to the province of Cadiz. It is a free port, but does little
+trade.
+
+  See de Prado, _Recuerdos de Africa; historia de la plaza de Ceuta_
+  (Madrid, 1859-1860); Budgett Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_ (London,
+  1901), chap, xix., where many works dealing with Spanish Morocco are
+  cited.
+
+
+
+
+CEVA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 33 m. E. by
+rail from the town of Cuneo, 1270 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2703.
+In the middle ages it was a strong fortress defending the confines of
+Piedmont towards Liguria, but the fortifications on the rock above the
+town were demolished in 1800 by the French, to whom it had been ceded in
+1796. Its cheese (_caseus cebanus_) was famous in Roman times, but it
+does not seem ever to have been a Roman town. It lay on the road between
+Augusta Taurinorum and Vada Sabatia. A branch railway runs from Ceva
+through Garessio, with its marble quarries, to Ormea (2398 ft.), 22 m.
+to the south through the upper valley of the Tanaro, which in Roman
+times was under Albingaunum (Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v.
+(Berlin, 1877), p. 898). From Ormea a road runs south to (31 m.) Oneglia
+on the Ligurian coast.
+
+
+
+
+CÉVENNES (Lat. _Cebenna_ or _Gebenna_), a mountain range of southern
+France, forming the southern and eastern fringe of the central plateau
+and part of the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins.
+It consists of a narrow ridge some 320 m. long, with numerous lofty
+plateaus and secondary ranges branching from it. The northern division
+of the range, which nowhere exceeds 3320 ft. in height, extends, under
+the name of the mountains of Charolais, Beaujolais and Lyonnais, from
+the Col de Longpendu (west of Chalon-sur-Saône) in a southerly direction
+to the Col de Gier. The central Cévennes, comprising the volcanic chain
+of Vivarais, incline south-east and extend as far as the Lozère group.
+The northern portion of this chain forms the Boutières range. Farther
+south it includes the Gerbier des Joncs (5089 ft.), the Mont de Mézenc
+(5755 ft.), the culminating point of the entire range, and the Tanargue
+group. South of the Mont Lozère, where the Pic Finiels reaches 5584 ft.,
+lies that portion of the range to which the name Cévennes is most
+strictly applied. This region, now embraced in the departments of Lozère
+and Gard, stretches south to include the Aigoual and Espérou groups.
+Under various local names (the Garrigues, the mountains of Espinouse and
+Lacaune) and with numerous offshoots the range extends south-east and
+then east to the Montagne Noire, which runs parallel to the Canal du
+Midi and comes to an end some 25 m. east of Toulouse. In the south the
+Cévennes separate the cold and barren table-lands known as the Causses
+from the sunny region of Languedoc, where the olive, vine and mulberry
+flourish. Northwards the contrast between the two slopes is less
+striking.
+
+The Cévennes proper are formed by a folded belt of Palaeozoic rocks
+which lies along the south-east border of the central plateau of France.
+Concealed in part by later deposits, this ancient mountain chain extends
+from Castelnaudary to the neighbourhood of Valence, where it sinks
+suddenly beneath the Tertiary and recent deposits of the valley of the
+Rhone. It is in the Montagne Noire rather than in the Cévennes proper
+that the structure of the chain has been most fully investigated. All
+the geological systems from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous are
+included in the folded belt, and J. Bergeron has shown that the gneiss
+and schist which form so much of the chain consist, in part at least, of
+metamorphosed Cambrian beds. The direction of the folds is about N. 60°
+E., and the structure is complicated by overthrusting on an extensive
+scale. The overthrust came from the south-east, and the Palaeozoic beds
+were crushed and crumpled against the ancient massif of the central
+plateau. The principal folding took place at the close of the
+Carboniferous period, and was contemporaneous with that of the old
+Hercynian chain of Belgium, &c. The Permian and later beds lie
+unconformably upon the denuded folds, and in the space between the
+Montagne Noire and the Cévennes proper the folded belt is buried beneath
+the horizontal Jurassic strata of the Causses. Although the chain was
+completed in Palaeozoic times, a second folding took place along its
+south-east margin at the close of the Eocene period. The Secondary and
+Tertiary beds of the Languedoc were crushed against the central plateau
+and were frequently overfolded. But by this time the ancient Palaeozoic
+chain had become a part of the unyielding massif, and the folding did
+not extend beyond its foot.
+
+As the division between the basins of the Loire and the Garonne to the
+west and those of the Saône and Rhone to the east, the Cévennes send
+many affluents to those rivers. In the south the Orb, the Hérault and
+the Vidourle are independent rivers flowing to the Golfe du Lion;
+farther north, the Gard--formed by the union of several streams named
+Gardon--the Cèze and the Ardèche flow to the Rhone. The Vivarais
+mountains and the northern Cévennes approach the right banks of the
+Rhone and Saône closely, and on that side send their waters by way of
+short torrents to those rivers; on the west side the streams are
+tributaries of the Loire, which rises at the foot of Mont Mézenc. A
+short distance to the south on the same side are the sources of the
+Allier and Lot. The waters of the north-western slope of the southern
+Cévennes drain into the Tarn either directly or by way of the Aveyron,
+which rises in the outlying chain of the Lévezou, and, in the extreme
+south, the Agout. The Tarn itself rises on the southern slope of the
+Mont Lozère.
+
+In the Lozère group and the southern Cévennes generally, good pasturage
+is found, and huge flocks spend the summer there. Silkworm-rearing and
+the cultivation of peaches, chestnuts and other fruits are also carried
+on. In the Vivarais cattle are reared, while on the slopes of the
+Beaujolais excellent wines are grown.
+
+The chief historical event in the history of the Cévennes is the revolt
+of the Camisards in the early years of the 18th century (see CAMISARDS).
+
+
+
+
+CEYLON, a large island and British colony in the Indian Ocean, separated
+on the N.W. from India by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait. It lies
+between 5° 55' and 9° 51' N. and between 79° 41' and 81° 54' E. Its
+extreme length from north to south is 271½ m.; its greatest width is
+137½ m.; and its area amounts to 25,481 sq. m., or about five-sixths of
+that of Ireland. In its general outline the island resembles a pear, the
+apex of which points towards the north.
+
+
+  Coast.
+
+The coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks, rocks and
+shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with India by the island
+of Rameswaram and Adam's Bridge, a succession of bold rocks reaching
+almost across the gulf at its narrowest point. Between the island and
+the opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying depth and
+width, beset by rocks and shoals. One of these, the Manaar Passage, is
+only navigable by very small craft. The other, called the Paumben
+Passage, lying between Rameswaram and the mainland, has been deepened at
+considerable outlay, and is used by large vessels in passing from the
+Malabar to the Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing
+so to make the circuit of the island. The west and south coasts, which
+are uniformly low, are fringed their entire length by coco-nut trees,
+which grow to the water's edge in great luxuriance, and give the island
+a most picturesque appearance. Along these shores there are numerous
+inlets and backwaters of the sea, some of which are available as
+harbours for small native craft. The east coast from Point de Galle to
+Trincomalee is of an entirely opposite character, wanting the ample
+vegetation of the other, and being at the same time of a bold
+precipitous character. The largest ships may freely approach this side
+of the island, provided they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks,
+whose localities, however, are well known to navigators.
+
+Seen from a distance at sea this "utmost Indian isle" of the old
+geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance. The remarkable elevation
+known as "Adam's Peak," the most prominent, though not the loftiest, of
+the hilly ranges of the interior, towers like a mountain monarch amongst
+an assemblage of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the
+navigator when as yet the Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid
+the green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the waters of
+the ocean. The low coast-line encircles the mountain zone of the
+interior on the east, south and west, forming a belt which extends
+inland to a varying distance of from 30 to 80 m.; but on the north the
+whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya to Batticaloa is an almost
+unbroken plain, containing magnificent forests of great extent.
+
+
+  Mountains.
+
+The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and covers an area
+of about 4212 sq. m. The uplifting force seems to have been exerted from
+south-west to north-east, and although there is much confusion in many
+of the intersecting ridges, and spurs of great size and extent are sent
+off in many directions, the lower ranges manifest a remarkable tendency
+to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to north-west.
+Towards the north the offsets of the mountain system radiate to short
+distances and speedily sink to the level of the plain. Detached hills
+are rare; the most celebrated of these are Mihintale (anc. _Missïaka_),
+which overlooks the sacred city of Anuradhapura, and Sigiri. The latter
+is the only example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which form
+so remarkable a feature in the tableland of the Deccan--which, starting
+abruptly from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are
+frequently converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous
+pathways or by steps hewn in the solid rock.
+
+For a long period Adam's Peak was supposed to be the highest mountain in
+Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft. above sea-level. This
+elevation is chiefly remarkable as the resort of pilgrims from all parts
+of the East. The hollow in the lofty rock that crowns the summit is said
+by the Brahmans to be the footstep of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha,
+by the Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were
+divided between the conflicting claims of St Thomas and the eunuch of
+Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered by a handsome roof,
+and is guarded by the priests of a rich monastery half-way up the
+mountain, who maintain a shrine on the summit of the peak. The highest
+mountains in Ceylon are Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in altitude;
+Kirigalpota, 7836 ft.; and Totapelakanda, 7746 ft.
+
+The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure, and along
+their base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect them in every
+direction, the slopes were formerly covered with forests of gigantic and
+valuable trees, which, however, have disappeared under the axe of the
+planter, who felled and burnt the timber on all the finest slopes at an
+elevation of 2000 to 4500 ft., and converted the hillsides into highly
+cultivated coffee and afterwards tea estates.
+
+The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the sanatorium of the island, is at an
+elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of an alpine
+country. The climate of the Horton plains, at an elevation of 7000 ft.,
+is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but they are difficult of
+access, and are but little known to Europeans. The town of Kandy, in the
+Central Province, formerly the capital of the native sovereigns of the
+interior, is situated 1727 ft. above sea-level.
+
+
+  Rivers.
+
+The island, though completely within the influence of oceanic
+evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable
+extent, does not boast of any rivers of great volume. The rains which
+usher in each monsoon or change of season are indeed heavy, and during
+their fall swell the streams to torrents and impetuous rivers. But when
+these cease the water-courses fall back to their original state, and
+there are few of the rivers which cannot generally be passed on
+horseback. The largest river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m.,
+draining about one-sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the
+sea at Trincomalee on the east coast. There are twelve other
+considerable rivers, running to the west, east and south, but none of
+these exceeds 90 m. in length. The rivers are not favourable for
+navigation, except near the sea, where they expand into backwaters,
+which were used by the Dutch for the construction of their system of
+canals all round the western and southern coasts. Steamers ply between
+Colombo and Negombo along this narrow canal and lake. A similar service
+on the Kaluganga did not prove a success. There are no inland lakes
+except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north and east
+of the island, and the backwaters on the coast. The lakes which add to
+the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake Gregory, Nuwara Eliya and Kurunegala
+are artificial or partly so. Giant's Tank is said to have an area of
+6380 acres, and Minneri and Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres.
+
+The magnificent basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east coast of
+Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, security and beauty by any
+haven in the world. The admiralty had a dockyard here which was closed
+in 1905.
+
+_Geology._--Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly rising from
+the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in marine shells, which
+occur in situations far above high-water mark, and at some miles
+distance from the sea. A great portion of the north of the island may be
+regarded as the joint production of the coral polyps and the currents,
+which for the greater part of the year set impetuously towards the
+south; coming laden with alluvial matter collected along the coast of
+Coromandel, and meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they
+have deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro; and
+these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by sand drifts,
+have formed the peninsula of Jaffna, and the plains that trend westward
+till they unite with the narrow causeway of Adam's Bridge. Tertiary
+rocks are almost unknown. The great geological feature of the island is
+the profusion of gneiss, overlaid in many places in the interior by
+extensive beds of dolomitic limestone. This formation appears to be of
+great thickness; and when, as is not often the case, the under-surface
+of the gneiss series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on
+granite. Veins of pure quartz and felspar of considerable extent have
+been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the elevated lands of
+the interior in the Galle districts may be seen copious deposits of
+disintegrated felspar, or _kaolin_, commonly known as porcelain clay. At
+various elevations the gneiss may be found intersected by veins of trap
+rock, upheaved whilst in a state of fusion subsequent to the
+consolidation of the former. In some localities on the seashore these
+veins assume the character of pitch-stone porphyry highly impregnated
+with iron. Hornblende and primitive greenstone are found in the vicinity
+of Adam's Peak and in the Pussellava district. Laterite, known in Ceylon
+as _kabuk_, a product of disintegrated gneiss, exists in vast quantities
+in many parts, and is quarried for building purposes.
+
+_Climate._--The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from those
+prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The two
+distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds which
+accompany them, the south-west and the north-east. The former is very
+regular in its approach, and may be looked for along the south-west
+coast between the 10th and 20th of May; the latter reaches the
+north-east coast between the end of October and the middle of November.
+There is a striking contrast in the influence which the south-west
+monsoon exerts on the one side of the island and on the other. The
+clouds are driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western
+and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there in
+copious showers. But the rains do not reach the opposite side of the
+island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and north are
+sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently happens that
+different sides of the same mountain present at the same moment the
+opposite extreme of droughts and moisture. The influence of the
+north-east monsoon is more general. The mountains which face the
+north-east are lower and more remote from the sea than those on the
+south-west; the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains
+simultaneously on both sides of the island.
+
+The length of the day, owing to the proximity of the island to the
+equator, does not vary more than an hour at any season. The mean time of
+the rising of the sun's centre at Colombo on February 1st is 6^h 23^m
+A.M., and of its setting 6^h 5^m P.M. On August 15th its rising is at
+5^h 45^m A.M., and its setting at 6^h 7^m P.M. It is mid-day in Colombo
+when it is morning in England. Colombo is situated in 79° 50' 45" E.,
+and the day is further advanced there than at Greenwich by 5^h 19^m
+23^s.
+
+  _Flora_.--The characteristics of the low-growing plants of Ceylon
+  approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India. The
+  _Rhizophoreae_ are numerous along the low muddy shores of salt lakes
+  and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant. The list
+  comprises _Aegiceras fragrans_, _Epithinia malayana_, _Thespesia
+  populnea_, _Feronia elephantum_, _Salvadora persica_ (the true mustard
+  tree of Scripture), _Eugenia bracteata_, _Elaeodendron Roxburghii_,
+  _Cassia Fistula_, _Cassia Roxburghii_, &c. The herbaceous plants of
+  the low country belong mostly to the natural orders _Compositae_,
+  _Leguminosae_, _Rubiaceae_, _Scrophulariaceae_ and _Euphorbiaceae_.
+
+  Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a height of
+  4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and trees
+  assume an altered character. The foliage of the latter is larger and
+  deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the hot low
+  country. The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns,
+  _Cyrtandreae_, _Compositae_, _Scitamineae_ and _Urticaceae_. The dense
+  masses of lofty forest at that altitude are interspersed with large
+  open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives _patanas_, and
+  of value to them as affording pasturage for their cattle.
+
+  Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to be met
+  with partaking of European forms, yet blended with tropical
+  characteristics. The guelder rose, St John's wort, the _Nepenthes
+  distillatoria_ or pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups,
+  sundews, ladies' mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of
+  _Magnoliaceae_, _Ranunculaceae_, _Elaeocarpeae_, &c. The most
+  beautiful flowering shrub of this truly alpine region is the
+  rhododendron, which in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft. It
+  is met with in great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated
+  land above Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in June and July. There
+  are two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having
+  its leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty colour on the under side;
+  the other, peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the
+  loftiest elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the
+  under side, and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft.
+  round the stem. At these altitudes English flowers, herbs and
+  vegetables have been cultivated with perfect success, as also wheat,
+  oats and barley. English fruit-trees grow, but rarely bear. Grapes are
+  grown successfully in the north of the island. The vines were
+  introduced by the Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual
+  summer by exposing the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial
+  winter.
+
+  The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every altitude
+  from the sea-beach to the loftiest mountain peak. They vary much in
+  their hardiness and durability, from the common cashew-nut tree, which
+  when felled decays in a month, to the ebony and satinwood, which for
+  many years resist the attacks of insects and climate. Many of the
+  woods are valuable for furniture, and house and shipbuilding, and are
+  capable of standing long exposure to weather. The most beautiful woods
+  adapted to furniture work are the calamander, ebony, flowered
+  satinwood, tamarind, nedun, dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &c.;
+  the sack-yielding tree (_Antiaris saccidora_), for a long time
+  confounded with the far-famed upas tree of Java (_Antiaris
+  toxicaria_), grows in the Kurunegala district of the island. The
+  _Cocos nucifera_, or coco-nut palm, is a native of the island, and may
+  justly be considered the most valuable of its trees. It grows in vast
+  abundance alone the entire sea-coast of the west and south sides of
+  the island, and furnishes almost all that a Sinhalese villager
+  requires. Its fruit, when green, supplies food and drink; when ripe,
+  it yields oil. The juice of the unopened flower gives him toddy and
+  arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit when woven makes him ropes,
+  nets, matting. The nut-shells form drinking-vessels, spoons, &c. The
+  plaited leaves serve as plates and dishes, and as thatch for his
+  cottage. The dried leaves are used as torches, the large leaf-stalks
+  as garden fences. The trunk of the tree sawn up is employed for every
+  possible purpose, from knife-handles to door-posts; hollowed out it
+  forms a canoe or a coffin. There are four kinds of this palm--the
+  common, the king, the dwarf and the Maldive. The Palmyra and Areca
+  palms grow luxuriantly and abundantly, the former in the northern, the
+  latter in the western and central districts. The one is valuable
+  chiefly for its timber, of which large quantities are exported to the
+  Indian coasts; the other supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst
+  natives of the eastern tropics as a masticatory. The export trade in
+  the latter to India and eastern ports is very considerable. Next in
+  importance to the coco-nut palm among the indigenous products of
+  Ceylon is the cinnamon plant, yielding the well-known spice of that
+  name.
+
+  _Fauna_.--Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the elephant, which,
+  though far inferior to those of Africa and the Indian continent, is
+  nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on account of its
+  strength, sagacity and docility. They are to be met with in greater or
+  less numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior.
+  Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds
+  and plantations, committing great damage. In order to protect these
+  lands, and at the same time keep up the government stud of draught
+  elephants, "kraals" or traps on a large scale are erected in the
+  forests, into which the wild herds are driven; and once secured they
+  are soon tamed and fit for service. The oxen are of small size, but
+  hardy, and capable of drawing heavy loads. Buffaloes exist in great
+  numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed in a
+  half-tame state for ploughing rice-fields and treading out the corn.
+  They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be maintained on
+  the village pasture-lands where oxen would not find support. Of deer,
+  Ceylon possesses the spotted kind (_Axis maculata_), the muntjac
+  (_Stylocerus muntjac_), a red deer (the Sambur of India), popularly
+  called the Ceylon elk (_Musa Aristotelis_), and the small musk
+  (_Moschus minima_). There are five species of monkeys, one the small
+  rilawa (_Macacus pileatus_), and four known in Ceylon by the name of
+  "wandaru" (_Presbytes ursinus_, _P. Thersites_, _P. cephalopterus_,
+  _P. Priamus_), and the small quadrumanous animal, the loris (_Loris
+  gracilis_), known as the "Ceylon sloth." Of the Cheiroptera sixteen
+  species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette or flying
+  fox (_Pteropus Edwardsii_). Of the Carnivora the only one dangerous to
+  man is the small black bear (_Prochilus labiatus_). The tiger is not
+  known in Ceylon, but the true panther (_Felis pardus_) is common, as
+  is the jackal (_Canis aureus_) and the mongoose or ichneumon
+  (_Herpestes vitticollis_). Rats are numerous, as are the squirrel and
+  the porcupine, and the pig-rat or bandicoot (_Mus bandicota_), while
+  the scaly ant-eater (_Manis pentedactyla_), locally known by the Malay
+  name of pangolin, is occasionally found. The dugong (_Halicore
+  dugong_), is frequently seen on various points of the coast. A game
+  preservation society and the judicious action of government have done
+  much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer, elephants, &c.,
+  by establishing a close season. It is estimated that there must be
+  5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests. A licence to shoot or
+  capture and an export royalty are now levied by government.
+
+  Captain V. Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many of
+  them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed by
+  the birds of South America and Northern India. The eagles are small
+  and rare, but hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter is a
+  remarkable brown species, the cry of which has earned for it the name
+  of the "devil-bird." The esculent swift, which furnishes in its edible
+  nest the celebrated Chinese dainty, builds in caves in Ceylon. Crows
+  of various species are numerous, and in the wilder parts pea-fowl are
+  abundant. There are also to be mentioned king-fishers, sun-birds,
+  several beautiful fly-catchers and snatchers, the golden oriole,
+  parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are at least a dozen
+  species. The Ceylon jungle-fowl (_Gallus Lafayetti_) is distinct from
+  the Indian species. Ceylon is singularly rich in wading and water
+  birds--ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons being frequently
+  seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the beach in long files,
+  and on the deeper waters inland are found teal and a countless variety
+  of ducks and smaller fowl. Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen
+  there are partridge, quail and snipe in abundance, and the woodcock
+  has been seen.
+
+  The poisonous snakes of Ceylon are not numerous. Four species have
+  been enumerated--the ticpolonga (_Daboia elegans_), the cobra di
+  capello (_Naja tripudians_), the carawilla (_Trigonocephalus
+  hypnale_), and the _Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus_, which is so rare
+  that it has no popular name. The largest snake in Ceylon is the "boa,"
+  or "anaconda" of Eastern story (_Python reticulatus_); it is from 20
+  to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller animals.
+  Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large fresh-water
+  reservoirs which supply the rice-fields; there are two species (_C.
+  biporcatus_ and _C. palustris_). Of lizards the most noteworthy are
+  the iguana, several bloodsuckers, the chameleon and the familiar
+  geckoes, which are furnished with pads to each toe, by which they are
+  enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to glass and
+  ceilings.
+
+  Insects exist in great numbers. The leaf and stick insects are of
+  great variety and beauty. Ceylon has four species of the ant-lion,
+  renowned for the predaceous ingenuity of its larvae; and the white
+  ants or termites, the ravages of which are most destructive, are at
+  once ubiquitous and innumerable in every place where the climate is
+  not too chilly or the soil too sandy for them to construct their domed
+  dwellings. They make their way through walls and floors, and in a few
+  hours destroy every vegetable substance within their reach. Of all the
+  insect pests that beset an unseasoned European the most annoying are
+  the mosquitoes. Ticks are also an intolerable nuisance; they are
+  exceedingly minute, and burrow under the skin. In the lower ranges of
+  the hill country land leeches are found in tormenting profusion. But
+  insects and reptiles do not trouble European residents so much as in
+  early years--at any rate in the towns, while in the higher planting
+  districts there is almost complete exemption from their unwelcome
+  attentions. Bungalows are more carefully built to resist white ants,
+  drainage and cleanliness prevent mosquitoes and ticks from
+  multiplying, while snakes and leeches avoid cultivated, occupied
+  ground.
+
+  Of the fish in ordinary use for the table the finest is the seir, a
+  species of scomber (_Cybium guttatum_). Mackerel, dories, carp,
+  whitings, mullet (red and striped), soles and sardines are abundant.
+  Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and the huge saw fish
+  (_Pristis antiquorum_) infests the eastern coast of the island, where
+  it attains a length of 12 to 15 ft. There are also several fishes
+  remarkable for the brilliancy of their colouring; e.g. the Red Sea
+  perch (_Holocentrum rubrum_), of the deepest scarlet, and the great
+  fire fish (_Scorpaena miles_), of a brilliant red. Some are purple,
+  others yellow, and numbers with scales of a lustrous green are called
+  "parrots" by the natives; of these one (_Sparus Hardwickii_) is called
+  the "flower parrot," from its exquisite colouring--irregular bands of
+  blue, crimson and purple, green, yellow and grey, crossed by
+  perpendicular stripes of black. The pearl fishery, as indicated below,
+  is of great importance.
+
+  _Population_.--The total population of Ceylon in 1901, inclusive of
+  military, shipping and 4914 prisoners of war, was 3,578,333, showing
+  an increase of 18.8% in the decade. The population of Colombo was
+  158,228.
+
+  The population and area of the nine provinces was as follows:--
+
+    +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+
+    |  District.               | Population. | Area in sq. m. |
+    +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+
+    |                          |             |                |
+    | Western Province         |   925,342   |     1,432      |
+    | Central Province         |   623,011   |     2,299½     |
+    | Northern Province        |   341,985   |     3,363¼     |
+    | Southern Province        |   566,925   |     2,146¼     |
+    | Eastern Province         |   174,288   |     4,036½     |
+    | North-Western Province   |   353,845   |     2,996-7/8  |
+    | North Central Province   |    79,110   |     4,002¼     |
+    | Province of Uva          |   192,072   |     3,154½     |
+    | Province of Sabaragamuwa |   321,755   |     1,901-1/8  |
+    |                          +-------------+----------------+
+    |                          | 3,578,333   |    25,332      |
+    +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+
+
+  The table of nationality gives the principal groups as follows:--
+
+    Europeans                     9,509
+    Burghers and Eurasians       23,539
+    Low-country Sinhalese     1,458,320
+    Kandyan Sinhalese           872,487
+    Tamils                      953,535
+    Moors (Mahommedan)          228,706
+    Malays                       11,963
+    Veddahs (Aborigines)          3,971
+
+  Altogether there are representatives of some seventy races in Ceylon.
+  The Veddahs, who run wild in the woods, are the aborigines of the
+  island.
+
+  _Language_.--The language of nearly 70% of the population is
+  Sinhalese, which is nearly allied to Pali (q.v.); of the remaining
+  30%, with the exception of Europeans, the language is Tamil. A corrupt
+  form of Portuguese is spoken by some natives of European descent. The
+  Veddahs, a small forest tribe, speak a distinct language, and the
+  Rodiyas, an outcast tribe, possess a large vocabulary of their own.
+  The Sinhalese possess several original poems of some merit, and an
+  extensive and most interesting series of native chronicles, but their
+  most valuable literature is written in Pali, though the greater
+  portion of it has been translated into Sinhalese, and is best known to
+  the people through these Sinhalese translations.
+
+  _Religion_.--The principal religions may be distributed as
+  follows:--Christians, 349,239; Buddhists, 2,141,404; Hindus, 826,826;
+  Mahommedans, 246,118. Of the Christians, 287,419 are Roman Catholics,
+  and 61,820 are Protestants of various denominations; and of these
+  Christians 319,001 are natives, and 30,238 Europeans. The Mahommedans
+  are the descendants of Arabs (locally termed Moormen) and the Malays.
+  The Tamils, both the inhabitants of the island and the immigrants from
+  India, are Hindus, with the exception of 93,000 Christians. The
+  Sinhalese, numbering 70% of the whole population, are, with the
+  exception of 180,000 Christians, Buddhists. Ceylon may properly be
+  called a Buddhist country, and it is here that Buddhism is found
+  almost in its pristine purity. Ceylon was converted to Buddhism in the
+  3rd century B.C. by the great Augustine of Buddhism, Mahinda, son of
+  the Indian king Asoka; and the extensive ruins throughout Ceylon,
+  especially in the ancient cities of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, bear
+  witness to the sacrifices which kings and people joined in making to
+  create lasting monuments of their faith. The Buddhist temples in the
+  Kandyan country possess valuable lands, the greater portion of which
+  is held by hereditary tenants on the tenure of service. These lands
+  were given out with much care to provide for all that was necessary to
+  maintain the temple and its connected monastery. Some tenants had to
+  do the blacksmiths' work, others the carpenters', while another set of
+  tenants had to cultivate the land reserved for supplying the
+  monastery; others again had to attend at the festivals, and prepare
+  decorations, and carry lamps and banners. In course of time
+  difficulties arose; the English courts were averse to a system under
+  which the rent of lands was paid by hereditary service, and a
+  commission was issued by Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards Lord
+  Rosmead) when governor, to deal with the whole question, to define the
+  services and to enable the tenants to commute these for a money
+  payment. The result of the inquiry was to show that the services,
+  except in a few instances, were not onerous, and that almost without
+  an exception the tenants were willing to continue the system. The
+  anomaly of an ecclesiastical establishment of Anglican and
+  Presbyterian chaplains with a bishop of Colombo paid out of the
+  general revenues has now been abolished in Ceylon, and only the bishop
+  and two or three incumbents remain on the list for life, or till they
+  retire on pension.
+
+  _Education_.--There has been a great advance in public instruction
+  since 1875, through the multiplication of vernacular, Anglo-vernacular
+  and English schools by government, by the different Christian missions
+  and by the Buddhists and Hindus who have come forward to claim the
+  government grant. The government has also started a technical college,
+  and an agricultural school has been reorganized. An agricultural
+  department, recommended by a commission, should profit by the services
+  of the entomologist, mycologist and chemical analyst added by the
+  governor to the staff of the royal botanic gardens at Peradeniya.
+  There are industrial and reformatory schools, which are partially
+  supported by government. In spite of the great advance that has been
+  made, however, at the census of 1901 no fewer than 2,790,235 of the
+  total population were entered as unable to read or write their own
+  tongue. Of this number 1,553,078 were females, showing a very
+  unsatisfactory state of things.
+
+
+    Soil.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The natural soils of Ceylon are composed of quartzose
+  gravel, felspathic clay and sand often of a pure white, blended with
+  or overlaid by brown and red loams, resulting; from the decay of
+  vegetable matter, or the disintegration of the gneiss and hornblende
+  formations. The whole of the great northern extremity of the island
+  consists of a sandy and calcareous admixture, made to yield productive
+  crops of grain, tobacco, cotton and vegetables by the careful industry
+  of the Tamil population, who spare no pains in irrigating and manuring
+  their lands. Between the northern districts and the elevated mountain
+  ranges which overlook the Bintenne and Uva countries are extensive
+  plains of alluvial soil washed down from the table-lands above, where
+  once a teeming population produced large quantities of grain. The
+  remains of ancient works of irrigation bear testimony to the bygone
+  agriculture of these extensive regions now covered by swamps or dense
+  jungle.
+
+  The general character of the soil in the maritime provinces to the
+  east, south and west is sandy. Large tracts of quartzose sand spread
+  along the whole line of sea-coast, some of which, of a pure white, and
+  very deficient in vegetable matter, is admirably adapted to the growth
+  of the cinnamon plant. In the light sandy districts where the soil is
+  perfectly free, and contains a portion of vegetable and mineral loam,
+  the coco-nut palm flourishes in great luxuriance. This is the case
+  along the entire coast line from Kalpitiya to Point de Galle, and
+  farther eastward and northward to Matara, stretching to a distance
+  inland varying from 100 yds. to 3 m. From this light sandy belt as far
+  as the mountain-zone of the Kandyan country the land is mainly
+  composed of low hilly undulations of sandstone and ferruginous clay,
+  incapable of almost any cultivation, but intersected in every
+  direction with extensive valleys and wide plains of a more generous
+  soil, not highly fertile, but still capable, with a little industry,
+  of yielding ample crops of rice.
+
+  The soil of the central province, although frequently containing great
+  quantities of quartzose sand and ferruginous clay, is in many of the
+  more elevated districts of a fine loamy character. Sand sufficiently
+  vegetable and light for rice culture may be seen at all elevations in
+  the hill districts; but the fine chocolate and brown loams overlying
+  gneiss or limestone formations, so admirably adapted for coffee
+  cultivation, are only to be found on the steep sides or along the base
+  of mountain ranges at an elevation varying from 2000 to 4000 ft. Such
+  land, well-timbered, contains in its elements the decomposed particles
+  of the rocks above, blended with the decayed vegetable matter of
+  forests that have for centuries scattered beneath them the germs of
+  fertility. The quantity of really rich coffee land in these districts
+  is but small as compared with the extent of country--vast tracts of
+  open valleys consisting of an indifferent yellow tenacious soil
+  interspersed with many low ranges of quartz rock, but tea is a much
+  hardier plant than coffee, and grows on poorer soil.
+
+  _Irrigation_.--The native rulers covered the whole face of the country
+  with a network of irrigation reservoirs, by which Ceylon was enabled
+  in ancient times to be the great granary of southern Asia. Wars, and
+  the want of a strong hand to guide the agriculture of the country, led
+  to the decay of these ancient works, and large tracts of land, which
+  were formerly highly productive, became swampy wastes or dense
+  forests. The remains of some of the larger irrigation works are
+  amongst the most interesting of the memorials of Ceylon's former
+  greatness. Some of the artificial lakes were of great size. Minneri,
+  formed by damming across the valleys between the low hills which
+  surround it with an embankment 60 ft. wide at the top, is at this day
+  20 m. in circumference. It has recently been restored by government,
+  and is capable of irrigating 15,000 acres; while the Giant's Tank,
+  which has also been restored, irrigates 20,000 acres. Another lake,
+  with an embankment several miles in length, the Kalawewa, was formed
+  by damming back the waters of the Kalaoya, but they have forced their
+  way through the embankment, and in the ancient bed of the lake, or
+  tank, are now many small villages. In connexion with these large tanks
+  were numerous canals and channels for supplying smaller tanks, or for
+  irrigating large tracts of fields. Throughout the district of
+  Nuwarakalawiya every village has its tank. The embankments have been
+  formed with great skill, and advantage has been taken to the utmost of
+  the slightest fall in the land; but they in common with the larger
+  works had been allowed to fall into decay, and were being brought to
+  destruction by the evil practice of cutting them every year to
+  irrigate the fields. The work of restoring these embankments was
+  undertaken by the government, and 100 village tanks were repaired
+  every year, besides eighteen larger works. In 1900 a sum of five
+  million rupees was set apart for these larger undertakings.
+
+  _Cultivation and Products._--The area of uncultivated land is little
+  over 3½ million acres, whereas fully four times that amount is capable
+  of cultivation. A great deal is waste, besides lagoons, tanks,
+  backwaters, &c. Thick forest land does not cover more than 5000 sq. m.
+  Scrub, or chena, and patana grass cover a very great area. Tea, cacao,
+  cardamoms, cinchona, coffee and indiarubber are the products
+  cultivated by European and an increasing number of native planters in
+  the hill country and part of the low country of Ceylon. A great change
+  has been effected in the appearance of the country by the introduction
+  of the tea plant in place of the coffee plant, after the total failure
+  of the latter owing to disease. For some time coffee had been the most
+  important crop. In the old days it grew wild like cinnamon, and was
+  exported so far back as the time of the Portuguese, but was lightly
+  esteemed as an article of European commerce, as the berry was gathered
+  unripe, was imperfectly cured and had little flavour. In 1824 the
+  governor, Sir E. Barnes, introduced coffee cultivation on the West
+  Indian plan; in 1834 the falling off of other sources of supply drew
+  general attention to Ceylon, and by 1841 the Ceylon output had become
+  considerable, and grew steadily (with an interval in 1847 due to a
+  commercial crisis) till 1877 when 272,000 acres were under coffee
+  cultivation, the total export amounting to 103,000,000 lb. Then owing
+  to disease came a crisis, and a rapid decline, and now only a few
+  thousand acres are left. On the failure of the coffee crops planters
+  began extensively to grow the tea plant, which had already been known
+  in the island for several years. By 1882 over 20,000 acres had been
+  planted with tea, but the export that year was under 700,000 lb. Five
+  years later the area planted was 170,000 acres, while the export had
+  risen to nearly 14,000,000 lb. By 1892 there were 262,000 acres
+  covered with tea, and 71,000,000 lb. were that year exported. In 1897,
+  350,000 acres were planted, and the export was 116,000,000 lb. By the
+  beginning of the 20th century, the total area cultivated with tea was
+  not under 390,000 acres, while the estimate of shipments was put at
+  146,000,000 lb. annually. Nearly every plantation has its factory,
+  with the machinery necessary to prepare the leaf as brought in from
+  the bushes until it becomes the tea of commerce. The total amount of
+  capital now invested in the tea industry in Ceylon cannot be less than
+  £10,000,000. The tea-planting industry more than anything else has
+  raised Ceylon from the depressed state to which it fell in 1882.
+
+  Before tea was proved a success, however, _cinchona_ cultivation was
+  found a useful bridge from coffee to the Ceylon planter, who, however,
+  grew it so freely that in one year 15,000,000 lb. bark was shipped,
+  bringing the price of quinine down from 16s. to 1s. 6d. an ounce.
+
+  In a few places, where the rainfall is abundant, rice cultivation is
+  allowed to depend on the natural supply of water, but in most parts
+  the cultivation is not attempted unless there is secured beforehand a
+  certain and sufficient supply, by means of canals or reservoirs. In
+  the hill country every valley and open plain capable of tillage is
+  made to yield its crops of grain, and the steep sides of the hills are
+  cut into terraces, on which are seen waving patches of green rice
+  watered by mountain streams, which are conducted by means of channels
+  ingeniously carried round the spurs of the hills and along the face of
+  acclivities, by earthen water-courses and bamboo aqueducts, so as to
+  fertilize the fields below. These works bear witness to the patience,
+  industry and skill of the Kandyan villagers. In the low country to the
+  north and east and north-west of the hills, irrigation works of a
+  more expensive kind are necessary. In January 1892, the immemorial
+  rent or tax on fields of _paddy_ (rice in the husk) was removed, but
+  not the customs duty on imported rice. But even with the advantage of
+  protection to the extent of 10% in the local markets, there has been
+  no extension of paddy cultivation; on the contrary, the import of
+  grain from India has grown larger year by year. Through the
+  multiplication of irrigation works and the northern railway, rice
+  culture may be sufficiently extended to save some of the large imports
+  (8,000,000 to 9,000,000 bushels annually) now required from India.
+
+  Tobacco is extensively cultivated in various parts of the island, and
+  the growth of particular places, such as Dumbara and Uva, is much
+  prized for local consumption. The tobacco of export is grown in the
+  peninsula of Jaffna. The exports of this article in 1850 were 22,176
+  cwts., valued at £20,698. The cultivation of the plant has not greatly
+  increased of recent years, and is almost entirely in the hands of
+  natives in the northern and parts of the central Province.
+
+  Ceylon has been celebrated since the middle of the 14th century for
+  its cinnamon, and during the period of the Dutch occupation this spice
+  was the principal article of commerce; under their rule and up to 1832
+  its cultivation was a government monopoly. With the abolition of the
+  monopoly the quantity exported increased, but the value declined.
+
+  Unlike the coffee plant, the hardy tea plant grows from sea-level to
+  7000 ft. altitude; but crown forest-lands above 5000 ft. are no longer
+  sold, so that a very large area on the highest mountain ranges and
+  plateaus is still under forest. Moreover, on the tea plantations
+  arboriculture is attended to in a way unknown in 1875; the Australian
+  eucalypts, acacias and grevilleas, Indian and Japanese conifers, and
+  other trees of different lands, are now freely planted for ornament,
+  for protection from wind, for firewood or for timber. A great advance
+  has been made at Hakgalla and Nuwara Eliya, in Upper Uva, and other
+  high districts, in naturalizing English fruits and vegetables. The
+  calamander tree is nearly extinct, and ebony and other fine cabinet
+  woods are getting scarce; but the conservation of forests after the
+  Indian system has been taken in hand under a director and trained
+  officers, and much good has been done. The cinnamon tree (wild in the
+  jungles, cultivated as a shrub in plantations) is almost the only one
+  yielding a trade product which is indigenous to the island. The
+  coco-nut and nearly all other palms have been introduced.
+
+  Among other agricultural products mention must be made of _cacao_, the
+  growth and export of which have steadily extended since coffee failed.
+  Important also is the spice or aromatic product of cardamoms.
+
+  The culture of _indiarubber_ was begun on low-country plantations, and
+  Ceylon rubber is of the best quality in the market. The area of
+  cultivation of the coco-nut palm has been greatly extended since 1875
+  by natives as well as by Europeans. The products of this palm that are
+  exported, apart from those so extensively used in the island itself,
+  exceed in a good year £1,000,000 sterling in value. Viticulture and
+  cotton cultivation, as well as tobacco growing, are being developed
+  along the course of the new northern railway.
+
+  Taking the trade in the products mentioned as a whole, no country can
+  compete with the United Kingdom as a customer of Ceylon. But there is
+  a considerable trade in nearly all products with Germany and America;
+  in cardamoms with India; in cinnamon with Spain, Italy, Belgium,
+  Australia, Austria and France; and in one or other of the products of
+  the coco-nut palm (coco-nuts, coco-nut oil, copra, desiccated
+  coco-nut, poonac, coir) with Belgium, Russia, France, Austria,
+  Australia and Holland.
+
+  _Pearl Fishery._--Pearl oysters are found in the Tambalagam bay, near
+  Trincomalee, but the great banks on which these oysters are usually
+  found lie near Arippu, off the northern part of the west coast of
+  Ceylon, at a distance of from 16 to 20 m. from the shore. They extend
+  for many miles north and south, varying considerably in their size and
+  productiveness. It is generally believed that the oyster arrives at
+  maturity in its seventh year, that the pearl is then of full size and
+  perfect lustre, and that if the oyster be not then secured it will
+  shortly die, and the pearl be lost. It is certain that from some
+  unexplained cause the oysters disappear from their known beds for
+  years together. The Dutch had no fishery from 1732 to 1746, and it
+  failed them again for twenty-seven years from 1768 to 1796. The
+  fishery was again interrupted between 1820 and 1828, also from 1833 to
+  1854, from 1864 to 1873, and again from 1892 to 1900. The fishery of
+  1903 was the first since 1891, and produced a revenue of Rs.829,348,
+  being the third largest on record. In 1797 and 1798 the government
+  sold the privilege of fishing the oyster-beds for £123,982 and
+  £142,780 respectively. From that time the fishery was conducted by the
+  government itself until 1906, when it was leased to the Ceylon Pearl
+  Fisheries Company for twenty years at a rent of £20,000 a year.
+  Professor Herdman, F.R.S., was appointed to inquire and report on the
+  conservation and cultivation of the Ceylon pearl-oyster, and visited
+  Ceylon in January 1902. In consequence of his report, a marine
+  laboratory for the culture of the pearl oysters was established in
+  Galle harbour under the care of Mr Hornell.
+
+  _Mineral Industries._--Commercially there are two established mineral
+  industries:--(1) that of digging for precious stones; and (2) the much
+  more important industry of digging for plumbago or graphite, the one
+  mineral of commercial importance found. Further developments may
+  result in the shipment of the exceptionally pure iron ore found in
+  different parts of Ceylon, though still no coal has been found to be
+  utilized with it. Several places, too--Ruanwella, Rangalla, Rangbodde,
+  &c.--indicate where gold was found in the time of the Kandyan kings;
+  and geologists might possibly indicate a paying quartz reef, as in
+  Mysore. Owing to the greatly increased demand in Europe and America,
+  plumbago in 1899 more than doubled in price, rising from £40 to £80,
+  and even £100 a ton for the finest. Latterly there has been a
+  considerable fall, but the permanent demand is likely to continue keen
+  in consequence mainly of the Ceylon kind being the best for making
+  crucibles. The trade with Great Britain and the United States has
+  slightly decreased, but there has been a rapid expansion in the
+  exports to Belgium and Holland, Russia, Japan and Victoria; and the
+  industry seems to be established on a sound basis. One consequence of
+  its development has been to bring European and American capitalists
+  and Cornish and Italian miners into a field hitherto almost entirely
+  worked by Sinhalese. Though some of the mines were carried to a depth
+  of 1000 ft., the work was generally very primitive in character, and
+  Western methods of working are sure to lead to greater safety and
+  economy. Besides a royalty or customs duty of 5 rupees (about 6s. 8d.)
+  per ton on all plumbago exported, the government issue licenses at
+  moderate rates for the digging of plumbago on crown lands, a certain
+  share of the resulting mineral also going to government. The plumbago
+  industry, in all its departments of mining, carting, preparing,
+  packing and shipping, gives employment to fully 100,000 men and women,
+  still almost entirely Sinhalese. The wealthiest mine-owners, too, are
+  Sinhalese land-owners or merchants.
+
+  As regards _gems_, there are perhaps 500 gem pits or quarries worked
+  in the island during the dry season from November to June in the
+  Ratnapura, Rakwane and Matara districts. Some of these are on a small
+  scale; but altogether several thousands of Sinhalese find a precarious
+  existence in digging for gems. Rich finds of a valuable ruby,
+  sapphire, cat's-eye, amethyst, alexandrite or star stone, are
+  comparatively rare; it is only of the commoner gems, such as
+  moonstone, garnet, spinels, that a steady supply is obtained. The
+  cat's-eye in its finer qualities is peculiar to Ceylon, and is
+  occasionally in great demand, according to the fashion. The obstacle
+  to the investment of European capital in "gemming" has always been the
+  difficulty of preventing the native labourers in the pits---even if
+  practically naked--from concealing and stealing gems. A Chamber of
+  Mines, with a suitable library, was established in Colombo during
+  1899.
+
+  _Manufactures._--Little is done save in the preparation in factories
+  and stores, in Colombo or on the plantations, of the several products
+  exported. The manufacture of jewellery and preparation of precious
+  stones, and, among native women and children, of pillow lace, give
+  employment to several thousands. Iron and engineering works are
+  numerous in Colombo and in the planting districts. The Sinhalese are
+  skilful cabinetmakers and carpenters. The Moormen and Tamils furnish
+  good masons and builders.
+
+  _Commerce._--There has been rapid development since 1882, and the
+  returns for 1903 showed a total value of 22½ millions sterling. The
+  principal imports were articles of food and drink (chiefly rice from
+  India) manufactured metals (with specie), coal, cotton yarns and piece
+  goods from Manchester, machinery and millwork and apparel. The Ceylon
+  customs tariff for imports is one of 6½% _ad valorem_, save in the
+  case of intoxicating drinks, arms, ammunition, opium, &c. The chief
+  export is tea.
+
+  _Roads._--The policy of the Sinhalese rulers of the interior was to
+  exclude strangers from the hill country. Prior to the British
+  occupation of the Kandyan territory in 1815, the only means of access
+  from one district to another was by footpaths through the forests. The
+  Portuguese do not appear to have attempted to open up the country
+  below the hills, and the Dutch confined themselves to the improvement
+  of the inland water-communications. The British government saw from
+  the first the necessity of making roads into the interior for military
+  purposes, and, more recently, for developing the resources of the
+  country. The credit of opening up the country is due mainly to the
+  governor, Sir Edward Barnes, by whose direction the great military
+  road from Colombo to Kandy was made. Gradually all the military
+  stations were connected by broad tracks, which by degrees were bridged
+  and converted into good carriage roads. The governors Sir Henry Ward
+  and Sir Hercules Robinson recognized the importance of giving the
+  coffee planters every assistance in opening up the country, and the
+  result of their policy is that the whole of the hill country is now
+  intersected by a vast number of splendid roads, made at a cost of
+  upwards of £2000 per mile. In 1848 an ordinance was passed to levy
+  from every adult male in the colony (except Buddhist priests and
+  British soldiers) six days' labour on the roads, or an equivalent in
+  money. The labour and money obtained by this wise measure have enabled
+  the local authorities to connect the government highways by minor
+  roads, which bring every village of importance into communication with
+  the principal towns.
+
+  _Railways._--After repeated vain attempts by successive governors to
+  connect Colombo with the interior by railways, Sir Charles MacCarthy
+  successfully set on foot a railway of 75 m. in length from Colombo to
+  Kandy. The railway mileage had developed to 563 m. in 1908, including
+  one of the finest mountain lines in the world--over 160 m. long,
+  rising to 6200 ft. above sea-level, and falling at the terminus to
+  4000 ft. The towns of Kandy, Matale, Gampola, Nawalapitiya, Hatton and
+  Haputale (and practically Nuwara Eliya) in the hills, are thus
+  connected by rail, and in the low country the towns of Kurunegala,
+  Galle, Matara, Kalutara, &c. Most of the debt on the railways (all
+  government lines) is paid off, and the traffic receipts now make up
+  nearly one-third of the general revenue. An Indo-Ceylon railway to
+  connect the Indian and Ceylon systems has been the subject of separate
+  reports and estimates by engineers serving the Ceylon and Indian
+  governments, who have pronounced the work across the coral reef
+  between Manaar and Rameswaram quite feasible. A commission sat in 1903
+  to consider the gauge of an Indo-Ceylon railway. Such a line promised
+  to serve strategic as well as commercial purposes, and to make Colombo
+  more than ever the port for southern India. The headquarters of the
+  mail steamers have been removed from Galle to Colombo, where the
+  colonial government have constructed a magnificent breakwater, and
+  undertaken other harbour works which have greatly augmented both the
+  external trade and the coasting trade of the island.
+
+  _Government._--Ceylon is a crown colony, that is, a possession of the
+  British crown acquired by conquest or cession, the affairs of which
+  are administered by a governor, who receives his appointment from the
+  crown, generally for a term of six years. He is assisted by an
+  executive and a legislative council. The executive council acts as the
+  cabinet of the governor, and consists of the attorney-general, the
+  three principal officers of the colony (namely, the colonial
+  secretary, the treasurer and the auditor-general), and the general in
+  command of the forces. The legislative council includes, besides the
+  governor as president and nine official members, eight unofficial
+  members--one for the Kandyan Sinhalese (or Highlanders) and one for
+  the "Moormen" having been added in 1890. The term of office for the
+  unofficial members is limited to five years, though the governor may
+  reappoint if he choose. The king's advocate, the deputy-advocate, and
+  the surveyor-general are now respectively styled attorney-general,
+  solicitor-general, and director of public works. The civil service has
+  been reconstituted into five classes, not including the colonial
+  secretary as a staff appointment, nor ten cadets; these five classes
+  number seventy officers. The district judges can punish up to two
+  years' imprisonment, and impose fines up to Rs.1000. The police
+  magistrates can pass sentences up to six months' imprisonment, and
+  impose fines of Rs.150. The criminal law has since 1890 been codified
+  on the model of the Indian penal code; criminal and civil procedure
+  have also been the subject of codification. There are twenty-three
+  prisons in the island, mostly small; but convict establishments in and
+  near the capital take all long-sentence prisoners.
+
+  _Banks and Currency._--Ceylon has agencies of the National Bank of
+  India, Bank of Madras, Mercantile Bank of India, Chartered Bank of
+  India, Australia and China, and of the Hong-kong and Shanghai Bank,
+  besides mercantile agencies of other banks, also a government savings
+  bank at Colombo, and post-office savings banks all over the island. In
+  1884, on the failure of the Oriental Bank, the notes in currency were
+  guaranteed by government, and a government note currency was started
+  in supersession of bank notes. The coin currency of Ceylon is in
+  rupees and decimals of a rupee, the value of the standard following
+  that fixed for the Indian rupee, about 1s. 4d. per rupee.
+
+  _Finance._--With the disease of the coffee plant the general revenue
+  fell from Rs.1,70,00,000 in 1877 to Rs.1,20,00,000 in 1882, when
+  trade was in a very depressed state, and the general prosperity of the
+  island was seriously affected. Since then, however, the revenue has
+  steadily risen with the growing export of tea, cocoa-nut produce,
+  plumbago, &c., and in 1902 it reached a total of 28 millions of
+  rupees.     (J. F. D.; C. L.)
+
+_History._--The island of Ceylon was known to the Greeks and Romans
+under the name of _Taprobane_, and in later times Serendib, Sirinduil
+and Zeylan have been employed to designate it by writers of the Western
+and Eastern worlds. Serendib is a corruption of the Sanskrit
+_Sinhaladvïpa_. Like most oriental countries, Ceylon possesses a great
+mass of ancient records, in which fact is so confused with fable that
+they are difficult to distinguish. The labours of George Turnour
+(1799-1843), however, helped to dissipate much of this obscurity, and
+his admirable edition (1836) of the _Mahavamsa_ first made it possible
+to trace the main lines of Sinhalese history.
+
+The Sinhalese inscriptional records, to which George Turnour first
+called attention, and which, through the activity of Sir William Gregory
+in 1874, began to be accurately transcribed and translated, extend from
+the 2nd century B.C. onwards. Among the oldest inscriptions discovered
+are those on the rock cells of the Vessagiri Vihara of Anuradhapura, cut
+in the old Brahma-lipi character. The inscriptions show how powerful was
+the Buddhist hierarchy which dominated the government and national life.
+The royal decrees of successive rulers are mainly concerned with the
+safeguarding of the rights of the hierarchy, but a few contain
+references to executive acts of the kings, as in a slab inscription of
+Kassapa V. (c. A.D. 929-939). In an edict ascribed to Mahinda IV. (c.
+A.D. 975-991) reference is made to the Sinhalese palladium, the famous
+tooth-relic of Buddha, now enshrined at Kandy, and the decree confirms
+tradition as to the identity of the fine stone temple, east of the
+Thuparama at Anuradhapura, with the shrine in which the tooth was first
+deposited when brought from Kalinga in the reign of Kirti Sri Meghavarna
+(A.D. 304-324).
+
+The earliest inhabitants of Ceylon were probably the ancestors of the
+modern Veddahs, a small tribe of primitive hunters who inhabit the
+eastern jungles; and the discovery of palaeolithic stone implements
+buried in some of their caves points to the fact that they represent a
+race which has been in the island for untold ages. As to subsequent
+immigrations, the great Hindu epic, the _Ramayana_, tells the story of
+the conquest of part of the island by the hero Rama and his followers,
+who took the capital of its king Rawana. Whatever element of truth there
+may be in this fable, it certainly represents no permanent occupation.
+The authentic history of Ceylon, so far as it can be traced, begins with
+the landing in 543 B.C. of Vijaya, the founder of the Sinhalese dynasty,
+with a small band of Aryan-speaking followers from the mainland of
+India. Vijaya married the daughter of a native chief, with whose aid he
+proceeded to master the whole island, which he parcelled out among his
+followers, some of whom formed petty kingdoms. The Sinhalese introduced
+from the mainland a comparatively high type of civilization, notably
+agriculture. The earliest of the great irrigation tanks, near
+Anuradhapura, was opened about 504 B.C. by the successor of Vijaya; and
+about this time was established that system of village communities which
+still obtains over a large part of Ceylon.
+
+The island was converted to Buddhism at the beginning of the 3rd century
+B.C. by the preaching of Mahinda, a son of the great Buddhist emperor
+Asoka; a conversion that was followed by an immense multiplication of
+_daghobas_, curious bell-shaped reliquaries of solid stone, and of
+Buddhist monasteries. For the rest, the history of ancient Ceylon is
+largely a monotonous record of Malabar or Tamil invasions, conquests and
+usurpations. Of these latter the first was in 237 B.C. when two officers
+in the cavalry and fleet revolted, overthrew the Sinhalese ruler with
+the aid of his own Tamil mercenaries, and reigned jointly, as Sena I.
+and Guptika, until 215. The Sinhalese Asela then ruled till 205, when he
+was overthrown by a Tamil from Tanjore, Elala, who held the reins of
+power for 44 years. In 161 B.C. Elala was defeated and slain by
+Dutegemunu, still remembered as one of the great Sinhalese heroes of
+Ceylon. The ruins of the great monastery, known as the Brazen Palace, at
+Anuradhapura, remain a memorial of King Dutegemunu's splendour and
+religious zeal. He died in 137 B.C., and thenceforth the history of
+Ceylon is mainly that of further Tamil invasions, of the construction of
+irrigation tanks, and of the immense development of the Buddhist
+monastic system. A tragic episode in the royal family in the 5th century
+A.D. is, however, worthy of notice as connected with one of Ceylon's
+most interesting remains, the Sigiri rock and tank (see SIGIRI). In A.D.
+477 King Datu Sen was murdered by his son, who mounted the throne as
+Kasyapa I., and when he was driven from the capital by the inhabitants,
+infuriated by his crime, built himself a stronghold on the inaccessible
+Sigiri rock, whence he ruled the country until in 495 he was overthrown
+and slain by his brother Mugallana (495-513), who at the time of his
+father's murder had escaped to India.
+
+Towards the close of the 10th century Ceylon was invaded by Rajaraja the
+Great, the Chola king, and after a series of protracted campaigns was
+annexed to his empire in 1005. The island, did not, however, remain long
+under Tamil domination. In 1071 Vijaya Bahu succeeded in re-establishing
+the Sinhalese dynasty, and for a while Ceylon was freed from foreign
+intervention. The most notable of the successors of Vijaya Bahu, and
+indeed of all the long line of Sinhalese rulers, was Parakrama Bahu I.
+(1155-1180), whose colossal statue still stands near Polonnaruwa. He not
+only took advantage of the unaccustomed tranquillity of the country to
+restore the irrigation tanks and the monasteries, but he availed himself
+of a disputed succession to the Pandya throne of Madura to turn the
+tables on his Tamil enemies by invading India. According to the
+_Mahavamsa_ his generals met with immediate and unbroken success;
+according to the more probable account preserved in a long Chola
+inscription at Arpakkam near Kanchi, they were, though at first
+successful, ultimately driven out by a coalition of the southern princes
+(V.A. Smith, _Early History of India_, ed. 1908, p. 411). In any case,
+within thirty years of Parakrama Bahu's death his work was undone; the
+Malabar invaders were once more able to effect a settlement in the
+island, and the Sinhalese capital was moved farther and farther south,
+till in 1410 it had become established at Kotta, now a suburb of
+Colombo. In 1408 a new misfortune had befallen the Sinhalese dynasty; in
+revenge for an insult offered to a Chinese envoy, a Chinese army invaded
+the island and carried away King Vijaya Bahu IV. into captivity. For
+thirty years from this date the Sinhalese kings of Ceylon were tributary
+to China.
+
+When, in 1505, the Portuguese Francisco de Almeida landed in Ceylon, he
+found the island divided into seven kingdoms. Twelve years later the
+viceroy of Goa ordered the erection of a fort at Colombo, for which
+permission was obtained from the king of Kotta; and from this time until
+the advent of the Dutch in the 17th century the Portuguese endeavoured,
+amid perpetual wars with the native kings, who were assisted by Arab and
+other traders jealous of European rivalry, to establish their control
+over the island. They ultimately succeeded so far as the coast was
+concerned, though their dominion scarcely penetrated inland. Materially
+their gain was but small, for the trade of Ceylon was quite
+insignificant; but they had the spiritual satisfaction of prosecuting a
+vigorous propaganda of Catholicism, St Francis Xavier being the most
+notable of the missionaries who at this time laboured in the island.
+
+The fanatical zeal and the masterful attitude of the Portuguese were a
+constant source of dissension with the native rulers, and when the
+Dutch, under Admiral Spilberg, landed on the east coast in 1602 and
+sought the alliance of the king of Kandy in the interior of the island,
+every inducement was held out to them to aid in expelling the
+Portuguese. Nothing seems to have come of this until 1638-1639, when a
+Dutch expedition attacked and razed the Portuguese forts on the east
+coast. In the following year they landed at Negombo, without however
+establishing themselves in any strong post. In 1644 Negombo was captured
+and fortified by the Dutch, while in 1656 they took Colombo, and in 1658
+they drove the Portuguese from Jaffna, their last stronghold in Ceylon.
+
+Pursuing a wiser policy than their predecessors, the Dutch lost no
+opportunity of improving that portion of the country which owned their
+supremacy, and of opening a trade with the interior. More tolerant and
+less disposed to stand upon their dignity than the Portuguese, they
+subordinated political to commercial ends, flattered the native rulers
+by a show of deference, and so far succeeded in their object as to
+render their trade between the island and Holland a source of great
+profit. Many new branches of industry were developed. Public works were
+undertaken on a large scale, and education, if not universally placed
+within the reach of the inhabitants of the maritime provinces, was at
+least well cared for on a broad plan of government supervision. That
+which they had so much improved by policy, they were, however, unable to
+defend by force when the British turned their arms against them. A
+century and a half had wrought great changes in the physical and mental
+status of the Dutch colonists. The territory which in 1658 they had
+slowly gained by undaunted and obstinate bravery, they as rapidly lost
+in 1796 by imbecility and cowardice.
+
+The first intercourse of the English with Ceylon was as far back as
+1763, when an embassy was despatched from Madras to the king of Kandy,
+without, however, leading to any result. On the rupture between Great
+Britain and Holland in 1795, a force was sent against the Dutch
+possessions in Ceylon, where the opposition offered was so slight that
+by the following year the whole of their forts were in the hands of the
+English commander.
+
+The abiding results of the occupation of Ceylon by the Portuguese and
+Dutch is described by Sir Emerson Tennent (_Ceylon_) as follows:
+
+  "The dominion of the Netherlands in Ceylon was nearly equal in
+  duration with that of Portugal, about 140 years; but the policies of
+  the two countries have left a very different impress on the character
+  and institutions of the people amongst whom they lived. The most
+  important bequest left by the utilitarian genius of Holland is the
+  code of Roman Dutch law, which still prevails in the supreme courts of
+  justice, whilst the fanatical propagandism of the Portuguese has
+  reared for itself a monument in the abiding and expanding influence of
+  the Roman Catholic faith. This flourishes in every hamlet and province
+  where it was implanted by the Franciscans, whilst the doctrines of the
+  reformed church of Holland, never preached beyond the walls of the
+  fortresses, are already almost forgotten throughout the island, with
+  the exception of an expiring community at Colombo. Already the
+  language of the Dutch, which they sought to extend by penal
+  enactments, has ceased to be spoken even by their direct descendants,
+  whilst a corrupted Portuguese is to the present day the vernacular of
+  the lower classes in every town of importance. As the practical and
+  sordid government of the Netherlands only recognized the interest of
+  the native population in so far as they were essential to uphold their
+  trading monopolies, their memory was recalled by no agreeable
+  associations: whilst the Portuguese, who, in spite of their cruelties,
+  were identified with the people by the bond of a common faith, excited
+  a feeling of admiration by the boldness of their conflicts with the
+  Kandyans, and the chivalrous though ineffectual defence of their
+  beleaguered fortresses. The Dutch and their proceedings have almost
+  ceased to be remembered by the lowland Sinhalese; but the chiefs of
+  the south and west perpetuate with pride the honorific title Don,
+  accorded to them by their first European conquerors, and still prefix
+  to their ancient patronymics the sonorous Christian names of the
+  Portuguese."
+
+The British forces by which the island had been conquered were those of
+the East India Company, and Ceylon was therefore at first placed under
+its jurisdiction and administered from Madras. The introduction of the
+Madras revenue system, however, together with a host of Malabar
+collectors, led to much discontent, which culminated in rebellion; and
+in 1798 the colony was placed directly under the crown. By the treaty of
+Amiens, in 1803, this situation was regularized, from the international
+point of view, by the formal cession to Great Britain of the former
+Dutch possessions in the island. For a while the British dominion was
+confined to the coast. The central tract of hilly country, hedged in by
+impenetrable forests and precipitous mountain ranges, remained in
+possession of Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha, the last of the Sinhalese dynasty,
+who showed no signs of encouraging communication with his European
+neighbours.
+
+Minor differences led in 1803 to an invasion of the Kandyan territory;
+but sickness, desertion and fatigue proved more formidable adversaries
+to the British forces than the troops of the Sinhalese monarch, and
+peace was eventually concluded upon terms by no means favourable to the
+English. The cruelty and oppression of the king now became so
+intolerable to his subjects that disaffection spread rapidly amongst
+them. Punishments of the most horrible kinds were inflicted, but failed
+to repress the popular indignation; and in 1815 the British, at the
+urgent request of many of the Adigars and other native chiefs, proceeded
+against the tyrant, who was captured near Kandy, and subsequently ended
+his days in exile. With him ended a long line of sovereigns, whose
+pedigree may be traced through upwards of two thousand years.
+
+By a convention entered into with the Kandyan chiefs on the 2nd of March
+1815, the entire sovereignty of the island passed into the hands of the
+British, who in return guaranteed to the inhabitants civil and religious
+liberty. The religion of Buddha was declared inviolable, and its rights,
+ministers and places of worship were to be maintained and protected; the
+laws of the country were to be preserved and administered according to
+established forms; and the royal dues and revenues were to be levied as
+before for the support of government.
+
+With the exception of a serious outbreak in some parts of the interior
+in 1817, which lasted for upwards of a year, and of two minor attempts
+at rebellion easily put down, in 1843 and 1848, the political
+atmosphere of Ceylon has remained undisturbed since the deportation of
+the last king of Kandy.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Major Thomas Skinner, _Fifty Years in Ceylon_, edited by
+  his son, A. Skinner (London, 1891); Constance F. Gordon Gumming, _Two
+  Happy Years in Ceylon_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892); H.W. Cave, _The
+  Ruined Cities of Ceylon_ (London, 1897), and _The Book of Ceylon_
+  (London, 1908); Sir Emerson Tennent, _Ceylon_ (2 vols. 4th ed., 1860);
+  J. Ferguson, _Ceylon in 1903_ (Colombo); J.C. Willis, _Ceylon_
+  (Colombo, 1907). See also E. Müller, _Ancient Inscriptions in Ceylon_,
+  published for the government (1883-1884), and the important
+  archaeological survey in _Epigraphia Zeylonica_, part i., 1904, ii.,
+  1907, iii., 1907, by Don Martino de Silva Wickremasinghe, who in 1899
+  was appointed epigraphist to the Ceylon government. Among other works
+  on special subjects may be mentioned H. Trimen, F.R.S., director of
+  Ceylon Botanic Gardens, _Ceylon Flora_, in 5 vols., completed by Sir
+  Joseph Hooker; Captain V. Legge, F.Z.S., _History of the Birds of
+  Ceylon_ (London, 1870); Dr Copleston, bishop of Colombo, _Buddhism,
+  Primitive and Present, in Magadha and in Ceylon_ (London, 1892);
+  review by Sir West Ridgeway, _Administration of Ceylon, 1896-1903_;
+  Professor W.A. Herdman, _Report on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries,
+  1903-1904_.
+
+
+
+
+CHABAZITE, a mineral species belonging to the group of zeolites. It
+occurs as white to flesh-red crystals which vary from transparent to
+translucent and have a vitreous lustre. The crystals are rhombohedral,
+and the predominating form is often a rhombohedron (r) with interfacial
+angles of 85° 14'; they therefore closely resemble cubes in appearance,
+and the mineral was in fact early (in 1772) described as a cubic
+zeolite. A characteristic feature is the twinning, the crystals being
+frequently interpenetration twins with the principal axis as twin-axis
+(figs, 1, 2). The appearance shown in fig. 1, with the corners of small
+crystals in twinned position projecting from the faces r of the main
+crystal, is especially characteristic of chabazite. Such groups resemble
+the interpenetrating twinned cubes of fluorspar, but the two minerals
+are readily distinguished by their cleavage, fluorspar having a perfect
+octahedral cleavage truncating the corners of the cube, whilst in
+chabazite there are less distinct cleavages parallel to the rhombohedral
+(cube-like) faces. Another type of twinned crystal is represented in
+fig. 2, in which the predominating form is an obtuse hexagonal pyramid
+(t); the faces of these flatter crystals are often rounded, giving rise
+to lenticular shapes, hence the name phacolite (from [Greek: phakos], a
+lentil) for this variety of chabazite.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. Twinned Crystals of Chabazite.]
+
+The hardness of chabazite is 4½, and the specific gravity 2.08-2.16. As
+first noticed by Sir David Brewster in 1830, the crystals often exhibit
+anomalous optical characters: instead of being uniaxial, a basal section
+may be divided into sharply-defined biaxial sectors. Heating of the
+crystals is attended by a loss of water and a change in their optical
+characters; it is probable therefore that the anomalous optical
+characters are dependent on the amount of water present.
+
+Besides phacolite, mentioned above, other varieties of chabazite are
+distinguished. Herschelite and seebachite are essentially the same as
+phacolite. Haydenite is the name given to small yellowish crystals,
+twinned on a rhombohedron plane r, from Jones's Falls near Baltimore in
+Maryland. Acadialite is a reddish chabazite from Nova Scotia (the old
+French name of which is Acadie).
+
+Chemically, chabazite is a complex hydrated calcium and sodium silicate,
+with a small proportion of the sodium replaced by potassium, and
+sometimes a small amount of the calcium replaced by barium and
+strontium. The composition is however variable, and is best expressed
+as an isomorphous mixture of the molecules (Ca, Na2) Al2(SiO4)2 + 4H2O
+and (Ca, Na2) Al2(Si3O8)2 + 8H2O, which are analogous to the felspars.
+Most analyses correspond with a formula midway between these extremes,
+namely, (Ca, Na2)Al2(SiO3)4 + 6H2O.
+
+Chabazite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of
+basaltic rocks; occasionally it has been found in gneisses and schists.
+Well-formed crystals are known from many localities; for example,
+Kilmalcolm in Renfrewshire, the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and
+Oberstein in Germany. Beautiful, clear glassy crystals of the phacolite
+("seebachite") variety occur with phillipsite and radiating bundles of
+brown calcite in cavities in compact basalt near Richmond, Melbourne,
+Victoria. Small crystals have been observed lining the cavities of
+fossil shells from Iceland, and in the recent deposits of the hot
+springs of Plombières and Bourbonne-les-Bains in France.
+
+Gmelinite and levynite are other species of zeolites which may be
+mentioned here, since they are closely related to chabazite, and like it
+are rhombohedral and frequently twinned. Gmelinite forms large flesh-red
+crystals usually of hexagonal habit, and was early known as
+soda-chabazite, it having the composition of chabazite but with sodium
+predominating over calcium (Na2, Ca)Al2(SiO3)46H2O. The formula of
+levynite is CaAl2Si3O10 + 5H2O.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHABLIS, a town of north-central France, in the department of Yonne, on
+the left bank of the Serein, 14 m. E. by N. of Auxerre by road. Pop.
+(1906) 2227. Its church of St Martin belongs to the end of the 12th
+century. The town gives its name to a well-known white wine produced in
+the neighbouring vineyards, of which the most esteemed are Clos,
+Bouguerots, Moutonne, Grenouille, Montmaires, Lys and Vaux-Désirs. There
+are manufactures of biscuits.
+
+
+
+
+CHABOT, FRANÇOIS (1757-1794), French revolutionist, had been a
+Franciscan friar before the Revolution, and after the civil constitution
+of the clergy continued to act as "constitutional" priest, becoming
+grand vicar of Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois. Then he was elected to
+the Legislative Assembly, sitting at the extreme left, and forming with
+C. Bazire and Merlin de Thionville the "Cordelier trio." Re-elected to
+the Convention he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and opposed the
+proposal to prosecute the authors of the massacre of September, "because
+among them there are heroes of Jemmapes." Some of his sayings are well
+known, such as that Christ was the first "_sans-culotte_." Compromised
+in the falsification of a decree suppressing the India Company and in a
+plot to bribe certain members of the Convention, especially Fabre
+d'Eglantine and C. Bazire, he was arrested, brought before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal, and was condemned and executed at the same time
+as the Dantonists, who protested against being associated with such a
+"_fripon_."
+
+
+
+
+CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE, known as CHABOT DE L'ALLIER (1758-1819), French
+jurist and statesman, was president of the tribunal of Montluçon when he
+was elected as a deputy _suppléant_ to the National Convention. A member
+of the council of the Ancients, then of the Tribunate, he was president
+of the latter when the peace of Amiens was signed. He had a resolution
+adopted, tending to give Napoleon Bonaparte the consulship for life; and
+in 1804 supported the proposal to establish a hereditary monarchy.
+Napoleon named him inspector-general of the law schools, then judge of
+the court of cassation. He published various legal works, e.g. _Tableau
+de la législation ancienne sur les successions et de la législation
+nouvelle établie par le code civil_ (Paris, 1804), and _Questions
+fransitoires sur le code Napoléon_ (Paris, 1809).
+
+
+
+
+CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE, SEIGNEUR DE BRION, COUNT OF CHARNY AND BUZANÇAIS
+(c. 1492-1543), admiral of France. The Chabot family was one of the
+oldest and most powerful in Poitou. Philippe was a cadet of the Jarnac
+branch. He was a companion of Francis I. as a child, and on that king's
+accession was loaded with honours and estates. After the battle of Pavia
+he was made admiral of France and governor of Burgundy (1526), and
+shared with Anne de Montmorency the direction of affairs. He was at the
+height of his power in 1535, and commanded the army for the invasion of
+the states of the duke of Savoy; but in the campaigns of 1536 and 1537
+he was eclipsed by Montmorency, and from that moment his influence began
+to wane. He was accused by his enemies of peculation, and condemned on
+the 10th of February 1541 to a fine of 1,500,000 livres, to banishment,
+and to the confiscation of his estates. Through the good offices of
+Madam d'Étampes, however, he obtained the king's pardon almost
+immediately (March 1541), was reinstated in his posts, and regained his
+estates and even his influence, while Montmorency in his turn was
+disgraced. But his health was affected by these troubles, and he died
+soon afterwards on the 1st of June 1543. His tomb in the Louvre, by an
+unknown sculptor, is a fine example of French Renaissance work. It was
+his nephew, Guy Chabot, seigneur de Jarnac, who fought the famous duel
+with François de Vivonne, seigneur de la Châtaigneraie, in 1547, at the
+beginning of the reign of Henry II.
+
+  The main authorities for Chabot's life are his MS. correspondence in
+  the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and contemporary memoirs. See also
+  E de Barthélemy, "Chabot de Brion," in the _Revue des questions
+  historiques_ (vol. xx. 1876); Martineau, "L'Amiral Chabot," in the
+  _Positions des thèses de l'École des Chartes_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+CHABRIAS (4th century B.C.), a celebrated Athenian general. In 388 B.C.
+he defeated the Spartans at Aegina and commanded the fleet sent to
+assist Evagoras, king of Cyprus, against the Persians. In 378, when
+Athens entered into an alliance with, Thebes against Sparta, he defeated
+Agesilaus near Thebes. On this occasion he invented a manoeuvre, which
+consisted in receiving a charge on the left knee, with shields resting
+on the ground and spears pointed against the enemy. In 376 he gained a
+decisive victory over the Spartan fleet off Naxos, but, when he might
+have destroyed the Spartan fleet, remembering the fate of the generals
+at Arginusae, he delayed to pick up the bodies of his dead. Later, when
+the Athenians changed sides and joined the Spartans, he repulsed
+Epaminondas before the walls of Corinth. In 366, together with
+Callistratus, he was accused of treachery in advising the surrender of
+Oropus to the Thebans. He was acquitted, and soon after he accepted a
+command under Tachos, king of Egypt, who had revolted against Persia.
+But on the outbreak of the Social War (357) he joined Chares in the
+command of the Athenian fleet. He lost his life in an attack on the
+island of Chios.
+
+  See Cornelius Nepos, _Chabrias_; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, v. 1-4; Diod.
+  Sic. xv. 29-34; and C. Rehdantz, _Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae, et
+  Timothei_ (1845); art. DELIAN LEAGUE, section B, and authorities there
+  quoted.
+
+
+
+
+CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL (1841-1894), French composer, was born at
+Ambert, Puy de Dôme, on the 18th of January 1841. At first he only
+cultivated music as an amateur, and it was not until 1879 that he threw
+up an administration appointment in order to devote himself entirely to
+the art. He had two years previously written an _opéra bouffe_ entitled
+_L'Étoile_, which was performed at the Bouffes Parisiens. In 1881 he was
+appointed chorus-master of the concerts then recently established by
+Lamoureux. In 1883 he composed the brilliant orchestral rhapsody
+entitled _España_, the themes of which he had jotted down when
+travelling in Spain. His opera _Gwendoline_ was brought out with
+considerable success at Brussels on the 10th of April 1886, and was
+given later at the Paris Grand Opéra. The following year 1887, _Le Roi
+malgré lui_, an opera of a lighter description, was produced in Paris at
+the Opéra Comique, its run being interrupted by the terrible fire by
+which this theatre was destroyed. His last opera, _Briseis_, was left
+unfinished, and performed in a fragmentary condition at the Paris Opéra,
+after the composer's death in Paris on the 13th of September 1894.
+Chabrier was also the author of a set of piano pieces entitled _Pièces
+pittoresques, Valses romantiques_, for two pianos, a fantasia for horn
+and piano, &c. His great admiration for Wagner asserted itself in
+_Gwendoline_, a work which, in spite of inequalities due to want of
+experience, is animated by a high artistic ideal, is poetically
+conceived, and shows considerable harmonic originality, besides a
+thorough mastery over the treatment of the orchestra. The
+characteristics of _Le Roi malgré lui_ have been well summed up by M.
+Joncières when he alludes to "cette verve inépuisable, ces rythmes
+endiablés, cette exubérance de gaieté et de vigueur, à laquelle venait
+se joindre la note mélancolique et émue." Chabrier's premature death
+prevented him from giving the full measure of his worth.
+
+
+
+
+CHACMA, the Hottentot name of the Cape baboon, _Papio porcarius_, a
+species inhabiting the mountains of South Africa as far north as the
+Zambezi. Of the approximate size of an English mastiff, this powerful
+baboon is blackish grey in colour with a tinge of green due to the
+yellow rings on most of the hairs. Unlike most of its tribe, it is a
+good climber; and where wooded cliffs are not available, will take up
+its quarters in tall trees. Chacmas frequently strip orchards and
+fruit-gardens, break and devour ostrich eggs, and kill lambs and kids
+for the sake of the milk in their stomachs.
+
+
+
+
+CHACO, a territory of northern Argentina, part of a large district known
+as the Gran Chaco, bounded N. by the territory of Formosa, E. by
+Paraguay and Corrientes, S. by Santa Fé, and W. by Santiago del Estero
+and Salta. The Bermejo river forms its northern boundary, and the
+Paraguay and Paraná rivers its eastern; these rivers are its only means
+of communication. Pop. (1895) 10,422; (1904, est.) 13,937; area, 52,741
+sq. m. The northern part consists of a vast plain filled with numberless
+lagoons; the southern part is slightly higher and is covered with dense
+forests, occasionally broken by open grassy spaces. Its forests contain
+many species of trees of great economic value; among them is the
+_quebracho_, which is exported for the tannin which it contains. The
+capital, Resistencia, with an estimated population of 3500 in 1904, is
+situated on the Paraná river opposite the city of Corrientes. There is
+railway communication between Santa Fé and La Sabana, an insignificant
+timber-cutting village on the southern frontier. In the territory there
+are still several tribes of uncivilized Indians, who occasionally raid
+the neighbouring settlements of Santa Fé.
+
+
+
+
+CHACONNE (Span. _chacona_), a slow dance, introduced into Spain by the
+Moors, now obsolete. It resembles the Passacaglia. The word is used also
+of the music composed for this dance--a slow stately movement in ¾ time.
+Such a movement was often introduced into a sonata, and formed the
+conventional finale to an opera or ballet until the time of Gluck.
+
+
+
+
+CHAD [CEADDA], SAINT (d. 672), brother of Cedd, whom he succeeded as
+abbot at Lastingham, was consecrated bishop of the Northumbrians by
+Wine, the West Saxon bishop, at the request of Oswio in 664. On the
+return of Wilfrid from France, where he had been sent to be consecrated
+to the same see, a dispute of course arose, which was settled by
+Theodore in favour of Wilfrid after three years had passed. Chad
+thereupon retired to Lastingham, whence with the permission of Oswio he
+was summoned by Wulfhere of Mercia to succeed his bishop Jaruman, who
+died 667. Chad built a monastery at Barrow in Lincolnshire and fixed his
+see at Lichfield. He died after he had held his bishopric in Mercia two
+and a half years, and was succeeded by Wynfrith. Bede gives a beautiful
+character of Chad.
+
+  See Bede's _Hist. Eccl._ edited by C. Plummer, iii. 23, 24, 28; iv. 2,
+  3 (Oxford, 1896); Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_, xiv., xv. edited by J.
+  Raine, Rolls Series (London, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+CHAD, a lake of northern Central Africa lying between 12° 50' and 14°
+10' N. and 13° and 15° E. The lake is situated about 850 ft. above the
+sea in the borderland between the fertile and wooded regions of the
+Sudan on the south and the arid steppes which merge into the Sahara on
+the north. The area of the lake is shrinking owing to the progressive
+desiccation of the country, Saharan climate and conditions replacing
+those of the Sudan. The drying-up process has been comparatively rapid
+since the middle of the 19th century, a town which in 1850 was on the
+southern margin of the lake being in 1905 over 20 m. from it. On the
+west the shore is perfectly flat, so that a slight rise in the water
+causes the inundation of a considerable area--a fact not without its
+influence on the estimates made at varying periods as to the size of the
+lake. Around the north-west and north shores is a continuous chain of
+gently sloping sand-hills covered with bush. This region abounds in big
+game and birds are plentiful. In the east, the country of Kanem, the
+desiccation has been most marked. Along this coast is a continuous chain
+of islands running from north-west to south-east. But what were islands
+when viewed by Overweg in 1851, formed in 1903 part of the mainland and
+new islands had arisen in the lake. They are generally low, being
+composed of sand and clay, and lie from 5 to 20 m. from the shore, which
+throughout its eastern side nowhere faces open water. The channels
+between the islands do not exceed 2 m. in width. Two principal groups
+are distinguished, the Kuri archipelago in the south, and the Buduma in
+the north. The inhabitants of the last-named islands were noted pirates
+until reduced to order by the French. The coast-line is, in general,
+undefined and marshy, and broken into numerous bays and peninsulas. It
+is also, especially on the east, lined by lagoons which communicate with
+the lake by intricate channels. The lake is nowhere of great depth, and
+about midway numerous mud-banks, marshes, islands and dense growths of
+aqueous plants stretch across its surface. Another stretch of marsh
+usually cuts off the northernmost part of the lake from the central
+sections. The open water varies in depth from 3 ft. in the north-west to
+over 20 in the south, where desiccation is less apparent. Fed by the
+Shari (q.v.) and other rivers, the lake has no outlet and its area
+varies according to the season. The flood water brought down by the
+Shari in December and January causes the lake to rise to a maximum of 24
+ft., the water spreading over low-lying ground, left dry again in May or
+June. But after several seasons of heavy rainfall the waters have
+remained for years beyond their low-water level. Nevertheless the
+secular shrinking goes on, the loss by evaporation and percolation
+exceeding the amount of water received; whilst, on the average, the
+rainfall is diminishing. In 1870 the lake rose to an exceptional height,
+but since then, save in 1897, there has been only the normal seasonal
+rise. The prevalent north-east wind causes at times a heavy swell on the
+lake. Fish abound in its waters, which are sweet, save at low-level,
+when they become brackish. The lagoons are believed to act as purifying
+pans in which the greater part of the salt in the water is precipitated.
+In the south-west end of the lake the water is yellow, caused by banks
+of clay; elsewhere it is clear.
+
+[Illustration: Lake Chad]
+
+The southern basin of Chad is described under the Shari, which empties
+its waters into the lake about the middle of the southern shore, forming
+a delta of considerable extent. Beyond the south-east corner of the lake
+is a depression known as the Bahr-el-Ghazal (not to be confounded with
+the Nile affluent of the same name). This depression is the termination
+of what is in all probability the bed of one of the dried-up Saharan
+rivers. Coming from the Tibesti highlands the Bahr-el-Ghazal has a
+south-westerly trend to Lake Chad. Near the lake the valley was formerly
+swampy, and at high-water the lake overflowed into it. There was also at
+one time communication between the Shari and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, so that
+the water of the first-named stream reached Chad by way of the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal. There is now neither inlet nor outlet to the lake in
+this direction, the mouth of the Ghazal having become a fertile millet
+field. There is still, however, a distinct current from the Shari delta
+to the east end of the lake--known to the natives, like the depression
+beyond, as the Bahr-el-Ghazal--indicative of the former overflow outlet.
+
+Besides the Shari, the only important stream entering Lake Chad is the
+Waube or Yo (otherwise the Komadugu Yobe), which rises near Kano, and
+flowing eastward enters the lake on its western side 40 m. north of
+Kuka. In the rains the Waube carries down a considerable body of water
+to the lake.
+
+Lake Chad is supposed to have been known by report to Ptolemy, and is
+identified by some writers with the Kura lake of the middle ages. It was
+first seen by white men in 1823 when it was reached by way of Tripoli by
+the British expedition under Dr Walter Oudney, R.N., the other members
+being Captain Hugh Clapperton and Major (afterwards Lieut.-Colonel)
+Dixon Denham. By them the lake was named Waterloo. In 1850 James
+Richardson, accompanied by Heinrich Barth and Adolf Overweg, reached the
+lake, also via Tripoli, and Overweg was the first European to navigate
+its waters (1851). The lake was visited by Eduard Vogel (1855) and by
+Gustav Nachtigal (1870), the last-named investigating its hydrography in
+some detail. In 1890-1893 its shores were divided by treaty between
+Great Britain, France and Germany. The first of these nations to make
+good its footing in the region was France. A small steamer, brought from
+the Congo by Emile Gentil, was in 1897 launched on the Shari, and
+reaching the Chad, navigated the southern part of the lake.
+Communication between Algeria and Lake Chad by way of the Sahara was
+opened, after repeated failures, by the French explorer F. Foureau in
+1899-1900. At the same time a French officer, Lieut. Joalland, reached
+the lake from the middle Niger, continuing his journey round the north
+end to Kanem. A British force under Colonel T.L.N. Morland visited the
+lake at the beginning of 1902, and in May of the same year the Germans
+first reached it from Cameroon. In 1902-1903 French officers under
+Colonel Destenave made detailed surveys of the south-eastern and eastern
+shores and the adjacent islands. In 1903 Captain E. Lenfant, also a
+French officer, succeeded in reaching the lake (which he
+circumnavigated) via the Benue, proving the existence of water
+communication between the Shari and the Niger. In 1905 Lieut. Boyd
+Alexander, a British officer, further explored the lake, which then
+contained few stretches of open water. The lake is bordered W. and S.W.
+by Bornu, which is partly in the British protectorate of Nigeria and
+partly in the German protectorate of Cameroon. Bagirmi to the S.E. of
+the lake and Kanem to the N.E. are both French possessions. The north
+and north-west shores also belong to France. One of the ancient trade
+routes across the Sahara--that from Tripoli to Kuka in Bornu--strikes
+the lake at its north-west corner, but this has lost much of its former
+importance.
+
+  See the works of Denham, Clapperton, Barth and Nachtigal cited in the
+  biographical notices; _Geog. Journal_, vol. xxiv. (1904); Capt. Tilho
+  in _La Géographie_ (March 1906); Boyd Alexander, _From the Niger to
+  the Nile_, vol. i. (London, 1907); A. Chevalier, _Mission Chari-Lac
+  Tchad 1902-1904_ (Paris 1908); E. Lenfant, _La Grande Route du Tchad_
+  (Paris, 1905); H. Freydenberg, _Étude sur le Tchad et le bassin du
+  Chari_ (Paris, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+CHADDERTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England, within the
+parliamentary borough of Oldham (q.v.). Pop. (1901) 24,892. Cotton and
+chemical works, and the coal-mines of the neighbourhood, employ the
+large industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+CHADERTON, LAURENCE (?1536-1640), Puritan divine, was born at Lees Hall,
+in the parish of Oldham, Lancashire, probably in September 1536, being
+the second son of Edmund Chaderton, a gentleman of an ancient and
+wealthy family, and a zealous Catholic. Under the tuition of Laurence
+Vaux, a priest, he became an able scholar. In 1564 he entered Christ's
+College, Cambridge, where, after a short time, he formally adopted the
+reformed doctrines and was in consequence disinherited by his father. In
+1567 he was elected a fellow of his college, and subsequently was chosen
+lecturer of St Clement's church, Cambridge, where he preached to
+admiring audiences for many years. He was a man of moderate views,
+though numbering among his friends extremists like Cartwright and
+Perkins. So great was his reputation that when Sir Walter Mildmay
+founded Emmanuel College in 1584 he chose Chaderton for the first
+master, and on his expressing some reluctance, declared that if he would
+not accept the office the foundation should not go on. In 1604 Chaderton
+was appointed one of the four divines for managing the cause of the
+Puritans at the Hampton Court conference; and he was also one of the
+translators of the Bible. In 1578 he had taken the degree of B.D., and
+in 1613 he was created D.D. At this period he made provision for twelve
+fellows and above forty scholars in Emmanuel College. Fearing that he
+might have a successor who held Arminian doctrines, he resigned the
+mastership in favour of John Preston, but survived him, and lived also
+to see the college presided over successively by William Sancroft (or
+Sandcroft) and Richard Holdsworth. He died on the 13th of November 1640
+at the age of about 103, preserving his bodily and mental faculties to
+the end.
+
+  Chaderton published a sermon preached at St Paul's Cross about 1580,
+  and a treatise of his _On Justification_ was printed by Anthony
+  Thysius, professor of divinity at Leiden. Some other works by him on
+  theological subjects remain in manuscript.
+
+
+
+
+CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN (1800-1890), English sanitary reformer, was born at
+Longsight, near Manchester, on the 24th of January 1800. Called to the
+bar without any independent means, he sought to support himself by
+literary work, and his essays in the _Westminster Review_ (mainly on
+different methods of applying scientific knowledge to the business of
+government) introduced him to the notice of Jeremy Bentham, who engaged
+him as a literary assistant and left him a handsome legacy. In 1832 he
+was employed by the royal commission appointed to inquire into the
+operation of the poor laws, and in 1833 he was made a full member of
+that body. In conjunction with Nassau W. Senior he drafted the
+celebrated report of 1834 which procured the reform of the old poor law.
+His special contribution was the institution of the union as the area of
+administration. He favoured, however, a much more centralized system of
+administration than was adopted, and he never ceased to complain that
+the reform of 1834 was fatally marred by the rejection of his views,
+which contemplated the management of poor-law relief by salaried
+officers controlled from a central board, the boards of guardians acting
+merely as inspectors. In 1834 he was appointed secretary to the poor law
+commissioners. Finding himself unable to administer in accordance with
+his own views an act of which he was largely the author, his relations
+with his official chiefs became much strained, and the disagreement led,
+among other causes, to the dissolution of the poor law commission in
+1846. Chadwick's chief contribution to political controversy was his
+constant advocacy of entrusting certain departments of local affairs to
+trained and selected experts, instead of to representatives elected on
+the principle of local self-government. While still officially connected
+with the poor law he had taken up the question of sanitation in
+conjunction with Dr Southwood Smith, and their joint labours produced a
+most salutary improvement in the public health. His report on "The
+Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population" (1842) is a valuable
+historical document. He was a commissioner of the Board of Health from
+its establishment in 1848 to its abolition in 1854, when he retired upon
+a pension, and occupied the remainder of his life in voluntary
+contributions to sanitary and economical questions. He died at East
+Sheen, Surrey, on the 6th of July 1890. He had been made K.C.B. in 1889.
+
+  See a volume on _The Evils of Disunity in Central and Local
+  Administration ... and the New Centralization for the People_, by
+  Edwin Chadwick (1885); also _The Health of Nations, a Review of the
+  Works of Edwin Chadwick, with a Biographical Introduction_, by Sir B.
+  W. Richardson (1887).
+
+
+
+
+CHAEREMON, Athenian dramatist of the first half of the 4th century B.C.
+He is generally considered a tragic poet. Aristotle (_Rhetoric_, iii.
+12) says his works were intended for reading, not for representation.
+According to Suidas, he was also a comic poet, and the title of at least
+one of his plays (_Achilles Slayer of Thersites_) seems to indicate that
+it was a satyric drama. His _Centaurus_ is described by Aristotle
+(_Poet._ i. 12) as a rhapsody in all kinds of metres. The fragments of
+Chaeremon are distinguished by correctness of form and facility of
+rhythm, but marred by a florid and affected style reminiscent of
+Agathon. He especially excelled in descriptions (irrelevantly
+introduced) dealing with such subjects as flowers and female beauty. It
+is not agreed whether he is the author of three epigrams in the Greek
+Anthology (Palatine vii. 469, 720, 721) which bear his name.
+
+  See H. Bartsch, _De Chaeremone Poëta tragico_ (1843); fragments in A.
+  Nauck, _Fragmenta Tragicorum Graecorum_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAEREMON, of Alexandria (1st century A.D.), Stoic philosopher and
+grammarian. He was superintendent of the portion of the Alexandrian
+library that was kept in the temple of Serapis, and as custodian and
+expounder of the sacred books ([Greek: ierogrammateus] sacred scribe)
+belonged to the higher ranks of the priesthood. In A.D. 49 he was
+summoned to Rome, with Alexander of Aegae, to become tutor to the
+youthful Nero. He was the author of a _History of Egypt_; of works on
+_Comets, Egyptian Astrology_, and _Hieroglyphics_; and of a grammatical
+treatise on _Expletive Conjunctions_ ([Greek: syndesmoi
+paraplêrôpaeromatikoi]). Chaeremon was the chief of the party which
+explained the Egyptian religious system as a mere allegory of the
+worship of nature. His books were not intended to represent the ideas of
+his Egyptian contemporaries; their chief object was to give a
+description of the sanctity and symbolical secrets of ancient Egypt. He
+can hardly be identical with the Chaeremon who accompanied (c. 26 B.C.;
+Strabo xvii. p. 806) Aelius Gallus, praefect of Egypt, on a journey into
+the interior of the country.
+
+  Fragments in C. Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, iii.
+  495-499.
+
+
+
+
+CHAERONEIA, or CHAERONEA, an ancient town of Boeotia, said by some to be
+the Homeric Arne, situated about 7 m. W. of Orchomenus. Until the 4th
+century B.C. it was a dependency of Orchomenus, and at all times it
+played but a subordinate part in Boeotian politics. Its importance lay
+in its strategic position near the head of the defile which presents the
+last serious obstacle to an invader in central Greece. Two great battles
+were fought on this site in antiquity. In 338 B.C. Philip II. and
+Alexander of Macedon were confronted by a confederate host from central
+Greece and Peloponnese under the leadership of Thebes and Athens, which
+here made the last stand on behalf of Greek liberty. A hard-fought
+conflict, in which the Greek infantry displayed admirable firmness, was
+decided in favour of Philip through the superior organization of his
+army. In 86 B.C. the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla defeated the army
+of Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, near Chaeroneia. The latter's
+enormous numerical superiority was neutralized by Sulla's judicious
+choice of ground and the steadiness of his legionaries; the Asiatics
+after the failure of their attack were worn down and almost annihilated.
+Chaeroneia is also notable as the birthplace of Plutarch, who returned
+to his native town in old age, and was held in honour by its citizens
+for many successive generations. Pausanias (ix. 40) mentions the divine
+honours accorded at Chaeroneia to the sceptre of Agamemnon, the work of
+Hephaestus (cf. _Iliad_, ii. 101). The site of the town is partly
+occupied by the village of Kapraena; the ancient citadel was known as
+the Petrachus, and there is a theatre cut in the rock. A colossal seated
+lion a little to the S.E. of the site marks the grave of the Boeotians
+who fell fighting against Philip; this lion was found broken to pieces;
+the tradition that it was blown up by Odysseus Androutsos is incorrect
+(see Murray, _Handbook for Greece_, ed. 5, 1884, p. 409). It has now
+been restored and re-erected (1905).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Thucydides iv. 76; Diodorus xvi. 85-86; Plutarch,
+  _Alexander_, ch. 9; _Sulla_, chs. 16-19; Appian, _Mithradatica_, chs.
+  42-45; W.M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London, 1835), ii.
+  112-117, 192-201; B.V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p.
+  292; J. Kromayer, _Antike Schlachtfelder in Griechenland_ (Berlin,
+  1903), pp. 127-195; G. Sotiriades in _Athen. Mitteil._ 1903, pp. 301
+  ff.; 1905, p. 120; 1906, p. 396; [Greek: Ephêm. Archaiol.], 1908, p.
+  65.
+
+
+
+
+CHAETOGNATHA, the name given by R. Leuckhart to a small group of
+transparent and for the most part pelagic organisms, whose position in
+the animal kingdom is a very isolated one. Only three genera, _Sagitta_,
+_Spadella_ and _Krohnia_, are recognised, and the number of species is
+small. Nevertheless these animals exist in extraordinary quantities, so
+that at certain seasons and under certain conditions the surface of the
+sea seems almost stiff with the incredible multitude of organisms which
+pervade it. Rough seas, &c., cause them to seek safety in dropping into
+deeper water. Deep-sea forms also occur, but in spite of this the group
+is essentially pelagic.
+
+[Illustration: _Spadella cephaloptera_ (Busch).
+
+  St, Septa dividing body-cavity transversely.
+  g², Cerebral ganglia.
+  n¹, Commissure uniting this with ventral ganglion (not shown in fig.).
+  n², Nerve uniting cerebral ganglia with small ganglia on head.
+  nr, Olfactory nerve.
+  d, Alimentary canal.
+  r, Olfactory organ.
+  te, Tentacle.
+  t, Tactile hairs springing from surface of body.
+  e, Ovary.
+  el, Oviduct.
+  ho, Testes.
+  sg, Vas deferens.
+  f², f³, Lateral and caudal fins.
+  sb, Seminal pouch.
+
+  The eyes are indicated as black dots behind the cerebral ganglia.]
+
+  As a rule the body is some 1 to 2 or 3 cm. in length, though some
+  species are larger, by 4 or 5 mm. in breadth, and it is shaped
+  something like a torpedo with side flanges and a slightly swollen,
+  rounded head. It can be divided into three regions--(i.) head, (ii.)
+  trunk, and (iii.) tail, separated from one another by two transverse
+  septa. The almost spherical head is covered by a hood which can be
+  retracted; it bears upon its side a number of sickle-shaped, chitinous
+  hooks and one or more short rows of low spines--both of these features
+  are used in characterizing the various species. A pair of eyes lie
+  dorsally and behind them is a closed circlet, often pulled out into
+  various shapes, of modified epidermis, to which an olfactory function
+  has been attributed. The interior of the head is filled up with masses
+  of muscle fibres which are mainly occupied with moving the
+  sickle-shaped hooks. The trunk contains a spacious body-cavity filled
+  during the breeding season by the swollen ovaries, and the same is
+  true of the tail if we substitute testes for ovaries.
+
+  The skin consists of a transparent cuticle excreted by the underlying
+  ectoderm, the cells of which though usually one-layered may be heaped
+  up into several layers in the head; beneath this is a basement
+  membrane, and then a layer of longitudinal muscle fibres which are
+  limited inside by a layer of peritoneal cells. The muscles are
+  striated and arranged in four quadrants, two dorso-lateral and two
+  ventro-lateral, an arrangement which recalls that of the Nematoda,
+  whilst in their histology they somewhat resemble the muscles of the
+  Oligochaeta. Along each side of the body stretches a horizontal fin
+  and a similar flange surrounds the tail. Into these fins, which are
+  largely cuticular and strengthened by radiating bars, a single layer
+  of ectoderm cells projects.
+
+  The mouth, a longitudinal slit, opens on to the ventral surface of the
+  head. It leads into a straight alimentary canal whose walls consist of
+  a layer of ciliated cells ensheathed in a thin layer of peritoneal
+  cells. There is no armature, and no glands, and the whole tract can
+  only be divided into an oesophagus and an intestine. The latter runs
+  with no twists or coils straight to the anus, which is situated at the
+  junction of the trunk with the tail. A median mesentery running
+  dorso-ventrally supports the alimentary canal and is continued behind
+  it into the tail, thus dividing the body cavity into two lateral
+  halves.
+
+  There are no specialized circulatory, respiratory or excretory organs.
+
+  The nervous system consists of a cerebral ganglion in the head, a
+  conspicuous ventral ganglion in the trunk, and of lateral commissures
+  uniting these ganglia on each side. The whole of this system has
+  retained its primitive connexion with the ectoderm. The cerebral
+  ganglion also gives off a nerve on each side to a pair of
+  small-ganglia, united by a median commissure, which have sunk into and
+  control the muscles of the head. As in other animals there is a minute
+  but extensive nervous plexus, which permeates the whole body and takes
+  its origin from the chief ganglia. In addition to the eyes and the
+  olfactory circle on the head scattered tactile papillae are found on
+  the ectoderm.
+
+  Chaetognatha are hermaphrodite. The ovaries are attached to the side
+  walls of the trunk region; between them and the body wall lie the two
+  oviducts whose inner and anterior end is described as closed, their
+  outer ends opening one on each side of the anus, where the trunk joins
+  the tail. According to Miss N.M. Stevens the so-called oviduct acts
+  only as a "sperm-duct" or receptaculum seminis. The spermatozoa enter
+  it and pass through its walls and traverse a minute duct formed of two
+  accessory cells, and finally enter the ripe ovum. Temporary oviducts
+  are formed between the "sperm-duct" and the germinal epithelium at
+  each oviposition. A number of ova ripen simultaneously. The two testes
+  lie in the tail and are formed by lateral proliferations of the living
+  peritoneal cells. These break off and, lying in the coelomic fluid,
+  break up into spermatozoa. They pass out through short vasa deferentia
+  with internal ciliated funnels, sometimes an enlargement on their
+  course--the seminal vesicles--and a minute external pore situated on
+  the side of the tail.
+
+  With hardly an exception the transparent eggs are laid into the sea
+  and float on its surface. The development is direct and there is no
+  larval stage. The segmentation is complete; one side of the hollow
+  blastosphere invaginates and forms a gastrula. The blastopore closes,
+  a new mouth and a new anus subsequently arising. The archenteron gives
+  off two lateral pounchs and thus becomes trilobed. The middle lobe
+  forms the alimentary canal; it closes behind and opens to the exterior
+  anteriorly and so makes the mouth. The two lateral lobes contain the
+  coelom; each separates off in front a segment which forms the head and
+  presumably then divides again to form anteriorly the trunk, and
+  posteriorly the tail regions. An interesting feature of the
+  development of Chaetognaths is that, as in some insects, the cells
+  destined to form the reproductive organs are differentiated at a very
+  early period, being apparent even in the gastrula stage.
+
+  The great bulk of the group is pelagic, as the transparent nature of
+  all their tissues indicates. They move by flexing their bodies.
+  _Spadella cephaloptera_ is, however, littoral and oviposits on
+  seaweed, and the "Valdivia" brought home a deep-sea species.
+
+  The three genera are differentiated as follows:--
+
+  _Sagitta_ M. Slabber, with two pairs of lateral fins. This genus was
+  named as long ago as 1775.
+
+  _Krohnia_ P. Langerhans, with one lateral fin on each side, extending
+  on to the tail.
+
+  _Spadella_ P. Langerhans, with a pair of lateral fins on the tail and
+  a thickened ectodermic ridge running back on each side from the head
+  to the anterior end of the fin.
+
+  The group is an isolated one and should probably be regarded as a
+  separate phylum. It has certain histological resemblances with the
+  Nematoda and certain primitive Annelids, but little stress must be
+  laid on these. The most that can be said is that the Chaetognaths
+  begin life with three segments, a feature they share with such
+  widely-differing groups as the Brachiopoda, the Echinoderma and the
+  Enteropneusta, and probably Vertebrata generally.
+
+  See O. Hertwig, _Die Chaetognathen, eine Monographie_ (Jena, 1880);
+  B.J. Grassi, _Chetognathi: Flora u. Fauna d. Golfes von Neapel_
+  (1883); S. Strodtman, _Arch. Naturg._ lviii., 1892; N.M. Stevens,
+  _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xviii., 1903, and xxi., 1905.     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAETOPODA (Gr. [Greek: chaitê], hair, [Greek: pous], foot), a
+zoological class, including the majority of the Annelida (q.v.), and
+indeed, save for the Echiuroidea (q.v.), co-extensive with that group as
+usually accepted. They are divisible into the Haplodrili (q.v.) or
+Archiannelida, the Polychaeta containing the marine worms, the
+Oligochaeta or terrestrial and fresh-water annelids (see EARTHWORM), the
+Hirudinea or leeches (see LEECH), and a small group of parasitic worms,
+the Myzostomida (q.v.).
+
+The distinctive characters of the class Chaetopoda as a whole are partly
+embodied in the name. They possess (save for certain Archiannelida, most
+Hirudinea, and other very rare exceptions) setae or chaetae implanted in
+epidermal pits. The setae are implanted metamerically in accordance with
+the metamerism of the body, which consists of a prostomium followed by a
+number of segments. The number of segments in an individual is
+frequently more or less definite. The anterior end of body always shows
+some "cephalization." The internal organs are largely repeated
+metamerically, in correspondence with the external metamerism. Thus the
+body cavity is divided into a sequence of chambers by transverse septa;
+and even among the Hirudinea, where this condition is usually not to be
+observed, there is embryological evidence that the existing state of
+affairs is derived from this. Commonly the nephridia are strictly paired
+a single pair to each segment, while the branches of the blood vascular
+system are similarly metameric. The alimentary canal is nearly always a
+straight tube running from the mouth, which is surrounded by the first
+segment of the body and overhung by the prostomium, to the anus, which
+is then either surrounded by the last segment of the body or opens
+dorsally a little way in front of this.
+
+THE CLASS AS A WHOLE.--The Chaetopoda are with but few exceptions
+(Myzostomida in part, _Sternaspis_) elongated worms, flattened or, more
+usually, cylindrical, and bilaterally symmetrical. The body consists of
+a number of exactly similar or closely similar segments, which are never
+fused and metamorphosed, as in the Arthropoda, to form specialized
+regions of the body. It is, however, always possible to recognize a
+head, which consists at least of the peristomial segment with a forward
+projection of the same, the prostomium. A thorax also is sometimes to be
+distinguished from an abdomen. Where locomotive appendages (the
+parapodia of the Polychaeta) exist, they are never jointed, as always in
+the Arthropoda; nor are they modified anteriorly to form jaws, as in
+that group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--A, side view of the head region of _Nereis
+cultrifera_; B, dorsal view of the same.
+
+  E,    Eye.
+  M,     Mouth.
+  d.c,   Dorcal cirrus.
+  per,   Peristomium, probably equal to two segments,
+  per.c, Peristomial cirri.
+  pl,   Prostomial palp.
+  pp,   Parapodium.
+  pr,   Prostomium.
+  pr.t, Prostomial tentacle.
+  t.s, Trunk segment.
+  v.c, Ventral cirrus.]
+
+  The prostomium overhangs the mouth, and is often of considerable size
+  and, as a rule, quite distinct from the segment following, being
+  separated by an external groove, and containing, at least temporarily,
+  the brain, which always arises there. Its cavity also is at first
+  independent of the coelom though later invaded by the latter. In any
+  case the cavity of the prostomium is single, and not formed, as is the
+  cavity of the segments of the body, by paired coelomic chambers. It
+  has, however, been alleged that this cavity is formed by a pair of
+  mesoblastic somites (N. Kleinenberg), in which case there is more
+  reason for favouring the view that would assign an equality between
+  the prostomium and the (in that case) other segments of the body. The
+  peculiar prostomium of _Tomopteris_ is described below. The body wall
+  of the Chaetopoda consists of a "dermo-muscular" tube which is
+  separated from the gut by the coelom and its peritoneal walls, except
+  in most leeches. A single layer of epidermic cells, some of which are
+  glandular, forms the outer layer. Rarely are these ciliated, and then
+  only in limited tracts. They secrete a cuticle which never approaches
+  in thickness the often calcified cuticle of Arthropods. Below this is
+  a circular, and below that again a longitudinal, layer of muscle
+  fibres. These muscles are not striated, as they are in the Arthropoda.
+
+  _Setae_.--These chitinous, rod-like, rarely squat and then hook-like
+  structures are found in the majority of the Chaetopoda, being absent
+  only in certain Archiannelida, most leeches, and a very few
+  Oligochaeta. They exist in the Brachiopoda (which are probably not
+  unrelated to the Chaetopoda), but otherwise are absolutely distinctive
+  of the Chaetopods. The setae are invariably formed each within an
+  epidermic cell, and they are sheathed in involutions of the epidermis.
+  Their shape and size varies greatly and is often of use in
+  classification. The setae are organs of locomotion, though their large
+  size and occasionally jagged edges in some of the Polychaeta suggest
+  an aggressive function. They are disposed in two groups on either
+  side, corresponding in the Polychaeta to the parapodia; the two
+  bundles are commonly reduced among the earthworms to two pairs of
+  setae or even to a single seta. On the other hand, in certain
+  Polychaeta the bundles of setae are so extensive that they nearly form
+  a complete circle surrounding the body; and in the Oligochaet genus
+  _Perichaeta_ (= _Pheretima_), and some allies, there is actually a
+  complete circle of setae in each segment broken only by minute gaps,
+  one dorsal, the other ventral.
+
+  _Coelom_.--The Chaetopoda are characterized by a spacious coelom,
+  which is divided into a series of chambers in accordance with the
+  general metamerism of the body. This is the typical arrangement, which
+  is exhibited in the majority of the Polychaeta and Oligochaeta; in
+  these the successive chambers of the coelom are separated by the
+  intersegmental septa, sheets of muscle fibres extending from the body
+  wall to the gut and thus forming partitions across the body. The
+  successive cavities are not, however, completely closed from each
+  other; there is some communication between adjoining segments, and the
+  septa are sometimes deficient here and there. Thus in the Chaetopoda
+  the perivisceral cavity is coelomic; in this respect the group
+  contrasts with the Arthropoda and Molluscs, where the perivisceral
+  cavity is, mainly at least, part of the vascular or haemal system, and
+  agrees with the Vertebrata. The coelom is lined throughout by cells,
+  which upon the intestine become large and loaded with excretory
+  granules, and are known as chloragogen cells. Several forms of cells
+  float freely in the fluid of the coelom. In another sense also the
+  coelom is not a closed cavity, for it communicates in several ways
+  with the external medium. Thus, among the Oligochaeta there are often
+  a series of dorsal pores, or a single head pore, present also among
+  the Polychaeta (in _Ammochares_). In these and other Chaetopods the
+  coelom is also put into indirect relations with the outside world by
+  the nephridia and by the gonad ducts. In these features, and in the
+  fact that the gonads are local proliferations of the coelomic
+  epithelium, which have undergone no further changes in the simpler
+  forms, the coelom of this group shows in a particularly clear fashion
+  the general characters of the coelom in the higher Metazoa. It has
+  been indeed largely upon the conditions characterizing the Chaetopoda
+  that the conception of the coelom in the Coelomocoela has been based.
+
+  Among the simpler Chaetopoda the coelom retains the character of a
+  series of paired chambers, showing the above relations to the exterior
+  and to the gonads. There are, however, further complications in some
+  forms. Especially are these to be seen in the more modified
+  Oligochaeta and in the much more modified Hirudinea. In the
+  Polychaeta, which are to be regarded as structurally simpler forms
+  than the two groups just referred to, there is but little subdivision
+  of the coelom of the segments, indeed a tendency in the reverse
+  direction, owing to the suppression of septa. Among the Oligochaeta
+  the dorsal vessel in _Dinodrilus_ and _Megascolides_ is enclosed in a
+  separate coelomic chamber which may or may not communicate with the
+  main coelomic cavity. To this pericardial coelom is frequently added a
+  gonocoel enclosing the gonads and the funnels of their ducts. This
+  condition is more fully dealt with below in the description of the
+  Oligochaeta. The division and, indeed, partial suppression of the
+  coelom culminates in the leeches, which in this, as in some other
+  respects, are the most modified of Annelids.
+
+  _Nervous System._--In all Chaetopods this system consists of cerebral
+  ganglia connected by a circumoesophageal commissure with a ventral
+  ganglionated cord. The plan of the central nervous system is therefore
+  that of the Arthropoda. Among the Archiannelida, in _Aeolosoma_ and
+  some Polychaetes, the whole central nervous system remains imbedded in
+  the epidermis. In others, it lies in the coelom, often surrounded by a
+  special and occasionally rather thick sheath. The cerebral ganglia
+  constitute an archicerebrum for the most part, there being no evidence
+  that, as in the Arthropoda, a movement forward of post-oral ganglia
+  has taken place. In the leeches, however, there seems to be the
+  commencement of the formation of a syncerebrum. In the latter, the
+  segmentally arranged ganglia are more sharply marked off from the
+  connectives than in other Chaetopods, where nerve cells exist along
+  the whole ventral chain, though more numerous in segmentally disposed
+  swellings.
+
+  _Vascular System._--In addition to the coelom, another system of
+  fluid-holding spaces lies between the body wall and the gut in the
+  Chaetopoda. This is the vascular or haemal system (formerly and
+  unnecessarily termed pseudhaemal). With a few exceptions among the
+  Polychaeta the vascular system is always present among the Chaetopoda,
+  and always consists of a system of vessels with definite walls, which
+  rarely communicate with the coelom. It is in fact typically a closed
+  system. The larger trunks open into each other either directly by
+  cross branches, or a capillary system is formed. There are no lacunar
+  blood spaces with ill-defined or absent walls except for a sinus
+  surrounding the intestine, which is at least frequently present. The
+  principal trunks consist of a dorsal vessel lying above the gut, and a
+  ventral vessel below the gut but above the nervous cord. These two
+  vessels in the Oligochaeta are united in the anterior region of the
+  body by a smaller or greater number of branches which surround the
+  oesophagus and are, some of them at least, contractile and in that
+  case wider than the rest. The dorsal vessel also communicates with the
+  ventral vessel indirectly by the intestinal sinus, which gives off
+  branches to both the longitudinal trunks, and by tegementary vessels
+  and capillaries which supply the skin and the nephridia. In the
+  smaller and simpler forms the capillary networks are much reduced, but
+  the dorsal and ventral vessels are usually present. The former,
+  however, is frequently developed only in the anterior region of the
+  body where it emerges from the peri-intestinal blood sinus. On the
+  other hand, additional longitudinal trunks are sometimes developed,
+  the chief one of which is a supra-intestinal vessel lying below the
+  dorsal vessel and closely adherent to the walls of the oesophagus in
+  which region it appears. The capillaries sometimes (in many leeches
+  and Oligochaeta) extend into the epidermis itself. Usually they do not
+  extend outwards of the muscular layers of the body wall. The main
+  trunks of the vascular system often possess valves at the origin of
+  branches which regulate the direction of the blood flow. Among many
+  Oligochaeta the dorsal blood-vessel is partly or entirely a double
+  tube, which is a retention of a character shown by F. Vezhdovský to
+  exist in the embryo of certain forms. The blood in the Chaetopoda
+  consists of a plasma in which float a few corpuscles. The plasma is
+  coloured red by haemoglobin: it is sometimes (in _Sabella_ and a few
+  other Polychaeta) green, which tint is due to another respiratory
+  pigment. The plasma may be pink (_Magelona_) or yellow (_Aphrodite_)
+  in which cases the colour is owing to another pigment. In _Aeolosoma_
+  it is usually colourless. The vascular system is in the majority of
+  Chaetopods a closed system. It has been asserted (and denied) that the
+  cellular rod which is known as the "Heart-body" (_Herzkorper_), and is
+  to be found in the dorsal vessel of many Oligochaeta and Polychaeta,
+  is formed of cells which are continuous with the chloragogen cells,
+  thus implying the existence of apertures of communication with the
+  coelom. The statement has been often made and denied, but it now seems
+  to have been placed on a firm basis (E.S. Goodrich), that among the
+  Hirudinea the coelom, which is largely broken up into narrow tubes,
+  may be confluent with the tubes of the vascular system. This state of
+  affairs has no antecedent improbability about it, since in the
+  Vertebrata the coelom is unquestionably confluent with the haemal
+  system through the lymphatic vessels. Finally, there are certain
+  Polychaeta, _e g._ the _Capitellidae_, in which the vascular system
+  has vanished altogether, leaving a coelom containing
+  haemoglobin-impregnated corpuscles. It has been suggested (E. Ray
+  Lankester) that this condition has been arrived at through some such
+  intermediate stage as that offered by Polychaet _Magelona_. In this
+  worm the ventral blood-vessel is so swollen as to occupy nearly the
+  whole of the available coelom. Carry the process but a little farther
+  and the coelom disappears and its place is taken by a blood space or
+  haemocoel. It has been held that the condition shown in certain
+  leeches tend to prove that the coelom and haemocoel are primitively
+  one series of spaces which have been gradually differentiated. The
+  facts of development, however, prove their distinctness, though those
+  same facts do not speak clearly as to the true nature of the blood
+  system. One view of the origin of the latter (largely based upon
+  observations upon the development of _Polygordius_) sees in the blood
+  system a persistent blastocoel. F. Vezhdovský has lately seen reasons
+  for regarding the blood system as originating entirely from the
+  hypoblast by the secretion of fluid, the blood, from particular
+  intestinal cells and the consequent formation of spaces through
+  pressure, which become lined with these cells.
+
+  _Nephridia and Coelomoducts_.--The name "Nephridium" was originally
+  given by Sir E. Ray Lankester to the members of a series of tubes,
+  proved in some cases to be excretory in nature, which exist typically
+  to the number of a single pair in most of the segments of the
+  Chaetopod body, and open each by a ciliated orifice into the coelom on
+  the one hand, and by a pore on to the exterior of the body on the
+  other. In its earlier conception, this view embraced as homologous
+  organs (so far as the present group is concerned) not only the
+  nephridia of Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, which are obviously closely
+  similar, but the wide tubes with an intercellular lumen and large
+  funnels of certain Polychaeta, and (though with less assurance) the
+  gonad ducts in Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. The function of nitrogenous
+  excretion was not therefore a necessary part of the view--though it
+  may be pointed out that there are grounds for believing that the gonad
+  ducts are to some extent also organs of excretion (see below). Later,
+  the investigations of E. Meyer and E.S. Goodrich, endorsed by
+  Lankester, led to the opinion that under the general morphological
+  conception of "nephridium" were included two distinct sets of organs,
+  viz. nephridia and coelomoducts. The former (represented by, e.g. the
+  "segmental organs" of _Lumbricus_) have been asserted to be
+  "ultimately, though not always, actually traceable to the ectoderm";
+  the latter (represented by, e.g. the oviduct of _Lumbricus_) are parts
+  of the coelomic wall itself, which have grown out to the exterior. The
+  nephridia, in fact, on this view, are _ectodermic ingrowths_, the
+  coelomoducts _coelomic outgrowths_. The cavity of the former has
+  nothing to do with coelom. The cavity of the latter is coelom.
+
+  The embryological facts upon which this view has been based, however,
+  have been differently interpreted. According to C.O. Whitman the
+  entire nephridial system (in the leech _Clepsine_) is formed by the
+  differentiation of a continuous epiblastic band on each side. The
+  exact opposite is maintained by R.S. Bergh (for _Lumbricus_ and
+  _Criodrilus_), whose figures show a derivation of the entire
+  nephridium from mesoblast, and an absence of any connexion between
+  successive nephridia by any continuous band, epiblastic or
+  mesoblastic. A midway position is taken up by Wilson, who asserts the
+  mesoblastic formation of the funnel, but also asserts the presence of
+  a continuous band of epiblast from which certainly the terminal
+  vesicle of the nephridium, and doubtfully the glandular part of the
+  tube is derived. Vezhdovský's figures of _Rhynchelmis_ agree with
+  those of Bergh in showing the backward growth of the nephridium from
+  the funnel cell. There are thus substantial reasons for believing that
+  the nephridium grows backwards from a funnel as does the coelomoduct.
+  It is therefore by no means certain that so profound a difference
+  embryologically can be asserted to exist between the excretory
+  nephridia and the ducts leading from the coelom to the exterior, which
+  are usually associated with the extrusion of the genital products
+  among the Chaetopoda.
+
+  There are, however, anatomical and histological differences to be seen
+  at any rate at the extremes between the undoubted nephridia of
+  Goodrich, Meyer and Lankester, and the coelomoducts of the same
+  authors.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2. (from Goodrich).
+
+    A, Diagram of the nephridium of _Nereis diversicolor_.
+    B, Diagram of the nephridium of _Alciope_, into which opens the large
+      genital funnel (coelomostome).
+    C, Small portion of the nephridium of _Glycera siphonostoma_, showing
+      the canal cut through, and the solenocytes on the outer surface.
+    D, Optical section of a branch of the nephridium of _Nephthys
+      scolopendroides_.
+    c.s, Cut surface.
+    cst, Coelomostome.
+    f, Flagellum.
+    g.f, Genital funnel.
+    n, Neck of solenocyte.
+    n.c, Nephridial canal.
+    n.p, Nephridiopore.
+    nst, Nephridiostome.
+    nu, Nucleus of solenocyte.
+    s, Solenocytes.
+    t, Tube.]
+
+  I. _Nephridia_.--Excretory organs which are undisputed nephridia are
+  practically universal among the Oligochaeta, Hirudinea and
+  Archiannelida, and occur in many Polychaeta. Their total absence has
+  been asserted definitely only in _Paranais littoralis_. Usually these
+  organs are present to the number of a single pair per somite, and are
+  commonly present in the majority of the segments of the body, failing
+  often among the Oligochaeta in a varying number of the anterior
+  segments. They are considerably reduced in number in certain
+  Polychaeta. Essentially, a nephridium is a tube, generally very long
+  and much folded upon itself, composed of a string of cells placed end
+  to end in which the continuous lumen is excavated. Such cells are
+  termed "drain pipe" cells. Frequently the lumen is branched and may
+  form a complicated anastomosing network in these cells. Externally,
+  the nephridium opens by a straight part of the tube, which is often
+  very wide, and here the intracellular lumen becomes intercellular.
+  Rarely the nephridium does not communicate with the coelom; in such
+  cases the nephridium ends in a single cell, like the "flame cell" of a
+  Platyhelminth worm, in which there is a lumen blocked at the coelomic
+  end by a tuft of fine cilia projecting into the lumen. This is so with
+  _Aeolosoma_ (Vezhdovský). The condition is interesting as a
+  persistence of the conditions obtaining in the provisional nephridia
+  of e.g. _Rhynchelmis_, which afterwards become by an enlargement and
+  opening up of the funnel the permanent nephridia of the adult worm. In
+  some Polychaets (e.g. _Glycera_, see fig. 2) there are many of these
+  flame cells to a single nephridium which are specialized in form, and
+  have been termed "solenocytes" (Goodrich). They are repeated in
+  _Polygordius_, and are exactly to be compared with similarly-placed
+  cells in the nephridia of _Amphioxus_.
+
+  More usually, and indeed in nearly every other case among the
+  Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, the coelomic aperture of the nephridium
+  consists of several cells, ciliated like the nephridium itself for a
+  greater or less extent, forming a funnel. The funnel varies greatly in
+  size and number of its component cells. There are so many differences
+  of detail that no line can be drawn between the one-celled funnel of
+  _Aeolosoma_ and the extraordinarily large and folded funnel of the
+  posterior nephridia in the Oligochaete _Thamnodrilus_. In the
+  last-mentioned worm the funnels of the anterior nephridia are small
+  and but few celled; it is only the nephridia in and behind the 17th
+  segment of the body which are particularly large and with a sinuous
+  margin, which recall the funnels of the gonad ducts (i.e.
+  coelomoducts).
+
+  Among the Polychaeta the nephridium of _Nereis_ (see fig. 2) is like
+  that of the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in that the coiled glandular
+  tube has an intracellular duct which is ciliated in the same way in
+  parts. The Polychaeta, however, present us with another form of
+  nephridium seen, for example, in _Arenicola_, where a large funnel
+  leads into a short and wide excretory tube whose lumen is
+  intercellular. In the young stages of this worm which have been
+  investigated by W.B. Benham, the tube, though smaller, and with a but
+  little pronounced funnel, has still an intercellular duct. That these
+  organs in Polychaeta serve for the removal of the generative products
+  to the exterior is proved not only by the correspondence in number to
+  them of the gonads, but by actual observation of the generative
+  products in transit. This form of nephridia leads to the shorter but
+  essentially similar organs in the Polychaete _Sternaspis_, and to
+  those of the Echiuroidea (q.v.) and of the Gephyrea (q.v.).
+
+  Though the paired arrangement of the nephridia is the prevalent one in
+  the Chaetopoda, there are many examples, among the Oligochaeta, of
+  species and genera in which there are several, even many, nephridia in
+  each segment of the body, which may or may not be connected among
+  themselves, but have in any case separate orifices on to the exterior.
+
+  2. _Coelomoducis._--In this category are included (by Goodrich and
+  Lankester) the gonad ducts of the Oligochaeta, certain funnels without
+  any aperture to the exterior that have been detected in _Nereis_, &c.,
+  funnels with wide and short ducts attached to nephridia in other
+  Polychaeta, gonad ducts in the _Capitellidae_, the gonad ducts of the
+  leeches. In all these cases we have a duct which has a usually wide,
+  always intercellular, lumen, generally, if not always, ciliated, which
+  opens directly into the coelom on the one hand and on to the exterior
+  of the body on the other. These characters are plain in all the cases
+  cited, excepting only the leeches which will be considered separately.
+
+  There is not a great deal of difference between most of these
+  structures and true nephridia. It is not clear, for example, to which
+  category it is necessary to refer the excretory organs of _Arenicola_,
+  or _Polynoe_. Both series of organs consist essentially of a ciliated
+  tube leading from the coelom to the exterior. Both series of organs
+  grow back centrifugally from the funnel. In both the cavity originally
+  or immediately continuous with the coelom appears first in the funnel
+  and grows backwards. In some cases, e.g. oviducts of Oligochaeta,
+  sperm ducts of _Phreoryctes_, the coelomoducts occupy, like the
+  nephridia, two segments, the funnel opening into that in front of the
+  segment which carries the external pore. It is by no means certain
+  that a hard and fast line can be drawn between intra- and
+  intercellular lumina. Finally, in function there are some points of
+  likeness. The gonad ducts of _Lumbricus_, &c., must perform one
+  function of nephridia; they must convey to the exterior some of the
+  coelomic fluid with its disintegrated products of waste. There is no
+  possibility that sperm and ova can escape by these tubes not in
+  company with coelomic fluid. In the case of many Oligochaeta where
+  there is no vascular network surrounding the nephridium, this function
+  must be the chief one of those glands, the more elaborate process of
+  excretion taking place in the case of nephridia surrounded by a rich
+  plexus of blood capillaries. A consideration of the mode of
+  development and appearance of the coelomoducts that have thus far been
+  enumerated (with the possible exception of those of the leeches) seems
+  to show that there is a distinct though varying relation between them
+  and the nephridia. It has been shown that in _Tubifex_, and some other
+  aquatic Oligochaeta, the genital segments are at first provided with
+  nephridia, and that these disappear on the appearance of the
+  generative ducts, which are coelomoducts. In _Lumbricus_ the connexion
+  is a little closer; the funnel of the nephridium, in the segments in
+  which the funnels of the gonad ducts are to be developed, persists and
+  is continuous with the gonad duct funnels on their first appearance.
+  In the development of the Acanthodrilid earthworm _Octochaetus_ (F.E.
+  Beddard) the funnels of the pronephridia disappear except in the
+  genital segments, where they seem to be actually converted into the
+  genital funnels. At the least there is no doubt that the genital
+  funnels are developed precisely where the nephridial funnels formerly
+  existed. If the genital funnels are not wholly or partly formed out of
+  the nephridial funnels they have replaced them. In the genital
+  segments of _Eudrilus_ the nephridia are present, but the funnels have
+  not been found though they are obvious in other segments. Here also
+  the genital funnels have either replaced or been formed out of
+  nephridial funnels. In _Haplotaxis heterogyne_ (W.B. Benham) the
+  sperm ducts are hardly to be distinguished from nephridia; they are
+  sinuous tubes with an intra-cellular duct. But the funnel is large and
+  thus differs from the funnels of the nephridia in adjoining segments.
+  Here again the nephridial funnel seems to have been converted into or
+  certainly replaced by a secondarily developed funnel. This example is
+  similar to cases among the Polychaeta where a true nephridium is
+  provided with a large funnel, coelomostome, according to the
+  nomenclature of Lankester. The whole organ, having, as is thought but
+  not known, this double origin, is termed a nephromixium. The various
+  facts, however, seem to be susceptible of another interpretation. It
+  may be pointed out that the several examples described recall a
+  phenomenon which is not uncommon and is well known to anatomists. That
+  is the replacement of an organ by, sometimes coupled with its partial
+  conversion into, a similar or slightly different organ performing the
+  same or an analogous function. Thus the postcaval vein of the higher
+  vertebrata is partly a new structure altogether, and is partly formed
+  out of the pre-existing posterior cardinals. The more complete
+  replacements, such as the nephridia of the genital segment of
+  _Tubifex_ by a subsequently formed genital duct, may be compared with
+  the succession of the nesonephros to the pronephros in vertebrates,
+  and of the metanephros to the mesonephros in the higher vertebrates.
+  It might be well to term these structures, mostly serving as gonad
+  ducts, which have an undoubted resemblance to nephridia, and for the
+  most part an undoubted connexion with nephridia, "Nephrodinia," to
+  distinguish them from another category of "ducts" which are
+  communications between the coelom and the exterior, and which have no
+  relation whatever to nephridia or to the organs just discussed. For
+  these latter, the term coelomoducts might well be reserved. To this
+  category belong certain sacs and pouches in many, perhaps most, genera
+  of the Oligochaeta family, _Eudrilidae_, and possibly the gonad ducts
+  in the Hirudinea. As an example of the former it has been shown
+  (Beddard) that a large median sac in _Lybiodrilus_ is at first freely
+  open to the coelom, that it later becomes shut off from the same, that
+  it then acquires an external orifice, and, finally, that it encloses
+  the ovary or ovaries, between which and the exterior a passage is thus
+  effected. To this category will belong the oviducts in Teleostean
+  fishes and probably the gonad ducts in several groups of
+  invertebrates.
+
+POLYCHAETA.--This group may be thus defined and the definition
+contrasted and compared with those of the other divisions of the
+Chaetopoda. Setae always present and often very large, much varied in
+form and very numerous, borne by the dorsal and ventral parapodia (when
+present). The prostomium and the segments generally often bear processes
+sensory and branchial. Eyes often present and comparatively complicated
+in structure. Clitellum not present as a definite organ, as in
+Oligochaeta. The anus is mostly terminal, and there are no anterior and
+posterior suckers. Nervous system often imbedded in the epidermis.
+Vascular system generally present forming a closed system of tubes.
+Alimentary canal rarely coiled, occasionally with glands which are
+simple caeca and sometimes serve as air reservoirs; jaws often present
+and an eversible pharynx. Nephridia sometimes of the type of those of
+the Oligochaeta; in other cases short, wide tubes with a large funnel
+serving also entirely or in part as gonad ducts. Frequently reduced in
+number of pairs; rarely (_Capitellidae_) more than one pair per segment.
+Gonads not so restricted in position as in Oligochaets, and often more
+abundant; the individuals usually unisexual. No specialized system of
+spermathecae, sperm reservoirs, and copulatory apparatus, as in
+Oligochaeta; development generally through a larval form; reproduction
+by budding also occurs. Marine (rarely fresh-water) in habit.
+
+The Polychaeta contrast with the Oligochaeta by the great variety of
+outward form and by the frequency of specialization of different regions
+of the body. The head is always recognizable and much more conspicuous
+than in other Chaetopoda. As in the Oligochaeta the peristomial segment
+is often without setae, but this character is not by any means so
+constant as in the Oligochaeta. The prostomium bears often processes,
+both dorsal and ventral, which in the Sabellids are split into the
+circle of branchial plumes, which surround or nearly surround the mouth
+in those tube-dwelling Annelids. _Tomopteris_ is remarkable for the fact
+that the hammer-shaped prostomium has paired ventral processes each with
+a single seta. It is held, however, that these are a pair of parapodia
+which have shifted forwards. The presence of parapodia distinguish this
+from other groups of Chaetopoda. Typically, the parapodium consists of
+two processes of the body on each side, each of which bears a bundle of
+setae; these two divisions of the "limb" are termed respectively
+notopodium and neuropodium. The notopodium may be rudimentary or absent
+and the entire parapodium reduced to the merest ridge or even completely
+unrepresented. Naturally, it is among the free living forms that the
+parapodium is best developed, and least developed among the tubicolous
+Polychaeta. To each division of the parapodium belongs typically a long
+tentacle, the cirrus, which may be defective upon one or other of the
+notopodium or neuropodium, and may be developed into an arborescent gill
+or into a flat scale-like process, the elytron (in _Polynoe_, &c.).
+There are other gills developed in addition to those which represent the
+cirri.
+
+  _Setae_.--The setae of the Polychaeta are disposed in two bundles in
+  many genera, but in only one bundle in such forms as have no
+  notopodium (e.g. _Syllis_). In some genera the setae are in vertical
+  rows, and in certain _Capitellidae_ these rows so nearly meet that an
+  arrangement occurs reminiscent of the continuous circle of setae in
+  the perichaetous Oligochaeta. The setae vary much in form and are
+  often longer and stronger than in the Oligochaetes. Jointed setae and
+  very short hooks or "uncini" (see fig. 3) are among the most
+  remarkable forms. Simple bifid setae, such as those of Oligochaetes,
+  are also present in certain forms.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.--a, Bristle of _Pionosyllis Malmgreni_; b, Hook
+  of _Terebella_.]
+
+  Among the burrowing and tubicolous forms it is not uncommon for the
+  body to be distinguishable into two or more regions; a "thorax," for
+  example, is sharply marked off from an "abdomen" in the Sabellids. In
+  these forms the bundles of setae are either capilliform or uncinate,
+  and the dorsal setae of the thorax are like the ventral setae of the
+  abdomen. It is a remarkable and newly-ascertained fact that in
+  regeneration (in _Potamilla_) the thorax is not replaced by the growth
+  of uninjured thoracic segments; but that the anterior segments of the
+  abdomen take on the same characters, the setae dropping out and being
+  replaced in accordance with the plan of the setae in the thorax of
+  uninjured worms. Among the Oligochaeta the sexually mature worm is
+  distinguished from the immature worm by the clitellum and by the
+  development of genital setae. Among the Polychaeta the sexual worm is
+  often more marked from the asexual form, so much so that these latter
+  have been placed in different species or even genera. The alteration
+  in form does not only affect structures used in generation; but the
+  form of the parapodia, &c., alter. There are even dimorphic forms
+  among the Syllids where the sexes are, as in many Polychaets,
+  separate.
+
+  _Nephridia_.--The nephridia of the Polychaeta have been generally
+  dealt with above in considering the nephridial system of the
+  Chaetopoda as a whole. They contrast with those of the Oligochaeta and
+  Hirudinea by reason of their frequently close association with the
+  gonads, the same organ sometimes serving the two functions of
+  excretion and conveyance of the ova and spermatozoa out of the body.
+  On the hypothesis that such a form as _Dinophilus_ (see Haplodrili)
+  has preserved the characters of the primitive Chaetopod more nearly
+  than any existing Polychaet or Oligochaet, it is clear that the
+  nephridia in the Oligochaeta have preserved the original features of
+  those organs more nearly than most Polychaeta. Thus _Nereis_ among the
+  latter worms, from the resemblance which its excretory system bears to
+  that of the Oligochaeta, may be made the starting-point of a series.
+  In this worm the paired nephridia exist in most of the segments of the
+  body, and their form (see fig. 2) is much like that of the nephridia
+  in the _Enchytraeidae_. The funnel, which is not large, appears to
+  open, as a rule at least, into the segment in front of that which
+  bears the external orifice. Quite independent of these are certain
+  large dorsally situate funnel-like folds of the coelomic epithelium,
+  ciliated, but of which no duct has been discovered leading to the
+  exterior. It is possible that we have here gonad ducts distinct from
+  nephridia which at the time of sexual maturity do open on to the
+  exterior.
+
+  In _Polynoe_ the nephridia are short tubes with a slightly folded
+  funnel whose lumen is intercellular, and this intercellular lumen is
+  characteristic of the Polychaetes as contrasted with leeches and
+  Oligochaetes. Among the Terebelloidea there is a remarkable
+  differentiation of the nephridia into two series. One set lies in
+  front of the diaphragm, which is the most anterior and complete
+  septum, the rest having disappeared or being much less developed. The
+  anterior nephridia, of which there are one to three pairs, contrast
+  with the posterior series by their small funnels and large size, the
+  posterior nephridia having a large funnel followed by a short tube. In
+  _Chaetozone setosa_ the anterior nephridia occupy five segments. There
+  is usually a gap between the two series, several segments being
+  without nephridia. It seems that the posterior nephridia are mainly
+  gonad ducts, and the gonads are developed in close association with
+  the funnels. The same arrangement is found in some other Polychaetes;
+  for instance, in _Sabellaria_ there is a single pair of large anterior
+  nephridia, which open by a common pore, followed after an interval by
+  large-funnelled and short nephridia. This differentiation is not,
+  however, peculiar to the Polychaetes; for in several Oligochaetes the
+  anterior nephridia are of large size, and opening as they do into the
+  buccal cavity clearly play a different function to those which follow.
+  In _Thamnodrilus_, as has been pointed out, there are two series of
+  nephridia which resemble those of the Terebelloidea in the different
+  sizes of their funnels. In _Lanice conchilega_ the posterior series of
+  nephridia are connected by a thick longitudinal duct, which seems to
+  be seen in its most reduced form in _Owenia_, where a duct on each
+  side runs in the epidermis, being in parts a groove, and receives one
+  short tubular nephridium only and occupies only one segment. This
+  connexion of successive nephridia (in _Lanice_) has its counterpart in
+  _Allolobophora, Lybiodrilus_, and apparently in the Lumbriculids
+  _Teleuscolex_ and _Styloscolex_, among the Oligochaeta. Among the
+  _Capitellidae_, which in several respects resemble the Oligochaeta,
+  wide and short gonad ducts coexist in the same segments with
+  nephridia, the latter being narrower and longer. It is noteworthy that
+  in this family only among the Polychaeta, the nephridia are not
+  restricted to a single pair in each segment; so that the older view
+  that the gonad ducts are metamorphosed nephridia is not at variance
+  with the anatomical facts which have been just stated.
+
+  _Alimentary Canal._--The alimentary canal of Polychaetes is usually a
+  straight tube running from the anterior mouth to the posterior anus.
+  But in some forms, e.g. _Sternaspis_, the gut is coiled. In others,
+  again, e.g. _Cobangia_, the anus is anterior and ventral. A gizzard is
+  present in a few forms. The buccal cavity is sometimes armed with
+  jaws. The oesophagus is provided often with caeca which in Syllids and
+  _Hesionidae_ have been found to contain air, and possibly therefore
+  perform the function of the fish's air-bladder. In other Polychaetes
+  one or more pairs of similar outgrowths are glandular. The intestine
+  is provided with numerous branched caeca in _Aphrodite_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Dasychone infracta_, Kr. (After Malmgren.)]
+
+  _Reproduction._--As is the case with the Oligochaeta, the Polychaeta
+  furnish examples of species which multiply asexually by budding. There
+  is a further resemblance between the two orders of Chaetopoda in that
+  this budding is not a general phenomenon, but confined to a few forms
+  only. Budding, in fact, among the Polychaetes is limited to the family
+  _Syllidae_. In the Oligochaetes it is only the families
+  _Aeolosomatidae_ and _Naididae_ that show the same phenomenon. It has
+  been mentioned that in the Nereids a sexual form occurs which differs
+  structurally from the asexual worms, and was originally placed in a
+  separate genus, _Heteronereis_; hence the name "Heteronereid" for the
+  sexual worm. In _Syllis_ there is also a "Heterosyllid" form in which
+  the gonads are limited to a posterior region of the body which is
+  further marked off from the anterior non-sexual segments by the
+  oak-like setae. In some Syllids this posterior region separates off
+  from the rest, producing a new head; thus a process of fission occurs
+  which has been termed schizogamy. A similar life history distinguishes
+  certain Sabellid worms, e.g. _Filigrana_. Among the Syllids this
+  simple state of affairs is further complicated. In _Autolytus_ there
+  is, to begin with, a conversion of the posterior half of the body to
+  form a sexual zooid. But before this separates off a number of other
+  zooids are formed from a zone of budding which appears between the two
+  first-formed individuals. Ultimately, a chain of sexual zooids is thus
+  formed. A given stock only produces zooids of one sex. In _Myrianida_
+  there is a further development of this process. The conversion of the
+  posterior end of the simple individual into a sexual region is
+  dispensed with; but from a preanal budding segment a series of sexual
+  buds are produced. The well-known Syllid, discovered during the voyage
+  of the "Challenger," shows a modification of this form of budding.
+  Here, however, the buds are lateral, though produced from a budding
+  zone, and they themselves produce other buds, so that a ramifying
+  colony is created.
+
+  Quite recently, another mode of budding has been described in
+  _Trypanosyllis gemmipara_, where a crowd of some fifty buds arising
+  symmetrically are produced at the tail end of the worm. In some
+  Syllids, such as _Pionosyllis gestans_, the ova are attached to the
+  body of the parent in a regular line, and develop in situ; this
+  process, which has been attributed to budding, is an "external
+  gestation," and occurs in a number of species.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--A, _Autolytus_ (after Mensch) with numerous
+  buds. B, Portion of a colony of _Syllis ramosa_ (from M'Intosh).
+  _b.z_, Budding zone; p, anterior region of the parent worm; 1-5,
+  buds.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--A, Side view of the larva of _Lopadorhynchus_
+  (from Kleinenberg), showing the developing trunk region. B, Side view
+  of the trochophore larva of _Eupomatus uncinatus_ (from Hatschek).
+
+    A, Anus.
+    E, Eye.
+    M, Mouth.
+    ap, Apical organ.
+    h, "Head Kidney."
+    i, Intestine.
+    me, Mesoblast.
+    ms, Larval muscle.
+    o, Otocyst.
+    pp, Parapodium.
+    pr, Praeoral ciliated ring, or prototroch.]
+
+  As is very frequently the case with marine forms, as compared with
+  their fresh-water and terrestrial allies, the Polychaeta differ from
+  the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in possessing a free living larval form
+  which is hatched at an early stage in development. This larva is
+  termed the Trochosphere larva, and typically (as it is held) is an
+  egg-shaped larva with two bands of cilia, one preoral and one
+  postoral, with an apical nervous plate surmounted by a tuft of longer
+  cilia, and with a simple bent alimentary canal, with lateral mouth and
+  posterior anus, between which and the ectoderm is a spacious cavity
+  (blastocoel) traversed by muscular strands and often containing a
+  larval kidney. The segmentation is of the mesoblast to begin with,
+  and appears later behind the mouth, the part anterior to this becoming
+  the prostomium of the adult. The chief modifications of this form are
+  seen in the _Mitraria_ larva of _Ammochares_ with only the preoral
+  band, which is much folded and which has provisional and long setae;
+  the atrochous larva, where the covering of cilia is uniform and not
+  split into bands; and the polytrochous larva where there are several
+  bands surrounding the body. There are also other modifications.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Nereis pelagica_, L. (After Oersted.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Sabella vesiculosa_, Mont. (After Montagu.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9. _Arenicola marina_, L.]
+
+  _Classification_.--The older arrangement of the Polychaeta into
+  Errantia or free living and Tubicola or tube-dwelling forms will
+  hardly fit the much increased knowledge of the group. W.B. Benham's
+  division into Phanerocephala in which the prostomium is plain, and
+  Crytocephala in which the prostomium is hidden by the peristomium
+  adopted by Sedgwick, can only be justified by the character used; for
+  the Terebellids, though phanerocephalous, have many of the features of
+  the Sabellids. It is perhaps safer to subdivide the Order into 6
+  Suborders (in the number of these following Benham, except in
+  combining the Sabelliformia and Hermelliformia). Of these 6, the two
+  first to be considered are very plainly separable and represent the
+  extremes of Polychaete organization, (1) _Nereidiformia_.--"Errant"
+  Polychaetes with well-marked prostomium possessing tentacles and palps
+  with evident and locomotor parapodia, supported (with few exceptions)
+  by strong spines, the aciculi; muscular pharynx usually armed with
+  jaws; septa and nephridia regularly metameric and similar throughout
+  body; free living and predaceous. (2) _Cryptocephala_.--Tube-dwelling
+  with body divided into thorax and abdomen marked by the setae, which
+  are reversed in position in the neuropodium and notopodium
+  respectively in the two regions. Parapodia hardly projecting; palps of
+  prosomium forming branched gills; no pharynx or eversible buccal
+  region; no septa in thorax, septa in abdomen regularly disposed.
+  Nephridia in two series; large, anterior nephridia followed by small,
+  short tubes in abdomen. The remaining groups are harder to define,
+  with the exception of the (3) _Capitelliformia_, which are mud-living
+  worms of an "oligochaetous" appearance, and with some affinities to
+  that order. The peristomium has no setae, and the setae generally are
+  hair-like or uncinate, often forming almost complete rings. The
+  genital ducts are limited to one segment (the 8th in _Capitella
+  capitata_), and there are genital setae on this and the next segment.
+  In other forms genital ducts and nephridia coexist in the same
+  segment. The nephridia are sometimes numerous in each segment. There
+  is no blood system, and the coelomic corpuscles contain haemoglobin.
+  (4) _Terebelliformia_. These worms are in some respects like the
+  Sabellids (Cryptocephala). The parapodia, as in the Capitellidae, are
+  hardly developed. The buccal region is unarmed and not eversible. The
+  prostomium has many long filaments which recall the gills of the
+  Sabellids, &c. The nephridia are specialized into two series, as in
+  the last-mentioned worms. (5) _Spioniformia_ (including
+  _Chaetopterus_, _Spio_, &c.) and (6) _Scoleciformia_ (_Arenicola_,
+  _Chloraema_, _Sternaspis_) are the remaining groups. In both, the
+  nephridia are all alike; there are no jaws; the prostomium rarely has
+  processes. The body is often divisible into regions.
+
+  LITERATURE.--W.B. Benham, "Polychaeta" in _Cambridge Natural History_;
+  E. Claparède, _Annélides chétopodes du golfe de Naples_ (1868 and
+  1870); E. Ehlers, _Die Börstenwürmer_ (1868); H. Eisig, _Die
+  Capitelliden_ (Naples Monographs), and development of do. in _Mitth.
+  d. zool. Stat. Neapel_ (1898); W.C. M'Intosh, _"Challenger" Reports_
+  (1885); E.R. Lankester, Introductory Chapter in _A Treatise on
+  Zoology_; E.S. Goodrich, _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ (1897-1900); E.
+  Meyer, _Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel_ (1887, 1888), as well as
+  numerous other memoirs by the above and by J.T. Cunningham, de St
+  Joseph, A. Malaquin, A. Agassiz, A.T. Watson, Malmgren, Bobretsky and
+  A.F. Marion, E.A. Andrews, L.C. Cosmovici, R. Horst, W. Michaelsen, G.
+  Gilson, F. Buchanan, H. Levinsen, Joyeux-Laffuie, F.W. Gamble, &c.
+
+OLIGOCHAETA.--As contrasted with the other subdivisions of the
+Chaetopoda, the Oligochaeta may be thus defined. Setae very rarely
+absent (genus _Achaeta_) and as a rule not so large or so numerous in
+each segment as in the Polychaeta, and different in shape. Eyes rarely
+present and then rudimentary. Prostomium generally small, sometimes
+prolonged, but never bearing tentacles or processes. Appendages of body
+reduced to branchiae, present only in four species, and to the ventral
+copulatory appendages of _Alma_ and _Criodrilus_. Clitellum always
+present, extending over two (many limicolous forms) to forty-five
+segments (_Alma_). Segments of body numerous and not distinctive of
+species, being irregular and not fixed in numbers. In terrestrial forms
+dorsal pores are usually present; in aquatic forms a head pore only.
+Anus nearly always terminal, rarely dorsal, at a little distance from
+end of body. Suckers absent. Nervous system rarely (_Aeolosoma_) in
+continuity with epidermis. Vascular system always present, forming a
+closed system, more complicated in the larger forms than in the aquatic
+genera. Several specially large contractile trunks in the anterior
+segments uniting the dorsal and ventral vessels. Nephridia generally
+paired, often very numerous in each segment, in the form of long,
+much-coiled tubes with intracellular lumen. Gonads limited in number of
+pairs, testes and ovaries always present in the same individual. Special
+sacs developed from the intersegmental septa lodge the developing ova
+and sperm. Special gonad ducts always present. Male ducts often open on
+to exterior through a terminal chamber which is variously specialized,
+and sometimes with a penis.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 10.--Diagrams of various Earthworms, to illustrate external
+characters. A, B, C, anterior segments from the ventral surface; D,
+hinder end of body of _Urochaeta_.
+
+  A, _Lumbricus_: 9, 10, segments containing spermathecae, the orifices
+  of which are indicated; 14, segment bearing oviducal pores; 15,
+  segment bearing male pores; 32, 37, first and last segments of
+  clitellum.
+
+  B, _Acanthodrilus_: cp, orifices of spermathecae; [Female], oviducal
+  pores; [Male], male pores; on 17th and 19th segments are the apertures
+  of the atria.
+
+  C, _Perichaeta_: the spermathecal pores are between segments 6 and 7,
+  7 and 8, 8 and 9, the oviducal pores upon the 14th and the male pores
+  upon the 18th segment.
+
+  In all the figures the nephridial pores are indicated by dots and the
+  setae by strokes.]
+
+Generative pores usually paired, sometimes single and median.
+Spermathecae nearly always present. Alimentary canal straight, often
+with appended glands of complicated or simpler structure; no jaws. Eggs
+deposited in a cocoon after copulation. Development direct. Reproduction
+by budding also occurs. Fresh-water (rarely marine) and terrestrial.
+
+The Oligochaeta show a greater variety of size than any other group of
+the Chaetopoda. They range from a millimetre or so (smaller species of
+_Aeolosoma_) to 6 ft. or even rather more (_Microchaeta rappi_, &c.) in
+length.
+
+  _Setae._--The setae, which are always absent from the peristomial
+  segment, are also sometimes absent from a greater number of the
+  anterior segments of the body, and have completely disappeared in
+  _Achaeta cameranoi._ When present they are either arranged in four
+  bundles of from one to ten or even more setae, or are disposed in
+  continuous lines completely encircling each segment of the body. This
+  latter arrangement characterizes many genera of the family
+  _Megascolicidae_ and one genus (_Periscolex_) of the
+  _Glossoscolicidae._ It has been shown (Bourne) that the "perichaetous"
+  condition is probably secondary, inasmuch as in worms which are, when
+  adult, "perichaetous" the setae develop in pairs so that the embryo
+  passes through a stage in which it has four bundles of setae, two to
+  each bundle, the prevalent condition in the group. Rarely there is an
+  irregular disposition of the setae which are not paired, though the
+  total number is eight to a segment (fig. 10), e.g. _Pontoscolex._ The
+  varying forms of the setae are illustrated in fig. 11.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Setae of _Oligochaeta_.
+
+    a, Penial seta of _Perichaeta ceylonica._
+    b, Extremity of penial seta of _Acanthodrilus_ (after Horst).
+    c, Seta of _Urochaeta_ (Perier).
+    d, Seta of _Lumbricus._
+    e, Seta of _Criodrilus._
+    f, g, Setae of _Bohemilla comata._
+    h, i, j, Setae of _Psammoryctes barbatus_ (f to j after Vezhdovský).]
+
+  _Structure._--The body wall consists of an epidermis which secretes a
+  delicate cuticle and is only ciliated in _Aeolosoma_, and in that
+  genus only on the under surface of the prostomium. The epidermis
+  contains numerous groups of sense cells; beneath the epidermis there
+  is rarely (_Kynotus_) an extensive connective tissue dermis. Usually
+  the epidermis is immediately followed by the circular layer of
+  muscles, and this by the longitudinal coat. Beneath this again is a
+  distinct peritoneum lining the coelom, which appears to be wanting as
+  a special layer in some Polychaetes (Benham, Gilson). The muscular
+  layers are thinner in the aquatic forms, which possess only a single
+  row of longitudinal fibres, or (_Enchytracidae_) two layers. In the
+  earthworms, on the other hand, this coat is thick and composed of many
+  layers.
+
+  The clitellum consists of a thickening of the epidermis, and is of two
+  forms among the Oligochaeta. In the aquatic genera the epidermis comes
+  to consist entirely of glandular cells, which are, however, arranged
+  in a single layer. In the earthworms, on the other hand, the epidermis
+  becomes specialized into several layers of cells, all of which are
+  glandular. It is therefore obviously much thicker than the clitellum
+  in the limicolous forms. The position of the clitellum, which is
+  universal in occurrence, varies much as does the number of component
+  segments. As a rule--to which, however, there are exceptions--the
+  clitellum consists of two or three segments only in the small aquatic
+  Oligochaeta, while in the terrestrial forms it is as a general rule,
+  to which again there are exceptions, a more extensive, sometimes much
+  more extensive, region.
+
+  In the Oligochaeta there is a closer correspondence between external
+  metamerism and the divisions of the coelom than is apparent in some
+  Chaetopods. The external segments are usually definable by the setae;
+  and if the setae are absent, as in the anterior segments of several
+  _Geoscolicidae_, the nephridiopores indicate the segments; to each
+  segment corresponds internally a chamber of the coelom which is
+  separated from adjacent segments by transverse septa, which are only
+  unrecognizable in the genus _Aeolosoma_ and in the head region of
+  other Oligochaeta. In the latter case, the numerous bands of muscle
+  attaching the pharynx to the parietes have obliterated the regular
+  partition by means of septa.
+
+  _Nephridia_.--The nephridia in this group are invariably coiled tubes
+  with an intracellular lumen and nearly invariably open into the coelom
+  by a funnel. There are no renal organs with a wide intercellular
+  lumen, such as occur in the Polychaeta, nor is there ever any
+  permanent association between nephridia and ducts connected with the
+  evacuation of the generative products, such as occur in _Alciope_,
+  _Saccocirrus_, &c. In these points the Oligochaeta agree with the
+  Hirudinea. They also agree in the general structure of the nephridia.
+  It has been ascertained that the nephridia of Oligochaeta are preceded
+  in the embryo by a pair of delicate and sinuous tubes, also found in
+  the Hirudinea and Polychaeta, which are larval excretory organs. It is
+  not quite certain whether these are to be regarded as the remnant of
+  an earlier excretory system, replaced among the Oligochaeta by the
+  subsequently developed paired structures, or whether these "head
+  kidneys" are the first pair of nephridia precociously developed. The
+  former view has been extensively held, and it is supported by the fact
+  that in _Octochaetus_ the first segment of the body has a pair of
+  nephridia which is exactly like those which follow, and, like them,
+  persists. On the other hand, in most Oligochaeta the first segment has
+  in the adult no nephridium, and in the case of _Octochaetus_ the
+  existence of a "head kidney" antedating the subsequently developed
+  nephridia of the first and other segments has neither been seen nor
+  proved to be absent. In any case the nephridia which occupy the
+  segments of the body generally are first of all represented by paired
+  structures, the "pronephridia," in which the funnel is composed of but
+  one cell, which is flagellate. This stage has at any rate been
+  observed in _Rhynchelmis_ and _Lumbricus_ (in its widest sense) by
+  Vezhdovský. It is further noticeable that in _Rhynchelmis_ the
+  covering of vesicular cells which clothes the drain-pipe cells of the
+  adult nephridium is cut off from the nephridial cells themselves and
+  is not a peritoneal layer surrounding the nephridium. Thus the
+  nephridia, in this case at least, are a part of the coelom and are not
+  shut off from it by a layer of peritoneum, as are other organs which
+  lie in it, e.g. the gut. A growth both of the funnel, which becomes
+  multicellular, and of the rest of the nephridium produces the adult
+  nephridia of the genera mentioned. The paired disposition of these
+  organs is the prevalent one among the Oligochaeta, and occurs in all
+  of twelve out of the thirteen families into which the group is
+  divided.
+
+  Among the _Megascolicidae_, however, which in number of genera and
+  species nearly equals the remaining families taken together, another
+  form of the excretory system occurs. In the genera _Pheretima,
+  Megascolex_, _Dichogaster_, &c., each segment contains a large number
+  of nephridia, which, on account of the fact that they are necessarily
+  smaller than the paired nephridia of e.g. _Lumbricus_, have been
+  termed micronephridia, as opposed to meganephridia; there is, however,
+  no essential difference in structure, though micronephridia are not
+  uncommonly (e.g. _Megascolides_, _Octochaetus_) unprovided with
+  funnels. It is disputed whether these micronephridia are or are not
+  connected together in each segment and from segment to segment. In any
+  case they have been shown in three genera to develop by the growth and
+  splitting into a series of original paired pronephridia. A complex
+  network, however, does occur in _Lybiodrilus_ and certain other
+  _Eudrilidae_, where the paired nephridia possess ducts leading to the
+  exterior which ramify and anastomose on the thickness of the body
+  wall. The network is, however, of the duct of the nephridium, possibly
+  ectodermic in origin, and does not affect the glandular tubes which
+  remain undivided and with one coelomic funnel each.
+
+  The Oligochaeta are the only Chaetopods in which undoubted nephridia
+  may possess a relationship with the alimentary canal. Thus, in
+  _Octochaetus multiporus_ a large nephridium opens anteriorly into the
+  buccal cavity, and numerous nephridia in the same worm evacuate their
+  contents into the rectum. The anteriorly-opening and usually very
+  large nephridia are not uncommon, and have been termed
+  "peptonephridia."
+
+  _Gonads and Gonad Ducts_.--The Oligochaeta agree with the leeches and
+  differ from most Polychaeta in that they are hermaphrodite. There is
+  no exception to this generalization. The gonads are, moreover, limited
+  and fixed in numbers, and are practically invariably attached to the
+  intersegmental septa, usually to the front septum of a segment, more
+  rarely to the posterior septum. The prevalent number of testes is one
+  pair in the aquatic genera and two pairs in earthworms. But there are
+  exceptions; thus a species of _Lamprodrilus_ has four pairs of testes.
+  The ovaries are more usually one pair, but two are sometimes present.
+  The segments occupied by the gonads are fixed, and are for earthworms
+  invariably X, XI, or one of them for the testes, and XIII for the
+  ovaries The position varies in the aquatic Oligochaeta. The
+  Oligochaeta contrast with the Polychaeta in the general presence of
+  outgrowths of the septa in the genital segments, which are either
+  close to, or actually involve, the gonads, and into which may also
+  open the funnels of the gonad ducts. These sacs contain the developing
+  sperm cells or eggs, and are with very few exceptions universal in
+  the group. The testes are more commonly thus involved than are the
+  ovaries. It is indeed only among the _Eudrilidae_ that the enclosure
+  of the ovaries in septal sacs is at all general. Recently the same
+  thing has been recorded in a few species of _Pheretima_ (=
+  _Perichaeta_), but details are as yet wanting. We can thus speak in
+  these worms of _gonocoels_, i.e. coelomic cavities connected only with
+  the generative system. These cavities communicate with the exterior
+  through the gonad ducts, which have nothing to do with them, but whose
+  coelomic funnels are taken up by them in the course of their growth.
+  There are, however, in the _Eudrilidae_, as already mentioned, sacs
+  envolving the ovaries which bore their own way to the exterior, and
+  thus may be termed coelomoducts. These sacs are dealt with later under
+  the description of the spermathecae, which function they appear to
+  perform. The gonad ducts are male and female, and open opposite to or,
+  rarely, alongside of the gonads, whose products they convey to the
+  exterior. The oviducts are always short trumpet-shaped tubes and are
+  sometimes reduced (_Enchytraeidae_) to merely the external orifices.
+  It is possible, however, that those oviducts belong to a separate
+  morphological category, more comparable to the dorsal pores and to
+  abdominal pores in some fishes. The sperm ducts are usually longer
+  than the oviducts; but in Limicolae both series of tubes opening by
+  the funnel into one segment and on to the exterior in the following
+  segment. While the oviducts always open directly on to the exterior,
+  it is the rule for the sperm ducts to open on to the exterior near to
+  or through certain terminal chambers, which have been variously termed
+  atrium and prostate, or spermiducal gland. The distal extremity of
+  this apparatus is sometimes eversible as a penis. Associated with
+  these glands are frequently to be found bundles or pairs of long and
+  variously modified setae which are termed penial setae, to distinguish
+  them from other setae sometimes but not always associated with rather
+  similar glands which are found anteriorly to these, and often in the
+  immediate neighbourhood of the spermathecae; the latter are spoken of
+  as genital setae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Female reproductive system of
+  _Heliodrilus_.--XI-XIV, eleventh to fourteenth segments, sperm,
+  spermatheca; sp.o, its external orifice; sp.sac, spermathecal sac; ov,
+  sac containing ovary; r.o, egg sac; od, oviduct.]
+
+  _Spermathecae._--These structures appear to be absolutely distinctive
+  of the Oligochaeta, unless the sacs which contain sperm and open in
+  common with the nephridia of _Saccocirrus_ (see HAPLODRILI) are
+  similar. Spermathecae are generally present in the Oligochaeta and are
+  absent only in comparatively few genera and species. Their position
+  varies, but is constant for the species, and they are rarely found
+  behind the gonads. They are essentially spherical, pear-shaped or oval
+  sacs opening on to the exterior but closed at the coelomic end. In a
+  few _Enchytraeidae_ and _Lumbriculidae_ the spermathecae open at the
+  distal extremity into the oesophagus, which is a fact difficult of
+  explanation. Among the aquatic Oligochaeta and many earthworms (the
+  families _Lunibricidae_, _Geoscolicidae_ and a few other genera) the
+  spermathecae are simple structures, as has been described. In the
+  majority of the _Megascolicidae_ each sac is provided with one or more
+  diverticula, tubular or oval in form, of a slightly different
+  histological character in the lining epithelium, and in them is
+  invariably lodged the sperm.
+
+  The spermathecae are usually paired structures, one pair to each of
+  the segments where they occur. In many _Geoscolicidae_, however, and
+  certain _Lumbricidae_ and _Perichaetidae_, there are several, even a
+  large number, of pairs of very small spermathecae to each of the
+  segments which contain them.
+
+  In the _Eudrilidae_ there are spermathecae of different morphological
+  value. In figs. 12 and 13 are shown the spermathecae of the genera
+  _Hyperiodrilus_ and _Heliodrilus_, which are simple sacs ending
+  blindly as in other earthworms, but of which there is only one median
+  opening in the thirteenth segment or in the eleventh. In _Heliodrilus_
+  the blind extremity of the spermatheca is enclosed in a coelomic sac
+  which is in connexion with the sacs envolving the ovaries and
+  oviducts. In _Hyperiodrilus_ the whole spermatheca is thus included in
+  a corresponding sac, which is of great extent. In such other genera of
+  the family as have been examined, the true spermatheca has entirely
+  disappeared, and the sac which contains it in _Hyperiodrilus_ alone
+  remains. This sac has been already referred to as a coelomoduct. Its
+  orifice on to the exterior is formed by an involution (as it appears)
+  of the epidermis, and that it performs the function of a spermatheca
+  is shown by its containing spermatozoa, or, in _Stuhlmannia_, a
+  spermatophore. In _Polytoreutus_, also, spermatophores have been found
+  in these spermathecal sacs. We have thus the replacement of a
+  spermatheca, corresponding to those of the remaining families of
+  Oligochaeta, and derived, as is believed, from the epidermis, by a
+  structure performing the same function, but derived from the
+  mesoblastic tissues, and with a cavity which is coelom.
+
+  _Alimentary Canal._--The alimentary canal is always a straight tube,
+  and the anus, save in the genera _Criodrilus_ and _Dero_, is
+  completely terminal. A buccal cavity, a pharynx, an oesophagus and an
+  intestine are always distinguishable. Commonly among the terrestrial
+  forms there is a gizzard, or two gizzards, or a larger number, in the
+  oesophageal region. There is no armed protrusible pharynx, such as
+  exists in some other Chaetopods. This may be associated with
+  mud-eating habits; but it is not wholly certain that this is the case;
+  for in _Chaetogaster_ and _Agriodrilus_, which are predaceous worms,
+  there is no protrusible pharynx, though in the latter the oesophagus
+  is thickened through its extent with muscular fibres. The oesophagus
+  is often furnished with glandular diverticula, the "glands of Morren,"
+  which are often of complex structure through the folding of their
+  walls. Among the purely aquatic families such structures are very
+  rare, and are represented by two caeca in the genus _Limnodriloides_.
+  It is a remarkable fact, not yet understood, that in certain
+  _Enchytraeidae_ and _Lumbriculidae_ the spermathecae open into the
+  oesophagus as well as on to the exterior. The only comparable fact
+  among other worms is the Laurer's canal or genito-intestinal canal in
+  the Trematoda. The intestine is usually in the higher forms provided
+  with a typhlosole, in which, in _Pontoscolex_, runs a ciliated canal
+  or canals communicating with the intestine. It is possible that this
+  represents the syphon or supplementary intestine of _Capitellidae_,
+  which has been shown to develop as a grooving of the intestine
+  ultimately cut off from it. The intestine has a pair of caeca or two
+  or three pairs (but all lie in one segment) in the genus _Pheretima_
+  and in one species of _Rhinodrilus_. In _Typhoeus_ and _Megascolex_
+  there are complex glands appended to the intestine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Female reproductive system of
+  _Hyperiodrilus_.--XIII, XIV, thirteenth and fourteenth segments.
+
+    sp, Spermatheca.
+    sp', Spermathecal sac involving the last.
+    ov, Ovary.
+    r.o, Egg sac.
+    od, Oviduct.]
+
+  In _Benhamia caecifera_ and at least one other earthworm there are
+  numerous caeca, one pair to each segment.
+
+  _Classification._--The classifications of Adolf Eduard, Grube and
+  Claparède separated into two subdivisions the aquatic and the
+  terrestrial forms. This scheme, opposed by many, has been reinstated
+  by Sedgwick. The chief difficulty in this scheme is offered by the
+  Moniligastridae, which in some degree combine the characters of both
+  the suborders, into neither of which will they fit accurately. The
+  following arrangement is a compromise:--
+
+  Group I. _Aphaneura._--This group is referred by A. Sedgwick to the
+  Archiannelida. It is, however, though doubtless near to the base of
+  the Oligochaetous series, most nearly allied in the reproductive
+  system to the Oligochaeta. It contains but one family,
+  _Aeolosomatidae_. There are three pairs of spermathecae situated in
+  segments III-V, a testis in V and an ovary in VI. There are a
+  clitellum and sperm ducts which though like nephridia have a larger
+  funnel and a less complexly wound duct. This family consists of only
+  one well-known genus, _Aeolosoma_, which contains several species.
+  They are minute worms with coloured oil drops (green, olive green or
+  orange) contained in the epidermis. The nervous system is embedded in
+  the epidermis, and the pairs of ganglia are separated as in _Serpula_,
+  &c.; each pair has a longish commissure between its two ganglia. The
+  intersegmental septa are absent save for the division of the first
+  segment. The large prostomium is ciliated ventrally. The setae are
+  either entirely capillary or there are in addition some sigmoid setae
+  even with bifid free extremities. This genus also propagates
+  asexually, like _Ctenodrilus_, which may possibly belong to the same
+  family. Asexual reproduction universal.
+
+  Group II. _Limicolae._--With a few exceptions the Limicolae are, as
+  the name denotes, aquatic in habit. They are small to moderate-sized
+  Oligochaeta, with a smaller number of segments than in the Terricolae.
+  The alimentary canal is simple and a gizzard or oesophageal
+  diverticula rarely developed. The vascular system is simple with as a
+  rule direct communication between dorsal and ventral vessels in each
+  segment. Nerve cord lies in coelom; brain in first segment or
+  prostomium in many forms. Clitellum generally only two or three
+  segments and more anterior in position than in Terricolae. Nephridia
+  always paired and without plexus of blood capillaries. Spermatheca
+  rarely with diverticula; sperm ducts as a rule occupying two segments
+  only, usually opening by means of an atrium. Sperm sacs generally
+  occupying a good many segments and with simple interior undivided by a
+  network of trabeculae. Ova large and with much yolk. Asexual
+  reproduction only in Naids. Egg sacs as large or nearly so as sperm
+  sacs. Testes and ovaries always free. The following families
+  constitute the group, viz. _Naididae_, _Enchytraeidae_, _Tubificidae_,
+  _Lumbriculidae_, _Phreoryctidae_, _Phreodrilidae_, _Alluroididae_, the
+  latter possibly not referable to this group.
+
+  Group III. _Moniligastres._--Moderate-sized to very large Oligochaeta,
+  terrestrial in habit, with the appearance of Terricolae. Generative
+  organs anterior in position as in Limicolae. Sperm ducts and atria as
+  in Limicolae; egg sacs large; body wall thick; vascular system and
+  nephridia as in Terricolae. Only one family, _Moniligastridae_.
+
+  Group IV. _Terricolae._--Earthworms, rarely aquatic in habit. Of small
+  to very large size. Clitellum commonly extensive and more posterior in
+  position than in other groups. Vascular system complicated without
+  regular connexion between dorsal and ventral vessels, except in
+  anterior segments. Nephridia as a rule with abundant vascular supply.
+  Testes, and occasionally ovaries, enclosed in sacs. Sperm sacs
+  generally limited to one or two segments with interior subdivided by
+  trabeculae. Sperm ducts traverse several segments on their way to
+  exterior. They open in common with, or near to, or, more rarely, into,
+  glands which are not certainly comparable to the atria of the
+  Limicolae. Egg sacs minute and functionless(?). Eggs minute with
+  little yolk. Nephridia sometimes very numerous in each segment.
+  Spermathecae often with diverticula.
+
+  Earthworms are divided into the following families, viz.
+  _Megascolicidae_, _Geoscolicidae_, _Eudrilidae_, _Lumbricidae_.
+
+  As an appendix to the Oligochaeta, and possibly referable to that
+  group, though their systematic position cannot at present be
+  determined with certainty, are to be placed the _Bdellodrilidae_
+  (_Discodrilidae_ auct.), which are small parasites upon crayfish.
+  These worms lay cocoons like the Oligochaeta and leeches, and where
+  they depart from the structure of the Oligochaeta agree with that of
+  leeches. The body is composed of a small and limited number of
+  segments (not more than fourteen), and there is a sucker at each end
+  of the body. There are no setae and apparently only two pairs of
+  nephridia, of which the anterior pair open commonly by a common pore
+  on the third segment after the head, whose segments have not been
+  accurately enumerated. The intervening segments contain the genitalia,
+  which are on the Oligochaeta plan in that the gonads are independent
+  of their ducts and that there are special spermathecae, one pair. The
+  male ducts are either one pair or two pairs, which open by a common
+  and complicated efferent terminal apparatus furnished with a
+  protrusible penis. The ganglia are crowded at the posterior end of the
+  body as in leeches, and there is much tendency to the obliteration of
+  the coelom as in that group. _Pterodrilus_ and _Cirrodrilus_ bear a
+  few, or circles of, external processes which may be branchiae;
+  _Bdellodrilus_ and _Astacobdella_ have none. The vascular system is as
+  in the lower Oligochaeta. There are two chitinous jaws in the buccal
+  cavity, a dorsal and a ventral, which are of specially complicated
+  structure in _Cirrodrilus_.
+
+  LITERATURE.--F.E. Beddard, _A Monograph of the Oligochaeta_ (Oxford,
+  1895), also _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1886-1895, and _Proc. Zool.
+  Soc._, 1885-1906; W.B. Benham, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1886-1905;
+  W. Michaelsen, "Oligochaeta" in _Das Tierreich_, 1900, and _Mitth.
+  Mus._ (Hamburg, 1890-1906); A.G. Bourne, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._,
+  1894; H.J. Moore, _Journ. Morph._, 1895; F. Vezhdovský, _System d.
+  Oligochaeten_ (Prague, 1884), and _Entwicklungsgeschichtliche
+  Untersuchungen_; and numerous papers by the above and by G. Eisen, E.
+  Perrier, D. Rosa, R. Horst, L. Cognetti, U. Pierantoni, W. Baldwin
+  Spencer, H. Ude, &c., and embryological memoirs by R.S. Bergh, E.B.
+  Wilson, N. Kleinenberg, &c.
+
+HIRUDINEA.--The leeches are more particularly to be compared with the
+Oligochaeta, and the following definition embraces the main features in
+which they agree and disagree with that group. Setae are only present in
+the genus _Acanthobdella_. Eyes are present, but hardly so complex as in
+certain genera of Polychaetes. The appendages of the body are reduced to
+branchiae, present in certain forms. A clitellum is present. The
+segments of body are few (not more than thirty-four) and fixed in
+number. The anus is dorsal. One or two (anterior and posterior) suckers
+always present. Nervous system always in coelom. Coelom generally
+reduced to a system of tubes, sometimes communicating with vascular
+system; in _Acanthobdella_ and _Ozobranchus_ a series of metamerically
+arranged chambers as in Oligochaeta. Nephridia always paired, rarely
+(_Pontobdella_) forming a network communicating from segment to segment;
+lumen of nephridia always intracellular, funnels pervious or impervious.
+Alimentary canal sometimes with protrusible proboscis; never with
+gizzard or oesophageal glands; intestine with caeca as a rule. Jaws
+often present. Testes several pairs, rarely one pair, continuous with
+sperm ducts; ovaries, one pair, continuous with oviducts; generative
+pores single and median. No separate spermathecae or septal chambers for
+the development of the ova and sperm. Eggs deposited in a cocoon.
+Development direct. No asexual generation. Fresh-water, marine and
+terrestrial. Parasitic or carnivorous.
+
+  In external characters the Hirudinea are unmistakable and not to be
+  confused with other Annelids, except perhaps with the
+  _Bdellodrilidae_, which resemble them in certain particulars. The
+  absence of setae--save in _Acanthobdella_, where five of the anterior
+  segments possess each four pairs of setae with reserve setae placed
+  close behind them (fig. 14), and the presence of an anterior and
+  posterior sucker, produce a looping mode of progression similar to
+  that of a Geometrid larva. The absence of setae and the great
+  secondary annulation render the mapping of the segments a subject of
+  some difficulty. The most reliable test appears to be the nerve
+  ganglia, which are more distinct from the intervening connectives than
+  in other Annelids.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Acanthobdella_, from the ventral surface,
+  showing the five sets of setae (S1 to S5) and the replacing setae (Sr)
+  behind them. The three pairs of pigmented spots show the position of
+  the eyes on the dorsal surface. (After Kovalevsky.)]
+
+  In the middle of the body, where the limits of the somites can be
+  checked by a comparison with the arrangement of the nephridia and the
+  gonads, and where the ganglia are quite distinct and separated by long
+  connectives, each ganglion is seen to consist of six masses of cells
+  enclosed by capsules and to give off three nerves on each side. This
+  corresponds to the usual presence (in the _Rhynchobdellidae_) of three
+  annuli to each segment. Anteriorly and posteriorly separate ganglia
+  have fused. The brain consists not only of a group of six capsules
+  corresponding to the archicerebrum of the Oligochaeta, but of a
+  further mass of cells surrounding and existing below the alimentary
+  canal, which can be analysed into five or six more separate ganglia.
+  The whole mass lies in the seventh or eighth segment. At the posterior
+  end of the body there are likewise seven separate ganglia partially
+  fused to form a single ganglionic mass, which innervates the segments
+  lying behind the anus and corresponding to the posterior sucker. So
+  that a leech in which only twenty-seven segments are apparent by the
+  enumeration of the annuli, separate ganglia, nephridia, lines of
+  sensillae upon the body, really possesses an additional seven lying
+  behind that which is apparently the last of the series and crowded
+  together into a minute space. The annuli into which segments are
+  externally divided are so deeply incised as to render it impossible to
+  distinguish, as can be readily done in the Oligochaeta as a rule, the
+  limits of an annulus from that of a true segment. As remarked, the
+  prevalent number of annuli to a segment is three in the
+  _Rhynchobdellidae_. But in that group (_Cystobranchus_) there may be
+  as many as eight annuli. In the _Gnathobdellidae_ the prevailing
+  number of annuli to a segment is five; but here again the number is
+  often increased, and _Trocheta_ has no less than eleven. The reason
+  for this excessive annulation has been seen in the limited number of
+  segments (thirty-four) of which the body is composed, which are laid
+  down early and do not increase. In the Oligochaeta, on the other hand,
+  there is growth of new segments. It is important to notice that the
+  metameric plan of growth of Chaetopods is still preserved.
+
+  The nephridia are like those of the Oligochaeta in general structure;
+  that is to say, they consist of drain-pipe cells which are placed end
+  to end and are perforated by their duct. The internal funnel varies in
+  the same way as in the Oligochaeta in the number of cells which form
+  it. In _Clepsine_ (_Glossiphonia_) there are only three cells, and in
+  _Nephelis_ five to eight cells. In _Hirudo_ the funnel is not pervious
+  and is composed of a large number of cells. Externally, the nephridium
+  opens by a vesicle, as in many Oligochaetes whose lumen is
+  intercellular. In _Pontobdella_ and _Branchellion_ the nephridia form
+  a network extending from segment to segment, but there is only one
+  pair of funnels in each segment. Slight differences in form have been
+  noted between nephridia of different segments; but the Hirudinea do
+  not show the marked differentiation that is to be seen in some other
+  Chaetopods; nor do the nephridia ever acquire any relations to the
+  alimentary canal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Section of _Acanthobdella_ (after
+  Kovalevsky).
+
+    c, Coelom.
+    c.ch, Coelomic epithelium (yellow-cells).
+    cg, Glandular cells.
+    cl, Muscle cells of lateral line.
+    cp, Pigment cells.
+    ep, Ectoderm.
+    g, Nerve cord.
+    m, Intestine.
+    mc, Circular muscle.
+    ml, Longitudinal muscle.
+    vd, Dorsal vessel.
+    vv, Ventral vessel.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Section of _Acanthobdella_ (after
+  Kovalevsky). Identical letters as in fig. 2; in addition, cn, nerve
+  cord; in, intestine; nf, parts of nephridium; on, external opening of
+  nephridium; ov, ova; t, testis.]
+
+  _Coelom._--The coelom of the Hirudinea differs in most genera from
+  that of the Oligochaeta and Polychaeta. The difference is that it is
+  broken up into a complex sinus system. The least modified type is
+  shown by _Acanthobdella_, a leech, parasitic upon fishes, in which
+  transverse sections (see figs. 15 and 16) show the gut, the nervous
+  system, &c., lying in a spacious chamber which is the coelom. This
+  coelom is lined by peritoneal cells and is divided into a series of
+  metameres by septa which correspond to the segmentation of the body,
+  the arrangement being thus precisely like that of typical Chaetopoda.
+  Moreover, upon the intestine the coelomic cells are modified into
+  chloragogen cells. In _Acanthobdella_ the testes are, however, not
+  contained in the general coelom, and the nephridia lie in the septa.
+  It is remarkable, in view of the spaciousness of the coelom, that the
+  funnels of the latter have not been seen. _Ozobranchus_ possesses a
+  coelom which is less typically chaetopodous than that of
+  _Acanthobdella_, but more so than in other leeches. There is a
+  spacious cavity surrounding the gut and containing also blood-vessels,
+  and to some extent the generative organs, and the nervous cord.
+  Furthermore, in the mid region of the body this coelom is broken up by
+  metamerically arranged septa, as in _Acanthobdella_. These septa are,
+  however, rather incomplete and are not fastened to the gut; and, as in
+  _Acanthobdella_, the nephridia are embedded in them. In addition to
+  the median lacuna there are two lateral lacunae, one upon each side.
+  These regions of the coelom end at the ends of the body and
+  communicate with each other by means of a branched system of coelomic
+  sinuses, which are in places very fine tubes. Neither in this genus
+  nor in the last is there any communication between coelom and vascular
+  system. In _Clepsine_ (_Glossiphonia_) there is a further breaking up
+  of the coelom. The median lacuna no longer exists, but is represented
+  by a dorsal and ventral sinus. The former lodges the dorsal, the
+  latter the ventral, blood-vessel. The gut has no coelomic space
+  surrounding it. A complex network places these sinuses and the
+  lateral sinuses in communication. Here also the blood system has no
+  communication with the sinus system of the coelom. In _Hirudo_ and the
+  _Gnathobdellidae_ there is only one system of cavities which consist
+  of four principal longitudinal trunks, of which the two lateral are
+  contractile, which communicate with a network ramifying everywhere,
+  even among the cells of the epidermis. The network is partly formed
+  out of pigmented cells which are excavated and join to form tubes, the
+  so-called botryoidal tissue, not found among the _Rhynchobdellidae_ at
+  all. It seems clear from the recent investigations of A.G. Bourne and
+  E.S. Goodrich that the vascular system and the coelom are in
+  communication (as in vertebrates by means of the lymph system). On the
+  other hand, it has been held that in these leeches there is no
+  vascular system at all and that the entire system of spaces is coelom.
+  In favour of regarding the vascular system as totally absent, is the
+  fact that the median coelomic channels contain no dorsal and ventral
+  vessel. In favour of seeing in the lateral trunks and their branches a
+  vascular system, is the contractility of the former, and the fact of
+  the intrusion of the latter into the epidermis, matched among the
+  Oligochaeta, where undoubted blood capillaries perforate the
+  epidermis. A further fact must be considered in deciding this
+  question, which is the discovery of ramifying coelomic tubes,
+  approaching close to, but not entering, the epidermis in the
+  Polychaete _Arenicola_. These tubes are lined by flattened epithelium
+  and often contain blood capillaries; they communicate with the coelom
+  and are to be regarded as prolongation of it into the thickness of the
+  body wall.
+
+  _Gonads and Gonad Ducts._--The gonads and their ducts in the Hirudinea
+  invariably form a closed system of cavities entirely shut off from the
+  coelom in which they lie. There is thus a broad resemblance to the
+  _Eudrilidae_, to which group of Oligochaeta the Hirudinea are further
+  akin by reason of the invariably unpaired condition of the generative
+  apertures, and the existence of a copulatory apparatus (both of which
+  characters, however, are present occasionally in other Oligochaeta).
+
+  The testes are more numerous than the ovaries, of which latter there
+  are never more than one pair. The testes vary in numbers of pairs.
+  Four (_Ozobranchus_) to six (_Glossiphonia_) or ten (_Philaemon_) are
+  common numbers. In _Acanthobdella_, however, the testes of each side
+  of the body have grown together to form a continuous band, which
+  extends in front of external pore. Each testis communicates by means
+  of an efferent duct with a common collecting duct of its side of the
+  body, which opens on to the exterior by means of a protrusible penis,
+  and to which is sometimes appended a seminal vesicle. The efferent
+  ducts are ciliated, and there is a patch of cilia at the point where
+  they communicate with the cavity of each testis. The ovaries are more
+  extensive in some forms (e.g. _Ozobranchus_) than in others, where
+  they are small rounded bodies. The two ducts continuous with the
+  gonads open by a common vagina on to the exterior behind the male
+  pores. This "vagina" is sometimes of exaggerated size. Thus, in
+  _Philaemon pungens_ (Lambert) it has the form of a large sac, into
+  which open by a single orifice the conjoined oviducts. From this
+  vagina arises a narrow duct leading to the exterior. In _Ozobranchus_
+  the structures in question are still more complicated. The two long
+  ovarian sacs communicate with each other by a transverse bridge before
+  uniting to form the terminal canal. Into each ovarian sac behind the
+  transverse junction opens a slender tube, which is greatly coiled,
+  and, in its turn, opens into a spherical "spermathecal sac." From this
+  an equally slender tube proceeds, which joins its fellow of the
+  opposite side, and the two form a thick, walled tube, which opens on
+  to the exterior within the bursa copulatrix through which the penis
+  protrudes. These two last-mentioned types show features which can be,
+  as it seems, matched in the Eudrilidae.
+
+  The gonads develop (O. Bürger) in coelomic spaces close to nephridial
+  funnels, which have, however, no relation to the gonad ducts. The
+  ovaries are solid bodies, of which the outer layer becomes separated
+  from the plug of cells lying within; thus a cavity is formed which is
+  clearly coelom. This cavity and its walls becomes prolonged to form
+  the oviducts. A stage exactly comparable to the stage in the leeches,
+  where the ovary is surrounded by a closed sac, has been observed in
+  _Eudrilus_. In this Annelid later the sac in question joins its
+  fellow, passing beneath the nerve cord exactly as in the leech, and
+  also grows out to reach the exterior. The sole difference is therefore
+  that in _Eudrilus_ the ovarian sac gives rise to a tube which
+  bifurcates, one branch meeting a corresponding branch of the other
+  ovary of the pair, while the second branch reaches the exterior. In
+  the leech the two branches are fused into one. We have here clearly a
+  case of a true coelomoduct performing the function of an oviduct in
+  both leeches and _Eudrilidae_. The facts just referred to suggest
+  further comparisons between the Hirudinea and _Eudrilidae_. The large
+  sacs which have been termed vagina are suggestive of the large
+  coelomic spermathecae in Eudrilids, a comparison which needs, however,
+  embryological data, not at present forthcoming, for its justification.
+  It is at least clear that in _Ozobranchus_ this comparison is
+  justifiable; but only probable, or perhaps possible, in the case of
+  _Philaemon_. In the former, the duct, leading from the ovarian sac,
+  and swelling along its course into the spherical sac, the
+  "spermatheca," is highly suggestive of the oviduct and receptaculum of
+  the _Eudrilidae_.
+
+  The testes during development become hollowed out and are prolonged
+  into the vasa efferentia. These ducts therefore have not their exact
+  counterparts in the Oligochaeta, unless we are to assume that they
+  collectively are represented by the seminal vesicles of earthworms and
+  the vasa deferentia. It is to be noted that the Hirudinea differ from
+  the Oligochaeta in that the male pore is in advance of the gonads
+  (except in _Acanthobdella_, which here, as in so many points,
+  approximates to the Oligochaeta), whereas in Oligochaeta that pore is
+  behind the gonads (again with an exception, _Allurus_).
+
+  _Classification_.--The Hirudinea may be divided into three families:--
+
+  (i.) _Rhynchobdellidae_.--A protrusible proboscis exists, but there
+  are no jaws. The blood is colourless. _Pontobdella_, _Glossiphonia_,
+  &c.
+
+  (ii.) _Gnathobdellidae_.--A proboscis absent, but jaws usually
+  present. Blood coloured red with haemoglobin. _Hirudo_, _Nephelis_,
+  &c.
+
+  (iii.) _Acanthobdellidae_.--Proboscis present, but short. Paired setae
+  of Oligochaetous pattern present in anterior segments. Blood red.
+  _Acanthobdella_.
+
+  LITERATURE.--A.O. Kovalevsky, _Bull. Imp. Sci._ (St Petersburg,
+  November 1896) (_Acanthobdella_); A.G. Bourne, _Quart. Journ. Micr.
+  Sci._, 1884; A. Oka, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._, 1894; E.S. Goodrich,
+  _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1899; W.E. Castle, _Bull. Mus. Comp.
+  Zool._, 1900; A.M. Lambert, _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (Victoria, 1897); C.O.
+  Whitman, _Journ. Morph._, 1889 and 1891; O. Bürger, _Zeitschr. wiss.
+  Zool._, 1902, and other memoirs by the above, and by St V. Apáthy, R.
+  Blanchard, H. Bolsius, A. Dendy, R.S. Bergh, &c.     (F. E. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAETOSOMATIDA, a small group of minute, free-living, aquatic organisms
+which are usually placed as an annex to the Nematoda. Indeed Mechnikov,
+to whom we owe much of our knowledge of these forms, calls them
+"creeping Nematoda." They are usually found amongst seaweed in temperate
+seas, but they are probably widely distributed; some are fresh-water.
+The genus _Chaetosoma_, with the two species _Ch. claparedii_ and _Ch.
+ophicephalum_ and the genus _Tristicochaeta_, have swollen heads. The
+third genus _Rhabdogaster_ has no such distinct head, though the body
+may be swollen anteriorly. The mouth is terminal and anterior and
+surrounded by a ring of spicules or a half-ring of hooks. Scattered
+hairs cover the body. Just in front of the anus there is in _Chaetosoma_
+a double, and in _Tristicochaeta_ a triple row of about fifteen stout
+cylindrical projections upon which the animals creep. The females are a
+little larger than the males; in _Ch. claparedii_ the former attain a
+length of 1.5 mm., the latter of 1.12 mm. The mouth opens into an
+oesophagus which passes into an intestine; this opens by a ventral anus
+situated a little in front of the posterior end. The testis is single,
+and its duct opens with the anus, and is provided with a couple of
+spicules. The ovary is double, and the oviducts open by a median ventral
+pore about the middle of the body; in this region there is a second
+swelling both in _Chaetosoma_ and in _Rhabdogaster_. The last-named form
+is in the female 0.36 mm. in length. In it the hairs are confined to the
+dorsal middle line and the creeping setae are hooked, of a finer
+structure than in _Chaetosoma_, and situated so far forward that the
+vagina opens amongst them. _Ch. ophicephalum_ has been taken in the
+English Channel.
+
+[Illustration: From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. ii. "Worms." by
+permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+Mature female of _Chaetosoma daparedii_, (From Mechnikov.) a,
+Oesophagus; b, intestine; c, anus; d, ovary; e, generative pore; f,
+ventral bristles.]
+
+  See E. Mechnikov, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._ xvii., 1867, p. 537;
+  Panceri, _Atti Acc. Napoli_, vii., 1878, p. 7.     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAFER, a word used in modern speech to distinguish the beetles of the
+family _Scarabaeidae_, and more especially those species which feed on
+leaves in the adult state. The word is derived from the O. Eng.
+_ceafor_, and it is interesting to note that the cognate Ger. _Käfer_ is
+applied to beetles of all kinds. For the characters of the
+_Scarabaeidae_ see COLEOPTERA. This family includes a large number of
+beetles, some of which feed on dung and others on vegetable tissues.
+The cockchafers and their near allies belong to the subfamily
+_Melolonthinae_, and the rose-chafers to the _Cetoniinae_; in both the
+beetles eat leaves, and their grubs spend a long life underground
+devouring roots. In Britain the Melolonthines that are usually noted as
+injurious are the two species of cockchafer (_Melolontha vulgaris_ and
+_M. hippocastani_), large heavy beetles with black pubescent pro-thorax,
+brown elytra and an elongated pointed tail-process; the summer-chafer
+(_Rhizotrogus solstitialis_), a smaller pale brown chafer; and the still
+smaller garden-chafer or "cocker-bundy" (_Phyllopertha horticola_),
+which has a dark green pro-thorax and brown elytra. Of the Cetoniines,
+the beautiful metallic green rose-chafer, _Cetonia aurata_, sometimes
+causes damage, especially in gardens. The larvae of the chafers are
+heavy, soft-skinned grubs, with hard brown heads provided with powerful
+mandibles, three pairs of well-developed legs, and a swollen abdomen. As
+they grow, the larvae become strongly flexed towards the ventral
+surface, and lie curled up in their earthen cells, feeding on roots. The
+larval life lasts several years, and in hard frosts the grubs go deep
+down away from the surface. Pupation takes place in the autumn, and
+though the perfect insect emerges from the cuticle very soon afterwards,
+it remains in its underground cell for several months, not making its
+way to the upper air until the ensuing summer. After pairing, the female
+crawls down into the soil to lay her eggs. The grubs of chafers, when
+turned up by the plough, are greedily devoured by poultry, pigs and
+various wild birds. When the beetles become so numerous as to call for
+destruction, they are usually shaken off the trees where they rest on to
+sheets or tarred boards. On the continent of Europe chafers are far more
+numerous than in the United Kingdom, and the rural governments in France
+give rewards for their destruction. D. Sharp states that in the
+department of Seine-inférieure 867,173,000 cockchafers and 647,000,000
+larvae were killed in the four years preceding 1870.
+
+  The anatomy of _Melolontha_ is very fully described in a classical
+  memoir by H.E. Strauss-Dürckheim (Paris, 1828).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAFF (from the A.S. _ceaf_, allied to the O. High Ger. _cheva_, a husk
+or pod), the husks left after threshing grain, and also hay and straw
+chopped fine as food for cattle; hence, figuratively, the refuse or
+worthless part of anything. The colloquial use of the word, to chaff, in
+the sense of to banter or to make fun of a person, may be derived from
+this figurative sense, or from "to chafe," meaning to vex or irritate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAFFARINAS, or ZAITARINES, a group of islands belonging to Spain off
+the north coast of Morocco, near the Algerian frontier, 2½ m. to the
+north of Cape del Agna. The largest of these isles, Del Congreso, is
+rocky and hilly. It has a watch-house on the coast nearest to Morocco.
+Isabella II., the central island, contains several batteries, barracks
+and a penal convict settlement. The Spanish government has undertaken
+the construction of breakwaters to unite this island with the
+neighbouring islet of El Rey, with a view to enclose a deep and already
+sheltered anchorage. This roadstead affords a safe refuge for many large
+vessels. The Chaffarinas, which are the _Tres Insulae_ of the Romans and
+the _Zafran_ of the Arabs, were occupied by Spain in 1848. The Spanish
+occupation anticipated by a few days a French expedition sent from Oran
+to annex the islands to Algeria. The population of the islands is under
+1000.
+
+
+
+
+CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA (1842-   ), American general, was born at Orwell,
+Ohio, on the 14th of April 1842. At the outbreak of the Civil War he
+entered the United States cavalry as a private, and he rose to
+commissioned rank in 1863, becoming brevet captain in 1865. He remained
+in the army after the war and took part with distinction in many Indian
+campaigns. His promotion was, however, slow, and he was at the age of
+fifty-six still a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. But in 1898, at the
+outbreak of the Spanish-American War, he was made brigadier-general and
+soon afterwards major-general of volunteers. In the Cuban campaign he won
+particular distinction, and the victory of the Americans in the action of
+El Caney was in large measure due to his careful personal reconnaissances
+of the ground to be attacked and to the endurance of his own brigade.
+After reverting for a time to the rank of brigadier-general, he was made
+a major-general U.S.V. again in 1900 and was appointed to command the
+United States contingent in China. He took a brilliant and successful
+part in the advance on Peking and the relief of the Legations. In 1901 he
+became a major-general in the regular army, and in 1901-1902 commanded
+the Division of the Philippines. In 1902-1903 he commanded the Department
+of the East, and from 1904 to 1906 was chief of the general staff of the
+army. In 1904 he received the rank of lieutenant-general in the United
+States army, being the first enlisted man of the regular army to attain
+this, the highest rank in the service. He was retired at his own request
+on the 1st of February 1906, after more than forty years' service.
+
+
+
+
+CHAFFINCH (_Fringilla coelebs_), the common English name of a bird
+belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), and distinguished,
+in the male sex, by the deep greyish blue of its crown feathers, the
+yellowish green of its rump, the white of the wing coverts, so disposed
+as to form two conspicuous bars, and the reddish brown passing into
+vinous red of the throat and breast. The female is drab, but shows the
+same white markings as the male, and the young males resemble the
+females until after the first autumn moult, when they gradually assume
+the plumage of their sex. The chaffinch breeds early in the season, and
+its song may often be heard in February. Its nest, which is a model of
+neatness and symmetry, it builds on trees and bushes, preferring such as
+are overgrown with moss and lichens. It is chiefly composed of moss and
+wool, lined internally with grass, wool, feathers, and whatever soft
+material the locality affords. The outside consists of moss and lichens,
+and according to Selby, "is always accordant with the particular colour
+of its situation." When built in the neighbourhood of towns the nest is
+somewhat slovenly and untidy, being often composed of bits of dirty
+straw, pieces of paper and blackened moss; in one instance, near
+Glasgow, the author of the _Birds of the West of Scotland_ found several
+postage-stamps thus employed. It lays four or five eggs of a pale
+purplish buff, streaked and spotted with purplish red. In spring the
+chaffinch is destructive to early flowers, and to young radishes and
+turnips just as they appear above the surface; in summer, however, it
+feeds principally on insects and their larvae, while in autumn and
+winter its food consists of grain and other seeds. On the continent of
+Europe the chaffinch is a favourite song-bird, especially in Germany,
+where great attention is paid to its training.
+
+
+
+
+CHAFING-DISH (from the O. Fr. _chaufer_, to make warm), a kind of
+portable grate heated with charcoal, and used for cooking or keeping
+food warm. In a light form, and heated over a spirit lamp, it is also
+used for cooking various dainty dishes at table. The employment of the
+chafing-dish for the latter purpose has been largely restored in modern
+cookery.
+
+
+
+
+CHAGOS, a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, belonging to Britain,
+disposed in circular form round the Chagos bank, in 4° 44' to 7° 39' S.,
+and 70° 55' to 72° 52' E. The atolls on the south and east side of the
+bank, which has a circumference of about 270 m., have disappeared
+through subsidence; a few--Egmont, Danger, Eagle, and Three
+Brothers--still remain on the east side, but most of the population
+(about 700) is centred on Diego Garcia, which lies on the south-east
+side, and is nearly 13 m. long by 6 m. wide. The lagoon, which is
+enclosed by two coral barriers and accessible to the largest vessels on
+the north side, forms one of the finest natural harbours in the world.
+The group, which has a total land area of 76 sq. m., is dependent for
+administrative purposes on Mauritius, and is regularly visited by
+vessels from that colony. The only product is cocoa-nut oil, of which
+about 106,000 gallons are annually exported. The French occupied the
+islands in 1791 from Mauritius, and the oil industry (from which the
+group is sometimes called the Oil Islands) came into the hands of French
+Creoles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAGRES, a village of the Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast of
+the Isthmus, at the mouth of the Chagres river, and about 8 m. W. of
+Colon. It has a harbour from 10 to 12 ft. deep, which is difficult to
+enter, however, on account of bars at its mouth. The port was discovered
+by Columbus in 1502, and was opened for traffic with Panama, on the
+Pacific coast, by way of the Chagres river, in the 16th century. With
+the decline of Porto Bello in the 18th century Chagres became the chief
+Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and was at the height of its importance
+during the great rush of gold-hunters across the Isthmus to California
+in 1849 and the years immediately following. With the completion of the
+Panama railway in 1855, however, travel was diverted to Colon, and
+Chagres soon became a village of miserable huts, with no evidence of its
+former importance. On a high rock at the mouth of the river stands the
+castle of Lorenzo, which was destroyed by Sir Henry Morgan when he
+captured the town in 1671, but was rebuilt soon afterwards by the
+Spaniards. Chagres was again captured in 1740 by British forces under
+Admiral Edward Vernon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAIN (through the O. Fr. _choeine_, _choene_, &c., from Lat. _catena_),
+a series of links of metal or other material so connected together that
+the whole forms a flexible band or cord. Chains are used for a variety
+of purposes, such as fastening, securing, or connecting together two or
+more objects, supporting or lifting weights, transmitting mechanical
+power, &c.; or as an ornament to serve as a collar, as a symbol of
+office or state, or as part of the insignia of an order of knighthood;
+or as a device from which to hang a jewelled or other pendant, a watch,
+&c. (see COLLAR). Ornamental chains are made with a great variety of
+links, but those intended for utilitarian purposes are mostly of two
+types. In stud chains a stud or brace is inserted across each link to
+prevent its sides from collapsing inwards under strain, whereas in open
+link chains the links have no studs. The addition of studs is reckoned
+to increase the load which the chain can safely bear by 50%. Small
+chains of the open-link type are to a great extent made by machinery.
+For larger sizes the smith cuts off a length of iron rod of suitable
+diameter, forms it while hot to the shape of the link by repeated blows
+of his hammer, and welds together the two ends of the link, previously
+slipped inside its fellow, by the aid of the same tool; in some cases
+the bending is done in a mechanical press and the welding under a power
+hammer (see also CABLE). Weldless chains are also made; in A.G.
+Strathern's process, for instance, cruciform steel bars are pressed,
+while hot, into links, each without join and engaging with its
+neighbours. Chains used for transmitting power are known as
+pitch-chains; the chain of a bicycle (q.v.) is an example.
+
+From the use of the chain as employed to bind or fetter a prisoner or
+slave, comes the figurative application to anything which serves as a
+constraining or restraining force; and from its series of connected
+links, to any series of objects, events, arguments, &c., connected by
+succession, logical sequence or reasoning. Specific uses are for a
+measuring line in land-surveying, consisting of 100 links, i.e. iron
+rods, 7.92 in. in length, making 22 yds. in all, hence a lineal measure
+of that length; and, as a nautical term, for the contrivance by which
+the lower shrouds of a mast are extended and secured to the ship's
+sides, consisting of dead-eyes, chain-plates, and chain-wale or
+"channel."
+
+
+
+
+CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. _choere_, through O. Fr. _chaëre_ or _chaiere_,
+from Lat. _cathedra_, later _caledra_, Gr. [Greek: kathedra], seat, cf.
+"cathedral"; the modern Fr. form _chaise_, a chair, has been adopted in
+English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; _chaire_ in
+French is still used of a professorial or ecclesiastical "chair," or
+_cathedra_), a movable seat, usually with four legs, for a single
+person, the most varied and familiar article of domestic furniture. The
+chair is of extreme antiquity, although for many centuries and indeed
+for thousands of years it was an appanage of state and dignity rather
+than an article of ordinary use. "The chair" is still extensively used
+as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons and in public
+meetings. It was not, in fact, until the 16th century that it became
+common anywhere. The chest, the bench and the stool were until then the
+ordinary seats of everyday life, and the number of chairs which have
+survived from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most of such
+examples are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Our knowledge of
+the chairs of remote antiquity is derived almost entirely from
+monuments, sculpture and paintings. A few actual examples exist in the
+British Museum, in the Egyptian museum at Cairo, and elsewhere. In
+ancient Egypt they appear to have been of great richness and splendour.
+Fashioned of ebony and ivory, or of carved and gilded wood, they were
+covered with costly stuffs and supported upon representations of the
+legs of beasts of the chase or the figures of captives. An arm-chair in
+fine preservation found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is
+astonishingly similar, even in small details, to that "Empire" style
+which followed Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. The earliest monuments of
+Nineveh represent a chair without a back but with tastefully carved legs
+ending in lions' claws or bulls' hoofs; others are supported by figures
+in the nature of caryatides or by animals. The earliest known form of
+Greek chair, going back to five or six centuries before Christ, had a
+back but stood straight up, front and back. On the frieze of the
+Parthenon Zeus occupies a square seat with a bar-back and thick turned
+legs; it is ornamented with winged sphinxes and the feet of beasts. The
+characteristic Roman chairs were of marble, also adorned with sphinxes;
+the curule chair was originally very similar in form to the modern
+folding chair, but eventually received a good deal of ornament.
+
+The most famous of the very few chairs which have come down from a
+remote antiquity is the reputed chair of St Peter in St Peter's at Rome.
+The wooden portions are much decayed, but it would appear to be
+Byzantine work of the 6th century, and to be really an ancient _sedia
+gestatoria_. It has ivory carvings representing the labours of Hercules.
+A few pieces of an earlier oaken chair have been let in; the existing
+one, Gregorovius says, is of acacia wood. The legend that this was the
+curule chair of the senator Pudens is necessarily apocryphal. It is not,
+as is popularly supposed, enclosed in Bernini's bronze chair, but is
+kept under triple lock and exhibited only once in a century. Byzantium,
+like Greece and Rome, affected the curule form of chair, and in addition
+to lions' heads and winged figures of Victory and dolphin-shaped arms
+used also the lyre-back which has been made familiar by the
+pseudo-classical revival of the end of the 18th century. The chair of
+Maximian in the cathedral of Ravenna is believed to date from the middle
+of the 6th century. It is of marble, round, with a high back, and is
+carved in high relief with figures of saints and scenes from the
+Gospels--the Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, the flight into
+Egypt and the baptism of Christ. The smaller spaces are filled with
+carvings of animals, birds, flowers and foliated ornament. Another very
+ancient seat is the so-called "Chair of Dagobert" in the Louvre. It is
+of cast bronze, sharpened with the chisel and partially gilt; it is of
+the curule or faldstool type and supported upon legs terminating in the
+heads and feet of animals. The seat, which was probably of leather, has
+disappeared. Its attribution depends entirely upon the statement of
+Suger, abbot of St Denis in the 12th century, who added a back and arms.
+Its age has been much discussed, but Viollet-le-Duc dated it to early
+Merovingian times, and it may in any case be taken as the oldest
+faldstool in existence. To the same generic type belongs the famous
+abbots' chair of Glastonbury; such chairs might readily be taken to
+pieces when their owners travelled. The _faldisterium_ in time acquired
+arms and a back, while retaining its folding shape. The most famous, as
+well as the most ancient, English chair is that made at the end of the
+13th century for Edward I., in which most subsequent monarchs have been
+crowned. It is of an architectural type and of oak, and was covered with
+gilded _gesso_ which long since disappeared.
+
+Passing from these historic examples we find the chair monopolized by
+the ruler, lay or ecclesiastical, to a comparatively late date. As the
+seat of authority it stood at the head of the lord's table, on his dais,
+by the side of his bed. The seigneurial chair, commoner in France and
+the Netherlands than in England, is a very interesting type,
+approximating in many respects to the episcopal or abbatial throne or
+stall. It early acquired a very high back and sometimes had a canopy.
+Arms were invariable, and the lower part was closed in with panelled or
+carved front and sides--the seat, indeed, was often hinged and
+sometimes closed with a key. That we are still said to sit "in" an
+arm-chair and "on" other kinds of chairs is a reminiscence of the time
+when the lord or seigneur sat "in his chair." These throne-like seats
+were always architectural in character, and as Gothic feeling waned took
+the distinctive characteristics of Renaissance work. It was owing in
+great measure to the Renaissance that the chair ceased to be an appanage
+of state, and became the customary companion of whomsoever could afford
+to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily came into
+general use, and almost at once began to reflect the fashions of the
+hour. No piece of furniture has ever been so close an index to sumptuary
+changes. It has varied in size, shape and sturdiness with the fashion
+not only of women's dress but of men's also. Thus the chair which was
+not, even with its arms purposely suppressed, too ample during the
+several reigns of some form or other of hoops and farthingale, became
+monstrous when these protuberances disappeared. Again, the costly laced
+coats of the dandy of the 18th and early 19th centuries were so
+threatened by the ordinary form of seat that a "conversation chair" was
+devised, which enabled the buck and the ruffler to sit with his face to
+the back, his valuable tails hanging unimpeded over the front. The early
+chair almost invariably had arms, and it was not until towards the close
+of the 16th century that the smaller form grew common.
+
+The majority of the chairs of all countries until the middle of the 17th
+century were of oak without upholstery, and when it became customary to
+cushion them, leather was sometimes employed; subsequently velvet and
+silk were extensively used, and at a later period cheaper and often more
+durable materials. Leather was not infrequently used even for the costly
+and elaborate chairs of the faldstool form--occasionally sheathed in
+thin plates of silver--which Venice sent all over Europe. To this day,
+indeed, leather is one of the most frequently employed materials for
+chair covering. The outstanding characteristic of most chairs until the
+middle of the 17th century was massiveness and solidity. Being usually
+made of oak, they were of considerable weight, and it was not until the
+introduction of the handsome Louis XIII. chairs with cane backs and
+seats that either weight or solidity was reduced. Although English
+furniture derives so extensively from foreign and especially French and
+Italian models, the earlier forms of English chairs owed but little to
+exotic influences. This was especially the case down to the end of the
+Tudor period, after which France began to set her mark upon the British
+chair. The squat variety, with heavy and sombre back, carved like a
+piece of panelling, gave place to a taller, more slender, and more
+elegant form, in which the framework only was carved, and attempts were
+made at ornament in new directions. The stretcher especially offered
+opportunities which were not lost upon the cabinet-makers of the
+Restoration. From a mere uncompromising cross-bar intended to strengthen
+the construction it blossomed, almost suddenly, into an elaborate
+scroll-work or an exceedingly graceful semicircular ornament connecting
+all four legs, with a vase-shaped knob in the centre. The arms and legs
+of chairs of this period were scrolled, the splats of the back often
+showing a rich arrangement of spirals and scrolls. This most decorative
+of all types appears to have been popularized in England by the
+cavaliers who had been in exile with Charles II. and had become familiar
+with it in the north-western parts of the European continent. During he
+reign of William and Mary these charming forms degenerated into
+something much stiffer and more rectangular, with a solid, more or less
+fiddle-shaped splat and a cabriole leg with pad feet. The more
+ornamental examples had cane seats and ill-proportioned cane backs. From
+these forms was gradually developed the Chippendale chair, with its
+elaborately interlaced back, its graceful arms and square or cabriole
+legs, the latter terminating in the claw and ball or the pad foot.
+Hepplewhite, Sheraton and Adam all aimed at lightening the chair, which,
+even in the master hands of Chippendale, remained comparatively heavy.
+The endeavour succeeded, and the modern chair is everywhere
+comparatively slight. Chippendale and Hepplewhite between them
+determined what appears to be the final form of the chair, for since
+their time practically no new type has lasted, and in its main
+characteristics the chair of the 20th century is the direct derivative
+of that of the later 18th.
+
+The 18th century was, indeed, the golden age of the chair, especially in
+France and England, between which there was considerable give and take
+of ideas. Even Diderot could not refrain from writing of them in his
+_Encyclopédie_. The typical Louis Seize chair, oval-backed and ample of
+seat, with descending arms and round-reeded legs, covered in Beauvais or
+some such gay tapestry woven with Boucher or Watteau-like scenes, is a
+very gracious object, in which the period reached its high-water mark.
+The Empire brought in squat and squabby shapes, comfortable enough no
+doubt, but entirely destitute of inspiration. English Empire chairs were
+often heavier and more sombre than those of French design. Thenceforward
+the chair in all countries ceased to attract the artist. The _art
+nouveau_ school has occasionally produced something of not unpleasing
+simplicity; but more often its efforts have been frankly ugly or even
+grotesque. There have been practically no novelties, with the exception
+perhaps of the basket-chair and such like, which have been made possible
+by modern command over material. So much, indeed, is the present
+indebted to the past in this matter that even the revolving chair, now
+so familiar in offices, has a pedigree of something like four centuries
+(see also SEDAN-CHAIR).     (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAISE (the French for "chair," through a transference from a
+"sedan-chair" to a wheeled vehicle), a light two- or four-wheeled
+carriage with a movable hood or "calash"; the "post-chaise" was the
+fast-travelling carriage of the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was
+closed and four-wheeled for two or four horses and with the driver
+riding postillion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAKRATA, a mountain cantonment in the Dehra Dun district of the United
+Provinces of India, on the range of hills overlooking the valleys of the
+Jumna and the Tons, at an elevation of 7000 ft. It was founded in 1866
+and first occupied in April 1869.
+
+
+
+
+CHALCEDON, more correctly CALCHEDON (mod. _Kadikeui_), an ancient
+maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost directly opposite
+Byzantium, south of Scutari. It was a Megarian colony founded on a site
+so obviously inferior to that which was within view on the opposite
+shore, that it received from the oracle the name of "the City of the
+Blind." In its early history it shared the fortunes of Byzantium, was
+taken by the satrap Otanes, vacillated long between the Lacedaemonian
+and the Athenian interests, and was at last bequeathed to the Romans by
+Attalus III. of Pergamum (133 B.C.). It was partly destroyed by
+Mithradates, but recovered during the Empire, and in A.D. 451 was the
+seat of the Fourth General Council. It fell under the repeated attacks
+of the barbarian hordes who crossed over after having ravaged Byzantium,
+and furnished an encampment to the Persians under Chosroes, c. 616-626.
+The Turks used it as a quarry for building materials for Constantinople.
+The site is now occupied by the village of Kadikeui ("Village of the
+Judge"), which forms the tenth "cercle" of the municipality of
+Constantinople. Pop. about 33,000, of whom 8000 are Moslems. There is a
+large British colony with a church, and also Greek and Armenian churches
+and schools, and a training college for Roman Catholic Armenians. To the
+S. are the ruins of Panteichion (mod. _Pendik_), where Belisarius is
+said to have lived in retirement.
+
+  See J. von Hammer, _Constantinopolis_ (Pesth, 1822); Murray's
+  _Handbook for Constantinople_ (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF, the fourth ecumenical council of the Catholic
+Church, was held in 451, its occasion being the Eutychian heresy and the
+notorious "Robber Synod" (see EUTYCHES and EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF), which
+called forth vigorous protests both in the East and in the West, and a
+loud demand for a new general council, a demand that was ignored by the
+Eutychian Theodosius II., but speedily granted by his successor,
+Marcian, a "Flavianist." In response to the imperial summons, five to
+six hundred bishops, all Eastern, except the Roman legates and two
+Africans, assembled in Chalcedon on the 8th of October 451. The bishop
+of Rome claimed for his legates the right to preside, and insisted that
+any act that failed to receive their approval would be invalid. The
+first session was tumultuous; party feeling ran high, and scurrilous and
+vulgar epithets were bandied to and fro. The acts of the Robber Synod
+were examined; fraud, violence and coercion were charged against it; its
+entire proceedings were annulled, and, at the third session, its leader,
+Dioscurus, was deposed and degraded. The emperor requested a declaration
+of the true faith; but the sentiment of the council was opposed to a new
+symbol. It contented itself with reaffirming the Nicene and
+Constantinopolitan creeds and the Ephesine formula of 431, and
+accepting, only after examination, the Christological statement
+contained in the _Epistola Dogmatica_ of Leo I. (q.v.) to Flavianus.
+Thus the council rejected both Nestorianism and Eutychianism, and stood
+upon the doctrine that Christ had two natures, each perfect in itself
+and each distinct from the other, yet perfectly united in one person,
+who was at once both God and man. With this statement, which was
+formally subscribed in the presence of the emperor, the development of
+the Christological doctrine was completed, but not in a manner to
+obviate further controversy (see MONOPHYSITES and MONOTHELITES).
+
+The remaining sessions, vii.-xvi., were occupied with matters of
+discipline, complaints, claims, controversies and the like. Canons were
+adopted, thirty according to the generally received tradition, although
+the most ancient texts contain but twenty-eight, and, as Hefele points
+out, the so-called twenty-ninth and thirtieth are properly not canons,
+but repetitions of proposals made in a previous session.
+
+The most important enactments of the council of Chalcedon were the
+following: (1) the approval of the canons of the first three ecumenical
+councils and of the synods of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Changra, Antioch and
+Laodicea; (2) forbidding trade, secular pursuits and war to the clergy,
+bishops not even being allowed to administer the property of their
+dioceses; (3) forbidding monks and nuns to marry or to return to the
+world; likewise forbidding the establishment of a monastery in any
+diocese without the consent of the bishop, or the disestablishment of a
+monastery once consecrated; (4) punishing with deposition an ordination
+or clerical appointment made for money; forbidding "absolute ordination"
+(i.e. without assignment to a particular charge), the translation of
+clerics except for good cause, the enrolment of a cleric in two churches
+at once, and the performance of sacerdotal functions outside of one's
+diocese without letters of commendation from one's bishop; (5)
+confirming the jurisdiction of bishops over all clerics, regular and
+secular alike, and punishing with deposition any conspiracy against
+episcopal authority; (6) establishing a gradation of ecclesiastical
+tribunals, viz. bishop, provincial synod, exarch of the diocese,
+patriarch of Constantinople (obviously the council could not here have
+been legislating for the entire church); forbidding clerics to be
+running to Constantinople with complaints, without the consent of their
+respective bishops; (7) confirming the possession of rural parishes to
+those who had actually administered them for thirty years, providing for
+the adjudication of conflicting claims, and guaranteeing the integrity
+of metropolitan provinces; (8) confirming the third canon of the second
+ecumenical council, which accorded to Constantinople equal privileges
+([Greek: isa presbeia]) with Rome, and the second rank among the
+patriarchates, and, in addition, granting to Constantinople patriarchal
+jurisdiction over Pontus, Asia and Thrace.
+
+The Roman legates, who were absent (designedly?) when this famous
+twenty-eighth canon was adopted, protested against it, but in vain, the
+imperial commissioners deciding in favour of its regularity and
+validity. Leo I., although he recognized the council as ecumenical and
+confirmed its doctrinal decrees, rejected canon xxviii. on the ground
+that it contravened the sixth canon of Nicaea and infringed the rights
+of Alexandria and Antioch. In what proportion zeal for the ancient
+canons and the rights of others, and jealous fear of encroachment upon
+his own jurisdiction, were mixed in the motives of Leo, it would be
+interesting to know. The canon was universally received in the East,
+and was expressly confirmed by the Quinisext Council, 692 (see
+CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF).
+
+The emperor Marcian approved the doctrinal decrees of the council and
+enjoined silence in regard to theological questions. Eutyches and
+Dioscurus and their followers were deposed and banished. But harmony was
+not thus to be restored; hardly had the council dissolved when the
+church was plunged into the Monophysite controversy.
+
+  See Mansi vi. pp. 529-1102, vii. pp. 1-868; Hardouin ii. pp. 1-772;
+  Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 394-578 (English translation, iii. pp.
+  268-464); also extended bibliographies in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopädie_, 3rd ed., s.v. "Eutyches" (by Loofs) and s.v.
+  "Nestorianer" (by Kessler).     (T. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALCEDONY, or CALCEDONY (sometimes called by old writers cassidoine), a
+variety of native silica, often used as an ornamental stone. The present
+application of the term is comparatively modern. The "chalcedonius" of
+Pliny was quite a different mineral, being a green stone from the
+copper-mines of Chalcedon, in Asia Minor, whence the name. There has
+been some confusion between chalcedony and the ancient "carcedonia," a
+stone which seems to have been a carbuncle from Africa, brought by way
+of Carthage ([Greek: Karchêdôn]). Our chalcedony was probably included
+by the ancients among the various kinds of jasper and agate, especially
+the varieties termed "leucachates" and "cerachates."
+
+By modern mineralogists the name chalcedony is restricted to those kinds
+of silica which occur not in distinct crystals like ordinary quartz, but
+in concretionary, mammillated or stalactitic forms, which break with a
+fine splintery fracture, and display a delicate fibrous structure.
+Chalcedony may be regarded as a micro-crystalline form of quartz. It is
+rather softer and less dense than crystallized quartz, its hardness
+being about 6.5 and its specific gravity 2.6, the difference being
+probably due to the presence of a small amount of opaline silica between
+the fibres. Chalcedony is a translucent substance of rather waxy lustre,
+presenting great variety of colours, though usually white, grey, yellow
+or brown. A rare blue chalcedony is sometimes polished under the name of
+"sapphirine"--a term applied also to a distinct mineral (an
+aluminium-magnesium silicate) from Greenland.
+
+Chalcedony occurs as a secondary mineral in volcanic rocks, representing
+usually the silica set free by the decomposition of various silicates,
+and deposited in cracks, forming veins, or in vesicular hollows, forming
+amygdales. Its occurrence gives the name to Chalcedony Park, Arizona. It
+is found in the basalts of N. Ireland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland: it
+is common in the traps of the Deccan in India, and in volcanic rocks in
+Uruguay and Brazil. Certain flat oval nodules from a decomposed lava
+(augite-andesite) in Uruguay present a cavity lined with quartz crystals
+and enclosing liquid (a weak saline solution), with a movable
+air-bubble, whence they are called "enhydros" or water-stones. Very fine
+examples of stalactitic chalcedony, in whimsical forms, have been
+yielded by some of the Cornish copper-mines. The surface of chalcedony
+is occasionally coated with a delicate bluish bloom. A chalcedonic
+deposit in the form of concentric rings, on fossils and fragments of
+limestone in S. Devon, is known as "orbicular silica" or "beekite,"
+having been named after Dr Henry Beeke, dean of Bristol, who first
+directed attention to such deposits. Certain pseudomorphs of chalcedony
+after datolite, from Haytor in Devonshire, have received the name of
+"haytorite." Optical examination of many chalcedonic minerals by French
+mineralogists has shown that they are aggregates of various fibrous
+crystalline bodies differing from each other in certain optical
+characters, whence they are distinguished as separate minerals under
+such names as calcedonite, pseudocalcedonite, quartzine, lutecite and
+lussatite. Many coloured and variegated chalcedonies are cut and
+polished as ornamental stones, and are described under special headings.
+Chalcedony has been in all ages the commonest of the stones used by the
+gem-engraver.
+
+  See AGATE, BLOODSTONE, CARNELIAN, CHRYSOPRASE, HELIOTROPE, MOCHA
+  STONE, ONYX, SARD and SARDONYX.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHALCIDICUM, in Roman architecture, the vestibule or portico of a public
+building opening on to the forum; as in the basilica of Eumactria at
+Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine at Rome, where it was placed at
+one end.
+
+
+
+
+CHALCIS, the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, situated on
+the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point. The name is preserved
+from antiquity and is derived from the Greek [Greek: chalkos] (copper,
+bronze), though there is no trace of any mines in the neighbourhood.
+Chalcis was peopled by an Ionic stock which early developed great
+industrial and colonizing activity. In the 8th and 7th centuries it
+founded thirty town-ships on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and several
+important cities in Sicily (q.v.). Its mineral produce, metal-work,
+purple and pottery not only found markets among these settlements, but
+were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth and
+Samos. With the help of these allies Chalcis engaged the rival league of
+its neighbour Eretria (q.v.) in the so-called Lelantine War, by which it
+acquired the best agricultural district of Euboea and became the chief
+city of the island. Early in the 6th century its prosperity was broken
+by a disastrous war with the Athenians, who expelled the ruling
+aristocracy and settled a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently
+became a member of both the Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period it
+gained importance as a fortress by which the Macedonian rulers
+controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus III. of Syria
+(192) and Mithradates VI. of Pontus (88) as a base for invading Greece.
+Under Roman rule Chalcis retained a measure of commercial prosperity;
+since the 6th century A.D. it again served as a fortress for the
+protection of central Greece against northern invaders. From 1209 it
+stood under Venetian control; in 1470 it passed to the Ottomans, who
+made it the seat of a pasha. In 1688 it was successfully held against a
+strong Venetian attack. The modern town has about 10,000 inhabitants,
+and maintains a considerable export trade which received an impetus from
+the establishment of railway connexion with Athens and Peiraeus (1904).
+It is composed of two parts--the old walled town towards the Euripus,
+called the Castro, where the Jewish and Turkish families who have
+remained there mostly dwell; and the more modern suburb that lies
+outside it, which is chiefly occupied by the Greeks. A part of the walls
+of the Castro and many of the houses within it were shaken down by the
+earthquake of 1894; part has been demolished in the widening of the
+Euripus. The most interesting object is the church of St Paraskeve,
+which was once the chief church of the Venetians; it dates from the
+Byzantine period, though many of its architectural features are Western.
+There is also a Turkish mosque, which is now used as a guard-house.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Strabo vii. fr. 11, x. p. 447; Herodotus v. 77;
+  Thucydides i. 15; _Corpus Inscr. Atticarum_, iv. (1) 27a, iv. (2) 10,
+  iv. (2) p. 22; W.M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London,
+  1835), ii. 254-270; E. Curtius in _Hermes_, x. (1876), p. 220 sqq.; A.
+  Holm, _Lange Fehde_ (Berlin, 1884); H. Dondorff, _De Rebus
+  Chalcidensium_ (Göttingen, 1869); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia
+  Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 303-5; and art. NUMISMATICS: _Greek_ §
+  Euboea.
+
+
+
+
+CHALCONDYLES[1] (or CHALCOCONDYLAS), LAONICUS, the only Athenian
+Byzantine writer. Hardly anything is known of his life. He wrote a
+history, in ten books, of the period from 1298-1463, describing the fall
+of the Greek empire and the rise of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the
+centre of the narrative, down to the conquest of the Venetians and
+Mathias, king of Hungary, by Mahommed II. The capture of Constantinople
+he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching importance,
+although the comparison of it to the fall of Troy is hardly appropriate.
+The work incidentally gives a quaint and interesting sketch of the
+manners and civilization of England, France and Germany, whose
+assistance the Greeks sought to obtain against the Turks. Like that of
+other Byzantine writers, Chalcondyles' chronology is defective, and his
+adherence to the old Greek geographical nomenclature is a source of
+confusion. For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain
+information from his father, who was one of the most prominent men in
+Athens during the struggles between the Greek and Frankish nobles. His
+model is Thucydides (according to Bekker, Herodotus); his language is
+tolerably pure and correct, his style simple and clear. The text,
+however, is in a very corrupt state.
+
+  _Editio princeps_, ed. J.B. Baumbach (1615); in Bonn _Corpus
+  Scriptorum Hist. Byz._ ed. I. Bekker (1843); Migne, _Patrologia
+  Graeca_, clix. There is a French translation by Blaise de Vigenère
+  (1577, later ed. by Artus Thomas with valuable illustrations on
+  Turkish matters); see also F. Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Athen
+  im Mittelalter_, ii. (1889); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. 66; C.
+  Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). There
+  is a biographical sketch of Laonicus and his brother in Greek by
+  Antonius Calosynas, a physician of Toledo, who lived in the latter
+  part of the 16th century (see C. Hopf, _Chroniques gréco-romanes_,
+  1873).
+
+His brother, DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES (1424-1511), was born in Athens. In
+1447 he migrated to Italy, where Cardinal Bessarion gave him his
+patronage. He became famous as a teacher of Greek letters and the
+Platonic philosophy; in 1463 he was made professor at Padua, and in 1479
+he was summoned by Lorenzo de' Medici to Florence to fill the
+professorship vacated by John Argyropoulos. In 1492 he removed to Milan,
+where he died in 1511. He was associated with Marsilius Ficinus, Angelus
+Politianus, and Theodorus Gaza, in the revival of letters in the western
+world. One of his pupils at Florence was the famous John Reuchlin.
+Demetrius Chalcondyles published the editio princeps of Homer,
+Isocrates, and Suidas, and a Greek grammar (_Erotemata_) in the form of
+question and answer.
+
+  See H. Hody, _De Graecis illustribus_ (1742); C. Hopf, _Chroniques
+  gréco-romanes_ (1873); E. Legrand, _Bibliographic hellénique_, i.
+  (1885).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A shortened form of Chalcocondyles, from [Greek: chalkos],
+    copper, and [Greek: kondylos], knuckle.
+
+
+
+
+CHALDAEA. The expressions "Chaldaea" and "Chaldaeans" are frequently
+used in the Old Testament as equivalents for "Babylonia" and
+"Babylonians." Chaldaea was really the name of a country, used in two
+senses. It was first applied to the extreme southern district, whose
+ancient capital was the city of _Bit Yakin_, the chief seat of the
+renowned Chaldaean rebel Merodach-baladan, who harassed the Assyrian
+kings Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not as yet possible to fix the exact
+boundaries of the original home of the Chaldaeans, but it may be
+regarded as having been the long stretch of alluvial land situated at
+the then separate mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, which rivers now
+combine to flow into the Persian Gulf in the waters of the majestic
+_Shatt el 'Arab_.
+
+The name "Chaldaea," however, soon came to have a more extensive
+application. In the days of the Assyrian king Ramman-nirari III.
+(812-783 B.C.), the term _mat Kaldu_ covered practically all Babylonia.
+Furthermore, Merodach-baladan was called by Sargon II. (722-705 B.C.)
+"king of the land of the Chaldaeans" and "king of the land of Bit Yakin"
+after the old capital city, but there is no satisfactory evidence that
+Merodach-baladan had the right to the title "Babylonian." The racial
+distinction between the Chaldaeans and the Babylonians proper seems to
+have existed until a much later date, although it is almost certain that
+the former were originally a Semitic people. That they differed from the
+Arabs and Aramaeans is also seen from the distinction made by
+Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.) between the Chaldaeans and these races.
+Later, during the period covering the fall of Assyria and the rise of
+the Neo-Babylonian empire, the term _mat Kaldu_ was not only applied to
+all Babylonia, but also embraced the territory of certain foreign
+nations who were later included by Ezekiel (xxiii. 23) under the
+expression "Chaldaeans."
+
+As already indicated, the Chaldaeans were most probably a Semitic
+people. It is likely that they first came from Arabia, the supposed
+original home of the Semitic races, at a very early date along the coast
+of the Persian Gulf and settled in the neighbourhood of Ur ("Ur of the
+Chaldees," Gen. xi. 28), whence they began a series of encroachments,
+partly by warfare and partly by immigration, against the other Semitic
+Babylonians. These aggressions after many centuries ended in the
+Chaldaean supremacy of Nabopolassar and his successors (c. 626 ff.),
+although there is no positive proof that Nabopolassar was purely
+Chaldaean in blood. The sudden rise of the later Babylonian empire under
+Nebuchadrezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, must have tended to produce so
+thorough an amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, who had
+theretofore been considered as two kindred branches of the same original
+Semite stock, that in the course of time no perceptible differences
+existed between them. A similar amalgamation, although in this case of
+two peoples originally racially distinct, has taken place in modern
+times between the Manchu Tatars and the Chinese. It is quite evident,
+for example, from the Semitic character of the Chaldaean king-names,
+that the language of these Chaldaeans differed in no way from the
+ordinary Semitic Babylonian idiom which was practically identical with
+that of Assyria. Consequently, the term "Chaldaean" came quite naturally
+to be used in later days as synonymous with "Babylonian." When
+subsequently the Babylonian language went out of use and Aramaic took
+its place, the latter tongue was wrongly termed "Chaldee" by Jerome,
+because it was the only language known to him used in Babylonia. This
+error was followed until a very recent date by many scholars.
+
+The derivation of the name "Chaldaean" is extremely uncertain. Peter
+Jensen has conjectured with slight probability that the Chaldaeans were
+Semitized Sumerians, i.e. a non-Semitic tribe which by contact with
+Semitic influences had lost its original character. There seems to be
+little or no evidence to support such a view. Friedrich Delitzsch
+derived the name "Chaldaean" =_Kasdim_ from the non-Semitic Kassites who
+held the supremacy over practically all Babylonia during an extended
+period (c. 1783-1200 B.C.). This theory seems also to be extremely
+improbable. It is much more likely that the name "Chaldaean" is
+connected with the Semitic stem _kasadu_ (conquer), in which case
+_Kaldi-Kasdi_, with the well-known interchange of l and _s_, would mean
+"conquerors." It is also possible that _Kasdu-Kaldu_ is connected with
+the proper name Chesed, who is represented as having been the nephew of
+Abraham (Gen. xxii. 22). There is no connexion whatever between the
+Black Sea peoples called "Chaldaeans" by Xenophon (_Anab_. vii. 25) and
+the Chaldaeans of Babylonia.
+
+In Daniel, the term "Chaldaeans" is very commonly employed with the
+meaning "astrologers, astronomers," which sense also appears in the
+classical authors, notably in Herodotus, Strabo and Diodorus. In Daniel
+i. 4, by the expression "tongue of the Chaldaeans," the writer evidently
+meant the language in which the celebrated Babylonian works on astrology
+and divination were composed. It is now known that the literary idiom of
+the Babylonian wise men was the non-Semitic Sumerian; but it is not
+probable that the late author of Daniel (c. 168 B.C.) was aware of this
+fact.
+
+The word "Chaldaean" is used in Daniel in two senses. It is applied as
+elsewhere in the Old Testament as a race-name to the Babylonians (Dan.
+iii. 8, v. 30, ix. 1); but the expression is used oftener, either as a
+name for some special class of magicians, or as a term for magicians in
+general (ix. 1). The transfer of the name of the people to a special
+class is perhaps to be explained in the following manner. As just shown,
+"Chaldaean" and "Babylonian" had become in later times practically
+synonymous, but the term "Chaldaean" had lived on in the secondary
+restricted sense of "wise men." The early _Kaldi_ had seized and held
+from very ancient times the region of old Sumer, which was the centre of
+the primitive non-Semitic culture. It seems extremely probable that
+these Chaldaean Semites were so strongly influenced by the foreign
+civilization as to adopt it eventually as their own. Then, as the
+Chaldaeans soon became the dominant people, the priestly caste of that
+region developed into a Chaldaean institution. It is reasonable to
+conjecture that southern Babylonia, the home of the old culture,
+supplied Babylon and other important cities with priests, who from their
+descent were correctly called "Chaldaeans." This name in later times,
+owing to the racial amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, lost
+its former national force, and became, as it occurs in Daniel, a
+distinctive appellation of the Babylonian priestly class. It is
+possible, though not certain, that the occurrence of the word _kalu_
+(priest) in Babylonian, which has no etymological connexion with
+_Kaldu_, may have contributed paronomastically towards the popular use
+of the term "Chaldaeans" for the Babylonian Magi. (See also ASTROLOGY.)
+
+  LITERATURE.--Delattre, _Les Chaldéens jusqu'à la fond. de l'emp. de
+  Nebuch._ (1889); Winckler, _Untersuchungen zur altor. Gesch._ (1889),
+  pp. 49 ff.; _Gesch. Bab. u. Assyr._ (1892), pp. 111 ff.; Prince,
+  _Commentary on Daniel_ (1899), pp. 59-61; see also BABYLONIA AND
+  ASSYRIA and SUMER AND SUMERIAN.     (J. D. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALDEE, a term sometimes applied to the Aramaic portions of the
+biblical books of Ezra and Daniel or to the vernacular paraphrases of
+the Old Testament (see TARGUM). The explanation formerly adopted and
+embodied in the name Chaldee is that the change took place in Babylon.
+That the so-called Biblical Chaldee, in which considerable portions of
+the books of Ezra and Daniel are written, was really the language of
+Babylon was supposed to be clear from Dan. ii. 4, where the Chaldaeans
+are said to have spoken to the king in Aramaic. But the cuneiform
+inscriptions show that the language of the Chaldaeans was Assyrian; and
+an examination of the very large part of the Hebrew Old Testament
+written later than the exile proves conclusively that the substitution
+of Aramaic for Hebrew as the vernacular of Palestine took place very
+gradually. Hence scholars are now agreed that the term "Chaldee" is a
+misnomer, and that the dialect so called is really the language of the
+South-Western Arameans, who were the immediate neighbours of the Jews
+(W. Wright, _Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages_, p. 16). (See
+SEMITIC LANGUAGES.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALICE (through a central O. Fr. form of the Lat. _calix_, _calicis_,
+cup), a drinking-vessel of the cup or goblet form, now only used of the
+cup used in the celebration of the Eucharist (q.v.). For the various
+forms which the "chalice" so used has taken, see DRINKING-VESSELS and
+PLATE. When, in the eucharistic service, water is mixed with the wine,
+the "chalice" is known as the "mixed chalice." This has been customary
+both in the Eastern and Western Churches from early times. The Armenian
+Church does not use the "mixed chalice." It was used in the English
+Church before the Reformation. According to the present law of the
+English Church, the mixing of the water with wine is lawful, if this is
+not done as part of or during the services, i.e. if it is not done
+ceremonially (_Martin_ v. _Mackonochie_, 1868, L.R. 2 P.C. 365; _Read_
+v. _Bp. of Lincoln_, 1892, A.C. 664).
+
+
+
+
+CHALIER, JOSEPH (1747-1793), French Revolutionist. He was destined by
+his family for the church, but entered business, and became a partner in
+a firm at Lyons for which he travelled in the Levant, in Italy, Spain
+and Portugal. He was in Paris in 1789, and entered into relations with
+Marat, Camille Desmoulins and Robespierre. On his return to Lyons,
+Chalier was the first to be named member of the municipal bureau. He
+organized the national guard, applied the civil constitution of the
+clergy, and regulated the finances of the city so as to tax the rich
+heavily and spare the poor. Denounced to the Legislative Assembly by the
+directory of the department of Rhone-et-Loire for having made a
+nocturnal domiciliary perquisition, he was sent to the bar of the
+Assembly, which approved of his conduct. In the election for mayor of
+Lyons, in November 1792, he was defeated by a Royalist. Then Chalier
+became the orator and leader of the Jacobins of Lyons, and induced the
+other revolutionary clubs and the commune of his city to arrest a great
+number of Royalists in the night of the 5th and 6th of February 1793.
+The mayor, supported by the national guard, opposed this project.
+Chalier demanded of the Convention the establishment of a revolutionary
+tribunal and the levy of a revolutionary army at Lyons. The Convention
+refused, and the anti-revolutionary party, encouraged by this refusal,
+took action. On the 29th and 30th of May 1793 the sections rose; the
+Jacobins were dispossessed of the municipality and Chalier arrested. On
+the 15th of July, in spite of the order of the Convention, he was
+brought before the criminal tribunal of the Rhone-et-Loire, condemned to
+death, and guillotined the next day. The Terrorists paid a veritable
+worship to his memory, as to a martyr of Liberty.
+
+  See N. Wahl, "Étude sur Chalier," in _Revue historique_, t. xxxiv.;
+  and _Les Premières Années de la Révolution à Lyon_ (Paris, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CHALK, the name given to any soft, pulverulent, pure white limestone.
+The word is an old one, having its origin in the Saxon _cealc_, and the
+hard form "kalk" is still in use amongst the country folk of
+Lincolnshire. The German _Kalk_ comprehends all forms of limestone;
+therefore a special term, _Kreide_, is employed for chalk--French
+_craie_. From being used as a common name, denoting a particular
+material, the word was subsequently utilized by geologists as an
+appellation for the _Chalk formation_; and so prominent was this
+formation in the eyes of the earlier workers that it imposed its name
+upon a whole system of rocks, the Cretaceous (Lat. _creta_, chalk),
+although this rock itself is by no means generally characteristic of the
+system as a whole.
+
+The Chalk formation, in addition to the typical chalk material--_creta
+scriptoria_--comprises several variations; argillaceous kinds--_creta
+marga_ of Linnaeus--known locally as malm, marl, clunch, &c.; and
+harder, more stony kinds, called rag, freestone, rock, hurlock or
+harrock in different districts. In certain parts of the formation layers
+of nodular flints (q.v.) abound; in parts, it is inclined to be sandy,
+or to contain grains of glauconite which was originally confounded with
+another green mineral, chlorite, hence the name "chloritic marl" applied
+to one of the subdivisions of the chalk. In its purest form chalk
+consists of from 95 to 99% of calcium carbonate (carbonate of lime); in
+this condition it is composed of a mass of fine granular particles held
+together by a somewhat feeble calcareous cement. The particles are
+mostly the broken tests of foraminifera, along with the débris of
+echinoderm and molluscan shells, and many minute bodies, like
+coccoliths, of somewhat obscure nature.
+
+  The earliest attempts at subdivision of the Chalk formation initiated
+  by Wm. Phillips were based upon lithological characters, and such a
+  classification as "Upper Chalk with Flints," "Lower Chalk without
+  Flints," "Chalk marl or Grey chalk," was generally in use in England
+  until W. Whitaker established the following order in 1865:--
+
+    Upper Chalk, with flints
+
+                 / chalk rock
+    Lower Chalk <  chalk with few flints
+                 \ chalk without flints
+
+    Chalk Marl   / Totternhoe stone
+                 \     "      marl
+
+  In France, a similar system of classification was in vogue, the
+  subdivisions being _craie blanche_, _craie tufan_, _craie chloritée_,
+  until 1843 when d'Orbigny proposed the term _Senonien_ for the Upper
+  Chalk and _Turonien_ for the Lower; later he divided the _Turonien_,
+  giving the name _Cénomanien_ to the lower portion. The subdivisions of
+  d'Orbigny were based upon the fossil contents and not upon the
+  lithological characters of the rocks. In 1876 Prof. Ch. Barrois showed
+  how d'Orbigny's classification might be applied to the British chalk
+  rocks; and this scheme has been generally adopted by geologists,
+  although there is some divergence of opinion as to the exact position
+  of the base line of the Cenomanian.
+
+  The accompanying table shows the classification now adopted in
+  England, with the zonal fossils and the continental names of the  substages:--
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+
+    |                                               |                     |N. France |  S.E. and |
+    |        Zonal fossils used in Britain.         |       Stages.       |   and    | S. France.|
+    |                                               |                     | Belgium.*|           |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+
+    |   / _Ostrea lunata_ (Norfolk)                 | Danian?             |          |           |
+    |   |                                           | (Trimingham)        |          |           |
+    |   | _Belemnitella mucronata_                  |                     |          |           |
+    |A.<  _Actinocamax quadratus_                   | Upper Chalk         |          |           |
+    |   | = _Inoceramus lingua_ in Yorkshire        | Senonian            | Flint-   |           |
+    |   |                            / _Marsupites_,| _Craie blanche_     | bearing  |           |
+    |   \ _Marsupites testudinarium_ \ _Uintacrinus_|                     | chalk.   |           |
+    |                                               |                     |          | Marls,    |
+    |   / _Micraster cor-anguinum_                  |                     |          | sandstones|
+    |B.<      "     _cor-testudinarium_             |                     |          | and       |
+    |   \ _Holaster planus_, Chalk rock             |                     |          | limestones|
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+          | (not      |
+    | _Terebratulina gracilis_                      | Middle Chalk        |          | chalky)   |
+    |                                               | Turonian            |          | with      |
+    | _Rhynchonella Cuvieri_, Melbourne rock        | _Craie marneuse_    |          | _Hippur-  |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+          |   ites_.  |
+    |                                               | Lower Chalk,        |          |           |
+    |                                               | Chalk Marl and      |          |           |
+    |                                               | Cambridge Greensand | Marly    |           |
+    | _Actinocamax plenus_                          | Cenomanian          | chalk.   |           |
+    | _Holaster subglobosus_, Totternhoe stone.     |                     |          |           |
+    | _Schloenbachia varians_.                      | _Craie glauconieuse_|          |           |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+
+  * (See table in article CRETACEOUS SYSTEM,)
+
+Since Prof. Barrois introduced the zonal system of subdivision (C. Evans
+had used a similar scheme six years earlier), our knowledge of the
+English chalk has been greatly increased by the work of Jukes-Browne and
+William Hill, and particularly by the laborious studies of Dr A.W. Rowe.
+Instead of employing the mixed assemblage of animals indicated as zone
+fossils in the table, A. de Grossouvre proposed a scheme for the north
+of France based upon ammonite faunas alone, which he contended would be
+of more general applicability (_Recherches sur la Craie Supérieure_,
+Paris, 1901).
+
+The Upper Chalk has a maximum thickness in England of about 1000 ft.,
+but post-cretaceous erosion has removed much of it in many districts. It
+is more constant in character, and more typically chalky than the lower
+stages; flints are abundant, and harder nodular beds are limited to the
+lower portions, where some of the compact limestones are known as "chalk
+rock." The thickness of the Middle Chalk varies from about 100 to 240
+ft.; flints become scarcer in descending from the upper to the lower
+portions. The whole is more compact than the upper stage, and nodular
+layers are more frequent--the "chalk rock" of Dorset and the Isle of
+Wight belong to this stage. At the base is the hard "Melbourne rock."
+The thickness of the Lower Chalk in England varies from 60 to 240 ft.
+This stage includes part of the "white chalk without flints," the "chalk
+marl," and the "grey chalk." The Totternhoe stone is a hard freestone
+found locally in this stage. The basement bed in Norfolk is a pure
+limestone, but very frequently it is marly with grains of sand and
+glauconite, and often contains phosphatic nodules; this facies is
+equivalent to the "Cambridge Greensand" of some districts and the
+"chloritic marl" of others. In Devonshire the Lower Chalk has become
+thin sandy calcareous series.
+
+The chalk can be traced in England from Flamborough Head in Yorkshire,
+in a south-westerly direction, to the coast of Dorset; and it not only
+underlies the whole of the S.E. corner, where it is often obscured by
+Tertiary deposits, but it can be followed across the Channel into
+northern France. Rocks of the same age as the chalk are widespread (see
+CRETACEOUS SYSTEM); but the variety of limestone properly called by this
+name is almost confined to the Anglo-Parisian basin. Some chalk occurs
+in the great Cretaceous deposits of Russia, and in Kansas, Iowa,
+Nebraska and S. Dakota in the United States. Hard white chalk occurs in
+Ireland in Antrim, and on the opposite shore of Scotland in Mull and
+Morven.
+
+_Economic Products of the Chalk._--Common chalk has been frequently used
+for rough building purposes, but the more important building stones are
+"Beer stone," from Beer Head in Devonshire, "Sutton stone" from a little
+north of Beer, and the "Totternhoe stone." It is burned for lime, and
+when mixed with some form of clay is used for the manufacture of cement;
+chalk marl has been used alone for this purpose. As a manure, it has
+been much used as a dressing for clayey land. Flints from the chalk are
+used for road metal and concrete, and have been employed in building as
+a facing for walls. Phosphatic nodules for manure have been worked from
+the chloritic marl and Cambridge Greensand, and to some extent from the
+Middle Chalk. The same material is worked at Ciply in Belgium and
+Picardy in France. Chalk is employed in the manufacture of carbonate of
+soda, in the preparation of carbon dioxide, and in many other chemical
+processes; also for making paints, crayons and tooth-powder. _Whiting_
+or _Spanish white_, used to polish glass and metal, is purified chalk
+prepared by triturating common chalk with a large quantity of water,
+which is then decanted and allowed to deposit the finely-divided
+particles it holds in suspension.
+
+_Chalk Scenery._--Where exposed at the surface, chalk produces rounded,
+smooth, grass-covered hills as in the Downs of southern England and the
+Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The hills are often intersected by
+clean-cut dry valleys. It forms fine cliffs on the coast of Kent,
+Yorkshire and Devonshire.
+
+Chalk is employed medicinally as a very mild astringent either alone or
+more usually with other astringents. It is more often used, however, for
+a purely mechanical action, as in the preparation hydrargyrum cum creta.
+As an antacid its use has been replaced by other drugs.
+
+_Black chalk_ or _drawing slate_ is a soft carbonaceous schist, which
+gives a black streak, so that it can be used for drawing or writing.
+_Brown chalk_ is a kind of umber. _Red chalk_ or _reddle_ is an impure
+earthy variety of haematite. _French chalk_ is a soft variety of
+steatite, a hydrated magnesium silicate.
+
+  The most comprehensive account of the British chalk is contained in
+  the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom_, "The
+  Cretaceous Rocks of Britain," vol. ii. 1903, vol. iii. 1904 (with
+  bibliography), by Jukes-Browne and Hill. See also "The White Chalk of
+  the English Coast," several papers in the _Proceedings of the
+  Geologists' Association_, London, (1) Kent and Sussex, xvi. 1900, (2)
+  Dorset, xvii., 1901, (3) Devon, xviii., 1903, (4) Yorkshire, xviii.,
+  1904.     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALKHILL, JOHN (fl. 1600?), English poet. Two songs by him are included
+in Izaak Walton's _Compleat Angler_, and in 1683 appeared "Thealma and
+Clearchus. A Pastoral History in smooth and easie Verse. Written long
+since by John Chalkhill, Esq., an Acquaintant and Friend of Edmund
+Spencer" (1683), with a preface written five years earlier by Walton.
+Another poem, "Alcilia, Philoparthens Loving Follie" (1595, reprinted in
+vol. x. of the _Jahrbuch des deutschen Shakespeare-Vereins_), was at one
+time attributed to him. Nothing further is known of the poet, but a
+person of his name occurs as one of the coroners for Middlesex in the
+later years of Queen Elizabeth's reign. Professor Saintsbury, who
+included _Thealma and Clearchus_ in vol. ii. of his _Minor Poets of the
+Caroline Period_ (Oxford, 1906), points out a marked resemblance between
+his work and that of William Chamberlayne.
+
+
+
+
+CHALKING THE DOOR, a Scottish custom of landlord and tenant law. In
+former days the law was that "a burgh officer, in presence of witnesses,
+chalks the most patent door forty days before Whit Sunday, having made
+out an execution of 'chalking,' in which his name must be inserted, and
+which must be subscribed by himself and two witnesses." This ceremony
+now proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The execution
+of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal will be
+pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the tenant may be
+ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days.
+
+
+
+
+CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN (1818-1894), French historian,
+was born in Paris on the 18th of March 1818. His writings consist
+chiefly of popular works, which enjoyed great success. The value of some
+of his books is enhanced by numerous illustrations, e.g. _Histoire-museé
+de la Révolution française_, which appeared in 50 numbers in 1841-1842
+(3rd ed., in 72 numbers, 1857-1858); _Histoire de la mode en France; la
+toilette des femmes depuis l'époque gallo-romaine jusqu'à nos jours_
+(1874, with 12 plates; new ed., 1880, with 21 coloured plates). His
+_Mémoires du peuple française_ (1865-1873) and _La France et les
+Français a travers les siécles_ (1882) at least have the merit of being
+among the first books written on the social history of France. In this
+sense Challamel was a pioneer, of no great originality, it is true, but
+at any rate of fairly wide information. He died on the 20th of October
+1894.
+
+
+
+
+CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND (1827-1896), French statesman, was born at
+Avranches on the 19th of May 1827. After passing through the École
+Normale Supérieure he became professor of philosophy successively at Pau
+and at Limoges. The _coup d'état_ of 1851 caused his expulsion from
+France for his republican opinions. He travelled on the continent, and
+in 1856 settled down as professor of French literature at the
+Polytechnic of Zürich. The amnesty of 1859 enabled him to return to
+France, but a projected course of lectures on history and art was
+immediately suppressed. He now supported himself by his pen, and became
+a regular contributor to the reviews. On the fall of the Second Empire
+in September 1870 the government of national defence appointed him
+prefect of the department of the Rhone, in which capacity he had to
+suppress the Communist rising at Lyons. Resigning his post on the 5th of
+February 1871, he was in January 1872 elected to the National Assembly,
+and in 1876 to the Senate. He sat at first on the Extreme Left; but his
+philosophic and critical temperament was not in harmony with the
+recklessness of French radicalism, and his attitude towards political
+questions underwent a steady modification, till the close of his life
+saw him the foremost representative of moderate republicanism. During
+Gambetta's lifetime, however, Challemel-Lacour was one of his warmest
+supporters, and he was for a time editor of Gambetta's organ, the
+_République française_. In 1879 he was appointed French ambassador at
+Bern, and in 1880 was transferred to London; but he lacked the
+suppleness and command of temper necessary to a successful diplomatist.
+He resigned in 1882, and in February 1883 became minister of foreign
+affairs in the Jules Ferry cabinet, but retired in November of the same
+year. In 1890 he was elected vice-president of the Senate, and in 1893
+succeeded Jules Ferry as its president. His influence over that body was
+largely due to his clear and reasoned eloquence, which placed him at the
+head of contemporary French orators. In 1893 he also became a member of
+the French Academy. He distinguished himself by the vigour with which he
+upheld the Senate against the encroachments of the chamber, but in 1895
+failing health forced him to resign, and he died in Paris on the 26th of
+October 1896. He published a translation of A. Heinrich Ritter's
+_Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1861); _La Philosophie individualiste:
+étude sur Guillaume de Humboldt_ (1864); and an edition of the works of
+Madame d'Épinay (1869).
+
+  In 1897 appeared Joseph Reinach's edition of the _OEuvres oratoires
+  de Challemel-Lacour_.
+
+
+
+
+CHALLENGE (O. Fr. _chalonge, calenge_, &c., from Lat. _calumnia_,
+originally meaning trickery, from _calvi_, to deceive, hence a false
+accusation, a "calumny"), originally a charge against a person or a
+claim to anything, a defiance. The term is now particularly used of an
+invitation to a trial of skill in any contest, or to a trial by combat
+as a vindication of personal honour (see DUEL), and, in law, of the
+objection to the members of a jury allowed in a civil action or in a
+criminal trial (see JURY).
+
+
+
+
+"CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION. The scientific results of several short
+expeditions between 1860 and 1870 encouraged the council of the Royal
+Society to approach the British government, on the suggestion of Sir
+George Richards, hydrographer to the admiralty, with a view to
+commissioning a vessel for a prolonged cruise for oceanic exploration.
+The government detailed H.M.S. "Challenger," a wooden corvette of 2306
+tons, for the purpose. Captain (afterwards Sir) George Nares was placed
+in command, with a naval crew; and a scientific staff was selected by
+the society with Professor (afterwards Sir) C. Wyville Thomson as
+director. The staff included Mr (afterwards Sir) John Murray and Mr H.N.
+Moseley, biologists; Dr von Willemoes-Suhm, Commander Tizard, and Mr
+J.Y. Buchanan, chemist and geologist. A complete scheme of instructions
+was drawn up by the society. The "Challenger" sailed from Portsmouth in
+December 1872. For nearly a year the work of the expedition lay in the
+Atlantic, which was crossed several times. Teneriffe, the Bermudas, the
+Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd Islands, Bahia and Tristan da Cunha were
+successively visited, and in October 1873 the ship reached Cape Town.
+Steering then south-east and east she visited the various islands
+between 45° and 50° S., and reached Kerguelen Island in January 1874.
+She next proceeded southward about the meridian of 80° E. She was the
+first steamship to cross the Antarctic circle, but the attainment of a
+high southerly latitude was not an object of the voyage, and early in
+March the ship left the south polar regions and made for Melbourne.
+Extensive researches were now made in the Pacific. The route led by New
+Zealand, the Fiji Islands, Torres Strait, the Banda Sea, and the China
+Sea to Hong Kong. The western Pacific was then explored northward to
+Yokohama, after which the "Challenger" struck across the ocean by
+Honolulu and Tahiti to Valparaiso. She then coasted southward,
+penetrated the Straits of Magellan, touched at Montevideo, recrossed the
+Atlantic by Ascension and the Azores, and reached Sheerness in May 1876.
+This voyage is without parallel in the history of scientific research.
+The _"Challenger" Report_ was issued in fifty volumes (London,
+1880-1895), mainly under the direction of Sir John Murray, who succeeded
+Wyville Thomson in this work in 1882. Specialists in every branch of
+science assisted in its production. The zoological collections alone
+formed the basis for the majority of the volumes; the deep-sea soundings
+and samples of the deposits, the chemical analysis of water samples, the
+meteorological, water-temperature, magnetic, geological, and botanical
+observations were fully worked out, and a summary of the scientific
+results, narrative of the cruise and indices were also provided.
+
+  See also Lord G. Campbell, _Log Letters from the "Challenger"_,
+  (1876); W.J.J. Spry, _Cruise of H.M.S. "Challenger"_ (1876); Sir C.
+  Wyville Thomson, _Voyage of the "Challenger," The Atlantic,
+  Preliminary Account of General Results_ (1877); J.J. Wild, _At Anchor;
+  Narrative of Experiences afloat and ashore during the Voyage of H.M.S.
+  "Challenger"_ (1878); H.N. Moseley, _Notes by a Naturalist on the
+  "Challenger"_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+CHALLONER, RICHARD (1691-1781), English Roman Catholic prelate, was born
+at Lewes, Sussex, on the 29th of September 1691. After the death of his
+father, who was a rigid Dissenter, his mother, left in poverty, lived
+with some Roman Catholic families. Thus it came about that he was
+brought up as a Roman Catholic, chiefly at the seat of Mr Holman at
+Warkworth, Northamptonshire, where the Rev. John Gother, a celebrated
+controversialist, officiated as chaplain. In 1704 he was sent to the
+English College at Douai, where he was ordained a priest in 1716, took
+his degrees in divinity, and was appointed professor in that faculty. In
+1730 he was sent on the English mission and stationed in London. The
+controversial treatises which he published in rapid succession attracted
+much attention, particularly his _Catholic Christian Instructed_ (1737),
+which was prefaced by a witty reply to Dr Conyers Middleton's _Letters
+from Rome, showing an Exact Conformity between Popery and Paganism_.
+Middleton is said to have been so irritated that he endeavoured to put
+the penal laws in force against his antagonist, who prudently withdrew
+from London. In 1741 Challoner was raised to the episcopal dignity at
+Hammersmith, and nominated co-adjutor with right of succession to Bishop
+Benjamin Petre, vicar-apostolic of the London district, whom he
+succeeded in 1758. He resided principally in London, but was obliged to
+retire into the country during the "No Popery" riots of 1780. He died on
+the 12th of January 1781, and was buried at Milton, Berkshire. Bishop
+Challoner was the author of numerous controversial and devotional works,
+which have been frequently reprinted and translated into various
+languages. He compiled the _Garden of the Soul_ (1740 ?), which
+continues to be the most popular manual of devotion among
+English-speaking Roman Catholics, and he revised an edition of the Douai
+version of the Scriptures (1749-1750), correcting the language and
+orthography, which in many places had become obsolete. Of his historical
+works the most valuable is one which was intended to be a Roman Catholic
+antidote to Foxe's well-known martyrology. It is entitled _Memoirs of
+Missionary Priests and other Catholicks of both Sexes who suffered Death
+or Imprisonment in England on account of their Religion, from the year
+1577 till the end of the reign of Charles II._ (2 vols. 1741, frequently
+reprinted). He also published anonymously, in 1745, the lives of
+English, Scotch and Irish saints, under the title of _Britannia Sancta_,
+an interesting work which has, however, been superseded by that of Alban
+Butler.
+
+  For a complete list of his writings see J. Gillow's _Bibl. Dict. of
+  Eng. Cath._ i. 452-458; Barnard, _Life of R. Challoner_ (1784);
+  Flanagan, _History of the Catholic Church in England_ (1857); there is
+  also a critical history of Challoner by Rev. E. Burton.
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1750-1834), Scottish writer, was born in Aberdeen
+on the 29th of March 1759. He was educated as a doctor, but gave up this
+profession for journalism, and he was for some time editor of the
+_Morning Herald_. Besides editions of the works of Shakespeare, Beattie,
+Fielding, Johnson, Warton, Pope, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, he published _A
+General Biographical Dictionary_ in 32 vols.(1812-1817); a _Glossary to
+Shakspeare_ (1797); an edition of Steevens's Shakespeare (1809); and the
+_British Essayists_, beginning with the _Tatler_ and ending with the
+_Observer_, with biographical and historical prefaces and a general
+index. He died in London on the 19th of December 1834.
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825), Scottish antiquarian and political writer,
+was born at Fochabers, a village in the county of Moray, in 1742. His
+father, James Chalmers, was a grandson of George Chalmers of Pittensear,
+a small estate in the parish of Lhanbryde, now St Andrews-Lhanbryde, in
+the same county, possessed by the main line of the family from about the
+beginning of the 17th to the middle of the 18th century. After
+completing the usual course at King's College, Aberdeen, young Chalmers
+studied law in Edinburgh for several years. Two uncles on the father's
+side having settled in America, he visited Maryland in 1763, with the
+view, it is said, of assisting to recover a tract of land of some extent
+about which a dispute had arisen, and was in this way induced to
+commence practice as a lawyer at Baltimore, where for a time he met with
+much success. Having, however, espoused the cause of the Royalist party
+on the breaking out of the American War of Independence, he found it
+expedient to abandon his professional prospects in the New World, and
+return to his native country. For the losses he had sustained as a
+colonist he received no compensation, and several years elapsed before
+he obtained an appointment that placed him in a state of comfort and
+independence.
+
+In the meantime Chalmers applied himself with great diligence and
+assiduity to the investigation of the history and establishment of the
+English colonies in North America; and enjoying free access to the state
+papers and other documents preserved among what were then termed the
+plantation records, he became possessed of much important information.
+His work entitled _Political Annals of the present United Colonies from
+their Settlement to the Peace of 1763_, 4to, London, 1780, was to have
+formed two volumes; but the second, which should have contained the
+period between 1688 and 1763, never appeared. The first volume, however,
+is complete in itself, and traces the original settlement of the
+different American colonies, and the progressive changes in their
+constitutions and forms of government as affected by the state of public
+affairs in the parent kingdom. Independently of its value as being
+compiled from original documents, it bears evidence of great research,
+and has been of essential benefit to later writers. Continuing his
+researches, he next gave to the world _An Estimate of the Comparative
+Strength of Britain during the Present and Four Preceding Reigns_,
+London, 1782, which passed through several editions. At length, in
+August 1786, Chalmers, whose sufferings as a Royalist must have strongly
+recommended him to the government of the day, was appointed chief clerk
+to the committee of privy council on matters relating to trade, a
+situation which he retained till his death in 1825, a period of nearly
+forty years. As his official duties made no great demands on his time,
+he had abundant leisure to devote to his favourite studies,--the
+antiquities and topography of Scotland having thenceforth special
+attractions for his busy pen.
+
+Besides biographical sketches of Defoe, Sir John Davies, Allan Ramsay,
+Sir David Lyndsay, Churchyard and others, prefixed to editions of their
+respective works, Chalmers wrote a life of Thomas Paine, the author of
+the _Rights of Man_, which he published under the assumed name of
+Francis Oldys, A.M., of the University of Pennsylvania; and a life of
+Ruddiman, in which considerable light is thrown on the state of
+literature in Scotland during the earlier part of the last century. His
+life of Mary, Queen of Scots, in two 4to vols., was first published in
+1818. It is founded on a MS. left by John Whitaker, the historian of
+Manchester; but Chalmers informs us that he found it necessary to
+rewrite the whole. The history of that ill-fated queen occupied much of
+his attention, and his last work, _A Detection of the Love-Letters
+lately attributed in Hugh Campbell's work to Mary Queen of Scots_, is an
+exposure of an attempt to represent as genuine some fictitious letters
+said to have passed between Mary and Bothwell which had fallen into
+deserved oblivion. In 1797 appeared his _Apology for the Believers in
+the Shakespeare Papers which were exhibited in Norfolk Street_, followed
+by other tracts on the same subject. These contributions to the
+literature of Shakespeare are full of curious matter, but on the whole
+display a great waste of erudition, in seeking to show that papers which
+had been proved forgeries might nevertheless have been genuine. Chalmers
+also took part in the Junius controversy, and in _The Author of Junius
+Ascertained, from a Concatenation of Circumstances amounting to Moral
+Demonstration_, Lond. 1817, 8vo, sought to fix the authorship of the
+celebrated letters on Hugh Boyd. In 1824 he published _The Poetical
+Remains of some of the Scottish Kings, now first collected_; and in the
+same year he edited and presented as a contribution to the Bannatyne
+Club _Robene and Makyne and the Testament of Cresseid, by Robert
+Henryson_. His political writings are equally numerous. Among them may
+be mentioned _Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other
+Powers_, Lond. 1790, 2 vols. 8vo; _Vindication of the Privileges of the
+People in respect to the Constitutional Right of Free Discussion_, &c.,
+Lond. 1796, 8vo, published anonymously; _A Chronological Account of
+Commerce and Coinage in Great Britain from the Restoration till 1810_,
+Lond. 1810, 8vo; _Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on various points of
+English Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies, Fisheries, and
+Commerce of Great Britain_, Lond. 1814, 2 vols. 8vo; _Comparative Views
+of the State of Great Britain before and since the War_, Lond. 1817,
+8vo.
+
+But Chalmers's greatest work is his _Caledonia_, which, however, he did
+not live to complete. The first volume appeared in 1807, and is
+introductory to the others. It is divided into four books, treating
+successively of the Roman, the Pictish, the Scottish and the Scoto-Saxon
+periods, from 80 to 1306 A.D. In these we are presented, in a condensed
+form, with an account of the people, the language and the civil and
+ecclesiastical history, as well as the agricultural and commercial state
+of Scotland during the first thirteen centuries of our era.
+Unfortunately the chapters on the Roman period are entirely marred by
+the author's having accepted as genuine Bertram's forgery _De Situ
+Britanniae_; but otherwise his opinions on controverted topics are
+worthy of much respect, being founded on a laborious investigation of
+all the original authorities that were accessible to him. The second
+volume, published in 1810, gives an account of the seven south-eastern
+counties of Scotland--Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh,
+Linlithgow, Peebles and Selkirk--each of them being treated of as
+regards name, situation and extent, natural objects, antiquities,
+establishment as shires, civil history, agriculture, manufactures and
+trade, and ecclesiastical history. In 1824, after an interval of
+fourteen years, the third volume appeared, giving, under the same
+headings, a description of the seven south-western counties--Dumfries,
+Kirkcudbright, Wigtown, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew and Dumbarton. In the
+preface to this volume the author states that the materials for the
+history of the central and northern counties were collected, and that he
+expected the work would be completed in two years, but this expectation
+was not destined to be realized. He had also been engaged on a history
+of Scottish poetry and a history of printing in Scotland. Each of them
+he thought likely to extend to two large quarto volumes, and on both he
+expended an unusual amount of enthusiasm and energy. He had also
+prepared for the press an elaborate history of the life and reign of
+David I. In his later researches he was assisted by his nephew James,
+son of Alexander Chalmers, writer in Elgin.
+
+George Chalmers died in London on the 31st of May 1825. His valuable and
+extensive library he bequeathed to his nephew, at whose death in 1841 it
+was sold and dispersed. Chalmers was a member of the Royal and
+Antiquarian Societies of London, an honorary member of the Antiquarian
+Society of Scotland, and a member of other learned societies. In private
+life he was undoubtedly an amiable man, although the dogmatic tone that
+disfigures portions of his writings procured him many opponents. Among
+his avowed antagonists in literary warfare the most distinguished were
+Malone and Steevens, the Shakespeare editors; Mathias, the author of the
+_Pursuits of Literature_; Dr Jamieson, the Scottish lexicographer;
+Pinkerton, the historian; Dr Irving, the biographer of the Scottish
+poets; and Dr Currie of Liverpool, But with all his failings in judgment
+Chalmers was a valuable writer. He uniformly had recourse to original
+sources of information; and he is entitled to great praise for his
+patriotic and self-sacrificing endeavours to illustrate the history,
+literature and antiquities of his native country.     (J. M'D.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878), Scottish painter, was born at
+Montrose, and studied at Edinburgh. His landscapes are now more valued
+than the portraits which formed his earlier work. The best of these are
+"The End of the Harvest" (1873), "Running Water" (1875), and "The
+Legend" (in the National Gallery, Edinburgh). He became an associate
+(1867) and a full member (1871) of the Scottish Academy.
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901), Scottish missionary to New Guinea, was born
+at Ardrishaig in Argyll. After serving in the Glasgow City Mission he
+passed through Cheshunt College, and, being accepted by the London
+Missionary Society, was appointed to Rarotonga in the South Pacific in
+1866. Here the natives gave him the well-known name "Tamate." After ten
+years' service, especially in training native evangelists, he was
+transferred to New Guinea. In addition to his enthusiastic but sane
+missionary work, Chalmers did much to open up the island, and, with his
+colleague W.G. Lawes, gave valuable aid in the British annexation of the
+south-east coast of the island. On the 8th of April 1901, in company
+with a brother missionary, Oliver Tomkins, he was killed by cannibals at
+Goaribari Island. R.L. Stevenson has left on record his high
+appreciation of Chalmers's character and work.
+
+  Chalmers's _Autobiography and Letters_ were edited by Richard Lovett
+  in 1902, who also wrote a popular life called _Tamate_.
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847), Scottish divine, was born at Anstruther in
+Fifeshire, on the 17th of March 1780. At the age of eleven he was
+entered as a student at St Andrews, where he devoted himself almost
+exclusively to mathematics. In January 1799 he was licensed as a
+preacher of the Gospel by the St Andrews presbytery. In May 1803, after
+attending further courses of lectures in Edinburgh, and acting as
+assistant to the professor of mathematics at St Andrews, he was ordained
+as minister of Kilmany in Fifeshire, about 9 m. from the university
+town, where he continued to lecture. His mathematical lectures roused so
+much enthusiasm that they were discontinued by order of the authorities,
+who disliked the disturbance of the university routine which they
+involved. Chalmers then opened mathematical classes on his own account
+which attracted many students; at the same time he delivered a course of
+lectures on chemistry, and ministered to his parish at Kilmany. In 1805
+he became a candidate for the vacant professorship of mathematics at
+Edinburgh, but was unsuccessful. In 1808 he published an _Inquiry into
+the Extent and Stability of National Resources_, a contribution to the
+discussion created by Bonaparte's commercial policy. Domestic
+bereavements and a severe illness then turned his thoughts in another
+direction. At his own request the article on Christianity was assigned
+to him in Dr Brewster's _Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_, and in studying the
+credentials of Christianity he received a new impression of its
+contents. His journal and letters show how he was led from a sustained
+effort to attain the morality of the Gospel to a profound spiritual
+revolution. After this his ministry was marked by a zeal which made it
+famous. The separate publication of his article in the _Edinburgh
+Encyclopaedia_, and contributions to the _Edinburgh Christian
+Instructor_ and the _Eclectic Review_, enhanced his reputation as an
+author. In 1815 he became minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow, in spite
+of determined opposition to him in the town council on the ground of his
+evangelical teaching. From Glasgow his repute as a preacher spread
+throughout the United Kingdom. A series of sermons on the relation
+between the discoveries of astronomy and the Christian revelation was
+published in January 1817, and within a year nine editions and 20,000
+copies were in circulation. When he visited London Wilberforce wrote,
+"all the world is wild about Dr Chalmers."
+
+In Glasgow Chalmers made one of his greatest contributions to the life
+of his own time by his experiments in parochial organization. His parish
+contained about 11,000 persons, and of these about one-third were
+unconnected with any church. He diagnosed this evil as being due to the
+absence of personal influence, spiritual oversight, and the want of
+parochial organizations which had not kept pace in the city, as they had
+done in rural parishes, with the growing population. He declared that
+twenty new churches, with parishes, should be erected in Glasgow, and he
+set to work to revivify, remodel and extend the old parochial economy of
+Scotland. The town council consented to build one new church, attaching
+to it a parish of 10,000 persons, mostly weavers, labourers and factory
+workers, and this church was offered to Dr Chalmers that he might have a
+fair opportunity of testing his system.
+
+In September 1819 he became minister of the church and parish of St
+John, where of 2000 families more than 800 had no connexion with any
+Christian church. He first addressed himself to providing schools for
+the children. Two school-houses with four endowed teachers were
+established, where 700 children were taught at the moderate fees of 2s.
+and 3s. per quarter. Between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools were
+opened, where more than 1000 children were taught the elements of
+secular and religious education. The parish was divided into 25
+districts embracing from 60 to 100 families, over each of which an elder
+and a deacon were placed, the former taking oversight of their
+spiritual, the latter of their physical needs. Chalmers was the
+mainspring of the whole system, not merely superintending the
+visitation, but personally visiting all the families, and holding
+evening meetings, when he addressed those whom he had visited. This
+parochial machinery enabled him to make a singularly successful
+experiment in dealing with the problem of poverty. At this time there
+were not more than 20 parishes north of the Forth and Clyde where there
+was a compulsory assessment for the poor, but the English method of
+assessment was rapidly spreading. Chalmers believed that compulsory
+assessment ended by swelling the evil it was intended to mitigate, and
+that relief should be raised and administered by voluntary means. His
+critics replied that this was impossible in large cities. When he
+undertook the management of the parish of St John's, the poor of the
+parish cost the city £1400 per annum, and in four years, by the adoption
+of his method, the pauper expenditure was reduced to £280 per annum. The
+investigation of all new applications for relief was committed to the
+deacon of the district, and every effort was made to enable the poor to
+help themselves. When once the system was in operation it was found that
+a deacon, by spending an hour a week among the families committed to his
+charge, could keep himself acquainted with their character and
+condition.
+
+In 1823, after eight years of work at high pressure, he was glad to
+accept the chair of moral philosophy at St Andrews, the seventh academic
+offer made to him during his eight years in Glasgow. In his lectures he
+excluded mental philosophy and included the whole sphere of moral
+obligation, dealing with man's duty to God and to his fellow-men in the
+light of Christian teaching. Many of his lectures are printed in the
+first and second volumes of his published works. In ethics he made
+contributions to the science in regard to the place and functions of
+volition and attention, the separate and underived character of the
+moral sentiments, and the distinction between the virtues of perfect and
+imperfect obligation. His lectures kindled the religious spirit among
+his students, and led some of them to devote themselves to missionary
+effort. In November 1828 he was transferred to the chair of theology in
+Edinburgh. He then introduced the practice of following the lecture with
+a viva voce examination on what had been delivered. He also introduced
+text-books, and came into stimulating contact with his people; perhaps
+no one has ever succeeded as he did by the use of these methods in
+communicating intellectual, moral and religious impulse to so many
+students.
+
+These academic years were prolific also in a literature of various
+kinds. In 1826 he published a third volume of the _Christian and Civic
+Economy of Large Towns_, a continuation of work begun at St John's,
+Glasgow. In 1832 he published a _Political Economy_, the chief purpose
+of which was to enforce the truth that the right economic condition of
+the masses is dependent on their right moral condition, that character
+is the parent of comfort, not vice versa. In 1833 appeared a treatise on
+_The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual
+Constitution of Man_. In 1834 Dr Chalmers was elected fellow of the
+Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in the same year he became corresponding
+member of the Institute of France; in 1835 Oxford conferred on him the
+degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he became leader of the evangelical section of
+the Scottish Church in the General Assembly. He was appointed chairman
+of a committee for church extension, and in that capacity made a tour
+through a large part of Scotland, addressing presbyteries and holding
+public meetings. He also issued numerous appeals, with the result that
+in 1841, when he resigned his office as convener of the church extension
+committee, he was able to announce that in seven years upwards of
+£300,000 had been contributed, and 220 new churches had been built. His
+efforts to induce the Whig government to assist in this effort were
+unsuccessful.
+
+In 1841 the movement which ended in the Disruption was rapidly
+culminating, and Dr Chalmers found himself at the head of the party
+which stood for the principle that "no minister shall be intruded into
+any parish contrary to the will of the congregation" (see FREE CHURCH OF
+SCOTLAND). Cases of conflict between the church and the civil power
+arose in Auchterarder, Dunkeld and Marnoch; and when the courts made it
+clear that the church, in their opinion, held its temporalities on
+condition of rendering such obedience as the courts required, the church
+appealed to the government for relief. In January 1843 the government
+put a final and peremptory negative on the church's claims for spiritual
+independence. On the 18th of May 1843 470 clergymen withdrew from the
+general assembly and constituted themselves the Free Church of Scotland,
+with Dr Chalmers as moderator. He had prepared a sustentation fund
+scheme for the support of the seceding ministers, and this was at once
+put into successful operation. On the 30th of May 1847, immediately
+after his return from the House of Commons, where he had given evidence
+as to the refusal of sites for Free Churches by Scottish landowners, he
+was found dead in bed.
+
+Dr Chalmers' action throughout the Free Church controversy was so
+consistent in its application of Christian principle and so free from
+personal or party animus, that his writings are a valuable source for
+argument and illustration on the question of Establishment. "I have no
+veneration," he said to the royal commissioners in St Andrews, before
+either the voluntary or the non-intrusive controversies had arisen, "for
+the Church of Scotland _qua_ an establishment, but I have the utmost
+veneration for it _qua_ an instrument of Christian good." He was
+transparent in character, chivalrous, kindly, firm, eloquent and
+sagacious; his purity of motive and unselfishness commanded absolute
+confidence; he had originality and initiative in dealing with new and
+difficult circumstances, and great aptitude for business details.
+
+During a life of incessant activity Chalmers scarcely ever allowed a day
+to pass without its modicum of composition; at the most unseasonable
+times, and in the most unlikely places, he would occupy himself with
+literary work. His writings occupy more than 30 volumes. He would have
+stood higher as an author had he written less, or had he indulged less
+in that practice of reiteration into which he was constantly betrayed by
+his anxiety to impress his ideas upon others. As a political economist
+he was the first to unfold the connexion that subsists between the
+degree of the fertility of the soil and the social condition of a
+community, the rapid manner in which capital is reproduced (see Mill's
+_Political Economy_, i. 94), and the general doctrine of a limit to all
+the modes by which national wealth may accumulate. He was the first also
+to advance that argument in favour of religious establishments which
+meets upon its own ground the doctrine of Adam Smith, that religion like
+other things should be left to the operation of the natural law of
+supply and demand. In the department of natural theology and the
+Christian evidences he ably advocated that method of reconciling the
+Mosaic narrative with the indefinite antiquity of the globe which
+William Buckland (1784-1856) advanced in his Bridgewater Treatise, and
+which Dr Chalmers had previously communicated to him. His refutation of
+Hume's objection to the truth of miracles is perhaps his intellectual
+_chef-d'oeuvre_. The distinction between the laws and dispositions of
+matter, as between the ethics and objects of theology, he was the first
+to indicate and enforce, and he laid great emphasis on the superior
+authority as witnesses for the truth of Revelation of the Scriptural as
+compared with the Extra-Scriptural writers, and of the Christian as
+compared with the non-Christian testimonies. In his _Institutes of
+Theology_, no material modification is attempted on the doctrines of
+Calvinism, which he received with all simplicity of faith as revealed in
+the Divine word, and defended as in harmony with the most profound
+philosophy of human nature and of the Divine providence.
+
+  For biographical details see Dr W. Hanna's _Memoirs_ (Edinburgh, 4
+  vols., 1849-1852); there is a good short _Life_ by Mrs Oliphant
+  (1893).     (W. Ha.; D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALONER, SIR THOMAS (1521-1565), English statesman and poet, was the
+son of Roger Chaloner, mercer of London, a descendant of the
+Denbighshire Chaloners. No details are known of his youth except that he
+was educated at both Oxford and Cambridge. In 1540 he went, as secretary
+to Sir Henry Knyvett, to the court of Charles V., whom he accompanied in
+his expedition against Algiers in 1541, and was wrecked on the Barbary
+coast. In 1547 he joined in the expedition to Scotland, and was
+knighted, after the battle of Musselburgh, by the protector Somerset,
+whose patronage he enjoyed. In 1549 he was a witness against Dr Bonner,
+bishop of London; in 1551 against Stephen Gardiner, bishop of
+Winchester; in the spring of the latter year he was sent as a
+commissioner to Scotland, and again in March 1552. In 1553 he went with
+Sir Nicholas Wotton and Sir William Pickering on an embassy to France,
+but was recalled by Queen Mary on her accession. In spite of his
+Protestant views, Chaloner was still employed by the government, going
+to Scotland in 1555-1556, and providing carriages for troops in the war
+with France, 1557-1558. In 1558 he went as Elizabeth's ambassador to the
+emperor Ferdinand at Cambrai, from July 1559 to February 1559/60 he was
+ambassador to King Philip at Brussels, and in 1561 he went in the same
+capacity to Spain. His letters are full of complaints of his treatment
+there, but it was not till 1564, when in failing health, that he was
+allowed to return home. He died at his house in Clerkenwell on the 14th
+of October 1565. He acquired during his years of service three estates,
+Guisborough in Yorkshire, Steeple Claydon in Buckinghamshire, and St
+Bees in Cumberland. He married (1) Joan, widow of Sir Thomas Leigh; and
+(2) Etheldreda, daughter of Edward Frodsham, of Elton, Cheshire, by whom
+he had one son, Sir Thomas Chaloner (1561-1615), the naturalist.
+Chaloner was the intimate of most of the learned men of his day, and
+with Lord Burghley he had a life-long friendship. Throughout his busy
+official life he occupied himself with literature, his Latin verses and
+his pastoral poems being much admired by his contemporaries. Chaloner's
+"Howe the Lorde Mowbray ... was ... banyshed the Realme," printed in the
+1559 edition of William Baldwin's _Mirror for Magistrates_ (repr. in
+vol. ii. pt. 1 of Joseph Haslewood's edition of 1815), has sometimes
+been attributed to Thomas Churchyard. His most important work, _De Rep.
+Anglorum instauranda libri decem_, written while he was in Spain, was
+first published by William Malim (1579, 3 pts.), with complimentary
+Latin verses in praise of the author by Burghley and others. Chaloner's
+epigrams and epitaphs were also added to the volume, as well as _In
+laudem Henrici octavi ... carmen Panegericum_, first printed in 1560.
+Amongst his other works are _The praise of folie, Moriae encomium_ ...
+by Erasmus ... Englished by Sir Thomas Chaloner, Knight (1549, ed. Janet
+E. Ashbee, 1901); _A book of the Office of Servantes_ (1543), translated
+from Gilbert Cognatus; and _An homilie of Saint John Chrysostome_....
+Englished by T.C. (1544).
+
+  See "The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St Bees," by William
+  Jackson, in _Transactions of the Cumberland Assoc. for the Advancement
+  of Literature and Science_, pt. vi. pp. 47-74, 1880-1881.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE, a town of north-eastern France, capital of the
+department of Marne, 107 m. E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern
+railway to Nancy, and 25 m. S.S.E. of Reims. Pop. (1906) 22,424. Châlons
+is situated in a wide level plain principally on the right bank of the
+Marne, its suburb of Marne, which contains the railwaystations of the
+Eastern and Est-État railways, lying on the left bank. The town proper
+is bordered on the west by the lateral canal of the Marne, across which
+lies a strip of ground separating it from the river itself. Châlons is
+traversed by branches of the canal and by small streams, and its streets
+are for the most part narrow and irregular, but it is surrounded by
+ample avenues and promenades, the park known as the Jard, in the
+south-western quarter, being especially attractive. Huge barracks lie to
+the north and east. There are several interesting churches in the town.
+The cathedral of St Étienne dates chiefly from the 13th century, but its
+west façade is in the classical style and belongs to the 17th century.
+There are stained-glass windows of the 13th century in the north
+transept. Notre-Dame, of the 12th and 13th centuries, is conspicuous for
+its four Romanesque towers, two flanking the apse; the other two,
+surmounted by tall lead spires, flanking the principal façade. The
+churches of St. Alpin, St Jean and St Loup date from various periods
+between the 11th and the 17th centuries. The hôtel-de-ville (1771),
+facing which stands a monument to President Carnot; the prefecture
+(1750-1764), once the residence of the intendants of Champagne; the
+college, once a Jesuit establishment; and a training college which
+occupies the Augustinian abbey of Toussaints (16th and 17th centuries),
+are noteworthy civil buildings. The houses of Châlons are generally
+ill-built of timber and plaster, or rough-cast, but some old mansions,
+dating from the 15th to the 16th centuries, remain. The church of Ste
+Pudentienne, on the left bank of the river, is a well-known place of
+pilgrimage. The town is the seat of a bishop and a prefect, and
+headquarters of the VI. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a
+museum, a library, training colleges, a higher ecclesiastical seminary,
+a communal college and an important technical school. The principal
+industry is brewing, which is carried on in the suburb of Marne.
+Galleries of immense length, hewn in a limestone hill and served by
+lines of railway, are used as store-houses for beer. The preparation of
+champagne, the manufacture of boots and shoes, brushes, wire-goods and
+wall-paper also occupy many hands. There is trade in cereals.
+
+Châlons-sur-Marne occupies the site of the chief town of the Catalauni,
+and some portion of the plains which lie between it and Troyes was the
+scene of the defeat of Attila in the conflict of 451. In the 10th and
+following centuries it attained great prosperity as a kind of
+independent state under the supremacy of its bishops, who were
+ecclesiastical peers of France. In 1214 the militia of Châlons served at
+the battle of Bouvines; and in the 15th century the citizens maintained
+their honour by twice (1430 and 1434) repulsing the English from their
+walls. In the 16th century the town sided with Henry IV., king of
+France, who in 1589 transferred thither the parlement of Paris, which
+shortly afterwards burnt the bulls of Gregory XIV. and Clement VIII. In
+1856 Napoleon III. established a large camp, known as the Camp of
+Châlons, about 16 m. north of the town by the railway to Reims. It was
+situated in the immediate neighbourhood of Grand Mourmelon and Petit
+Mourmelon, and occupied an area of nearly 30,000 acres. The "Army of
+Châlons," formed by Marshal MacMahon in the camp after the first
+reverses of the French in 1870, marched thence to the Meuse, was
+surrounded by the Germans at Sedan, and forced to capitulate. The camp
+is still a training-centre for troops.
+
+About 5 m. E. of Châlons is L'Epine, where there is a beautiful
+pilgrimage church (15th and 16th centuries, with modern restoration)
+with a richly-sculptured portal. In the interior there is a fine
+choir-screen, an organ of the 16th century, and an ancient and
+much-venerated statue of the Virgin.
+
+
+
+
+CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE, a town of east-central France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Saône-et-Loire, 81 m. N. of Lyons
+by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 26,538. It is a well-built town,
+with fine quays, situated in an extensive plain on the right bank of the
+Saône at its junction with the Canal du Centre. A handsome stone bridge
+of the 15th century, decorated in the 18th century with obelisks,
+connects it with the suburb of St Laurent on an island in the river. The
+principal building is the church of St Vincent, once the cathedral. It
+dates mainly from the 12th to the 15th centuries, but the façade is
+modern and unpleasing. The old bishop's palace is a building of the 15th
+century. The church of St Pierre, with two lofty steeples, dates from
+the late 17th century. Chalon preserves remains of its ancient ramparts
+and a number of old houses. The administrative buildings are modern. An
+obelisk was erected in 1730 to commemorate the opening of the canal.
+There is a statue of J.N. Niepce, a native of the town. Chalon is the
+seat of a sub-prefect and a court of assizes, and there are tribunals of
+first instance and commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber
+of commerce, communal colleges for boys and girls, a school of drawing,
+a public library and a museum. Chalon ranks next to Le Creusot among the
+manufacturing towns of Burgundy; its position at the junction of the
+Canal du Centre and the Saône, and as a railway centre for Lyons, Paris,
+Dôle, Lons-le-Saunier and Roanne, brings it a large transit trade. The
+founding and working of copper and iron is its main industry; the large
+engineering works of Petit-Creusot, a branch of those of Le Creusot,
+construct bridges, tug-boats and torpedo-boats; distilleries,
+glass-works, chemical works, straw-hat manufactories, oil-works,
+tile-works and sugar refineries also occupy many hands. Wine, grain,
+iron, leather and timber are among the many products for which the town
+is an entrepôt. About 2 m. east of Chalon is St Marcel (named after the
+saint who in the 2nd century preached Christianity at Chalon), which has
+a church of the 12th century, once belonging to a famous abbey.
+
+Chalon-sur-Saône is identified with the ancient _Cabillonum_, originally
+an important town of the Aedui. It was chosen in the 6th century by
+Gontram, king of Burgundy, as his capital; and it continued till the
+10th to pay for its importance by being frequently sacked. The
+bishopric, founded in the 4th century, was suppressed at the Revolution.
+In feudal times Chalon was the capital of a countship. In 1237 it was
+given in exchange for other fiefs in the Jura by Jean le Sage, whose
+descendants nevertheless retained the title. Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy,
+the other party to the exchange, gave the citizens a communal charter in
+1256. In its modern history the most important event was the resistance
+offered to a division of the Austrian army in 1814.
+
+
+
+
+CHALUKYA, the name of an Indian dynasty which ruled in the Deccan from
+A.D. 550 to 750, and again from 973 to 1190. The Chalukyas themselves
+claimed to be Rajputs from the north who imposed their rule on the
+Dravidian inhabitants of the Deccan tableland, and there is some
+evidence for connecting them with the Chapas, a branch of the foreign
+Gurjaras. The dynasty was founded by a chief named Pulakesin I., who
+mastered the town of Vatapi (now Badami, in the Bijapur district) about
+550. His sons extended their principality east and west; but the founder
+of the Chalukya greatness was his grandson Pulakesin II., who succeeded
+in 608 and proceeded to extend his rule at the expense of his
+neighbours. In 609 he established as his viceroy in Vengi his brother
+Kubja Vishnuvardhana, who in 615 declared his independence and
+established the dynasty of Eastern Chalukyas, which lasted till 1070. In
+620 Pulakesin defeated Harsha (q.v.), the powerful overlord of northern
+India, and established the Nerbudda as the boundary between the South
+and North. He also defeated in turn the Chola, Pandya and Kerala kings,
+and by 630 was beyond dispute the most powerful sovereign in the Deccan.
+In 642, however, his capital was taken and he himself killed by the
+Pallava king Narasimhavarman. In 655 the Chalukya power was restored by
+Pulakesin's son Vikramaditya I.; but the struggle with the Pallavas
+continued until, in 740, Vikramaditya II. destroyed the Pallava capital.
+In 750 Vikramaditya's son, Kirtivarman Chalukya, was overthrown by the
+Rashtrakutas.
+
+In 973, Taila or Tailapa II. (d. 995), a scion of the royal Chalukya
+race, succeeded in overthrowing the Rashtrakuta king Kakka II., and in
+recovering all the ancient territory of the Chalukyas with the exception
+of Gujarat. He was the founder of the dynasty known as the Chalukyas of
+Kalyani. About A.D. 1000 a formidable invasion by the Chola king
+Rajaraja the Great was defeated, and in 1052 Somesvara I., or Ahamavalla
+(d. 1068), the founder of Kalyani, defeated and slew the Chola
+Rajadhiraja. The reign of Vikramaditya VI., or Vikramanka, which lasted
+from 1076 to 1126, formed another period of Chalukya greatness.
+Vikramanka's exploits against the Hoysala kings and others, celebrated
+by the poet Bilhana, were held to justify him in establishing a new era
+dating from his accession. With his death, however, the Chalukya power
+began to decline. In 1156 the commander-in-chief Bijjala (or Vijjana)
+Kalachurya revolted, and he and his sons held the kingdom till 1183. In
+this year Somesvara IV. Chalukya recovered part of his patrimony, only
+to succumb, about 1190, to the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Hoysalas of
+Dorasamudra. Henceforth the Chalukya rajas ranked only as petty chiefs.
+
+  See J.F. Fleet, _Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts_; Prof. R.G.
+  Bhandarker, "Early History of the Deccan," in the _Bombay Gazetteer_
+  (1896), vol. i. part ii.; Vincent A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_
+  (Oxford, 1908), pp. 382 ff.
+
+
+
+
+CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ (1796-1862), German philosopher, was born at
+Pfaffroda in Saxony. For some years he taught at Dresden, and won a high
+reputation by his lectures on the history of philosophy in Germany. In
+1839 he became professor in Kiel University, where, with the exception of
+one brief interval, when he was expelled with several colleagues because
+of his German sympathies, he remained till his death. His first published
+work, _Historische Entwickelung der spekulativen Philosophic von Kant bis
+Hegel_ (1837, 5th ed. 1860), which still ranks among the best expositions
+of modern German thought, has been twice translated into English, by A.
+Tulk (London, 1854), and by A. Edersheim (Edinburgh, 1854). His chief
+works are _Entwurf eines Systems der Wissenschaftslehre_ (Kiel, 1846) and
+_System der spekulativen Ethik_ (2 vols., 1850). He opposed both the
+extreme realism of Herbart and what he regarded as the one-sided idealism
+of Hegel, and endeavoured to find a mean between them, to discover the
+ideal or formal principle which unfolds itself in the real or material
+world presented to it. His _Wissenschaftslehre_, accordingly, divides
+itself into (1) _Principlehre_, or theory of the one principle; (2)
+_Vermittelungslehre_, or theory of the means by which this principle
+realizes itself; and (3) _Teleologie_. The most noticeable point is the
+position assigned by Chalybäus to the "World Ether," which is defined as
+the infinite in time and space, and which, he thinks, must be posited as
+necessarily coexisting with the Infinite Spirit or God. The fundamental
+principle of the _System der Ethik_ is carried out with great strength of
+thought, and with an unusually complete command of ethical material.
+
+  See J.E. Erdmann, _Grundriss der Gesch. d. Philos._ ii. 781-786; K.
+  Prantl, in _Allgem. deutsch. Biog._
+
+
+
+
+CHALYBITE, a mineral species consisting of iron carbonate (FeCO3) and
+forming an important ore of iron. It was early known as spathose iron,
+spathic iron or steel ore. F.S. Beudant in 1832 gave the name siderose
+(from [Greek: sidêros], iron), which was modified by W. Haidinger in
+1845 to siderite. Chalybite (from [Greek: chalyps], [Greek: chalybos],
+Lat. _chalybs_, steel) is of slightly later date, having been given by
+E.F. Glocker in 1847. The name siderite is in common use, but it is open
+to objection since it had earlier been applied to several other species,
+and is also now used as a group name for meteoric irons. Chalybite
+crystallizes in the rhombohedral system and is isomorphous with calcite;
+like this it possesses perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the
+primitive rhombohedron, the angles between which are 73° 0'. Crystals
+are usually rhombohedral in habit, and the primitive rhombohedron r
+{100} is a common form, the faces being often curved as represented in
+the figure. Acute rhombohedra in combination with the basal pinacoid are
+also frequent, giving crystals of octahedral aspect. The mineral often
+occurs in cleavable masses with a coarse or fine granular texture; also
+in botryoidal or globular (sphaerosiderite) and oolitic forms. When
+compact and mixed with much clay and sand it constitutes the well-known
+clay ironstone. Chalybite is usually yellowish-grey or brown in colour;
+it is translucent and has a vitreous lustre. Hardness 3½; sp. gr. 3.8.
+The double refraction ([omega] - [epsilon] = 0.241) is stronger than
+that of calcite. When pure it contains 48.2% of iron, but this is often
+partly replaced isomorphously by manganese, magnesium or calcium: the
+varieties known as oligon-spar or oligonite, sideroplesite and
+siderodote contain these elements respectively in large amount. These
+varieties form a passage to ankerite (q.v.) and mesitite, and all are
+referred to loosely as brown-spar.
+
+[Illustration: Crystal of Chalybite.]
+
+Chalybite is a common gangue mineral in metalliferous veins, and
+well-crystallized specimens are found with ores of copper, lead, tin,
+&c., in Cornwall, the Harz, Saxony and many other places. It also occurs
+alone as large masses in veins and beds in rocks of various kinds. The
+clay ironstone so extensively worked as an ore of iron occurs as nodules
+and beds in the Coal Measures of England and the United States, and the
+oolitic iron ore of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire forms beds in
+the Lias. The mineral is occasionally found as concretionary masses
+(sphaerosiderite) in cavities in basic igneous rocks such as dolerite.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBA, a native state of India, within the Punjab, amid the Himalayas,
+and lying on the southern border of Kashmir. It has an area of 3216 sq.
+m. Pop. (1901) 127,834. The sanatorium of Dalhousie, though within the
+state, is attached to the district of Gurdaspur. Chamba is entirely
+mountainous; in the east and north, and in the centre, are snowy ranges.
+The valleys in the west and south are fertile. The chief rivers are the
+Chandra and Ravi. The country is much in favour with sportsmen. The
+principal crops are rice, maize and millet. Mineral ores of various
+kinds are known, but unworked. Trade is chiefly in forest produce. The
+capital of the state is Chamba (pop. 6000), situated above the gorge of
+the Ravi. External communications are entirely by road. The state was
+founded in the 6th century, and, though sometimes nominally subject to
+Kashmir and afterwards tributary to the Mogul empire, always practically
+maintained its independence. Its chronicles are preserved in a series of
+inscriptions, mostly engraved on copper. It first came under British
+influence in 1846, when it was declared independent of Kashmir. The line
+of the rajas of Chamba was founded in the 6th century A.D. by Marut, of
+an ancient family of Rajputs. In 1904 Bhuri Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., an
+enlightened and capable ruler, succeeded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBAL, a river of India, one of the principal tributaries of the
+Jumna. Rising amid the summits of the Vindhya mountains in Malwa, it
+flows north, and after being joined by the Chambla and Sipra, passes
+through the gorges of the Mokandarra hills. After receiving the waters
+of the Kali-Sind, Parbati and Banas, its principal confluents, the
+Chambal becomes a great river, enters the British district of Etawah,
+and joins the Jumna 40 m. below Etawah town, its total length being 650
+m.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH (1836-   ), British statesman, third son of Joseph
+Chamberlain, master of the Cordwainers' Company, was born at Camberwell
+Grove, London, on the 8th of July 1836. His father was a well-to-do man
+of business, a Unitarian in religion and a Liberal in politics. Young
+Chamberlain was educated at Canonbury from 1845 to 1850, and at
+University College school, London, from 1850 to 1852. After two years in
+his father's office in London, he was sent to Birmingham to join his
+cousin Joseph Nettlefold in a screw business in which his father had an
+interest; and by degrees, largely owing to his own intelligent
+management, this business became very successful. Nettlefold &
+Chamberlain employed new methods of attracting customers, and
+judiciously amalgamated rival firms with their own so as to reduce
+competition, with the result that in 1874, after twenty-two years of
+commercial life, Mr Chamberlain was able to retire with an ample
+fortune. Meanwhile he had in 1861 married his first wife, Miss Harriet
+Kenrick (she died in 1863), and had gradually come to take an
+increasingly important part in the municipal and political life of
+Birmingham. He was a constant speaker at the Birmingham and Edgbaston
+Debating Society; and when in 1868 the Birmingham Liberal Association
+was reorganized, he became one of its leading members. In 1869 he was
+elected chairman of the executive council of the new National Education
+League, the outcome of Mr George Dixon's movement for promoting the
+education of the children of the lower classes by paying their school
+fees, and agitating for more accommodation and a better national system.
+In the same year he was elected a member of the town council, and
+married his second wife--a cousin of his first--Miss Florence Kenrick
+(d. 1875).
+
+In 1870 he was elected a member of the first school board for
+Birmingham; and for the next six years, and especially after 1873, when
+he became leader of a majority and chairman, he actively championed the
+Nonconformist opposition to denominationalism. He was then regarded as a
+Republican--the term signifying rather that he held advanced Radical
+opinions, which were construed by average men in the light of the
+current political developments in France, than that he really favoured
+Republican institutions. His programme was "free Church, free land, free
+schools, free labour." At the general election of 1874 he stood as a
+parliamentary candidate for Sheffield, but without success. Between 1869
+and 1873 he was a prominent advocate in the Birmingham town council of
+the gospel of municipal reform preached by Mr Dawson, Dr Dale and Mr
+Bunce (of the _Birmingham. Post_); and in 1873 his party obtained a
+majority, and he was elected mayor, an office he retained until June
+1876. As mayor he had to receive the prince and princess of Wales on
+their visit in June 1874, an occasion which excited some curiosity
+because of his reputation as a Republican; but those who looked for an
+exhibition of bad taste were disappointed, and the behaviour of the
+Radical mayor satisfied the requirements alike of _The Times_ and of
+_Punch_.
+
+The period of his mayoralty was one of historic importance in the growth
+of modern Birmingham. New municipal buildings were erected, Highgate
+Park was opened as a place of recreation, the free library and art
+gallery were developed. But the great work carried through by Mr
+Chamberlain for Birmingham was the municipalization of the supply of gas
+and water, and the improvement scheme by which slums were cleared away
+and forty acres laid out in new streets and open spaces. The prosperity
+of modern Birmingham dates from 1875 and 1876, when these admirably
+administered reforms were initiated, and by his share in them Mr
+Chamberlain became not only one of its most popular citizens but also a
+man of mark outside. An orator of a business-like, straightforward type,
+cool and hard-hitting, his spare figure, incisive features and single
+eye-glass soon made him a favourite subject for the caricaturist; and in
+later life his aggressive personality, and the peculiarly irritating
+effect it had on his opponents, made his actions and speeches the object
+of more controversy than was the lot of any other politician of his
+time. His hobby for orchid-growing at his house "Highbury" near
+Birmingham also became famous. In private life his loyalty to his
+friends, and his "genius for friendship" (as John Morley said) made a
+curious contrast to his capacity for arousing the bitterest political
+hostility. It may be added here that the interest taken by him in
+Birmingham remained undiminished during his life, and he was largely
+instrumental in starting the Birmingham University (1900), of which he
+became chancellor. His connexion with Birmingham University was indeed
+peculiarly appropriate to his character as a man of business; but in
+spite of his representing a departure among men of the front rank in
+politics from the "Eton and Oxford" type, his general culture sometimes
+surprised those who did not know him. In later life Oxford and Cambridge
+gave him their doctors' degrees; and in 1897 he was made lord rector of
+Glasgow University (delivering an address on "Patriotism" at his
+installation).
+
+In 1876 Mr Dixon resigned his seat in parliament, and Mr Chamberlain was
+returned for Birmingham in his place unopposed, as John Bright's
+colleague. He made his maiden speech in the House of Commons on the 4th
+of August 1876, on Lord Sandon's Education Bill. At this period, too, he
+paid much attention to the question of licensing reform, and in 1876 he
+examined the Gothenburg system in Sweden, and advocated a solution of
+the problem in England on similar lines. During 1877 the new federation
+of Liberal Associations which became known as the "Caucus" was started
+under Mr Chamberlain's influence in Birmingham--its secretary, Mr
+Schnadhorst, quickly making himself felt as a wire-puller of exceptional
+ability; and the new organization had a remarkable effect in putting
+life into the Liberal party, which since Mr Gladstone's retirement in
+1874 had been much in need of a stimulus. When the general election came
+in 1880, Mr Schnadhorst's powers were demonstrated in the successes won
+under his auspices. The Liberal party numbered 349, against 243
+Conservatives and 60 Irish Nationalists; and the Radical section of the
+Liberal party, led by Mr Chamberlain and Sir Charles Dilke, was
+recognized by Mr Gladstone by his inclusion of the former in his cabinet
+as president of the Board of Trade, and the appointment of the latter as
+under secretary for foreign affairs. In his new capacity Mr Chamberlain
+was responsible for carrying such important measures as the Bankruptcy
+Act 1883, and the Patents Act. Another bill which he had much at heart,
+on merchant shipping, had to be abandoned, and a royal commission
+substituted, but the subsequent legislation in 1888-1894 owed much to
+his efforts. The Franchise Act of 1884 was also one in which he took a
+leading part as a champion of the opinions of the labouring class. At
+this time he took the current advanced Radical views of both Irish and
+foreign policy, hating "coercion," disliking the occupation of Egypt,
+and prominently defending the Transvaal settlement after Majuba. Both
+before and after the defeat of Mr Gladstone's government on the Budget
+in June 1885, he associated himself with what was known as the
+"Unauthorized Programme," i.e. free education, small holdings, graduated
+taxation and local government. In June 1885 he made a speech at
+Birmingham, treating the reforms just mentioned as the "ransom" that
+property must pay to society for the security it enjoys--for which Lord
+Iddesleigh called him "Jack Cade"; and he continually urged the Liberal
+party to take up these Radical measures. At the general election of
+November 1885 Mr Chamberlain was returned for West Birmingham. The
+Liberal strength generally was, however, reduced to 335 members, though
+the Radical section held their own; and the Irish vote became necessary
+to Mr Gladstone if he was to command a majority. In December it was
+stated that Mr Gladstone intended to propose Home Rule for Ireland, and
+in January Lord Salisbury's ministry was defeated on the Address, on an
+amendment moved by Mr Chamberlain's Birmingham henchman, Mr Jesse
+Collings (b. 1831), embodying the "three acres and a cow" of the Radical
+programme. Unlike Lord Hartington (afterwards duke of Devonshire) and
+other Liberals, who declined to join Mr Gladstone in view of the altered
+attitude he was adopting towards Ireland, Mr Chamberlain entered the
+cabinet as president of the Local Government Board (with Mr Jesse
+Collings as parliamentary secretary), but on the 15th of March 1886 he
+resigned, explaining in the House of Commons (8th April) that, while he
+had always been in favour of the largest possible extension of local
+government to Ireland consistently with the integrity of the empire and
+the supremacy of parliament, and had therefore joined Mr Gladstone when
+he believed that this was what was intended, he was unable to consider
+that the scheme communicated by Mr Gladstone to his colleagues
+maintained those limitations. At the same time he was not
+irreconcilable, and he invited Mr Gladstone even then to modify his bill
+so as to remove the objections made to it. This indecisive attitude did
+not last long, and the split in the party rapidly widened. At Birmingham
+Mr Chamberlain was supported by the "Two Thousand," but deserted by the
+"Caucus" and Mr Schnadhorst. In May the Radicals who followed Mr Bright
+and Mr Chamberlain, and the Whigs who took their cue from Lord
+Hartington, decided to vote against the second reading of the Home Rule
+Bill, instead of allowing it to be taken and then pressing for
+modifications in committee, and on 7th June the bill was defeated by 343
+to 313, 94 Liberal Unionists--as they were generally called--voting
+against the government. Mr Chamberlain was the object of the bitterest
+attacks from the Gladstonians for his share in this result; he was
+stigmatized as "Judas," and open war was proclaimed by the Home Rulers
+against the "dissentient Liberals"--the description used by Mr
+Gladstone. The general election, however, returned to parliament 316
+Conservatives, 78 Liberal Unionists, and only 276 Gladstonians and
+Nationalists, Birmingham returning seven Unionist members. When the
+House met in August, it was decided by the Liberal Unionists, under Lord
+Hartington's leadership, that their policy henceforth was essentially to
+combine with the Tories to keep Mr Gladstone out. The old Liberal
+feeling still prevailing among them was too strong, however, for their
+leaders to take office in a coalition ministry. It was enough for them
+to be able to tie down the Conservative government to such measures as
+were not offensive to Liberal Unionist principles. It still seemed
+possible, moreover, that the Gladstonians might be brought to modify
+their Home Rule proposals, and in January 1887 a Round Table conference
+(suggested by Mr Chamberlain) was held between Mr Chamberlain, Sir G.
+Trevelyan, Sir William Harcourt, Mr Morley and Lord Herschell. But no
+_rapprochement_ was effected, and reconciliation became daily more and
+more difficult. The influence of Liberal Unionist views upon the
+domestic legislation of the government was steadily bringing about a
+more complete union in the Unionist party, and destroying the old lines
+of political cleavage. Before 1892 Mr Chamberlain had the satisfaction
+of seeing Lord Salisbury's ministry pass such important acts, from a
+progressive point of view, as those dealing with Coal Mines Regulation,
+Allotments, County Councils, Housing of the Working Classes, Free
+Education and Agricultural Holdings, besides Irish legislation like the
+Ashbourne Act, the Land Act of 1891, and the Light Railways and
+Congested Districts Acts. In October 1887 Mr Chamberlain, Sir L.
+Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper were selected by the government as
+British plenipotentiaries to discuss with the United States the Canadian
+fisheries dispute, and a treaty was arranged by them at Washington on
+the 15th of February 1888. The Senate refused to ratify it; but a
+protocol provided for a _modus vivendi_ pending ratification, giving
+American fishing vessels similar advantages to those contemplated in the
+treaty; and on the whole Mr Chamberlain's mission to America was
+accepted as a successful one in maintaining satisfactory relations with
+the United States. He returned to England in March 1888, and was
+presented with the freedom of the borough of Birmingham. The visit also
+resulted, in November 1888, in his marriage with his third wife, Miss
+Endicott, daughter of the United States secretary of war in President
+Cleveland's first administration.
+
+At the general election of 1892 Mr Chamberlain was again returned, with
+an increased majority, for West Birmingham; but the Unionist party as a
+whole came back with only 315 members against 355 Home Rulers. In August
+Lord Salisbury's ministry was defeated; and on the 13th of February 1893
+Mr Gladstone introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which was eventually
+read a third time on the 1st of September. During the eighty-two days'
+discussion in the House of Commons Mr Chamberlain was the life and soul
+of the opposition, and his criticisms had a vital influence upon the
+attitude of the country when the House of Lords summarily threw out the
+bill. His chief contribution to the discussions during the later stages
+of the Gladstone and Rosebery ministries was in connexion with Mr
+Asquith's abortive Employers' Liability Bill, when he foreshadowed the
+method of dealing with this question afterwards carried out in the
+Compensation Act of 1897. Outside parliament he was busy formulating
+proposals for old age pensions, which had a prominent place in the
+Unionist programme of 1895. In that year, on the defeat of Lord
+Rosebery, the union of the Unionists was sealed by the inclusion of the
+Liberal Unionist leaders in Lord Salisbury's ministry; and Mr
+Chamberlain became secretary of state for the colonies. There had been
+much speculation as to what his post would be, and his nomination to the
+colonial office, then considered one of secondary rank, excited some
+surprise; but Mr Chamberlain himself realized how important that
+department had become. He carried with him into the ministry his close
+Birmingham municipal associates, Mr Jesse Collings (as under secretary
+of the home office), and Mr J. Powell-Williams (1840-1904) as financial
+secretary to the war office. Mr Chamberlain's influence in the Unionist
+cabinet was soon visible in the Workmen's Compensation Act and other
+measures. This act, though in Sir Matthew White Ridley's charge as home
+secretary, was universally and rightly associated with Mr Chamberlain;
+and its passage, in the face of much interested opposition from
+highly-placed, old-fashioned conservatives and capitalists on both
+sides, was principally due to his determined advocacy. Another "social"
+measure of less importance, which formed part of the Chamberlain
+programme, was the Small Houses Acquisition Act of 1899; but the problem
+of old age pensions was less easily solved. This subject had been handed
+over in 1893 to a royal commission, and further discussed by a select
+committee in 1899 and a departmental committee in 1900, but both of
+these threw cold water on the schemes laid before them--a result which,
+galling enough to one who had made so much play with the question in the
+country, offered welcome material to his opponents for electioneering
+recrimination, as year by year went by between 1895 and 1900 and nothing
+resulted from all the confident talk on the subject in which Mr
+Chamberlain had indulged when out of office. Eventually it was the
+Liberal and not the Unionist party that carried an Old Age Pensions
+scheme through parliament, during the 1908 session, when Mr Chamberlain
+was _hors de combat_.
+
+From January 1896 (the date of the Jameson Raid) onwards South Africa
+demanded the chief attention of the colonial secretary (see SOUTH
+AFRICA, and for details TRANSVAAL). In his negotiations with President
+Kruger one masterful temperament was pitted against another. Mr
+Chamberlain had a very difficult part to play, in a situation dominated
+by suspicion on both sides, and while he firmly insisted on the rights
+of Great Britain and of British subjects in the Transvaal, he was the
+continual object of Radical criticism at home. Never has a statesman's
+personality been more bitterly associated by his political opponents
+with the developments they deplored. Attempts were even made to ascribe
+financial motives to Mr Chamberlain's actions, and the political
+atmosphere was thick with suspicion and scandal. The report of the
+Commons committee (July 1897) definitely acquitted both Mr Chamberlain
+and the colonial office of any privity in the Jameson Raid, but Mr
+Chamberlain's detractors continued to assert the contrary. Opposition
+hostility reached such a pitch that in 1899 there was hardly an act of
+the cabinet during the negotiations with President Kruger which was not
+attributed to the personal malignity and unscrupulousness of the
+colonial secretary. The elections of 1900 (when he was again returned,
+unopposed, for West Birmingham) turned upon the individuality of a
+single minister more than any since the days of Mr Gladstone's
+ascendancy, and Mr Chamberlain, never conspicuous for inclination to
+turn his other cheek to the smiter, was not slow to return the blows
+with interest.
+
+Apart from South Africa, his most important work at this time was the
+successful passing of the Australian Commonwealth Act (1900), in which
+both tact and firmness were needed to settle certain differences between
+the imperial government and the colonial delegates.
+
+Mr Chamberlain's tenure of the office of colonial secretary between 1895
+and 1900 must always be regarded as a turning-point in the history of
+the relations between the British colonies and the mother country. His
+accession to office was marked by speeches breathing a new spirit of
+imperial consolidation, embodied either in suggestions for commercial
+union or in more immediately practicable proposals for improving the
+"imperial estate"; and at the Diamond Jubilee of 1897 the visits of the
+colonial premiers to London emphasized and confirmed the new policy, the
+fruits of which were afterwards seen in the cordial support given by the
+colonies in the Boer War. Even in what Mr Chamberlain called his
+"Radical days" he had never supported the "Manchester" view of the value
+of a colonial empire; and during the Gladstone ministry of 1882-1885 Mr
+Bright had remarked that the junior member for Birmingham was the only
+Jingo in the cabinet--meaning, no doubt, that he objected to the policy
+of _laissez-faire_ and the timidity of what was afterwards known as
+"Little Englandism." While he was still under Mr Gladstone's influence
+these opinions were kept in subordination; but Mr Chamberlain was always
+an imperial federationist, and from 1887 onwards he constantly gave
+expression to his views on the desirability of drawing the different
+parts of the empire closer together for purposes of defence and
+commerce. In 1895 the time for the realization of these views had come;
+and Mr Chamberlain's speeches, previously remarkable chiefly for
+debating power and directness of argument, were now dominated by a new
+note of constructive statesmanship, basing itself on the economic
+necessities of a world-wide empire. Not the least of the anxieties of
+the colonial office during this period was the situation in the West
+Indies, where the cane-sugar industry was being steadily undermined by
+the European bounties given to exports of continental beet; and though
+the government restricted themselves to attempts at removing the
+bounties by negotiation and to measures for palliating the worst effects
+in the West Indies, Mr Chamberlain made no secret of his repudiation of
+the Cobden Club view that retaliation would be contrary to the doctrines
+of free trade, and he did his utmost to educate public opinion at home
+into understanding that the responsibilities of the mother country are
+not merely to be construed according to the selfish interests of a
+nation of consumers. As regards foreign affairs, Mr Chamberlain more
+than once (and particularly at Leicester on 30th November 1899)
+indicated his leanings towards a closer understanding between the
+British empire, the United States and Germany,--a suggestion which did
+not save him from an extravagant outburst of German hostility during the
+Boer War. The unusually outspoken and pointed expression, however, of
+his disinclination to submit to Muscovite duplicity or to "pin-pricks"
+or "unmannerliness" from France was criticized on the score of
+discretion by a wider circle than that of his political adversaries.
+
+During the progress of the Boer War from 1899 to 1902, Mr Chamberlain,
+as the statesman who had represented the cabinet in the negotiations
+which led to it, remained the object of constant attacks from his
+Radical opponents--the "little Englanders" and "Pro-Boers," as he called
+them--and he was supported by the Imperialist and Unionist party with at
+least equal ardour. But as colonial secretary, except in so far as his
+consistent support of Lord Milner and his enthusiastic encouragement of
+colonial assistance were concerned, he naturally played only a
+subordinate part during the carrying out of the military operations.
+Among domestic statesmen he was felt, however, to be the backbone of the
+party in power. He was the hero of the one side, just as he was the
+bugbear of the other. On the 13th of February 1902 he was presented with
+an address in a gold casket by the city corporation, and entertained at
+luncheon at the Mansion House, an honour not unconnected with the strong
+feeling recently aroused by his firm reply (at Birmingham, January 11)
+to some remarks made by Count von Büllow, the German chancellor, in the
+Reichstag (January 8), reflecting the offensive allegations current in
+Germany against the conduct of the army in South Africa. Mr
+Chamberlain's speech, in answer to what had been intended as a
+contemptuous rebuke, was universally applauded. His own imperialism was
+intensified by the way in which England's difficulties resulted in
+calling forth colonial assistance and so cementing the bonds of empire.
+The domestic crisis, and the sharp cleavage between parties at home, had
+driven the bent of his mind and policy further and further away from the
+purely municipal and national ideals which he had followed so keenly
+before he became colonial minister. The problems of empire engrossed
+him, and a new enthusiasm for imperial projects arose in the Unionist
+party under his inspiration. No English statesman probably has ever
+been, at different times in his career, so able an advocate of
+absolutely contradictory policies, and his opponents were not slow to
+taunt him with quotations from his earlier speeches. As the war drew to
+its end, new plans for imperial consolidation were maturing in his
+brain. Subsidiary points of utility, such as the formation of the London
+and Liverpool schools of tropical medicine from 1899 onwards, were taken
+up by him with characteristic vigour. But the next step was to prove a
+critical one indeed for the loyalty of the party which had so far been
+unanimous in his favour.
+
+The settlement after the war was full of difficulties, financial and
+others, in South Africa. When Mr Arthur Balfour succeeded Lord Salisbury
+as prime minister in July 1902, Mr Chamberlain agreed to serve loyally
+under him, and the friendship between the two leaders was indeed one of
+the most marked features of the political situation. In November 1902 it
+was arranged that Mr Chamberlain should go out to South Africa, and it
+was hoped, not without reason, that his personality would effect more
+good than any ordinary official negotiations. At the time the best
+results appeared to be secured. He went from place to place in South
+Africa (December 26-February 25); arranged with the leading Transvaal
+financiers that in return for support from the British government in
+raising a Transvaal loan they would guarantee a large proportion of a
+Transvaal debt of £30,000,000, which should repay the British treasury
+so much of the cost of the war; and when he returned in March 1903,
+satisfaction was general in the country over the success of his mission.
+But meantime two things had happened. He had looked at the empire from
+the colonial point of view, in a way only possible in a colonial
+atmosphere; and at home some of his colleagues had gone a long way,
+behind the scenes, to destroy one of the very factors on which the
+question of a practical scheme for imperial commercial federation seemed
+to hinge. In the budget of 1902 a duty of a shilling a quarter on
+imported corn had been reintroduced. This small tax was regarded as only
+a registration duty. Even by free-trade ministers like Gladstone it had
+been left up to 1869 untouched, and its removal by Robert Lowe (Lord
+Sherbrooke) had since then been widely regarded as a piece of economic
+pedantry. Its reimposition, officially supported for the sake of
+necessary revenue in war-time, and cordially welcomed by the Unionist
+party, had justified itself, as they contended, in spite of the
+criticisms of the Opposition (who raised the cry of the "dear loaf"), by
+proving during the year to have had no general or direct effect on the
+price of bread. And the more advanced Imperialists, as well as the more
+old-fashioned protectionists (like Mr Chaplin) who formed an integral
+body of the Conservative party, had looked forward to this tax being
+converted into a differential one between foreign and colonial corn, so
+as to introduce a scheme of colonial preference and commercial
+consolidation between the colonies and the mother country. In South
+Africa--as in any other British colony, since all of them were
+accustomed to tariffs of a protectionist nature, and the idea of a
+preference (already started by Canada) was fairly popular--Mr
+Chamberlain had found this view well established. The agitation in
+England against the tax had now blown over. The Unionist rank and file
+were committed to its support,--many even advocating its increase to two
+shillings at least. But Mr Ritchie, the chancellor of the exchequer,
+having a surplus in prospect and taxation to take off, carried the
+cabinet in favour of again remitting this tax on corn. Mr Chamberlain
+himself had proposed only to take it off as regards colonial, and not
+foreign corn,--thus inaugurating a preferential system. But a majority
+of the cabinet supported Mr Ritchie. The remission of this tax, after
+all the conviction with which its restoration had been supported a year
+before, was very difficult for the party itself to stomach, and on any
+ground it was a distasteful act, loyally as the party followed their
+leaders. But to those who had looked to it as providing a lever for a
+gradual change in the established fiscal system, the _volte-face_ was a
+bitter blow, and at once there began, though not at first openly, a
+split between the more rigid free-traders--advocates of cheap food and
+free imports--and those who desired to use the opportunities of a
+tariff, of however moderate a kind, for attaining national and imperial
+and not merely revenue advantages. This idea, which had for some time
+been floating in Mr Chamberlain's mind (see especially his speech at
+Birmingham of May 16, 1902), now took full possession of it. For the
+moment he remained in the cabinet, but the seed of dissension was sown.
+The first public intimation of his views was given in a speech to his
+constituents at Birmingham (May 15, 1903), when he outlined a plan for
+raising more money by a rearranged tariff, partly to obtain a
+preferential system for the empire and partly to produce funds for
+social reform at home. On May 28th in the House of Commons he spoke on
+the same subject, and declared "if you are to give a preference to the
+colonies, you must put a tax on food." Considered in the light of after
+events, this putting the necessity of food-taxes in the forefront was
+decidedly injudicious; but imperialist conviction and enthusiasm were
+more conspicuous than electioneering tact in the launching of Mr
+Chamberlain's new scheme.
+
+The movement grew quickly, its supporters including a number of the
+cleverest younger politicians and journalists in the Unionist party. The
+idea of tariff reform--to broaden the basis of taxation, to introduce a
+preference, and to stimulate home industries and increase
+employment--took firm root; and the political economists of the
+party--Prof. W. Cunningham, Prof. W. Ashley and Prof. W.A.S. Hewins, in
+particular--brought effective criticism to bear on the one-sided "free
+trade" in vogue. The first demand was for inquiry. The country was still
+bearing an income-tax of elevenpence in the pound; it appeared that the
+old sources of revenue were inadequate; and meanwhile the statistics of
+trade, it was argued, showed that the English free-import system
+hampered English trade while providing the foreigner with a free market.
+Mr Chamberlain and his supporters argued that since 1870 certain other
+countries (Germany and the United States), with protective tariffs, had
+increased their trade in much larger proportion, while English trade had
+only been maintained by the increased business done with British
+colonies. A scientific inquiry into the facts was needed. By the
+Opposition, who now found themselves the defenders of conservatism in
+the established fiscal policy of the country, this whole argument was
+scouted; but for a time the demand merely for inquiry, and the
+production of figures, gave no sufficient occasion for dissension among
+Unionists, even when, like Sir M. Hicks Beach, they were convinced
+free-importers on purely economic grounds; and Mr Balfour (q.v.), as
+premier, managed to hold his colleagues and party together by taking the
+line that particular opinions on economic subjects should not be made a
+test of party loyalty. The Board of Trade was set to work to produce
+fiscal Blue-books, and hum-drum politicians who had never shown any
+genius for figures suddenly blossomed out into arithmeticians of the
+deepest dye. The Tariff Reform League was founded in order to further Mr
+Chamberlain's policy, holding its inaugural meeting on July 21st; and it
+began to take an active part in issuing leaflets and in work at
+by-elections. Discussion proceeded hotly on the merits of a preferential
+tariff, and on August 15th a manifesto appeared against it signed by
+fourteen professors or lecturers on political economy, including Mr
+Leonard Courtney, Professor Edgeworth, Professor Marshall, Professor
+Bastable, Professor Smart, Professor J.S. Nicholson, Professor Conner,
+Mr Bowley, Mr E. Cannan and Mr L.R. Phelps,--men of admitted competence,
+yet, after all, of no higher authority than the economists supporting Mr
+Chamberlain, such as Dr Cunningham and Professor Ashley.
+
+Meanwhile, the death of Lord Salisbury (August 22) removed a weighty
+figure from the councils of the Unionist party. The cabinet met several
+times at the beginning of September, and the question of their attitude
+towards the fiscal problem became acute. The public had its first
+intimation of impending events in the appearance on September 16th of Mr
+Balfour's _Economic Notes on Insular Free Trade_, which had been
+previously circulated as a cabinet memorandum. The next day appeared the
+Board of Trade Fiscal Blue-book. And on the 18th the resignations were
+announced, not only of the more rigid free-traders in the cabinet, Mr
+Ritchie and Lord George Hamilton, but also of Mr Chamberlain. Letters in
+cordial terms were published, which had passed between Mr Chamberlain
+(September 9) and Mr Balfour (September 16). Mr Chamberlain pointed out
+that he was committed to a preferential scheme involving new duties on
+food, and could not remain in the government without prejudice while it
+was excluded from the party programme; remaining loyal to Mr Balfour and
+his general objects, he could best promote this course from outside, and
+he suggested that the government might confine its policy to the
+"assertion of our freedom in the case of all commercial relations with
+foreign countries." Mr Balfour, while reluctantly admitting the
+necessity of Mr Chamberlain's taking a freer hand, expressed his
+agreement in the desirability of a closer fiscal union with the
+colonies, but questioned the immediate practicability of any scheme; he
+was willing to adopt fiscal reform so far as it covered retaliatory
+duties, but thought that the exclusion of taxation of food from the
+party programme was in existing circumstances necessary, so long as
+public opinion was not ripe. At the same time he welcomed the fact that
+Mr Chamberlain's son, Mr Austen Chamberlain, was ready to remain a
+member of the government. Mr Austen Chamberlain (b. 1863) accordingly
+became the new chancellor of the exchequer; he was already in the
+cabinet as postmaster-general, having previously made his mark as civil
+lord of the admiralty (1895-1900), and financial secretary to the
+treasury (1900-1902).
+
+From the turning-point of Mr Chamberlain's resignation, it is not
+necessary here to follow in detail the discussions and dissensions in
+the party as a whole in its relations with the prime minister (see
+BALFOUR, A.J.). It is sufficient to say that while Mr Balfour's
+sympathetic "send off" appeared to indicate his inclination towards Mr
+Chamberlain's programme, if only further support could be gained for it,
+his endeavour to keep the party together, and the violent opposition
+which gathered against Mr Chamberlain's scheme, combined to make his
+real attitude during the next two years decidedly obscure, both sections
+of the party--free-traders and tariff reformers--being induced from time
+to time to regard him as on their side. The tariff reform movement
+itself was now, however, outside the purely official programme, and Mr
+Chamberlain (backed by a majority of the Unionist members) threw himself
+with impetuous ardour into a crusade on its behalf, while at the same
+time supporting Mr Balfour in parliament, and leaving it to him to
+decide as to the policy of going to the country when the time should be
+ripe. In his own words, he went in front of the Unionist army as a
+pioneer, and if his army was attacked he would go back to it; in no
+conceivable circumstances would he allow himself to be put in any sort
+of competition, direct or indirect, with Mr Balfour, his friend and
+leader, whom he meant to follow (October 6).
+
+On October 6th he opened his campaign with a speech at Glasgow.
+Analysing the trade statistics as between 1872 and 1902, he insisted
+that British progress involved a relative decline compared with that of
+protectionist foreign countries like Germany and the United States;
+Great Britain exported less and less of manufactured goods, and imported
+more and more; the exports to foreign countries had decreased, and it
+was only the increased exports to the colonies that maintained the
+British position. This was the outcome of the working of a one-sided
+free-trade system. Now was the time, and it might soon be lost, for
+consolidating British trade relations with the colonies. If the mother
+country and her daughter states did not draw closer, they would
+inevitably drift apart. A further increase of £26,000,000 a year in the
+trade with the colonies might be obtained by a preferential tariff, and
+this meant additional employment at home for 166,000 workmen, or
+subsistence for a population of a far larger number. His positive
+proposals were: (1) no tax on raw materials; (2) a small tax on food
+other than colonial, e.g. two shillings a quarter on foreign corn but
+excepting maize, and 5% on meat and dairy produce excluding bacon; (3)
+a 10% general tariff on imported manufactured goods. To meet any
+increased cost of living, he proposed to reduce the duties on tea, sugar
+and other articles of general consumption, and he estimated that his
+scheme would in no case increase a working-man's expenditure, and in
+most cases would reduce it. "The colonies," he said, "are prepared to
+meet us; in return for a very moderate preference, they will give us a
+substantial advantage in their markets." This speech, delivered with
+characteristic vigour and Imperialistic enthusiasm, was the type of
+others which followed in quick succession during the year. At Greenock
+next day he emphasized the necessity of retaliating against foreign
+tariffs--"I never like being hit without striking back." The practice of
+"dumping" must be fairly met; if foreign goods were brought into England
+to undersell British manufacturers, either the Fair Wages Clause and the
+Factory Acts and the Compensation Act would have to be repealed, or the
+workmen would have to take lower wages, or lose their work. "Agriculture
+has been practically destroyed, sugar has gone, silk has gone, iron is
+threatened, wool is threatened, cotton will go! How long are you going
+to stand it?" On October 20th he spoke at Newcastle, on the 21st at
+Tynemouth, on the 27th at Liverpool, insisting that free-trade had never
+been a working-class measure and that it could not be reconciled with
+trade-unionism; on November 4th at Birmingham, on the 20th at Cardiff,
+on the 21st at Newport, and on December 16th at Leeds. In all these
+speeches he managed to point his argument by application to local
+industries. In the Leeds speech he announced that, with a view to
+drawing up a scientific model tariff, a non-political commission of
+representative experts would be appointed under the auspices of the
+Tariff Reform League to take evidence from every trade; it included many
+heads of businesses, and Mr Charles Booth, the eminent student of social
+and industrial London, with Sir Robert Herbert as chairman, and
+Professor W.A.S. Hewins as secretary. The name of "Tariff Commission,"
+given to this voluntary and unofficial body, was a good deal criticized,
+but though flouted by the political free-traders it set to work in
+earnest, and accumulated a mass of evidence as to the real facts of
+trade, which promised to be invaluable to economic inquirers. On January
+18th, 1904, Mr Chamberlain ended his series of speeches by a great
+meeting at the Guildhall, in the city of London, the key-note being his
+exhortation to his audience to "think imperially."
+
+All this activity on Mr Chamberlain's part represented a great physical
+and intellectual feat on the part of a man now sixty-seven years of age;
+but his bodily vigour and comparatively youthful appearance were
+essential features of his personality. Nothing like this campaign had
+been known in the political world since Mr Gladstone's Midlothian days;
+and it produced a great public impression, stirring up both supporters
+and opponents. Free-trade unionists like Lord Goschen and Lord Hugh
+Cecil, and the Liberal leaders--for whom Mr Asquith became the principal
+spokesman, though Lord Rosebery's criticisms also had considerable
+weight--found new matter in Mr Chamberlain's speeches for their
+contention that any radical change in the traditional English fiscal
+policy, established now for sixty years, would only result in evil. The
+broad fact remained that while Mr Chamberlain's activity gathered round
+him the bulk of the Unionist members and an enthusiastic band of
+economic sympathizers, the country as a whole remained apathetic and
+unconvinced. One reason was the intellectual difficulty of the subject
+and the double-faced character of all arguments from statistics, which
+were either incomprehensible or disputable; another was the fact that
+substantially this was a political movement, and that tariff reform was,
+after all, only one in a complexity of political issues, most of which
+during this period were being interpreted by the electorate in a sense
+hostile to the Unionist party. Mr Chamberlain had relied on his personal
+influence, which from 1895 to 1902 had been supreme; but his own
+resignation, and the course of events, had since 1903 made his
+personality less authoritative, and new interests--such as the
+opposition to the Education Act, to the heavy taxation, and to Chinese
+labour in the Transvaal, and indignation over the revelations concerned
+with the war--were monopolizing attention, to the weakening of his hold
+on the public. The revival in trade, and the production of new
+statistics which appeared to stultify Mr Chamberlain's prophecies of
+progressive decline, enabled the free-trade champions to reassure their
+audiences as to the very foundation of his case, and to represent the
+whole tariff reform movement as no less unnecessary than risky.
+Moreover, the split in the Unionist party brought the united Liberal
+party in full force into the field, and at last the country began to
+think that the danger of Irish Home Rule was practically over, and that
+a Liberal majority might be returned to power in safety, with the
+prospect of providing an alternative government which would assure
+commercial repose (Lord Rosebery's phrase), relief from extravagant
+expenditure, and--as the working-classes were led to believe--a certain
+amount of labour legislation which the Tory leaders would never propose.
+On the other hand the colonies took a great interest in the new
+movement, though without putting any such pressure on the home public as
+Mr Chamberlain might have expected. At the opening of 1904 he was
+officially invited by Mr Deakin, the prime minister of the Commonwealth,
+to pay a visit to Australia, in order to expound his scheme, being
+promised an enthusiastic welcome "as the harbinger of commercial
+reciprocity between the mother country and her colonies." Mr
+Chamberlain, however, declined; his work at home was too pressing.
+
+From the end of Mr Chamberlain's series of expository speeches on his
+scheme of tariff reform, onwards during the various fiscal debates and
+discussions of 1904, it is unnecessary to follow events in detail. The
+scheme was now before the country, and Mr Chamberlain was anxious to
+take its verdict. Time was not on his side at his age, and if he had to
+be beaten at one election he was anxious to get rid of the other issues
+which would encumber the popular vote, and to press on to a second when
+he would be on the attacking side. But he would make no move which would
+embarrass Mr Balfour in parliament, and adhered to his promise of
+loyalty. The result was a long drawn out interval, while the government
+held on and its supporters became more embittered over their
+differences. Mr Chamberlain needed a rest, and was away in Italy and
+Egypt from March to May, and again in November. He made three important
+speeches at Welbeck (August 4), at Luton (October 5), and at Limehouse
+(December 15), but he had nothing substantial to add to his case, and
+the party situation continued in all its embarrassments. Mr Balfour's
+introduction of his promise (at Edinburgh on October 3) to convene an
+imperial conference after the general election if the Unionists came
+back to power, in order to discuss a scheme for fiscal union,
+represented an academic rather than a practical advance, since the
+by-elections showed that the Unionists were certain to be defeated. The
+one important new development concerned the Liberal-Unionist
+organization. In January some correspondence was published between Mr
+Chamberlain and the duke of Devonshire, dating from the previous
+October, as to difficulties arising from the central Liberal-Unionist
+organization subsidizing local associations which had adopted the
+programme of tariff reform. The duke objected to this departure from
+neutrality, and suggested that it was becoming "impossible with any
+advantage to maintain under existing circumstances the existence of the
+Liberal-Unionist organization." Mr Chamberlain retorted that this was a
+matter for a general meeting of delegates to decide; if the duke was
+outvoted he might resign his presidency; for his own part he was
+prepared to allow the local associations to be subsidized impartially,
+so long as they supported the government, but he was not prepared for
+the violent disruption, which the duke apparently contemplated, of an
+association so necessary to the success of the Unionist cause. The duke
+was in a difficult position as president of the organization, since most
+of the local associations supported Mr Chamberlain, and he replied that
+the differences between them were vital, and he would not be responsible
+for dividing the association into sections, but would rather resign. Mr
+Chamberlain then called a general meeting on his own responsibility in
+February, when a new constitution was proposed; and in May, at the
+annual meeting of the Liberal-Unionist council, the free-food Unionists,
+being in a minority, retired, and the association was reorganized under
+Mr Chamberlain's auspices, Lord Lansdowne and Lord Selborne (both of
+them cabinet ministers) becoming vice-presidents. On July 14th the
+reconstituted Liberal-Unionist organization held a great demonstration
+in the Albert Hall, and Mr Chamberlain's success in ousting the duke of
+Devonshire and the other free-trade members of the old Liberal-Unionist
+party, and imposing his own fiscal policy upon the Liberal-Unionist
+caucus, was now complete.
+
+During the spring and summer of 1905 Mr Chamberlain's more active
+supporters were in favour of forcing a dissolution by leaving the
+government in a minority, but he himself preferred to leave matters to
+take their course, so long as the prime minister was content to be
+publicly identified with the policy of eventually fighting on tariff
+reform lines. Speaking at the Albert Hall in July Mr Chamberlain pushed
+somewhat further than before his "embrace" of Mr Balfour; and in the
+autumn, when foreign affairs no longer dominated the attention of the
+government, the crisis rapidly came to a head. In reply to Mr Balfour's
+appeal for the sinking of differences (Newcastle, November 14), Mr
+Chamberlain insisted at Bristol (November 21) on the adoption of his
+fiscal policy; and Mr Balfour resigned on December 4. on the ground that
+he no longer retained the confidence of the party. At the crushing
+Unionist defeat in the general election which followed in January 1906,
+Mr Chamberlain was triumphantly returned for West Birmingham, and all
+the divisions of Birmingham returned Chamberlainite members. Amid the
+wreck of the party--Mr Balfour and several of his colleagues themselves
+losing their seats--he had the consolation of knowing that the tariff
+reformers won the only conspicuous successes of the election. But he had
+no desire to set himself up as leader in Mr Balfour's place, and after
+private negotiations with the ex-prime minister, a common platform was
+arranged between them, on which Mr Balfour, for whom a seat was found in
+the City of London, should continue to lead the remnant of the party.
+The formula was given in a letter from Mr Balfour of February 14th (see
+BALFOUR, A.J.) which admitted the necessity of making fiscal reform the
+first plank in the Unionist platform, and accepted a general tariff on
+manufactured goods and a small duty on foreign corn as "not in principle
+objectionable."
+
+It may be left to future historians to attempt a considered judgment on
+the English tariff reform movement, and on Mr Chamberlain's
+responsibility for the Unionist _débâcle_ of 1906. But while his enemies
+taunted him with having twice wrecked his party--first the Radical party
+under Mr Gladstone, and secondly the Unionist party under Mr Balfour--no
+well-informed critic doubted his sincerity, or failed to recognize that
+in leaving the cabinet and embarking on his fiscal campaign he showed
+real devotion to an idea. In championing the cause of imperial fiscal
+union, by means involving the abandonment of a system of taxation which
+had become part of British orthodoxy, he followed the guidance of a
+profound conviction that the stability of the empire and the very
+existence of the hegemony of the United Kingdom depended upon the
+conversion of public opinion to a revision of the current economic
+doctrine. There were doubtless miscalculations at the outset as to the
+resistance to be encountered. But from the purely party point of view he
+was entitled to say that he followed the path of loyalty to Mr Balfour
+which he had marked out from the moment of his resignation, and that he
+persistently, refused to be put in competition with him as leader. Even
+in the absence of the new issue, defeat was foredoomed for Mr Balfour's
+administration by the ordinary course of political events; and it might
+fairly be claimed that "Chinese slavery," "passive resistance," and
+labour irritation at the Taff Vale judgment (see TRADE UNIONS) were
+mainly responsible for the Unionist collapse. Time alone would show
+whether the system of free imports could be permanently reconciled with
+British imperial policy or commercial prosperity. It remained the fact
+that Mr Chamberlain staked an already established position on his
+refusal to compromise with his convictions on a question which appeared
+to him of vital and immediate importance.
+
+Mr Chamberlain's own activity in the political field was cut short in
+the middle of the session of 1906 by a serious attack of gout, which was
+at first minimized by his friends, but which, it was gradually
+discovered, had completely crippled him. Though encouragement was given
+to the idea that he might return to the House of Commons, where he
+continued to retain his seat for Birmingham, he was quite incapacitated
+for any public work; and this invalid condition was protracted
+throughout 1907, 1908 and 1909. But he remained in the background as the
+inspirer and adviser of the Tariff Reformers. The cause made continuous
+headway at by-elections, and though the general election of January 1910
+gave the Unionists no majority it saw them returned in much increased
+strength, which was chiefly due to the support obtained for tariff
+reform principles. Mr Chamberlain himself was returned unopposed for
+West Birmingham again.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE (1828-   ), American soldier and
+educationalist, was born at Brewer, Maine, on the 8th of September 1828.
+He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1852, and at the Bangor Theological
+Seminary in 1855, and was successively tutor in logic and natural
+theology (1855-1856), professor of rhetoric and oratory (1856-1861), and
+professor of modern languages (1861-1865), at Bowdoin. In 1862 he
+entered the Federal army as lieutenant-colonel of the 20th Maine
+Infantry. His military career was marked by great personal bravery and
+energy and intrepidity as a leader. He was six times wounded, and
+participated in all the important battles in the East from Antietam
+onwards, including Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, the
+Wilderness, Cold Harbor, Petersburg and Five Forks. For his conduct at
+Petersburg, where he was severely wounded, he was promoted to be
+brigadier-general of volunteers. He was breveted major-general of
+volunteers on the 29th of March 1865, and led the Federal advance in the
+final operations against General R.E. Lee. In 1893 he received a
+Congressional medal of honour "for daring heroism and great tenacity in
+holding his position on the Little Round Top and carrying the advance
+position on the Great Round Top at the Battle of Gettysburg." After the
+war he was again professor of rhetoric and oratory at Bowdoin in
+1865-1866, and in 1867-1870 was governor of Maine, having been elected
+as a Republican. From 1871 to 1883 he was president of Bowdoin College,
+and during 1874-1879 was professor of mental and moral philosophy also.
+Appointed in 1880 by Alonzo Garcelon, the retiring governor, to protect
+the property and institutions of the state until a new governor should
+be duly qualified, and acting as major-general of the state militia,
+Chamberlain did much to avert possible civil war, at a time of great
+political excitement and bitter partisan feeling. (See MAINE:
+_History_.) In 1883-1885 he was a lecturer on political science and
+public law at Bowdoin, and in 1900 became surveyor of customs for the
+district of Portland, Maine. He published _Maine, Her Place in History_
+(1877), and edited _Universities and Their Sons_ (6 vols., 1898).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES (1820-1902), British field marshal, was
+the third son of Sir Henry Chamberlain, first baronet, consul-general
+and chargé d'affaires in Brazil, and was born at Rio on the 10th of
+January 1820. He entered the Indian army in 1837, served as a subaltern
+in the first Afghan War (1839-42), and was wounded on six occasions. He
+was attached to the Governor-General's Bodyguard at the battle of
+Maharajpur, in the Gwalior campaign of 1843, was appointed military
+secretary to the governor of Bombay in 1846, and honorary aide-de-camp
+to the governor-general of India in 1847. He served on the staff
+throughout the Punjab campaign of 1848-49, and was given a brevet
+majority. In 1850 he was appointed commandant of the Punjab military
+police, and in 1852 military secretary to the Punjab government.
+Promoted lieut.-colonel in 1854, he was given the command of the Punjab
+Frontier Force with rank of brigadier-general, and commanded in several
+expeditions against the frontier tribes. In the Indian Mutiny he
+succeeded Colonel Chester as adjutant-general of the Indian army, and
+distinguished himself at the siege of Delhi, where he was severely
+wounded. He was rewarded with a brevet-colonelcy, the appointment of
+A.D.C. to the queen, and the C.B. He was reappointed to the command of
+the Punjab Frontier Force in 1858, and commanded in the Umbeyla campaign
+(1863), in which he was severely wounded. He was now made major-general
+for distinguished service and a K.C.B. He was made K.C.S.I. in 1866,
+lieut.-general in 1872, G.C.S.I. in 1873, G.C.B in 1875, and general in
+1877. From 1876 to 1881 he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army,
+and in 1878 was sent on a mission to the amir of Afghanistan, whose
+refusal to allow him to enter the country precipitated the second Afghan
+War. He was for some time acting military member of the council of the
+governor-general of India. He retired in 1886, was made a field marshal
+in 1900, and died on the 18th of February 1902.
+
+  An excellent biography by G.W. Forrest appeared in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAIN (O. Fr. _chamberlain, chamberlenc_, Mod. Fr. _chambellan_,
+from O.H. Ger. _Chamarling, Chamarlinc_, whence also the Med. Lat.
+_cambellanus, camerlingus, camerlengus_; Ital. _camerlingo_; Span,
+_camerlengo_, compounded of O.H. Ger. _Chamara, Kamara_ [Lat. _camera_,
+"chamber"], and the Ger. suffix _-ling_), etymologically, and also to a
+large extent historically, an officer charged with the superintendence
+of domestic affairs. Such were the chamberlains of monasteries or
+cathedrals, who had charge of the finances, gave notice of chapter
+meetings, and provided the materials necessary for the various services.
+In these cases, as in that of the apostolic chamberlain of the Roman
+see, the title was borrowed from the usage of the courts of the western
+secular princes. A royal chamberlain is now a court official whose
+function is in general to attend on the person of the sovereign and to
+regulate the etiquette of the palace. He is the representative of the
+medieval _camberlanus, cambellanus_, or _cubicularius_, whose office was
+modelled on that of the _praefectus sacri cubiculi_ or _cubicularius_ of
+the Roman emperors. But at the outset there was another class of
+chamberlains, the _camerarii_, i.e. high officials charged with the
+administration of the royal treasury (_camera_). The _camerarius_ of the
+Carolingian emperors was the equivalent of the _hordere_ or
+_thesaurarius_ (treasurer) of the Anglo-Saxon kings; he develops into
+the _Erzkämmerer_ (_archicamerarius_) of the Holy Roman Empire, an
+office held by the margraves of Brandenburg, and the _grand chambrier_
+of France, who held his _chamberie_ as a fief. Similarly in England
+after the Norman conquest the _hordere_ becomes the chamberlain. This
+office was of great importance. Before the Conquest he had been, with
+the marshal, the principal officer of the king's court; and under the
+Norman sovereigns his functions were manifold. As he had charge of the
+administration of the royal household, his office was of financial
+importance, for a portion of the royal revenue was paid, not into the
+exchequer, but in _camera regis_. In course of time the office became
+hereditary and titular, but the complexities of the duties necessitated
+a division of the work, and the office was split up into three: the
+hereditary and sinecure office of _magister camerarius_ or lord great
+chamberlain (see LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN), the more important domestic
+office of _camerarius regis_, king's chamberlain or lord chamberlain
+(see LORD CHAMBERLAIN), and the chamberlains (_camerarii_) of the
+exchequer, two in number, who were originally representatives of the
+chamberlain at the exchequer, and afterwards in conjunction with the
+treasurer presided over that department. In 1826 the last of these
+officials died, when by an act passed forty-four years earlier they
+disappeared.
+
+In France the office of _grand chambrier_ was early overshadowed by the
+_chamberlains (cubicularii, cambellani_, but sometimes also
+_camerarii_), officials in close personal attendance on the king, men at
+first of low rank, but of great and ever-increasing influence. As the
+office of _grand chambrier_, held by great feudal nobles seldom at
+court, became more and more honorary, the chamberlains grew in power, in
+numbers and in rank, until, in the 13th century, one of them emerges as
+a great officer of state, the _chambellan de France_ or _grand
+chambellan_ (also _magister cambellanorum, mestre chamberlenc_), who at
+times shares with the _grand chambrier_ the revenues derived from
+certain trades in the city of Paris (see _Regestum Memoralium Camerae
+computorum_, quoted in du Cange, s. _Cameranus_). The honorary office of
+_grand chambrier_ survived till the time of Henry II., who was himself
+the last to hold it before his accession; that of _grand chambellan_,
+which in its turn soon became purely honorary, survived till the
+Revolution. Among the prerogatives of the _grand chambellan_ which
+survived to the last not the least valued was the right to hand the king
+his shirt at the ceremonial levée. The offices of _grand chambellan,
+premier chambellan_, and _chambellan_ were revived by Napoleon,
+continued under the Restoration, abolished by Louis Philippe, and again
+restored by Napoleon III.
+
+In the papal Curia the apostolic chamberlain (Lat. _camerarius_, Ital.
+_camerlingo_) occupies a very important position. He is at the head of
+the treasury (_camera thesauraria_) and, in the days of the temporal
+power, not only administered the papal finances but possessed an
+extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction. During a vacancy of the Holy
+See he is at the head of the administration of the Roman Church. The
+office dates from the 11th century, when it superseded that of
+archdeacon of the Roman Church, and the close personal relations of the
+_camerarius_ with the pope, together with the fact that he is the
+official guardian of the ceremonial vestments and treasures, point to
+the fact that he is also the representative of the former _vestararius_
+and _vice-dominus_, whose functions were merged in the new office, of
+which the idea and title were probably borrowed from the usage of the
+secular courts of the West (Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. 405, &c.).
+There are also attached to the papal household (_famiglia pontificia_) a
+large number of chamberlains whose functions are more or less
+ornamental. These are divided into several categories: privy
+chamberlains (_camerieri segreti_), chamberlains, assistant and honorary
+chamberlains. These are gentlemen of rank and belong to the highest
+class of the household (_famiglia nobile_).
+
+In England the modern representatives of the _cubicularii_ are the
+gentlemen and grooms of the bed-chamber, in Germany the _Kammerherr_
+(_Kämmerer_, from _camerarius_, in Bavaria and Austria) and
+_Kammerjunker_. The insignia of their office is a gold key attached to
+their coats behind.
+
+Many corporations appoint a chamberlain. The most important in England
+is the chamberlain of the corporation of the city of London, who is
+treasurer of the corporation, admits persons entitled to the freedom of
+the city, and, in the chamberlain's court, of which he and the
+vice-chamberlain are judges, exercises concurrent jurisdiction with the
+police court in determining disputes between masters and apprentices.
+Formerly nominated by the crown, since 1688 he has been elected annually
+by the liverymen. He has a salary of £2000 a year. Similarly in Germany
+the administration of the finances of a city is called the _Kämmerei_
+and the official in charge of it the _Kämmerer_.
+
+  See also STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF; HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL; Du Cange,
+  _Glossarium_, s. "Camerarius" and "Cambellanus"; Père Anselme (Pierre
+  de Guibours), _Hist. généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale
+  de France, &c_. (9 vols., 3rd ed., 1726-1733); A. Luchaire, _Manuel
+  des institutions françaises_ (Paris, 1892); W.R. Anson, _Law and
+  Custom of the Constitution_ (Oxford, 1896); Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_,
+  i. 405 (Berlin, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM (1619-1679), English poet, was born in 1619.
+Nothing is known of his history except that he practised as a physician
+at Shaftesbury in Dorsetshire, and fought on the Royalist side at the
+second battle of Newbury. He died on the 11th of July 1679. His works
+are: _Pharonnida_ (1659), a verse romance in five books; _Love's
+Victory_ (1658), a tragi-comedy, acted under another title in 1678 at
+the Theatre Royal; _England's Jubilee_ (1660), a poem in honour of the
+Restoration. A prose version of _Pharonnida_, entitled _Eromena_, or the
+_Noble Stranger_, appeared in 1683. Southey speaks of him as "a poet to
+whom I am indebted for many hours of delight." _Pharonnida_ was
+reprinted by S.W. Singer in 1820, and again in 1905 by Prof. G.
+Saintsbury in _Minor Poets of the Caroline Period_ (vol. i.). The poem
+is loose in construction, but contains some passages of great beauty.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740), English encyclopaedist, was born at Kendal,
+Westmorland, in the latter part of the 17th century. He was apprenticed
+to a globe-maker in London, but having conceived the plan of his
+Cyclopaedia, or _Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences_, he devoted
+himself entirely to it. The first edition appeared by subscription in
+1728, in two vols. fol., and dedicated to the king (see ENCYCLOPAEDIA).
+The _Encyclopédie_ of Diderot and d'Alembert owed its inception to a
+French translation of Chambers's work. In addition to the _Cyclopaedia_,
+Chambers wrote for the _Literary Magazine_ (1735-1736), and translated
+the _History and Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris_
+(1742), and the _Practice of Perspective_ from the French of Jean
+Dubreuil. He died on the 15th of May 1740.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840), English marine painter, born at Whitby,
+Yorkshire, was the son of a seaman, and for several years he pursued his
+father's calling. While at sea he was in the habit of sketching the
+different classes of vessels. His master, observing this, gratified him
+by cancelling his indentures, and thus set him free to follow his
+natural bent. Chambers then apprenticed himself to an old woman who kept
+a painter's shop in Whitby, and began by house-painting. He also took
+lessons of a drawing-master, and found a ready sale for small and cheap
+pictures of shipping. Coming afterwards to London, he was employed by
+Thomas Horner to assist in painting the great panorama of London for the
+Colosseum (the exhibition building in Regent's Park, demolished towards
+1860), and he next became scene-painter at the Pavilion theatre. In 1834
+he was elected an associate, and in 1836 a full member, of the
+Water-colour Society. His best works represent naval battles. Two of
+these--the "Bombardment of Algiers in 1816," and the "Capture of Porto
+Bello"--are in Greenwich hospital. Not long before his death he was
+introduced to William IV., and his professional prospects brightened;
+but his constitution, always frail, gave way, and he died on the 28th of
+October 1840.
+
+  A _Life_, by John Watkins, was published in 1841.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS, ROBERT (1802-1871), Scottish author and publisher, was born at
+Peebles on the 10th of July 1802. He was sent to the local schools, and
+gave evidence of unusual literary taste and ability. A small circulating
+library in the town, and a copy of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ which
+his father had purchased, furnished him with stores of reading of which
+he eagerly availed himself. Long afterwards he wrote of his early
+years--"Books, not playthings, filled my hands in childhood. At twelve I
+was deep, not only in poetry and fiction, but in encyclopaedias." Robert
+had been destined for the church, but this design had to be abandoned
+for lack of means. The family removed to Edinburgh in 1813, and in 1818
+Robert began business as a bookstall-keeper in Leith Walk. He was then
+only sixteen, and his whole stock consisted of a few old books belonging
+to his father. In 1819 his elder brother William had begun a similar
+business, and the two eventually united as partners in the publishing
+firm of W. & R. Chambers. Robert Chambers showed an enthusiastic
+interest in the history and antiquities of Edinburgh, and found a most
+congenial task in his _Traditions of Edinburgh_ (2 vols., 1824), which
+secured for him the approval and the personal friendship of Sir Walter
+Scott. A _History of the Rebellions in Scotland from 1638 to 1745_ (5
+vols., 1828) and numerous other works followed.
+
+In the beginning of 1832 William Chambers started a weekly publication
+under the title of _Chambers's Edinburgh Journal_ (known since 1854 as
+_Chambers's Journal of Literature, Science and Arts_), which speedily
+attained a large circulation. Robert was at first only a contributor.
+After fourteen numbers had appeared, however, he was associated with his
+brother as joint-editor, and his collaboration contributed more perhaps
+than anything else to the success of the _Journal_.
+
+Among the other numerous works of which Robert was in whole or in part
+the author, the _Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen_ (4 vols.,
+Glasgow, 1832-1835), the _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_ (1844), the
+_Life and Works of Robert Burns_ (4 vols., 1851), _Ancient Sea Margins_
+(1848), the _Domestic Annals of Scotland_ (3 vols., 1859-1861) and the
+_Book of Days_ (2 vols., 1862-1864) were the most important.
+_Chambers's Encyclopaedia_ (1859-1868), with Dr Andrew Findlater as
+editor, was carried out under the superintendence of the brothers (see
+ENCYCLOPAEDIA). The _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_[1] contains a
+series of admirably selected extracts from the best authors of every
+period, "set in a biographical and critical history of the literature
+itself." For the _Life of Burns_ he made diligent and laborious original
+investigations, gathering many hitherto unrecorded facts from the poet's
+sister, Mrs Begg, to whose benefit the whole profits of the work were
+generously devoted. Robert Chambers was a scientific geologist, and
+availed himself of tours in Scandinavia and Canada for the purpose of
+geological exploration. The results of his travels were embodied in
+_Tracings of the North of Europe_ (1851) and _Tracings in Iceland and
+the Faroe Islands_ (1856). His knowledge of geology was one of the
+principal grounds on which the authorship of the _Vestiges of the
+Natural History of Creation_ (2 vols., 1843-1846) was eventually
+assigned to him. The book was published anonymously. Robert Chambers was
+aware of the storm that would probably be raised at the time by a
+rational treatment of the subject, and did not wish to involve his firm
+in the discredit that a charge of heterodoxy would bring with it. The
+arrangements for publication were made through Alexander Ireland of
+Manchester, and the secret was so well kept that such different names as
+those of Prince Albert and Sir Charles Lyell were coupled with the book.
+Ireland in 1884 issued a 12th edition, with a preface giving an account
+of its authorship, which there was no longer any reason for concealing.
+The _Book of Days_ was Chambers's last publication, and perhaps his most
+elaborate. It was a miscellany of popular antiquities in connexion with
+the calendar, and it is supposed that his excessive labour in connexion
+with this book hastened his death, which took place at St Andrews on the
+17th of March 1871. Two years before, the university of St Andrews had
+conferred upon him the degree of doctor of laws, and he was elected a
+member of the Athenaeum club in London. It is his highest claim to
+distinction that he did so much to give a healthy tone to the cheap
+popular literature which has become so important a factor in modern
+civilization.
+
+His brother, WILLIAM CHAMBERS (1800-1883) was born at Peebles, on the
+16th of April 1800. He was the financial genius of the publishing firm.
+He laid the city of Edinburgh under the greatest obligations by his
+public spirit and munificence. As lord provost he procured the passing
+in 1867 of the Improvement Act, which led to the reconstruction of a
+great part of the Old Town, and at a later date he proposed and carried
+out, largely at his own expense, the restoration of the noble and then
+neglected church of St Giles, making it in a sense "the Westminster
+Abbey of Scotland." This service was fitly acknowledged by the offer of
+a baronetcy, which he did not live to receive, dying on the 20th of May
+1883, three days before the reopening of the church. He was the author
+of a history of St Giles's, of a memoir of himself and his brother
+(1872), and of many other useful publications. On his death in 1883
+Robert Chambers (1832-1888), son of Robert Chambers, succeeded as head
+of the firm, and edited the _Journal_ until his death. His eldest son,
+Charles Edward Stuart Chambers (b. 1859), became editor of the _Journal_
+and chairman of W. & R. Chambers, Limited.
+
+  See also _Memoir of Robert Chambers, with Autobiographic Reminiscences
+  of William Chambers_ (1872), the 13th ed. of which (1884) has a
+  supplementary chapter; Alexander Ireland's preface to the 12th ed.
+  (1884) of the _Vestiges of Creation_; the _Story of a Long and Busy
+  Life_ (1884), by William Chambers; and some discriminating
+  appreciation in James Payn's _Some Literary Recollections_ (1884),
+  chapter v. The _Select Writings of Robert Chambers_ were published in
+  7 vols. in 1847, and a complete list of the works of the brothers is
+  added to _A Catalogue of Some of the Rarer Books ... in the Collection
+  of C.E.S. Chambers_ (Edinburgh, 1891).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A new and enlarged edition of this work, edited by David Patrick,
+    LL. D., appeared in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796), British architect, was the grandson
+of a rich merchant who had financed the armies of Charles XII., but was
+paid in base money, and whose son remained in Sweden many years
+endeavouring to obtain redress. In 1728 the latter returned to England
+and settled at Ripon, where William, who was born in Stockholm, was
+educated. At the age of sixteen he became supercargo to the Swedish East
+India Company, and voyaging to Canton made drawings of Chinese
+architecture, furniture and costume which served as basis for his
+_Designs for Chinese Buildings_, &c. (1757). Two years later he quitted
+the sea to study architecture seriously, and spent a long time in Italy,
+devoting special attention to the buildings of classical and Renaissance
+architects. He also studied under Clérisseau in Paris, with whom and
+with the sculptor Wilton he lived at Rome. In 1755 he returned to
+England with Cipriani and Wilton, and married the beautiful daughter of
+the latter. His first important commission was a villa for Lord
+Bessborough at Roehampton, but he made his reputation by the grounds he
+laid out and the buildings he erected at Kew between 1757 and 1762 for
+Augusta, princess dowager of Wales. Some of them have since been
+demolished, but the most important, the pagoda, still survives. The
+publication in a handsome volume of the designs for these buildings
+assured his position in the profession. He was employed to teach
+architectural drawing to the prince of Wales (George III.), and gained
+further professional distinction in 1759 by the publication of his
+_Treatise of Civil Architecture_. He began to exhibit with the Society
+of Artists in 1761 at Spring Gardens, and was one of the original
+members and treasurer of the Royal Academy when it was established in
+1768. In 1772 he published his _Dissertation on Oriental Gardening_,
+which attempted to prove the inferiority of European to Chinese
+landscape gardening. As a furniture designer and internal decorator he
+is credited with the creation of that "Chinese Style" which was for a
+time furiously popular, although Thomas Chippendale (q.v.) had published
+designs in that manner at a somewhat earlier date. It is not
+unreasonable to count the honours as divided, since Chippendale
+unquestionably adapted and altered the Chinese shapes in a manner better
+to fit them for European use. To the rage for every possible form of
+_chinoiserie_, for which he is chiefly responsible, Sir William Chambers
+owed much of his success in life. He became architect to the king and
+queen, comptroller of his majesty's works, and afterwards
+surveyor-general. In 1775 he was appointed architect of Somerset House,
+his greatest monument, at a salary of £2000 a year. He also designed
+town mansions for Earl Gower at Whitehall and Lord Melbourne in
+Piccadilly, built Charlemont House, Dublin, and Duddingston House near
+Edinburgh. He designed the market house at Worcester, was employed by
+the earl of Pembroke at Wilton, by the duke of Marlborough at Blenheim,
+and by the duke of Bedford in Bloomsbury. The state coach of George
+III., his constant patron, was his work; it is now in the Victoria and
+Albert Museum. Although his practice was mainly Classic, he made Gothic
+additions to Milton Abbey in Dorset. Sir William Chambers achieved
+considerable distinction as a designer of furniture. In addition to his
+work in the Chinese style and in the contemporary fashions, he was the
+author of what is probably the most ambitious and monumental piece of
+furniture ever produced in England. This was a combined bureau,
+dressing-case, jewel-cabinet and organ, made for Charles IV., king of
+Spain, in 1793. These combination pieces were in the taste of the time,
+and the effort displays astonishing ingenuity and resource. The panels
+were painted by W. Hamilton, R.A., with representations of the four
+seasons, night and morning, fire and water, Juno and Ceres, together
+with representations of the Golden Fleece and the Immaculate Conception.
+The organ, in the domed top, is in a case decorated with ormolu and
+Wedgwood. This remarkable achievement, which possesses much sober
+elegance, formed part of the loan collection of English furniture at the
+Franco-British Exhibition in London in 1908. Sir William Chambers
+numbered among his friends Dr Johnson, Goldsmith, Sir Joshua Reynolds,
+David Garrick and Dr Burney.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS (the Fr. _chambre_, from Lat. _camera_, a room), a term used
+generally of rooms or apartments, but especially in law of the offices
+of a lawyer or the semi-private rooms in which judges or judicial
+officers deal with questions of practice and other matters not of
+sufficient importance to be dealt with in court. It is a matter of doubt
+at what period the practice of exercising jurisdiction "in chambers"
+commenced in England; there is no statutory sanction before 1821, though
+the custom can be traced back to the 17th century. An act of 1821
+provided for sittings in chambers between terms, and an act of 1822
+empowered the sovereign to call upon the judges by warrant to sit in
+chambers on as many days in vacation as should seem fit, while the Law
+Terms Act 1830 defined the jurisdiction to be exercised at chambers. The
+Judges' Chambers Act 1867 was the first act, however, to lay down proper
+regulations for chamber work, and the Judicature Act 1873 preserved that
+jurisdiction and gave power to increase it as might be directed or
+authorized by rules of court to be thereafter made. (See CHANCERY;
+KING'S BENCH, COURT OF.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Franklin county,
+Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of Conoco-cheague Creek and
+Falling Spring, 52 m. S.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) 7863; (1900) 8864,
+of whom 769 were negroes; (1910) 11,800. It is served by the Cumberland
+Valley and the Western Maryland railways, and is connected by electric
+lines with Greencastle, Waynesboro, Caledonia, a beautiful park in the
+Pennsylvania timber reservation, on South Mountain, 12 m. east of
+Chambersburg, and Pen Mar, a summer resort, on South Mountain, near the
+boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland. Chambersburg is built
+on an elevated site in the broad and fertile Cumberland Valley, and
+commands a fine view of the distant hills and dales. The borough is the
+seat of Chambersburg Academy, a preparatory school; Penn Hall, a school
+for girls; and Wilson College, a Presbyterian institution for women,
+opened in 1870. The Wilson College campus, the former estate of Col. A.
+K. McClure (1828-1909), a well-known journalist, was laid out by Donald
+G. Mitchell ("Ik Marvel"), who was an enthusiastic landscape gardener.
+The shops of the Cumberland Valley railway are at Chambersburg, and
+among the borough's manufactures are milling machinery, boilers,
+engines, hydraulic presses, steam-hammers, engineering and bridge
+supplies, hosiery, shoes, gloves, furniture, flour, paper, leather,
+carriages and agricultural implements; the total value of its factory
+product in 1905 was $1,085,185. The waterworks and the electric-lighting
+plant are owned and operated by the municipality. A settlement was
+founded here in 1730 by Benjamin Chambers, in whose honour the borough
+was named, and who, immediately after General Edward Braddock's defeat
+in 1755, built a stone fort and surrounded it with a stockade for the
+protection of the community from the Indians. Chambersburg was laid out
+in 1764 and was incorporated as a borough in 1803. On the 30th of July
+1864 Chambersburg was occupied by a Confederate cavalry force under
+General McCausland (acting under General Jubal A. Early's orders), who,
+upon the refusal of the citizens to pay $100,000 for immunity, burned a
+large part of the borough.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBÉRY, a city of France, capital of the department of Savoie,
+pleasantly situated in a fertile district, between two hills, on the
+rivers Leysse and Albane, 79 m. by rail S.S.W. of Geneva. Pop. (1906)
+town, 16,852; commune, 23,027. The town is irregularly built, and has
+only two good streets--the Place Saint-Léger and the Rue de Boigne, the
+latter being named after General Benoît Boigne (1741-1830), who left a
+fortune of 3,400,000 francs (accumulated in India) to the town. The
+principal buildings are the cathedral, dating from the 14th and 15th
+centuries; the Hôtel-Dieu, founded in 1647; the castle, a modern
+building serving as the prefecture, and preserving only a great square
+tower belonging to the original structure; the palace of justice, the
+theatre, the barracks, and the covered market, which dates from 1863.
+Several of the squares are adorned with fountains; the old ramparts of
+the city, destroyed during the French Revolution, have been converted
+into public walks; and various promenades and gardens have been
+constructed. Chambéry is the seat of an archbishop (raised to that
+dignity from a bishopric in 1817) and of a superior tribunal. It has
+also a Jesuit college, a royal academical society, a society of
+agriculture and commerce, a public library with 60,000 volumes, a museum
+(antiquities and paintings), a botanic garden, and many charitable
+institutions. It manufactures silk-gauze, lace, leather and hats, and
+has a considerable trade in liqueurs, wine, lead, copper and other
+articles. Overlooking the town on the north is the Rocher de Lémenc,
+which derives its name from the _Lemincum_ of the Romans; and in the
+vicinity is Les Charmettes, for some time (1736-1740) the residence of
+Rousseau.
+
+The origin of Chambéry is unknown, but its lords are mentioned for the
+first time in 1029. In 1232 it was sold to the count of Savoy, Thomas
+I., who bestowed several important privileges on the inhabitants. As
+capital of the duchy of Savoy, it has passed through numerous political
+vicissitudes. Between 1536 and 1713 it was several times occupied by the
+French; in 1742 it was captured by a Franco-Spanish army; and in 1792 it
+was occupied by the Republican forces, and became the capital of the
+department of Mont Blanc. Restored to the house of Savoy by the treaties
+of Vienna and Paris, it was again surrendered to France in 1860. Among
+the famous men whom it has given to France, the most important are
+Vaugelas (1585-1650), Saint-Réal (1639-1692), and the brothers Joseph
+(1754-1821) and Xavier (1763-1852) de Maistre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE DIEUDONNÉ COMTE DE (1820-1883),
+the "King Henry V." of the French legitimists, was born in Paris on the
+29th of September 1820. His father was the duc de Berry, the elder son
+of the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.); his mother was the
+princess Caroline Ferdinande Louise of Naples. Born seven months after
+the assassination of his father, he was hailed as the "enfant du
+miracle," and was made the subject of one of Lamartine's most famous
+poems. He was created duc de Bordeaux, and in 1821, as the result of a
+subscription organized by the government, received the château of
+Chambord. He was educated by tutors inspired by detestation of the
+French Revolution and its principles, and from the duc de Damas in
+particular imbibed those ideas of divine right and of devotion to the
+Church to which he always remained true. After the revolution of July,
+Charles X. vainly endeavoured to save the Bourbon cause by abdicating in
+his favour and proclaiming him king under the title of Henry V. (August
+2, 1830). The comte de Chambord accompanied his grandfather into exile,
+and resided successively at Holyrood, Prague, and Görz. In 1841, during
+an extensive tour through Europe, he broke his leg--an accident that
+resulted in permanent lameness. The death of his grandfather, Charles
+X., in 1836, and of his uncle, the duc d'Angoulême, in 1844, left him
+the last male representative of the elder branch of the Bourbon family;
+and his marriage with the archduchess Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of
+the duke of Modena (November 7, 1846), remained without issue. The title
+to the throne thus passed to the comte de Paris, as representative of
+the Orleans branch of the house of Bourbon, and the history of the comte
+de Chambord's life is largely an account of the efforts made to unite
+the Royalist party by effecting a reconciliation between the two
+princes. Though he continued to hold an informal court, both on his
+travels and at his castle of Frohsdorf, near Vienna, yet he allowed the
+revolution of 1848 and the _coup d'état_ of 1851 to pass without any
+decisive assertion of his claims. It was the Italian war of 1859, with
+its menace to the pope's independence, that roused him at last to
+activity. He declared himself ready "to pay with his blood for the
+triumph of a cause which was that of France, the Church, and God
+himself." Making common cause with the Church, the Royalists now began
+an active campaign against the Empire. On the 9th of December 1866 he
+addressed a manifesto to General Saint-Priest, in which he declared the
+cause of the pope to be that of society and liberty, and held out
+promises of retrenchment, civil and religious liberty, "and above all
+honesty." Again, on the 4th of September 1870, after the fall of the
+Empire, he invited Frenchmen to accept a government "whose basis was
+right and whose principle was honesty," and promised to drive the enemy
+from French soil. These vague phrases, offered as a panacea to a nation
+fighting for its life, showed conclusively his want of all political
+genius; they had as little effect on the French as his protest against
+the bombardment of Paris had on the Germans. Yet fortune favoured him.
+The elections placed the Republican party in a minority in the National
+Assembly; the abrogation of the law of exile against the royal family
+permitted him to return to his castle of Chambord; and it was thence
+that on the 5th of July 1871 he issued a proclamation, in which for the
+first time he publicly posed as king, and declared that he would never
+abandon the white standard of the Bourbons, "the flag of Henry IV.,
+Francis I., and Joan of Arc," for the tricolour of the Revolution. He
+again quitted France, and answered the attempts to make him renounce his
+claims in favour of the comte de Paris by the declaration (January 25,
+1872) that he would never abdicate. In the following month he held a
+great gathering of his adherents at Antwerp, which was the cause of
+serious disturbances. A constitutional programme, signed by some 280
+members of the National Assembly, was presented for his acceptance, but
+without result. The fall of Thiers in May 1873, however, offered an
+opportunity to the Royalists by which they hastened to profit. The comte
+de Paris and the prince de Joinville journeyed to Frohsdorf, and were
+formally reconciled with the head of the family (August 5). The
+Royalists were united, the premier (the duc de Broglie) an open
+adherent, the president (MacMahon) a benevolent neutral. MM. Lucien Brun
+and Chesnelong were sent to interview the comte de Chambord at Salzburg,
+and obtain the definite assurances that alone were wanting. They
+returned with the news that he accepted the principles of the French
+Revolution and the tricolour flag. But a letter to Chesnelong, dated
+Salzburg, 27th of October, declared that he had been misunderstood: he
+would give no guarantees; he would not inaugurate his reign by an act of
+weakness, nor become "le roi légitime de la Révolution." "Je suis le
+pilote nécessaire," he added, "le seul capable de conduire le navire au
+port, parce que j'ai mission et autorité pour cela." This outspoken
+adherence to the principle of divine right did credit to his honesty,
+but it cost him the crown. The duc de Broglie carried the septennate,
+and the Republic steadily established itself in popular favour. A last
+effort was made in the National Assembly in June 1874 by the duc de la
+Rochefoucauld-Bisaccia, who formally moved the restoration of the
+monarchy. The comte de Chambord on the 2nd of July issued a fresh
+manifesto, which added nothing to his former declarations. The motion
+was rejected by 272 to 79, and on the 25th of February 1875 the Assembly
+definitely adopted the Republic as the national form of government. From
+this time the comte de Chambord, though continuing to publish letters on
+political affairs, made no further effort to regain the throne. He died
+at Frohsdorf on the 24th of August 1883.
+
+  See _Manifestes et programmes politiques de M. le comte de Chambord,
+  1848-1873_ (1873), and _Correspondance de la famille royale et
+  principalement de Mgr. le comte de Chambord avec le comte de Bouillé_
+  (1884). Of the enormous literature relating to him, mention may be
+  made of _Henri V et la monarchie traditionnelle_ (1871), _Le Comte de
+  Chambord étudié dans ses voyages et sa correspondance_ (1880), and
+  _Henri de France_, by H. de Pène (1885).     (H. Sy.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBORD, a village of central France, in the department of
+Loir-et-Cher, on the left bank of the Cosson, 10 m. E. by N. of Blois by
+road. The village stands in the park of Chambord, which is enclosed by a
+wall 21 m. in circumference. The celebrated château (see ARCHITECTURE:
+_Renaissance Architecture in France_) forms a parallelogram flanked at
+the angles by round towers and enclosing a square block of buildings,
+the façade of which forms the centre of the main front. The profusion of
+turrets, pinnacles, and dormer windows which decorates the roof of this,
+the chief portion of the château, constitutes the main feature of the
+exterior, while in the interior are a well-preserved chapel of the 16th
+century and a famous double staircase, the construction of which permits
+two people to ascend and descend respectively without seeing one
+another. There are 440 apartments, containing pictures of the 17th
+century and souvenirs of the comte de Chambord. The château was
+originally a hunting-box of the counts of Blois, the rebuilding of which
+was begun by Francis I. in 1526, and completed under Henry II. It was
+the residence of several succeeding monarchs, and under Louis XIV.
+considerable alterations were made. In the same reign Molière performed
+_Monsieur de Pourceaugnac_ and _Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_ for the first
+time in the theatre. Stanislaus, king of Poland, lived at Chambord,
+which was bestowed by his son-in-law, Louis XV., upon Marshal Saxe. It
+was given by Napoleon to Marshal Berthier, from whose widow it was
+purchased by subscription in 1821, and presented to the duc de Bordeaux,
+the representative of the older branch of the Bourbons, who assumed from
+it the title of comte de Chambord. On his death in 1883 it came by
+bequest into the possession of the family of Parma.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBRE ARDENTE (Fr. "burning chamber"), the term for an extraordinary
+court of justice in France, mainly held for the trials of heretics. The
+name is perhaps an allusion to the fact that the proceedings took place
+in a room from which all daylight was excluded, the only illumination
+being from torches, or there may be a reference to the severity of the
+sentences in _ardente_, suggesting the burning of the prisoners at the
+stake. These courts were originated by the Cardinal of Lorraine, the
+first of them meeting in 1535 under Francis I. The _Chambre Ardente_
+co-operated with an inquisitorial tribunal also established by Francis
+I., the duty of which was to discover cases of heresy and hand them over
+for final judgment to the _Chambre Ardente_. The reign of Henry II. of
+France was particularly infamous for the cruelties perpetrated by this
+court on the Huguenots. The marquise de Brinvilliers (q.v.) and her
+associates were tried in the _Chambre Ardente_ in 1680. The court was
+abolished in 1682.
+
+  See N. Weiss, _La Chambre Ardente_ (Paris, 1889), and F. Ravaisson,
+  _Archives de la Bastille_ (Paris, 1866-1884, 16 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMELEON, the common name of one of the three suborders of Lacertilia
+or lizards. The chief genus is _Chamaeleon_, containing most of the
+fifty to sixty species of the whole group, and with the most extensive
+range, all through Africa and Madagascar into Arabia, southern India and
+Ceylon. The Indian species is _Ch. calcaratus_; the dwarf chameleon of
+South Africa is _Ch. pumilus_; the giant of the whole tribe, reaching a
+total length of 2 ft., is _Ch. parsoni_ of Madagascar. The commonest
+species in the trade is _Ch. vulgaris_ of North Africa, introduced into
+southern Andalusia. A few queer genera, with much stunted tail, e.g.
+_Rhampholeon_, in tropical Africa and _Brookesia_ in Madagascar are the
+most aberrant. The common chameleon is the most typical. The head is
+raised into a pyramidal crest far beyond the occiput, there is no outer
+ear, nor a drum-cavity. The limbs are very long and slender, and the
+digits form stout grasping bundles; on the hand the first three form an
+inner bundle, opposed to the remaining two; on the foot the inner bundle
+is formed by the first and second toe, the outer by the other three
+toes. The tail is prehensile, by being rolled downwards; it is not
+brittle and cannot be renewed. The eyeballs are large, but the lids are
+united into one concentric fold, leaving only the small pupil visible.
+The right and left eyes are incessantly moved separately from each other
+and literally in every direction, up and down, forwards and straight
+backwards, producing the most terrible squinting. Chameleons alone of
+all reptiles can focus their eyes upon one spot, and conformably they
+alone possess a retinal _macula centralis_, or spot of acutest,
+binocular vision. The tongue has attained an extraordinary development.
+It is club-shaped, covered with a sticky secretion, and based upon a
+very narrow root, which is composed of extremely elastic fibres and
+telescoped over the much elongated, style-shaped, copular piece of the
+hyoid. The whole apparatus is kept in a contracted state like a spring
+in a tube. When the spring is released, so to speak, by filling the
+apparatus with blood and by the play of the hyoid muscles, the heavy
+thick end shoots out upon the insect prey and is withdrawn by its own
+elasticity. The whole act is like a flash. An ordinary chameleon can
+shoot a fly at the distance of fully 6 in., and it can manage even a big
+sphinx moth.
+
+[Illustration: Left Forefoot of _Chamaeleon o'shaughenesii_, outer
+view.]
+
+Another remarkable feature is their changing of colour. This proverbial
+power is greatly exaggerated. They cannot assume in succession all the
+colours of the rainbow, nor are the changes quick. The common chameleon
+may be said to be greenish grey, changing to grass-green or to dull
+black, with or without maroon red, or brown, lateral series of patches.
+At night the same specimen assumes as a rule a more or less uniform pale
+straw-colour. After it has been watched for several months, when all its
+possibilities seem exhausted, it will probably surprise us by a totally
+new combination, for instance, a black garb with many small yellow
+specks, or green with many black specks. Pure red and blue are not in
+the register of this species, but they are rather the rule upon the dark
+green ground colour of the South African dwarf chameleon. The changes
+are partly under control of the will, partly complicated reflex actions,
+intentionally adaptive to the physical and psychical surroundings. The
+mechanism is as follows. The cutis contains several kinds of specialized
+cells in many layers, each filled with minute granules of guanine. The
+upper cells are the smallest, most densely filled with crystals, and
+cause the white colour by diffusion of direct light; near the Malpighian
+layer the cells are charged with yellow oil drops; the deeper cells are
+the largest, tinged light brown, and acting as a turbid medium they
+cause a blue colour, which, owing to the superimposed yellow drops,
+reaches our eye as green; provided always that there is an effective
+screen at the back, and this is formed by large chromatophores which lie
+at the bottom and send their black pigment half-way up, or on to the top
+of the layers of guanine and oil containing cells. When all the pigment
+is shifted towards the surface, as near the epidermis as possible, the
+creature looks black; when the black pigment is withdrawn into the basal
+portions of the chromatophores the skin appears yellow.
+
+The lungs are very capacious, and end in several narrow blind sacs which
+extend far down into the body cavity, so that not only the chest but the
+whole body can be blown up. This happens when the animals hiss and
+fight, as they often do. But when they know themselves discovered, they
+make themselves as thin as possible by compressing the chest and belly
+vertically by means of their peculiarly elongated ribs. The whole body
+is then put into such a position that it presents only its narrow edge
+to the enemy, and with the branch of the tree or shrub interposed. They
+are absolutely arboreal, but they hibernate in the ground.
+
+The usual mode of propagation is by eggs, which are oval, numerous,
+provided with a calcareous shell, and buried in humus, whence they are
+hatched about four months later. But a few species, e.g. the dwarf
+chameleon, are viviparous.
+
+Chameleons are insectivorous. They prefer locusts, grass-hoppers and
+lepidoptera, but are also fond of flies and mealworms. They are
+notoriously difficult to keep in good health. They want not only warmth,
+but sunshine, and they must have water, which they lick up in drops from
+the edges of wet leaves whenever they have a chance. The silliness of
+the fable that they live on air is shown by the fact that they usually
+die in an absolutely emaciated and parched condition after three or four
+months' starvation.     (H. F. G.)
+
+  In astronomy, "Chamaeleon" is a constellation situated near the south
+  pole and surrounded by the constellations of Octans, Mensa, Piscis
+  volans, Carina (Nauta), Musca and Apus. In chemistry, "chameleon
+  mineral" is a name applied to the green mass which is obtained when
+  pyrolusite (manganese dioxide) is fused with nitre, since a solution
+  in water assumes a purple tint on exposure to the air; this change is
+  due to the oxidation of the manganate, which is first formed, to a
+  permanganate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMFER, CHAMPFER or CHAUMFER (Fr. _chanfrein_; possibly from Lat.
+_cantus_, corner, and _frangere_, to break), an architectural term; when
+the edge or arris of any work is cut off at an angle of 45° in a small
+degree, it is said to be "chamfered," while it would be "canted" if on a
+large scale. The chamfer is much used in medieval work, and is sometimes
+plain, sometimes hollowed out and sometimes moulded. Chamfers are
+sometimes "stopped" by a bead or some moulding, but when cut short by a
+slope they are generally known as "stop chamfer."
+
+
+
+
+CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS (1741-1794), French man of letters, was
+born at a little village near Clermont in Auvergne in 1741. He was,
+according to a baptismal certificate found among his papers, the son of
+a grocer named Nicolas. A journey to Paris resulted in the boy's
+obtaining a bursary at the Collège des Grassins. He worked hard,
+although he wrote later in one of his most contemptuous epigrams--_"Ce
+que j'ai appris je ne le sais plus; le peu que je sais je l'ai diviné."_
+His college career ended, Chamfort assumed the dress of a _petit abbé.
+"C'est un costume, et non point un état,"_ he said; and to the principal
+of his college who promised him a benefice, he replied that he would
+never be a priest, inasmuch as he preferred honour to honours--_"j'aime
+l'honneur et non les honneurs."_ About this time he assumed the name of
+Chamfort.
+
+For some time he contrived to exist by teaching and as a booksellers'
+hack. His good looks and ready wit, however, soon brought him into
+notice; but though endowed with immense strength--"Hercule sous la
+figure d'Adonis," Madame de Craon called him--he lived so hard that he
+was glad of the chance of doing a "cure" at Spa when the Belgian
+minister in Paris, M. van Eyck, took him with him to Germany in 1761. On
+his return to Paris he produced a comedy, _La Jeune Indienne_ (1764),
+which was performed with some success, and this was followed by a series
+of "epistles" in verse, essays and odes. It was not, however, until
+1769, when he won the prize of the French Academy for his _Éloge_ on
+Molière, that his literary reputation was established.
+
+Meanwhile he had lived from hand to mouth, mainly on the hospitality of
+people who were only too glad to give him board and lodging in exchange
+for the pleasure of the conversation for which he was famous. Thus
+Madame Helvétius entertained him at Sèvres for some years. In 1770
+another comedy, _Le Marchand de Smyrne_, brought him still further into
+notice, and he seemed on the road to fortune, when he was suddenly
+smitten with a horrible disease. His distress was relieved by the
+generosity of a friend, who made over to him a pension of 1200 livres
+charged on the _Mercure de France_. With this assistance he was able to
+go to the baths of Contrexéville and to spend some time in the country,
+where he wrote an _Éloge_ on La Fontaine which won the prize of the
+Academy of Marseilles (1774). In 1775, while taking the waters at
+Barèges, he met the duchesse de Grammont, sister of Choiseul, through
+whose influence he was introduced at court. In 1776 his poor tragedy,
+_Mustapha et Zeangir_, was played at Fontainebleau before Louis XVI. and
+Marie Antoinette; the king gave him a further pension of 1200 livres,
+and the prince de Condé made him his secretary. But he was a Bohemian
+naturally and by habit, the restraints of the court irked him, and with
+increasing years he was growing misanthropical. After a year he resigned
+his post in the prince's household and retired into solitude at Auteuil.
+There, comparing the authors of old with the men of his own time, he
+uttered the famous _mot_ that proclaims the superiority of the dead over
+the living as companions; and there too he presently fell in love. The
+lady, attached to the household of the duchesse du Maine, was
+forty-eight years old, but clever, amusing, a woman of the world; and
+Chamfort married her. They left Auteuil, and went to Vaucouleurs, where
+in six months Madame Chamfort died. Chamfort lived in Holland for a time
+with M. de Narbonne, and returning to Paris received in 1781 the place
+at the Academy left vacant by the death of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye,
+the author of the _Dictionnaire des antiquités françaises_. In 1784,
+through the influence of Calonne, he became secretary to the king's
+sister, Madame Elizabeth, and in 1786 he received a pension of 2000
+livres from the royal treasury. He was thus once more attached to the
+court, and made himself friends in spite of the reach and tendency of
+his unalterable irony; but he quitted it for ever after an unfortunate
+and mysterious love affair, and was received into the house of M. de
+Vaudreuil. Here in 1783 he had met Mirabeau, with whom he remained to
+the last on terms of intimate friendship. whom he assisted with money
+and influence, and one at least of whose speeches--that on the
+Academies--he wrote.
+
+The outbreak of the Revolution made a profound change in the relations
+of Chamfort's life. Theoretically he had long been a republican, and he
+now threw himself into the new movement with almost fanatical ardour,
+devoting all his small fortune to the revolutionary propaganda. His old
+friends of the court he forgot. "Those who pass the river of
+revolutions," he said, "have passed the river of oblivion." Until the
+31st of August 1791 he was secretary of the Jacobin club; he became a
+street orator and entered the Bastille among the first of the storming
+party. He worked for the _Mercure de France_, collaborated with Ginguené
+in the _Feuille villageoise_, and drew up for Talleyrand his _Adresse au
+peuple français_.
+
+With the reign of Marat and Robespierre, however, his uncompromising
+Jacobinism grew critical, and with the fall of the Girondins his
+political life came to an end. But he could not restrain the tongue that
+had made him famous; he no more spared the Convention than he had spared
+the court. His notorious republicanism failed to excuse the sarcasms he
+lavished on the new order of things, and denounced by an assistant in
+the Bibliothèque Nationale, to a share in the direction of which he had
+been appointed by Roland, he was taken to the Madelonnettes. Released
+for a moment, he was threatened again with arrest; but he had determined
+to prefer death to a repetition of the moral and physical restraint to
+which he had been subjected. He attempted suicide with pistol and with
+poniard; and, horribly hacked and shattered, dictated to those who came
+to arrest him the well-known declaration--_"Moi, Sebastien-Roch-Nicolas
+Chamfort, déclare avoir voulu mourir en homme libre plutôt que d'être
+reconduit en esclave dans une maison d'arrêt"_--which he signed in a
+firm hand and in his own blood. He did not die at once, but lingered on
+until the 13th of April 1794 in charge of a gendarme, for whose wardship
+he paid a crown a day. To the Abbé Sieyès Chamfort had given fortune in
+the title of a pamphlet ("_Qu'est-ce que le Tiers-État? Tout. Qu'a-t-il?
+Rien_"), and to Sieyès did Chamfort retail his supreme sarcasm, the
+famous "_Je m'en vais enfin de ce monde où il faut que le coeur se brise
+ou se bronze._" The maker of constitutions followed the dead wit to the
+grave.
+
+The writings of Chamfort, which include comedies, political articles,
+literary criticisms, portraits, letters, and verses, are colourless and
+uninteresting in the extreme. As a talker, however, he was of
+extraordinary force. His _Maximes et Pensées_, highly praised by John
+Stuart Mill, are, after those of La Rochefoucauld, the most brilliant
+and suggestive sayings that have been given to the modern world. The
+aphorisms of Chamfort, less systematic and psychologically less
+important than those of La Rochefoucauld, are as significant in their
+violence and iconoclastic spirit of the period of storm and preparation
+that gave them birth as the _Réflexions_ in their exquisite restraint
+and elaborate subtlety are characteristic of the tranquil elegance of
+their epoch; and they have the advantage in richness of colour, in
+picturesqueness of phrase, in passion, in audacity. Sainte-Beuve
+compares them to "well-minted coins that retain their value," and to
+keen arrows that "_arrivent brusquement et sifflent encore._"
+
+  An edition of his works--_OEuvres complètes de Nicolas Chamfort_--Was
+  published at Paris in five volumes in 1824-1825. Selections--_OEuvres
+  de Chamfort_--in one volume, appeared in 1852, with a biographical and
+  critical preface by Arsène Houssaye, reprinted from the _Revue des
+  deux mondes_; and _Oeuvres choisies_ (2 vols.), with a preface and
+  notes by M. de Lescure (1879). See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du
+  Lundi_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMIER, FREDERICK (1796-1870), English novelist, was the son of an
+Anglo-Indian official. In 1809 he entered the navy, and was in active
+service until 1827. He retired in 1833, and was promoted to be captain
+in 1856. On his retirement he settled near Waltham Abbey, and wrote
+several nautical novels on the lines popularized by Marryat, that had
+considerable success. These were _The Life of a Sailor_ (1832), _Ben
+Brace_ (1836), _The Arethusa_ (1837), _Jack Adams_ (1838), _Tom Bowling_
+(1841) and _Jack Malcolm's Log_ (1846). He wrote a number of other
+books, and edited and brought down to 1827 James's _Naval History_
+(1837).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMILLART, MICHEL (1652-1721), French statesman, minister of Louis
+XIV., was born at Paris of a family of the noblesse of recent elevation.
+Following the usual career of a statesman of his time he became in turn
+councillor of the parlement of Paris (1676), master of requests (1686),
+and intendant of the generality of Rouen (January 1689). Affable, of
+polished manners, modest and honest, Chamillart won the confidence of
+Madame de Maintenon and pleased the king. In 1690 he was made intendant
+of finances, and on the 5th of September 1699 the king appointed him
+controller-general of finances, to which he added on the following 7th
+of January the ministry of war. From the first Chamillart's position was
+a difficult one. The deficit amounted to more than 53 million livres,
+and the credit of the state was almost exhausted. He lacked the great
+intelligence and energy necessary for the situation, and was unable to
+moderate the king's warlike tastes, or to inaugurate economic reforms.
+He could only employ the usual expedients of the time--the immoderate
+sale of offices, the debasement of the coinage (five times in six
+years), reduction of the rate of interest on state debts, and increased
+taxation. He attempted to force into circulation a kind of paper money,
+_billets de monnaie_, but with disastrous results owing to the state of
+credit. He studied Vauban's project for the royal tithe and
+Boisguillebert's proposition for the _taille_, but did not adopt them.
+In October 1706 he showed the king that the debts immediately due
+amounted to 288 millions, and that the deficit already foreseen for 1707
+was 160 millions. In October 1707 he saw with consternation that the
+revenue for 1708 was already entirely eaten up by anticipation, so that
+neither money nor credit remained for 1708. In these conditions
+Chamillart, who had often complained of the overwhelming burden he was
+carrying, and who had already wished to retire in 1706, resigned his
+office of controller-general. Public opinion attributed to him the ruin
+of the country, though he had tried in 1700 to improve the condition of
+commerce by the creation of a council of commerce. As secretary of state
+for war he had to place in the field the army for the War of the Spanish
+Succession, and to reorganize it three times, after the great defeats of
+1704, 1706 and 1708. With an empty treasury he succeeded only in part,
+and he frankly warned the king that the enemy would soon be able to
+dictate the terms of peace. He was reproached with having secured the
+command of the army which besieged Turin (1706) for his son-in-law, the
+incapable duc de la Feuillade. Madame de Maintenon even became hostile
+to him, and he abandoned his position on the 10th of June 1709, retiring
+to his estates. He died on the 14th of April 1721.
+
+  Chamillart's papers have been published by G. Esnault, _Michel
+  Chamillart, contrôleur général et secrétaire d'état de la guerre,
+  correspondance et papiers inédits_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885); and by A.
+  de Boislisle in vol. 2 of his _Correspondance des contrôleurs
+  généraux_ (1883). See D'Auvigny, _Vies des hommes illustres_ (1739),
+  tome vi. pp. 288-402; E. Moret, _Quinze années du règne de Louis XIV_
+  (Paris, 1851); and the new edition of the _Mémoires de St-Simon_, by
+  A. de Boislisle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMINADE, CÉCILE (1861-   ), French musical composer, was born at Paris
+on the 8th of August 1861. She studied in Paris, her musical talent
+being shown at the age of eight by the writing of some church music
+which attracted Bizet's attention; and at eighteen she came out in
+public as a pianist. Her own compositions, both songs (in large numbers)
+and instrumental pieces, were soon produced in profusion: melodious and
+interesting, and often charming, they became very popular, without being
+entitled to rank with the greater style of music. Both in Paris and in
+England Mlle Chaminade and her works became well known at the principal
+concerts. In 1908 she visited America and was warmly welcomed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON [LOUIS CHARLES ADELAIDE DE] (1781-1838), German
+poet and botanist, was born at the château of Boncourt in Champagne,
+France, the ancestral seat of his family, on the 30th of January 1781.
+Driven from France by the Revolution, his parents settled in Berlin,
+where in 1796 young Chamisso obtained the post of page-in-waiting to the
+queen, and in 1798 entered a Prussian infantry regiment as ensign. His
+family were shortly afterwards permitted to return to France; he,
+however, remained behind and continued his career in the army. He had
+but little education, but now sought distraction from the soulless
+routine of the Prussian military service in assiduous study. In
+collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense, he founded in 1803 the _Berliner
+Musenalmanach_, in which his first verses appeared. The enterprise was a
+failure, and, interrupted by the war, it came to an end in 1806. It
+brought him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities
+of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet. He had
+become lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 accompanied his regiment to
+Hameln, where he shared in the humiliations following the treasonable
+capitulation of that fortress in the ensuing year. Placed on parole he
+went to France, where he found that both his parents were dead; and,
+returning to Berlin in the autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from
+the service early in the following year. Homeless and without a
+profession, disillusioned and despondent, he lived in Berlin until 1810,
+when, through the services of an old friend of the family, he was
+offered a professorship at the _lycée_ at Napoléonville in La Vendée. He
+set out to take up the post, but drawn into the charmed circle of Madame
+de Staël, followed her in her exile to Coppet in Switzerland, where,
+devoting himself to botanical research, he remained nearly two years. In
+1812 he returned to Berlin, where he continued his scientific studies.
+In the summer of the eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative
+_Peter Schlemihl_, the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of
+all his works, has been translated into most European languages (English
+by W. Howitt). It was written partly to divert his own thoughts and
+partly to amuse the children of his friend Hitzig. In 1815 Chamisso was
+appointed botanist to the Russian ship "Rurik," which Otto von Kotzebue
+(son of August von Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the
+world. His diary of the expedition (_Tagebuch_, 1821) affords some
+interesting glimpses of England and English life. On his return in 1818
+he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and was
+elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1820 he married.
+Chamisso's travels and scientific researches restrained for a while the
+full development of his poetical talent, and it was not until his
+forty-eighth year that he turned again to literature. In 1829, in
+collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and from 1832 in conjunction with
+Franz von Gaudy, he brought out the _Deutsche Musenalmanach_, in which
+his later poems were mainly published. He died on the 21st of August
+1838.
+
+As a scientist Chamisso has not left much mark, although his
+_Bemerkungen und Ansichten_, published in an incomplete form in O. von
+Kotzebue's _Entdeckungsreise_ (Weimar, 1821) and more completely in
+Chamisso's _Gesammelte Werke_ (1836), and the botanical work, _Übersicht
+der nutzbarsten und schädlichsten Gewächse in Norddeutschland_ (1829)
+are esteemed for their careful treatment of the subjects with which they
+deal. As a poet Chamisso's reputation stands high, _Frauen Liebe und
+Leben_ (1830), a cycle of lyrical poems, which was set to music by
+Schumann, being particularly famous. Noteworthy are also _Schloss
+Boncourt_ and _Salas y Gomez_. In estimating his success as a writer, it
+should not be forgotten that he was cut off from his native speech and
+from his natural current of thought and feeling. He often deals with
+gloomy and sometimes with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in
+his lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or of
+satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions he displays a
+fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with true feeling a tale of love
+or vengeance. _Die Löwenbraut_ may be taken as a sample of his weird and
+powerful simplicity; and _Vergeltung_ is remarkable for a pitiless
+precision of treatment.
+
+  The first collected edition of Chamisso's works was edited by J.E.
+  Hitzig, 6 vols. (1836); 6th edition (1874); there are also excellent
+  editions by M. Koch (1883) and O.F. Walzel (1892). On Chamisso's life
+  see J.E. Hitzig, "Leben und Briefe von Adelbert yon Chamisso" (in the
+  _Gesammelte Werke_); K. Fulda, _Chamisso und seine Zeit_ (1881); G.
+  Hofmeister, _Adelbert von Chamisso_ (1884); and, for the scientific
+  side of Chamisso's life, E. du Bois-Raymond, _Adelbert von Chamisso
+  als Naturforscher_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAMKANNI, a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of the North-West
+Province of India. They inhabit the western part of the Kurmana Valley
+in the Orakzai portion of Tirah, but are supposed to be a distinct race.
+They took part in the frontier risings of 1897, and during the Tirah
+expedition of that year a brigade under General Gaselee was sent to
+punish them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMOIS, the Franco-Swiss name of an Alpine ruminant known in the German
+cantons as _Gemse_, and to naturalists as _Rupicapra tragus_ or _R.
+rupicapra tragus_. It is the only species of its genus, and typifies a
+subfamily, _Rupicaprinae_, of hollow-horned ruminants in some degree
+intermediate between antelopes and goats (see ANTELOPE). About equal in
+height to a roebuck, and with a short black tail, the chamois is readily
+distinguishable from all other ruminants by its vertical,
+backwardly-hooked, black horns, which are common to males and females,
+although smaller in the latter. Apart from black and white
+face-markings, and the black tail and dorsal stripe, the prevailing
+colour of the Alpine chamois is chestnut brown in summer, but lighter
+and greyer in winter. In the Pyrenees the species is represented by a
+small race locally known as the izard; a very brightly-coloured form,
+_R.t. picta_, inhabits the Apennines; the Carpathian chamois is very
+dark-coloured, and the one from the Caucasus is the representative of
+yet another race. A thick under-fur is developed in the winter-coat, as
+in all other ruminants dwelling at high altitudes. Chamois are
+gregarious, living in herds of 15 or 20, and feeding generally in the
+morning or evening. The old males, however, live alone except in the
+rutting season, which occurs in October, when they join the herds,
+driving off the younger bucks, and engaging in fierce contests with each
+other, that often end fatally for one at least of the combatants. The
+period of gestation is twenty weeks, when the female, beneath the
+shelter generally of a projecting rock, produces one and sometimes two
+young. In summer they ascend to the limits of perpetual snow, being only
+exceeded in the loftiness of their haunts by the ibex; and during that
+season they show their intolerance of heat by choosing such
+browsing-grounds as have a northern exposure. In winter they descend to
+the wooded districts that immediately succeed the region of glaciers,
+and it is there only they can be successfully hunted. Chamois are
+exceedingly shy; and their senses, especially those of sight and smell,
+very acute. The herd never feeds without having a sentinel posted on
+some prominence to give notice of the approach of danger; which is done
+by stamping on the ground with the forefeet, and uttering a shrill
+whistling note, thus putting the entire herd on the alert. No sooner is
+the object of alarm scented or seen than each one seeks safety in the
+most inaccessible situations, which are often reached by a series of
+astounding leaps over crevasses, up the faces of seemingly perpendicular
+rocks, or down the sides of equally precipitous chasms. The chamois will
+not hesitate, it is said, thus to leap down 20 or even 30 ft., and this
+it effects with apparent ease by throwing itself forward diagonally and
+striking its feet several times in its descent against the face of the
+rock. Chamois-shooting is most successfully pursued when a number of
+hunters form a circle round a favourite feeding ground, which they
+gradually narrow; the animals, scenting the hunters to windward, fly in
+the opposite direction, only to encounter those coming from leeward.
+Chamois-hunting, in spite of, or perhaps owing to the great danger
+attending it, has always been a favourite pursuit among the hardy
+mountaineers of Switzerland and Tirol, as well as of the amateur
+sportsmen of all countries, with the result that the animal is now
+comparatively rare in many districts where it was formerly common.
+Chamois feed in summer on mountain-herbs and flowers, and in winter
+chiefly on the young shoots and buds of fir and pine trees. They are
+particularly fond of salt, and in the Alps sandstone rocks containing a
+saline impregnation are often met with hollowed by the constant licking
+of these creatures. The skin of the chamois is very soft; made into
+leather it was the original _shammy_, which is now made, however, from
+the skins of many other animals. The flesh is prized as venison.
+     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMOMILE, or Camomile Flowers, the _flores anthemidis_ of the British
+Pharmacopoeia, the flower-heads of _Anthemis nobilis_ (Nat. Ord.
+_Compositae_), a herb indigenous to England and western Europe. It is
+cultivated for medicinal purposes in Surrey, at several places in
+Saxony, and in France and Belgium,--that grown in England being much
+more valuable than any of the foreign chamomiles brought into the
+market. In the wild plant the florets of the ray are ligulate and white,
+and contain pistils only, those of the disk being tubular and yellow;
+but under cultivation the whole of the florets tend to become ligulate
+and white, in which state the flower-heads are said to be double. The
+flower-heads have a warm aromatic odour, which is characteristic of the
+entire plant, and a very bitter taste. In addition to a bitter
+extractive principle, they yield about 2% of a volatile liquid, which on
+its first extraction is of a pale blue colour, but becomes a yellowish
+brown on exposure to light. It has the characteristic odour of the
+flowers, and consists of a mixture of butyl and amyl angelates and
+valerates. Angelate of potassium has been obtained by treatment of the
+oil with caustic potash, and angelic acid may be isolated from this by
+treatment with dilute sulphuric acid. Chamomile is used in medicine in
+the form of its volatile oil, of which the dose is ½-3 minims. There is
+an official extract which is never used. Like all volatile oils the drug
+is a stomachic and carminative. In large doses the infusion is a simple
+emetic.
+
+Wild chamomile is _Matricaria Chamomilla_, a weed common in waste and
+cultivated ground especially in the southern counties of England. It has
+somewhat the appearance of true chamomile, but a fainter scent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMONIX, a mountain valley in south-east France, its chief village, of
+the same name, being the capital of a canton of the arrondissement of
+Bonneville in the department of Haute-Savoie. The valley runs from N.E.
+to S.W., and is watered by the Arve, which rises in the Mer de Glace. On
+the S.E. towers the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, and on the N.W. the
+less lofty, but rugged chain of the Brévent and of the Aiguilles Rouges.
+Near the head of the valley is the village of Argentière (4101 ft.),
+which is connected with Switzerland by "char" (light carriage) roads
+over the Tête Noire and past Salvan, and by a mule path over the Col de
+Balme, which joins the Tête Noire route near Trient and then crosses by
+a "char" road the Col de la Forclaz to Martigny in the Rhone valley. The
+principal village, Chamonix (3416 ft.), is 6 m. below Argentière by
+electric railway (which continues via Finhaut to Martigny) and is
+visited annually by a host of tourists, as it is the best starting-point
+for the exploration of the glaciers of the Mont Blanc chain, as well as
+for the ascent of Mont Blanc itself. It is connected with Geneva by a
+railway (55 m.). In 1906 the population of the village was 806, of the
+commune 3482.
+
+The valley is first heard of about 1091, when it was granted by the
+count of the Genevois to the great Benedictine house of St Michel de la
+Cluse, near Turin, which by the early 13th century established a priory
+therein. But in 1786 the inhabitants bought their freedom from the
+canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory had been transferred in 1519.
+In 1530 the inhabitants obtained from the count of the Genevois the
+privilege of holding two fairs a year, while the valley was often
+visited by the civil officials and by the bishops of Geneva (first
+recorded visit in 1411, while St Francis de Sales came thither in 1606).
+But travellers for pleasure were long rare. The first party to publish
+(1744) an account of their visit was that of Dr R. Pococke, Mr W.
+Windham and other Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741. In
+1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760 H.B. de
+Saussure, and rather later Bourrit.
+
+  See J.A. Bonnefoy and A. Perrin, _Le Prieuré de Chamonix_ (2 vols.,
+  Chambery, 1879 and 1883); A. Perrin, _Histoire de la vallée et du
+  prieuré de Chamonix_ (Chambéry, 1887); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, _Carte
+  de la chaîne du Mont Blanc_ (1896; new ed., 1905); L. Kurz, _Climbers'
+  Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc_ (London, 1892); also works referred
+  to under BLANC, MONT.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province of the kingdom of France, bounded N. by
+Liége and Luxemburg; E. by Lorraine; S. by Burgundy; and W. by Picardy
+and Isle de France. It now forms the departments of Ardennes, Marne,
+Aube and Haute Marne, with part of Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne and
+Meuse. Its name--in Latin Campania, "country of plains"--is derived from
+the immense plains near Reims, Châlons and Troyes. It was constituted
+towards the end of the middle ages by joining to the countship of
+Champagne the ecclesiastical duchies of Reims and Langres, together with
+the ecclesiastical countship of Châlons. Documents of the 12th and 13th
+centuries make it possible to determine the territorial configuration of
+the countship of Champagne with greater accuracy than in the case of any
+other fief of the crown of France. Formed at random by the acquisitions
+of the counts of the houses of Vermandois and Blois, Champagne reckoned
+among its dependencies, from 1152 to 1234, the countship of Blois and
+Chartres, of which Touraine was a fief, the countship of Sancerre, and
+various scattered fiefs in the Bourbonnais and in Burgundy. Officially
+called the "countship of Champagne and Brie" since 1217, this state was
+formed by the union of the countships of Troyes and Meaux, to which the
+greater part of the districts embraced in the country known, since the
+beginning of the middle ages, by the name of Champagne and Brie came in
+course of time to be attached. Placed under the authority of a single
+count in 960, the countships of Troyes and Meaux were not again
+separated after 1125. For the counts of Troyes before the 11th century
+see TROYES. We confine ourselves here to the counts of Champagne of the
+house of Blois.
+
+About 1020 Eudes or Odo I. (Odo II., count of Blois) became count of
+Champagne. He disputed the kingdom of Burgundy with the emperor Conrad,
+and died in 1037, in a battle near Bar-le-Duc. In 1037 he was succeeded
+by his younger son, Stephen II. About 1050 Odo II., son of Stephen II.,
+became count. This prince, guilty of murder, found refuge in Normandy,
+where he received the castle of Aumale. He took part in 1066 in the
+conquest of England, and became earl of Holderness. About 1063 Theobald
+(Thibaud) I., count of Blois and Meaux, eldest son of Odo I., became
+count of Champagne. In 1077 he seized the countships of Vitry and
+Bar-sur-Aube, left vacant by Simon of Valois, who had retired to a
+monastery. In 1089 Odo III., second son of Theobald II., became count,
+and was succeeded about 1093 by his younger brother, Hugh, who became a
+templar in 1125, and gave up the countship to his suzerain, the count of
+Blois. In 1125 the countship of Champagne passed to Theobald II. the
+Great, already count of Blois and Meaux, and one of the most powerful
+French barons of his time. He was related to the royal house of England,
+and incurred the displeasure of the king of France, who in 1142 invaded
+Champagne and burnt the town of Vitry. After Theobald the Great the
+countship of Blois ceased to be the dominant fief of his house and
+became the appanage of a younger branch. In 1152 Henry the Liberal,
+eldest son of Theobald II., became count of Champagne; he married Mary,
+daughter of Louis VII. of France, and went to the crusade in 1178. He
+was taken prisoner by the Turks, recovered his liberty through the good
+offices of the emperor of the East, and died a few days after his return
+to Champagne. In 1181 his eldest son, Henry II., succeeded him under the
+tutelage of Mary of France. In 1190 he went to the Holy Land, and became
+king of Jerusalem in 1192 by his marriage with Isabelle, widow of the
+marquis of Montferrat. He died in 1197 in his town of Acre from the
+results of an accident. In 1197 Theobald III., younger son of Henry I.,
+became count, and was succeeded in 1201 by Theobald IV., "le
+Chansonnier" (the singer), who was the son of Theobald III. and Blanche
+of Navarre, and was born some days after the death of his father. From
+1201 to 1222 he remained under the tutelage of his mother, who governed
+Champagne with great sagacity. The reign of this prince was singularly
+eventful. The two daughters of count Henry II. successively claimed the
+countship, so that Theobald had to combat the claims of Philippa, wife
+of Erard of Brienne, seigneur of Rameru, from 1216 to 1222, and those of
+Alix, queen dowager of Cyprus, in 1233 and 1234. In 1226 he followed
+king Louis VII. to the siege of Avignon, and after the death of that
+monarch played a prominent part during the reign of St Louis. At first
+leagued with the malcontent barons, he allowed himself to be gained over
+by the queen-mother, and thus came into collision with his old allies.
+He became king of Navarre in 1234 by the death of his maternal uncle,
+Sancho VII. but by the onerous treaty which he concluded in that year
+with the queen of Cyprus he was compelled to cede to the king, in return
+for a large sum of money, the overlordship of the countships of Blois,
+Chartres and Sancerre, and the viscounty of Châteaudun. In 1239 and 1240
+he took part in an expedition to the Holy Land, probably accompanied St
+Louis in 1242 in the campaign of Saintonge against the English, and died
+on the 14th of July 1254 at Pampeluna. If the author of the _Grandes
+chroniques de France_ can be believed, Theobald IV. conceived a passion
+for Queen Blanche, the mother of St Louis,--a passion which she
+returned, and which explains the changes in his policy; but this opinion
+apparently must be relegated to the category of historical fables. The
+witty and courtly songs he composed place him in the front rank of the
+poets of that class, in which he showed somewhat more originality than
+his rivals. In 1254 Theobald V. the Young, eldest son of Theobald IV.
+and, like his father, king of Navarre, became count of Champagne. He
+married Isabelle of France, daughter of St Louis, and followed his
+father-in-law to Tunis to the crusade, dying on his return. In 1270 he
+was succeeded by Henry III. the Fat, king of Navarre. Henry was
+succeeded in 1274 by his only daughter, Joan of Navarre, under the
+tutelage of her mother, Blanche of Artois, and afterwards of Edmund,
+earl of Lancaster, her mother's second husband. In 1284 she married the
+heir-presumptive to the throne of France, Philip the Fair, to whom she
+brought the countship of Champagne as well as the kingdom of Navarre.
+She became queen of France in 1285, and died on the 4th of April 1305,
+when her eldest son by King Philip, Louis Hutin, became count of
+Champagne. He was the last independent count of the province, which
+became attached to the French crown on his accession to the throne of
+France in 1314.
+
+The celebrated fairs of Champagne, which flourished in the 12th and 13th
+centuries, were attended by merchants from all parts of civilized
+Europe. They were six in number: two at Troyes, two at Provins, one at
+Lagny-sur-Marne, and one at Bar-sur-Aube. They formed a kind of
+continuous market, divided into six periods, and passed in turn from
+Lagny to Bar, from Bar to Provins, from Provins to Troyes, from Troyes
+to Provins and from Provins to Troyes, to complete the year. It was, in
+fact, a perpetual fair, which had at once unity and variety, offering to
+the different parts of the countship the means of selling successively
+the special productions of their soil or their industry, and of
+procuring in exchange riches and comforts. These fairs had special
+legislation; and special magistrates, called "masters of the fairs," had
+control of the police.
+
+  For the wine "champagne" see WINE.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Histoire des ducs et des
+  comtes de Champagne_ (1859-1866); A. Longnon, _Documents relatifs au
+  comté de Champagne et de Brie_ (1901 seq.; vol. i. with map); F.
+  Bourquelot, _Études sur les foires de Champagne_ (1865).     (A. Lo.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE (1756-1834), French politician, was
+born at Roanne, and entered the navy in 1774. He fought through the war
+in America and resigned in 1787. Elected deputy by the _noblesse_ of
+Forex to the states-general in 1789, he went over to the third estate on
+the 21st of June and collaborated in the work of the Constituent
+Assembly, especially occupying himself with the reorganization of the
+navy. A political career seems to have attracted him little; he remained
+in private life from 1791 to 1799, when Napoleon named him member of the
+council of state. From July 1801 to August 1804 he was ambassador of
+France at Vienna, and directed with great intelligence the incessant
+negotiations between the two courts. In August 1804 Napoleon made him
+minister of the interior, and in this position, which he held for three
+years, he proved an administrator of the first order. In addition to the
+ordinary charges of his office, he had to direct the recruitment of the
+army, organize the industrial exhibition of 1808, and to complete the
+public works undertaken in Paris and throughout France. He was devoted
+to Napoleon, on whom he lavished adulation in his speeches. In August
+1807 the emperor chose him to succeed Talleyrand as minister for
+foreign affairs. He directed the annexation of the Papal States in April
+1808, worked to secure the abdication of Charles IV. of Spain in May
+1808, negotiated the peace of Vienna (1809) and the marriage of
+Napoleon. In April 1811 a quarrel with the emperor led to his
+retirement, and he obtained the sinecure office of intendant general of
+the crown. In 1814, after the abdication, the empress sent him on a
+fruitless mission to the emperor of Austria. Then he went over to the
+Bourbons. During the Hundred Days he again joined Napoleon. This led to
+his exclusion by Louis XVIII., but in 1819 he recovered his dignity of
+peer. He died in Paris in 1834. He had three sons who became men of
+distinction. François (1804-1882) was a well-known author, who was made
+a member of the French Academy in 1869. His great work was a history of
+the Roman empire, in three parts, (1) _Les Césars_ (1841-1843, 4 vols.),
+(2) _Les Antonins_ (1863, 3 vols.), (3) _Les Césars du IIIe siècle_
+(1870, 3 vols.). Napoléon (1806-1872) published a _Traité de la police
+municipale_ in 4 volumes (1844-1861), and was a deputy in the Corps
+Législatif from 1852 to 1870. Jérome Paul (1809-1886) was also deputy in
+the Corps Législatif from 1853 to 1870, and was made honorary
+chamberlain in 1859. He worked at the official publication of the
+correspondence of Napoleon I.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPAIGN, a city of Champaign county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 125 m. S.
+by W. of Chicago, on the head-waters of the Vermilion river. Pop. (1890)
+5839; (1900) 9098, of whom 973 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,421.
+It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the
+Wabash, and the Illinois Central railways (the last having repair shops
+here), and by the Illinois (electric) Traction System from Danville,
+Illinois, to St Louis, Missouri. In 1906 the city covered 3.5 sq. m.; it
+is situated in a rich agricultural region, and has small manufacturing
+interests. Immediately east of Champaign is the city of Urbana, the
+county-seat of Champaign county, served by the Wabash and the Cleveland,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, with repair shops of the
+latter. In 1890 the population of Urbana was 3511; in 1900, 5728 (300
+foreign-born); in 1910, 8245. Partly in Urbana and partly in Champaign
+is the University of Illinois (see ILLINOIS); immediately south of its
+campus is the 400-acre farm of the university. Each city has a public
+library, and in Champaign are the Burnham Athenaeum, the Burnham
+hospital, the Garwood home for old ladies, and several parks, all gifts
+of former citizens. Champaign was founded in 1855, incorporated as a
+city in 1860, and re-chartered in 1883. Urbana secured a city charter in
+1855.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE (1602-1674), Belgian painter of the French
+school, was born at Brussels of a poor family. He was a pupil of J.
+Fouquières; and, going to Paris in 1621, was employed by N. Du Chesne to
+paint along with Nicholas Poussin in the palace of the Luxembourg. His
+best works are to be found at Vincennes, and in the church of the
+Carmelites at Paris, where is his celebrated Crucifix, a signal
+perspective success, on one of the vaultings. After the death of Du
+Chesne, Philippe became first painter to the queen of France, and
+ultimately rector of the Academy of Paris. As his age advanced and his
+health failed, he retired to Port Royal, where he had a daughter
+cloistered as a nun, of whom (along with Catherine Agnès Arnauld) he
+painted a celebrated picture, now in the Louvre, highly remarkable for
+its solid unaffected truth. This, indeed, is the general character of
+his work,--grave reality, without special elevation or depth of
+character, or charm of warm or stately colour. He produced an immense
+number of paintings, religious and other subjects as well as portraits,
+dispersed over various parts of France, and now over the galleries of
+Europe. Philippe was a good man, indefatigable, earnest and scrupulously
+religious. He died on the 12th of August 1674.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPARAN, or CHUMPARUN, a district of British India, in the Patna
+division of Bengal, occupying the north-west corner of Behar, between
+the two rivers Gandak and Baghmati and the Nepal hills. It has an area
+of 3531 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 1,790,463, showing a decrease
+of 4% in the decade. A broad grass-covered road or embankment defines
+the Nepal frontier, except where rivers or streams form a natural
+boundary. The district is a vast level except in the N. and N.W., where
+it undulates, and gradually assumes a rugged appearance as it approaches
+the mountains and forests of Nepal. Wide uncultivated tracts cover its
+north-western corner; the southern and western parts are carefully
+cultivated, and teem with an active agricultural population. The
+principal rivers are the Gandak, navigable all the year round, the Buri
+Gandak, Panch Nadi, Lalbagia, Koja and Teur. Old beds of rivers
+intersect Champaran in every direction, and one of these forms a chain
+of lakes which occupy an area of 139 sq. m. in the centre of the
+district. Champaran, with the rest of Bengal and Behar, was acquired by
+the British in 1765. Up to 1866 it remained a subdivision of Saran. In
+that year it was separated and formed into a separate district. The
+administrative headquarters are at Motihari (population, 13,730); Bettia
+is the centre of a very large estate; Segauli, still a small military
+station, was the scene of a massacre during the Mutiny. Champaran was
+the chief seat of indigo planting in Behar before the decline of that
+industry. There are about 40 saltpetre refineries. The district suffered
+severely from drought in 1866 and 1874, and again in 1897. In the last
+year a small government canal was opened, and a canal from the Gandak
+has also been constructed. The district is traversed almost throughout
+its length to Bettia by the Tirhoot state railway. A considerable trade
+is conducted with Nepal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF [GULIELMUS CAMPELLENSIS] (c. 1070-1121), French
+philosopher and theologian was born at Champeaux near Melun. After
+studying under Anselm of Laon and Roscellinus, he taught in the school
+of the cathedral of Notre Dame, of which he was made canon in 1103.
+Among his pupils was Abelard. In 1108 he retired into the abbey of St
+Victor, where he resumed his lectures. He afterwards became bishop of
+Châlons-sur-Marne, and took part in the dispute concerning investitures
+as a supporter of Calixtus II., whom he represented at the conference of
+Mousson. His only printed works are a fragment on the Eucharist
+(inserted by Jean Mabillon in his edition of the works of St Bernard),
+and the _Moralia Abbreviata_ and _De Origine Animae_ (in E. Martène's
+_Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum_, 1717, vol. 5). In the last of these he
+maintains that children who die unbaptized must be lost, the pure soul
+being denied by the grossness of the body, and declares that God's will
+is not to be questioned. He upholds the theory of Creatianism (that a
+soul is specially created for each human being). Ravaisson-Mollien has
+discovered a number of fragments by him, among which the most important
+is the _De Essentia Dei et de Substantia Dei_; a _Liber Sententiarum_,
+consisting of discussions on ethics and Scriptural interpretation, is
+also ascribed to Champeaux. He is reputed the founder of Realism. For
+his views and his controversy with Abelard, see SCHOLASTICISM and
+ABELARD.
+
+  See Victor Cousin, introduction to his _Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard_
+  (1836), and _Fragments pour servir à l'histoire de la philosophie_
+  (1865); G.A. Patru, _Wilhelmi Campellensis de natura et de origine
+  rerum placita_ (1847); E. Michaud, _Guillaume de Champeaux et les
+  écoles de Paris au XIIe siècle_ (2nd ed., 1868); "William of Champeaux
+  and his Times" in _Christian Observer_, lxxii. 843; B. Hauréau, _De la
+  philosophie scolastique_ (Paris, 1850); Opuscula in J.P. Migne's
+  _Patrologia_, clxiii.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPERTY, or CHAMPARTY (Lat. _campi partitio_, O. Fr. _champ parti_),
+in English law, a bargain between a plaintiff or defendant in a cause
+and another person, to divide the land (_campum partiri_) or other
+matter sued for, if they prevail, in consideration of that person
+carrying on or defending the suit at his own expense. It is a
+misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment. It differs only from
+maintenance (q.v.), in that the recompense for the service which has
+been given is always part of the matter in suit, or some profit growing
+out of it. So an agreement by a solicitor not to charge costs on
+condition of retaining for himself a share of the sums recovered would
+be illegal and void. It is not, however, champerty to charge the
+subject-matter of a suit in order to obtain the means of prosecuting it.
+
+  See _Fifth Report of the Criminal Law Commissioners_, pp. 34-9.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPION (Fr. _champion_, Late Lat. _campio_ from _campus_, a field or
+open space, i.e. one "who takes the field" or fights; cf. Ger. _Kampf_,
+battle, and _Kämpfer_, fighter), in the judicial combats of the middle
+ages the substitute for a party to the suit disabled from bearing arms
+or specially exempt from the duty to do so (see WAGER). Hence the word
+has come to be applied to any one who "champions," or contends on behalf
+of, any person or cause. In the laws of the Lombards (lib. ii. tit. 56
+§§ 38, 39), those who by reason of youth, age or infirmity could not
+bear arms were allowed to nominate champions, and the same provision was
+made in the case of women (lib. i. tit. 3 § 6, tit. 16, §2). This was
+practically the rule laid down in all subsequent legislation on the
+subject. Thus the _Assize of Jerusalem_ (cap. 39) says: "These are the
+people who may defend themselves through champions; a woman, a sick man,
+a man who has passed the age of sixty, &c." The clergy, too, whether as
+individuals or corporations, were represented by champions; in the case
+of bishops and abbots this function was part of the duties of the
+_advocatus_ (see ADVOCATE). Du Cange gives instances of mercenary
+champions (_campiones conductitii_), who were regarded as "infamous
+persons" and sometimes, in case of defeat, were condemned to lose hand
+or foot. Sometimes championships were "serjeanties," i.e. rendered
+service to lords, churches or cities in consideration of the grant of
+certain fiefs, or for annual money payments, the champion doing homage
+to the person or corporation represented by him (_campiones homagii_).
+
+The office of "king's champion" (_campio regis_) is peculiar to England.
+The function of the king's champion, when the ceremonial of the
+coronation was carried out in its completeness, was to ride, clad in
+complete armour, on his right the high constable, on his left the earl
+marshal, into Westminster Hall during the coronation banquet, and
+challenge to single combat any who should dispute the king's right to
+reign. The challenge was thrice repeated by the herald, at the entrance
+to the hall, in the centre, and at the foot of the dais. On picking up
+his gauntlet for the third time the champion was pledged by the king in
+a gilt-covered cup, which was then presented to him as his fee by the
+king. If he had had occasion to fight, and was victorious, his fee would
+have been the armour he wore and the horse he rode, the second best in
+the royal stables; but no such occasion has ever arisen. This
+picturesque ceremonial was last performed at the coronation of George
+IV. The office of king's champion is of great antiquity, and its origins
+are involved in great obscurity. It is said to have been held under
+William the Conqueror by Robert or Roger Marmion, whose ancestors had
+been hereditary champions in Normandy. The first authentic record,
+however is a charter of Henry I., signed by Robert Marmion (_Robertus de
+Bajucis campio regis_). Of the actual exercise of the office the
+earliest record dates from the coronation of Richard II. On this
+occasion the champion, Sir John Dymoke, appeared at the door of the
+Abbey immediately after the coronation mass, but was peremptorily told
+to go away and return later; moreover, in his bill presented to the
+court of claims, he stated that the champion was to ride in the
+procession before the service, and make his challenge to all the world.
+This seems to show that the ceremony, as might be expected, was
+originally performed _before_ the king's coronation, when it would have
+had some significance. The office of king's champion is hereditary, and
+is now held by the family of Dymoke (q.v.).
+
+  See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Campio"; L.G. Wickham Legg,
+  _English Coronation Records_ (Westminster, 1901); J.H.T. Perkins,
+  _The Coronation Book_ (London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE (1762-1800), French general, enlisted in the
+army at an early age and served in the great siege of Gibraltar. When
+the Revolution broke out he took a prominent part in the movement, and
+was elected by the men of a battalion to command them. In May 1793 he
+was charged with the suppression of the disturbances in the Jura, which
+he quelled without bloodshed. Under Pichegru he took part in the Rhine
+campaign of that year as a brigade commander, and at Weissenburg and in
+the Palatinate won the warm commendation of Lazare Hoche. At Fleurus his
+stubborn fighting in the centre of the field contributed greatly to
+Jourdan's victory. In the subsequent campaigns he commanded the left
+wing of the French armies on the Rhine between Neuwied and Düsseldorf,
+and took a great part in all the successful and unsuccessful expeditions
+to the Lahn and the Main. In 1798 Championnet was named
+commander-in-chief of the "army of Rome" which was protecting the infant
+Roman republic against the Neapolitan court and the British fleet.
+Nominally 32,000 strong, the army scarcely numbered 8000 effectives,
+with a bare fifteen cartridges per man. The Austrian general Mack had a
+tenfold superiority in numbers, but Championnet so well held his own
+that he ended by capturing Naples itself and there setting up the
+Parthenopean Republic. But his intense earnestness and intolerance of
+opposition soon embroiled him with the civilians, and the general was
+recalled in disgrace. The following year, however, saw him again in the
+field as commander-in-chief of the "army of the Alps." This, too, was at
+first a mere paper force, but after three months' hard work it was able
+to take the field. The campaign which followed was uniformly
+unsuccessful, and, worn out by the unequal struggle, Championnet died at
+Antibes on the 9th of January 1800. In 1848 a statue was erected in his
+honour at Valence.
+
+  See A.R.C. de St Albin, _Championnet, ou les Campagnes de Hollande, de
+  Rome et de Naples_ (Paris, 1860).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567-1635), French explorer, colonial pioneer and
+first governor of French Canada, was born at Brouage, a small French
+port on the Bay of Biscay, in 1567. His father was a sea captain, and
+the boy was early skilled in seamanship and navigation. He entered the
+army of Henry IV., and served in Brittany under Jean d'Aumont, François
+de St Luc and Charles de Brissac. When the army of the League was
+disbanded he accompanied his uncle, who had charge of the ships in which
+the Spanish allies were conveyed home, and on reaching Cadiz secured
+(1599) the command of one of the vessels about to make an expedition to
+the West Indies. He was gone over two years, visiting all the principal
+ports and pushing inland from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. The MS.
+account of his adventures, _Bref Discours des Choses plus remarquables
+que Samuel Champlain de Brouage a recognues aux Indes Occidentales_, is
+in the library at Dieppe. It was not published in French until 1870,
+although an English translation was printed by the Hakluyt Society in
+1859. It contains a suggestion of a Panama Canal, "by which the voyage
+to the South Sea would be shortened by more than 1500 leagues." In 1603
+Champlain made his first voyage to Canada, being sent out by Aymar de
+Clermont, seigneur de Chastes, on whom the king had bestowed a patent.
+Champlain at once established friendly relations with the Indians and
+explored the St Lawrence to the rapids above Montreal. On his return he
+published an interesting and historically valuable little book, _Des
+sauvages, ou voyage de Samuel Champlain de Brouage fait en la France
+Nouvelle_. During his absence de Chastes had died, and his privileges
+and fur trade monopolies were conferred upon Pierre de Guast, sieur de
+Monts (1560-1611). With him, in 1604, Champlain was engaged in exploring
+the coast as far south as Cape Cod, in seeking a site for a new
+settlement, and in making surveys and charts. They first settled on an
+island near the mouth of the St Croix river, and then at Port Royal--now
+Annapolis, N.S.
+
+Meanwhile the Basques and Bretons, asserting that they were being ruined
+by de Monts' privileges, got his patent revoked, and Champlain returned
+with the discouraged colonists to Europe. When, however, in modified
+form, the patent was re-granted to his patron Champlain induced him to
+abandon Acadia and establish a settlement on the St Lawrence, of the
+commercial advantages of which, perhaps even as a western route to China
+and Japan, he soon convinced him. Champlain was placed in command of one
+of the two vessels sent out. He was to explore and colonize, while the
+other vessel traded, to pay for the expedition. Champlain fixed on the
+site of Quebec and founded the first white settlement there in July
+1608, giving it its present name. In the spring he joined a war party of
+Algonquins and Hurons, discovered the great lake that bears his name,
+and, near the present Ticonderoga, took with his arquebus an important
+part in the victory which his savage friends obtained over the Iroquois.
+The Iroquois naturally turned first to the Dutch and then to the English
+for allies. "Thus did new France rush into collision with the redoubted
+warriors of the Five Nations. Here was the beginning, and in some
+measure doubtless the cause, of a long suite of murderous conflicts,
+bearing havoc and flame to generations yet unborn" (Parkman). Champlain
+returned to France and again related to Henry IV.--who had previously
+learned his worth and had pensioned him--his exciting adventures. De
+Monts failed to secure a renewal of his patent, but resolved to proceed
+without it. Champlain was again (1611) in Canada, fighting for and
+against the Indians and establishing a trading post at Mont Royal (see
+MONTREAL). He was the third white man to descend, and the second to
+descend successfully, the Lachine Rapids. De Monts, now governor of
+Paris, was too busy to occupy himself in the waning fortunes of the
+colony, and left them entirely to his associate. An influential
+protector was needed; and Champlain prevailed upon Charles de Bourbon,
+comte de Soissons, to interest himself to obtain from the king the
+appointment of lieutenant-general in New France. The comte de Soissons
+died almost immediately, and was succeeded in the office by Henri de
+Bourbon, prince de Condé, and he, like his predecessors and successors,
+retained Champlain as lieutenant-governor. "In Champlain alone was the
+life of New France. By instinct and temperament he was more impelled to
+the adventurous toils of exploration than to the duller task of building
+colonies. The profits of trade had value in his eyes only as means to
+these ends, and settlements were important chiefly as a base of
+discovery. Two great objects eclipsed all others,--to find a route to
+the Indies, and to bring the heathen tribes into the embraces of the
+Church, since, while he cared little for their bodies, his solicitude
+for their souls knew no bounds" (Parkman).
+
+In 1613 Champlain again crossed the Atlantic and endeavoured to confirm
+Nicolas de Vignau's alleged discovery of a short route to the ocean by
+the Ottawa river, a great lake at its source, and another river flowing
+north therefrom. That year he got as far as Allumette Island in the
+Ottawa, but two years later, with a "Great War Party" of Indians, he
+crossed Lake Nipissing and the eastern ends of Lakes Huron and Ontario,
+and made a fierce but unsuccessful attack on an Onondaga fortified town
+a few miles south of Lake Oneida. This was the end of his wanderings. He
+now devoted himself to the growth and strengthening of Quebec. Every
+year he went to France with this end in view. He was one of the hundred
+associates of the Company of New France, created by Richelieu to reform
+abuses and take over all his country's interests in the new world. These
+ill-defended possessions England now prepared to seize. Three ships were
+sent out under letters of marque commanded by David, Lewis and Thomas
+Kirke, and Quebec, already on the verge of starvation, was compelled to
+surrender (1629). Champlain was taken to England a prisoner, but when
+Canada was restored to the French he returned (1633) to his post, where
+he died on the 25th of December 1635. He had married in 1610, Hélène
+Boullé, then but twelve years old. She did not leave France for Canada,
+however, until ten years later. After his death she became a nun.
+
+  Champlain's complete works in 6 vols. were published under the
+  patronage of the university of Laval in 1870. There is a careful
+  translation of _Champlain's Voyages_, by Professor and Mrs E.G. Bourne
+  in the "Trailmaker" series edited by Prof. J.B. McMaster. See F.
+  Parkman, _Pioneers of France in the New World_ (1865); J. Winsor,
+  _Cartier to Frontenac_ (1894); N.E. Dionne, _Champlain_ (1905).
+       (N. E. D.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPLAIN, a lake lying between the states of New York and Vermont,
+U.S.A., and penetrating for a few miles into Canada. It extends about
+130 m. from N. to S., varies from ¼ m. to 1 m. in width for 40 m. from
+its S. terminus, and then widens until it reaches a maximum width of
+about 11 m. near Ausable Point. Its area is about 500 sq. m. Its surface
+is 96 ft. above the sea. In the north part it is generally from 200 to
+300 ft. deep; opposite Essex, N.Y., near its middle, the depth
+increases to 400 ft.; but farther south it is much less; throughout the
+greater part of the lake there is a depth of water of more than 100 ft.
+Since the lake is caused by the ponding of water in a broad irregular
+valley, the shore line is nearly everywhere much broken, and in the
+northern portion are several islands, both large and small, most of
+which belong to Vermont. These islands divide the lake's northern end
+into two large arms which extend into Canada. From the western arm the
+Richelieu river flows out, carrying the water of Champlain to the St
+Lawrence. The waters abound in salmon, salmon-trout, sturgeon and other
+fish, and are navigated from end to end by large steamboats and vessels
+of considerable tonnage. The lake was formerly the seat of extensive
+traffic, especially in lumber, but navigation has greatly decreased; the
+tonnage entering and clearing at the lake was twice as great in the
+early '70's as it was thirty years later. The principal ports are
+Burlington, Vt., and Plattsburg, N.Y. Lake Champlain lies in a valley
+from 1 to 30 m. wide, between the Green Mountains on the east and the
+Adirondack Mountains on the west, and the scenery is most picturesque.
+On the east side is a rather gradual ascent for 20 m. or more from shore
+to summit, while on the west side the ascent is by a succession of
+hills, in some places from the water's edge. North of Crown Point low
+mountains rise 1000 to 1600 ft. above the lake, and behind these are the
+higher peaks of the Adirondacks, reaching an elevation of more than 5000
+ft. Lake George is a tributary on the south, several small streams flow
+in from each side; the Champlain Canal, 63 m. in length, connects the
+lake with the Hudson river; and through the Richelieu it has a natural
+outlet to the north into the St Lawrence.
+
+Lake Champlain was named from Samuel de Champlain, who discovered it in
+July 1609. The valley is a natural pathway between the United States and
+Canada, and during the various wars which the English have waged in
+America it had great strategic importance. In 1731 the French built a
+fort at Crown Point; in 1756, another at Ticonderoga; and both were
+important strategic points in the French and Indian War as well as in
+the American War of Independence. On the 11th of October 1776, the first
+battle between an American and a British fleet, the battle of Valcour
+Island, was fought on the lake. Benedict Arnold, the American commander,
+with a decidedly inferior force, withstood the British under Thomas
+Pringle for about seven hours, and then during the night escaped through
+the enemy's line. Although overtaken the next day he again, after a
+fight of a few hours, made a successful retreat.
+
+At the beginning of the War of 1812 the American naval force on the
+lake, though very small, was superior to that of the British, but on the
+3rd of June 1813 the British captured two American sloops in the narrow
+channel at the northern end and gained supremacy. Both sides now began
+to build and equip vessels for a decisive contest; by May 1814 the
+Americans had regained supremacy, and four months later a British land
+force of 11,000 men under Sir George Prevost (1767-1816) and a naval
+force of 16 vessels of about 2402 tons with 937 men and 92 guns under
+Captain George Downie (d. 1814) confronted an American land force of
+1500 men under Brigadier-General Alexander Macomb (1782-1841), strongly
+entrenched at Plattsburg, and an American naval force (anchored in
+Plattsburg Bay) of 14 vessels of about 2244 tons with 882 men and 86
+guns under Commodore Thomas Macdonough (1783-1825). In the open lake the
+British naval force should have been the superior, but at anchor in the
+bay the Americans had a decided advantage. Expecting the British land
+force to drive the American fleet from its anchorage, Captain Downie, on
+the 11th of September 1814, began the battle of Lake Champlain. It had
+continued only fifteen minutes when he was killed; the land force failed
+to co-operate, and after a severe fight at close range for 2½ hours,
+during which the British lost about 300 men, the Americans 200 and the
+vessels of both sides were greatly shattered, the British retreated both
+by land and by water, abandoning their plan of invading New York.
+
+  See C.E. Peet, "Glacial and Post-Glacial History of the Hudson and
+  Champlain Valleys," in vol. xii. of the _Journal of Geology_
+  (Chicago, 1904); P.S. Palmer, _History of Lake Champlain_ (Albany.
+  1866); and Capt. A.T. Mahan, _Sea Power in its Relations to the War of
+  1812_ (2 vols., Boston, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE (1642-1698), French actress, was born in Rouen of a
+good family. Her father's name was Desmares. She made her first
+appearance on the stage at Rouen with Charles Chevillet (1645-1701), who
+called himself sieur de Champmeslé, and they were married in 1666. By
+1669 they were playing in Paris at the Théatre du Marais, her first
+appearance there being as Venus in Boyer's _Fête de Venus_. The next
+year, as Hermione in Racine's _Andromaque_, she had a great success at
+the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Her intimacy with Racine dates from then. Some
+of his finest tragedies were written for her, but her repertoire was not
+confined to them, and many an indifferent play--like Thomas Corneille's
+_Ariane_ and _Comte d'Essex_--owed its success to "her natural manner of
+acting, and her pathetic rendering of the hapless heroine." _Phèdre_ was
+the climax of her triumphs, and when she and her husband deserted the
+Hôtel de Bourgogne (see BÉJART _ad fin._), it was selected to open the
+Comédie Française on the 26th of August 1680. Here, with Mme Guérin as
+the leading comedy actress, she played the great tragic love parts for
+more than thirty years, dying on the 15th of May 1698. La Fontaine
+dedicated to her his novel _Belphégor_, and Boileau immortalized her in
+verse. Her husband distinguished himself both as actor and playwright,
+and his _Parisien_ (1682) gave Mme Guérin one of her greatest successes.
+
+Her brother, the actor NICOLAS DESMARES (c. 1650-1714), began as a
+member of a subsidized company at Copenhagen, but by her influence he
+came to Paris and was received in 1685 _sans début_--the first time such
+an honour had been accorded--at the Comédie Française, where he became
+famous for peasant parts. His daughter, to whom Christian V. and his
+queen stood sponsors, CHRISTINE ANTOINETTE CHARLOTTE DESMARES
+(1682-1753), was a fine actress in both tragedy and soubrette parts. She
+made her début at the Comédie Française in 1699, in La Grange Chancel's
+_Oreste et Pylade_, and was at once received as _sociétaire_. She
+retired in 1721.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS (1790-1832), French Egyptologist, called LE
+JEUNE to distinguish him from Champollion-Figeac (q.v.), his elder
+brother, was born at Figeac, in the department of Lot, on the 23rd of
+December 1790. He was educated by his brother, and was then appointed
+government pupil at the Lyceum, which had recently been founded. His
+first work (1804) was an attempt to show by means of their names that
+the giants of the Bible and of Greek mythology were personifications of
+natural phenomena. At the age of sixteen (1807) he read before the
+academy of Grenoble a paper in which he maintained that the Coptic was
+the ancient language of Egypt. He soon after removed to Paris, where he
+enjoyed the friendship of Langlès, De Sacy and Millin. In 1809 he was
+made professor of history in the Lyceum of Grenoble, and there published
+his earlier works. Champollion's first decipherment of hieroglyphics
+dates from 1821. In 1824 he was sent by Charles X. to visit the
+collections of Egyptian antiquities in the museums of Turin, Leghorn,
+Rome and Naples; and on his return he was appointed director of the
+Egyptian museum at the Louvre. In 1828 he was commissioned to undertake
+the conduct of a scientific expedition to Egypt in company with
+Rosellini, who had received a similar appointment from Leopold II.,
+grand duke of Tuscany. He remained there about a year. In March 1831 he
+received the chair of Egyptian antiquities, which had been created
+specially for him, in the Collège de France. He was engaged with
+Rosellini in publishing the results of Egyptian researches at the
+expense of the Tuscan and French governments, when he was seized with a
+paralytic disorder, and died at Paris in 1832. Champollion, whose claims
+were hotly disputed for many years after his death, is now universally
+acknowledged to have been the founder of Egyptology.
+
+  He wrote _L'Égypte sous les Phraons_ (2 vols. 8vo, 1814); _Sur
+  l'écriture hiératique_ (1821); _Sur l'écriture démotique_; _Précis du
+  systéme hiéroglyphique_, &c. (1824); _Panthéon égyptien, ou collection
+  des personnages mythologiques de l'ancienne Egypte_ (incomplete);
+  _Monumens de l'Égypte et de la Nubie considérés par rapport a
+  l'histoire, la religion, &c._; _Grammaire égyptienne_ (1836), and
+  _Dictionnaire égyptienne_(1841), edited by his brother; _Analyse
+  méthodique du texte démotique de Rosette_; _Aperçu des résultats
+  historiques de la découverte de l'alphabet hiéroglyphique_ (1827);
+  _Mémoires sur les signes employés par les Égyptiens dans leurs trois
+  systèmes graphiques à la notation des principales divisions du temps_;
+  _Lettres ecrites d'Égypte et de Nubie_ (1833); and also seveial
+  letters on Egyptian subjects, addressed at different periods to the
+  duc de Blacas and others.
+
+  See H. Hartleben, _Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk_ (2 vols.,
+  1906); also EGYPT: _Language and Writing_ (_ad init._).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH (1778-1867), French archaeologist,
+elder brother of Jean François Champollion, was born at Figeac in the
+department of Lot, on the 5th of October 1778. He became professor of
+Greek and librarian at Grenoble, but was compelled to retire in 1816 on
+account of the part he had taken during the Hundred Days. He afterwards
+became keeper of manuscripts at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and
+professor of palaeography at the École des Chartes. In 1849 he became
+librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau. He edited several of his
+brother's works, and was also author of original works on philological
+and historical subjects, among which may be mentioned _Nouvelles
+recherches sur les patois ou idiomes vulgaires de la France_ (1809),
+_Annales de Lagides_ (1819) and _Chartes latines sur papyrus du VIe
+siècle de l'ère chrétienne_. His son AIMÉ (1812-1894) became his
+father's assistant at the Bibliothèque Nationale, and besides a number
+of works on historical subjects wrote a biographical and bibliographical
+study of his family in _Les Deux Champollion_ (Grenoble, 1887).
+
+
+
+
+CHANCE (through the O. Fr. _chéance_, from the Late Lat. _cadentia_,
+things happening, from _cadere_, to fall out, happen; cf. "case"), an
+accident or event, a phenomenon which has no apparent or discoverable
+cause; hence an event which has not been expected, a piece of good or
+bad fortune. From the popular idea that anything of which no assignable
+cause is known has therefore no cause, chance (Gr. [Greek: tuchê]) was
+regarded as having a substantial objective existence, being itself the
+source of such uncaused phenomena. For the philosophic theories relating
+to this subject see ACCIDENTALISM.
+
+"Chance," in the theory of probability, is used in two ways. In the
+stricter, or mathematical usage, it is synonymous with probability; i.e.
+if a particular event may occur in n ways in an aggregate of p events,
+then the "chance" of the particular event occurring is given by the
+fraction _n/p_. In the second usage, the "chance" is regarded as the
+ratio of the number of ways which a particular event may occur to the
+number of ways in which it may not occur; mathematically expressed, this
+chance is _n/(p-n)_ (see PROBABILITY). In the English law relating to
+gaming and wagering a distinction is drawn between games of chance and
+games of skill (see GAMING AND WAGERING).
+
+
+
+
+CHANCEL (through O. Fr. from Lat. plur. _cancelli_, dim. of _cancer_,
+grating, lattice, probably connected with an Indo-European root _Kar_-,
+to bend; cf. circus, curve, &c.), in the earliest and strictest sense
+that part of a church near the altar occupied by the deacons and
+sub-deacons assisting the officiating priest, this space having
+originally been separated from the rest of the church by _cancelli_ or
+lattice work. The word _cancelli_ is used in classical Latin of a
+screen, bar or the like, set to mark off an enclosed space in a building
+or in an open place. It is thus used of the bar in a court of justice
+(Cicero, _Verres_, ii. 3 seq.). It is particularly used of the lattice
+or screen in the ancient basilica, which separated the _bema_, or raised
+tribunal, from the rest of the building. The use of the name in
+ecclesiastical buildings is thus natural, for the altar stood in the
+place occupied by the _bema_ in the apse of the basilica. From the
+screen the term was early transferred to the space _inter cancellos_,
+i.e. the _locus altaris cancellis septus_. This railed-off space is now
+generally known among Roman Catholics as the "sanctuary," the word
+chancel being little used. In the Church of England, however, the word
+chancel survived the Reformation, and is applied, both in the
+ecclesiastical and the architectural sense, to that part of the church
+occupied by the principal altar or communion table and by the clergy and
+singers officiating at the chief services; it thus includes presbytery,
+chancel proper and choir (q.v.), and in this sense, in the case of
+cathedrals and other large churches, is often used synonymously with
+choir. In this more inclusive sense the early basilican churches had no
+chancels, which were a comparatively late development; the _cancelli_,
+e.g. of such a church as San Clemente at Rome are equivalent not to the
+"chancel screen" of a medieval church but to the "altar rails" that
+divide off the sanctuary. In churches of the type that grew to its
+perfection in the middle ages the chancels are clearly differentiated
+from the nave by structural features: by the raising of the floor level,
+by the presence of a "chancel arch," and by a chancel or rood screen
+(see ROOD). The chancel screen might be no more than a low barrier, some
+4 ft. high, or a light structure of wood or wrought iron; sometimes,
+however, they were massive stone screens, which in certain cases were
+continued on either side between the piers of the choir and (on the
+European continent) round the east end of the sanctuary, as in the
+cathedrals of Paris, Bourges, Limoges, Amiens and Chartres. These
+screens served the purpose, in collegiate and conventual churches, of
+cutting off the space reserved for the services conducted for and by the
+members of the chapter or community. For popular services a second high
+altar was usually set up to the west of the screen, as formerly at
+Westminster Abbey. In parish churches the screen was set, partly to
+differentiate the space occupied by the clergy from that reserved for
+the laity, partly to support the representation of the crucifixion known
+as the Rood. In these churches, too, the chancel is very usually
+structurally differentiated by being narrower and, sometimes, less high
+than the nave.
+
+In the Church of England, the duty of repairing the chancel falls upon
+the parson by custom, while the repair of the body of the church falls
+on the parishioners. In particular cases, as in certain London churches,
+the parishioners also have to repair the chancel. Where there are both a
+rector and a vicar the repairs are shared between them, and this is also
+the case where the rector is a lay impropriator. By the rubric of the
+English Prayer Book "the chancels shall remain as they have done in
+times past," i.e. distinguished from the body of the church by some
+partition sufficient to separate the two without interfering with the
+view of the congregation. At the Reformation, and for some time after,
+this distinction was regarded by the dominant Puritan party as a mark of
+sacerdotalism, and services were commonly said in other parts of the
+church, the chancels being closed and disused. The rubric, however,
+directs that "'Morning and Evening Prayer' shall be used in the
+accustomed place in the church, chapel or chancel, except it shall be
+otherwise determined by the Ordinary." Chancel screens, with or without
+gates, are lawful, but chancellors of dioceses have refused to grant a
+faculty to erect gates, as unnecessary or inexpedient.
+
+
+
+
+CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. _canceler_, _chanceler_, Fr.
+_chancelier_, Lat. _cancellarius_), an official title used by most of
+the peoples whose civilization has arisen directly or indirectly out of
+the Roman empire. At different times and in different countries it has
+stood and stands for very various duties, and has been, and is, borne by
+officers of various degrees of dignity. The original chancellors were
+the _cancelarii_ of Roman courts of justice, ushers who sat at the
+_cancelli_ or lattice work screens of a "basilica" or law court, which
+separated the judge and counsel from the audience (see CHANCEL). In the
+later Eastern empire the _cancellarii_ were promoted at first to
+notarial duties. The barbarian kingdoms which arose on the ruin of the
+empire in the West copied more or less intelligently the Roman model in
+all their judicial and financial administration. Under the Frankish
+kings of the Merovingian dynasty the _cancellarii_ were subordinates of
+the great officer of state called the _referendarius_, who was the
+predecessor of the more modern chancellor. The office became established
+under the form _archi-cancellarius_, or chief of the _cancellarii_.
+Stubbs says that the Carolingian chancellor was the royal notary and the
+arch-chancellor keeper of the royal seal. His functions would naturally
+be discharged by a cleric in times when book learning was mainly
+confined to the clergy. From the reign of Louis the Pious the post was
+held by a bishop. By an equally natural process he became the chief
+secretary of the king and of the queen, who also had her chancellor.
+Such an office possessed an obvious capacity for developing on the
+judicial as well as the administrative side. Appeals and petitions of
+aggrieved persons would pass through the chancellor's hands, as well as
+the political correspondence of the king. Nor was the king the only man
+who had need of a chancellor. Great officers and corporations also had
+occasion to employ an agent to do secretarial, notarial and judicial
+work for them, and called him by the convenient name of chancellor. The
+history of the office in its many adaptations to public and private
+service is the history of its development on judicial, administrative,
+political, secretarial and notarial lines.
+
+
+  The chancellor in England.
+
+The model of the Carolingian court was followed by the medieval states
+of Western Europe. In England the office of chancellor dates back to the
+reign of Edward the Confessor, the first English king to use the Norman
+practice of sealing instead of signing documents; and from the Norman
+Conquest onwards the succession of chancellors is continuous. The
+chancellor was originally, and long continued to be, an ecclesiastic,
+who combined the functions of the most dignified of the royal chaplains,
+the king's secretary in secular matters, and keeper of the royal seal.
+From the first, then, though at the outset overshadowed by that of the
+justiciar, the office of chancellor was one of great influence and
+importance. As chaplain the chancellor was keeper of the king's
+conscience; as secretary he enjoyed the royal confidence in secular
+affairs; as keeper of the seal he was necessary to all formal
+expressions of the royal will. By him and his staff of chaplains the
+whole secretarial work of the royal household was conducted, the
+accounts were kept under the justiciar and treasurer, writs were drawn
+up and sealed, and the royal correspondence was carried on. He was, in
+fact, as Stubbs puts it, a sort of secretary of state for all
+departments. "This is he," wrote John of Salisbury (d. 1180), "who
+cancels (_cancellat_) the evil laws of the realm, and makes equitable
+(_aequa_) the commands of a pious prince," a curious anticipation of the
+chancellor's later equitable jurisdiction. Under Henry II., indeed, the
+chancellor was already largely employed in judicial work, either in
+attendance on the king or in provincial visitations; though the peculiar
+jurisdiction of the chancery was of later growth. By this time, however,
+the chancellor was "great alike in Curia and Exchequer"; he was
+_secundus a rege_, i.e. took precedence immediately after the justiciar,
+and nothing was done either in the Curia or the exchequer without his
+consent. So great was his office that William FitzStephen, the
+biographer of Becket, tells us that it was not purchasable (_emenda non
+est_), a statement which requires modification, since it was in fact
+more than once sold under Henry I., Stephen, Richard and John (Stubbs,
+_Const. Hist._ i. pp. 384-497; Gneist, _Const. Hist. of England_, p.
+219), an evil precedent which was, however, not long followed.
+
+The judicial duties of the chancellor grew out of the fact that all
+petitions addressed to the king passed through his hands. The number and
+variety of these became so great that in 1280, under Edward I., an
+ordinance was issued directing the chancellor and the justices to deal
+with the greater number of them; those which involved the use of the
+great seal being specially referred to the chancellor. The chancellor
+and justices were to determine which of them were "so great, and of
+grace, that the chancellor and others would not despatch them without
+the king," and these the chancellor and other chief ministers were to
+carry in person to the king (Stubbs ii. 263, note, and p. 268). At this
+period the chancellor, though employed in equity, had ministerial
+functions only; but when, in the reign of Edward III., the chancellor
+ceased to follow the court, his tribunal acquired a more definite
+character, and petitions for grace and favour began to be addressed
+primarily to him, instead of being merely examined and passed on by him
+to the king; and in the twenty-second year of this reign matters which
+were of grace were definitely committed to the chancellor for decision.
+This is the starting-point of the equitable jurisdiction of the
+chancellor, whence developed that immense body of rules, supplementing
+the deficiencies or modifying the harshness of the common law, which is
+known as Equity (q.v.).
+
+
+  The chancellor in parliament.
+
+The position of the chancellor as speaker or prolocutor of the House of
+Lords dates from the time when the ministers of the royal Curia formed
+_ex officio_ a part of the _commune concilium_ and parliament. The
+chancellor originally attended with the other officials, and he
+continued to attend _ex officio_ after they had ceased to do so. If he
+chanced to be a bishop, he was summoned regularly _qua_ bishop;
+otherwise he attended without summons. When not a peer the chancellor
+had no place in parliament except as chancellor, and the act of 31 Henry
+VIII. cap. 10 (1539) laid down that, if not a peer, he had "no interest
+to give any assent or dissent in the House." Yet Sir Robert Bourchier
+(d. 1349), the first lay chancellor, had protested in 1341 against the
+first statute of 15 Edward III. (on trial by peers, &c.), on the ground
+that it had not received his assent and was contrary to the laws of the
+realm. From the time, however, of William, Lord Cowper (first lord high
+chancellor of Great Britain in 1705, created Baron Cowper in 1706), all
+chancellors have been made peers on their elevation to the woolsack.
+Sometimes the custody of the great seal has been transferred from the
+chancellor to a special official, the lord keeper of the great seal (see
+LORD KEEPER); this was notably the case under Queen Elizabeth (cf. the
+French _garde des sceaux_, below). Sometimes it is put into commission,
+being affixed by lords commissioners of the great seal. By the Catholic
+Emancipation Act of 1829 it was enacted that none of these offices could
+be held by a Roman Catholic (see further under LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR).
+The office of lord chancellor of Ireland, and that of chancellor of
+Scotland (who ceased to be appointed after the Act of Union of 1707)
+followed the same lines of development.
+
+
+  Chancellor of the exchequer.
+
+The title of chancellor, without the predicates "high" or "lord," is
+also applied in the United Kingdom to a number of other officials and
+functionaries of varying rank and importance. Of these the most
+important is the chancellor of the exchequer, an office which originated
+in the separation of the chancery from the exchequer in the reign of
+Henry III. (1216-1272). His duties consisted originally in the custody
+and employment of the seal of the exchequer, in the keeping of a
+counter-roll to check the roll kept by the treasurer, and in the
+discharge of certain judicial functions in the exchequer of account. So
+long as the treasury board was in active working, the chancellorship of
+the exchequer was an office of small importance, and even during a great
+part of the 19th century was not necessarily a cabinet office, unless
+held in conjunction with that of first lord of the treasury. At the
+present time the chancellor of the exchequer is minister of finance, and
+therefore always of cabinet rank (see EXCHEQUER).
+
+
+  Chancellor of the duchy.
+
+The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster is the representative of the
+crown in the management of its lands and the control of its courts in
+the duchy of Lancaster, the property of which is scattered over several
+counties. These lands and privileges, though their inheritance has
+always been vested in the king and his heirs, have always been kept
+distinct from the hereditary revenues of the sovereign, whose palatine
+rights as duke of Lancaster were distinct from his rights as king. The
+Judicature Act of 1873 left only the chancery court of the duchy, but
+the chancellor can appoint and dismiss the county court judges within
+the limits of the duchy; he is responsible also for the land revenues of
+the duchy, which are the private property of the sovereign, and keeps
+the seal of the duchy. His appointment is by letters patent, and his
+salary is derived from the revenue of the duchy. As the judicial and
+estate work is done by subordinate officials, the office is practically
+a sinecure and is usually given to a minister whose assistance is
+necessary to a government, but who for one reason or another cannot
+undertake the duties of an important department. John Bright described
+him as the maid-of-all-work of the cabinet.
+
+
+  Ecclesiastical chancellors.
+
+The chancellor of a diocese is the official who presides over the
+bishop's court and exercises jurisdiction in his name. This use of the
+word is comparatively modern, and, though employed in acts of
+parliament, is not mentioned in the commission, having apparently been
+adopted on the analogy of the like title in the state. The chancellor
+was originally the keeper of the archbishop or bishop's seals; but the
+office, as now understood, includes two other offices distinguished in
+the commission by the titles of vicar-general and official principal
+(see ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). The chancellor of a diocese must be
+distinguished from the chancellor of a cathedral, whose office is the
+same as that of the ancient _scholasticus_ (see CATHEDRAL).
+
+
+  Academic, &c.
+
+The chancellor of an order of knighthood discharges notarial duties and
+keeps the seal. The chancellor of a university is an official of
+medieval origin. The appointment was originally made by the popes, and
+the office from the first was one of great dignity and originally of
+great power. The chancellor was, as he remains, the head of the
+university; he had the general superintendence of its studies and of its
+discipline, could make and unmake laws, try and punish offences, appoint
+to professorial chairs and admit students to the various degrees (see Du
+Cange, s. "_Cancellarii Academiarum_"). In England the chancellorship of
+the universities is now a more or less ornamental office and is
+conferred on noblemen or statesmen of distinction, whose principal
+function is to look after the general interests of the university,
+especially in its relations with the government. The chancellor is
+represented in the university by a vice-chancellor, who performs the
+administrative and judicial functions of the office. In the United
+States the heads of certain educational establishments have the title of
+chancellor. In Scotland the foreman of a jury is called its chancellor.
+In the United States the chancellors are judges of the chancery courts
+of the states, e.g. Delaware and New Jersey, where these courts are
+still maintained as distinct from the courts of common law. In other
+states, e.g. New York since 1847, the title has been abolished, and
+there is no federal chancellor.
+
+In diplomacy generally the chancellor of an embassy or legation is an
+official attached to the suite of an ambassador or minister. He performs
+the functions of a secretary, archivist, notary and the like, and is at
+the head of the chancery, or chancellery (Fr. _chancellerie_), of the
+mission. The functions of this office are the transcribing and
+registering of official despatches and other documents, and generally
+the transaction of all the minor business, e.g. marriages, passports and
+the like, connected with the duties of a diplomatic agent towards his
+nationals in a foreign country. The dignified connotation of the title
+chancellor has given to this office a prestige which in itself it does
+not deserve; and "chancery" or "chancellery" is commonly used as though
+it were synonymous with embassy, while diplomatic style is sometimes
+called _style de chancellerie_, though as a matter of fact the
+chanceries have nothing to do with it.
+
+_France._--The country in which the office of chancellor followed most
+closely the same lines as in England is France. He had become a great
+officer under the Carolingians, and he grew still greater under the
+Capetian sovereigns. The great chancellor, _summus cancellarius_ or
+_archi-cancellarius_, was a dignitary who had indeed little real power.
+The post was commonly filled by the archbishop of Reims, or the bishop
+of Paris. The _cancellarius_, who formed part of the royal court and
+administration, was officially known as the _sub-cancellarius_ in
+relation to the _summus cancellarius_, but as _proto-cancellarius_ in
+regard to his subordinate _cancellarii_. He was a very great officer, an
+ecclesiastic who was the chief of the king's chaplains or king's clerks,
+who administered all ecclesiastical affairs; he had judicial powers, and
+from the 12th century had the general control of foreign affairs. The
+chancellor in fact became so great that the Capetian kings, who did not
+forget the mayor of the palace, grew afraid of him. Few of the early
+ecclesiastical chancellors failed to come into collision with the king,
+or parted with him on good terms. Philip Augustus suspended the
+chancellorship throughout the whole of his reign, and appointed a keeper
+of the seals (_garde des sceaux_). The office was revived under Louis
+VIII., but the ecclesiastical chancellorship was finally suppressed in
+1227. The king of the 13th century employed only keepers of the seal.
+Under the reign of Philip IV. le Bel lay chancellors were first
+appointed. From the reign of Charles V. to that of Louis XI. the French
+_chancelier_ was elected by the royal council. In the 16th century he
+became irremovable, a distinction more honourable than effective, for
+though the king could not dismiss him from office he could, and on some
+occasions did, deprive him of the right to exercise his functions, and
+entrusted them to a keeper of the seal. The _chancelier_ from the 13th
+century downwards was the head of the law, and performed the duties
+which are now entrusted to the minister of justice. His office was
+abolished when in 1790 the whole judicial system of France was swept
+away by the Revolution. The smaller _chanceliers_ of the provincial
+parlements and royal courts disappeared at the same time. But when
+Napoleon was organizing the empire he created an arch-chancellor, an
+office which was imitated rather from the _Erz-Kanzler_ of the Holy
+Roman Empire than from the old French _chancelier_. At the Restoration
+the office of chancellor of France was restored, the chancellor being
+president of the House of Peers, but it was finally abolished at the
+revolution of 1848. The administration of the Legion of Honour is
+presided over by a _grand chancelier_, who is a grand cross of the
+order, and who advises the head of the state in matters concerning the
+affairs of the order. The title of _chancelier_ continues also to be
+used in France for the large class of officials who discharge notarial
+duties in some public offices, in embassies and consulates. They draw up
+diplomas and prepare all formal documents, and have charge of the
+registration and preservation of the archives.
+
+_Spain._--In Spain the office of chancellor, _canciller_, was introduced
+by Alphonso VII. (1126-1157), who adopted it from the court of his
+cousins of the Capetian dynasty of France. The _canciller_ did not in
+Spain go beyond being the king's notary. The chancellor of the privy
+seal, _canciller del sello de la puridad_ (literally the secret seal),
+was the king's secretary, and sealed all papers other than diplomas and
+charters. The office was abolished in 1496, and its functions were
+transferred to the royal secretaries. The _cancelario_ was the
+chancellor of a university. The _canciller_ succeeded the _maesescuela_
+or _scholasticus_ of a church or monastery. _Canciller mayor de
+Castilla_ is an honorary title of the archbishops of Toledo. The _gran
+canciller de las Indias_, high chancellor of the Indies, held the seal
+used for the American dominions of Spain, and presided at the council in
+the absence of the president. The office disappeared with the loss of
+Spain's empire in America.
+
+_Italy, Germany, &c._--In central and northern Europe, and in Italy, the
+office had different fortunes. In southern Italy, where Naples and
+Sicily were feudally organized, the chancellors of the Norman kings, who
+followed Anglo-Norman precedents very closely, and, at least in Sicily,
+employed Englishmen, were such officers as were known in the West. The
+similarity is somewhat concealed by the fact that these sovereigns also
+adopted names and offices from the imperial court at Constantinople.
+Their chancellor was officially known as Protonotary and Logothete, and
+their example was followed by the German princes of the Hohenstaufen
+family, who acquired the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. The papal or
+apostolic chancery is dealt with in the article on the Curia Romana
+(q.v.). It may be pointed out here, however, that the close connexion of
+the papacy with the Holy Roman Empire is illustrated by the fact that
+the archbishop of Cologne, who by right of his see was the emperor's
+arch-chancellor (_Erz-Kanzler_) for Italy, was confirmed as papal
+arch-chancellor by a bull of Leo IX. in 1052. The origin and duration of
+this connexion are, however, obscure; it appears to have ceased before
+1187. The last record of a papal chancellor in the middle ages dates
+from 1212, from which time onward, for reasons much disputed, the head
+of the papal chancery bore the title vice-chancellor (Hinschius i. 439),
+until the office of chancellor was restored by the constitution
+_Sapientius_ of Pius X. in 1908.
+
+The title of arch-chancellor (_Erz-Kanzler_) was borne by three great
+ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Holy Roman Empire. The archbishop of
+Mainz was arch-chancellor for Germany. The archbishop of Cologne held
+the dignity for Italy, and the archbishop of Trier for Gaul and the
+kingdom of Arles. The second and third of these dignities became purely
+formal with the decline of the Empire in the 13th century. But the
+arch-chancellorship of Germany remained to some extent a reality till
+the Empire was finally dissolved in 1806. The office continued to be
+attached to the archbishopric of Mainz, which was an electorate. Karl
+von Dalberg, the last holder of the office, and the first prince primate
+of the Confederation of the Rhine, continued to act in show at least as
+chancellor of that body, and was after a fashion the predecessor of the
+_Bundes Kanzler_, or chancellor of the North German Confederation. The
+duties imposed on the imperial chancery by the very complicated
+constitution of the Empire were, however, discharged by a
+vice-chancellor who was attached to the court of the emperor. The abbot
+of Fulda was chancellor to the empress.
+
+The house of Austria in their hereditary dominions, and in those of
+their possessions which they treated as hereditary, even where the
+sovereignty was in theory elective, made a large and peculiar use of the
+title chancellor. The officers so called were of course distinct from
+the arch-chancellor and vice-chancellor of the Empire, although the
+imperial crown became in practice hereditary in the house of Habsburg.
+In the family states their administration was, to use a phrase familiar
+to the French, "polysynodic." As it was when fully developed, and as it
+remained until the March revolution of 1848, it was conducted through
+boards presided over by a chancellor. There were three aulic
+chancellorships for the internal affairs of their dominions, "a united
+aulic chancellorship for all parts of the empire (i.e. of Austria, not
+the Holy Roman) not belonging to Hungary or Transylvania, and a separate
+chancellorship for each of those last-mentioned provinces" (Hartig,
+_Genesis of the Revolution in Austria_). There were also a house, a
+court, and a state chancellor for the business of the imperial household
+and foreign affairs, who were not, however, the presidents of a board.
+These "aulic" (i.e. court) officers were in fact secretaries of the
+sovereign, and administrative or political rather than judicial in
+character, though the boards over which they presided controlled
+judicial as well as administrative affairs. In the case of such
+statesmen as Kaunitz and Metternich, who were house, court, and state
+chancellors as well as "united aulic" chancellors, the combination of
+offices made them in practice prime ministers, or rather
+lieutenants-general, of the sovereign. The system was subject to
+modifications, and in the end it broke down under its own complications.
+We are not dealing here with the confusing history of the Austrian
+administration, and these details are only quoted to show how it
+happened that in Austria the title chancellor came to mean a political
+officer and minister. There is obviously a vast difference between such
+an official as Kaunitz, who as house, court, and state chancellor was
+minister of foreign affairs, and as "united aulic" chancellor had a
+general superiority over the whole machinery of government, and the lord
+high chancellor in England, the _chancelier_ in France, or the
+_canciller mayor_ in Castile, though the title was the same. The
+development of the office in Austria must be understood in order to
+explain the position and functions of the imperial chancellor (_Reichs
+Kanzler_) of the modern German empire. Although the present empire is
+sometimes rhetorically and absurdly spoken of as a revival of the
+medieval Empire, it is in reality an adaptation of the Austrian empire,
+which was a continuation under a new name of the hereditary Habsburg
+monarchy. The _Reichs Kanzler_ is the immediate successor of the _Bundes
+Kanzler_, or chancellor of the North German Confederation (_Bund_). But
+the _Bundes Kanzler_, who bore no sort of resemblance except in mere
+name to the _Erz-Kanzler_ of the old Empire, was in a position not
+perhaps actually like that of Prince Kaunitz, but capable of becoming
+much the same thing. When the German empire was established in 1871
+Prince Bismarck, who was _Bundes Kanzler_ and became _Reichs Kanzler_,
+took care that his position should be as like as possible to that of
+Prince Kaunitz or Prince Metternich. The constitution of the German
+empire is separately dealt with, but it may be pointed out here that
+the _Reichs Kanzler_ is the federal minister of the empire, the chief of
+the federal officials, and a great political officer, who directs the
+foreign affairs, and superintends the internal affairs, of the empire.
+
+In these German states the title of chancellor is also given as in
+France to government and diplomatic officials who do notarial duties and
+have charge of archives. The title of chancellor has naturally been
+widely used in the German and Scandinavian states, and in Russia since
+the reign of Peter the Great. It has there as elsewhere wavered between
+being a political and a judicial office. Frederick the Great of Prussia
+created a _Gross Kanzler_ for judicial duties in 1746. But there was in
+Prussia a state chancellorship on the Austrian model. It was allowed to
+lapse on the death of Hardenberg in 1822. The Prussian chancellor after
+his time was one of the four court ministries (_Hofämter_) of the
+Prussian monarchy.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Cancellarius"; W. Stubbs,
+  _Const. Hist. of England_ (1874-1878); Rudolph Gneist, _Hist. of the
+  English Constitution_ (Eng. trans., London, 1891); L.O. Pike, _Const.
+  Hist. of the House of Lords_ (London, 1894); Sir William R. Anson,
+  _The Law and Custom of the Constitution_, vol. ii. part i. (Oxford,
+  1907); A. Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions françaises_ (Paris,
+  1892); K.F. Stumpf, _Die Reichs Kanzler_ (3 vols., Innsbruck,
+  1865-1873); G. Sceliger, _Erzkanzler und Reichskanzleien_ (ib. 1889);
+  P. Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_ (Berlin, 1869); Sir R.J. Phillimore,
+  _Eccles. Law_ (London, 1895); P. Pradier-Fodéré, _Cours de droit
+  diplomatique_, ii. 542 (Paris, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CHANCELLORSVILLE, a village of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A.,
+situated almost midway between Washington and Richmond. It was the
+central point of one of the greatest battles of the Civil War, fought on
+the 2nd and 3rd of May 1863, between the Union Army of the Potomac under
+Major-General Hooker, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia
+under General Lee. (See AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, and WILDERNESS.) General
+"Stonewall" Jackson was mortally wounded in this battle.
+
+
+
+
+CHANCE-MEDLEY (from the A.-Fr. _chance-medlée_, a mixed chance, and not
+from _chaude-medlée_, a hot affray), an accident of a mixed character,
+an old term in English law for a form of homicide arising out of a
+sudden affray or quarrel. The homicide has not the characteristic of
+"malice prepense" which would raise the death to murder, nor the
+completely accidental nature which would reduce it to homicide by
+misadventure. It was practically identical, therefore, with
+manslaughter.
+
+
+
+
+CHANCERY, in English law, the court of the lord chancellor of England,
+consolidated in 1873 along with the other superior courts in the Supreme
+Court of Judicature. Its origin is noticed under the head of Chancellor.
+
+It has been customary to say that the court of chancery consists of two
+distinct tribunals--one a court of common law, the other a court of
+equity. From the former have issued all the original writs passing under
+the great seal, all commissions of sewers, lunacy, and the like--some of
+these writs being originally kept in a _hanaper_ or hamper (whence the
+"hanaper office"), and others in a little sack or bag (whence the
+"petty-bag office"). The court had likewise power to hold pleas upon
+_scire facias_ (q.v.) for repeal of letters patent, &c. "So little,"
+says Blackstone, "is commonly done on the common law side of the court
+that I have met with no traces of any writ of error being actually
+brought since the fourteenth year of Queen Elizabeth."
+
+The equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was founded on the
+supposed superiority of conscience and equity over the strict law. The
+appearance of equity in England is in harmony with the general course of
+legal history in progressive societies. What is remarkable is that,
+instead of being incorporated with or superseding the common law, it
+gave rise to a wholly independent set of tribunals. The English dislike
+of the civil law, and the tendency to follow precedent which has never
+ceased to characterize English lawyers, account for this unfortunate
+separation. The claims of equity in its earlier stages are well
+expressed in the little treatise called _Doctor and Student_, published
+in the reign of Henry VIII.:--"Conscience never resisteth the law nor
+addeth to it, but only when the law is directly in itself against the
+_law of God_, or _law of reason_." So also King James, speaking in the
+Star Chamber, says: "Where the rigour of the law in many cases will undo
+a subject, then the chancery tempers the law with equity, and so mixes
+mercy with justice, as it preserves a man from destruction." This theory
+of the essential opposition between law and equity, and of the natural
+superiority of the latter, remained long after equity had ceased to
+found itself on natural justice, and had become as fixed and rigid as
+the common law itself. The jealousy of the common lawyers came to a head
+in the time of Lord Ellesmere, when Coke disputed the right of the
+chancery to give relief against a judgment of the court of queen's bench
+obtained by gross fraud and imposition. James I., after consultation,
+decided in favour of the court of equity. The substitution of lay for
+clerical chancellors is regarded by G. Spence (_Equitable Jurisdiction
+of the Court of Chancery_, 2 vols., 1846-1849) as having at first been
+unfortunate, inasmuch as the laymen were ignorant of the principles on
+which their predecessors had acted. Lord Nottingham (1621-1682) is
+usually credited with the first attempt to reduce the decisions of the
+court to order, and his work was continued by Lord Hardwicke
+(1690-1764). By the time of Lord Eldon equity had become fixed, and the
+judges, like their brethren in the common law courts, strictly followed
+the precedents. Henceforward chancery and common law courts have
+exhibited the anomaly of two co-ordinate sets of tribunals, empowered to
+deal with the same matters, and compelled to proceed in many cases on
+wholly different principles. The court of chancery could in most cases
+prevent a person from taking advantage of a common law right, not
+approved of by its own system. But if a suitor chose to go to a court of
+common law, he might claim such unjust rights, and it required the
+special intervention of the court of equity to prevent his enforcing
+them. In many cases also a special application had to be made to
+chancery for facilities which were absolutely necessary to the
+successful conduct of a case at common law. Another source of difficulty
+and annoyance was the uncertainty in many cases whether the chancery or
+common law courts were the proper tribunal, so that a suitor often found
+at the close of an expensive and protracted suit that he had mistaken
+his court and must go elsewhere for relief. Attempts more or less
+successful were made to lessen those evils by giving the powers to both
+sets of courts; but down to the consolidation effected by the Judicature
+Act, the English judicial system justified the sarcasm of Lord Westbury,
+that one tribunal was set up to do injustice and another to stop it.
+
+The equitable jurisdiction of chancery was commonly divided into
+_exclusive_, _concurrent_ and _auxiliary_. Chancery had exclusive
+jurisdiction when there were no forms of action by which relief could be
+obtained at law, in respect of rights which ought to be enforced. Trusts
+were the most conspicuous example of this class. It also included the
+rights of married women, infants and lunatics. Chancery had concurrent
+jurisdiction when the common law did not give _adequate_ relief, e.g. in
+cases of fraud, accident, mistake, specific performance of contracts,
+&c. It had auxiliary jurisdiction when the administrative machinery of
+the law courts was unable to procure the necessary evidence.
+
+The Judicature Act 1873 enacted (§ 24) that in every civil cause or
+matter commenced in the High Court of Justice, law and equity should be
+administered by the High Court of Justice and the court of appeal
+respectively, according to the rules therein contained, which provide
+for giving effect in all cases to "equitable rights and other matters of
+equity." The 25th section declared the law hereafter to be administered
+in England on certain points, and ordained that "generally in all
+matters not hereinbefore particularly mentioned in which there is any
+conflict or variance between the rules of equity and the rules of the
+common law with reference to the same matter, the rules of equity shall
+prevail." The 34th section specifically assigned to the chancery
+division the following causes and matters:--The administration of the
+estates of deceased persons; the dissolution of partnerships, or the
+taking of partnership, or other accounts; the redemption or foreclosure
+of mortgages; the raising of portions, or other charges on land; the
+sale and distribution of the proceeds of property subject to any lien
+or charge; the execution of trusts, charitable or private; the
+rectification, or setting aside, or cancellation of deeds or other
+written instruments; the specific performance of contracts between
+vendors and purchasers of real estates, including contracts for leases;
+the partition or sale of real estates; the wardship of infants and the
+care of infants' estates.
+
+The chancery division originally consisted of the lord chancellor as
+president and the master of the rolls, and the three vice-chancellors.
+The master of the rolls was also a member of the court of appeal, but
+Sir George Jessel, who held that office when the new system came into
+force, regularly sat as a judge of first instance until 1881, when, by
+the act of that year (sec. 2), the master of the rolls became a member
+of the court of appeal only, and provision was made for the appointment
+of a judge to supply the vacancy thus occasioned (sec. 3). Sir James
+Bacon (1798-1895) was the last survivor of the vice-chancellors. He
+retained his seat on the bench until the year 1886, when he retired
+after more than seventeen years' judicial service. For some reason the
+solicitors, when they had the choice, preferred to bring their actions
+in the chancery division. The practice introduced by the Judicature Act
+of trying actions with oral evidence instead of affidavits, and the
+comparative inexperience of the chancery judges and counsel in that mode
+of trial, tended to lengthen the time required for the disposal of the
+business. Demand was consequently made for more judges in the chancery
+division. By an act of 1877 the appointment of an additional judge in
+that division was authorized, and Sir Edward Fry (afterwards better
+known as a lord justice) was appointed. In August 1899 the crown
+consented to the appointment of a new judge of the High Court in the
+chancery division on an address from both Houses of Parliament, pursuant
+to the 87th section of the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The chancery
+division, therefore, consists of the lord chancellor and six puisne
+judges. The latter are styled and addressed in the same manner as was
+customary in the old common law courts.[1] Formerly there were only four
+judges of this division (being the successors of the master of the rolls
+and the three vice-chancellors) to whom chambers were attached. The
+fifth judge heard only causes with witnesses transferred to him from the
+overflowing of the lists of his four brethren. In each set of chambers
+there were three chief clerks, with a staff of assistant clerks under
+them. The chief clerks had no original jurisdiction, but heard
+applications only on behalf of the judge to whose chambers they
+belonged, and theoretically every suitor had the right to have his
+application heard by the judge himself in chambers. But the appointment
+of a sixth judge enabled the lord chancellor to carry out a reform
+recommended by a departmental committee which reported in 1885. The
+great difficulty in the chancery division always was to secure the
+continuous hearing of actions with witnesses, as nearly one-half of the
+judge's time was taken up with cases adjourned to him from chambers and
+other administrative business and non-witness actions and motions. The
+interruption of a witness action for two or three days, particularly in
+a country case, occasioned great expense, and had other inconveniences.
+It was a simple remedy to link the judges in pairs with one list of
+causes and one set of chambers assigned to each pair. This reform was
+effected by the alteration of a few words in certain rules of court.
+There are therefore, only three sets of chambers, each containing four
+chief clerks, or, as they are now styled, masters of the Supreme Court,
+and one of the linked judges, by arrangement between themselves,
+continuously tries the witness actions in their common list, while the
+other attends in chambers, and also hears the motions, petitions,
+adjourned summonses and non-witness cases.
+
+Although styled masters it does not appear that the chief clerks have
+any larger or different jurisdiction than they had before. They are
+still the representatives of and responsible to the judges to whom the
+chambers are attached. The judge may either hear an application in
+chambers, or may direct any matter which he thinks of sufficient
+importance to be argued before him in court, or a party may move in
+court to discharge an order made in chambers with a view to an appeal,
+but this is not required if the judge certifies that the matter was
+sufficiently discussed before him in chambers.
+
+Under the existing rules of court many orders can now be made on summons
+in chambers which used formerly to require a suit or petition in court
+(see Order LV. as to foreclosure, administration, payment out of money
+in court and generally). The judge is also enabled to decide any
+particular question arising in the administration of the estate of a
+deceased person or execution of the trusts of a settlement without
+directing administration of the whole estate or execution of the trusts
+generally by the court (Order LV. rule 10), and where an application for
+accounts is made by a dissatisfied beneficiary or creditor to order the
+accounts to be delivered out of court, and the application to stand over
+till it can be seen what questions (if any) arise upon the accounts
+requiring the intervention of the court (Order LV. 2, 10a). Delay and
+consequent worry and expense are thus saved to the parties, and, at the
+same time, a great deal of routine administration is got rid of and a
+larger portion of the judicial term can be devoted to hearing actions
+and deciding any question of importance in court. The work of the
+chambers staff of the judges has probably been increased; but, on the
+other hand, it has been lightened by the removal of the winding-up
+business. The chancery division has also inherited from the court of
+chancery a staff of registrars and taxing masters.
+
+In the United States "chancery" is generally used as the synonym of
+"equity." Chancery practice is practice in cases of equity. Chancery
+courts are equity courts (see EQUITY). For the diplomatic sense of
+chancery (chancellery) see CHANCELLOR.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The comte de Franqueville comments on the misuse of the title
+    "Lord" in addressing judges as another anomaly which only adds to the
+    confusion, but perhaps unnecessarily. According to Foss (vol. viii.
+    p. 200) it was only in the 18th century that the judges began to be
+    addressed by the title of "Your Lordship." In the Year Books (he
+    adds) they are constantly addressed by the title of "Sir." "Sir, vous
+    voyez bien," &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur division of
+the Central Provinces. In 1901 the town had a population of 17,803. It
+is situated at the junction of the Virai and Jharpat rivers. It was the
+capital of the Gond kingdom of Chanda, which was established on the
+ruins of a Hindu state in the 11th or 12th century, and survived until
+1751 (see GONDWANA). The town is still surrounded by a stone wall 5½m.
+in circuit. It has several old temples and tombs, and the district at
+large is rich in remains of antiquity. There are manufactures of cotton,
+silk, brass-ware and leather slippers, and a considerable local trade.
+
+The DISTRICT OF CHANDA has an area of 10,156 sq. m. Excepting in the
+extreme west, hills are thickly dotted over the country, sometimes in
+detached ranges, occasionally in isolated peaks rising sheer out from
+the plain. Towards the east they increase in height, and form a broad
+tableland, at places 2000 ft. above sea-level. The Wainganga river flows
+through the district from north to south, meeting the Wardha river at
+Seoni, where their streams unite to form the Pranhita. Chanda is thickly
+studded with fine tanks, or rather artificial lakes, formed by closing
+the outlets of small valleys, or by throwing a dam across tracts
+intersected by streams. The broad clear sheets of water thus created are
+often very picturesque in their surroundings of wood and rock. The chief
+architectural objects of interest are the cave temples at Bhandak,
+Winjbasani, Dewala and Ghugus; a rock temple in the bed of the Wardha
+river below Ballalpur; the ancient temples at Markandi, Ambgaon and
+elsewhere; the forts of Wairagarh and Ballalpur; and the old walls of
+the city of Chanda, its system of waterworks, and the tombs of the Gond
+kings. In 1901 the population was 601,533, showing a decrease of 15% in
+the decade. The principal crops are rice, millet, pulse, wheat,
+oil-seeds and cotton. The district contains the coalfield of Warora,
+which was worked by government till 1906, when it was closed. Other
+fields are known, and iron ores also occur. The district suffered
+severely from famine in 1900, when in April the number of persons
+relieved rose to 90,000.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDAUSI, a town of British India, in the Moradabad district of the
+United Provinces, 28 m. south of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 25,711. It is an
+important station on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, with a junction for
+Aligarh. Its chief exports are of cotton, hemp, sugar and stone. There
+is a factory for pressing cotton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAND BARDAI (fl. c. 1200), Hindu poet, was a native of Lahore, but
+lived at the court of Prithwi Raja (Prithiraj), the last Hindu sovereign
+of Delhi. His _Prithiraj Rasau_, a poem of some 100,000 stanzas,
+chronicling his master's deeds and the contemporary history of his part
+of India, is valuable not only as historical material but as the
+earliest monument of the Western Hindi language, and the first of the
+long series of bardic chronicles for which Rajputana is celebrated. It
+is written in ballad form, and portions of it are still sung by
+itinerant bards throughout north-western India and Rajputana.
+
+  See Lieut.-Col. James Tod, _Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han_ (2
+  vols., London, 1829-1832; repub. by Lalit Mohan Auddy, 2 vols. ib.,
+  1894-1895), where good translations are given.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDELIER, a frame of metal, wood, crystal, glass or china, pendent
+from roof or ceiling for the purpose of holding lights. The word is
+French, but the appliance has lost its original significance of a
+candle-holder, the chandelier being now chiefly used for gas and
+electric lighting. Clusters of hanging lights were in use as early as
+the 14th century, and appear originally to have been almost invariably
+of wood. They were, however, so speedily ruined by grease that metal was
+gradually subsituted, and fine and comparatively early examples in
+beaten iron, brass, copper and even silver are still extant. Throughout
+the 17th century the hanging candle-holder of brass or bronze was common
+throughout northern Europe, as innumerable pictures and engravings
+testify. In the great periods of the art of decoration in France many
+magnificent chandeliers were made by Boulle, and at a later date by
+Gouthière and Thomire and others among the extraordinarily clever
+_fondeurs-ciseleurs_ of the second half of the 18th century. The
+chandelier in rock crystal and its imitations had come in at least a
+hundred years before their day, and continued in favour to the middle of
+the 19th century, or even somewhat later. It reached at last the most
+extreme elaboration of banality, with ropes of pendants and hanging
+faceted drops often called lustres. When many lights were burning in one
+of these chandeliers an effect of splendour was produced that was not
+out of place in a ballroom, but the ordinary household varieties were
+extremely ugly and inartistic. The more purely domestic chandelier
+usually carries from two to six lights. The rapidly growing use of
+electricity as an illuminating medium and the preference for smaller
+clusters of lights have, however, pushed into the background an
+appliance which had grown extremely commonplace in design, and had
+become out of character with modern ideas of household decoration.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDERNAGORE, or CHANDARNAGAR, a French settlement in India, with a
+small adjoining territory, situated on the right bank of the river
+Hugli, 20 m. above Calcutta, in 22° 51' 40" N, and 88° 24' 50" E. Area 3
+sq. m.; pop. (1901) 25,000. Chandernagore has played an important part
+in the European history of Bengal. It became a permanent French
+settlement, in 1688, but did not rise to any importance till the time of
+Dupleix, during whose administration more than two thousand brick houses
+were erected in the town and a considerable maritime trade was carried
+on. In 1757 Chandernagore was bombarded by an English fleet under
+Admiral Watson and captured; the fortifications and houses were
+afterwards demolished. On peace being established the town was restored
+to the French in 1763. When hostilities afterwards broke out in 1794, it
+was again taken possession of by the English, and was held by them till
+1816, when it was a second time given up to the French; it has ever
+since remained in their possession. All the former commercial grandeur
+of Chandernagore has now passed away, and at present it is little more
+than a quiet suburb of Calcutta, without any external trade. The
+European town is situated at the bottom of a beautiful reach of the
+Hugli, with clean wide thoroughfares, and many elegant residences along
+the river-bank. The authorities of Chandernagore are subject to the
+jurisdiction of the governor-general of Pondicherry, to whom is confided
+the general government of all the French possessions in India.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM (1828-1889), English scholar, was born in London
+on the 31st of January 1828. In 1848 he entered Pembroke College,
+Oxford, where he was elected fellow in 1853. In 1867 he succeeded H.L.
+Mansel as Waynflete professor of moral and metaphysical philosophy, and
+in 1884 was appointed curator of the Bodleian library. He died by his
+own hand in Oxford on the 16th of May 1889. He was chiefly known as an
+Aristotelian scholar, and his knowledge of the Greek commentators on
+Aristotle was profound. He collected a vast amount of material for an
+edition of the fragments of his favourite author, but on the appearance
+of Valentine Rose's work in 1886 he abandoned the idea. Two works on the
+bibliography of Aristotle, _A Catalogue of Editions of Aristotle's
+Nicomachean Ethics and of Works illustrative of them printed in the 15th
+century_ (1868), and _A Chronological Index to Editions of Aristotle's
+Nicomachean Ethics, and of Works illustrative of them from the Origin of
+Printing to 1799_ (1878), are of great value. Chandler's collection of
+works on Aristotelian literature is now in the library of Pembroke
+College. His _Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation_ (1862, ed.
+min. 1877) is the standard work in English.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDLER, RICHARD (1738-1810), British antiquary, was born in 1738 at
+Elson in Hampshire, and educated at Winchester and at Queen's and
+Magdalen Colleges, Oxford. His first work consisted of fragments from
+the minor Greek poets, with notes (_Elegiaca Graeca_, 1759); and in 1763
+he published a fine edition of the Arundelian marbles, _Marmora
+Oxoniensia_, with a Latin translation, and a number of suggestions for
+supplying the lacunae. He was sent by the Dilettanti Society with
+Nicholas Revett, an architect, and Pars, a painter, to explore the
+antiquities of Ionia and Greece (1763-1766); and the result of their
+work was the two magnificent folios of Ionian antiquities published in
+1769. He subsequently held several church preferments, including the
+rectory of Tylehurst, in Berkshire, where he died on the 9th of February
+1810. Other works by Chandler were _Inscriptiones Antiquae pleraeque
+nondum editae_ (Oxford, 1774); _Travels in Asia Minor_ (1775); _Travels
+in Greece_ (1776); _History of Ilium_ (1803), in which he asserted the
+accuracy of Homer's geography. His _Life of Bishop Waynflete_, lord high
+chancellor to Henry VI., appeared in 1811.
+
+  A complete edition (with notes by Revett) of the _Travels in Asia
+  Minor and Greece_ was published by R. Churton (Oxford, 1825), with an
+  "Account of the Author."
+
+
+
+
+CHANDLER, SAMUEL (1693-1766), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
+1693 at Hungerford, in Berkshire, where his father was a minister. He
+was sent to school at Gloucester, where he began a lifelong friendship
+with Bishop Butler and Archbishop Secker; and he afterwards studied at
+Leiden. His talents and learning were such that he was elected fellow of
+the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and was made D.D. of Edinburgh and
+Glasgow. He also received offers of high preferment in the Church of
+England. These he refused, remaining to the end of his life in the
+position of a Presbyterian minister. He was moderately Calvinistic in
+his views and leaned towards Arianism. He took a leading part in the
+deist controversies of the time, and discussed with some of the bishops
+the possibility of an act of comprehension. From 1716 to 1726 he
+preached at Peckham, and for forty years he was pastor of a
+meeting-house in Old Jewry. During two or three years, having fallen
+into pecuniary distress through the failure of the South Sea scheme, he
+kept a book-shop in the Poultry. On the death of George II. in 1760
+Chandler published a sermon in which he compared that king to King
+David. This view was attacked in a pamphlet entitled _The History of the
+Man after God's own Heart_, in which the author complained of the
+parallel as an insult to the late king, and, following Pierre Bayle,
+exhibited King David as an example of perfidy, lust and cruelty.
+Chandler condescended to reply first in a review of the tract (1762) and
+then in _A Critical History of the Life of David_, which is perhaps the
+best of his productions. This work was just completed when he died, on
+the 8th of May 1766. He left 4 vols. of sermons (1768), and a paraphrase
+of the Epistles to the Galatians and Ephesians (1777), several works on
+the evidences of Christianity, and various pamphlets against Roman
+Catholicism.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH (1813-1879), American politician, was born at
+Bedford, New Hampshire, on the 10th of December 1813. In 1833 he removed
+to Detroit, Michigan, where he became a prosperous dry-goods merchant.
+He took a prominent part as a Whig in politics (serving as mayor in
+1851), and, impelled by his strong anti-slavery views, actively
+furthered the work of the "Underground Railroad," of which Detroit was
+one of the principal "transfer" points. He was one of the organizers in
+Michigan of the Republican party, and in 1857 succeeded Lewis Cass in
+the United States Senate, serving until 1875, and at once taking his
+stand with the most radical opponents of slavery extension. When the
+Civil War became inevitable he endeavoured to impress upon the North the
+necessity of taking extraordinary measures for the preservation of the
+Union. After the fall of Fort Sumter he advocated the enlistment of
+500,000 instead of 75,000 men for a long instead of a short term, and
+the vigorous enforcement of confiscation measures. In July 1862 he made
+a bitter attack in the Senate on General George B. McClellan, charging
+him with incompetency and lack of "nerve." Throughout the war he allied
+himself with the most radical of the Republican faction in opposition to
+President Lincoln's policy, and subsequently became one of the bitterest
+opponents of President Johnson's plan of reconstruction. From October
+1875 to March 1877 he was secretary of the interior in the cabinet of
+President Grant, succeeding Columbus Delano (1809-1896). In 1876, as
+chairman of the national republican committee, he managed the campaign
+of Hayes against Tilden. In February 1879 he was re-elected to the
+Senate to succeed Isaac P. Christiancy (1812-1890), and soon afterwards,
+in a speech concerning Mexican War pensions, bitterly denounced
+Jefferson Davis. He died at Chicago, Illinois, on the 1st of November
+1879. By his extraordinary force of character he exercised a wide
+personal influence during his lifetime, but failed to stamp his
+personality upon any measure or policy of lasting importance.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF. The English title of Chandos began as a
+barony in 1554, and was continued in the family of Brydges (becoming a
+dukedom in 1719) till 1789. In 1822 the dukedom was revived in connexion
+with that of Buckingham.
+
+JOHN BRYDGES, 1st Baron Chandos (c. 1490-1557), a son of Sir Giles
+Brydges, or Bruges (d. 1511), was a prominent figure at the English
+court during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Mary. He took
+part in suppressing the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyat in 1554, and as
+lieutenant of the Tower of London during the earlier part of Mary's
+reign, had the custody, not only of Lady Jane Grey and of Wyat, but for
+a short time of the princess Elizabeth. He was created Baron Chandos of
+Sudeley in 1554, one of his ancestors, Alice, being a grand-daughter of
+Sir Thomas Chandos (d. 1375), and he died in March 1557. The three
+succeeding barons, direct descendants of the 1st baron, were all members
+of parliament and persons of some importance. Grey, 5th Baron Chandos
+(c. 1580-1621), lord-lieutenant of Gloucestershire, was called the "king
+of the Cotswolds," owing to his generosity and his magnificent style of
+living at his residence, Sudeley Castle. He has been regarded by Horace
+Walpole and others as the author of some essays, _Horae Subsecivae_. His
+elder son George, 6th Baron Chandos (1620-1655), was a supporter of
+Charles I. during his struggle with Parliament, and distinguished
+himself at the first battle of Newbury in 1643. He had six daughters but
+no sons, and after the death of his brother William in 1676 the barony
+came to a kinsman, Sir James Brydges, Bart. (1642-1714), who was English
+ambassador to Constantinople from 1680 to 1685.
+
+JAMES BRYDGES, 1st duke of Chandos (1673-1744), son and heir of the
+last-named, had been member of parliament for Hereford from 1698 to
+1714, and, three days after his father's death, was created Viscount
+Wilton and earl of Carnarvon. For eight years, from 1705 to 1713, during
+the War of the Spanish Succession, he was paymaster-general of the
+forces abroad, and in this capacity he amassed great wealth. In 1719 he
+was created marquess of Carnarvon and duke of Chandos. The duke is
+chiefly remembered on account of his connexion with Handel and with
+Pope. He built a magnificent house at Canons near Edgware in Middlesex,
+and is said to have contemplated the construction of a private road
+between this place and his unfinished house in Cavendish Square, London.
+For over two years Handel, employed by Chandos, lived at Canons, where
+he composed his oratorio _Esther_. Pope, who in his _Moral Essays_
+(_Epistle to the Earl of Burlington_) doubtless described Canons under
+the guise of "Timon's Villa," referred to the duke in the line, "Thus
+gracious Chandos is belov'd at sight"; but Swift, less complimentary,
+called him "a great complier with every court." The poet was caricatured
+by Hogarth for his supposed servility to the duke. Chandos, who was
+lord-lieutenant of the counties of Hereford and Radnor, and chancellor
+of the university of St Andrews, became involved in financial
+difficulties, and after his death on the 9th of August 1744 Canons was
+pulled down. He was succeeded by his son Henry, 2nd duke (1708-1771),
+and grandson James, 3rd duke (1731-1789). On the death of the latter
+without sons in September 1789 all his titles, except that of Baron
+Kinloss, became extinct, although a claimant arose for the barony of
+Chandos of Sudeley. The 3rd duke's only daughter, Anna Elizabeth, who
+became Baroness Kinloss on her father's death, was married in 1796 to
+Richard Grenville, afterwards marquess of Buckingham; and in 1822 this
+nobleman was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos (see BUCKINGHAM,
+DUKES OF).
+
+  See G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); and J.R. Robinson,
+  _The Princely Chandos_, i.e. the 1st duke (1893).
+
+
+
+
+CHANDOS, SIR JOHN (?-1370), one of the most celebrated English
+commanders of the 14th century. He is found at the siege of Cambrai in
+1337, and at the battle of Crécy in 1346. At the battle of Poitiers, in
+1356, it was he who decided the day and saved the life of the Black
+Prince. For these services Edward III. made him a knight of the Garter,
+gave him the lands of the viscount of Saint Sauveur in Cotentin, and
+appointed him his lieutenant in France and vice-chamberlain of the royal
+household. In 1362 he was made constable of Aquitaine, and won the
+victories of Auray (1364) and Navaret in Spain (1367) over Duguesclin.
+He was seneschal of Poitou in 1369, and was mortally wounded at the
+bridge of Lussac near Poitiers on the 31st of December. He died on the
+following day, the 1st of January 1370.
+
+  See Benjamin Fillon, "John Chandos, Connétable d'Aquitaine et Sénéchal
+  de Poitou," in the _Revue des provinces de l'ouest_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (reigned 321-296 B.C.), known to the Greeks as
+Sandracottus, founder of the Maurya empire and first paramount ruler of
+India, was the son of a king of Magadha by a woman of humble origin,
+whose caste he took, and whose name, Mura, is said to have been the
+origin of that of Maurya assumed by his dynasty. As a youth he was
+driven into exile by his kinsman, the reigning king of Magadha. In the
+course of his wanderings he met Alexander the Great, and, according to
+Plutarch (_Alexander_, cap. 62), encouraged him to invade the Ganges
+kingdom by enlarging on the extreme unpopularity of the reigning
+monarch. During his exile he collected a large force of the warlike
+clans of the north-west frontier, and on the death of Alexander attacked
+the Macedonian garrisons and conquered the Punjab. He next attacked
+Magadha, dethroned and slew the king, his enemy, with every member of
+his family, and established himself on the throne (321). The great army
+acquired from his predecessor he increased until it reached the total of
+30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, and 600,000 infantry; and with this huge
+force he overran all northern India, establishing his empire from the
+Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. In 305 Seleucus Nicator crossed the
+Indus, but was defeated by Chandragupta and forced to a humiliating
+peace (303), by which the empire of the latter was still farther
+extended in the north. About six years later Chandragupta died, leaving
+his empire to his son Bindusura.
+
+An excellent account of the court and administrative system of
+Chandragupta has been preserved in the fragments of Megasthenes, who
+came to Pataliputra as the envoy of Seleucus shortly after 303. The
+government was, of course, autocratic and even tyrannous, but it was
+organized on an elaborate system, army and civil service being
+administered by a series of boards, while the cities were governed by
+municipal commissioners responsible for public order and the upkeep of
+public works. Chandragupta himself is described as living in barbaric
+splendour, appearing in public only to hear causes, offer sacrifice, or
+to go on military and hunting expeditions, and withal so fearful of
+assassination that he never slept two nights running in the same room.
+
+  See J.W. MacCrindle, _Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and
+  Arrian_ (Calcutta, 1877); V.A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_ (Oxford,
+  1908); also the articles INDIA: _History_, and INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_.
+
+
+
+
+CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE (1793-1877), French general, was born
+at Autun on the 26th of April 1793. Educated at St Cyr, he served for a
+short time in the bodyguard of Louis XVIII., and entered the line as a
+lieutenant in January 1815. He achieved distinction in the Spanish
+campaign of 1823, and became captain in 1825. In 1830 he entered the
+Royal Guard and was sent to Africa, where he took part in the Mascara
+expedition. Promoted commandant in 1835, he distinguished himself under
+Marshal Clausel in the campaign against Ahmed Pasha, bey of Constantine,
+and became lieutenant-colonel in 1837. The part he took in the
+expedition of Portes-de-Fer gained him a colonelcy, and his success
+against the Hajutas and Kabyles, the cross of the Legion of Honour.
+Three more years of brilliant service in Africa won for him the rank of
+_maréchal de camp_ in 1840, and of lieutenant-general in 1843. In 1847
+he held the Algiers divisional command. He visited France early in 1848,
+assisted the provisional government to establish order, and returned to
+Africa in May to succeed General Cavaignac in the government of Algeria.
+He was speedily recalled on his election to the general assembly for the
+department of the Seine, and received the command of the National Guard
+of Paris, to which was added soon afterwards that of the troops in
+Paris, altogether nearly 100,000 men. He held a high place and exercised
+great influence in the complicated politics of the next two years. In
+1849 he received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. An avowed
+enemy of republican institutions, he held a unique position in upholding
+the power of the president; but in January 1851 he opposed Louis
+Napoleon's policy, was in consequence deprived of his double command,
+and at the _coup d'état_ in December was arrested and sent to Mazas,
+until his banishment from France by the decree of the 9th of January
+1852. He returned to France after the general amnesty, and resided in
+his estate in the department of Saône-et-Loire. In 1870 he held no
+command, but was present with the headquarters, and afterwards with
+Bazaine in Metz. He was employed on an unsuccessful mission to Prince
+Frederick Charles, commanding the German army which besieged Metz, and
+on the capitulation became a prisoner of war. At the armistice he
+returned to Paris, and in 1871 was elected to the National Assembly by
+four departments, and sat for the Somme. He took an active part in
+politics, defended the conduct of Marshal Bazaine, and served on the
+committee which elaborated the monarchical constitution. When the comte
+de Chambord refused the compromise, he moved the resolution to extend
+the executive power for ten years to Marshal MacMahon. He was elected a
+life senator in 1875. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1877.
+
+
+
+
+CHANG-CHOW, a town of China, in the province of Fu-kien, on a branch of
+the Lung Kiang, 35 m. W. of Amoy. It is surrounded by a wall 4½ m. in
+circumference, which, however, includes a good deal of open ground. The
+streets are paved with granite, but are very dirty. The river is crossed
+by a curious bridge, 800 ft. long, constructed of wooden planks
+supported on twenty-five piles of stones about 30 ft. apart. The city is
+a centre of the silk-trade, and carries on an extensive commerce in
+different directions. Brick-works and sugar-factories are among its
+chief industrial establishments. Its population is estimated at about
+1,000,000.
+
+
+
+
+CHANG CHUN, KIU (1148-1227), Chinese Taoist sage and traveller, was born
+in 1148. In 1219 he was invited by Jenghiz Khan, founder of the Mongol
+empire and greatest of Asiatic conquerors, to visit him. Jenghiz' letter
+of invitation, dated the 15th of May 1219 (by present reckoning), has
+been preserved, and is among the curiosities of history; here the
+terrible warrior appears as a meek disciple of wisdom, modest and
+simple, almost Socratic in his self-examination, alive to many of the
+deepest truths of life and government. Chang Chun obeyed this summons;
+and leaving his home in Shantung (February 1220) journeyed first to
+Peking. Learning that Jenghiz had gone far west upon fresh conquests,
+the sage stayed the winter in Peking. In February 1221 he started again
+and crossed eastern Mongolia to the camp of Jenghiz' brother Ujughen,
+near Lake Bör or Buyur in the upper basin of the Kerulun-Amur. Thence he
+travelled south-westward up the Kerulun, crossed the Karakorum region in
+north-central Mongolia, and so came to the Chinese Altai, probably
+passing near the present Uliassutai. After traversing the Altai he
+visited Bishbalig, answering to the modern Urumtsi, and moved along the
+north side of the Tian Shan range to lake Sairam, Almalig (or Kulja),
+and the rich valley of the Ili. We then trace him to the Chu, over this
+river to Talas and the Tashkent region, and over the Jaxartes (or Syr
+Daria) to Samarkand, where he halted for some months. Finally, through
+the "Iron Gates" of Termit, over the Oxus, and by way of Balkh and
+northern Afghanistan, Chang Chun reached Jenghiz' camp near the Hindu
+Kush. Returning home he followed much the same course as on his outward
+route: certain deviations, however, occur, such as a visit to
+Kuku-khoto. He was back in Peking by the end of January 1224. From the
+narrative of his expedition (the _Si yu ki_, written by his pupil and
+companion Li Chi Chang) we derive some of the most faithful and vivid
+pictures ever drawn of nature and man between the Great Wall of China
+and Kabul, between the Aral and the Yellow Sea: we may particularly
+notice the sketches of the Mongols, and of the people of Samarkand and
+its neighbourhood; the account of the fertility and products of the
+latter region, as of the Ili valley, at or near Almalig-Kulja; and the
+description of various great mountain ranges, peaks and defiles, such as
+the Chinese Altai, the Tian Shan, Mt Bogdo-ola (?), and the Iron Gates
+of Termit. There is, moreover, a noteworthy reference to a land
+apparently identical with the uppermost valley of the Yenisei. After his
+return Chang Chun lived at Peking till his death on the 23rd of July
+1227. By order of Jenghiz some of the former imperial garden grounds
+were made over to him, for the foundation of a Taoist monastery.
+
+  See E. Bretschneider, _Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic
+  Sources_, vol. i. pp. 35-108, where a complete translation of the
+  narrative is given, with a valuable commentary; C.R. Beazley _Dawn of
+  Modern Geography_, iii. 539.     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _cambium, cambiare_,
+to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which
+appears in the Gr. [Greek: kamptein], to bend), properly the
+substitution of one thing for another, hence any alteration or
+variation, so applied to the moon's passing from one phase to another.
+The use of the word for a place of commercial business has usually been
+taken to be a shortened form of Exchange (q.v.) and so is often written
+'Change. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that "change" appears
+earlier than "exchange" in this sense. "Change" is particularly used of
+coins of lower denomination given in substitution for those of larger
+denomination or for a note, cheque, &c., and also for the balance of a
+sum paid larger than that which is due. A further application is that in
+bell-ringing, of the variations in order in which a peal of bells may be
+rung. The term usually excludes the ringing of the bells according to
+the diatonic scale in which they are hung (see BELL). It is from a
+combination of these two meanings that the thieves' slang phrase
+"ringing the changes" arises; it denotes the various methods by which
+wrong change may be given or extracted, or counterfeit coin passed.
+
+
+
+
+CHANGELING, the term used of a child substituted or changed for another,
+especially in the case of substitutions popularly supposed to be through
+fairy agency. There was formerly a widespread superstition that infants
+were sometimes stolen from their cradles by the fairies. Any specially
+peevish or weakly baby was regarded as a changeling, the word coming at
+last to be almost synonymous with imbecility. It was thought that the
+elves could only effect the exchange before christening, and in the
+highlands of Scotland babies were strictly watched till then. Strype
+states that in his time midwives had to take an oath binding themselves
+to be no party to the theft or exchange of babies. The belief is
+referred to by Shakespeare, Spenser and other authors. Pennant, writing
+in 1796, says: "In this very century a poor cottager, who lived near the
+spot, had a child who grew uncommonly peevish; the parents attributed
+this to the fairies and imagined it was a changeling. They took the
+child, put it in a cradle, and left it all night beneath the "Fairy Oak"
+in hopes that the _tylwydd têg_ or fairy family would restore their own
+before morning. When morning came they found the child perfectly quiet,
+so went away with it, quite confirmed in their belief" (_Tour in
+Scotland_, 1796, p. 257).
+
+  See W. Wirt Sikes, _British Goblins_ (1880).
+
+
+
+
+CHANGOS, a tribe of South American Indians who appear to have originally
+inhabited the Peruvian coast. A few of them still live on the coast of
+Atacama, northern Chile. They are a dwarfish race, never exceeding 5 ft.
+in height. Their sole occupation is fishing, and in former times they
+used boats of inflated sealskins, lived in sealskin huts, and slept on
+heaps of dried seaweed. They are a hospitable and friendly people, and
+never resisted the whites.
+
+
+
+
+CHANGRA, or KANGHARI (anc. _Gangra_; called also till the time of
+Caracalla, _Germanicopolis_, after the emperor Claudius), the chief town
+of a sanjak of the same name in the Kastamuni vilayet, Asia Minor,
+situated in a rich, well-watered valley; altitude 2500 ft. The ground is
+impregnated with salt, and the town is unhealthy. Pop. (1894) 15,632, of
+whom 1086 are Christians (Cuinet). Gangra, the capital of the
+Paphlagonian kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus, son of Castor, was taken
+into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 6-5 B.C. The earlier
+town, the name of which signified "she-goat," was built on the hill
+behind the modern city, on which are the ruins of a late fortress; while
+the Roman city occupied the site of the modern. In Christian times
+Gangra was the metropolitan see of Paphlagonia. In the 4th century the
+town was the scene of an important ecclesiastical synod.
+
+_Synod of Gangra._--Conjectures as to the date of this synod vary from
+341 to 376. All that can be affirmed with certainty is that it was held
+about the middle of the 4th century. The synodal letter states that
+twenty-one bishops assembled to take action concerning Eustathius (of
+Sebaste?) and his followers, who contemned marriage, disparaged the
+offices of the church, held conventicles of their own, wore a peculiar
+dress, denounced riches, and affected especial sanctity. The synod
+condemned the Eustathian practices, declaring however, with remarkable
+moderation, that it was not virginity that was condemned, but the
+dishonouring of marriage; not poverty, but the disparagement of honest
+and benevolent wealth; not asceticism, but spiritual pride; not
+individual piety, but dishonouring the house of God. The twenty canons
+of Gangra were declared ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451.
+
+  See Mansi ii. pp. 1095-1122; Hardouin i. pp. 530-540; Hefele 2nd ed.,
+  i. pp. 777 sqq. (English trans. ii. pp. 325 sqq.).
+
+
+
+
+CHANNEL ISLANDS (French _Îles Normandes_), a group of islands in the
+English Channel, belonging (except the Îles Chausey) to Great Britain.
+(For map, see ENGLAND, Section VI.) They lie between 48° 50' and 49° 45'
+N., and 1° 50' and 2° 45' W., along the French coast of Cotentin
+(department of Manche), at a distance of 4 to 40 m. from it, within the
+great rectangular bay of which the northward horn is Cape La Hague. The
+greater part of this bay is shallow, and the currents among the numerous
+groups of islands and rocks are often dangerous to navigation. The
+nearest point of the English coast to the Channel Islands is Portland
+Bill, a little over 50 m. north of the northernmost outlier of the
+islands. The total land area of the islands is about 75 sq. m. (48,083
+acres), and the population in 1901 was 95,618. The principal individual
+islands are four:--JERSEY (area 45 sq. m., pop. 52,576), GUERNSEY (area
+24.5 sq. m., pop. 40,446), ALDERNEY (area 3.06 sq. m., pop. 2062), and
+SARK (area nearly 2 sq. m., pop. 504). Each of these islands is treated
+in a separate article. The chief town and port of Jersey is St Helier,
+and of Guernsey St Peter Port; a small town on Alderney is called St
+Anne. Regular communication by steamer with Guernsey and Jersey is
+provided on alternate days from Southampton and Weymouth, by steamers of
+the London & South-Western and Great Western railway companies of
+England. Railway communications within the islands are confined to
+Jersey. Regular steamship communications are kept up from certain French
+ports, and locally between the larger islands. In summer the islands,
+especially Jersey, Guernsey and Sark, are visited by numerous tourists,
+both from England and from France.
+
+The islands fall physically into four divisions. The northernmost, lying
+due west of Cape La Hague, and separated therefrom by the narrow Race of
+Alderney, includes that island, Burhou and Ortach, and numerous other
+islets west of it, and west again the notorious Casquets, an angry group
+of jagged rocks, on the largest of which is a powerful lighthouse.
+Doubtful tradition places here the wreck of the "White Ship," in which
+William, son of Henry I., perished in 1120; in 1744 the "Victory," a
+British man-of-war, struck on one of the rocks, and among calamities of
+modern times the wreck of the "Stella," a passenger vessel, in 1899, may
+be recalled. The second division of islands is also the most westerly;
+it includes Guernsey with a few islets to the west, and to the east,
+Sark, Herm, Jethou (inhabited islands) and others. The strait between
+Guernsey and Herm is called Little Russel, and that between Herm and
+Sark Great Russel. Sark is famous for its splendid cliffs and caves,
+while Herm possesses the remarkable phenomenon of a shell-beach, or
+shore, half-a-mile in length, formed wholly of small shells, which
+accumulate in a tidal eddy formed at the north of the island. To the
+south-east of these, across the channel called La Déroute, lies Jersey,
+forming, with a few attendant islets, of which the Ecréhou to the
+north-east are the chief, the third division. The fourth and
+southernmost division falls into two main subdivisions. The Minquiers,
+the more western, are a collection of abrupt rocks, the largest of
+which, Maîtresse Ile, affords a landing and shelter for fishermen. Then
+eastern subdivision, the Îles Chausey, lies about 9 m. west by north of
+Granville (to which commune they belong) on the French coast, and
+belongs to France. These rocks are close set, low and curiously regular
+in form. On Grande Ile, the only permanently inhabited island (pop.
+100), some farming is carried on, and several of the islets are
+temporarily inhabited by fishermen. There is also a little
+granite-quarrying, and seaweed-burning employs many.
+
+None of the islands is mountainous, and the fine scenery for which they
+are famous is almost wholly coastal. In this respect each main island
+has certain distinctive characteristics. Bold cliffs are found on the
+south of Alderney; in Guernsey they alternate with lovely bays; Sark is
+specially noted for its magnificent sea-caves, while the coast scenery
+of Jersey is on the whole more gentle than the rest.
+
+  _Geology_.--Geologically, the Channel Islands are closely related to
+  the neighbouring mainland of Normandy. With a few exceptions, to be
+  noted later, all the rocks are of pre-Cambrian, perhaps in part of
+  Archean age. They consist of massive granites, gneisses, diorites,
+  porphyrites, schists and phyllites, all of which are traversed by
+  dykes and veins. In Jersey we find in the north-west corner a granitic
+  tract extending from Grosnez to St Mary and St John, beyond which it
+  passes into a small granulitic patch. South of the granites is a
+  schistose area, by St Ouen and St Lawrence, and reaching to St Aubin's
+  Bay. Granitic masses again appear round St Brelade's Bay. The eastern
+  half of the island is largely occupied by porphyrites and similar
+  rocks (hornstone porphyry) with rhyolites and denitrified obsidians;
+  some of the latter contain large spherulites with a diameter of as
+  much as 24 in.; these are well exposed in Bouley Bay; a complex
+  igneous and intrusive series of rocks lies around St Helier. In the
+  north-east corner of the island a conglomerate, possibly of Cambrian
+  age, occurs between Bouley Bay and St Catherine's Bay. Tracts of
+  blown-sand cover the ground for some distance north of St Clement's
+  Bay and again east of St Ouen's Bay. In the sea off the latter bay a
+  submerged forest occurs. The northern half of Guernsey is mainly
+  dioritic, the southern half, below St Peter, is occupied by gneisses.
+  Several patches of granite and granulite fringe the western coast, the
+  largest of these is a hornblende granite round Rocquaine Bay.
+  Hornblende gneiss from St Sampson and quartz diorite from Capelles,
+  Corvée and elsewhere are transported to England for road metal. Sark
+  is composed almost wholly of hornblende-schists and gneisses with
+  hornblendic granite at the north end of the island, in Little Sark and
+  in the middle of Bréchou. Dykes of diabase and diorite are abundant.
+  Alderney consists mainly of hornblende granite and granulite, which
+  are covered on the east by two areas of sandstone which may be of
+  Cambrian age. An enstatite-augite-diorite is sent from Alderney for
+  road-making. Besides the submerged forest on the coast of Jersey
+  already mentioned, there are similar occurrences near St Peter Port
+  and St Sampson's harbour, and in Vazon Bay in Guernsey. Raised beaches
+  are to be seen at several points in the islands.
+
+_Climate_.--The climate is mild and very pleasant. In Jersey the mean
+temperature for twenty years is found to be--in January (the coldest
+month) 42.1° F., in August (the hottest) 63°, mean annual 51.7°. In
+Guernsey the figures are, for January 42.5°, for August 59.7°, mean
+annual 49.5°. The mean annual rainfall for twenty-five years in Jersey
+is 34.21 in., and in Guernsey 38.64 in. The average amount of sunshine
+in Jersey is considerably greater than in the most favoured spots on the
+south coast of England; and in Guernsey it is only a little less than in
+Jersey. Snow and frost are rare, and the seasons of spring and autumn
+are protracted. Thick sea-fogs are not uncommon, especially in May and
+June.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--The flora of the islands is remarkably rich,
+considering their extent, nearly 2000 different species of plants having
+been counted throughout the group. Of timber properly speaking there is
+little, but the evergreen oak, the elm and the beech are abundant. Wheat
+is the principal grain in cultivation; but far more ground is taken up
+with turnips and potatoes, mangold, parsnip and carrot. The tomato
+ripens as in France, and the Chinese yam has been successfully grown.
+There is a curious cabbage, chiefly cultivated in Jersey, which shoots
+up into a long woody stalk from 10 to 15 ft. in height, fit for
+walking-sticks or palisades. Grapes and peaches come to perfection in
+greenhouses without artificial heat; and not only apples and pears but
+oranges and figs can be reared in the open air. The arbutus ripens its
+fruit, and the camellia clothes itself with blossom, as in more southern
+climates; the fuchsia reaches a height of 15 or 20 ft., and the magnolia
+attains the dimensions of a tree. Of the flowers, both indigenous and
+exotic, that abound throughout the islands, it is sufficient to mention
+the Guernsey lily with its rich red petals, which is supposed to have
+been brought from Japan.
+
+The number of the species of the mammalia is little over twenty, and
+several of these have been introduced by man. There is a special breed
+of horned cattle, and each island has its own variety, which is
+carefully kept from all intermixture. The animals are small and
+delicate, and marked by a peculiar yellow colour round the eyes and
+within the ears. The red deer was once indigenous, and the black rat is
+still common in Alderney, Sark and Herm. The list of birds includes
+nearly 200 species, nearly 100 of which are permanent inhabitants of the
+islands. There are few localities in the northern seas which are visited
+by a greater variety of fish, and the coasts abound in crustacea,
+shell-fish and zoophytes.
+
+_Government_.--For the purposes of government the Channel Islands
+(excluding the French Chauseys) are divided into two divisions:--(1)
+Jersey, and (2) the bailiwick of Guernsey, which includes Alderney,
+Sark, Herm and Jethou with the island of Guernsey. The constitutions of
+each division are peculiar and broadly similar, but differing in certain
+important details; they may therefore be considered together for the
+sake of comparison. Until 1854 governors were appointed by the crown;
+now a separate military lieutenant-governor is appointed for each
+division on the recommendation of the war office after consultation with
+the home office. The other crown officials are the bailiff (_bailli_)
+or chief magistrate, the _procureur du roi_, representing the
+attorney-general, and the _avocat du roi_, or in Guernsey the
+_contrôle_, representing the solicitor-general. In Jersey the _vicomte_
+is also appointed by the crown, in the position of a high sheriff (and
+coroner); but his counterpart in Guernsey, the _prévôt_, is not so
+appointed. The bailiff in each island is president of the royal court,
+which is composed of twelve jurats, elected for life, in Jersey by the
+ratepayers of each parish, in Guernsey by the Elective States, a body
+which also elects the _prévôt_, who, with the jurats, serves upon it.
+The rest of the body is made up of the rectors of the parishes, the
+_douzaines_, or elected parish councils ("dozens," from the original
+number of their members) of the town parish of St Peter Port, the four
+cantons, and the county parishes, and certain other officials. The royal
+court administers justice (but in Jersey there is a trial by jury for
+criminal cases), and in Guernsey can pass temporary ordinances subject
+to no higher body. It also puts forward _projets de loi_ for the
+approval of the Deliberative States. Alderney and Sark have a separate
+legal existence with courts dependent on the royal court of Guernsey. In
+both Jersey and Guernsey the chief administrative body is the
+Deliberative States. The Jersey States is composed of the
+lieutenant-governor (who has a veto on the deliberation of any question,
+but no vote), the bailiff, jurats, parish rectors, parish constables and
+deputies, the _procureur_ and _avocat_, with right to speak but no vote,
+and the _vicomte_, with right of attendance only. Besides the veto of
+the lieutenant-governor, the bailiff has the power to dissent from any
+measure, in which case it is referred to the privy council. In Guernsey
+the States consists of the bailiff, jurats, eight out of ten rectors,
+the _procureur_ and deputies; while the lieutenant-governor is always
+invited and may speak if he attends. By both States local administration
+is carried on (largely through committees); and relations with the
+British parliament are maintained through the privy council. Acts of
+parliament are transmitted to the islands by an order in council to be
+registered in the rolls of the royal court, and are not considered to be
+binding until this is done; moreover, registration may be held over
+pending discussion by the States if any act is considered to menace the
+privileges of the islands. The right of the crown to legislate by order
+in council is held to be similarly limited. In cases of encroachment on
+property, a remarkable form of appeal of very ancient origin called
+_Clameur de Haro_ survives (see HARO, CLAMEUR DE). The islands are in
+the diocese of Winchester, and there is a dean in both Jersey and
+Guernsey, who is also rector of a parish.
+
+These peculiar constitutions are of local development, the history of
+which is obscure. The bailiff was originally assisted in his judicial
+work by itinerant justices; their place was later taken by the elected
+jurats; later still the practice of summoning the States to assist in
+the passing of Ordinances was established by the bailiff and jurats, and
+at last the States claimed the absolute right of being consulted. This
+was confirmed to them in 1771.
+
+It is characteristic of these islands that there should be compulsory
+service in the militia. In Jersey and Alderney every man between the
+ages of sixteen and forty-five is liable, but in Jersey after ten years'
+service militiamen are transferred to the reserve. In Guernsey the age
+limit is from sixteen to thirty-three, and the obligation is extended to
+all who are British subjects, and draw income from a profession
+practised in the island. Garrisons of regular troops are maintained in
+all three islands. Taxation is light in the islands, and pauperism is
+practically unknown.
+
+  In 1904 the revenue of Jersey was £70,191, and its expenditure
+  £69,658; the revenue of Guernsey was £79,334, and the expenditure
+  £43,385. The public debt in the respective islands was £322,070 and
+  £195,794. In Jersey the annual revenues from crown rights (principally
+  seigneurial dues, houses and lands and tithes) amount to about £2700,
+  and about £360 is remitted to the paymaster-general. In Guernsey these
+  revenues, in which the principal item is fines on transference of
+  property (_treizièmes_ or fees), amount to about £4500, and about
+  £1000 is remitted. In Alderney the revenues (chiefly from harbour
+  dues) amount to about £1400.
+
+  In Jersey the English gold and silver coinage are current, but there
+  is a local copper coinage and local one-pound notes are issued.
+  Guernsey has also such notes, and its copper coinage consists of
+  pence, halfpence, two-double and one-double (one-eighth of a penny)
+  pieces. A Guernsey pound is taken as equal to 24 francs, and English
+  and French currency pass equally throughout the islands.
+
+_Industry_.--The old Norman system of land-tenure has survived, and the
+land is parcelled out among a great number of small proprietors;
+holdings ranging from 5 to 25 acres as a rule. The results of this
+arrangement seem to be favourable in the extreme. Every corner of the
+ground is carefully and intelligently cultivated, and a considerable
+proportion is allotted to market-gardening. The cottages are neat and
+comfortable, the hedges well-trimmed, and the roads kept in excellent
+repair. There is a considerable export trade in agricultural produce and
+stock, including vegetables and fruit, in fish (the fisheries forming an
+important industry) and in stone. There is no manufacture of importance.
+The inhabitants share in common the right of collecting and burning
+seaweed (called _vraic_) for manure. The cutting of the weed (vraicking)
+became a ceremonial occasion, taking place at times fixed by the
+government, and connected with popular festivities.
+
+_Language_.--The language spoken in ordinary life by the inhabitants of
+the islands is in great measure the same as the old Norman French. The
+use of the _patois_ has decreased naturally in modern times. Modern
+French is the official language, used in the courts and states, and
+English is taught in the parochial schools, and is familiar practically
+to all. The several islands have each its own dialect, differing from
+that of the others in vocabulary and idiom; differences are also
+observable in different localities within the same island, as between
+the north and the south of Guernsey. None of the dialects has received
+much literary cultivation, though Jersey is proud of being the
+birthplace of one of the principal Norman poets, Wace, who flourished in
+the 12th century.
+
+_History_.--The original ethnology and pre-Christian history of the
+Channel Islands are largely matters of conjecture and debate. Of early
+inhabitants abundant proof is afforded by the numerous megalithic
+monuments--cromlechs, kistvaens and maenhirs--still extant. But little
+trace has been left of Roman occupation, and such remains as have been
+discovered are mainly of the portable description that affords little
+proof of actual settlement, though there may have been an unimportant
+garrison here. The constant recurrence of the names of saints in the
+place-names of the islands, and the fact that pre-Christian names do not
+occur, leads to the inference that before Christianity was introduced
+the population was very scanty. It may be considered to have consisted
+originally of Bretons (Celts), and to have received successively a
+slight admixture of Romans and Legionaries, Saxons and perhaps Jutes and
+Vandals. Christianity may have been introduced in the 5th century.
+Guernsey is said to have been visited in the 6th century by St Sampson
+of Dol (whose name is given to a small town and harbour in the island),
+St Marcou or Marculfus and St Magloire, a friend and fellow-evangelist
+of St Sampson, who founded monasteries at Sark and at Jersey, and died
+in Jersey in 575. Another evangelist of this period was St Helerius,
+whose name is borne by the chief town of Jersey, St Helier. In his life
+it is stated that the population of the island when he reached it was
+only 30. In 933 the islands were made over to William, duke of Normandy
+(d. 943), and after the Norman conquest of England their allegiance
+shifted between the English crown and the Norman coronet according to
+the vicissitudes of war and policy. During the purely Norman period they
+had been enriched with numerous ecclesiastical buildings, some of which
+are still extant, as the chapel of Rozel in Jersey.
+
+In the reign of John of England the future of the islands was decided by
+their attachment to the English crown, in spite of the separation of the
+duchy of Normandy. To John it has been usual to ascribe a document, at
+one time regarded by the islanders as their Magna Carta; but modern
+criticism leaves little doubt that it is not genuine. An unauthenticated
+"copy" of uncertain origin alone has been discovered, and there is
+little proof of there ever having been an original. The reign of Edward
+I. was full of disturbance; and in 1279 Jersey and Guernsey received
+from the king, by letters patent, a public seal as a remedy for the
+dangers and losses which they had incurred by lack of such a
+certificate. Edward II. found it necessary to instruct his collectors
+not to treat the islanders as foreigners: his successor, Edward III.,
+fully confirmed their privileges, immunities and customs in 1341; and
+his charter was recognized by Richard II. in 1378. In 1343 there was a
+descent of the French on Guernsey; the governor was defeated, and Castle
+Cornet besieged. In 1372 there was another attack on Guernsey, and in
+1374 and 1404 the French descended on Jersey. None of these attempts,
+however, resulted in permanent settlement. Henry V. confiscated the
+alien priories which had kept up the same connexion with Normandy as
+before the conquest, and conferred them along with the regalities of the
+islands on his brother, the duke of Bedford. During the Wars of the
+Roses, Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., made an agreement with
+Pierre de Brézé, comte de Maulevrier, the seneschal of Normandy, that if
+he afforded assistance to the king he should hold the islands
+independently of the crown. A force was accordingly sent to take
+possession of Mont Orgueil. It was captured and a small part of the
+island subjugated, and here Maulevrier remained as governor from 1460 to
+1465; but the rest held out under Sir Philip de Carteret, seigneur of St
+Ouen, and in 1467 the vice-admiral of England, Sir Richard Harliston,
+recaptured the castle and brought the foreign occupation to an end. In
+1482-1483 Pope Sixtus IV., at the instance of King Edward IV., issued a
+bull of anathema against all who molested the islands; it was formally
+registered in Brittany in 1484, and in France in 1486; and in this way
+the islands acquired the right of neutrality, which they retained till
+1689. In the same reign (Edward IV.) Sark was taken by the French, and
+only recovered in the reign of Mary, by the strategy (according to
+tradition) of landing from a vessel a coffin nominally containing a body
+for burial, but in reality filled with arms. By a charter of 1494, the
+duties of the governors of Jersey were defined and their power
+restricted; and the educational interests of the island were furthered
+at the same time by the foundation of two grammar schools. The religious
+establishments in the islands were dissolved, as in England, in the
+reign of Henry VIII. The Reformation was heartily welcomed in the
+islands. The English liturgy was translated into French for their use.
+In the reign of Mary there was much religious persecution; and in that
+of Elizabeth Roman Catholics were maltreated in their turn. In 1568 the
+islands were attached to the see of Winchester, being finally separated
+from that of Coutances, with which they had long been connected, with
+short intervals in the reign of John, when they had belonged to the see
+of Exeter, and that of Henry VI., when they had belonged to Salisbury.
+
+The Presbyterian form of church government was adopted under the
+influence of refugees from the persecution of Protestantism on the
+continent. It was formally sanctioned in St Helier and St Peter Port by
+Queen Elizabeth; and in 1603 King James enacted that the whole of the
+islands "should quietly enjoy their said liberty." During his reign,
+however, disputes arose. An Episcopal party had been formed in Jersey,
+and in 1619 David Bandinel was declared dean of the island. A body of
+canons which he drew up agreeable to the discipline of the Church of
+England was accepted after considerable modification by the people of
+his charge; but the inhabitants of Guernsey maintained their
+Presbyterian practices. Of the hold which this form of Protestantism had
+got on the minds of the people even in Jersey abundant proof is afforded
+by the general character of the worship at the present day.
+
+In the great struggle between king and parliament, Presbyterian Guernsey
+supported the parliament; in Jersey, however, there were at first
+parliamentarian and royalist factions. Sir Philip de Carteret,
+lieutenant-governor, declared for the king, but Dean Bandinel and
+Michael Lemprière, a leader of the people, headed the parliamentary
+party. They received a commission for the apprehension of Carteret, who
+established himself in Elizabeth Castle; but after some fighting had
+taken place he died in the castle in August 1643. Meanwhile in Guernsey
+Sir Peter Osborne, the governor, was defying the whole island and
+maintaining himself in Castle Cornet. A parliamentarian governor,
+Leonard Lydcott, arrived in Jersey immediately after Sir Philip de
+Carteret's death. But the dowager Lady Carteret was holding Mont
+Orgueil; George Carteret, Sir Philip's nephew, arrived from St Malo to
+support the royalist cause, and Lydcott and Lemprière presently fled to
+England. George Carteret established himself as lieutenant-governor and
+bailiff. Bandinel was imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and killed himself in
+trying to escape. Jersey was now completely royalist. In 1646 the prince
+of Wales, afterwards Charles II., arrived secretly at Jersey, and
+remained over two months at Elizabeth Castle. He went on to France, but
+returned in 1649, having been proclaimed king by George Carteret, and at
+Elizabeth Castle he signed the declaration of his claims to the throne
+on the 29th of October. In 1651, when Charles had fled to France again
+after the battle of Worcester, parliamentarian vessels of war appeared
+at Jersey. The islanders, weary of the tyrannical methods of their
+governor, now Sir George Carteret, offered little resistance. On the
+15th of December the royalist remnant yielded up Elizabeth Castle; and
+at the same time Castle Cornet, Guernsey, which had been steadily held
+by Osborne, capitulated. In each case honourable terms of surrender were
+granted. Both islands had suffered severely from the struggle, and the
+people of Guernsey, appealing to Cromwell on the ground of their support
+of his cause, complained that two-thirds of the land was out of
+cultivation, and that they had lost "their ships, their traffic and
+their trading." After the Restoration there was considerable
+improvement, and in the reign of James II. the islanders got a grant of
+wool for the manufacture of stockings--4000 tods[1] of wool being
+annually allowed to Jersey, 2000 to Guernsey, 400 to Alderney and 200 to
+Sark. Alderney, which had been parliamentarian, was granted after the
+Restoration to the Carteret family; and it continued to be governed
+independently till 1825.
+
+By William of Orange the neutrality of the islands was abolished in
+1689, and during the war between England and France (1778-1783) there
+were two unsuccessful attacks on Jersey, in 1779 and 1781, the second,
+under Baron de Rullecourt, being famous for the victory over the
+invaders due to the bravery of the young Major Peirson, who fell when
+the French were on the point of surrender. During the revolutionary
+period in France the islands were the home of many refugees. In the 18th
+century various attempts were made to introduce the English custom-house
+system; but proved practically a failure, and the islands throve on
+smuggling and privateering down to 1800.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Heylin, _Relation of two Journeys_ (1656); P. Falle,
+  _Account of the Island of Jersey_ (1694; notes, &c., by E. Durell,
+  Jersey, 1837); J. Duncan, _History of Guernsey_ (London, 1841); P. le
+  Geyt, _Sur les constitutions, les lois et les usages de cette île_
+  [Jersey], ed. R.P. Marett (Jersey, 1846-1847); F.B. Tupper,
+  _Chronicles of Castle Cornet, Guernsey_ (2nd ed. London, 1851), and
+  _History of Guernsey and its Bailiwick_ (Guernsey, 1854); S.E.
+  Hoskins, _Charles II. in the Channel Islands_ (London, 1854), and
+  other works; Delacroix, _Jersey, ses antiquités, &c._ (Jersey, 1859);
+  T. le Cerf, _L'archipel des Îles Normandes_ (Paris, 1863); G. Dupont,
+  _Le Cotentin et ses îles_ (Caen, 1870-1885); J.P.E. Havet, _Les Cours
+  royales des Îles Normandes_ (Paris, 1878); E. Pégot-Ogier, _Histoire
+  des Îles de la Manche_ (Paris, 1881); C. Noury, _Géologie de Jersey_
+  (Paris and Jersey, 1886); D.T. Ansted and R.G. Latham, _Channel
+  Islands_ (1865; 3rd ed., rev. by E.T. Nicolle, London, 1893), the
+  principal general work of reference; Sir E. MacCulloch, _Guernsey
+  Folklore_, ed. Edith F. Carey (London, 1903); E.F. Carey, _Channel
+  Islands_ (London, 1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A tod generally equalled 28 lb.
+
+
+
+
+CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780-1842), American divine and
+philanthropist, was born in Newport, Rhode Island, on the 7th of April
+1780. His maternal grandfather was William Ellery, a signer of the
+Declaration of Independence; his mother, Lucy Ellery, was a remarkable
+woman; and his father, William Channing, was a prominent lawyer in
+Newport. Channing had as a child a refined delicacy of feature and
+temperament, and seemed to have inherited from his father simple and
+elegant tastes, sweetness of temper, and warmth of affection, and from
+his mother that strong moral discernment and straightforward rectitude
+of purpose and action which formed so striking a feature of his
+character. From his earliest years he delighted in the beauty of the
+scenery of Newport, and always highly estimated its influence upon his
+spiritual character. His father was a strict Calvinist, and Dr Samuel
+Hopkins, one of the leaders of the old school Calvinists, was a frequent
+guest in his father's house. He was, even as a child, he himself says,
+"quite a theologian, and would chop logic with his elders according to
+the fashion of that controversial time." He prepared for college in New
+London under the care of his uncle, the Rev. Henry Channing, and in
+1794, about a year after the death of his father, entered Harvard
+College. Before leaving New London he came under religious influences to
+which he traced the beginning of his spiritual life. In his college
+vacations he taught at Lancaster, Massachusetts, and in term time he
+stinted himself in food that he might need less exercise and so save
+time for study,--an experiment which undermined his health, producing
+acute dyspepsia. From his college course he thought that he got little
+good, and said "when I was in college, only three books that I read were
+of any moment to me: ... Ferguson on _Civil Society_, ... Hutcheson's
+_Moral Philosophy_, and Price's _Dissertations_. Price saved me from
+Locke's philosophy."
+
+After graduating in 1798, he lived at Richmond, Virginia, as tutor in
+the family of David Meade Randolph, United States marshal for Virginia.
+Here he renewed his ascetic habits and spent much time in theological
+study, his mind being greatly disturbed in regard to Trinitarian
+teachings in general and especially prayer to Jesus. He returned to
+Newport in 1800 "a thin and pallid invalid," spent a year and a half
+there, and in 1802 went to Cambridge as regent (or general proctor) in
+Harvard; in the autumn of 1802 he began to preach, having been approved
+by the Cambridge Association. On the 1st of June 1803, having refused
+the more advantageous pastorate of Brattle Street church, he was
+ordained pastor of the Federal Street Congregational church in Boston.
+At this time it seems certain that his theological views were not fixed,
+and in 1808, when he preached a sermon at the ordination of the Rev.
+John Codman (1782-1847), he still applied the title "Divine Master" to
+Jesus Christ, and used such expressions as "shed for souls" of the blood
+of Jesus, and "the Son of God himself left the abodes of glory and
+expired a victim of the cross." But his sermon preached in 1819 at
+Baltimore at the ordination of the Rev. Jared Sparks was in effect a
+powerful attack on Trinitarianism, and was followed in 1819 by an
+article in _The Christian Disciple_, "Objections to Unitarian
+Christianity Considered," and in 1820 by another, "The Moral Argument
+against Calvinism"--an excellent evidence of the moral (rather than the
+intellectual) character of Unitarian protest. In 1814 he had married a
+rich cousin, Ruth Gibbs, but refused to make use of the income from her
+property on the ground that clergymen were so commonly accused of
+marrying for money.
+
+He was now entering on his public career. Even in 1810, in a Fast Day
+sermon, he warned his congregation of Bonaparte's ambition; two years
+later he deplored "this country taking part with the oppressor against
+that nation which has alone arrested his proud career of victory"; in
+1814 he preached a thanksgiving sermon for the overthrow of Napoleon;
+and in 1816 he preached a sermon on war which led to the organization of
+the Massachusetts Peace Society. His sermon on "Religion, a Social
+Principle," helped to procure the omission from the state constitution
+of the third article of Part I., which made compulsory a tax for the
+support of religious worship. In 1821 he delivered the Dudleian lecture
+on the "Evidences of Revealed Religion" at Harvard, of whose corporation
+he had been a member since 1813; he had received its degree of S.T.D. in
+1820. In August 1821 he undertook a journey to Europe, in the course of
+which he met in England many distinguished men of letters, especially
+Wordsworth and Coleridge. Both of these poets greatly influenced him
+personally and by their writings, and he prophesied that the Lake poets
+would be one of the greatest forces in a forming spiritual reform.
+Coleridge wrote of him, "He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of
+love."
+
+On his return to America in August 1823, Dr Channing resumed his duties
+as pastor, but with a more decided attention than before to literature
+and public affairs, especially after receiving as colleague, in 1824,
+the Rev. Ezra Stiles Gannett. In 1830, because of his wife's bad health,
+Channing went to the West Indies. Negro slavery, as he saw it there, and
+as he had seen it in Richmond, more than thirty years before, so
+strongly impressed him that he began to write his book _Slavery_ (1835).
+In this he insists that "not what is profitable, but what is right" is
+"the first question to be proposed by a rational being"; that slavery
+ought to be discussed "with a deep feeling of responsibility, and so
+done as not to put in jeopardy the peace of the slave-holding states";
+that "man cannot be justly held and used as property"; that the tendency
+of slavery is morally, intellectually, and domestically, bad; that
+emancipation, however, should not be forced on slave-holders by
+governmental interference, but by an enlightened public conscience in
+the South (and in the North), if for no other reason, because "slavery
+should be succeeded by a friendly relation between master and slave; and
+to produce this the latter must see in the former his benefactor and
+deliverer." He declined to identify himself with the Abolitionists,
+whose motto was "Immediate Emancipation" and whose passionate agitation
+he thought unsuited to the work they were attempting. The moderation and
+temperance of his presentation of the anti-slavery cause naturally
+resulted in some misunderstanding and misstatement of his position, such
+as is to be found in Mrs Chapman's _Appendix_ to the _Autobiography of
+Harriet Martineau_, where Channing is represented as actually using his
+influence on behalf of slavery. In 1837 he published _Thoughts on the
+Evils of a Spirit of Conquest, and on Slavery: A Letter on the
+Annexation of Texas to the United States_, addressed to Henry Clay, and
+arguing that the Texan revolt from Mexican rule was largely the work of
+land-speculators, and of those who resolved "to throw Texas open to
+slave-holders and slaves"; that the results of annexation must be war
+with Mexico, embroiling the United States with England and other
+European powers, and at home the extension and perpetuation of slavery,
+not alone in Texas but in other territories which the United States,
+once started at conquest, would force into the Union. But he still
+objected to political agitation by the Abolitionists, preferring
+"unremitting appeals to the reason and conscience," and, even after the
+prominent part he took in the meeting in Faneuil Hall, called to protest
+against the murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, he wrote to _The Liberator_,
+counselling the Abolitionists to "disavow this resort to force by Mr
+Lovejoy." Channing's pamphlet _Emancipation_ (1840) dealt with the
+success of emancipation in the West Indies, as related in Joseph John
+Gurney's _Familiar Letters to Henry Clay of Kentucky, describing a
+Winter in the West Indies_ (1840), and added his own advice "that we
+should each of us bear our conscientious testimony against slavery," and
+that the Free States "abstain as rigidly from the use of political power
+against Slavery in the States where it is established, as from
+exercising it against Slavery in foreign communities," and should free
+themselves "from any obligation to use the powers of the national or
+state governments in any manner whatever for the support of slavery." In
+1842 he published _The Duty of the Free States_, or _Remarks Suggested
+by the Case of the Creole_, a careful analysis of the letter of
+complaint from the American to the British government, and a defence of
+the position taken by the British government. On the 1st of August 1842
+he delivered at Lenox, Massachusetts, an address celebrating the
+anniversary of emancipation in the British West Indies. Two months
+later, on the 2nd of October 1842, he died at Bennington, Vermont.
+
+Physically Channing was short and slight; his eyes were unnaturally
+large; his voice wonderfully clear, and like his face, filled with
+devotional spirit. He was not a great pastor, and lacked social tact, so
+that there were not many people who became his near friends; but by the
+few who knew him well, he was almost worshipped. As a preacher Channing
+was often criticised for his failure to deal with the practical everyday
+duties of life. But his sermons are remarkable for their rare simplicity
+and gracefulness of style as well as for the thought that they express.
+The first open defence of Unitarians was not based on doctrinal
+differences but on the peculiar nature of the attack on them made in
+June 1815 by the conservatives in the columns of _The Panoplist_, where
+it was stated that Unitarians were "operating only in secret, ... guilty
+of hypocritical concealment of their sentiments." His chief objection to
+the doctrine of the Trinity (as stated in his sermon at the ordination
+of the Rev. Jared Sparks) was that it was no longer used
+philosophically, as showing God's relation to the triple nature of man,
+but that it had lapsed into mere Tritheism. To the name "Unitarian"
+Channing objected strongly, thinking "unity" as abstract a word as
+"trinity" and as little expressing the close fatherly relation of God to
+man. It is to be noted that he strongly objected to the growth of
+"Unitarian orthodoxy" and its increasing narrowness. His views as to the
+divinity of Jesus were based on phrases in the Gospels which to his mind
+established Christ's admission of inferiority to God the Father,--for
+example, "Knoweth no man, neither the Son, but the Father"; at the same
+time he regarded Christ as "the sinless and spotless son of God,
+distinguished from all men by that infinite peculiarity--freedom from
+moral evil." He believed in the pre-existence of Jesus, and that it
+differed from the pre-existence of other souls in that Jesus was
+actually conscious of such pre-existence, and he reckoned him one with
+God the Father in the sense of spiritual union (and not metaphysical
+mystery) in the same way that Jesus bade his disciples "Be ye one, even
+as I am one." Bunsen called him "the prophet in the United States for
+the presence of God in mankind." Channing believed in historic
+Christianity and in the story of the resurrection, "a fact which comes
+to me with a certainty I find in few ancient histories." He also
+believed in the miracles of the Gospels, but held that the Scriptures
+were not inspired, but merely records of inspiration, and so saw the
+possibility of error in the construction put upon miracles by the
+ignorant disciples. But in only a few instances did he refuse full
+credence of the plain gospel narrative of miracles. He held, however,
+that the miracles were facts and not "evidences" of Christianity, and he
+considered that belief in them followed and did not lead up to belief in
+Christianity. His character was absolutely averse from controversy of
+any sort, and in controversies into which he was forced he was free from
+any theological odium and continually displayed the greatest breadth and
+catholicity of view. The differences in New England churches he
+considered were largely verbal, and he said that "would Trinitarians
+tell us what they mean, their system would generally be found little
+else than a mystical form of the Unitarian doctrine."
+
+His opposition to Calvinism was so great that even in 1812 he declared
+"existence a curse" if Calvinism be true. Possibly his boldest and most
+elaborate defence of Unitarianism was his sermon on _Unitarianism most
+favourable to Piety_, preached in 1826, criticizing as it did the
+doctrine of atonement by the sacrifice of an "infinite substitute"; and
+the Election Sermon of 1830 was his greatest plea for spiritual and
+intellectual freedom.
+
+Channing's reputation as an author was probably based largely on his
+publication in _The Christian Examiner_ of _Remarks on the Character and
+Writings of John Milton_ (1826), _Remarks on the Life and Character of
+Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1827-1828), and an _Essay on the Character and
+Writings of Fénelon_ (1829). An _Essay on Self-Culture_ (1838) was an
+address introducing the Franklin Lectures delivered in Boston September
+1838. Channing was an intimate friend of Horace Mann, and his views on
+the education of children are stated, by no less an authority than
+Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, to have anticipated those of Froebel. His
+_Complete Works_ have appeared in various editions (5 vols., Boston,
+1841; 2 vols., London, 1865; 1 vol., New York, 1875).
+
+Among members of his family may be mentioned his two nephews William
+Henry (1810-1884), son of his brother Francis Dana, and William Ellery,
+commonly known as Ellery (1818-1901), son of his brother Walter, a
+Boston physician (1786-1876). The former, whose daughter married Sir
+Edwin Arnold, the English poet, became a Unitarian pastor, for some
+time in America, and also in England, where he died; he was deeply
+interested in Christian Socialism, and was a constant writer,
+translating Jouffroy's _Ethics_ (1840), and assisting in editing the
+_Memoirs of Margaret Fuller_ (1852); and he wrote the biography of his
+uncle (see O.B. Frothingham's _Memoir_, 1886). Ellery Channing married
+Margaret Fuller's sister (1842), and besides critical essays and poems
+published an intimate sketch of Thoreau in 1873.
+
+  See the _Memoir_ by William Henry Channing (3 vols., London, 1848;
+  republished in one volume, New York, 1880); Elizabeth Palmer Peabody,
+  _Reminiscences of the Rev. William Ellery Channing, D.D_. (Boston,
+  1880), intimate but inexact; John White Chadwick, _William Ellery
+  Channing, Minister of Religion_ (Boston, 1903); and William M. Salter,
+  "Channing as a Social Reformer" (_Unitarian Review_, March 1888).
+       (R. We.)
+
+
+
+
+CHANSONS DE GESTE, the name given to the epic chronicles which take so
+prominent a place in the literature of France from the 11th to the 15th
+century. Gaston Paris defined a chanson de geste as a song the subject
+of which is a series of historical facts or _gesta_. These facts form
+the centre around which are grouped sets of poems, called cycles, and
+hence the two terms have in modern criticism become synonymous for the
+epic family to which the hero of the particular group or cycle belongs.
+The earliest chansons de geste were founded on the fusion of the
+Teutonic spirit, under a Roman form, into the new Christian and French
+civilization. It seems probable that as early as the 9th century epic
+poems began to be chanted by the itinerant minstrels who are known as
+jongleurs. It is conjectured that in a base Latin fragment of the 10th
+century we possess a translation of a poem on the siege of Girona.
+Gaston Paris dates from this lost epic the open expression of what he
+calls "the epic fermentation" of France. But the earliest existing
+chanson de geste is also by far the noblest and most famous, the
+_Chanson de Roland_; the conjectural date of the composition of this
+poem has been placed between the years 1066 and 1095. That the author,
+as has been supposed, was one of the conquerors of England, it is
+perhaps rash to assert, but undoubtedly the poem was composed before the
+First Crusade, and the writer lived at or near the sanctuary of Mont
+Saint-Michel. The _Chanson de Roland_ stands at the head of modern
+French literature, and its solidity and grandeur give a dignity to the
+whole class of poetry of which it is the earliest and by far the noblest
+example. But it is in the crowd of looser and later poems, less fully
+characterized, less steeped in the individuality of their authors, that
+we can best study the form of the typical chanson de geste. These epics
+sprang from the soil of France; they were national and historical; their
+anonymous writers composed them spontaneously, to a common model, with
+little regard to the artificial niceties of style. The earlier examples,
+which succeed the _Roland_, are unlike that great work in having no
+plan, no system of composition. They are improvisations which wander on
+at their own pace, whither accident may carry them. This mass of
+medieval literature is monotonous, primitive and superficial. As Léon
+Gautier has said, in the rudimentary psychology of the chansons de
+geste, man is either entirely good or entirely bad. There are no fine
+shades, no observation of character. The language in which these poems
+are composed is extremely simple, without elaboration, without ornament.
+Everything is sacrificed to the telling of a story by a narrator of
+little skill, who helps himself along by means of a picturesque, but
+almost childish fancy, and a primitive sentiment of rhythm. Two great
+merits, however, all the best of these poems possess, force and
+lucidity; and they celebrate, what they did much to create, that
+unselfish elevation of temper which we call the spirit of chivalry.
+
+Perhaps the most important cycle of chansons de geste was that which was
+collected around the name of Charlemagne, and was known as the _Geste du
+roi_. A group of this cycle dealt with the history of the mother of the
+emperor, and with Charlemagne himself down to the coming of Roland. To
+this group belong _Bertha Greatfoot_ and _Aspremont_, both of the 12th
+century, and a variety of chansons dealing with the childhood of
+Charlemagne and of Ogier the Dane. A second group deals with the
+struggle of Charlemagne with his rebellious vassals. This is what has
+been defined as the Feudal Epic; it includes _Girars de Viane_ and
+_Ogier the Dane_, both of the 13th century, or the end of the 12th. A
+third group follows Charlemagne and his peers to the East. It is in the
+principal of these poems, _The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem_, that
+Alexandrine verse first makes its appearance in French literature. This
+must belong to the beginning of the 12th century. A fourth group,
+antecedent to the Spanish war, is of the end of the 12th century and the
+beginning of the 13th; it includes _Aiquin_, _Fierabras_ and _Otinel_.
+The fifth class discusses the war in Spain, and it is to this that
+_Roland_ belongs; there are different minor epics dealing with the
+events of Roncevaux, and independent chansons of _Gui de Bourgogne_,
+_Gaidon_ and _Anseïs de Carthage_. The _Geste du Roi_ comprises a sixth
+and last group, proceeding with events up to the death of Charlemagne;
+this contains _Huon de Bordeaux_ and a vast number of poems of minor
+originality and importance.
+
+Another cycle is that of Duke William Shortnose, _La Geste de
+Guillaume_. This includes the very early and interesting _Departure of
+the Aimeri Children_, _Aliscans_ and _Rainoart_. It is thought that this
+cycle, which used to be called the _Geste de Garin de Monglane_, is less
+artificial than the others; it deals with the heroes of the South who
+remained faithful in their vassalage to the throne. The poems belonging
+to this cycle are extremely numerous, and some of them are among the
+earliest which survive. These chansons find their direct opposites in
+those which form the great cycle of _La Geste de Doon de Mayence_,
+sometimes called "la faulse geste," because it deals with the feats of
+the traitors, of the rebellious family of Ganelon. This is the geste of
+the Northmen, always hostile to the Carlovingian dynasty. It comprises
+some of the most famous of the chansons, in particular _Parise la
+duchesse_ and _The Four Sons of Aymon_. Several of its sections are the
+production of a known poet, Raimbert of Paris. From this triple division
+of the main body of the chansons de geste into _La Geste du Roi_, _La
+Geste de Guillaume_ and _La Geste de Doon_, are excluded certain poems
+of minor importance,--some provincial, such as _Amis and Amiles_ and
+_Garin_, some dealing with the Crusades, such as _Antioche_, and some
+which are not connected with any existing cycle, such as _Ciperis de
+Vignevaux_; most of this last category, however, are works of the
+decadence.
+
+The analysis which is here sketched is founded on the latest theories of
+Léon Gautier, who has given the labour of a lifetime to the
+investigation of this subject. The wealth of material is baffling to the
+ordinary student; of the medieval chansons de geste many hundreds of
+thousands of lines have been preserved. The habit of composing became in
+the 14th century, as has been said, no longer an art but a monomania.
+Needless to add that a very large proportion of the surviving poems have
+never yet been published. All the best of the early chansons de geste
+are written in ten-syllable verse, divided into stanzas or _laisses_ of
+different length, united by a single assonance. Rhyme came in with the
+13th century, and had the effect in languid bards of weakening the
+narrative; the sing-song of it led at last to the abandonment of verse
+in favour of plain historical prose. The general character of the
+chansons de geste, especially of those of the 12th century, is hard,
+coarse, inflexible, like the march of rough men stiffened by coats of
+mail. There is no art and little grace, but a magnificent display of
+force. These poems enshrine the self-sufficiency of a young and powerful
+people; they are full of Gallic pride, they breathe the spirit of an
+indomitable warlike energy. All their figures belong to the same social
+order of things, and all illustrate the same fighting aristocracy. The
+moving principle is that of chivalry, and what is presented is,
+invariably, the spectacle of the processional life of a medieval
+soldier. The age described is a disturbed one; the feudal anarchy of
+Europe is united, for a moment, in defending western civilization
+against the inroads of Asia, against "the yellow peril." But it is a
+time of transition in Europe also, and Charlemagne, the immortal but
+enfeebled emperor, whose beard is whiter than lilies, represents an old
+order of things against which the rude barons of the North are
+perpetually in successful revolt. The loud cry of the dying Ronald, as
+E. Quinet said, rings through the whole poetical literature of medieval
+France; it is the voice of the individuality of the great vassal, who,
+in the decay of the empire, stands alone with himself and with his
+sword.
+
+  AUTHORITIES,--Léon Gautier, _Les Épopées françaises_ (4 vols.,
+  1878-1894); Gaston Paris, _La Littérature française au moyen âge_
+  (1890); Paul Meyer, _Recherches sur l'épopée française_ (1867); G.
+  Paris, _Histoire poétique de Charlemagne_ (1865); A. Longnon, _Les
+  Quatre Fits Aimon_, &c. (1879).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. _cantare_, to sing; an old
+form is "chaunt"), a song or melody, particularly one sung according to
+the rules of church service-books. For an account of the chant or
+_cantus firmus_ of the Roman Church see PLAIN-SONG. In the English
+church "chants" are the tunes set to the unmetrical verses of the psalms
+and canticles. The chant consisted of an "intonation" followed by a
+reciting note of indefinite length; a "mediation" closed the first part
+of the verse, leading to a second reciting note; a "termination" closed
+the second part of the verse. In the English chant the "intonation"
+disappeared. Chants are "single," if written for one verse only,
+"double," if for two. "Quadruple" chants for four verses have also been
+written.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTABUN, or CHANTABURI, the principal town of the Siamese province of
+the same name, on the E. side of the Gulf of Siam, in 102° 6' E., 12°
+38' N. Pop. about 5000. The town lies about 12 m. from the sea on a
+river which is navigable for boats and inside the bar of which there is
+good anchorage for light-draft vessels. The trade is chiefly in rubies
+and sapphires from the mines of the Krat and Pailin districts, and in
+pepper, of which about 500 tons are exported annually. Cardamoms and
+rosewood are also exported. In 1905 Chantabun was made the headquarters
+of a high commissioner with jurisdiction extending over the coast
+districts from the Nam Wen on the East to Cape Liant on the West, which
+were thus united to form a provincial division (_Monton_). In 1893
+Chantabun was occupied by a French force of four hundred men, a step
+taken by France as a guarantee for the execution by Siam of undertakings
+entered into by the treaty of that year. The occupation, which was
+merely military and did not affect the civil government, lasted until
+January 1905, when, in accordance with the provisions of the
+Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904, the garrison of occupation was withdrawn.
+Chantabun has been since the 17th century, and still is, a stronghold of
+the Roman Catholic missionaries, and the Christian element amongst the
+population is greater here than anywhere else in Siam.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo, on the
+left bank of the Río de Chantada, a small right-hand tributary of the
+river Miño, and on the main road from Orerse, 18 m. S. by W., to Lugo,
+28 m. N. by E. Pop. (1900) 15,003. Chantada is the chief town of the
+fertile region between the Miño and the heights of El Faro, which mark
+the western border of the province. Despite the lack of railway
+communication, it has a thriving trade in grain, flax, hemp, and dairy
+produce.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTAGE (a Fr. word from _chanter_, to sing, slang for a criminal
+making an avowal under examination), a demand for money backed by the
+threat of scandalous revelations, the French equivalent of "blackmail."
+
+
+
+
+CHANTARELLE, an edible fungus, known botanically as _Cantharellus
+cibarius_, found in woods in summer. It is golden yellow, somewhat
+inversely conical in shape and about 2 in. broad and high. The cap is
+flattened above with a central depression and a thick lobed irregular
+margin. Running down into the stem from the cap are a number of shallow
+thick gills. The substance of the fungus is dry and opaque with a
+peculiar smell suggesting ripe apricots or plums. The flesh is whitish
+tinged with yellow. The chantarelle is sold in the markets on the
+continent of Europe, where it forms a regular article of food, but seems
+little known in Britain though often plentiful in the New Forest and
+elsewhere. Before being cooked they should be allowed to dry, and then
+thrown into boiling water. They may then be stewed in butter or oil, or
+cut up small and stewed with meat. No fungus requires more careful
+preparation.
+
+  See M.C. Cooke, _British Edible Fungi_, (1891), pp. 104-105.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTAVOINE, HENRI (1850- ), French man of letters, was born at
+Montpellier on the 6th of August 1850, and was educated at the École
+Normale Supérieure. After teaching in the provinces he moved, in 1876,
+to the Lycée Charlemagne in Paris, and subsequently became professor of
+rhetoric at the Lycée Henri IV. and _maître de conferences_ at the École
+Normale at Sèvres. He was associated with the _Nouvelle Revue_ from its
+foundation in 1879, and he joined the _Journal des débats_ in 1884. His
+poems include _Poèmes sincères_ (1877), _Satires contemporaines_ (1881),
+_Ad memoriam_ (1884), _Au fil des jours_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+CHANTILLY, a town of northern France, in the department of Oise, 25 m.
+N. of Paris on the Northern railway to St Quentin. Pop. (1906) 4632. It
+is finely situated to the north of the forest of Chantilly and on the
+left bank of the river Nonette, and is one of the favourite Parisian
+resorts. Its name was long associated with the manufacture, which has
+now to a great extent decayed, of lace and blonde; it is still more
+celebrated for its château and its park (laid out originally by A. Le
+Nôtre in the second half of the 17th century), and as the scene of the
+great annual races of the French Jockey Club. The château consists of
+the palace built from 1876 to 1885 and of an older portion adjoining it
+known as the châtelet. The old castle must have been in existence in the
+13th century, and in the reign of Charles VI. the lordship belonged to
+Pierre d'Orgemont, chancellor of France. In 1484 it passed to the house
+of Montmorency, and in 1632 from that family to the house of Condé.
+Louis II., prince de Condé, surnamed the Great, was specially attached
+to the place, and did a great deal to enhance its beauty and splendour.
+Here he enjoyed the society of La Bruyère, Racine, Molière, La Fontaine,
+Boileau, and other great men of his time; and here his steward Vatel
+killed himself in despair, because of a hitch in the preparations for
+the reception of Louis XIV. The stables close to the racecourse were
+built from 1719 to 1735 by Louis-Henri, duke of Bourbon. Of the two
+splendid mansions existing at that period known as the grand château and
+the châtelet, the former was destroyed about the time of the Revolution,
+but the latter, built for Anne de Montmorency by Jean Bullant, still
+remains as one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in
+France. The château d'Enghien, facing the entrance to the grand château,
+was built in 1770 as a guest-house. On the death in 1830 of the duke of
+Bourbon, the last representative of the house of Condé, the estate
+passed into the hands of Henri, duc d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis
+Philippe. In 1852 the house of Orleans was declared incapable of
+possessing property in France, and Chantilly was accordingly sold by
+auction. Purchased by the English bankers, Coutts & Co., it passed back
+into the hands of the duc d'Aumale, in 1872. By him a magnificent
+palace, including a fine chapel in the Renaissance style, was erected on
+the foundations of the ancient grand château and in the style of the
+châtelet. It is quadrilateral in shape, consisting of four unequal sides
+flanked by towers and built round a courtyard. The whole group of
+buildings as well as the pleasure-ground behind them, known as the
+Parterre de la Volière, is surrounded by fosses supplied with water from
+the Nonette. On the terrace in front of the château there is a bronze
+statue of the constable Anne de Montmorency. The duc d'Aumale installed
+in the châtelet a valuable library, specially rich in incunabula and
+16th century editions of classic authors, and a collection of the
+paintings of the great masters, besides many other objects of art. By a
+public act in 1886 he gave the park and château with its superb
+collections to the Institute of France in trust for the nation,
+reserving to himself only a life interest; and when he died in 1897 the
+Institute acquired full possession.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT (1782-1841), English sculptor, was born on
+the 7th of April 1782 at Norton near Sheffield, where his father, a
+carpenter, cultivated a small farm. His father died when he was eight
+years of age; and his mother having married again, his profession was
+left to be chosen by his friends. In his sixteenth year he was on the
+point of being apprenticed to a grocer in Sheffield, when, having seen
+some wood-carving in a shop-window, he requested to be made a carver
+instead, and was accordingly placed with a Mr Ramsey, wood-carver in
+Sheffield. In this situation he became acquainted with Raphael Smith, a
+distinguished draftsman in crayon, who gave him lessons in painting; and
+Chantrey, eager to commence his course as an artist, procured the
+cancelling of his indentures, and went to try his fortune in Dublin and
+Edinburgh, and finally (1802) in London. Here he first obtained
+employment as an assistant wood-carver, but at the same time devoted
+himself to portrait-painting, bust-sculpture, and modelling in clay. He
+exhibited pictures at the Academy for some years from 1804, but from
+1807 onwards devoted himself mainly to sculpture. The sculptor Nollekens
+showed particular zeal in recognizing his merits. In 1807 he married his
+cousin, Miss Wale, who had some property of her own. His first
+imaginative work in sculpture was the model of the head of Satan, which
+was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1808. He afterwards executed for
+Greenwich hospital four colossal busts of the admirals Duncan, Howe,
+Vincent and Nelson; and so rapidly did his reputation spread that the
+next bust which he executed, that of Horne Tooke, procured him
+commissions to the extent of £12,000. From this period he was almost
+uninterruptedly engaged in professional labour. In 1819 he visited
+Italy, and became acquainted with the most distinguished sculptors of
+Florence and Rome. He was chosen an associate (1815) and afterwards a
+member (1818) of the Royal Academy, received the degree of M.A. from
+Cambridge, and that of D.C.L. from Oxford, and in 1835 was knighted. He
+died after an illness of only two hours' duration on the 25th of
+November 1841, having for some years suffered from disease of the heart,
+and was buried in a tomb constructed by himself in the church of his
+native village.
+
+The works of Chantrey are extremely numerous. The principal are the
+statues of Washington in the State-house at Boston, U.S.A.; of George
+III. in the Guildhall, London; of George IV. at Brighton; of Pitt in
+Hanover Square, London; of James Watt in Westminster Abbey and in
+Glasgow; of Roscoe and Canning in Liverpool; of Dalton in Manchester; of
+Lord President Blair and Lord Melville in Edinburgh, &c. Of his
+equestrian statues the most famous are those of Sir Thomas Munro in
+Calcutta, and the duke of Wellington in front of the London Exchange.
+But the finest of Chantrey's works are his busts, and his delineations
+of children. The figures of two children asleep in each other's arms,
+which form a monumental design in Lichfield cathedral, have always been
+lauded for beauty, simplicity and grace. So is also the statue of the
+girlish Lady Louisa Russell, represented as standing on tiptoe and
+fondling a dove in her bosom. Both these works appear, in design, to
+have owed something to Stothard; for Chantrey knew his own scantiness of
+ideal invention or composition, and on system sought aid from others for
+such attempts. In busts, his leading excellence is facility--a ready
+unconstrained air of life, a prompt vivacity of ordinary expression.
+Allan Cunningham and Weekes were his chief assistants, and were indeed
+the active executants of many works that pass under Chantrey's name.
+Chantrey was a man of warm and genial temperament, and is said to have
+borne noticeable though commonplace resemblance to the usual portraits
+of Shakespeare.
+
+_Chantrey Bequest._--By the will dated the 31st of December 1840,
+Chantrey (who had no children) left his whole residuary personal estate
+after the decease or on the second marriage of his widow (less certain
+specified annuities and bequests) in trust for the president and
+trustees of the Royal Academy (or in the event of the dissolution of the
+Royal Academy, to such society as might take its place), the income to
+be devoted to the encouragement of British fine art in painting and
+sculpture only, by "the purchase of works of fine art of the highest
+merit ... that can be obtained." The funds might be allowed to
+accumulate for not more than five years; works by British or foreign
+artists, dead or living, might be acquired, so long as such works were
+entirely executed within the shores of Great Britain, the artists having
+been in residence there during such execution and completion. The prices
+to be paid were to be "liberal," and no sympathy for an artist or his
+family was to influence the selection or the purchase of works, which
+were to be acquired solely on the ground of intrinsic merit. No
+commission or orders might be given: the works must be finished before
+purchase. Conditions were made as to the exhibition of the works, in the
+confident expectation that as the intention of the testator was to form
+and establish a "public collection of British Fine Art in Painting and
+Sculpture," the government or the country would provide a suitable
+gallery for their display; and an annual sum of £300 and £50 was to be
+paid to the president of the Royal Academy and the secretary
+respectively, for the discharge of their duties in carrying out the
+provisions of the will.
+
+Lady Chantrey died in 1875, and two years later the fund became
+available for the purchase of paintings and sculptures. The capital sum
+available amounted to £105,000 in 3% Consols, which (since reduced to
+2½%) produces an available annual income varying from £2500 to £2100.
+Galleries in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington were at
+first adopted as the depository of the works acquired, until in 1898 the
+Royal Academy arranged with the treasury, on behalf of the government,
+for the transference of the collection to the National Gallery of
+British Art, which had been erected by Sir Henry Tate at Millbank. It
+was agreed that the "Tate Gallery" should be its future home, and that
+"no power of selection or elimination is claimed on behalf of the
+trustees and director of the National Gallery" (Treasury Letter,
+18054-98, 7th December 1898) in respect of the pictures and sculptures
+which were then to be handed over and which should, from time to time,
+be sent to augment the collection. Inasmuch as it was felt that the
+provision that all works must be complete to be eligible for purchase
+militated against the most advantageous disposition of the fund in
+respect of sculpture, in the case of wax models or plaster casts before
+being converted into marble or bronze, it was sought in the action of
+_Sir F. Leighton_ v. _Hughes_ (tried by Mr Justice North, judgment May
+7th, 1888, and in the court of appeal, before the master of the rolls,
+Lord Justice Cotton, and Lord Justice Fry, judgment June 4th, 1889--the
+master of the rolls dissenting) to allow of sculptors being commissioned
+to complete in bronze or marble a work executed in wax or plaster, such
+"completion" being more or less a mechanical process. The attempt,
+however, was abortive.
+
+A growing discontent with the interpretation put by the Royal Academy
+upon the terms of the will as shown in the works acquired began to find
+expression more than usually forcible and lively in the press during the
+year 1903, and a debate raised in the House of Lords by the earl of
+Lytton led to the appointment of a select committee of the House of
+Lords, which sat from June to August 1904. The committee consisted of
+the earls of Carlisle, Lytton, and Crewe, and Lords Windsor,
+Ribblesdale, Newton, and Killanin, and the witnesses represented the
+Royal Academy and representative art institutions and art critics. The
+report (ordered to be printed on the 8th of August 1904) made certain
+recommendations with a view to the prevention of certain former errors
+of administration held to have been sustained, but dismissed other
+charges against the Academy. In reply thereto a memorandum was issued by
+the Royal Academy (February 1905, ordered to be printed on the 7th of
+August 1905--Paper 166) disagreeing with certain recommendations, but
+allowing others, either intact or in a modified form.
+
+Up to 1905 inclusive 203 works had been bought--all except two from
+living painters--at a cost of nearly £68,000. Of these, 175 were in
+oil-colours, 12 in water-colours, and 16 sculptures (10 in bronze and 6
+marble).
+
+  See _The Administration of the Chantrey Bequest_, by D.S. MacColl
+  (l6mo, London, 1904), a highly controversial publication by the
+  leading assailant of the Royal Academy: _Chantrey and His Bequest_, by
+  Arthur Fish, a complete illustrated record of the purchases, &c.
+  (London, 1904); _The Royal Academy, its Uses and Abuses_, by H.J.
+  Laidlay (London, 1898), controversial; _Report from the Select
+  Committee of the House of Lords on the Chantrey Trust; together with
+  the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix_
+  (Wyman & Sons, 1904), and _Index_ (separate publication, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+
+CHANT ROYAL, one of the fixed forms of verse invented by the ingenuity
+of the poets of medieval France. It is composed of five strophes,
+identical in arrangement, of eleven verses each, and of an envoi of five
+verses. All the strophes are written on the five rhymes exhibited in the
+first strophe, the entire poem, therefore, consisting of sixty lines in
+the course of which five rhymes are repeated. It has been conjectured
+that the chant royal is an extended ballade, or rather a ballade
+conceived upon a larger scale; but which form preceded the other appears
+to be uncertain. On this point Henri de Croï, who wrote about these
+forms of verse in his _Art et science de rhétorique_ (1493), throws no
+light. He dwells, however, on the great dignity of what he calls the
+"Champt Royal," and says that those who defy with success the ardour of
+its rules deserve crowns and garlands for their pains. Étienne Pasquier
+(1529-1615) points out the fact that the Chant Royal, by its length and
+the rigidity of its structure, is better fitted than the ballade for
+solemn and pompous themes. In Old French, the most admired chants royal
+are those of Clement Marot; his _Chant royal chrestien_, with its
+refrain
+
+  "Santé au corps, et Paradis à l'âme,"
+
+was celebrated. Théodore de Banville defines the chant royal as
+essentially belonging to ages of faith, when its subjects could be
+either the exploits of a hero of royal race or the processional
+splendours of religion. La Fontaine was the latest of the French poets
+to attempt the chant royal, until it was resuscitated in modern times.
+
+This species of poem was unknown in English medieval literature and was
+only introduced into Great Britain in the last quarter of the 19th
+century. The earliest chant royal in English was that published by
+Edmund Gosse in 1877; it is here given to exemplify the structure and
+rhyme-arrangement of the form:--
+
+  THE PRAISE OF DIONYSUS
+
+ "Behold, above the mountains there is light,
+  A streak of gold, a line of gathering fire,
+  And the dim East hath suddenly grown bright
+  With pale aerial flame, that drives up higher
+  The lurid mists which all the night long were
+  Breasting the dark ravines and coverts bare;
+  Behold, behold! the granite gates unclose,
+  And down the vales a lyric people flows,
+  Who dance to music, and in dancing fling
+  Their frantic robes to every wind that blows,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  Nearer they press, and nearer still in sight,
+  Still dancing blithely in a seemly choir;
+  Tossing on high the symbol of their rite,
+  The cone-tipp'd thyrsus of a god's desire;
+  Nearer they come, tall damsels flushed and fair,
+  With ivy circling their abundant hair,
+  Onward, with even pace, in stately rows,
+  With eye that flashes, and with cheek that glows,
+  And all the while their tribute-songs they bring,
+  And newer glories of the past disclose
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  The pure luxuriance of their limbs is white,
+  And flashes clearer as they draw the nigher,
+  Bathed in an air of infinite delight,
+  Smooth without wound of thorn, or fleck of mire,
+  Borne up by song as by a trumpet's blare,
+  Leading the van to conquest, on they fare,
+  Fearless and bold, whoever comes or goes,
+  These shining cohorts of Bacchantes close,
+  Shouting and shouting till the mountains ring,
+  And forests grim forget their ancient woes,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  And youths there are for whom full many a night
+  Brought dreams of bliss, vague dreams that haunt and tire
+  Who rose in their own ecstasy bedight,
+  And wandered forth through many a scourging briar,
+  And waited shivering in the icy air,
+  And wrapped the leopard-skin about them there,
+  Knowing for all the bitter air that froze,
+  The time must come, that every poet knows,
+  When he shall rise and feel himself a king,
+  And follow, follow where the ivy grows,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  But oh! within the heart of this great flight,
+  Whose ivory arms hold up the golden lyre?
+  What form is this of more than mortal height?
+  What matchless beauty, what inspiréd ire?
+  The brindled panthers know the prize they bear,
+  And harmonize their steps with tender care;
+  Bent to the morning, like a living rose,
+  The immortal splendour of his face he shows;
+  And, where he glances, leaf and flower and wing
+  Tremble with rapture, stirred in their repose,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  _Envoi_.
+
+  Prince of the flute and ivy, all thy foes
+  Record the bounty that thy grace bestows,
+  But we, thy servants, to thy glory cling,
+  And with no frigid lips our songs compose,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._"
+
+In the middle ages the chant royal was largely used for the praise of
+the Virgin Mary. Eustache Deschamps (1340-1410) distinguishes these
+Marian chants royaux, which were called "serventois," by the absence of
+an envoi. These poems are first mentioned by Rutebeuf, a _trouvère_ of
+the 13th century. The chant royal is practically unknown outside French
+and English literature.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CHANTRY (Fr. _chanterie_, from _chanter_, to sing; Med. Lat.
+_cantuaria_), a small chapel built out from a church, endowed in
+pre-Reformation times for the express purpose of maintaining priests for
+the chanting of masses for the soul of the founder or of some one named
+by him. It generally contained the tomb of the founder, and, as the
+officiator or mass-priest was often unconnected with the parochial
+clergy, had an entrance from the outside. The word passed through
+graduations of meaning. Its first sense was singing or chanting. Then it
+meant the endowment funds, next the priests, and then the church or
+chapel itself.
+
+
+
+
+CHANUTE, a city of Neosho county, Kansas, U.S.A., 1 m. from the Neosho
+river, and about 120 m. S.S.W. of Kansas city. Pop. (1890) 2826; (1900)
+4208, of whom 210 were foreign-born and 171 were negroes; (1910 census)
+9272. Chanute is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the
+Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, the former having large repair shops.
+The city is in the Kansas-Oklahoma oil and gas field, and is surrounded
+by a fine farming and dairying region, in which special attention is
+given to the raising of small fruit; oil, gas, cement rock and brick
+shale are found in the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures are
+refined oil, Portland cement, vitrified brick and tile, glass, asphalt,
+ice, cigars, drilling machinery, and flour. The municipality owns and
+operates the waterworks, a natural gas plant, and an electric lighting
+plant. Four towns--New Chicago, Tioga, Chicago Junction and
+Alliance--were started here about the same time (1870). In 1872 they
+were consolidated, and the present name was adopted in honour of Octave
+Chanute (b. 1832), the civil engineer and aeronautist (see FLIGHT AND
+FLYING), then the engineer of the Lawrence, Leavenworth & Galveston
+railway (now part of the Atchison system). Chanute was incorporated as a
+city of the third class in 1873, and its charter was revised in 1888.
+Natural gas and oil were found here in 1899, and Chanute became one of
+the leaders of the Kansas independent refineries in their contest with
+the Standard Oil Company.
+
+
+
+
+CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED (1823-1883), French general, was born at
+Nouart (Ardennes) on the 18th of March 1823. The son of a cavalry
+officer, he was educated at the naval school at Brest, but enlisted in
+the artillery, and, subsequently passing through St Cyr, was
+commissioned in the Zouaves in 1843. He saw a good deal of fighting in
+Algeria, and was promoted lieutenant in 1848, and captain in 1851. He
+became _chef de bataillon_ in 1856, and served in the Lombardy campaign
+of 1859, being present at Magenta and Solferino. He took part in the
+Syrian campaign of 1860-61 as a lieutenant-colonel; and as colonel
+commanded the 48th regiment at Rome in 1864. He returned to Algeria as
+general of brigade, assisted to quell the Arab insurrection, and
+commanded the subdivisions of Bel Abbes and Tlemçen in 1868. Although he
+had acquired a good professional reputation, he was in bad odour at the
+war office on account of suspected contributions to the press, and at
+the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was curtly refused a brigade
+command. After the revolution, however, the government of national
+defence called him from Algeria, made him a general of division, and
+gave him command of the XVI. corps of the army of the Loire. (For the
+operations of the Orleans campaign which followed, see FRANCO-GERMAN
+WAR.) The Loire army won the greatest success of the French during the
+whole war at Coulmiers, and followed this up with another victorious
+action at Patay; in both engagements General Chanzy's corps took the
+most brilliant part. After the second battle of Orleans and the
+separation of the two wings of the French army, Chanzy was appointed to
+command that in the west, designated the second army of the Loire. His
+enemies, the grand duke of Mecklenburg, Prince Frederick Charles, and
+General von der Tann, all regarded Chanzy as their most formidable
+opponent. He displayed conspicuous moral courage and constancy, not less
+than technical skill, in the fighting from Beaugency to the Loire, in
+his retreat to Le Mans, and in retiring to Laval behind the Mayenne. As
+Gambetta was the soul, Chanzy was the strong right arm of French
+resistance to the invader. He was made a grand officer of the Legion of
+Honour, and was elected to the National Assembly. At the outbreak of the
+Commune, Chanzy, then at Paris, fell into the hands of the insurgents,
+by whom he was forced to give his parole not to serve against them. It
+was said that he would otherwise have been appointed instead of MacMahon
+to command the army of Versailles. A ransom of £40,000 was also paid by
+the government for him. In 1872 he became a member of the committee of
+defence and commander of the VII. army corps, and in 1873 was appointed
+governor of Algeria, where he remained for six years. In 1875 he was
+elected a life senator, in 1878 received the grand cross of the Legion
+of Honour, and in 1879, without his consent, was nominated for the
+presidency of the republic, receiving a third of the total votes. For
+two years he was ambassador at St Petersburg, during which time he
+received many tokens of respect, not only from the Russians, but also
+from the German emperor, William I., and Prince Bismarck. He died
+suddenly, while commanding the VI. army corps (stationed nearest to the
+German frontier), at Châlons-sur-Marne, on the 4th of January 1883, only
+a few days after Gambetta, and his remains received a state funeral. He
+was the author of _La Deuxième Armée de la Loire_ (1872). Statues of
+General Chanzy have been erected at Nouart and Le Mans.
+
+
+
+
+CHAOS, in the Hesiodic theogony, the infinite empty space, which existed
+before all things (_Theog._ 116, 123). It is not, however, a mere
+abstraction, being filled with clouds and darkness; from it proceed
+Erebus and Nyx (Night), whose children are Aether (upper air) and Hemera
+(Day). In the Orphic cosmogony the origin of all goes back to Chronos,
+the personification of time, who produces Aether and Chaos. In the
+Aristophanic parody (_Birds_, 691) the winged Eros in conjunction with
+gloomy Chaos brings forth the race of birds. The later Roman conception
+(Ovid, _Metam._ i. 7) makes Chaos the original undigested, amorphous
+mass, into which the architect of the world introduces order and
+harmony, and from which individual forms are created. In the created
+world (cosmos, order of the universe) the word has various
+meanings:--the universe; the space between heaven and earth; the
+under-world and its ruler. Metaphorically it is used for the
+immeasurable darkness, eternity, and the infinite generally. In modern
+usage "chaos" denotes a state of disorder and confusion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPBOOK (from the O. Eng. _chap_, to buy and sell), the comparatively
+modern name applied by booksellers and bibliophiles to the little
+stitched tracts written for the common people and formerly circulated in
+England, Scotland and the American colonies by itinerant dealers or
+chapmen, consisting chiefly of vulgarized versions of popular stories,
+such as _Tom Thumb_, _Jack the Giant Killer_, _Mother Shipton_, and
+_Reynard the Fox_--travels, biographies and religious treatises. Few of
+the older chapbooks exist. Samuel Pepys collected some of the best and
+had them bound into small quarto volumes, which he called Vulgaria;
+also four volumes of a smaller size, which he lettered _Penny
+Witticisms, Penny Merriments, Penny Compliments_ and _Penny
+Godlinesses_. The early chapbooks were the direct descendants of the
+black-letter tracts of Wynkyn de Worde. It was in France that the
+printing-press first began to supply reading for the common people. At
+the end of the 15th century there was a large popular literature of
+farces, tales in verse and prose, satires, almanacs, &c., stitched
+together so as to contain a few leaves, and circulated by itinerant
+booksellers, known as colporteurs. Most early English chapbooks are
+adaptations or translations of these French originals, and were
+introduced into England early in the 16th century. The chapbooks of the
+17th century present us with valuable illustrations of the manners of
+the time; one of the best known is that containing the story of Dick
+Whittington. Others which had a great vogue are _Jack the Giant Killer,
+Little Red Riding Hood_, and _Mother Shipton_. Those of the 18th century
+are far inferior in every way, both as regards the literature and the
+printing; and unfortunately it is these which form the bulk of what is
+now known to us in collections as chapbooks. They have never exercised
+any great influence in England nor received much attention, owing no
+doubt to their poor literary character. In France, on the other hand,
+their French equivalents have been the object of close and systematic
+study, and _L'Histoire des livres populaires ou de la littérature du
+colportage_ by Charles Nisard (1854) goes deeply into the subject.
+Amongst English books may be mentioned _Notices of Fugitive Tracts and
+Chapbooks_, by J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps (1849); _Chapbooks of the 18th
+Century_, by John Ashton (1882), and some reprints by the Villon Society
+in 1885. The word "chapbook" has not been noticed earlier than 1824,
+when Dibdin, the celebrated bibliographer, described a work as being "a
+chapbook, printed in rather a neat black-letter."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPE (from the Fr. _chape_, a hood, cope or sheath), a cover or metal
+plate, such as the cap upon the needle in the compass, also the
+transverse guard of a sword which protects the hand. From the original
+meaning comes the use of the word as a support or catch to attach one
+thing to another, as the hook on a belt to which the sword is fastened.
+The word is also used for the tip of a fox's brush.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPEL, a place of religious worship,[1] a name properly applied to that
+of a Christian religious body, but sometimes to any small temple of
+pagan worship (Lat. _sacellum_). The word is derived through the O. Fr.
+_chapele_, modern _chapelle_, from the Late Lat. _capelle_ or
+_cappella_, diminutive of _cappa_, a cape, particularly that of a monk.
+This word was transferred to any sanctuary containing relics, in the
+early history of the Frankish Church, because the cloak of St Martin,
+_cappa brevior Sancti Martini_, one of the most sacred relics of the
+Frankish kings, was carried in a sanctuary or shrine wherever the king
+went; and oaths were taken on it (see Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v.
+_Capella_). Such a sanctuary was served by a priest, who was hence
+called _capellanus_, from which is derived the English "chaplain"
+(q.v.). The strict application of the word to a sanctuary containing
+relics was extended to embrace any place of worship other than a church,
+and it was synonymous, therefore, with "oratory" (_oratorium_),
+especially one attached to a palace or to a private dwelling-house. The
+celebrated Sainte Chapelle in Paris, attached to what is now the Palais
+de Justice, well illustrates the early and proper meaning of the word.
+It was built (consecration, 1248) by St Louis of France to contain the
+relic of the Crown of Thorns, ransomed by the king from the Venetians,
+who held it in pawn from the Latin emperor of the East, John of Brienne,
+lately dead. The chapel served as the sanctuary of the relic lodged in
+the upper chapel, and the whole building was attached as the place of
+worship to the king's palace. This, the primary meaning, survives in the
+chapels usually placed in the aisles of cathedrals and large churches.
+They were originally built either to contain relics of a particular
+saint to whom they were dedicated, or the tomb of a particular family.
+
+In the Church of England the word is applied to a private place of
+worship, attached either to the palaces of the sovereign, "chapels
+royal," or to the residence of a private person, to a college, school,
+prison, workhouse, &c. Further, the word has particular legal
+applications, though in each case the building might be and often is
+styled a church. These are places of worship supplementary to a parish
+church, and may be either "chapels of ease," to ease or relieve the
+mother-church and serve those parishioners who may live far away,
+"parochial chapels," the "churches" of ancient divisions of a very large
+and widely scattered parish, or "district chapels," those of a district
+of a parish divided under the various church building acts. A "free
+chapel" is one founded by the king and by his authority, and visited by
+him and not by the bishop. A "proprietary chapel" is one that belongs to
+a private person. They are anomalies to the English ecclesiastical law,
+have no parish rights, and can be converted to other than religious
+purposes, but a clergyman may be licensed to perform duty in such a
+place of worship. In the early and middle part of the 19th century such
+proprietary chapels were common, but they have practically ceased to
+exist. "Chapel" was early and still is in England the general name of
+places of worship other than those of the established Church, but the
+application of "church" to all places of worship without distinction of
+sect is becoming more and more common. The word "chapel" was in this
+restricted sense first applied to places of worship belonging to the
+Roman Church in England, and was thus restricted to those attached to
+foreign embassies, or to those of the consorts of Charles I. and II. and
+James II., who were members of that church. The word is still frequently
+the general term for Roman Catholic churches in Great Britain and always
+so in Ireland. The use of "chapel" as a common term for all
+Nonconformist places of worship was general through most of the 19th
+century, so that "church and chapel" was the usual phrase to mark the
+distinction between members of the established Church and those of
+Nonconformist bodies. Here the widened use of "church" noticed above has
+been especially marked. Most of the recent buildings for worship erected
+by Nonconformist bodies will be found to be styled Wesleyan,
+Congregational, &c., churches. It would appear that while the word
+"chapel" was not infrequent in the early history of Nonconformity,
+"meeting-house" was the more usual term.
+
+From the architectural point of view the addition of chapels to a
+cathedral or large church assumes some historical importance in
+consequence of the changes it involved in the plan. It was the
+introduction of the apsidal chapels in the churches of France which
+eventually led to the _chevet_ or cluster of eastern chapels in many of
+the great cathedrals, and also sometimes to the extension of the
+transept so as to include additional apsidal chapels on the east side.
+In France, and to a certain extent in Italy, the multiplication of
+chapels led to their being placed on the north and south side of the
+aisles, and in some cases, as at Albi in France, to the suppression of
+the aisles and the instalment of the chapels in their place. The chapels
+of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes of large
+dimensions and architecturally of great importance, that of Christ
+Church being actually the cathedral of Oxford; among others may be
+mentioned the chapel of Merton College, and the new chapel of Exeter
+College, both in Oxford, and the chapel of King's College, Cambridge,
+which is roofed over with perhaps the finest fan-vault in England. (See
+VAULT, Plate II., fig. 19.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The only other English sense is that of a printer's workshop, or
+    the body of compositors in it, who are presided over by a "father of
+    the chapel."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPELAIN, JEAN (1595-1674), French poet and man of letters, the son of
+a notary, was born in Paris on the 4th of December 1595. His father
+destined him for his own profession; but his mother, who had known
+Ronsard, had determined otherwise. At an early age Chapelain began to
+qualify himself for literature, learning, under Nicolas Bourbon, Greek
+and Latin, and teaching himself Italian and Spanish. Having finished his
+studies, he was engaged for a while in teaching Spanish to a young
+nobleman. He was then appointed tutor to the two sons of a M. de la
+Trousse, grand provost of France. Attached for the next seventeen years
+to the family of this gentleman, the administration of whose fortune was
+wholly in his hands, he seems to have published nothing during this
+period, yet to have acquired a great reputation as a probability. His
+first work given to the public was a preface for the _Adone_ of Marini,
+who printed and published that notorious poem at Paris. This was
+followed by an excellent translation of Mateo Aleman's novel, _Guzmán de
+Alfarache_, and by four extremely indifferent odes, one of them
+addressed to Richelieu. The credit of introducing the law of the
+dramatic unities into French literature has been claimed for many
+writers, and especially for the Abbé d'Aubignac, whose _Pratique du
+théâtre_ appeared in 1657. The theory had of course been enunciated in
+the _Art poétique_ of J.C. Scaliger in 1561, and subsequently by other
+writers, but there is no doubt that it was the action of Chapelain that
+transferred it from the region of theory to that of actual practice. In
+a conversation with Richelieu in about 1632, reported by the abbé
+d'Olivet, Chapelain maintained that it was indispensable to maintain the
+unities of time, place and action, and it is explicitly stated that the
+doctrine was new to the cardinal and to the poets who were in his pay.
+French classical drama thus owes the riveting of its fetters to
+Chapelain. Rewarded with a pension of a thousand crowns, and from the
+first an active member of the newly-constituted Academy, Chapelain drew
+up the plan of the grammar and dictionary the compilation of which was
+to be a principal function of the young institution, and at Richelieu's
+command drew up the _Sentiments de l'Académie sur le Cid_. In 1656 he
+published, in a magnificent form, the first twelve cantos of his
+celebrated epic _La Pucelle_,[1] on which he had been engaged during
+twenty years. Six editions of the poem were disposed of in eighteen
+months. But this was the end of the poetic reputation of Chapelain, "the
+legist of Parnassus". Later the slashing satire of Boileau (in this case
+fairly master of his subject) did its work, and Chapelain ("_Le plus
+grand poète Français qu' ait jamais été et du plus solide jugement_," as
+he is called in Colbert's list) took his place among the failures of
+modern art.
+
+Chapelain's reputation as a critic survived this catastrophe, and in
+1663 he was employed by Colbert to draw up an account of contemporary
+men of letters, destined to guide the king in his distribution of
+pensions. In this pamphlet, as in his letters, he shows to far greater
+advantage than in his unfortunate epic. His prose is incomparably better
+than his verse; his criticisms are remarkable for their justice and
+generosity; his erudition and kindliness of heart are everywhere
+apparent; the royal attention is directed alike towards the author's
+firmest friends and bitterest enemies. To him young Racine was indebted
+not only for kindly and seasonable counsel, but also for that pension of
+six hundred livres which was so useful to him. The catholicity of his
+taste is shown by his _De la lecture des vieux romans_ (pr. 1870), in
+which he praises the _chansons de geste_, forgotten by his generation.
+Chapelain refused many honours, and his disinterestedness in this and
+other cases makes it necessary to receive with caution the stories of
+Ménage and Tallemant des Réaux, who assert that he was in his old age a
+miser, and that a considerable fortune was found hoarded in his
+apartments when he died on the 22nd of February 1674.
+
+  There is a very favourable estimate of Chapelain's merits as a critic
+  in George Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, ii. 256-261. An
+  analysis of _La Pucelle_ is given in pp. 23-79 of Robert Southey's
+  _Joan of Arc_. See also _Les Lettres de Jean Chapelain_ (ed. P.
+  Tanuzey de Larroque, 1880-1882); _Lettres inédites ... à P.D. Huet_
+  (1658-1673, ed. by L.G. Pellissier, 1894); Julien Duchesne, _Les
+  Poèmes épiques du XVIIe siècle_ (1870); the abbé A. Fabre, _Les
+  Ennemis de Chapelain_ (1888), _Chapelain et nos deux premières
+  Académies_ (1890); and A. Muehlan,_ Jean Chapelain_ (1893).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The last twelve cantos of _La Pucelle_ were edited (1882) from
+    the MS. with corrections and a preface in the author's autograph, in
+    the _Bibliothèque Nationale_, by H. Herluison. Another edition, by E.
+    de Molènes (2 vols.), was published in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH, a market town in the High Peak parliamentary
+division of Derbyshire, England, 20 m. S.E. of Manchester, on the London
+& North-Western and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 4626. It lies in an
+upland valley of the Peak district, the hills of which rise above 1200
+ft. in its immediate vicinity. There are paper-works and ironworks, and
+brewing is carried on. The foundation of the church of St Thomas of
+Canterbury is attributed to the foresters of the royal forest or frith
+of the Peak early in the 13th century; and from this the town took name.
+After the defeat of the Scottish forces at Preston by Cromwell in 1648,
+it is said that 1500 prisoners were confined in the church at
+Chapel-en-le-Frith.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPEL HILL, a town of Orange county, North Carolina, U.S.A., about 28
+m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1900) 1099; (1910) 1149. It is served by a
+branch of the Southern railway, connecting at University, 10 m. distant,
+with the Greensboro & Goldsboro division. The town is best known as the
+seat of the University of North Carolina (see NORTH CAROLINA), whose
+campus contains 48 acres. There are cotton and knitting mills and lumber
+interests of some importance. Chapel Hill was settled late in the 18th
+century, and was first incorporated in 1851.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPELLE ARDENTE (Fr. "burning chapel"), the chapel or room in which the
+corpse of a sovereign or other exalted personage lies in state pending
+the funeral service. The name is in allusion to the many candles which
+arc lighted round the catafalque. This custom is first chronicled as
+occurring at the obsequies of Dagobert I. (602-638).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPERON, originally a cap or hood (Fr. _chape_) worn by nobles and
+knights of the Garter in full dress, and after the 16th century by
+middle-aged ladies. The modern use of the word is of a married or
+elderly lady (cf. "duenna") escorting or protecting a young and
+unmarried girl in public places and in society.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPLAIN, strictly one who conducts service in a chapel (q.v.), i.e. a
+priest or minister without parochial charge who is attached for special
+duties to a sovereign or his representatives (ambassadors, judges, &c.),
+to bishops, to the establishments of nobles, &c., to institutions (e.g.
+parliament, congress, colleges, schools, workhouses, cemeteries), or to
+the army and the navy. In some cases a parish priest is also appointed
+to a chaplaincy, but in so far as he is a chaplain he has no parochial
+duties. Thus a bishop of the English Church appoints examining chaplains
+who conduct the examination of candidates for holy orders; such
+officials generally hold ordinary benefices also. The British sovereign
+has 36 "Chaplains in Ordinary," who perform service at St James's in
+rotation, as well as "Honorary Chaplains" and "Chaplains of the
+Household." There are also royal chaplains in Scotland and Ireland. The
+Scottish chaplains in ordinary are on the same basis as those in
+England, but the Irish chaplains are attached to the household of the
+lord-lieutenant. The Indian civil service appoints a number of clergymen
+of the Church of England and the Church of Scotland. These clergymen are
+known as Chaplains, and are subject to the same conditions as other
+civil servants, being eligible for a retiring pension after 23 years of
+service. Chaplains are also appointed under the foreign office to
+embassies, legations, consulates, &c.
+
+Workhouse chaplains are appointed by overseers and guardians on the
+direction of the Local Government Board, to which alone such chaplains
+are responsible. Prison chaplains are appointed by the home secretary.
+
+In the British army there are two kinds of chaplains, permanent and
+occasional. The former, described as Chaplains to the Forces, hold
+commissions, serving throughout the empire except in India: they include
+a Chaplain-General who ranks as a major-general, and four classes of
+subordinate chaplains who rank respectively as colonels,
+lieutenant-colonels, majors and captains. There are about 100 in all.
+Special chaplains (Acting Chaplains for Temporary Service) may be
+appointed by a secretary of state under the Army Chaplains Act of 1868
+to perform religious service for the army in particular districts. The
+permanent chaplains may be Church of England, Roman Catholic, or
+Presbyterian; Wesleyans (if they prefer not to accept commissions) may
+be appointed Acting Chaplains. The Church of England chaplains report to
+the chaplain-general, while other chaplains report to the War Office
+direct. In the navy, chaplains are likewise appointed but do not hold
+official rank. They must have a special ecclesiastical licence from the
+archbishop of Canterbury. In 1900 a Chaplains' Department of the
+Territorial Force was formed; there is no denominational restriction.
+
+In the armies and navies of all Christian countries chaplains are
+officially appointed, with the single exception of France, where the
+office was abolished on the separation of Church and State. In the army
+of the United States of America chaplains are originally appointed by
+the president, and subsequently are under the authority of the secretary
+of war, who receives recommendations as regards transfer from department
+commanders. By act of Congress, approved in April 1904, the
+establishment of chaplains was fixed at 57 (15 with the rank of major),
+12 for the artillery corps and 1 each for the cavalry and infantry
+regiments. There is no distinction of sect. In the U.S. navy the
+chaplains are 24 in number, of whom 13 rank as lieutenants, 7 as
+commanders, 4 as captains.
+
+In the armies of Roman Catholic countries there are elaborate
+regulations. Where the chaplains are numerous a chaplain-major is
+generally appointed, but in the absence of special sanction from the
+pope such officer has no spiritual jurisdiction. Moreover, chaplains
+must be approved by the ordinary of the locality. In Austria there are
+Roman Catholic, Greek Church, Jewish and Mahommedan chaplains. The Roman
+Catholic chaplains are classed as parish priests, curates and
+assistants, and are subject to an army Vicar Apostolic. In war, at an
+army headquarters there are a "field-rabbi," a "military imam," an
+evangelical minister, as well as the Roman Catholic hierarchy. By a
+decree of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda (May 15, 1906), the
+archbishop of Westminster is the ecclesiastical superior of all
+commissioned Roman Catholic chaplains in the British army and navy, and
+he is empowered to negotiate with the civil authorities concerning
+appointments.
+
+In Germany, owing to the fact that there are different religions in the
+different states, there is no uniform system. In Prussia there are two
+_Feldprobste_ (who are directly under the war minister), one Lutheran,
+one Roman Catholic. The latter is a titular bishop, and has sole
+spiritual authority over soldiers. There are also army corps and
+divisional chaplains of both faiths. Bavaria and Saxony, both Roman
+Catholic states, have no special spiritual hierarchy; in Bavaria, the
+archbishop of Munich and Freysing is _ex officio_ bishop of the army.
+
+The origin of the office of _capellanus_ or _cappellanus_ in the
+medieval church is generally traced (see Du Cange, _Gloss, med. et
+infim. Latin_.) to the appointment of persons to watch over the sacred
+cloak (_cappa_ or _capella_) of St Martin of Tours, which was preserved
+as a relic by the French monarchs. In time of war this cloak was carried
+with the army in the field, and was kept in a tent which itself came to
+be known as a _cappella_ or _capella_. It is also suggested that the
+_capella_ was simply the tent or canopy which the French kings erected
+over the altar in the field for the worship of the soldiers. However
+this may be, the name _capellanus_ was generally applied to those who
+were in charge of sacred relics: such officials were also known as
+_custodes, martyrarii, cubicularii_. Thus we hear of a _custos palatinae
+capellae_ who was in charge of the palace chapel relics, and guarded
+them in the field; the chief of these _custodes_ was sometimes called
+the _archicapellanus_. From the care of sacred relics preserved in royal
+chapels, &c. (_sacella_ or _capellae_), the office of _capellanus_
+naturally extended its scope until it covered practically that of the
+modern court chaplain, and was officially recognized by the Church.
+These clerics became the confessors in royal and noble houses, and were
+generally chosen from among bishops and other high dignitaries. The
+arch-chaplain not only received jurisdiction within the royal household,
+but represented the authority of the monarch in religious matters, and
+also acquired more general powers. In France the arch-chaplain was
+grand-almoner, and both in France and in the Holy Roman Empire was also
+high chancellor of the realm. The office was abolished in France at the
+Revolution in 1789, revived by Pius IX. in 1857, and again abolished on
+the fall of the Second Empire.
+
+The Roman Catholic Church also recognizes a class of beneficed
+chaplains, supported out of "pious foundations" for the specific duty of
+saying, or arranging for, certain masses, or taking part in certain
+services. These chaplains are classified as follows:--_Ecclesiastical_,
+if the foundation has been recognized officially as a benefice; _Lay_,
+if this recognition has not been obtained; _Mercenary_, if the person
+who has been entrusted with the duty of performing or procuring the
+desired celebration is a layman (such persons also are sometimes called
+"Lay Chaplains"); _Collative_, if it is provided that a bishop shall
+collate or confer the right to act upon the accepted candidate, who
+otherwise could not be recognized as an ecclesiastical chaplain. There
+are elaborate regulations governing the appointment and conduct of these
+chaplains.
+
+Other classes of chaplains are:--(1) _Parochial_ or _Auxiliary
+Chaplains_, appointed either by a parish priest (under a provision
+authorized by the Council of Trent) or by a bishop to take over certain
+specified duties which he is unable to perform; (2) _Chaplains of
+Convents_, appointed by a bishop: these must be men of mature age,
+should not be regulars unless secular priests cannot be obtained, and
+are not generally to be appointed for life; (3) _Pontifical Chaplains_,
+some of whom (known as Private Chaplains) assist the pontiff in the
+celebration of Mass; others attached directly to the pope are honorary
+private chaplains who occasionally assist the private chaplains, private
+clerics of the chapel, common chaplains and supernumerary chaplains. The
+common chaplains were instituted by Alexander VII., and in 1907 were
+definitely allowed the title "Monsignore" by Pius X.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPLIN, HENRY (1841-   ), English statesman, second son of the Rev.
+Henry Chaplin, of Blankney, Lincolnshire, was educated at Harrow and
+Christ Church, Oxford, and first entered parliament in 1868 as
+Conservative member for Mid-Lincolnshire. He represented this
+constituency (which under the Redistribution Act of 1885 became the
+Sleaford division) till 1906, when he was defeated, but in 1907 returned
+to the House of Commons as member for Wimbledon at a by-election. In
+1876 he married a daughter of the 3rd duke of Sutherland, but lost his
+wife in 1881. Outside the House of Commons he was a familiar figure on
+the Turf, winning the Derby with Hermit in 1867; and in politics from
+the first the "Squire of Blankney" took an active interest in
+agricultural questions, as a popular and typical representative of the
+English "country gentleman" class. Having filled the office of
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in Lord Salisbury's short ministry
+of 1885-1886, he became president of the new Board of Agriculture in
+1889, with a seat in the cabinet, and retained this post till 1892. In
+the Conservative cabinet of 1895-1900 he was president of the Local
+Government Board, and was responsible for the Agricultural Rates Act of
+1896; but he was not included in the ministry after its reconstruction
+in 1900. Mr Chaplin had always been an advocate of protectionism, being
+in this respect the most prominent inheritor of the views of Lord George
+Bentinck; and when in 1903 the Tariff Reform movement began under Mr
+Chamberlain's leadership, he gave it his enthusiastic support, becoming
+a member of the Tariff Commission and one of the most strenuous
+advocates in the country of the new doctrines in opposition to free
+trade.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPMAN, GEORGE (? 1559-1634), English poet and dramatist, was born near
+Hitchin. The inscription on the portrait which forms the frontispiece of
+_The Whole Works of Homer_ states that he was then (1616) fifty-seven
+years of age. Anthony à Wood (_Athen. Oxon._ ii. 575) says that about
+1574 he was sent to the university, "but whether first to this of Oxon,
+or that of Cambridge, is to me unknown; sure I am that he spent some
+time in Oxon, where he was observed to be most excellent in the Latin
+and Greek tongues, but not in logic or philosophy." Chapman's first
+extant play, _The Blind Beggar of Alexandria_, was produced in 1596, and
+two years later Francis Meres mentions him in _Palladis Tamia_ among the
+"best for tragedie" and the "best for comedie." Of his life between
+leaving the university and settling in London there is no account. It
+has been suggested, from the detailed knowledge displayed in _The Shadow
+of Night_ of an incident in Sir Francis Vere's campaign, that he saw
+service in the Netherlands. There are frequent entries with regard to
+Chapman in Henslowe's diary for the years 1598-1599, but his dramatic
+activity slackened during the following years, when his attention was
+chiefly occupied by his _Homer_. In 1604 he was imprisoned with John
+Marston for his share in _Eastward Ho_, in which offence was given to
+the Scottish party at court. Ben Jonson voluntarily joined the two, who
+were soon released. Chapman seems to have enjoyed favour at court, where
+he had a patron in Prince Henry, but in 1605 Jonson and he were for a
+short time in prison again for "a play." Beaumont, the French ambassador
+in London, in a despatch of the 5th of April 1608, writes that he had
+obtained the prohibition of a performance of _Biron_ in which the queen
+of France was represented as giving Mademoiselle de Verneuil a box on
+the ears. He adds that three of the actors were imprisoned, but that the
+chief culprit, the author, had escaped (Raumer, _Briefe aus Paris_,
+1831, ii. 276). Among Chapman's patrons was Robert Carr, earl of
+Somerset, to whom he remained faithful after his disgrace. Chapman
+enjoyed the friendship and admiration of his great contemporaries. John
+Webster in the preface to _The White Devil_ praised "his full and
+heightened style," and Ben Jonson told Drummond of Hawthornden that
+Fletcher and Chapman "were loved of him." These friendly relations
+appear to have been interrupted later, for there is extant in the
+Ashmole MSS. an "Invective written by Mr George Chapman against Mr Ben
+Jonson." Chapman died in the parish of St Giles in the Fields, and was
+buried on the 12th of May 1634 in the churchyard. A monument to his
+memory was erected by Inigo Jones.     (M. Br.)
+
+Chapman, his first biographer is careful to let us know, "was a person
+of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate, qualities rarely
+meeting in a poet"; he had also certain other merits at least as
+necessary to the exercise of that profession. He had a singular force
+and solidity of thought, an admirable ardour of ambitious devotion to
+the service of poetry, a deep and burning sense at once of the duty
+implied and of the dignity inherent in his office; a vigour, opulence,
+and loftiness of phrase, remarkable even in that age of spiritual
+strength, wealth and exaltation of thought and style; a robust
+eloquence, touched not unfrequently with flashes of fancy, and kindled
+at times into heat of imagination. The main fault of his style is one
+more commonly found in the prose than in the verse of his time,--a
+quaint and florid obscurity, rigid with elaborate rhetoric and tortuous
+with labyrinthine illustration; not dark only to the rapid reader
+through closeness and subtlety of thought, like Donne, whose miscalled
+obscurity is so often "all glorious within," but thick and slab as a
+witch's gruel with forced and barbarous eccentricities of articulation.
+As his language in the higher forms of comedy is always pure and clear,
+and sometimes exquisite in the simplicity of its earnest and natural
+grace, the stiffness and density of his more ambitious style may perhaps
+be attributed to some pernicious theory or conceit of the dignity proper
+to a moral and philosophic poet. Nevertheless, many of the gnomic
+passages in his tragedies and allegoric poems are of singular weight and
+beauty; the best of these, indeed, would not discredit the fame of the
+very greatest poets for sublimity of equal thought and expression:
+witness the lines chosen by Shelley as the motto for a poem, and fit to
+have been chosen as the motto for his life.
+
+The romantic and sometimes barbaric grandeur of Chapman's _Homer_
+remains attested by the praise of Keats, of Coleridge and of Lamb; it is
+written at a pitch of strenuous and laborious exaltation, which never
+flags or breaks down, but never flies with the ease and smoothness of an
+eagle native to Homeric air. From his occasional poems an expert and
+careful hand might easily gather a noble anthology of excerpts, chiefly
+gnomic or meditative, allegoric or descriptive. The most notable
+examples of his tragic work are comprised in the series of plays taken,
+and adapted sometimes with singular licence, from the records of such
+part of French history as lies between the reign of Francis I. and the
+reign of Henry IV., ranging in date of subject from the trial and death
+of Admiral Chabot to the treason and execution of Marshal Biron. The two
+plays bearing as epigraph the name of that famous soldier and
+conspirator are a storehouse of lofty thought and splendid verse, with
+scarcely a flash or sparkle of dramatic action. The one play of
+Chapman's whose popularity on the stage survived the Restoration is
+_Bussy d'Ambois_ (d'Amboise),--a tragedy not lacking in violence of
+action or emotion, and abounding even more in sweet and sublime
+interludes than in crabbed and bombastic passages. His rarest jewels of
+thought and verse detachable from the context lie embedded in the
+tragedy of _Caesar and Pompey_, whence the finest of them were first
+extracted by the unerring and unequalled critical genius of Charles
+Lamb. In most of his tragedies the lofty and labouring spirit of Chapman
+may be said rather to shine fitfully through parts than steadily to
+pervade the whole; they show nobly altogether as they stand, but even
+better by help of excerpts and selections. But the excellence of his
+best comedies can only be appreciated by a student who reads them fairly
+and fearlessly through, and, having made some small deductions on the
+score of occasional pedantry and occasional indecency, finds in _All
+Fools_, _Monsieur d'Olive_, _The Gentleman Usher_, and _The Widow's
+Tears_ a wealth and vigour of humorous invention, a tender and earnest
+grace of romantic poetry, which may atone alike for these passing
+blemishes and for the lack of such clear-cut perfection of character and
+such dramatic progression of interest as we find only in the yet higher
+poets of the English heroic age.
+
+So much it may suffice to say of Chapman as an original poet, one who
+held of no man and acknowledged no master, but from the birth of Marlowe
+well-nigh to the death of Jonson held on his own hard and haughty way of
+austere and sublime ambition, not without kindly and graceful
+inclination of his high grey head to salute such younger and still
+nobler compeers as Jonson and Fletcher. With Shakespeare we should never
+have guessed that he had come at all in contact, had not the keen
+intelligence of William Minto divined or rather discerned him to be the
+rival poet referred to in Shakespeare's sonnets with a grave note of
+passionate satire, hitherto as enigmatic as almost all questions
+connected with those divine and dangerous poems. This conjecture
+Professor Minto fortified by such apt collocation and confrontation of
+passages that we may now reasonably accept it as an ascertained and
+memorable fact.
+
+The objections which a just and adequate judgment may bring against
+Chapman's master-work, his translation of Homer, may be summed up in
+three epithets: it is romantic, laborious, Elizabethan. The qualities
+implied by these epithets are the reverse of those which should
+distinguish a translator of Homer; but setting this apart, and
+considering the poems as in the main original works, the superstructure
+of a romantic poet on the submerged foundations of Greek verse, no
+praise can be too warm or high for the power, the freshness, the
+indefatigable strength and inextinguishable fire which animate this
+exalted work, and secure for all time that shall take cognizance of
+English poetry an honoured place in its highest annals for the memory of
+Chapman.     (A. C. S.)
+
+  Chapman's works include:--[Greek: Skia nyktos]: _The Shadow of Night:
+  Containing two Poeticall Hymnes_ ... (1594), the second of which deals
+  with Sir Francis Vere's campaign in the Netherlands; _Ovid's Banquet
+  of Sence. A Coronet for his Mistresse Philosophie; and His Amorous
+  Zodiacke with a translation of a Latine coppie, written by a Fryer,
+  Anno Dom. 1400_ (1595, 2nd ed. 1639), a collection of poems frequently
+  quoted from in _England's Parnassus_ (1600); "De Guiana, carmen
+  epicum," a poem prefixed to Lawrence Keymis's _A Relation of the
+  second voyage to Guiana_ (1596); _Hero and Leander. Begun by
+  Christopher Marloe; and finished by George Chapman_ (1598); _The
+  Blinde begger of Alexandria, most pleasantly discoursing his variable
+  humours_ ... (acted 1596, printed 1598), a popular comedy; _A Pleasant
+  Comedy entituled An Humerous dayes Myrth_ (identified by Mr Fleay with
+  the "Comodey of Umero" noted by Henslowe on the 11th of May 1597;
+  printed 1599); _Al Fooles, A Comedy_ (paid for by Henslowe on the 2nd
+  of July 1599, its original name being "The World runs on wheels";
+  printed 1605); _The Gentleman Usher_ (c. 1601, pr. 1606), a comedy;
+  _Monsieur d'Olive_ (1604, pr. 1606), one of his most amusing and
+  successful comedies; _Eastward Hoe_ (1605), written in conjunction
+  with Ben Jonson and John Marston, an excellent comedy of city life;
+  _Bussy d'Ambois,[1] A Tragedie_ (1604, pr. 1607, 1608, 1616, 1641,
+  &c.), the scene of which is laid in the court of Henry III.; _The
+  Revenge of Bussy d'Ambois. A Tragedie_ (pr. 1613, but probably written
+  much earlier); _The Conspiracie, And Tragedie of Charles Duke of
+  Byron. Marshall of France, ... in two plays_ (1607 and 1608; pr. 1608
+  and 1625); _May-Day, A witty Comedie_ (pr. 1611; but probably acted as
+  early as 1601); _The widdowes Teares. A Comedie_ (pr. 1612; produced
+  perhaps as early as 1605); _Caesar and Pompey: A Roman Tragedy,
+  declaring their warres. Out of whose events is evicted this
+  Proposition. Only a just man is a freeman_ (pr. 1631), written, says
+  Chapman in the dedication, "long since," but never staged.
+
+  _The Tragedy of Alphonsus Emperour of Germany_ (see the edition by Dr
+  Karl Elye; Leipzig, 1867) and _Revenge for Honour_ (1654)[2] both bear
+  Chapman's name on the title-page, but his authorship has been
+  disputed. In _The Ball_ (lic. 1632; pr. 1639), a comedy, and _The
+  Tragedie of Chabot Admirall of France_ (lic. 1635; pr. 1639) he
+  collaborated with James Shirley. _The memorable Masque of the two
+  Honourable Houses or Inns of Court; the Middle Temple and Lyncoln's
+  Inne_, was performed at court in 1613 in honour of the marriage of the
+  Princess Elizabeth.
+
+  _The Whole Works of Homer: Prince of Poets. In his Iliads and
+  Odysseys_ ... appeared in 1616, and about 1624 he added _The Crowne
+  of all Homers works Batrachomyomachia or the Battaile of Frogs and
+  Mise. His Hymns and Epigrams._ But the whole works had been already
+  published by instalments. _Seaven Bookes of the Iliades of Homer_ had
+  appeared in 1598, _Achilles Shield_ in the same year, books i.-xii.
+  about 1609; in 1611 _The Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets_ ...; and
+  in 1614 _Twenty-four Bookes of Homer's Odisses_ were entered at
+  Stationers' Hall. In 1609 he addressed to Prince Henry _Enthymiae
+  Raptus; or the Teares of Peace_, and on the death of his patron he
+  contributed _An Epicede, or Funerall Song_ (1612). A paraphrase of
+  _Petrarchs Seven Penitentiall Psalms_ (1612), a poem in honour of the
+  marriage of Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, and Frances, the divorced
+  countess of Essex, indiscreetly entitled _Andromeda Liberata_ ...
+  (1614), a translation of _The Georgicks of Hesiod_ (1618), _Pro Vere
+  Autumni Lachrymae_ (1622), in honour of Sir Horatio Vere, _A
+  justification of a Strange Action of Nero ... also ... the fifth
+  Satyre of Juvenall_ (1629), and _Eugenia_ ... (1614), an elegy on Sir
+  William Russell, complete the list of his separately published works.
+
+  Chapman's _Homer_ was edited in 1857 by the Rev. Richard Hooper; and a
+  reprint of his dramatic works appeared in 1873. The standard edition
+  of Chapman is the _Works_, edited by R.H. Shepherd (1874-1875), the
+  third volume of which contains an "Essay on the Poetical and Dramatic
+  works of George Chapman," by Mr Swinburne, printed separately in 1875.
+  The selection of his plays (1895) for the Mermaid Series is edited by
+  Mr W.L. Phelps. For the sources of the plays see Emil Koeppel,
+  "Anellen Studien zu den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip Massinger's
+  und John Ford's" in _Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach und
+  Kulturgeschichte_ (vol. 82, Strassburg, 1897). The suggestion of W.
+  Minto (see _Characteristics of the English Poets_, 1885) that Chapman
+  was the "rival poet" of Shakespeare's sonnets is amplified in Mr A.
+  Acheson's _Shakespeare and the Rival Poet_ (1903). Much satire in
+  Chapman's introduction is there applied to Shakespeare. For other
+  criticisms of his translation of Homer see Matthew Arnold, _Lectures
+  on translating Homer_ (1861), and Dr A. Lohff, _George Chapman's
+  Ilias-Übersetzung_ (Berlin, 1903).     (M. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Chapman's source in this piece remains undetermined. It cannot be
+    the _Historia sui temporis_ of Jacques de Thorn, for the 4th volume
+    of his work, which relates the story, was not published until 1609
+    (see Koeppel, p. 14).
+
+  [2] This play appears to have been issued in 1653 with the title _The
+    Parracide, or Revenge for Honour_ as the work of Henry Glathorne.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPMAN (from O. Eng. _céap_, and Mid. Eng. _cheap_, to barter, cf.
+"Cheapside" in London, and Ger. _Kaufmann_), one who buys or sells, a
+trader or dealer, especially an itinerant pedlar. The word "chap," now a
+slang term, meant originally a customer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPONE, HESTER (1727-1801), English essayist, daughter of Thomas Mulso,
+a country gentleman, was born at Twywell, Northamptonshire, on the 27th
+of October 1727. She was a precocious child, and at the age of nine
+wrote a romance entitled _The Loves of Amoret and Melissa_. Hecky Mulso,
+as she was familiarly called, developed a beautiful voice, which earned
+her the name of "the linnet." While on a visit to Canterbury she made
+the acquaintance of the learned Mrs Elizabeth Carter, and soon became
+one of the admirers of the novelist Samuel Richardson. She was one of
+the little court of women who gathered at North End, Fulham; and in Miss
+Susannah Highmore's sketch of the novelist reading _Sir Charles
+Grandison_ to his friends Miss Mulso is the central figure. She
+corresponded with Richardson on "filial obedience" in letters as long as
+his own, signing herself his "ever obliged and affectionate child." She
+admired, however, with discrimination, and in the words of her
+biographer (_Posthumous Works_, 1807, p. 9) "her letters show with what
+dignity, tempered with proper humility, she could maintain her own
+well-grounded opinion." In 1760 Miss Mulso, with her father's reluctant
+consent, married the attorney, John Chapone, who had been befriended by
+Richardson. Her husband died within a year of her marriage. Mrs Chapone
+remained in London visiting various friends. She had already made small
+contributions to various periodicals when she published, in 1772, her
+best known work, _Letters on the Improvement of the Mind._ This book
+brought her numerous requests from distinguished persons to undertake
+the education of their children. She died on the 25th of December 1801.
+
+  See _The Posthumous Works of Mrs Chapone, containing her
+  correspondence with Mr Richardson; a series of letters to Mrs
+  Elizabeth Carter ... together with an account of her life and
+  character drawn up by her own family_ (1807).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPPE, CLAUDE (1763-1805), French engineer, was born at Brûlon (Sarthe)
+in 1763. He was the inventor of an optical telegraph which was widely
+used in France until it was superseded by the electric telegraph. His
+device consisted of an upright post, on the top of which was fastened a
+transverse bar, while at the ends of the latter two smaller arms moved
+on pivots. The position of these bars represented words or letters; and
+by means of machines placed at intervals such that each was distinctly
+visible from the next, messages could be conveyed through 50 leagues in
+a quarter of an hour. The machine was adopted by the Legislative
+Assembly in 1792, and in the following year Chappe was appointed
+_ingénieur-télégraphe_; but the originality of his invention was so much
+questioned that he was seized with melancholia and (it is said)
+committed suicide at Paris in 1805.
+
+His elder brother, Ignace Urbain Jean Chappe (1760-1829), took part in
+the invention of the telegraph, and with a younger brother, Pierre
+François, from 1805 to 1823 was administrator of the telegraphs, a post
+which was also held by two other brothers, René and Abraham, from 1823
+to 1830. Ignace was the author of a _Histoire de la télégraphie_ (1824).
+An uncle, Jean Chappe d'Auteroche (1728-1769), was an astronomer who
+observed two transits of Venus, one in Siberia in 1761, and the other in
+1769 in California, where he died.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPPELL, WILLIAM (1809-1888), English writer on music, a member of the
+London musical firm of Chappell & Co., was born on the 20th of November
+1809, eldest son of Samuel Chappell (d. 1834), who founded the business.
+William Chappell is particularly noteworthy for his starting the Musical
+Antiquarian Society in 1840, and his publication of the standard work
+_Popular Music of the Olden Time_ (1855-1859)--an expansion of a
+collection of "national English airs" made by him in 1838-1840. The
+modern revival of interest in English folk-songs owes much to this work,
+which has since been re-edited by Professor H.E. Wooldridge (1893). W.
+Chappell died on the 20th of August 1888. His brother, Thomas Patey
+Chappell (d. 1902), meanwhile had largely extended the publishing
+business, and had started (1859) the Monday and Saturday Popular
+Concerts at St James's Hall, which were successfully managed by a
+younger brother, S. Arthur Chappell, till they came to an end towards
+the close of the century.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPRA, or CHUPRA, a town of British India, the administrative
+headquarters of Saran district in Bengal, near the left bank of the
+river Gogra, just above its confluence with the Ganges; with a railway
+station on the Bengal & North-Western line towards Oudh. Pop. (1901)
+45,901, showing a decrease of 21% in the decade. There are a government
+high school, a German Lutheran mission, and a public library endowed by
+a former maharaja of Hatwa. Chapra is the centre of trade in indigo and
+saltpetre, and conducts a large business by water as well as by rail.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE, COMTE DE CHANTE-LOUP (1756-1832), French
+chemist and statesman, was born at Nogaret, Lozère, on the 4th of June
+1756. The son of an apothecary, he studied chemistry at Montpellier,
+obtaining his doctor's diploma in 1777, when he repaired to Paris. In
+1781 the States of Languedoc founded a chair of chemistry for him at the
+school of medicine in Montpellier, where he taught the doctrines of
+Lavoisier. The capital he acquired by the death of a wealthy uncle he
+employed in the establishment of chemical works for the manufacture of
+the mineral acids, alum, white-lead, soda and other substances. His
+labours in the cause of applied science were at length recognized by the
+French government, which presented him with letters of nobility, and the
+cordon of the order of Saint Michel. During the Revolution a publication
+by Chaptal, entitled _Dialogue entre un Montagnard et un Girondin_,
+caused him to be arrested; but being speedily set at liberty through the
+intermission of his friends, he undertook, in 1793, the management of
+the saltpetre works at Grenelle. In the following year he went to
+Montpellier, where he remained till 1797, when he returned to Paris.
+After the _coup d'état_ of the 18th of Brumaire (November 9, 1799) he
+was made a councillor of state by the First Consul, and succeeded Lucien
+Bonaparte as minister of the interior, in which capacity he established
+a chemical manufactory near Paris, a school of arts, and a society of
+industries; he also reorganized the hospitals, introduced the metrical
+system of weights and measures, and otherwise greatly encouraged the
+arts and sciences. A misunderstanding between him and Napoleon (who
+conferred upon him the title of comte de Chanteloup) occasioned
+Chaptal's retirement from office in 1804; but before the end of that
+year he was again received into favour by the emperor, who bestowed on
+him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and made him treasurer to
+the conservative senate. On Napoleon's return from Elba, Chaptal was
+made director-general of commerce and manufactures and a minister of
+state. He was obliged after the downfall of the emperor to withdraw into
+private life; and his name was removed from the list of the peers of
+France until 1819. In 1816, however, he was nominated a member of the
+Academy of Sciences by Louis XVIII. Chaptal was especially a popularizer
+of science, attempting to apply to industry and agriculture the
+discoveries of chemistry. In this way he contributed largely to the
+development of modern industry. He died at Paris on the 30th of July
+1832.
+
+  His literary works exhibit both vigour and perspicuity of style; he
+  wrote, in addition to various articles, especially in the _Annales de
+  chimie, Élémens de chimie_ (3 vols., 1790; new ed., 1796-1803);
+  _Traité du salpètre et des goudrons_ (1796); _Tableau des principaux
+  sels terreux_ (1798); _Essai sur le perfectionnement des arts
+  chimiques en France_ (1800); _Art de faire, de gouverner, et de
+  perfectionner les vins_ (1 vol., 1801; new ed., 1819); _Traité
+  théorique et pratique sur la culture de la vigne, &c._, (2 vols.,
+  1801; new ed., 1811); _Essai sur le blanchiment_ (1801); _La Chimie
+  appliquée aux arts_ (4 vols., 1806); _Art de la teinture du coton en
+  rouge_ (1807); _Art du teinturier et du dégraisseur_ (1800); _De
+  l'industrie française_ (2 vols., 1819); _Chimie appliquée a
+  l'agriculture_ (2 vols., 1823; new ed., 1829).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER (a shortened form of _chapiter_, a word still used in
+architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. _chapitre_, Lat.
+_capitellum_, diminutive of _caput_, head), a principal division or
+section of a book, and so applied to acts of parliament, as forming
+"chapters" or divisions of the legislation of a session of parliament.
+The name "chapter" is given to the permanent body of the canons of a
+cathedral or collegiate church, presided over, in the English Church, by
+the dean, and in the Roman communion by the provost or the dean, and
+also to the body of the members of a religious order. This may be a
+"conventual" chapter of the monks of a particular monastery,
+"provincial" of the members of the order in a province, or "general" of
+the whole order. This ecclesiastical use of the word arose from the
+custom of reading a chapter of Scripture, or a head (_capitulum_) of the
+_regula_, to the assembled canons or monks. The transference from the
+reading to the assembly itself, and to the members constituting it, was
+easy, through such phrases as _convenire ad capitulum_. The title
+"chapter" is similarly used of the assembled body of knights of a
+military or other order. (See also CANON; CATHEDRAL; DEAN).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER-HOUSE (Lat. _capitolium_, Ital. _capitolo_, Fr. _chapitre_, Ger.
+_Kapitelhaus_), the chamber in which the chapter or heads of the
+monastic bodies (see ABBEY and CATHEDRAL) assembled to transact
+business. They are of various forms; some are oblong apartments, as
+Canterbury, Exeter, Chester, Gloucester, &c.; some octagonal, as
+Salisbury, Westminster, Wells, Lincoln, York, &c. That at Lincoln has
+ten sides, and that at Worcester is circular; most are vaulted
+internally and polygonal externally, and some, as Salisbury, Wells,
+Lincoln, Worcester, &c., depend on a single slight vaulting shaft for
+the support of the massive vaulting. They are often provided with a
+vestibule, as at Westminster, Lincoln, Salisbury and are almost
+exclusively English.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPU, formerly an important maritime town of China, in the province of
+Cheh-kiang, 50 m. N.W. of Chên-hai, situated in one of the richest and
+best cultivated districts in the country. It is the port of Hang-chow,
+with which it has good canal communication, and it was formerly the only
+Chinese port trading with Japan. The town has a circuit of about 5 m.
+exclusive of the suburbs that lie along the beach; and the Tatar quarter
+is separated from the rest by a wall. It was captured and much injured
+by the British force in 1842, but was abandoned immediately after the
+engagement. The sea around it has now silted up, though in the middle of
+the 19th century it was accessible to the light-draught ships of the
+British fleet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAR (_Salvelinus_), a fish of the family Salmonidae, represented in
+Europe, Asia and North America. The best known and most widely
+distributed species, the one represented in British and Irish lakes, is
+_S. alpinus_, a graceful and delicious fish, covered with very minute
+scales and usually dark olive, bluish or purplish black above, with or
+without round orange or red spots, pinkish white or yellowish pink to
+scarlet or claret red below. When the char go to sea, they assume a more
+silvery coloration, similar to that of the salmon and sea trout; the red
+spots become very indistinct and the lower parts are almost white. The
+very young are also silvery on the sides and white below, and bear 11 to
+15 bars, or parr-marks, on the side. This fish varies much according to
+localities; and the difference in colour, together with a few points of
+doubtful constancy, have given rise to the establishment of a great
+number of untenable so-called species, as many as seven having been
+ascribed to the British and Irish fauna, viz. _S. alpinus, nivalis,
+killinensis, willoughbyi, perisii, colii_ and _grayi_, the last from
+Lough Melvin, Ireland, being the most distinct. _S. alpinus_ varies much
+in size according to the waters it inhabits, remaining dwarfed in some
+English lakes, and growing to 2 ft. or more in other localities. In
+other parts of Europe, also, various local forms have been
+distinguished, such as the "omble chevalier" of the lakes of Switzerland
+and Savoy (_S. umbla_), the "Säbling" of the lakes of South Germany and
+Austria (_S. salvelinus_), the "kullmund" of Norway (_S. carbonarius_),
+&c., while the North American _S. parkei, alipes, stagnalis, arcturus,
+areolus, oquassa_ and _marstoni_ may also be regarded as varieties.
+Taken in this wide sense, _S. alpinus_ has a very extensive
+distribution. In central Europe, in the British islands and in the
+greater part of Scandinavia it is confined to mountain lakes, but
+farther to the north, in both the Old World and the New, it lives in the
+sea and ascends rivers to spawn. In Lapland, Iceland, Greenland and
+other parts of the arctic regions, it ranks among the commonest fishes.
+The extreme northern point at which char have been obtained is 82° 34'
+N. (Victoria lake and Floeberg Beach, Arctic America). It reaches an
+altitude of 2600 ft. in the Alps and 6000 ft. in the Carpathians.
+
+The American brook char, _S. fontinalis_, is a close ally of _S.
+alpinus_, differing from it in having fewer and shorter gill-rakers, a
+rather stouter body, the back more or less barred or marbled with dark
+olive or black, and the dorsal and caudal fins mottled or barred with
+black. Many local varieties of colour have been distinguished. Sea-run
+individuals are often nearly plain bright silvery. It is a small
+species, growing to about 18 in. abundant in all clear, cold streams of
+North America, east of the Mississippi, northward to Labrador. The fish
+has been introduced into other parts of the United States, and also into
+Europe.
+
+Another member of the same section of Salmonidae is the Great Lake char
+of North America, _S. namaycush_, one of the largest salmonids, said to
+attain a weight of 100 lb. The body is very elongate and covered with
+extremely small scales. The colour varies from grey to black, with
+numerous round pale spots, which may be tinged with reddish; the dorsal
+and caudal fins reticulate with darker. This fish inhabits the Great
+Lakes regions and neighbouring parts of North America.
+
+
+
+
+CHAR-À-BANC (Fr. for "benched carriage"), a large form of wagonette-like
+vehicle for passengers, but with benched seats arranged in rows,
+looking forward, commonly used for large parties, whether as public
+conveyances or for excursions.
+
+
+
+
+CHARACTER (Gr. [Greek: charaktêr] from [Greek: charattein], to scratch),
+a distinctive mark (spelt "caracter" up to the 16th century, with other
+variants); so applied to symbols of notation or letters of the alphabet;
+more figuratively, the distinguishing traits of anything, and
+particularly the moral and mental qualities of an individual human
+being, the sum of those qualities which distinguish him as a
+personality. From the latter usage "a character" becomes almost
+identical with "reputation"; and in the sense of "giving a servant a
+character," the word involves a written testimonial. For the law
+relating to servants' characters see MASTER AND SERVANT. A further
+development is the use of "character" to mean an "odd or eccentric
+person"; or of a "character actor," to mean an actor who plays a
+highly-coloured strange part. The word is also used as the name of a
+form of literature, consisting of short descriptions of types of
+character. Well-known examples of such "characters" are those of
+Theophrastus and La Bruyère, and in English, of Joseph Hall (1574-1656)
+and Sir Thomas Overbury.
+
+
+
+
+CHARADE, a kind of riddle, probably invented in France during the 18th
+century, in which a word of two or more syllables is divined by guessing
+and combining into one word (the answer) the different syllables, each
+of which is described, as an independent word, by the giver of the
+charade. Charades may be either in prose or verse. Of poetic charades
+those by W. Mackworth Praed are well known and excellent examples, while
+the following specimens in prose may suffice as illustrations. "My
+_first_, with the most rooted antipathy to a Frenchman, prides himself,
+whenever they meet, upon sticking close to his jacket; my _second_ has
+many virtues, nor is its least that it gives its name to my first; my
+_whole_ may I never catch!" "My _first_ is company; my _second_ shuns
+company; my _third_ collects company; and my _whole_ amuses company."
+The solutions are _Tar-tar_ and _Co-nun-drum_. The most popular form of
+this amusement is the acted charade, in which the meaning of the
+different syllables is acted out on the stage, the audience being left
+to guess each syllable and thus, combining the meaning of all the
+syllables, the whole word. A brilliant example of the acted charade is
+described in Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_.
+
+
+
+
+CHARCOAL, the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by
+removing the volatile constituents of animal and vegetable substances;
+wood gives origin to wood-charcoal; sugar to sugar-charcoal; bone to
+bone-charcoal (which, however, mainly consists of calcium phosphate);
+while coal gives "coke" and "gas-carbon." The first part of the word
+charcoal is of obscure origin. The independent use of "char," meaning to
+scorch, to reduce to carbon, is comparatively recent, and must have been
+taken from "charcoal," which is quite early. The _New English
+Dictionary_ gives as the earliest instance of "char" a quotation dated
+1679. Similarly the word "chark" or "chak," meaning the same as "char,"
+is also late, and is probably due to a wrong division of the word
+"charcoal," or, as it was often spelled in the 16th and 17th centuries,
+"charkole" and "charke-coal." No suggestions for an origin of "char" are
+satisfactory. It may be a use of the word "chare," which appears in
+"char-woman," the American "chore"; in all these words it means "turn,"
+a turn of work, a job, and "charcoal" would have to mean "turned coal,"
+i.e. wood changed or turned to coal, a somewhat forced derivation, for
+which there is no authority. Another suggestion is that it is connected
+with "chirk" or "chark," an old word meaning "to make a grating noise."
+
+_Wood-charcoal._--In districts where there is an abundance of wood, as
+in the forests of France, Austria and Sweden, the operation of
+charcoal-burning is of the crudest description. The method, which dates
+back to a very remote period, generally consists in piling billets of
+wood on their ends so as to form a conical pile, openings being left at
+the bottom to admit air, with a central shaft to serve as a flue. The
+whole is covered with turf of moistened soil. The firing is begun at the
+bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outwards and upwards. The
+success of the operation--both as to the intrinsic value of the product
+and its amount--depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under average
+conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts by volume, or 25
+parts by weight, of charcoal. The modern process of carbonizing
+wood--either in small pieces or as sawdust--in cast iron retorts is
+extensively practised where wood is scarce, and also by reason of the
+recovery of valuable by-products (wood spirit, pyroligneous acid,
+wood-tar), which the process permits. The question of the temperature of
+the carbonization is important; according to J. Percy, wood becomes
+brown at 220° C., a deep brown-black after some time at 280°, and an
+easily powdered mass at 310°. Charcoal made at 300° is brown, soft and
+friable, and readily inflames at 380°; made at higher temperatures it is
+hard and brittle, and does not fire until heated to about 700°. One of
+the most important applications of wood-charcoal is as a constituent of
+gunpowder (q.v.). It is also used in metallurgical operations as a
+reducing agent, but its application has been diminished by the
+introduction of coke, anthracite smalls, &c. A limited quantity is made
+up into the form of drawing crayons; but the greatest amount is used as
+a fuel.
+
+The porosity of wood-charcoal explains why it floats on the surface of
+water, although it is actually denser, its specific gravity being about
+1.5. The porosity also explains the property of absorbing gases and
+vapours; at ordinary temperatures ammonia and cyanogen are most readily
+taken up; and Sir James Dewar has utilized this property for the
+preparation of high vacua at low temperatures. This character is
+commercially applied in the use of wood-charcoal as a disinfectant. The
+fetid gases produced by the putrefaction and waste of organic matter
+enter into the pores of the charcoal, and there meet with the oxygen
+previously absorbed from the atmosphere; oxidation ensues, and the
+noxious effluvia are decomposed. Generally, however, the action is a
+purely mechanical one, the gases being only absorbed. Its
+pharmacological action depends on the same property; it absorbs the
+gases of the stomach and intestines (hence its use in cases of
+flatulence), and also liquids and solids. Wood-charcoal has also the
+power of removing colouring matters from solutions, but this property is
+possessed in a much higher degree by animal-charcoal.
+
+_Animal-charcoal_ or _bone black_ is the carbonaceous residue obtained
+by the dry distillation of bones; it contains only about 10% of carbon,
+the remainder being calcium and magnesium phosphates (80%) and other
+inorganic material originally present in the bones. It is generally
+manufactured from the residues obtained in the glue (q.v.) and gelatin
+(q.v.) industries. Its decolorizing power was applied in 1812 by Derosne
+to the clarification of the syrups obtained in sugar-refining; but its
+use in this direction has now greatly diminished, owing to the
+introduction of more active and easily managed reagents. It is still
+used to some extent in laboratory practice. The decolorizing power is
+not permanent, becoming lost after using for some time; it may be
+revived, however, by washing and reheating.
+
+_Lampblack_ or _soot_ is the familiar product of the incomplete
+combustion of oils, pitch, resins, tallow, &c. It is generally prepared
+by burning pitch residues (see COAL-TAR) and condensing the product.
+Thus obtained it is always oily, and, before using as a pigment, it must
+be purified by ignition in closed crucibles (see CARBON).
+
+
+
+
+CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN (1825-1893), French physician, was born in Paris on
+the 29th of November 1825. In 1853 he graduated as M.D. of Paris
+University, and three years later was appointed physician of the Central
+Hospital Bureau. In 1860 he became professor of pathological anatomy in
+the medical faculty of Paris, and in 1862 began that famous connexion
+with the Salpêtrière which lasted to the end of his life. He was elected
+to the Academy of Medicine in 1873, and ten years afterwards became a
+member of the Institute. His death occurred suddenly on the 16th of
+August 1893 at Morvan, where he had gone for a holiday. Charcot, who was
+a good linguist and well acquainted with the literature of his own as
+well as of other countries, excelled as a clinical observer and a
+pathologist. His work at the Salpêtrière exerted a great influence on
+the development of the science of neurology, and his classical _Leçons
+sur les maladies du système nerveux_, the first series of which was
+published in 1873, represents an enormous advance in the knowledge and
+discrimination of nervous diseases. He also devoted much attention to
+the study of obscure morbid conditions like hysteria, especially in
+relation to hypnotism (q.v.); indeed, it is in connexion with his
+investigation into the phenomena and results of the latter that his name
+is popularly known. In addition to his labours on neurological and even
+physiological problems he made many contributions to other branches of
+medicine, his published works dealing, among other topics, with liver
+and kidney diseases, gout and pulmonary phthisis. As a teacher he was
+remarkably successful, and always commanded an enthusiastic band of
+followers.
+
+
+
+
+CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT (1847-1897), British soldier, was born at
+Boxhill, near Plymouth, on the 21st of December 1847, and in 1868
+entered the Royal Engineers. In 1878 Lieutenant Chard was ordered to
+South Africa to take part in the Zulu War, and was stationed at the
+small post of Rorke's Drift to protect the bridges across the Buffalo
+river, and some sick men and stores. Here, with Lieutenant Gonville
+Bromhead (1856-1891) and eighty men of the 2nd 24th Foot, he heard, on
+the 22nd of January 1879, of the disaster of Isandhlwana from some
+fugitives who had escaped the slaughter. Believing that the victorious
+Zulus would attempt to cross into Natal, they prepared, hastily, to hold
+the Drift until help should come. They barricaded and loopholed the old
+church and hospital, and improvised defences from wagons, mealie sacks
+and bags of Indian corn. Early in the afternoon they were attacked by
+more than 3000 Zulus, who, after hours of desperate hand-to-hand
+fighting, carried the outer defences, an inner low wall of biscuit
+boxes, and the hospital, room by room. The garrison then retired to the
+stone kraal, and repulsed attack after attack through the night. The
+next morning relieving forces appeared, and the enemy retired. The
+spirited defence of Rorke's Drift saved Natal from a Zulu invasion, and
+Chard's and Bromhead's gallantry was rewarded with the V.C. and
+immediate promotion to the rank of captain and brevet-major. On Chard's
+return to England he became a popular hero. From 1893-1896 he commanded
+the Royal Engineers at Singapore, and was made a colonel in 1897. He
+died the same year at Hatch-Beauchamp, near Taunton, on the 1st of
+November.
+
+
+
+
+CHARD, a market town and municipal borough in the Southern parliamentary
+division of Somersetshire, England, 142½ m. W. by S. of London by the
+London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4437. It stands on high
+ground within 1 m. of the Devonshire border. Its cruciform parish church
+of St Mary the Virgin is Perpendicular of the 15th century. A fine east
+window is preserved. The manufactures include linen, lace, woollens,
+brassware and ironware. Chard is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 444 acres.
+
+Chard (_Cerdre_, _Cherdre_, _Cherde_) was commercial in origin, being a
+trade centre near the Roman road to the west. There are two Roman villas
+in the parish. There was a British camp at Neroche in the neighbourhood.
+The bishop of Bath held Chard in 1086, and his successor granted in 1234
+the first charter which made Chard a free borough, each burgage paying a
+rent of 12d. Trade in hides was forbidden to non-burgesses. This charter
+was confirmed in 1253, 1280 and 1285. Chard is said to have been
+incorporated by Elizabeth, as the corporation seal dates from 1570, but
+no Elizabethan charter can be found. It was incorporated by grant of
+Charles I. in 1642, and Charles II. gave a charter in 1683. Chard was a
+mesne borough, the first overlord being Bishop Joceline, whose
+successors held it (with a brief interval from 1545 to 1552) until 1801,
+when it was sold to Earl Poulett. Parliamentary representation began in
+1312, and was lost in 1328. A market on Monday and fair on the 25th of
+July were granted in 1253, and confirmed in 1642 and 1683, when two more
+fair days were added (November 2 and May 3), the market being changed to
+Tuesday. The market day is now Monday, fairs being held on the first
+Wednesday in May, August and November, for corn and cattle only, their
+medieval importance as centres of the cloth trade having departed.
+
+
+
+
+CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON (1699-1779), French _genre_ painter, was born in
+Paris, and studied under Pierre Jacques Cazes (1676-1754), the
+historical painter, and Noël Nicolas Coypel. He became famous for his
+still-life pictures and domestic interiors, which are well represented
+at the Louvre, and for figure-painting, as in his _Le Bénédicité_
+(1740).
+
+
+
+
+CHARDIN, SIR JOHN (1643-1713), French traveller, was born at Paris in
+1643. His father, a wealthy jeweller, gave him an excellent education,
+and trained him in his own art; but instead of settling down in the
+ordinary routine of the craft, he set out in company with a Lyons
+merchant named Raisin in 1665 for Persia and India, partly on business
+and partly to gratify his own inclination. After a highly successful
+journey, during which he had received the patronage of Shah Abbas II. of
+Persia, he returned to France in 1670, and there published in the
+following year _Récit du Couronnement du roi de Perse Soliman III_.
+Finding, however, that his Protestant profession cut him off from all
+hope of honours or advancement in his native country, he set out again
+for Persia in August 1671. This second journey was much more adventurous
+than the first, as instead of going directly to his destination, he
+passed by Smyrna, Constantinople, the Crimea, Caucasia, Mingrelia and
+Georgia, and did not reach Ispahan till June 1673. After four years
+spent in researches throughout Persia, he again visited India, and
+returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope in 1677. The persecution of
+Protestants in France led him, in 1681, to settle in London, where he
+was appointed jeweller to the court, and received from Charles II. the
+honour of knighthood. In 1683 he was sent to Holland as representative
+of the English East India Company; and in 1686 he published the first
+part of his great narrative--_The Travels of Sir John Chardin into
+Persia and the East Indies, &c._ (London). Sir John died in London in
+1713, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his monument bears the
+inscription _Nomen sibi fecit eundo_.
+
+  It was not till 1711 that the complete account of Chardin's travels
+  appeared, under the title of _Journal du voyage du chevalier Chardin_,
+  at Amsterdam. The Persian portion is to be found in vol. ii. of
+  Harris's _Collection_, and extracts are reprinted by Pinkerton in vol.
+  ix. The best complete reprint is by Langlès (Paris, 1811). Sir John
+  Chardin's narrative has received the highest praise from the most
+  competent authorities for its fulness, comprehensiveness and fidelity;
+  and it furnished Montesquieu, Rousseau, Gibbon and Helvétius with most
+  important material.
+
+
+
+
+CHARENTE, an inland department of south-western France, comprehending
+the ancient province of Angoumois, and inconsiderable portions of
+Saintonge, Poitou, Marche, Limousin and Périgord. It is bounded N. by
+the departments of Deux-Sèvres and Vienne, E. by those of Vienne and
+Dordogne, S. by Dordogne and W. by Charente-Inférieure. Area 2305 sq. m.
+Pop. (1906) 351,733. The department, though it contains no high
+altitudes, is for the most part of a hilly nature. The highest points,
+many of which exceed 1000 ft., are found in the Confolentais, the
+granite region of the extreme north-east, known also as the Terres
+Froides. In the Terres Chaudes, under which name the remainder of the
+department is included, the levels vary in general between 300 and 650
+ft., except in the western plains--the Pays-Bas and Champagne--where
+they range from 40 to 300 ft. A large part of Charente is thickly
+wooded, the principal forests lying in its northern districts. The
+department, as its name indicates, belongs mainly to the basin of the
+river Charente (area of basin 3860 sq. m.; length of river 225 m.), the
+chief affluents of which, within its borders, are the Tardoire, the
+Touvre and the Né. The Confolentais is watered by the Vienne, a
+tributary of the Loire, while the arrondissement of Barbexieux in the
+south-west belongs almost wholly to the basin of the Gironde.
+
+The climate is temperate but moist, the rainfall being highest in the
+north-east. Agriculturally, Charente is prosperous. More than half its
+surface is arable land, on the greater part of which cereals are grown.
+The potato is an important crop. The vine is predominant in the region
+of Champagne, the wine produced being chiefly distilled into the famous
+brandy to which the town of Cognac gives its name. The best pasture is
+found in the Confolentais, where horned cattle are largely reared. The
+chief fruits are chestnuts, walnuts and cider-apples. The poultry raised
+in the neighbourhood of Barbezieux is highly esteemed. Charente has
+numerous stone quarries, and there are peat workings and beds of clay
+which supply brick and tile-works and earthenware manufactories. Among
+the other industries, paper-making, which has its chief centre at
+Angoulême, is foremost. The most important metallurgical establishment
+is the large foundry of naval guns at Ruelle. Flour-mills and
+leather-works are numerous. There are also many minor industries
+subsidiary to paper-making and brandy-distilling, and Angoulême
+manufactures gunpowder and confectionery. Coal, salt and timber are
+prominent imports. Exports include paper, brandy, stone and agricultural
+products. The department is served chiefly by the Orlêans and Ouest-État
+railways, and the Charente is navigable below Angoulême. Charente is
+divided into the five arrondissements of Angoulême, Cognac, Ruffec,
+Barbezieux and Confolens (29 cantons, 426 communes). It belongs to the
+region of the XII. army corps, to the province of the archbishop of
+Bordeaux, and to the académie (educational division) of Poitiers. Its
+court of appeal is at Bordeaux.
+
+Angoulême (the capital), Cognac, Confolens, Jarnac and La Rochefoucauld
+(q.v.) are the more noteworthy places in the department. Barbezieux and
+Ruffec, capitals of arrondissements and agricultural centres, are
+otherwise of little importance. The department abounds in churches of
+Romanesque architecture, of which those of Bassac, St Amant-de-Boixe
+(portions of which are Gothic in style), Plassac and Gensac-la-Pallue
+may be mentioned. There are remains of a Gothic abbey church at La
+Couronne, and Roman remains at St Cybardeaux, Brossac and Chassenon
+(where there are ruins of the Gallo-Roman town of Cassinomagus).
+
+
+
+
+CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE, a maritime department of south-western France,
+comprehending the old provinces of Saintonge and Aunis, and a small
+portion of Poitou, and including the islands of Ré, Oléron, Aix and
+Madame. Area, 2791 sq.m. Pop. (1906) 453,793. It is bounded N. by
+Vendée, N.E. by Deux-Sèvres, E. by Charente, S.E. by Dordogne, S.W. by
+Gironde and the estuary of the Gironde, and W. by the Bay of Biscay.
+Plains and low hills occupy the interior; the coast is flat and marshy,
+as are the islands (Ré, Aix, Oléron) which lie opposite to it. The
+department takes its name from the river Charente, which traverses it
+during the last 61 m. of its course and drains the central region. Its
+chief tributaries are on the right the Boutonne, on the left the Seugne.
+The climate is temperate and, except along the coast, healthy. There are
+several sheltered bays on the coast, and several good harbours, the
+chief of which are La Rochelle, Rochefort and Tonnay-Charente, the two
+latter some distance up the Charente. Royan on the north shore of the
+Gironde is an important watering-place much frequented for its bathing.
+
+The majority of the inhabitants of Charente-Inférieure live by
+agriculture. The chief products of the arable land are wheat, oats,
+maize, barley and the potato. Horse and cattle-raising is carried on and
+dairying is prosperous. A considerable quantity of wine, most of which
+is distilled into brandy, is produced. The department has a few
+peat-workings, and produces freestone, lime and cement; the salt-marshes
+of the coast are important sources of mineral wealth. Glass, pottery,
+bricks and earthenware are prominent industrial products. Ship-building,
+brandy-distilling, iron-founding and machine construction are also
+carried on. Oysters and mussels are bred in the neighbourhood of La
+Rochelle and Marennes, and there are numerous fishing ports along the
+coast.
+
+The railways traversing the department belong to the Ouest-État system,
+except one section of the Paris-Bordeaux line belonging to the Orléans
+Company. The facilities of the department for internal communication are
+greatly increased by the number of navigable streams which water it. The
+Charente, the Sèvre Niortaise, the Boutonne, the Seudre and the Gironde
+furnish 142 m. of navigable waterway, to which must be added the 56 m.
+covered by the canals of the coast. There are 6 arrondissements (40
+cantons, 481 communes), cognominal with the towns of La Rochelle,
+Rochefort, Marennes, Saintes, Jonzac and St Jean d'Angély--La Rochelle
+being the chief town of the department. The department forms the diocese
+of La Rochelle, and is attached to the 18th military region, and in
+educational matters to the académie of Poitiers. Its court of appeal is
+at Poitiers.
+
+La Rochelle, St Jean d'Angély, Rochefort and Saintes (q.v.) are the
+principal towns. Surgères and Aulnay possess fine specimens of the
+numerous Romanesque churches. Pons has a graceful château of the 15th
+and 16th centuries, beside which there rises a fine keep of the 12th
+century.
+
+
+
+
+CHARENTON-LE-PONT, a town of northern France in the department of Seine,
+situated on the right bank of the Marne, at its confluence with the
+Seine, 1 m. S.E. of the fortifications of Paris, of which it is a
+suburb. Pop. (1906) 18,034. It derives the distinctive part of its name
+from the stone bridge of ten arches which crosses the Marne and unites
+the town with Alfortville, well known for its veterinary school founded
+in 1766. It has always been regarded as a point of great importance for
+the defence of the capital, and has frequently been the scene of
+sanguinary conflicts. The fort of Charenton on the left bank of the
+Marne is one of the older forts of the Paris defence. In the 16th and
+17th centuries Charenton was the scene of the ecclesiastical councils of
+the Protestant party, which had its principal church in the town. At St
+Maurice adjoining Charenton is the famous Hospice de Charenton, a
+lunatic asylum, the foundation of which dates from 1641. Till the time
+of the Revolution it was used as a general hospital, and even as a
+prison, but from 1802 onwards it was specially appropriated to the
+treatment of lunacy. St Maurice has two other national establishments,
+one for the victims of accidents in Paris (_asile national Vacassy_),
+the other for convalescent working-men (_asile national de Vincennes_).
+Charenton has a port on the Canal de St Maurice, beside the Marne, and
+carries on boat-building and the manufacture of tiles and porcelain.
+
+
+
+
+CHARES, Athenian general, is first heard of in 366 B.C. as assisting the
+Phliasians, who had been attacked by Argos and Sicyon. In 361 he visited
+Corcyra, where he helped the oligarchs to expel the democrats, a policy
+which led to the subsequent defection of the island from Athens. In 357,
+Chares was appointed to the command in the Social War, together with
+Chabrias, after whose death before Chios he was associated with
+Iphicrates and Timotheus (for the naval battle in the Hellespont, see
+TIMOTHEUS). Chares, having successfully thrown the blame for the defeat
+on his colleagues, was left sole commander, but receiving no supplies
+from Athens, took upon himself to join the revolted satrap Artabazus. A
+complaint from the Persian king, who threatened to send three hundred
+ships to the assistance of the confederates, led to the conclusion of
+peace (355) between Athens and her revolted allies, and the recall of
+Chares. In 349, he was sent to the assistance of Olynthus (q.v.) against
+Philip II. of Macedon, but returned without having effected anything; in
+the following year, when he reached Olynthus, he found it already in the
+hands of Philip. In 340 he was appointed to the command of a force sent
+to aid Byzantium against Philip, but the inhabitants, remembering his
+former plunderings and extortions, refused to receive him. In 338 he was
+defeated by Philip at Amphissa, and was one of the commanders at the
+disastrous battle of Chaeroneia. Lysicles, one of his colleagues, was
+condemned to death, while Chares does not seem to have been even
+accused. After the conquest of Thebes by Alexander (335), Chares is said
+to have been one of the Athenian orators and generals whose surrender
+was demanded. Two years later he was living at Sigeum, for Arrian
+(_Anabasis_ i. 12) states that he went from there to pay his respects to
+Alexander. In 332 he entered the service of Darius and took over the
+command of a Persian force in Mytilene, but capitulated on the approach
+of a Macedonian fleet on condition of being allowed to retire
+unmolested. He is last heard of at Taenarum, and is supposed to have
+died at Sigeum. Although boastful and vain-glorious, Chares was not
+lacking in personal courage, and was among the best Athenian generals
+of his time. At the best, however, he was "hardly more than an ordinary
+leader of mercenaries" (A. Holm). He openly boasted of his profligacy,
+was exceedingly avaricious, and his bad faith became proverbial.
+
+  Diod. Sic. xv. 75, 95, xvi. 7, 21, 22, 85-88; Plutarch, _Phocion_, 14;
+  Theopompus, _ap._ Athenaeum, xii. p. 532; A. Schäfer, _Demosthenes und
+  seine Zeit_ (1885); A. Holm, _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., 1896),
+  vol. iii.
+
+
+
+
+CHARES, of Lindus in Rhodes, a noted sculptor, who fashioned for the
+Rhodians a colossal bronze statue of the sun-god, the cost of which was
+defrayed by selling the warlike engines left behind by Demetrius
+Poliorcetes, when he abandoned the siege of the city in 303 B.C. (Pliny,
+_Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 41). The colossus was seventy cubits (105 ft.) in
+height; and its fingers were larger than many statues. The notion that
+the legs were planted apart, so that ships could sail between them, is
+absurd. The statue was thrown down by an earthquake after 56 years; but
+the remains lay for ages on the spot.
+
+
+
+
+CHARES, of Mytilene, a Greek belonging to the suite of Alexander the
+Great. He was appointed court-marshal or introducer of strangers to the
+king, an office borrowed from the Persian court. He wrote a history of
+Alexander in ten books, dealing mainly with the private life of the
+king. The fragments are chiefly preserved in Athenaeus.
+
+  See _Scriptores Rerum Alexandri_ (pp. 114-120) in the Didot edition of
+  Arrian.
+
+
+
+
+CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _carricare_, to load in a
+_carrus_ or wagon; cf. "cargo"), a load; from this, its primary meaning,
+also seen in the word "charger," a large dish, come the uses of the word
+for the powder and shot to load a firearm, the accumulation of
+electricity in a battery, the necessary quantity of dynamite or other
+explosive in blasting, and a device borne on an escutcheon in heraldry.
+"Charge" can thus mean a burden, and so a care or duty laid upon one, as
+in "to be in charge" of another. With a transference to that which lays
+such a duty on another, "charge" is used of the instructions given by a
+judge to a jury, or by a bishop to the clergy of his diocese. In the
+special sense of a pecuniary burden the word is used of the price of
+goods, of an encumbrance on property, and of the expenses of running a
+business. Further uses of the word are of the violent, rushing attack of
+cavalry, or of a bull or elephant, or football player; hence "charger"
+is a horse ridden in a charge, or more loosely a horse ridden by an
+officer, whether of infantry or cavalry.
+
+
+
+
+CHARGÉ D'AFFAIRES (Fr. for "in charge of business"), the title of two
+classes of diplomatic agents, (1) _Chargés d'affaires_ (_ministres
+chargés d'affaires_), who were placed by the _règlement_ of the congress
+of Vienna in the 4th class of diplomatic agents, are heads of permanent
+missions accredited to countries to which, for some reason, it is not
+possible or not desirable to send agents of a higher rank. They are
+distinguished from these latter by the fact that their credentials are
+addressed by the minister for foreign affairs of the state which they
+are to represent to the minister for foreign affairs of the receiving
+state. Though still occasionally accredited, ministers of this class are
+now rare. They have precedence over the other class of _chargés
+d'affaires_. (2) _Chargés d'affaires per interim_, or _chargés des
+affaires_, are those who are presented as such, either verbally or in
+writing, by heads of missions of the first, second or third rank to the
+minister for foreign affairs of the state to which they are accredited,
+when they leave their post temporarily, or pending the arrival of their
+successor. It is usual to appoint a counsellor or secretary of legation
+_chargé d'affaires_. Some governments are accustomed to give the title
+of minister to such _chargés d'affaires_, which ranks them with the
+other heads of legation. Essentially _chargés d'affaires_ do not differ
+from ambassadors, envoys or ministers resident. They represent their
+nation, and enjoy the same privileges and immunities as other diplomatic
+agents (see DIPLOMACY).
+
+
+
+
+CHARGING ORDER, in English law, an order obtained from a court or judge
+by a judgment creditor under the Judgment Acts 1838 and 1840, by which
+the property of the judgment debtor in any stocks or funds stands
+charged with the payment of the amount for which judgment shall have
+been recovered, with interest. A charging order can only be obtained in
+respect of an ascertained sum, but this would include a sum ordered to
+be paid at a future date. An order can be made on stock standing in the
+name of a trustee in trust for the judgment debtor, or on cash in court
+to the credit of the judgment debtor, but not on stock held by a debtor
+as a trustee. The application for a charging order is usually made by
+motion to a divisional court, though it may be made to a judge. The
+effect of the order is not that of a contract to pay the debt, but
+merely of an instrument of charge on the shares, signed by the debtor.
+An interval of six months must elapse before any proceedings are taken
+to enforce the charge, but, it necessary, a stop order on the fund and
+the dividends payable by the debtor can be obtained by the creditor to
+protect his interest A solicitor employed to prosecute any suit, matter
+or proceeding in any court, is entitled, on declaration of the court, to
+a charge for his costs upon the property recovered or preserved in such
+suit or proceeding. (See _Rules of the Supreme Court_, o. XLIX.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARIBERT (d. 567), king of the Franks, was the son of Clotaire I. On
+Clotaire's death in 561 his estates were divided between his sons,
+Charibert receiving Paris as his capital, together with Rouen, Tours,
+Poitiers, Limoges, Bordeaux and Toulouse. Besides his wife, Ingoberga,
+he had unions with Merofleda, a wool-carder's daughter, and Theodogilda,
+the daughter of a neatherd. He was one of the most dissolute of the
+Merovingian kings, his early death in 567 being brought on by his
+excesses.     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARIDEMUS, of Oreus in Euboea, Greek mercenary leader. About 367 B.C.
+he fought under the Athenian general Iphicrates against Amphipolis.
+Being ordered by Iphicrates to take the Amphipolitan hostages to Athens,
+he allowed them to return to their own people, and joined Cotys, king of
+Thrace, against Athens. Soon afterwards he fell into the hands of the
+Athenians and accepted the offer of Timotheus to re-enter their service.
+Having been dismissed by Timotheus (362) he joined the revolted satraps
+Memnon and Mentor in Asia, but soon lost their confidence, and was
+obliged to seek the protection of the Athenians. Finding, however, that
+he had nothing to fear from the Persians, he again joined Cotys, on
+whose murder he was appointed guardian to his youthful son Cersobleptes.
+In 357, on the arrival of Chares with considerable forces, the
+Chersonese was restored to Athens. The supporters of Charidemus
+represented this as due to his efforts, and, in spite of the opposition
+of Demosthenes, he was honoured with a golden crown and the franchise of
+the city. It was further resolved that his person should be inviolable.
+In 351 he commanded the Athenian forces in the Chersonese against Philip
+II. of Macedon, and in 349 he superseded Chares as commander in the
+Olynthian War. He achieved little success, but made himself detested by
+his insolence and profligacy, and was in turn replaced by Chares. After
+Chaeroneia the war party would have entrusted Charidemus[1] with the
+command against Philip, but the peace party secured the appointment of
+Phocion. He was one of those whose surrender was demanded by Alexander
+after the destruction of Thebes, but escaped with banishment. He fled to
+Darius III., who received him with distinction. But, having expressed
+his dissatisfaction with the preparations made by the king just before
+the battle of Issus (333), he was put to death.
+
+  See Diod. Sic. xvii. 30; Plutarch, _Phocion_, 16, 17; Arrian,
+  _Anabasis_, i. 10; Quintus Curtius iii. 2; Demosthenes, _Contra
+  Aristocratem_; A. Schäfer, _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (1885).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to some authorities, this is a second Charidemus, the
+    first disappearing from history after being superseded by Chares in
+    the Olynthian war.
+
+
+
+
+CHARING CROSS, the locality about the west end of the Strand and the
+north end of Whitehall, on the south-east side of Trafalgar Square,
+London, England. It falls within the bounds of the city of Westminster.
+Here Edward I. erected the last of the series of crosses to the memory
+of his queen, Eleanor (d. 1290). It stood near the present entrance to
+Charing Cross station of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway, in the
+courtyard of which a fine modern cross has been erected within a few
+feet of the exact site. A popular derivation of the name connected it
+with Edward's "dear queen" (_chère reine_), and a village of Cherringe
+or Charing grew up here later, but the true origin of the name is not
+known. There is a village of Charing in Kent, and the name is connected
+by some with that of a Saxon family, Cerring.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7
+       "Cerargyrite" to "Charing Cross"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 6, 2010 [EBook #33365]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME V SLICE VII<br /><br />
+Cerargyrite to Charing Cross</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CERARGYRITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CHAMBERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CERBERUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CHAMBERSBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CERDIC</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CHAMBÉRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CERDONIANS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117a">CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE DIEUDONNÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CEREALIS, PETILLIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CHAMBORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CERES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CHAMBRE ARDENTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CERIGNOLA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CHAMELEON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CERIGOTTO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CHAMFER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CERINTHUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CERIUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CHAMIER, FREDERICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CERNUSCHI, HENRI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CHAMILLART, MICHEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CEROGRAPHY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CHAMINADE, CÉCILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CERRO DE PASCO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CERTALDO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CHAMKANNI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CERUSSITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CHAMOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CHAMOMILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CHAMONIX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CHAMPAGNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CESAREVICH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CESARI, GIUSEPPE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CHAMPAIGN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CESENA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CHAMPARAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CESPEDES, PABLO DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CHAMPERTY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CHAMPION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CESS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CESSIO BONORUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CESTI, MARC&rsquo; ANTONIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CHAMPLAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CESTIUS, LUCIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CESTUI, CESTUY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CETACEA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CETHEGUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CHANCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CETINA, GUTIERRE DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CHANCEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CETTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CHANCELLOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CETTIGNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CHANCELLORSVILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CETUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CHANCE-MEDLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CETYWAYO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CHANCERY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CEUTA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CHANDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CEVA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CHANDAUSI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CÉVENNES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CHAND BARDAI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CEYLON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CHANDELIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CHABAZITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CHANDERNAGORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CHABLIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CHABOT, FRANÇOIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CHANDLER, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">CHANDLER, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CHABRIAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">CHANDOS, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CHACMA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CHACO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CHACONNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">CHANG-CHOW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CHAD, SAINT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">CHANG CHUN, KIU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CHAD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">CHANGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CHADDERTON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">CHANGELING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CHADERTON, LAURENCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">CHANGOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">CHANGRA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CHAEREMON</a> (Athenian dramatist)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">CHANNEL ISLANDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CHAEREMON</a> (Stoic philosopher)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CHAERONEIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">CHANSONS DE GESTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CHAETOGNATHA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">CHANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CHAETOPODA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">CHANTABUN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CHAETOSOMATIDA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">CHANTADA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CHAFER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">CHANTAGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CHAFF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">CHANTARELLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CHAFFARINAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">CHANTAVOINE, HENRI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">CHANTILLY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CHAFFINCH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CHAFING-DISH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">CHANT ROYAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CHAGOS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">CHANTRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CHAGRES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">CHANUTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CHAIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CHAIR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">CHAOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CHAISE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">CHAPBOOK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CHAKRATA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">CHAPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CHALCEDON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">CHAPEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">CHAPELAIN, JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CHALCEDONY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CHALCIDICUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">CHAPEL HILL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CHALCIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">CHAPELLE ARDENTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CHALCONDYLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">CHAPERON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CHALDAEA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">CHAPLAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CHALDEE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">CHAPLIN, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CHALICE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">CHAPMAN, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CHALIER, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">CHAPMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CHALK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">CHAPONE, HESTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CHALKHILL, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">CHAPPE, CLAUDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CHALKING THE DOOR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">CHAPPELL, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">CHAPRA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CHALLENGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">CHAPTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">&ldquo;CHALLENGER&rdquo; EXPEDITION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">CHAPTER-HOUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CHALLONER, RICHARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">CHAPU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CHALMERS, ALEXANDER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">CHAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CHALMERS, GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">CHAR-À-BANC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">CHARACTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CHALMERS, JAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">CHARADE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CHALMERS, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">CHARCOAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CHALONER, SIR THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">CHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CHALUKYA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">CHARDIN, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CHALYBITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">CHARENTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CHAMBA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CHAMBAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">CHARENTON-LE-PONT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">CHARES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">CHARES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">CHARES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CHAMBERLAIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">CHARGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">CHARGÉ D&rsquo;AFFAIRES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">CHARGING ORDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CHAMBERS, GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">CHARIBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CHAMBERS, ROBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">CHARIDEMUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">CHARING CROSS</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CERARGYRITE,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of silver chloride;
+an important ore of silver. The name cerargyrite is a Greek form
+(from <span class="grk" title="keras">&#954;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#962;</span>, horn, and <span class="grk" title="argyros">&#7940;&#961;&#947;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, silver) of the older name
+hornsilver, which was used by K. Gesner as far back as 1565.
+The chloro-bromide and bromide of silver were also included
+under this term until they were distinguished chemically in
+1841 and 1842, and described under the names embolite and
+bromargyrite (or bromyrite) respectively; the chloride then
+came to be distinguished as chlorargyrite, though the name
+cerargyrite is often now applied to this alone. Chloro-bromo-iodide
+of silver has also been recognized as a mineral and called
+iodembolite. All these are strikingly alike in appearance and
+general characters, differing essentially only in chemical composition,
+and it would seem better to reserve the name cerargyrite
+for the whole group, using the names chlorargyrite (AgCl),
+embolite (Ag(Cl, Bl)), bromargyrite (AgBr) and iodembolite
+(Ag(Cl, Br, I)) for the different isomorphous members of the
+group. They are cubic in crystallization, with the cube and the
+octahedron as prominent forms, but crystals are small and
+usually indistinct; there is no cleavage. They are soft (H = 2½)
+and sectile to a high degree, being readily cut with a knife
+like horn. With their resinous to adamantine lustre and their
+translucency they also present somewhat the appearance of horn;
+hence the name hornsilver. The colour varies somewhat with the
+chemical composition, being grey or colourless in chlorargyrite,
+greenish-grey in embolite and bromargyrite, and greenish-yellow
+to orange-yellow in iodembolite. On exposure to light the
+colour quickly darkens. The specific gravity also varies with the
+composition: for the pure chloride it is 5.55, and the highest
+recorded for an iodembolite is 6.3.</p>
+
+<p>The hornsilvers all occur under similar conditions and are often
+associated together; they are found in metalliferous veins with
+native silver and ores of silver, and are usually confined to the
+upper oxidized parts of the lodes. They are important ores of
+silver (the pure chloride contains 75.3% of silver), and have been
+extensively mined at several places in Chile, also in Mexico, and
+at Broken Hill in New South Wales. The chloride and chloro-bromide
+have been found in several Cornish mines, but never
+in very large amounts.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERBERUS,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the dog who guarded the
+entrance to the lower world. He allowed all to enter, but
+seized those who attempted to escape. According to Hesiod
+(<i>Theog.</i> 311), he was a fifty-headed monster with a fearful bark,
+the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. He was variously
+represented with one, two or (usually) three heads, often with
+the tail of a snake or with snakes growing from his head or twined
+round his body. One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles was to
+fetch Cerberus from below to the upper world, a favourite subject
+of ancient vase-paintings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERDIC<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (d. 534), founder of the West Saxon kingdom, is
+described as an ealdorman who in 495 landed with his son Cynric
+in Hampshire, where he was attacked at once by the Britons.
+Nothing more is heard of him until 508, when he defeated the
+Britons with great slaughter. Strengthened by fresh arrivals
+of Saxons, he gained another victory in 519 at Certicesford, a
+spot which has been identified with the modern Charford, and in
+this year took the title of king. Turning westward, Cerdic appears
+to have been defeated by the Britons in 520 at Badbury or Mount
+Badon, in Dorset, and in 527 yet another fight with the Britons
+is recorded. His last work was the conquest of the Isle of Wight,
+probably in the interest of some Jutish allies. All the sovereigns
+of England, except Canute, Hardicanute, the two Harolds and
+William the Conqueror, are said to be descended from Cerdic.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899);
+Gildas, <i>De excidio Britanniae</i>, edited by Th. Mommsen
+(Berlin, 1898); Nennius, <i>Historia, Brittonum</i>, edited by Th. Mommsen
+(Berlin, 1898); Bede, <i>Historiae ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum libri v.</i>,
+ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896); E. Guest, <i>Origines Celticae</i> (London,
+1883); J.R. Green, <i>The Making of England</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERDONIANS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a Gnostic sect, founded by Cerdo, a Syrian,
+who came to Rome about 137, but concerning whose history
+little is known. They held that there are two first causes&mdash;the
+perfectly good and the perfectly evil. The latter is also the
+creator of the world, the god of the Jews, and the author of the
+Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the son of the good deity; he
+was sent into the world to oppose the evil; but his incarnation,
+and therefore his sufferings, were a mere appearance. Regarding
+the body as the work of the evil deity, the Cerdonians formed a
+moral system of great severity, prohibiting marriage, wine and
+the eating of flesh, and advocating fasting and other austerities.
+Most of what the Fathers narrate of Cerdo&rsquo;s tenets has probably
+been transferred to him from his famous pupil Marcion, like
+whom he is said to have rejected the Old Testament and the
+New, except part of Luke&rsquo;s Gospel and of Paul&rsquo;s Epistles. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marcion</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gnosticism</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEREALIS<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Cerialis</span>), <span class="bold">PETILLIUS</span> (1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), Roman
+general, a near relative of the emperor Vespasian. He is first
+heard of during the reign of Nero in Britain, where he was completely
+defeated (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 61) by Boadicea. Eight years later
+he played an important part in the capture of Rome by the
+supporters of Vespasian. In 70 he put down the revolt of
+Civilis (<i>q.v.</i>). In 71, as governor of Britain, where he had as
+a subordinate the famous Agricola, he inflicted severe defeats
+upon the Brigantes, the most powerful of the tribes of Britain.
+Tacitus says that he was a bold soldier rather than a careful
+general, and preferred to stake everything on the issue of a
+single engagement. He possessed natural eloquence of a kind
+that readily appealed to his soldiers. His loyalty towards his
+superiors was unshakable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xiv. 32; <i>Histories</i>, iii. 59, 78, iv. 71, 75, 86, v. 21;
+<i>Agricola</i>, 8, 17.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERES,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> an old Italian goddess of agriculture. The name
+probably means the &ldquo;creator&rdquo; or &ldquo;created,&rdquo; connected with
+<i>crescere</i> and <i>creare</i>. But when Greek deities were introduced
+into Rome on the advice of the Sibylline books (in 495 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+on the occasion of a severe drought), Demeter, the Greek goddess
+of seed and harvest, whose worship was already common in
+Sicily and Lower Italy, usurped the place of Ceres in Rome,
+or rather, to Ceres were added the religious rites which the Greeks
+paid to Demeter, and the mythological incidents which originated
+with her. At the same time the cult of Dionysus and Persephone
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liber and Libera</a></span>) was introduced. The rites of Ceres were
+Greek in language and form. Her priestesses were Italian Greeks
+and her temple was Greek in its architecture and built by Greek
+artists. She was worshipped almost exclusively by plebeians,
+and her temple near the Circus Maximus was under the care of
+the plebeian aediles, one of whose duties was the superintendence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span>
+of the corn-market. Her chief festivals were the <i>ludi Cereris</i>
+or <i>Cerealia</i> (more correctly, <i>Cerialia</i>), games held annually from
+April 12-19 (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 392 ff.); a second festival,
+in August, to celebrate the reunion of Ceres and Proserpine,
+in which women, dressed in white, after a fast of nine days
+offered the goddess the first-fruits of the harvest (Livy xxii. 56);
+and the <i>Jejunium Cereris</i>, a fast also introduced (191 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) by
+command of the Sibylline books (Livy xxvi. 37), at first held
+only every four years, then annually on the 4th of October. In
+later times Ceres was confused with Tellus. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demeter</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERIGNOLA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of
+Foggia, 26 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Foggia. Pop. (1901)
+34,195. It was rebuilt after a great earthquake in 1731, and has
+a considerable agricultural trade. In 1503 the Spaniards under
+Gonzalo de Cordoba defeated the French under the duc de
+Nemours below the town&mdash;a victory which made the kingdom
+of Naples into a Spanish province in Italy. Cerignola occupies
+the site of Furfane, a station on the Via Traiana between
+Canusium and Herdoniae.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERIGOTTO,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> called locally <span class="sc">Lius</span> (anc. <i>Aegilia</i> or <i>Ogylos</i>; mod.
+Gr. officially <i>Antikythera</i>), an island of Greece, belonging to the
+Ionian group, and situated between Cythera (Cerigo) and Crete,
+about 20 m. from each. Some raised beaches testify to an
+upheaval in comparatively recent times. With an area of about
+10 sq. m. it supports a population of about 300, who are mainly
+Cretan refugees, and in favourable seasons exports a quantity of
+good wheat. It was long a favourite resort of Greek pirates. It is
+famous for the discovery in 1900, close to its coast, of the wreck
+of an ancient ship with a cargo of bronze and marble statues.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERINTHUS<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100), an early Christian heretic, contemporary
+with the closing years of the apostle John, who,
+according to the well-known story of Polycarp, reported by
+Irenaeus (iii. 3) and twice recorded in Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i>
+iii. 28, iv. 14), made a hasty exit from a bath in Ephesus on
+learning that Cerinthus was within. Other early accounts agree
+in making the province of Asia the scene of his activity, and
+Hippolytus (<i>Haer</i>. vii. 33) credits him with an Egyptian training.
+There can be no truth in the notice given by Epiphanius (<i>Haer</i>.
+xxviii. 4) that Cerinthus had in earlier days at Jerusalem led
+the judaizing opposition against Paul.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of defining Cerinthus&rsquo;s theological position is
+due not only to the paucity of our sources but to the fact that the
+witness of the two principal authorities, Irenaeus (1. 26, iii. 11)
+and Hippolytus (<i>Syntagma</i>), does not agree. Further, Irenaeus
+himself in one passage fails to distinguish between Cerinthian
+and Valentinian doctrines. It would appear, however, that
+Cerinthus laid stress on the rite of circumcision and on the
+observance of the Sabbath. He taught that the world had been
+made by angels, from one of whom, the god of the Jews, the
+people of Israel had received their Law, which was not perfect.
+The only New Testament writing which he accepted was a
+mutilated Gospel of Matthew. Jesus was the offspring of Joseph
+and Mary, and on him at the baptism descended the Christ,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+revealing the hitherto unknown Father, and endowing him with
+miraculous power. This Christ left Jesus again before the Passion,
+and the resurrection of Jesus was still in the future. Together
+with these somewhat gnostic ideas, Cerinthus, if we may trust
+the notices of Gaius the Roman presbyter (c. 290) and Dionysius
+of Alexandria (c. 340), held a violent and crude form of chiliasm.
+But the chief significance of the man is his &ldquo;combination of zeal
+for legal observances with bold criticism of the Law itself as a
+whole and of its origin,&rdquo; which reminds us of the Clementine
+<i>Recognitions</i>. Cerinthus is a blend of judaizing christian and
+gnostic.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Irenaeus. According to Hippolytus and Epiphanius it was
+the Holy Ghost that thus descended.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERIUM<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (symbol Ce, atomic weight 140.25), a metallic
+chemical element which occurs with the rare earths in the minerals
+cerite, samarskite, euxenite, monazite, parisite and many
+yttrium minerals. The particular earth containing cerium was
+discovered by M.H. Klaproth in 1803, whilst J. Berzelius at
+about the same time also examined it and came to the conclusion
+that it was the oxide of a new metal, which he termed cerium.
+The crude oxide of the metal is obtained from cerite, by evaporating
+the mineral with strong sulphuric acid, removing excess of
+acid and dissolving the residue in ice-cold water; sulphuretted
+hydrogen is passed through the solution, which is then filtered,
+acidified with hydrochloric acid, and precipitated as oxalate
+by oxalic acid; the oxalate is then converted into oxide by
+ignition. From the crude oxide so obtained (which contains
+lanthanum and didymium oxides) the cerium may be separated
+by conversion into its double sulphate on the addition of potassium
+sulphate, the sulphates of the cerium group being insoluble
+in a saturated solution of potassium sulphate. The sulphate
+is subsequently boiled with water, when a basic sulphate is
+precipitated. For the preparation of pure cerium compounds
+see Auer v. Welsbach, <i>Monatshefte</i>, 1884, v. 508.</p>
+
+<p>The metal was first obtained, in an impure state, by C.G.
+Mosander, by fusing its chloride with sodium. W.F. Hillebrand
+and T. Norton have prepared it by the electrolysis of the melted
+chloride (<i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1875, 156, p. 466); and C. Winkler (<i>Berichte</i>,
+1891, xxiv. 884) obtained it by heating the dioxide with magnesium
+powder. The metal has somewhat the appearance of
+iron, and has a specific gravity of 6.628, which, after melting,
+is increased to 6.728. Its specific heat is 0.04479 (W.F. Hillebrand).
+It is permanent in dry air, but tarnishes in moist air;
+it can be hammered and rolled; it melts at 623° C. It burns
+readily on heating, with a brilliant flame; and it also combines
+with chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus and cyanogen.
+In the case of the two former elements the combination is
+accompanied by combustion of the metal. With water it is
+slowly converted into the dioxide. Cold concentrated nitric
+and sulphuric acids are without action on the metal, but it
+reacts rapidly with dilute nitric and hydrochloric acids. The
+dioxide is used in incandescent gas mantles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lighting</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Three oxides of cerium are known. The sesquioxide, Ce<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is
+obtained by heating the carbonate in a current of hydrogen. It is a
+bluish-green powder, which on exposure rapidly combines with the
+oxygen of the air. By the addition of caustic soda to cerous salts, a
+white precipitate of cerous hydroxide is formed. Cerium dioxide,
+CeO<span class="su">2</span>, is produced when cerium carbonate, nitrate, sulphate or
+oxalate is heated in air. It is a white or pale yellow compound,
+which becomes reddish on heating. Its specific gravity is 6.739,
+and its specific heat 0.0877. It is not reduced to the metallic condition
+on heating with carbon. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves
+this oxide, forming a yellowish solution and ozone. By suspending
+the precipitated cerous hydroxide in water and passing chlorine
+through the solution, a hydrated form of the dioxide, 2CeO<span class="su">2</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, is
+obtained, which is readily soluble in nitric and sulphuric acids,
+forming ceric salts, and in hydrochloric acid, where it forms cerous
+chloride, with liberation of chlorine. A higher hydrated oxide,
+CeO<span class="su">3</span>·xH<span class="su">2</span>O, is formed by the interaction of cerous sulphate with
+sodium acetate and hydrogen peroxide (Lecoq de Boisbaudran,
+<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1885, 100, p. 605).</p>
+
+<p>Cerous chloride, CeCl<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained when the metal is burned in
+chlorine; when a mixture of cerous oxide and carbon is heated in
+chlorine; or by rapid heating of the dioxide in a stream of carbon
+monoxide and chlorine. It is a colourless substance, which is easily
+fusible. A hydrated chloride of composition 2CeCl<span class="su">3</span>·15H<span class="su">2</span>O is also
+known, and is obtained when a solution of cerous oxide in hydrochloric
+acid is evaporated over sulphuric acid. Double salts of
+cerous chloride with stannic chloride, mercuric chloride, and platinic
+chloride are also known. Cerous bromide, 2CeBr<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, and iodide,
+CeI<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O, are known. Cerous sulphide, Ce<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, results on heating
+cerium with sulphur or cerium oxide in carbon bisulphide vapour.
+It is a red infusible mass of specific gravity 5.1, and is slowly
+decomposed by warm water. The sulphate, Ce<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, is formed on
+dissolving the carbonate in sulphuric acid, or on dissolving the basic
+sulphate in sulphuric acid, in the presence of sulphur dioxide,
+evaporating the solution, and drying the product obtained, at high
+temperature (B. Brauner, <i>Monatshefte</i>, 1885, vi. 793). It is a white
+powder of specific gravity 3.912, easily soluble in cold water. Many
+hydrated forms of the sulphate are known, as are also double salts
+of the sulphate with potassium, sodium, ammonium, thallium and
+cadmium sulphates. Ceric fluoride, CeF<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained when the
+hydrated dioxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and the solution
+evaporated on the water bath (B. Brauner). The sulphate,
+Ce(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, is formed when the basic sulphate is dissolved
+in sulphuric acid; or when the dioxide is dissolved in dilute sulphuric
+acid, and evaporated <i>in vacuo</i> over sulphuric acid. It
+forms yellow crystals soluble in water; the aqueous solution on
+standing gradually depositing a basic salt. Double sulphates of
+composition 2Ce(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·2K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, Ce(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·3(NH<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span>
+known.    Nitrates of cerium have been described, as have also phosphates,
+carbonates and a carbide.</p>
+
+<p>Cerium compounds may be recognized by the red precipitate of
+ceric hydroxide, which is formed when sodium hypochlorite is added
+to a colourless cerous salt. For the quantitative determination of
+the metal, the salts are precipitated by caustic potash, the precipitate
+washed, dried and heated, and finally weighed as the dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>The atomic weight of cerium has been determined by B. Brauner
+(<i>Chem. News</i>, 1895, lxxi. 283) from the analysis of the oxalate; the
+values obtained varying from 140.07 to 140.35.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERNUSCHI, HENRI<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1821-1896), Italian politician and
+economist, was born of wealthy parents at Milan in 1821, and
+was destined for the legal profession. During his studies he
+became involved in the revolutionary movement. He played a
+conspicuous part in the insurrection at Milan in 1848, and also
+at Rome in 1849, where he had a seat in the National Assembly.
+On the collapse of the revolutionary government he was arrested
+(1850), but managed to escape to France, where he engaged
+in commerce and banking, became naturalized, and acquired
+a large fortune. He took a prominent part in opposing the
+Socialist movement, and in April 1870, having subscribed a
+large sum to the funds of a committee formed to combat the
+Napoleonic plebiscite, had to leave the country. In September
+the formation of the Third Republic enabled him to return, but he
+soon left Paris to travel in the East, whence he returned with a
+fine art collection, particularly of Japanese objects. Cernuschi
+is best known for his publications on financial questions, more
+especially bimetallism. Of the latter he was an ardent champion,
+and the word itself is commonly supposed to have originated
+with him&mdash;at least in its English form it is first found in his
+<i>Silver Vindicated</i> (1876). Among his other works may be
+mentioned: <i>Mécanique de l&rsquo;échange</i> (1861); <i>Illusion des sociétés
+coopératives</i> (1886); <i>Le Bimétallisme en Angleterre</i> (1879); <i>Le
+Grand Procès de l&rsquo;Union latine</i> (1884). He died at Mentone
+on the 12th of May 1896.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEROGRAPHY<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kêros">&#954;&#951;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, wax, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to
+write), the art of painting in wax. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Encaustic Painting</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERRO DE PASCO, <a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>or <span class="sc">Pasco</span>, a mining town of Peru, capital
+of the department of Junin, 107 m. (221 m. by rail, via Oroya)
+N.E. of Lima. Pop. (1907 est.) 10,000. It is situated on the
+plateau of Bombon, 14,280 ft. above sea-level, and in the midst
+of one of the oldest and richest silver-mining districts of Peru.
+There were 342 silver mines in this district in 1890, and at the
+end of the 19th century the average annual output since the
+discovery of the mines in 1630 was estimated at 1,600,000 oz.
+A decline in the silver production having set in, the American
+company which had become owners of three-fourths of the
+mining properties in the district turned its attention to the
+extensive copper deposits there, built a railway to Oroya 83 m.
+distant, another, 25 m. long, to the coal-fields of Gollarisquisga,
+north of Pasco, and then erected large smelting works (in which
+2500 men were regularly employed in 1907) 8 m. out of town and
+4 m. from limestone beds. The railway to Oroya was completed
+in 1903, the coal mine branch and smelter later on, and in 1907
+the copper output was 20,152,000 &#8468; The town of Pasco is
+badly built and unattractive, and is inhabited chiefly by mining
+labourers and their families. Its population is increased 50% in
+times of great mining activity. The name Cerro de Pasco is
+that of a &ldquo;knot&rdquo; of mountains uniting the two great ranges
+of the Andes at this point.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERTALDO,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of
+Florence, 35 m. S.S.W. by rail and 18 m. direct from the town
+of Florence. Pop. (1901) town, 4552; commune, 9120. It was
+the home of the family of Giovanni Boccaccio, who died and was
+buried here in 1375. His house (of red brick, like the other old
+houses of the town) was restored in 1823 and fitted up with old
+furniture. A statue of him was erected in the principal square in
+1875. The Palazzo Pretorio, or Vicariale, the residence of the
+Florentine governors, recently restored to its original condition,
+has a picturesque facade and court adorned with coats of arms,
+and in the interior are various frescoes dating from the 13th to
+the 16th century. The town as a whole is picturesque, and lies
+on a hill 426 ft. above sea-level.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Pantini, <i>S. Gimignano e Certaldo</i> (Bergamo, 1904), p. 101 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:108px; height:265px" src="images/img762a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:188px" src="images/img762b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CERUSSITE,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a mineral consisting of lead carbonate (PbCO<span class="su">3</span>),
+and an important ore of lead. The name (sometimes erroneously
+spelt cerusite) is from the Lat. <i>cerussa</i>, &ldquo;white lead.&rdquo; &ldquo;Cerussa
+nativa&rdquo; was mentioned by K. Gesner in 1565, and in 1832
+F.S. Beudant applied the name céruse to the mineral, whilst the
+present form, cerussite, is due to W. Haidinger (1845). Popular
+names in early use were lead-spar and white-lead-ore.</p>
+
+<p>Cerussite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is
+isomorphous with aragonite. Like aragonite it is very frequently
+twinned, the compound crystals being
+pseudo-hexagonal in form. Three crystals are
+usually twinned together on two faces of the prism
+<i>m</i>{110}, producing six-rayed stellate groups (figs, 1
+and 2) with the individual crystals intercrossing
+at angles of nearly 60°. Twinning on the faces of
+the prism <i>r</i>{130}, the angles of which are also
+nearly 60°, produces a similar kind of grouping,
+but is much less common. Crystals are of frequent
+occurrence, and they usually have very bright
+and smooth faces. The mineral also occurs in
+compact granular masses, and sometimes in
+fibrous forms. It is usually colourless or white,
+sometimes grey or greenish in tint; it varies
+from transparent to translucent, and has an
+adamantine lustre. It is very brittle, and has a conchoidal
+fracture. Hardness 3-3½; sp. gr. 6.5. A variety containing
+7% of zinc carbonate, replacing lead carbonate, is known as
+iglesiasite, from Iglesias in Sardinia, where it is found.</p>
+
+<p>The mineral may be readily recognized by its characteristic
+twinning, in conjunction with the adamantine lustre and high
+specific gravity. It dissolves with effervescence in dilute nitric
+acid. Before the blow-pipe
+it fuses very readily,
+and gives reactions for
+lead. Cerussite occurs
+in metalliferous veins in
+association with galena,
+and has been formed by
+the action of carbonated
+waters on the galena; it
+is therefore found in the
+upper parts of the lodes
+together with other secondary minerals, such as limonite. Finely
+crystallized specimens have been obtained from the Friedrichssegen
+mine near Ems in Nassau, Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony,
+Mies in Bohemia, Phenixville in Pennsylvania, Broken Hill in
+New South Wales, and several other localities. Delicate acicular
+crystals of considerable length were found long ago in the Pentire
+Glaze mine near St Minver in Cornwall. It is often found
+in considerable quantities, and contains as much as 77½% of
+lead.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1738-1792),
+French author and politician, was born at Turin on the 13th of
+June 1738. He joined the Society of Jesus and became professor
+at the Jesuit college at Lyons. In 1762, in reply to the attacks
+on his order, he published an <i>Apologie générale de l&rsquo;institut et de
+la doctrine des Jésuites</i>, which won him much fame and some
+exalted patronage; notably that of the ex-king Stanislaus of
+Poland and of his grandson the dauphin. During the agitations
+that preceded the Revolution Cerutti took the popular side, and
+in 1788 published a pamphlet, <i>Mémoire pour le peuple français</i>,
+in which in a clear and trenchant style he advocated the claims
+of the <i>tiers état</i>. In May 1789 he presided over the electors of
+Paris, by whom in January 1791 he was chosen member of the
+administration of the department and afterwards deputy to
+the Legislative Assembly. He was a friend of Mirabeau, whose
+policy he supported and whose funeral oration he pronounced.
+He himself died on the 3rd of February 1792. Of Cerutti&rsquo;s
+literary enterprises the most interesting, and probably the most
+influential, was the popular newspaper founded by him, on the
+30th of September 1790, in collaboration with Rabaut Saint-Étienne
+and Philippe Antoine Grouvelle. Its character and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
+objects are explained by its title: <i>La Feuille villageoise,
+adressée chaque semaine à tous les villages de France pour les
+instruire des lois, des événements, des découvertes qui interessent
+tout ban citoyen, &amp;c.</i> It was continued by Grouvelle after Cerutti&rsquo;s
+death, the last number appearing on the 2nd of August 1795.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Cerutti&rsquo;s works were published in 1793 in 3 volumes. On the
+<i>Mémoire pour le peuple français</i>, see F.A. Aulard in <i>La Révolution
+française</i>, tom. xv. (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1547-1616), Spanish
+novelist, playwright and poet, was born at Alcalá de Henares
+in 1547. The attempts of biographers to provide him with an
+illustrious genealogy are unsuccessful. The family history begins
+with the author&rsquo;s grandfather, Juan de Cervantes (b. 1490), a
+lawyer who at one time (1545-6) administered the estates of
+the duke de Osuna, and resided later at Cordova, where he died
+about 1555. Cervantes&rsquo; father was Rodrigo de Cervantes, an
+apothecary-surgeon, who married Leonor de Cortinas in 1540 or
+1541. The children of this marriage were Andrés (b. 1543),
+Andrea (b. 1544), Luisa (b. 1546), Miguel, Rodrigo (b. 1550),
+Magdalena (b. 1554) and Juan (of whom nothing is known
+beyond the mention of him in his father&rsquo;s will).</p>
+
+<p>The exact date of Cervantes&rsquo; birth is not recorded: he was
+baptized on the 9th of October 1547, in the church of Santa
+Maria la Mayor at Alcalá. There are indications that Rodrigo
+de Cervantes resided at Valladolid in 1554, at Madrid in 1561, at
+Seville in 1564-1565, and at Madrid from 1566 onwards. It
+may be assumed that his family accompanied him, and it seems
+likely that either at Valladolid or at Madrid Cervantes saw the
+famous actor-manager and dramatist, Lope de Rueda, of whose
+performances he speaks enthusiastically in the preface to his
+plays. In 1569 a Madrid schoolmaster, Juan Lopez de Hoyos,
+issued a work commemorative of Philip II.&rsquo;s third wife, Isabel
+de Valois, who had died on the 3rd of October 1568. This
+volume, entitled <i>Historia y relación verdadera de la enfermedad,
+felicisimo tránsito y sumptuosas exequias fúnebres de la Serenisima
+Reyna de Españia Doña Isabel de Valoys</i>, contains six contributions
+by Cervantes: a sonnet, four <i>redondillas</i>, and an elegy.
+Lopez de Hoyos introduces Cervantes as &ldquo;our dear and beloved
+pupil,&rdquo; and the elegy is dedicated to Cardinal Espinosa &ldquo;in the
+name of the whole school.&rdquo; It has been inferred that Cervantes
+was educated by Lopez de Hoyos, but this conclusion is untenable,
+for Lopez de Hoyos&rsquo; school was not opened till 1567. On the
+13th of October 1568, Giulio Acquaviva reached Madrid charged
+with a special mission to Philip II.; he left for Rome on the 2nd
+of December, and Cervantes is supposed to have accompanied
+him. This conjecture is based solely on a passage in the dedication
+of the <i>Galatea</i>, where the writer speaks of having been
+&ldquo;<i>camarero</i> to Cardinal Acquaviva at Rome.&rdquo; There is, however,
+no reason to think that Cervantes met Acquaviva in Madrid;
+the probability is that he enlisted as a supernumerary towards
+the end of 1568, that he served in Italy, and there entered the
+household of Acquaviva, who had been raised to the cardinalate
+on the 17th of May 1570. There exists a warrant (dated
+September 15, 1569) for the arrest of one Miguel de Cervantes,
+who had wounded Antonio de Sigura, and had been condemned
+in absence to have his right hand cut off and to be exiled from
+the capital for ten years; and it has been sought to identify
+the offender with the future author of <i>Don Quixote</i>. No evidence
+is available. All that is known with certainty is that Cervantes
+was in Rome at the end of 1569, for on the 22nd of December
+of that year the fact was recorded in an official information lodged
+by Rodrigo de Cervantes with a view to proving his son&rsquo;s
+legitimacy and untainted Christian descent.</p>
+
+<p>If it is difficult to say precisely when Cervantes was in
+Acquaviva&rsquo;s service, it is no less difficult to say when he left it
+to join the regular army. There is evidence, more or less satisfactory,
+that his enlistment took place in 1570; in 1571 he was
+serving as a private in the company commanded by Captain
+Diego de Urbina which formed part of Miguel de Moncada&rsquo;s
+famous regiment, and on the 16th of September he sailed from
+Messina on board the &ldquo;Marquesa,&rdquo; which formed part of the
+armada under Don John of Austria. At the battle of Lepanto
+(October 7, 1571) the &ldquo;Marquesa&rdquo; was in the thickest of the
+conflict. As the fleet came into action Cervantes lay below, ill
+with fever; but, despite the remonstrances of his comrades,
+he vehemently insisted on rising to take his share in the fighting,
+and was posted with twelve men under him in a boat by the
+galley&rsquo;s side. He received three gunshot wounds, two in the
+chest, and one which permanently maimed his right hand&mdash;&ldquo;for
+the greater glory of the right,&rdquo; in his own phrase. On the 30th
+of October the fleet returned to Messina, where Cervantes went
+into hospital, and during his convalescence received grants-in-aid
+amounting to eighty-two ducats. On the 29th of April 1572
+he was transferred to Captain Manuel Ponce de León&rsquo;s company
+in Lope de Figueroa&rsquo;s regiment; he shared in the indecisive
+naval engagement off Navarino on the 7th of October 1572, in
+the capture of Tunis on the 10th of October 1573, and in the
+unsuccessful expedition to relieve the Goletta in the autumn of
+1574. The rest of his military service was spent in garrison at
+Palermo and Naples, and shortly after the arrival of Don John
+at Naples on the 18th of June 1575, Cervantes was granted leave
+to return to Spain; he received a recommendatory letter from
+Don John to Philip II., and a similar testimonial from the duke
+de Sessa, viceroy of Sicily. Armed with these credentials,
+Cervantes embarked on the &ldquo;Sol&rdquo; to push his claim for promotion
+in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of September 1575, near Les Trois Maries off the
+coast of Marseilles, the &ldquo;Sol&rdquo; and its companion ships the
+&ldquo;Mendoza&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Higuera&rdquo; encountered a squadron of
+Barbary corsairs under Arnaut Mami; Cervantes, his brother
+Rodrigo and other Spaniards were captured, and were taken as
+prisoners to Algiers. Cervantes became the slave of a Greek
+renegade named Dali Mami, and, as the letters found on him
+were taken to prove that he was a man of importance in a
+position to pay a high ransom, he was put under special
+surveillance. With undaunted courage and persistence he organized
+plans of escape. In 1576 he induced a Moor to guide him and
+other Christian captives to Oran; the Moor deserted them on the
+road, the baffled fugitives returned to Algiers, and Cervantes
+was treated with additional severity. In the spring of 1577
+two priests of the Order of Mercy arrived in Algiers with a sum
+of three hundred crowns entrusted to them by Cervantes&rsquo;
+parents; the amount was insufficient to free him, and was
+spent in ransoming his brother Rodrigo. Cervantes made
+another attempt to escape in September 1577, but was betrayed
+by the renegade whose services he had enlisted. On being
+brought before Hassan Pasha, the viceroy of Algiers, he took
+the blame on himself, and was threatened with death; struck,
+however, by the heroic bearing of the prisoner, Hassan remitted
+the sentence, and bought Cervantes from Dali Mami for five
+hundred crowns. In 1577 the captive addressed to the Spanish
+secretary of state, Mateo Vazquez, a versified letter suggesting
+that an expedition should be fitted out to seize Algiers; the
+project, though practicable, was not entertained. In 1578
+Cervantes was sentenced to two thousand strokes for sending
+a letter begging help from Martín de Córdoba, governor of Oran;
+the punishment was not, however, inflicted on him. Meanwhile
+his family were not idle. In March 1578 his father presented
+a petition to the king setting forth Cervantes&rsquo; services; the duke
+de Sessa repeated his testimony to the captive&rsquo;s merits; in the
+spring of 1579 Cervantes&rsquo; mother applied for leave to export
+two thousand ducats&rsquo; worth of goods from Valencia to Algiers,
+and on the 31st of July 1579 she gave the Trinitarian monks,
+Juan Gil and Antón de la Bella, a sum of two hundred and fifty
+ducats to be applied to her son&rsquo;s ransom. On his side Cervantes
+was indefatigable, and towards the end of 1579 he arranged to
+secure a frigate; but the plot was revealed to Hassan by Juan
+Blanco de Paz, a Dominican monk, who appears to have conceived
+an unaccountable hatred of Cervantes. Once more the
+conspirator&rsquo;s life was spared by Hassan who, it is recorded,
+declared that &ldquo;so long as he had the maimed Spaniard in safe
+keeping, his Christians, ships and city were secure.&rdquo; On the
+29th of May 1580 the two Trinitarians arrived in Algiers: they
+were barely in time, for Hassan&rsquo;s term of office was drawing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span>
+to a close, and the arrangement of any ransom was a slow process,
+involving much patient bargaining. Hassan refused to accept
+less than five hundred gold ducats for his slave; the available
+funds fell short of this amount, and the balance was collected
+from the Christian traders of Algiers. Cervantes was already
+embarked for Constantinople when the money was paid on the
+19th of September 1580. The first use that he made of his
+liberty was to cause affidavits of his proceedings at Algiers to be
+drawn up; he sailed for Spain towards the end of October,
+landed at Denia in November, and made his way to Madrid.
+He signed an information before a notary in that city on the
+18th of December 1580.</p>
+
+<p>These dates prove that he cannot, as is often alleged, have
+served under Alva in the Portuguese campaign of 1580: that
+campaign ended with the battle of Alcántara on the 25th of
+August 1580. It seems certain, however, that he visited Portugal
+soon after his return from Algiers, and in May 1581 he was sent
+from Thomar on a mission to Oran. Construed literally, a
+formal statement of his services, signed by Cervantes on the
+21st of May 1590, makes it appear that he served in the Azores
+campaigns of 1582-83; but the wording of the document is
+involved, the claims of Cervantes are confused with those of his
+brother Rodrigo (who was promoted ensign at the Azores),
+and on the whole it is doubtful if he took part in either of the
+expeditions under Santa Cruz. In any case, the stories of his
+residence in Portugal, and of his love affairs with a noble
+Portuguese lady who bore him a daughter, are simple inventions.
+From 1582-3 to 1587 Cervantes seems to have written copiously
+for the stage, and in the <i>Adjunta al Parnaso</i> he mentions several
+of his plays as &ldquo;worthy of praise&rdquo;; these were <i>Los Tratos de
+Argel, La Numancia, La Gran Turquesa, La Batalla naval, La
+Jerusalem, La Amaranta ó la de Mayo, El Bosque amoroso, La
+Unica y Bizarra Ársinda</i>&mdash;&ldquo;and many others which I do not
+remember, but that which I most prize and pique myself on was,
+and is, one called <i>La Confusa</i> which, with all respect to as many
+sword-and-cloak plays as have been staged up to the present,
+may take a prominent place as being good among the best.&rdquo;
+Of these only <i>Los Tratos de Argel</i> (or <i>El Trato de Argel</i>) and
+<i>La Numancia</i> have survived, and, though <i>La Numancia</i> contains
+many fine rhetorical passages, both plays go to prove that the
+author&rsquo;s genius was not essentially dramatic. In February
+1584 he obtained a licence to print a pastoral novel entitled
+<i>Primera parte de la Galatea</i>, the copyright of which he sold on
+the 14th of June to Blas de Robles, a bookseller at Alcalá de
+Henares, for 1336 <i>reales</i>. On the 12th of December he married
+Catalina de Palacios Salazar y Vozmediano of Esquivias, eighteen
+years his junior. The <i>Galatea</i> was published in the spring of
+1585, and is frequently said to relate the story of Cervantes&rsquo;
+courtship, and to introduce various distinguished writers under
+pastoral names. These assertions must be received with great
+reserve. The birth of an illegitimate daughter, borne to Cervantes
+by a certain Ana Francisca de Rojas, is referred to 1584, and
+earlier in that same year the <i>Galatea</i> had passed the censor;
+with few exceptions, the identifications of the characters in the
+book with personages in real life are purely conjectural. These
+circumstances, together with the internal evidence of the work,
+point to the conclusion that the <i>Galatea</i> was begun and completed
+before 1583. It was only twice reprinted&mdash;once at Lisbon
+(1590), and once at Paris (1611)&mdash;during the author&rsquo;s lifetime;
+but it won him a measure of repute, it was his favourite among
+his books, and during the thirty years that remained to him he
+repeatedly announced the second part which is promised conditionally
+in the text. However, it is not greatly to be regretted
+that the continuation was never published; though the <i>Galatea</i>
+is interesting as the first deliberate bid for fame on the part of a
+great genius, it is an exercise in the pseudo-classic literature
+introduced into Italy by Sannazaro, and transplanted to Spain
+by the Portuguese Montemõr; and, ingenious or eloquent as
+the Renaissance prose-pastoral may be, its innate artificiality
+stifles Cervantes&rsquo; rich and glowing realism. He himself recognized
+its defects; with all his weakness for the <i>Galatea</i>, he
+ruefully allows that &ldquo;it proposes something and concludes
+nothing.&rdquo; Its comparative failure was a serious matter for
+Cervantes who had no other resource but his pen; his plays
+were probably less successful than his account of them would
+imply, and at any rate play-writing was not at this time a
+lucrative occupation in Spain. No doubt the death of his
+father on the 13th of June 1585 increased the burden of Cervantes&rsquo;
+responsibilities; and the dowry of his wife, as appears from a
+document dated the 9th of August 1586, consisted of nothing
+more valuable than five vines, an orchard, some household
+furniture, four beehives, forty-five hens and chickens, one cock
+and a crucible.</p>
+
+<p>It had become evident that Cervantes could not gain his
+bread by literature, and in 1587 he went to Seville to seek
+employment in connexion with the provisioning of the Invincible
+Armada. He was placed under the orders of Antonio de Guevara,
+and before the 24th of February was excommunicated for
+excessive zeal in collecting wheat at Écija. During the next
+few months he was engaged in gathering stores at Seville and
+the adjacent district, and after the defeat of the Armada he was
+retained as commissary to the galleys. Tired of the drudgery,
+and without any prospect of advancement, on the 21st of May
+1590 Cervantes drew up a petition to the king, recording his
+services and applying for one of four posts then vacant in the
+American colonies: a place in the department of public accounts
+in New Granada, the governorship of Soconusco in Guatemala,
+the position of auditor to the galleys at Cartagena, or that of
+<i>corregidor</i> in the city of La Paz. The petition was referred to
+the Council of the Indies, and was annotated with the words:&mdash;&ldquo;Let
+him look for something nearer home.&rdquo; Cervantes perforce
+remained at his post; the work was hard, uncongenial and
+ill-paid, and the salary was in constant arrears. In November
+1590 he was in such straits that he borrowed money to buy himself
+a suit of clothes, and in August 1592 his sureties were called
+upon to make good a deficiency of 795 <i>reales</i> in his accounts.
+His thoughts turned to literature once more, and on the 5th of
+September 1592, he signed a contract with Rodrigo Osorio
+undertaking to write six plays at fifty ducats each, no payment
+to be made unless Osorio considered that each of these pieces
+was &ldquo;one of the best ever produced in Spain.&rdquo; Nothing came
+of this agreement, and it appears that, between the date of
+signing it and the 19th of September, Cervantes was imprisoned
+(for reasons unknown to us) at Castro del Río. He was speedily
+released, and continued to perquisition as before in Andalusia;
+but his literary ambitions were not dead, and in May 1595 he
+won the first prize&mdash;three silver spoons&mdash;at a poetical tourney
+held in honour of St Hyacinth at Saragossa. Shortly afterwards
+Cervantes found himself in difficulties with the exchequer
+officials. He entrusted a sum of 7400 <i>reales</i> to a merchant
+named Simón Freire de Lima with instructions to pay the
+amount into the treasury at Madrid; the agent became bankrupt
+and absconded, leaving Cervantes responsible for the deficit.
+By some means the money was raised, and the debt was liquidated
+on the 21st of January 1597. But Cervantes&rsquo; position was
+shaken, and his unbusinesslike habits lent themselves to
+misinterpretation. On the 6th of September 1597 he was ordered
+to find sureties that he would present himself at Madrid within
+twenty days, and there submit to the exchequer vouchers for
+all official moneys collected by him in Granada and elsewhere.
+No such sureties being available, he was committed to Seville
+jail, but was released on the 1st of December on condition that
+he complied with the original order of the court within thirty
+days. He was apparently unable to find bail, was dismissed
+from the public service, and sank into extreme poverty. During
+a momentary absence from Seville in February 1590, he was
+again summoned to Madrid by the treasury, but does not appear
+to have obeyed: it is only too likely that he had not the money
+to pay for the journey. There is some reason to think that he
+was imprisoned at Seville in 1602, but nothing positive is known
+of his existence between 1600 and the 8th of February 1603:
+at the latter date he seems to have been at Valladolid, to which
+city Philip III. had removed the court in 1601.</p>
+
+<p>Since the publication of the <i>Galatea</i> in 1585 Cervantes&rsquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span>
+contributions to literature had been limited to occasional poems.
+In 1591 he published a ballad in Andrés de Villalta&rsquo;s <i>Flor de
+varios y nuevos romances</i>; in 1595 he composed a poem, already
+mentioned, to celebrate the canonization of St Hyacinth; in
+1596 he wrote a sonnet ridiculing Medina Sidonia&rsquo;s tardy entry
+into Cadiz after the English invaders had retired, and in the
+same year his sonnet lauding Santa Cruz was printed in Cristóbal.
+Mosquera de Figueroa&rsquo;s <i>Comentario en breve compendio de
+disciplina militar</i>; to 1597 is assigned a sonnet (the authenticity
+of which is disputed) commemorative of the poet Herrera; in
+1598 he wrote two sonnets and a copy of <i>quintillas</i> on the death
+of Philip II.; and in 1602 a complimentary sonnet from his pen
+appeared in the second edition of Lope de Vega&rsquo;s <i>Dragontea</i>.
+Curiously enough, it is by Lope de Vega that <i>Don Quixote</i> is
+first mentioned. Writing to an unknown correspondent (apparently
+a physician) on the 14th of August 1604, Lope de Vega
+says that &ldquo;no poet is as bad as Cervantes, nor so foolish as to
+praise <i>Don Quixote</i>,&rdquo; and he goes on to speak of his own plays
+as being odious to Cervantes. It is obvious that the two men
+had quarrelled since 1602, and that Lope de Vega smarted under
+the satire of himself and his works in Cervantes&rsquo; forthcoming
+book; <i>Don Quixote</i> may have been circulated in manuscript,
+or may even have been printed before the official licence was
+granted on the 26th of September 1604. It was published early
+in 1605, and was dedicated to the seventh duke de Béjar in
+phrases largely borrowed from the dedication in Herrera&rsquo;s
+edition (1580) of Garcilaso de la Vega, and from Francisco de
+Medina&rsquo;s preface to that work.</p>
+
+<p>The mention of Bernardo de la Vega&rsquo;s <i>Pastor de Iberia</i> shows
+that the sixth chapter of <i>Don Quixote</i> cannot have been written
+before 1591. In the prologue Cervantes describes his masterpiece
+as being &ldquo;just what might be begotten in a jail&rdquo;; on the
+strength of this passage, it has been thought that he conceived
+the story, and perhaps began writing it, during one of his terms
+of imprisonment at Seville between 1597 and 1602. Within a
+few weeks of its publication at Madrid, three pirated editions
+of <i>Don Quixote</i> were issued at Lisbon; a second authorized
+edition, imperfectly revised, was hurried out at Madrid; and
+another reprint appeared at Valencia with an <i>aprobación</i> dated
+18th July 1605. With the exception of Alemán&rsquo;s <i>Guzmán de
+Alfarache</i>, no Spanish book of the period was more successful.
+Modern criticism is prone to regard <i>Don Quixote</i> as a symbolic,
+didactic or controversial work intended to bring about radical
+reforms in church and state. Such interpretations did not occur
+to Cervantes&rsquo; contemporaries, nor to Cervantes himself. There
+is no reason for rejecting his plain statement that his main object
+was to ridicule the romances of chivalry, which in their latest
+developments had become a tissue of tiresome absurdities. It
+seems clear that his first intention was merely to parody these
+extravagances in a short story; but as he proceeded the
+immense possibilities of the subject became more evident to
+him, and he ended by expanding his work into a brilliant
+panorama of Spanish society as it existed during the 16th century.
+Nobles, knights, poets, courtly gentlemen, priests, traders,
+farmers, barbers, muleteers, scullions and convicts; accomplished
+ladies, impassioned damsels, Moorish beauties, simple-hearted
+country-girls and kindly kitchen-wenches of questionable morals&mdash;all
+these are presented with the genial fidelity which comes of
+sympathetic insight. The immediate vogue of <i>Don Quixote</i> was
+due chiefly to its variety of incident, to its wealth of comedy
+bordering on farce, and perhaps also to its keen thrusts at eminent
+contemporaries; its reticent pathos, its large humanity, and
+its penetrating criticism of life were less speedily appreciated.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, on the 12th of April 1605, Cervantes authorized
+his publisher to proceed against the Lisbon booksellers who
+threatened to introduce their piratical reprints into Castile. By
+June the citizens of Valladolid already regarded Don Quixote
+and Sancho Panza as proverbial types. Less gratifying experiences
+awaited the popular author. On the 27th of June
+1605 Gaspar de Ezpeleta, a Navarrese gentleman of dissolute
+life, was wounded outside the lodging-house in which Cervantes
+and his family lived; he was taken indoors, was nursed by
+Cervantes&rsquo; sister Magdalena, and died on the 29th of June. That
+same day Cervantes, his natural daughter (Isabel de Saavedra),
+his sister Andrea and her daughter were lodged in jail on suspicion
+of being indirectly concerned in Ezpeleta&rsquo;s death; one of the
+witnesses made damaging charges against Cervantes&rsquo; daughter,
+but no substantial evidence was produced, and the prisoners
+were released. Little is known of Cervantes&rsquo; life between 1605
+and 1608. A <i>Relación</i> of the festivities held to celebrate the
+birth of Philip IV., and a certain <i>Carta á don Diego Astudillo
+Carrillo</i> have been erroneously ascribed to him; during these
+three years he apparently wrote nothing beyond three sonnets,
+and one of these is of doubtful authenticity. The depositions
+of the Valladolid enquiry show that he was living in poverty five
+months after the appearance of <i>Don Quixote</i>, and the fact that
+he borrowed 450 <i>reales</i> from his publisher before November 1607
+would convey the idea that his position improved slowly, if at
+all. But it is difficult to reconcile this view of his circumstances
+with the details concerning his illegitimate daughter revealed
+in documents recently discovered. Isabel de Saavedra was
+stated to be a spinster when arrested at Valladolid in June 1605;
+the settlement of her marriage with Luis de Molina in 1608
+describes her as the widow of Diego Sanz, as the mother of a
+daughter eight months old, and as owning house-property of
+some value. These particulars are perplexing, and the situation
+is further complicated by the publication of a deed in which
+Cervantes declares that he himself is the real owner of this house-property,
+and that his daughter has merely a life-interest in it.
+This claim may be regarded as a legal fiction; it cannot easily
+be reconciled with Cervantes&rsquo; statement towards the end of his
+life, that he was dependent on the bounty of the count de Lemos
+and of Bernardo de Sandoval, cardinal-archbishop of Toledo.
+In 1609 he joined the newly founded confraternity of the Slaves
+of the Most Blessed Sacrament; in 1610 Lemos was appointed
+viceroy of Naples, and Cervantes was keenly disappointed at
+not being chosen to accompany his patron. In 1611 he lost his
+sister Magdalena, who was buried by the charity of the Tertiaries
+of Saint Francis; in 1612 he joined the Academia Selvaje, and
+there appears to have renewed his former friendly relations with
+Lope de Vega; in 1613 he dedicated his <i>Novelas exemplares</i> to
+the count de Lemos, and disposed of his rights for 1600 <i>reales</i>
+and twenty-four copies of the book. The twelve tales in this
+volume, some of them written very much later than others, are
+of unequal merit, but they contain some of the writer&rsquo;s best work,
+and the two picaresque stories&mdash;<i>Rinconete y Cortadillo</i> and the
+<i>Coloquio de los perros</i>&mdash;are superb examples of their kind, and
+would alone entitle Cervantes to take rank with the greatest
+masters of Spanish prose. In 1614 he published the <i>Viage del
+Parnaso</i>, a burlesque poem suggested by the <i>Viaggio in Parnaso</i>
+(1582) of the Perugian poet Cesare Caporali. It contains some
+interesting autobiographical passages, much flattery of contemporary
+poetasters, and a few happy satirical touches; but,
+though it is Cervantes&rsquo; most serious bid for fame as a poet, it has
+seldom been reprinted, and would probably have been forgotten
+but for an admirably humorous postscript in prose which is
+worthy of the author at his best. In the preface to his <i>Ocho
+comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos</i> (1615) he good-humouredly
+admits that his dramatic works found no favour with managers,
+and, when this collection was first reprinted (1749), the editor
+advanced the fantastic theory that the <i>comedias</i> were deliberate
+exercises in absurdity, intended to parody the popular dramas
+of the day. This view cannot be maintained, but a sharp distinction
+must be drawn between the eight set plays and the eight
+interludes; with one or two exceptions, the <i>comedias</i> or set plays
+are unsuccessful experiments in Lope de Vega&rsquo;s manner, while
+the <i>entremeses</i> or <i>interludes</i>, particularly those in prose, are models
+of spontaneous gaiety and ingenious wit.</p>
+
+<p>In the preface to the <i>Novelas exemplares</i> Cervantes had
+announced the speedy appearance of the sequel to <i>Don Quixote</i>
+which he had vaguely promised at the end of the first part. He
+was at work on the fifty-ninth chapter of his continuation when
+he learned that he had been anticipated by Alonso Fernandez
+de Avellaneda of Tordesillas, whose <i>Segunde tamo del ingenioso
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span>
+hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha</i> was published at Tarragona
+in 1614. On the assumption that Fernandez de Avellaneda
+is a pseudonym, this spurious sequel has been ascribed to the
+king&rsquo;s confessor, Luis de Aliaga, to Cervantes&rsquo; old enemy,
+Blanco de Paz, to his old friend, Bartolomé Leonardo de
+Argensola, to the three great dramatists, Lope de Vega, Tirso de
+Molina and Ruiz de Alarcón, to Alonso Fernandez, to Juan José
+Martí, to Alfonso Lamberto, to Luis de Granada, and probably
+to others. Some of these attributions are manifestly absurd&mdash;for
+example, Luis de Granada died seventeen years before the
+first part of <i>Don Quixote</i> was published&mdash;and all of them are
+improbable conjectures; if Avellaneda be not the real name
+of the author, his identity is still undiscovered. His book is
+not devoid of literary talent and robust humour, and possibly
+he began it under the impression that Cervantes was no more
+likely to finish <i>Don Quixote</i> than to finish the <i>Galatea</i>.
+He should, however, have abandoned his project on reading the
+announcement in the preface to the <i>Novelas exemplares</i>; what
+he actually did was to disgrace himself by writing an insolent
+preface taunting Cervantes with his physical defects, his moral
+infirmities, his age, loneliness and experiences in jail. He was
+too intelligent to imagine that his continuation could hold its
+own against the authentic sequel, and malignantly avowed his
+intention of being first in the field and so spoiling Cervantes&rsquo;
+market. It is quite possible that <i>Don Quixote</i> might have been
+left incomplete but for this insulting intrusion; Cervantes was
+a leisurely writer and was, as he states, engaged on <i>El Engaño
+à los ojos, Las Semanas del Jardín</i> and <i>El Famoso Bernardo</i>,
+none of which have been preserved. Avellaneda forced him to
+concentrate his attention on his masterpiece, and the authentic
+second part of <i>Don Quixote</i> appeared towards the end of 1615.
+No book more signally contradicts the maxim, quoted by the
+Bachelor Carrasco, that &ldquo;no second part was ever good.&rdquo; It
+is true that the last fourteen chapters are damaged by undignified
+denunciations of Avellaneda; but, apart from this, the second
+part of <i>Don Quixote</i> is an improvement on the first. The humour
+is more subtle and mature; the style is of more even excellence;
+and the characters of the bachelor and of the physician, Pedro
+Recio de Agüero, are presented with a more vivid effect than
+any of the secondary characters in the first part. Cervantes had
+clearly profited by the criticism of those who objected to &ldquo;the
+countless cudgellings inflicted on Señor Don Quixote,&rdquo; and to
+the irrelevant interpolation of extraneous stories in the text.
+Don Quixote moves through the second part with unruffled
+dignity; Sancho Panza loses something of his rustic cunning,
+but he gains in wit, sense and manners. The original conception
+is unchanged in essentials, but it is more logically developed,
+and there is a notable progress in construction. Cervantes
+had grown to love his knight and squire, and he understood his
+own creations better than at the outset; more completely
+master of his craft, he wrote his sequel with the unfaltering
+confidence of a renowned artist bent on sustaining his reputation.</p>
+
+<p>The first part of <i>Don Quixote</i> had been reprinted at Madrid in
+1608; it had been produced at Brussels in 1607 and 1611, and
+at Milan in 1610; it had been translated into English in 1612
+and into French in 1614. Cervantes was celebrated in and out
+of Spain, but his celebrity had not brought him wealth. The
+members of the French special embassy, sent to Madrid in
+February 1615, under the Commandeur de Sillery, heard with amazement
+that the author of the <i>Galatea</i>, the <i>Novelas exemplares</i>
+and <i>Don Quixote</i> was &ldquo;old, a soldier, a gentleman and poor.&rdquo;
+But his trials were almost at an end. Though failing in health,
+he worked assiduously at <i>Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda</i>,
+which, as he had jocosely prophesied in the preface to the second
+part of <i>Don Quixote</i>, would be &ldquo;either the worst or the best
+book ever written in our tongue.&rdquo; It is the most carefully
+written of his prose works, and the least animated or attractive
+of them; signs of fatigue and of waning powers are unmistakably
+visible. Cervantes was not destined to see it in print. He was
+attacked by dropsy, and, on the 18th of April 1616, received the
+sacrament of extreme unction; next day he wrote the dedication
+of <i>Persiles y Sigismunda</i> to the count de Lemos&mdash;the most
+moving and gallant of farewells. He died at Madrid in the Calle
+del León on the 23rd of April; he was borne from his house
+&ldquo;with his face uncovered,&rdquo; according to the rule of the Tertiaries
+of St Francis, and on the 24th of April was buried in the church
+attached to the convent of the Trinitarian nuns in the Calle de
+Cantarranas. There he rests&mdash;the story of his remains being
+removed in 1633 to the Calle del Humilladero has no foundation
+in fact&mdash;but the exact position of his grave is unknown. Early
+in 1617 <i>Persiles y Sigismunda</i> was published, and passed through
+eight editions within two years; but the interest in it soon died
+away, and it was not reprinted between 1625 and 1719.
+Cervantes&rsquo; wife died without issue on the 31st of October 1626;
+his natural daughter, who survived both the child of her first
+marriage and her second husband, died on the 20th of September
+1652. Cervantes is represented solely by his works. The
+<i>Novelas exemplares</i> alone would give him the foremost place
+among Spanish novelists; <i>Don Quixote</i> entitles him to rank
+with the greatest writers of all time: &ldquo;children turn its leaves,
+young people read it, grown men understand it, old folk praise
+it.&rdquo; It has outlived all changes of literary taste, and is even
+more popular to-day than it was three centuries ago.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Leopold Rius, <i>Bibliografía crítica de las obras de
+Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra</i> (Madrid, 1895-1905, 3 vols.);
+<i>Obras completas</i> (Madrid, 1863-1864, 12 vols.),
+edited by Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch;
+<i>Complete Works</i> (Glasgow, 1901-1906, 8 vols. in progress),
+edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly;
+<i>Don Quijote</i> (Madrid, 1833-1839, 6 vols.), edited by Diego Clemencíu;
+<i>Don Quixote</i> (London, 1899-1900, 2 vols.),
+edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly and John Ormsby;
+<i>Don Quijote</i> (Madrid, 1905-1906, 2 vols. in progress),
+edited by Clemente Cortejón;
+<i>Rinconete y Cortadillo</i> (Sevilla, 1905),
+edited by Francisco Rodriguez Marín;
+<i>Epístola á Mateo Vázquez</i> (Madrid, 1905), edited by E[milio] C[otarelo];
+Julián Apráiz, <i>Estudio histórico-crítico
+sobre las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes</i> (Madrid, 1901);
+Francisco A. de Icaza,
+<i>Las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes</i> (Madrid, 1901);
+Francisco Rodríguez Marín,
+<i>El Loaysa de &ldquo;El Celoso Extremeño&rdquo;</i> (Sevilla, 1901);
+Narciso Díaz de Escovar,
+<i>Apuntes escénicos cervantinos</i> (Madrid, 1905);
+Manuel José García, <i>Estudio crítico acerca
+del entremés &ldquo;El Vizcaino fingido&rdquo;</i> (Madrid, 1905);
+Alfred Morel-Fatio, <i>L&rsquo;Espagne de Don Quichotte</i>
+in <i>Études sur l&rsquo;Espagne</i> (Paris, 1895, 2me série);
+Julio Puyol y Alonso,
+<i>Estado social que refleja &ldquo;El Quijote&rdquo;</i> (Madrid, 1905);
+James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, <i>Cervantes in England</i> (London, 1905);
+Raymond Foulché-Delbose, <i>Étude sur &ldquo;La tia fingida,&rdquo;</i>
+in the <i>Revue hispanique</i> (Paris, 1899), vol. vi. pp. 256-306;
+Benedetto Croce, <i>Due illustrazioni al &ldquo;Viage del Parnaso,&rdquo;</i> in the
+<i>Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo</i> (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 161-193;
+Paul Groussac,
+<i>Une Énigme littéraire: le Don Quichotte d&rsquo;Avellaneda</i> (Paris, 1903);
+Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, <i>El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la
+Mancha</i> (Barcelona, [1905]), edited by Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo;
+Julio Cejador y Franca, <i>La Lengua de Cervantes</i> (Madrid, 1905, &amp;c.);
+Martin Fernández de Navarrete,
+<i>Vida de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra</i> (Madrid, 1819);
+Cristóbal Perez Pastor, <i>Documentos
+Cervantinos hasta ahora inéditos</i> (Madrid, 1897-1902, 2 vols.);
+Emilio Cotardo y Mori, <i>Efemérides Cervantinas</i> (Madrid, 1905);
+Francisco Rodríguez Marín,
+<i>Cervantes estudió en Sevilla, 1564-1565</i> (Seville, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. F.-K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1839-1909),
+Spanish admiral, was born at Medina Sidonia on the 18th of
+February 1839. He showed an early inclination for the sea, and
+his family sent him to the naval cadet school at the age of twelve.
+As a sub-lieutenant he took part in the naval operations on the
+coast of Morocco during the campaign of 1859-60. Then he was
+for some time engaged in operations in the Sulu Islands and the
+Philippines. Afterwards he was on the West Indian station
+during the early part of the first Cuban War (1868-78), returning
+to Spain in 1873 to serve on the Basque coast against the Carlists.
+He distinguished himself in defending the Carraca arsenal near
+Cadiz against the Federals in 1873. He won each step in his
+promotion up to flag-rank through his steadiness and brilliant
+conduct in action, and was awarded the crosses of the Orders of
+Military and Naval Merit, Isabella the Catholic, and St Hermengilde,
+besides several medals. Cervera had a great reputation
+for decision, unbending temper and honesty, before he was
+placed at the head of the Bilbao building-yards. This post he
+resigned after a few months in order to become minister of
+marine in 1892, in a cabinet presided over by Sagasta. He withdrew
+from the cabinet when he found that his colleagues, from
+political motives, declined to support him in making reforms and,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span>
+on the other hand, unwisely cut down the naval estimates. When
+in 1898 the Spanish-American War (<i>q.v.</i>) broke out, he was chosen
+to command a squadron composed of four first-class cruisers,
+the &ldquo;Maria Theresa,&rdquo; his flagship, &ldquo;Oquendo,&rdquo; &ldquo;Vizcaya,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Columbus,&rdquo; and several destroyers. This ill-fated squadron
+only started upon its reckless cruise across the ocean after its
+gallant commander had repeatedly warned both the minister of
+marine and the prime minister, Sagasta, in despatches from Cadiz
+and from the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, that the ships
+were insufficiently provided with coal and ammunition. Some
+of them, indeed, even lacked proper guns. In compliance with
+the instructions of the government, Admiral Cervera made for
+the landlocked harbour of Santiago de Cuba, where he co-operated
+in the defence, landing some guns and a naval brigade. In spite
+of his energetic representations, Cervera received an order from
+Madrid, dictated by political considerations, to sally forth. It
+meant certain destruction. The gallant squadron met forces
+trebly superior to it, and was totally destroyed. The admiral,
+three of his captains, and 1800 sailors and marines were taken
+by the victors to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, U.S.A. After
+the war, Cervera and his captains were tried before the supreme
+naval and military court of the realm, which honourably
+acquitted them all. In 1901 he became vice-admiral, in 1902
+was appointed chief of staff of the Spanish navy, and in 1903
+was made life senator. He died at Puerto Real on the 3rd of
+April 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESAREVICH,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> or more properly <span class="sc">Tsesarevich</span>, the title of
+the heir-apparent to the Russian throne. The full official title
+is <i>Nasliednik Tsesarevich</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;heir of Caesar,&rdquo; and in Russia
+the heir to the throne is commonly called simply <i>Nasliednik</i>, the
+word <i>Tsesarevich</i> never being used alone. <i>Tsarevich</i>, a form now
+much used in England, means simply any &ldquo;king&rsquo;s son&rdquo;; it is an
+antiquated term now out of use in Russia, and was last borne
+as heir to the throne by the unfortunate Alexius, son of Peter
+the Great. The style of the wife of the tsesarevich is <i>Tsesarevna</i>.
+The Cesarewitch handicap race at Newmarket, founded in 1839,
+was named after the prince who was afterwards Alexander II.
+of Russia, who paid a state visit to England that year.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESARI, GIUSEPPE,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> called Il Cavaliere d&rsquo; Arpino (born in
+or about 1568 and created a &ldquo;Cavaliere di Cristo&rdquo; by Pope
+Clement VIII.), also named Il Giuseppino, an Italian painter,
+much encouraged at Rome and munificently rewarded. His
+father had been a native of Arpino, but Giuseppe himself was
+born in Rome. Cesari is stigmatized by Lanzi as not less the
+corrupter of taste in painting than Marino was in poetry; indeed,
+another of the nicknames of Cesari is &ldquo;Il Marino de&rsquo; Pittori&rdquo;
+(the pictorial Marino). There was spirit in Cesari&rsquo;s heads of
+men and horses, and his frescoes in the Capitol (story of Romulus
+and Remus, &amp;c.), which occupied him at intervals during forty
+years, are well coloured; but he drew the human form ill. His
+perspective is faulty, his extremities monotonous, and his
+chiaroscuro defective. He died in 1640, at the age of seventy-two,
+or perhaps of eighty, at Rome. Cesari ranks as the head of
+the &ldquo;Idealists&rdquo; of his period, as opposed to the &ldquo;Naturalists,&rdquo;
+of whom Michelangelo da Caravaggio was the leading champion,&mdash;the
+so-called &ldquo;idealism&rdquo; consisting more in reckless facility,
+and disregard of the common facts and common-sense of nature,
+than in anything to which so lofty a name could be properly
+accorded. He was a man of touchy and irascible character, and
+rose from penury to the height of opulence. His brother
+Bernardino assisted in many of his works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1730-1808), Italian poet, was
+born at Padua in 1730, of a noble but impoverished family. At
+the university of his native place his literary progress procured
+for him at a very early age the chair of rhetoric, and in 1768 the
+professorship of Greek and Hebrew. On the invasion of Italy
+by the French, he gave his pen to their cause, received a pension,
+and was made knight of the iron crown by Napoleon I., to whom,
+in consequence, he addressed a bombastic and extravagantly
+flattering poem called <i>Pronea</i>. Cesarotti is best known as the
+translator of Homer and Ossian. Much praise cannot be given
+to his version of the <i>Iliad</i>, for he has not scrupled to add, omit
+and modernize. Ossian, which he held to be the finest of poems,
+he has, on the other hand, considerably improved in translation;
+and the appearance of his version attracted much attention in
+Italy and France, and raised up many imitators of the Ossianic
+style. Cesarotti also produced a number of works in prose,
+including a <i>Course of Greek Literature</i>, and essays <i>On the Origin
+and Progress of the Poetic Art</i>, <i>On the Sources of the Pleasure
+derived from Tragedy</i>, <i>On the Philosophy of Language</i> and <i>On
+the Philosophy of Taste</i>, the last being a defence of his own
+great eccentricities in criticism. His weakness was a straining
+after novelty. His style is forcible, but full of Gallicisms.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo. began to appear at
+Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death. See
+<i>Memoirs</i>, by Barbieri (Padua, 1810), and <i>Un Filosofo delle lettere</i>, by
+Alemanni (Turin, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESENA<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (anc. <i>Caesena</i>), a town and episcopal see of Emilia,
+Italy, in the province of Forlì, 12 m. S.E. by rail from the town
+of Forlì, on the line between Bologna and Rimini, 144 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1905) 12,245 (town); 43,468 (commune). The
+town is picturesquely situated at the foot of the slopes of the
+Apennines, and is crowned by a medieval fortress (Rocca),
+begun by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) probably, but
+altered and added to later. The cathedral has two fine marble
+altars by the Lombardi of Venice (or their school). The library,
+built for Domenico Malatesta in 1452 by Matteo Nuzio, is a fine
+early Renaissance building, and its internal arrangements, with
+the original desks to which the books are still chained, are
+especially well preserved (see J.W. Clark, <i>The Care of Books</i>,
+Cambridge, 1901, p. 199). In it are valuable MSS., many of which
+were used by Aldus Manutius. It also contains a picture gallery
+with a good &ldquo;Presentation in the Temple&rdquo; by Francesco
+Francia. There are some fine palaces in the town. Three-quarters
+of a mile south-east on the hill stands the handsome
+church of S. Maria del Monte, after the style of Bramante, with
+carved stalls of the 16th century. Wine, hemp and silk are the
+main articles of trade. About the ancient Caesena little is said
+in classical authors: it is mentioned as a station on the Via
+Aemilia and as a fortress in the wars of Theodoric and Narses.
+During the middle ages it was at first independent. In 1357
+it was unsuccessfully defended by the wife of Francesco Ordelaffi,
+lord of Forlì, against the papal troops under Albornoz. In 1377
+it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards Clement
+VII., antipope). It was then held by the Malatesta of Rimini
+until 1465, when it came under the dominion of the church.
+Both Pius VI. (1717) and Pius VII. (1742) were born at
+Cesena.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1832-1904), Italian-American
+soldier and archaeologist, was born near Turin on the 29th of
+July 1832. Having served in the Austrian and Crimean Wars,
+in 1860 he went to New York, where he taught Italian and
+French and founded a military school for officers. He took
+part in the American Civil War as colonel of a cavalry regiment,
+and at Aldie (June 1863) was wounded and taken prisoner.
+He was released from Libby prison early in 1864, served in the
+Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns (1864-65) as a brigadier
+of cavalry, and at the close of the war was breveted brigadier-general.
+He was then appointed United States consul at
+Larnaca in Cyprus (1865-1877). During his stay in the island
+he carried on excavations, which resulted in the discovery of a
+large number of antiquities. The collection was purchased by
+the Metropolitan Museum of New York, and Cesnola became
+director in 1879. Doubt having been thrown by Gaston L.
+Feuerdant, in an article in the New York <i>Herald</i> (August 1880),
+upon the genuineness of his restorations, the matter was referred
+to a special committee, which pronounced in his favour.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He is
+the author of <i>Cyprus, its ancient Cities, Tombs and Temples</i>
+(1877), an interesting book of travel and of considerable service
+to the practical antiquary; and of a <i>Descriptive Atlas of the
+Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities</i> (3 vols., 1884-6). He
+died in New York on the 21st of November 1904. He was a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span>
+member of several learned societies in Europe and America, and
+in 1897 he received a Congressional medal of honour for conspicuous
+military services.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Alessandro Palma di Cesnola</span>, born in 1839,
+conducted excavations at Paphos (where he was U.S. vice-consul)
+and Salamis on behalf of the British government. The results
+of these are described in <i>Salaminia</i> (1882).</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the Cesnola controversy see C.D. Cobham&rsquo;s <i>Attempt at a
+Bibliography of Cyprus</i> (4th ed., 1900). See also article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyprus</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESPEDES<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (in Ital. <span class="sc">Cedaspe</span>), <span class="bold">PABLO DE</span> (1538-1608),
+Spanish poet, painter, sculptor and architect, was born at
+Cordova, and was educated at Alcalá de Henares, where he
+studied theology and Oriental languages. On leaving the
+university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil and
+friend of Federigo Zuccaro, under whose direction he studied
+particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1560,
+while yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the
+Inquisition at Valladolid on account of a letter which, found
+among the papers of the archbishop of Toledo, had been written
+by Cespedes during the preceding year, and in which he had
+spoken with great freedom against the holy office and the inquisitor-general,
+Fernando de Valdés. Cespedes remained in
+Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have
+treated the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he
+contrived to bring the proceedings to an end; he returned,
+however, to Spain a little before 1577, and in that year was
+installed in a prebend of the cathedral at Cordova, where he
+resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes has been called the
+most <i>savant</i> of Spanish artists. According to his friend Francisco
+Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for the preservation of
+all of Cespedes&rsquo;s verse that is extant, the school of Seville owes
+to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He was
+a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master
+of colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the
+advantage of early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de
+Vera, Juan de Peñalosa and Zambrano were among his pupils.
+His best picture is a Last Supper at Cordova, but there are good
+examples of his work at Seville and at Madrid. Cespedes was
+author of several opuscules in prose on subjects connected with
+his profession. Of his poem on <i>The Art of Painting</i> enough was
+preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the
+whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and
+it has been compared, not disadvantageously, with the <i>Georgics</i>.
+It is written in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic
+declamatory vein of Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether
+so dull and lifeless as is most didactic verse. It contains a glowing
+eulogy of Michelangelo, and some excellent advice to young
+painters, insisting particularly on hard work and on the study
+of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting in all
+to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his
+treatise <i>Del arte de la pintura</i>, in 1649.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1585?-1638),
+Spanish novelist, was born at Madrid about 1585. Nothing
+positive is known of him before the publication of his celebrated
+romance, the <i>Poema trágico del Español Gerardo, y desengaño
+del amor lascivo</i> (1615-1617); there is evidence that he had
+been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the 1st
+of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but
+the nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political
+questions in the <i>Historia apologética en los sucesos del reyno de
+Aragón, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, años de 91 y 92</i> (1622), having
+led to the confiscation of the book, Céspedes took up his residence
+at Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection
+of short stories entitled <i>Historias peregrinas y exemplares</i> (1623),
+the unfinished romance <i>Varia fortuna del soldado Píndaro</i> (1626),
+and the first part of his <i>Historia de Felipe IV.</i> (1631), a fulsome
+eulogy which was rewarded by the author&rsquo;s appointment as
+official historiographer to the Spanish king. Céspedes died on
+the 27th of January 1638. His novels, though written in a
+ponderous, affected style, display considerable imagination and
+insight into character. The <i>Poema trágico</i> has been utilized by
+Fletcher in <i>The Spanish Curate</i> and in <i>The Maid of the Mill</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Historias peregrinas</i> has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable
+introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESS<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (a shortened form of &ldquo;assess&rdquo;; the spelling is due to
+a mistaken connexion with &ldquo;census&rdquo;), a tax; a term formerly
+more particularly applied to local taxation, in which sense it
+still is used in Ireland; otherwise it has been superseded by
+&ldquo;rate.&rdquo; In India it is applied, with the qualifying word prefixed,
+to any taxation, such as &ldquo;irrigation-cess&rdquo; and the like, and in
+Scotland to the land-tax.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESSIO BONORUM<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (Latin for a &ldquo;surrender of goods&rdquo;), in
+Roman law, a voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his
+creditors. It did not amount to a discharge unless the property
+ceded was sufficient for the purpose, but it secured the debtor
+from personal arrest. The creditors sold the goods in satisfaction,
+<i>pro tanto</i>, of their claims. The procedure of <i>cessio bonorum</i>
+avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his after-acquired
+property might be proceeded against, could not be deprived of
+the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman
+law of <i>cessio bonorum</i> were adopted in Scots law, and also in the
+French legal system. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESTI, MARC&rsquo; ANTONIO<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1620?-1669?), Italian musical
+composer, was born at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil
+of Carissimi, and after holding a post somewhere in Florence as
+<i>maestro di cappella</i> entered the papal chapel in 1660. In 1666 he
+became <i>Vice-Kapellmeister</i> at Vienna, and died at Venice in 1669.
+Cesti is known principally as a composer of operas, the most
+celebrated of which were <i>La Dori</i> (Venice, 1663) and <i>Il Pomo
+d&rsquo; oro</i> (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of chamber-cantatas,
+and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate
+style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the
+stage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESTIUS, LUCIUS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> surnamed Pius, Latin rhetorician,
+flourished during the reign of Augustus. He was a native of
+Smyrna, a Greek by birth. According to Jerome, he was
+teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He must have been
+living after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 9, since we are told that he taunted the son of
+Quintilius Varus with his father&rsquo;s defeat in the Teutoburgian
+forest (Seneca, <i>Controv.</i> i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of
+great ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he
+left Asia, he was invited to dinner by Cicero&rsquo;s son, then governor
+of the province. His host, being uncertain as to his identity,
+asked a slave who Cestius was; and on receiving the answer,
+&ldquo;he is the man who said your father was illiterate,&rdquo; ordered
+him to be flogged (Seneca, <i>Suasoriae</i>, vii. 13). As an orator
+in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and was
+worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him
+so slavishly that he was nicknamed &ldquo;my monkey&rdquo; by his
+teacher (Seneca, <i>Controv.</i> ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the
+other hand, he was a failure. Although a Greek, he always
+used Latin in his declamations, and, although he was sometimes
+at a loss for Latin words, he never suffered from lack of ideas.
+Numerous specimens of his declamations will be found in the
+works of Seneca the rhetorician.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the monograph <i>De Lucio Cestio Pio</i>, by F.G. Lindner (1858);
+T. Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, iii. 2 (1899);
+Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist, of Roman Lit.</i> (Eng. tr.), § 268, 6; M. Schanz,
+<i>Geschichte der romischen Litteratur</i>, ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CESTUI, CESTUY,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> an Anglo-French word, meaning &ldquo;that
+person,&rdquo; which appears in the legal phrases <i>cestui que trust</i>, <i>use</i>,
+or <i>vie</i>. It is usually pronounced as &ldquo;cetty.&rdquo; <i>Cestui que trust</i>
+means literally &ldquo;the person for whose benefit the trust&rdquo; is
+created. The <i>cestui que trust</i> is the person entitled to the equitable,
+as opposed to the legal, estate. Thus, if land be granted
+unto, and to the use of A. in trust for B., B. is <i>cestui que trust</i>,
+and A. trustee. The term, principally owing to its cumbersomeness,
+is being gradually superseded in modern law by that of
+&ldquo;beneficiary.&rdquo; <i>Cestui que use</i> (sometimes <i>cestui à que use</i>)
+means &ldquo;the person for whose benefit a use&rdquo; is created (see
+TRUST). <i>Cestui que vie</i> is &ldquo;the person for whose life&rdquo; lands are
+held by another (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Remainder</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CETACEA<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="ketos">&#954;&#941;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, a whale), the name of the
+mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &amp;c.
+From their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adaptation
+to their purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span>
+as fishes, although they are true mammals, with warm blood,
+and suckle their young.</p>
+
+<p>The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped
+body passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck,
+and posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the
+tail, which is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions
+of skin supported by fibrous tissue, called &ldquo;flukes,&rdquo; forming
+a horizontal triangular propelling organ, notched behind in the
+middle line. The head is generally large, in some cases attaining
+more than one-third the entire length; and the mouth is wide,
+and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The fore-limbs are reduced
+to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous skin, showing no
+external sign of division, and without trace of nails. There are
+no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the
+skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in
+many species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of
+the mouth which may persist through life or be present only
+in the young state. Immediately beneath the skin is a thick
+layer of fat, held together by a mesh of tissue, constituting
+the &ldquo;blubber,&rdquo; which retains the heat of the body. In nearly
+all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The eye is
+small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The
+external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a
+short distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or
+by a single crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being
+filled with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short
+and immobile, and the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in
+many species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The
+odontoid process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone
+is free, is usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on
+the form and function of the cervical vertebrae published in the
+<i>Jenaische Zeitschrift</i> for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the
+shortening and soldering is most pronounced in species which, like
+the right-whales, live entirely on minute organisms, to capture
+which there is no necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly
+we find that in these whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are
+fused into an immovable solid mass, of which the compound
+elements, with the exception of the first and second, are but little
+thicker than plates. On the other hand, in the finner-whales,
+several of which live exclusively on fish, and thus require a certain
+amount of mobility in the head and neck, we find all the cervical
+vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate from one another.
+Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white whale, or
+beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the great comparative
+length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are completely
+free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure
+is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk
+with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in
+the neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed
+to feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require
+mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On
+the other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and
+mackerel, which in their densely packed shoals must apparently
+fall an easy prey with but little exertion on the part of their
+captor, and we accordingly find all the neck-vertebrae very short,
+and at least six out of the seven coalesced into a solid immovable
+mass. None of the vertebrae are united to form a sacrum.
+The lumbar and caudal vertebrae are numerous and large, and,
+as their arches are not connected by articular processes (zygapophyses),
+they are capable of free motion in all directions. The caps,
+or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral bodies are flattened
+disks, not uniting until after the animal has attained its full dimensions.
+There are largely developed chevron-bones on the under side
+of the tail, the presence of which indicates the distinction between
+caudal and lumbar vertebrae.</p>
+
+<p>In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost
+spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards
+and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the
+vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region;
+and the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits.
+The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or
+less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae,
+vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the
+upper jaw or roof of the mouth.</p>
+
+<p>There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the
+scapula at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of
+the limb are imperfect; the flattened ends of the bones coming in
+contact, with fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any
+motion. The radius and ulna are distinct, and about equally developed,
+and much flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers.
+There are four, or more commonly five, digits, and the number of
+the phalanges of the second and third always exceeds the normal
+number in mammals, sometimes considerably; they present the
+exceptional character of having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis
+is represented by a pair of small rod-like bones placed longitudinally,
+suspended below and at some distance from the vertebral column
+at the commencement of the tail. In some species, to the outer
+surface of these are fixed other small bones or cartilages, the rudiments
+of the hind-limb.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:539px; height:447px" src="images/img769.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;A Section of the Skull of a Black-Fish (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla.</p>
+<p><i>Mx</i>, Maxilla.</p>
+<p><i>ME</i>, Ossified portion of the mesethmoid.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Nostrils.</p>
+<p><i>Na</i>, Nasal.</p>
+<p><i>IP</i>, Inter-parietal.</p>
+<p><i>Fr</i>, Frontal.</p>
+<p><i>Pa</i>, Parietal.</p>
+<p><i>SO</i>, Supra-occipital.</p>
+<p><i>ExO</i>, Ex-occipital.</p>
+<p><i>BO</i>, Basi-occipital.</p>
+<p><i>Sq</i>, Squamosal.</p>
+<p><i>Per</i>, Periotic.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>AS</i>, Alisphenoid.</p>
+<p><i>PS</i>, Presphenoid.</p>
+<p><i>Pt</i>, Pterygoid.</p>
+<p><i>pn</i>, Posterior nares.</p>
+<p><i>Pl</i>, Palatine.</p>
+<p><i>Vo</i>, Vomer.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Symphysis of lower jaw.</p>
+<p><i>id</i>, Inferior dental canal.</p>
+<p><i>cp</i>, Coronoid process of lower jaw.</p>
+<p><i>cd</i>, Condyle.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Angle.</p>
+<p><i>sh</i>, Stylo-hyal.</p>
+<p><i>bh</i>, Basi-hyal.</p>
+<p><i>th</i>, Thyro-hyal.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number.
+In existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with
+conical or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded
+by milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent
+(except in the foetal condition), and the palate is provided with
+numerous transversely placed horny plates, forming the &ldquo;whalebone.&rdquo;
+Salivary glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach
+is complex, and the intestine simple, and only in some species
+provided with a small caecum. The liver is little fissured, and
+there is no gall-bladder. The blood-vascular system is complicated
+by net-like expansions of both arteries and veins, or <i>retia mirabilia</i>,
+The larynx is of peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the
+epiglottis being elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation,
+which projects into the posterior nares, and when embraced by the
+soft palate forms a continuous passage between the nostrils and the
+trachea, or wind-pipe, in a more perfect manner. The brain is
+relatively large, round in form, with its surface divided into numerous
+and complex convolutions. The kidneys are deeply lobulated; the
+testes are abdominal; and there are no vesiculae seminales nor an
+os penis. The uterus is bicornuate; the placenta non-deciduate and
+diffuse. The two teats are placed in depressions on each side of the
+genital aperture. The ducts of the milk-glands are dilated during
+suckling into large reservoirs, into which the milk collects, and from
+which it is injected by the action of a muscle into the mouth of the
+young animal, so that sucking under water is greatly facilitated.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins
+and porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America
+and Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their
+life entirely in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless.
+They have, however, to rise very frequently to the surface for
+the purpose of respiration; and, in relation to the upward and
+downward movement in the water thus necessitated, the principal
+instrument of motion, the tail, is expanded horizontally. The
+position of the nostril on the highest part of the head is important
+for this mode of life, as it is the only part of the body the exposure
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span>
+of which above the surface is absolutely necessary. Of numerous
+erroneous ideas connected with natural history, few are so
+widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes water
+taken in at the mouth. But the &ldquo;spouting,&rdquo; or &ldquo;blowing,&rdquo; of
+whales is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration,
+which, taking place at longer intervals than land-animals, is
+performed with a greater emphasis. The moment the animal
+rises to the surface it forcibly expels from its lungs the air taken
+in at the last inspiration, which is charged with vapour in consequence
+of the respiratory changes. This rapidly condensing in
+the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is often observed,
+forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken for
+water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the
+ocean is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its
+expiratory puff before the orifice has cleared the top of the water,
+some of which may thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending
+to complete the illusion. From photographs of spouting rorquals,
+it appears that the height and volume of the &ldquo;spout&rdquo; of all the
+species is much less than was supposed to be the case by the older
+observers; even that of the huge &ldquo;sulphur-bottom&rdquo; (<i>Balaenoptera
+sibbaldi</i>) averaging only about 14 ft. in height, although it
+may occasionally reach 20 ft.</p>
+
+<p>As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans
+for receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by
+the practice of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged
+in driving a shoal of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for
+the purpose of frightening their intended victims. As regards the
+possession of a voice by cetaceans, it is stated that one species,
+the &ldquo;buckelwal&rdquo; of the Germans, utters during the breeding-season
+a prolonged scream, comparable to the scream of a steam-siren,
+and embracing the whole musical scale, from base to treble.
+In respect of anatomical considerations, it is true that the external
+ear is much reduced, the &ldquo;pinna&rdquo; being absent, and the tube
+or &ldquo;meatus&rdquo; of very small calibre. On the other hand, the
+internal auditory organs are developed on the plan of those of
+ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications
+(notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone)
+for intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are
+received from the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident
+that whales must hear when in the water. This inference is
+confirmed by the comparatively small development of the other
+sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is very small, and can be
+of little use even at the comparatively small depths to which
+whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of smell,
+judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs,
+must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs comparable
+to the lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently,
+it would seem that when below the surface of the water they must
+depend chiefly upon the sense of hearing. Probably this sense
+is so highly developed as to enable the animals, in the midst of
+the vibrations made by the screw-like movements of the tail, or
+flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations) made by the
+impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in the
+case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water
+the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is
+difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the
+semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound
+coasts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the Christiania <i>Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne</i>, vol.
+xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the
+body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely
+imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a
+matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living
+cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale
+and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a
+pond in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of
+procedure is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have,
+accordingly, to rely on <i>post-mortem</i> observations. The layer of
+blubber by which all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the
+<i>post-mortem</i> refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than
+in most mammals, so that such observations have a much higher
+value than might at first be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the
+blood-temperature of a specimen of Sibbald&rsquo;s rorqual three days
+after death still stood at 34° C. The various observations that
+have been taken have afforded the following results in individual
+cases: Sperm-whale, 40° C.; Greenland right-whale, 38.8° C.;
+porpoise, 35.6° C.; liver of a second individual, 37.8° C.; common
+rorqual, 35.4° C.; dolphin, 35.6° C. The average blood-temperature
+of man is 37° C., and that of other mammals 39° C.; while that of
+birds is 42 C. The record of 40° C. in the case of the sperm-whale
+seems to indicate that at least some cetaceans have a relatively
+high temperature.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all
+the Cetacea are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of
+some kind. One kind alone (<i>Orca</i>) eats other warm-blooded
+animals, as seals, and even members of its own order, both large
+and small. Many feed on fish, others on small floating crustaceans,
+pteropods and jelly-fishes, while the principal staple of
+the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes and squids. In
+size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins scarcely
+exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal of
+all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are
+exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species
+exceed those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct
+dinosaurian reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are
+generally timid, inoffensive animals, active in their movements
+and affectionate in their disposition towards one another,
+especially the mother towards the young, of which there is
+usually but one, or at most two at a time. They are generally
+gregarious, swimming in herds or &ldquo;schools,&rdquo; sometimes amounting
+to many thousands in number; though some species are
+met with either singly or in pairs.</p>
+
+<p>Commercially these animals are of importance on account
+of the oil yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone,
+spermaceti and ambergris are still more valuable products
+yielded by certain species. Within the last few years whalebone
+has been sold in America for £2900 per ton, while it is also asserted
+that £3000 per ton has been paid for two and a quarter tons at
+Aberdeen, although there seems to be some degree of doubt
+attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the last
+century, the price of this commodity was as low as £150 per ton,
+but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to
+£620 with the introduction of &ldquo;crinoline&rdquo; into ladies&rsquo; costume,
+and it has apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris,
+which is very largely used in perfumery, is solely a product of
+the sperm-whale, and appears to be a kind of biliary calculus.
+It generally contains a number of the horny beaks of the cuttle-fishes
+and squids upon which these whales chiefly feed. Its
+market-price is subject to considerable variation, but from £3 to
+£4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality. In
+1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of
+ambergris weighing 270 &#8468;, which was sold in Paris for about
+85 s. per oz., or £18,360.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Whalebone Whales</i>.&mdash;Existing Cetacea are divisible into two
+sections, or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means
+clearly apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales,
+or Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although
+there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished
+with plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and
+the nasal bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed
+upwards and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not
+over, the orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and
+distinct from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic,
+which is attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging
+processes. The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two
+halves of the lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends
+meeting at an angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any
+symphysis. All the ribs at their upper extremity articulate only
+with the transverse processes of the vertebrae; their capitular
+processes when present not articulating directly with the bodies of
+the vertebrae. The sternum is composed of a single piece, and
+articulates only with a single pair of ribs; and there are no ossified
+sternal ribs. External openings of nostrils distinct from each other,
+longitudinal. A short conical caecum.</p>
+
+<p>When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute
+teeth lying in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws.
+They are best developed about the middle of foetal life, after which
+they are absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth.
+The whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth;
+and consists of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and
+four hundred in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare
+interval along the middle line. The plates are placed transversely
+to the long axis of the palate, with short intervals between them.
+Each plate or blade is somewhat triangular in form, with the base
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span>
+attached to the palate and the apex hanging downwards. The outer
+edge of the blade is hard and smooth, but the inner edge and apex
+fray out into long bristly fibres, so that the roof of the whale&rsquo;s mouth
+looks as if covered with hair, as described by Aristotle. At the inner
+edge of each principal blade are two or three much smaller or subsidiary
+blades. The principal blades are longest near the middle of
+the series, and gradually diminish towards the front and back of the
+mouth. The horny plates grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix,
+which covers the palatal surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-like
+processes, one of which penetrates the base of each blade.
+Moreover, the free edges of these processes are covered with long
+vascular thread-like papillae, one of which forms the central axis of
+each of the hair-like fibres mainly composing the blade. A transverse
+section of fresh whalebone shows that it is made up of numbers of
+these soft vascular papillae, circular in outline, and surrounded by
+concentrically arranged epidermic cells, the whole bound together
+by other epidermic cells, that constitute the smooth (so-called
+&ldquo;enamel&rdquo;) surface of the blade, which, disintegrating at the free
+edge, allows the individual fibres to become loose and assume a
+hair-like appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous
+membrane of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial
+development. The blades are supported and bound together for a
+certain distance from their base, by a mass of less hardened epithelium,
+secreted by the surface of the palatal membrane or matrix
+of the whalebone in the intervals of the plate-like processes. This is
+the &ldquo;gum&rdquo; of the whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in
+different species; in some it is almost jet black, in others slate colour,
+horn colour, yellow, or even creamy-white. In some descriptions
+the blades are variegated with longitudinal stripes of different hues.
+It differs also greatly in other respects, being short, thick, coarse,
+and stiff in some cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in
+those species in which it has attained its fullest development. Its
+function is to strain the water from the small marine molluscs,
+crustaceans, or fish upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales
+fill the immense mouth with water containing shoals of these small
+creatures, and then, on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so
+as to diminish the cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through
+the narrow intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone
+blades, and escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be
+swallowed.</p>
+
+<p>Although sometimes divided into two families, <i>Balaenidae</i> and
+<i>Balaenopteridae</i>, whalebone-whales are best included in a single
+family group under the former name. The typical members of this
+family are the so-called right-whales, forming the genus <i>Balaena</i>,
+in which there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin;
+while the cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers
+are short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the
+whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while
+the scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process.
+This genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (<i>B.
+mysticetus</i>) of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so
+much valued in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by
+having the head somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with
+shorter whalebone and a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit
+the temperate seas of both northern and southern hemispheres, and
+have been divided into species in accordance with their geographical
+distribution, such as <i>B. biscayensis</i> of the North Atlantic, <i>B. japonica</i>
+of the North Pacific, <i>B. australis</i> of the South Atlantic, and <i>B.
+antipodarum</i> and <i>novae-zelandiae</i> of the South Pacific; but the
+differences between them are so small that they may probably be
+regarded as races of a single species, the black whale (<i>B. australis</i>).
+On the head these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known
+to whalers as the &ldquo;bonnet.&rdquo; This is a large horny excrescence,
+worn into hollows like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock,
+growing probably in the neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More
+than one theory has been suggested to account for its presence.
+One suggestion is that it indicates the descent of whales from rhinoceros-like
+mammals; another that this species of whale is in the
+habit of rubbing against rocks in order to free itself from barnacles,
+and thus produces a kind of corn&mdash;although why on the nose alone
+is not stated. Dr W.G. Ridewood, however, considers that the
+structure is due to the fact that the horny layers which are produced
+all over the skin are not shed on this particular spot.</p>
+
+<p>The pigmy whale (<i>Neobalaena marginata</i>) represents a genus
+agreeing with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flutings,
+and with the rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical
+vertebrae are united, and there are only 43 vertebrae altogether.
+The flippers are small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs
+remarkably expanded and flattened; the scapula low and broad,
+with completely developed acromion and coracoid processes. The
+whalebone is long, slender, elastic and white. The species which
+inhabits the South American, Australian and New Zealand seas is
+the smallest of the whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in
+length.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (<i>Rachianectes
+glaucus</i>) of the North Pacific, which combines the relatively small
+head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin-whales, with
+the smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the right-whales.
+The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other
+species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the first
+two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony
+shield. In the humpback-whale (<i>Megaptera longimana</i> or <i>boops</i>)
+the head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and
+wide, and the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is
+fluted so as to form an expansible pouch; there is a low back-fin;
+and the flippers, which have four digits each, are extremely long,
+equalling about one-fourth the total length of the animal. The
+acromion and coracoid processes of the scapula are rudimentary.
+See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Humpback-Whale</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of
+the shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and
+are consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and immovable
+neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but
+with a smaller head, and probably attains considerable speed owing
+to the length of its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (<i>Balaenoptera</i>),
+which prey largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the
+ocean greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long
+and attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are
+furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They
+chiefly differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and
+slender build, small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing
+four digits, and the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low
+and broad scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among
+them are the most gigantic of all animals, <i>B. sibbaldi</i>, which attains
+the length of 80 ft., and the small <i>B. rostrata</i>, which does not exceed
+30. There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus,
+represented by the two just mentioned, and by <i>B. musculus</i> and
+<i>B. borealis</i>, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether
+almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific
+Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct
+awaits future researches, although some of these have already
+received distinct names. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rorqual</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In the report on the zoology of the &ldquo;Discovery&rdquo; expedition,
+published in 1907 by the British Museum, E.A. Wilson describes a
+whale frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates
+a new generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure
+about 20 or 30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a
+killer.</p>
+
+<p><i>Toothed Whales.</i>&mdash;-The second suborder is represented by the
+toothed whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and
+teeth, generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single
+pair, and occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike
+that of the whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more
+or less unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or
+flattened plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming
+any part of the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards
+and backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent.
+Hinder end of the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of
+the orbital plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either inseparable
+from the jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the
+roof of the orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic,
+which is usually only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament.
+Two halves of the lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height
+posteriorly, with a wide funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal,
+and coming in contact in front by a flat surface of variable length,
+but constituting a symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with
+well-developed capitular processes, which articulate with the bodies
+of the vertebrae. Sternum almost always composed of several pieces,
+placed one behind the other, with which several pairs of ribs are
+connected by well-developed cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs.
+External respiratory aperture single, the two nostrils uniting before
+they reach the surface, usually in the form of a transverse sub-crescentic
+valvular aperture, situated on the top of the head.
+Flippers with five digits, though the first and fifth are usually little
+developed. No caecum, except in <i>Platanista</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first family, <i>Physeteridae</i>, is typified by the sperm-whale,
+and characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper
+jaw; the lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in
+number. Bones of the skull raised so as to form an elevated prominence
+or crest behind the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced
+backwards, meeting in the middle line, and not involuted to form
+the outer wall of the post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed
+on their outer side. Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal
+vertebrae, to which the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing
+abruptly near the end of the series, and replaced by processes on the
+body at a lower level, and serially homologous anteriorly with the
+heads of the ribs, and posteriorly with the transverse processes of
+the lumbar vertebrae. Costal cartilages not ossified.</p>
+
+<p>The first group, or <i>Physeterinae</i>, includes the sperm-whale itself
+and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth,
+which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being imperfectly
+divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by the
+strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly
+asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence
+of the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:204px" src="images/img772a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Skull of Sperm-Whale (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the sperm-whale (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>) the upper teeth
+are apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless,
+being embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25
+teeth on each side, stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span>
+until they are worn, without enamel. Upper surface of the skull
+concave; its posterior and lateral edges raised into a very high and
+greatly compressed semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic
+processes of jugal bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elongated,
+broad at the base, and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower
+jaw exceedingly long and narrow, the symphysis being more than
+half the length. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas,
+or first vertebra, free; all the other cervical vertebrae united
+by their bodies and spines into a single mass. Eleventh pair of
+ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third the length of the body;
+very massive, high and truncated, and rather compressed in front;
+owing its huge size and form mainly to the accumulation of a mass
+of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the upper surface of the
+skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single blow-hole is longitudinal,
+slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper and
+anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle
+line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the
+head, considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers
+short, broad and truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low
+protuberance. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sperm-Whale</a></span>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:584px; height:105px" src="images/img772b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Bottle-nose (<i>Hyperoödon rostratus</i>).  From a specimen taken off
+the coast of Scotland, 1882.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (<i>Cogia  breviceps</i>)
+there may be a pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw,
+while on each side of the lower jaw there are from 9 to 12
+rather long, slender, pointed and curved teeth, with a coating
+of enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave, with
+thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive and rounded
+at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle not longer
+than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base, and rapidly
+tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal rod-like.
+Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length. Vertebrae:
+C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the cervical vertebrae
+united by their bodies and arches. The head is about one-sixth
+of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in front; the
+mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout; the blow-hole
+crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in advance
+of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the flippers are
+bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This species
+attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft.</p>
+
+<p>A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked
+whales, and known as the <i>Ziphiinae</i>. In this group the lower teeth
+are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely
+two, pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male.
+There is a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced
+into a slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded
+eminence formed by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front
+of the blow-hole rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single,
+crescentic and median, as in the <i>Delphinidae</i>. Flippers small, ovate,
+with five digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal
+fin situated considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal
+grooves on each side of the skin of the throat, diverging
+posteriorly, and nearly meeting in front. In external characters
+and habits the whales of this group closely resemble each other.
+They appear to be almost exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and
+occur either singly, in pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and
+osteological characters they are easily separated into four genera.</p>
+
+<p>In the first of these, <i>Hyperoödon</i>, or bottle-nose, there is a small
+conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw,
+concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the
+premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex and
+expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their
+anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils;
+the right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow
+between the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave
+in the middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of
+the right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla.
+Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak,
+extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other
+in the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so
+massive that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital
+notch distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Vertebrae:
+C 7, D 9, L 10, Ca 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae
+united. Upper surface of the head in front of the blow-hole very
+prominent and rounded, rising abruptly from above the small,
+distinct snout. Two species are known. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bottle-nose Whale</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The typical representative of the beaked whales is <i>Ziphius cuvieri</i>,
+in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side
+close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards
+and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and
+at the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral
+margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards,
+the right being considerably more developed than the left. The
+conjoint nasals form a pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of
+the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above, prominent
+and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a notch
+on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not distinct.
+Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base to the
+apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum raised
+into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely
+ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of
+the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The
+three anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:575px; height:132px" src="images/img772c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Sowerby&rsquo;s Beaked Whale (<i>Mesoplodon bidens</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the numerous species of the allied genus <i>Mesoplodon</i> there is a
+much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw,
+variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex;
+its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasionally
+developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the
+nostrils is as in <i>Hyperoödon</i>, except that the nasals are narrow and
+more sunk between the upper ends of the premaxillae; like those of
+<i>Hyperoödon</i>, they are concave in the middle line in front and above.
+No maxillary tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct.
+Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its
+entire length, and coalescing with the surrounding bones. Vertebrae:
+C 7, D 10, L 10 or 11, Ca 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two
+or three anterior cervicals united, the rest usually free.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:222px" src="images/img772d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Skull of a Beaked Whale (<i>Mesoplodon densirostris</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different
+members of this genus agree in their essential structure,
+having a small and pointed enamel-covered crown, composed
+of dentine, which, instead of surmounting a root of
+the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid mass of osteo-dentine,
+the continuous growth of which greatly alters the
+form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances,
+as in the case of <i>M. layardi</i>, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like
+teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over
+the rostrum, and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one
+species (<i>M. grayi</i>) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like
+those of ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, is present even in
+the adults, on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but
+embedded by their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets.
+This, with the frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other
+species of this genus, indicates that the beaked whales are derived
+from ancestral forms with teeth of normal character in both jaws.
+The species are distributed in both northern and southern hemispheres,
+but most frequent in the latter. Among them are <i>M. bidens</i>,
+<i>M. europaeas</i>, <i>M. densirostris</i>, <i>M. layardi</i>, <i>M. grayi</i> and <i>M. hectori</i>;
+but there is still much to be learned with regard to their characters
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span>
+and distribution. This group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as
+attested by the frequency with which the imperishable long, cylindrical
+rostrum of the skull, of more than ivory denseness, is found
+among the rolled and waterworn animal remains which compose
+the &ldquo;bone-bed&rdquo; at the base of the Red Crag of Suffolk.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in Arnoux&rsquo;s beaked whale (<i>Berardius arnouxi</i>), of New
+Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two moderate-sized,
+compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the symphysis
+of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the anterior
+being the larger of the two and close to the front of the jaw. Upper
+ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately elevated,
+slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils. Nasals
+broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the vertex
+of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle line.
+Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid
+partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the
+upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae:
+C 7, D 10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals
+welded, the rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale
+has the power of thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to
+view when attacked.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:457px; height:112px" src="images/img773a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;The Susu, or Ganges Dolphin (<i>Platanista gangetica</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In a family by themselves&mdash;the <i>Platinistidae</i>&mdash;are placed three
+cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the
+following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the
+vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at
+the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in
+most mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal
+bone is not distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow,
+with numerous teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one
+exceeding half its length. Externally the head is divided from the
+body by a slightly constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and
+truncated. Dorsal fin small or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are
+fluviatile or estuarine. In the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin
+(<i>Platanista gangetica</i>), the teeth number about <span class="spp">30</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">30</span>  on each side, are
+set near together, are rather large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed
+in the young, but in old animals acquire a large laterally compressed
+base, which in the posterior part of the series becomes
+irregularly divided into roots. As the conical enamel-covered crown
+wears away, the teeth of the young and old animals have a totally
+different appearance. The beak and tooth-bearing portion of the
+lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of the two sides are almost
+in contact. Maxillae supporting large, incurved, compressed bony
+crests, which overarch the nostrils and base of the rostrum, and
+almost meet in the middle line above. Orbits very small and eyes
+rudimentary, without crystalline lens. Blow-hole longitudinal,
+linear. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 25; total 51. A small caecum.
+No pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:138px" src="images/img773b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;River Plate Dolphin (<i>Stenodelphis blainvillei</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The second genus is represented by <i>Inia geoffroyi</i>, of the
+Amazon, in which the teeth vary from 26 to 33 pairs in each
+jaw; those at the posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner
+side of the base of the crown. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18;
+total 41. Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae very broad.
+Sternum short and broad, and consisting of a single segment only.
+Dorsal fin a mere ridge. The long cylindrical rostrum externally
+furnished with scattered, stout and crisp hairs. The third type is
+<i>Stenodelphis blainvillei</i>, the River Plate dolphin, a small brown
+species (fig. 7), with from 50 to 60 pairs of teeth in each jaw,
+furnished with a cingulum at the base of the crown. Jaws very long
+and slender. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca 19; total 41. Transverse
+processes of the lumbar vertebrae extremely broad. Sternum
+elongated, composed of two segments, with four sternal ribs attached.
+Dorsal fin rather small, triangular, pointed. Blow-hole transverse.
+In several respects this species connects the two preceding ones
+with the <i>Delphinidae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dolphin</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:174px; height:1013px" src="images/img773c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Upper surface
+of the Skull of
+male Narwhal (<i>Monodon
+monoceros</i>), with
+the whole of both
+teeth exposed by removal
+of the upper
+wall of their alveolar
+cavities.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The last family of existing cetaceans is the above-mentioned
+<i>Delphinidae</i>, which includes the true dolphins, porpoises, grampuses
+and their relatives. As a rule there are numerous teeth in both jaws;
+and the pterygoid bones of the skull are short, thin and involuted
+to form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of the post-palatine
+air-sinus. Symphysis of lower jaw short, or moderate, never
+exceeding one-third the length of the jaw. Lacrymal bone not
+distinct from the jugal. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae
+gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the
+vertebrae without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly
+continuous serially with the transverse processes of the lumbar
+vertebrae. Anterior ribs attached to the
+transverse process by the tubercle, and to
+the body of the vertebra by the head; the
+latter attachment lost in the posterior ribs.
+Sternal ribs ossified. The blow-hole is transverse,
+crescentic, with the horns of the
+crescent pointing forwards.</p>
+
+<p>First on the long list is the narwhal,
+<i>Monodon monoceros</i>, in which, apart from
+some irregular rudimentary teeth, the dentition
+is reduced to a single pair of teeth which
+lie horizontally in the maxilla, and in the
+female remain permanently concealed within
+the socket, so that this sex is practically
+toothless, while in the male (fig. 8), the
+right tooth usually remains similarly concealed
+while the left is immensely developed,
+attaining a length equal to more than half
+that of the entire animal, projecting horizontally
+from the head in the form of a
+cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed
+tusk, without enamel, and with the surface
+marked by spiral grooves and ridges, running
+in a sinistral direction. Vertebrae: C 7,
+D 11, L 6, Ca 26; total 50. Cervical region
+comparatively long, and all the vertebrae
+distinct, or with irregular unions towards
+the middle of the series, the atlas and axis
+being usually free. Flipper small, short
+and broad, with the second and third digits
+nearly equal, the fourth slightly shorter.
+No dorsal fin. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Narwhal</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied is the beluga or white-whale
+(<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>), of the Arctic seas,
+in which, however, there are from eight to
+ten pairs of teeth in each jaw, occupying
+the anterior three-fourths of the rostrum and
+corresponding portion of the lower jaw,
+rather small, conical, and pointed when
+unworn, but usually become obliquely truncated,
+separated by intervals considerably
+wider than the diameter of the tooth, and
+implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining
+forwards especially in the upper jaw. Skull
+rather narrow and elongated, depressed. Premaxillae
+convex in front of the nostrils.
+Rostrum about equal in length to the cranial
+portion of the skull, triangular, broad at the
+base, and gradually contracting towards the
+apex, where it is somewhat curved downwards.
+Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 9, Ca 23;
+total 50. Cervical vertebrae free. Flippers
+broad, short and rounded, all the digits being
+tolerably well developed, except the first.
+Anterior part of head rounded; no distinct
+snout. No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in its
+place. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beluga</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In all the remaining genera of <i>Delphinidae</i>
+the cervical region of the vertebral column is
+very short, and the first two, and usually
+more, of the vertebrae are firmly united.
+The common porpoise (<i>Phocaena communis</i>,
+or <i>P. phocaena</i>) is the typical representative
+of the first genus, in which the teeth
+vary from <span class="spp">18</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">18</span>  to <span class="spp">25</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">25</span> , are small, and occupy
+nearly the whole length of the rostrum, with
+compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated
+from the root by a constricted neck.
+Rostrum rather shorter than the cranium
+proper, broad at the base and tapering towards
+the apex. Premaxillae raised into
+tuberosities in front of the nostrils. The
+frontal bones form a somewhat square elevated
+protuberance in the middle line of the
+skull behind the nostrils, rising above the flattened nasals. Symphysis
+of lower jaw very short. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 14, Ca 30;
+total 64. First to sixth cervical vertebrae and sometimes the seventh
+also, coalesced. Flippers of moderate size, oval, slightly sickle-shaped,
+with the second and third digits nearly equal in length, and
+the fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Head short,
+moderately rounded in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin near the
+middle of the back, triangular; its height considerably less than
+the length of the base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with
+one or more rows of conical horny tubercles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span></p>
+
+<p>The porpoise, which is so common in British waters and the
+Atlantic, seldom enters the Mediterranean, and apparently never
+resides there. There is, however, a porpoise in the Black Sea, which,
+according to Dr O. Abel, is entitled to rank as a distinct species, with
+the name of <i>Phocaena relicta</i>. This Black Sea porpoise is readily
+distinguished from the Atlantic species by the contour of the profile
+of the head, which, in place of forming a continuous curve from the
+muzzle to what represents the neck, has a marked prominence above
+the angle of the mouth, followed by an equally marked depression.
+The teeth are also different in form and number. The absence of
+porpoises from the Mediterranean is explained by Dr Abel on account
+of the greater saltness of that sea as compared with the ocean in
+general; his idea being that these cetaceans are near akin to fresh-water
+members of the group, and therefore unsuited to withstand
+an excessively saline medium. From the Taman Peninsula, on the
+north shore of the Black Sea, the same writer has described an extinct
+type of ancestral porpoise, under the name of <i>Palaeophocaena andrussowi</i>.
+Another species is the wholly black <i>P. spinipennis</i>, typically
+from South America. Black is also the hue of the Indian porpoise
+(<i>Neophocaena phocaenoides</i>), which wants a dorsal fin, and has
+eighteen pairs of teeth rather larger than those of the ordinary
+porpoise. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Porpoise</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:571px; height:109px" src="images/img774a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Beluga or White-Whale (<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>). From a specimen
+taken in the river St Lawrence and exhibited in London, 1877.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Next comes the Indo-Malay genus <i>Orcella</i>, in which the <span class="spp">12</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span>  to <span class="spp">14</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">14</span> ,
+small, conical teeth are pointed, rather closely set, and occupy
+nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull sub-globular, high.
+Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion of the skull,
+tapering. Flippers of moderate size, not elongated, but somewhat
+pointed, with all the bones of the digits broader than long, except
+the first phalanges of the index and third fingers. Head globular
+in front. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle of the
+body. Two species, both of small size&mdash;<i>O. brevirostris</i>, from the
+Bay of Bengal, and <i>O. fluminalis</i>, from the Irrawaddy river, from
+300 to 900 m. from the sea.</p>
+
+<p>In the grampus, or killer, <i>Orca gladiator</i> (or <i>O. orca</i>) the teeth form
+about twenty pairs, above and below, occupying nearly the whole
+length of the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved
+crowns and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather
+hollowed, on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about
+equal in length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened
+above, rounded in front; premaxillae broad and rather concave in
+front of the nostrils, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and
+expanding again towards the apex. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12,
+L 10, Ca 23; total 51 or 52; bodies of the first and second and
+sometimes the third cervical vertebrae united; the rest free.
+Flippers very large, ovate, nearly as broad as long, with all the
+phalanges and metacarpals broader than long. General form of
+body robust. Face short and rounded. Dorsal fin near the middle
+of the back, very high and pointed. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grampus</a></span>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:584px; height:195px" src="images/img774b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;The Grampus or Killer (<i>Orca gladiator</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The lesser killer or black killer, <i>Pseudorca crassidens</i>, has its <span class="spp">8-12</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8-12</span>
+teeth confined to the anterior half of the rostrum and corresponding
+part of the lower jaw; they are small, conical, curved and sharp-pointed
+when unworn, but sometimes deciduous in old age. Skull
+broad and depressed; with the rostrum and cranial portions about
+equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Premaxillae
+concave in front of the nostrils, as wide at the middle of
+the rostrum as at the base, and nearly or completely concealing the
+maxillae in the anterior half of this region. Vertebrae: C 7, D II,
+L 12-14, Ca 28-29; total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or
+six cervical vertebrae united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar
+and anterior caudal vertebrae about equal to their width. Flippers
+very long and narrow, with the second digit the longest, and having
+as many as 12 or 13 phalanges, the third shorter (with
+9 phalanges), the first, fourth and fifth very short. Fore part
+of the head round, in consequence of the great development of a
+cushion of fat, placed on the rostrum of the skull in front of the
+blow-hole. Dorsal fin low and triangular, the length of its base
+considerably exceeding its vertical height.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the ca&rsquo;ing whale, or black-fish (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>),
+with about ten pairs of upper and lower teeth. Cranial and dental
+characters generally like those of <i>Orca</i>, except that the roots of the
+teeth are cylindrical. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 9, Ca 24; total 50;
+first to sixth or seventh cervical vertebrae united; bodies of the
+lumbar vertebrae distinguished from those of the preceding genera
+by being more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2.
+Flippers of moderate size, narrow and pointed. Dorsal fin situated
+near the middle of the back, of moderate size, and sickle-shaped.
+Head in front of the blow-hole high, and compressed anteriorly, the
+snout truncated. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ca&rsquo;ing Whale</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Risso&rsquo;s dolphin, <i>Grampus griseus</i>, represents another genus,
+characterized by the absence of teeth in the upper and the small
+number of these in the lower jaw (3 to 7 on each side,
+and confined to the region of the symphysis). Vertebrae: C 7,
+D 12, L 19, Ca 30; total 68. General external characters much
+as in <i>Globicephalus</i>, but the fore part of the head less rounded,
+and the flippers less elongated. <i>G. griseus</i> is about 13 ft. long,
+and remarkable for its great variability of colour. It has been
+found, though rarely, in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>The common dolphin (<i>Delphinus delphis</i>) is the typical representative
+of a large group of relatively small species, some of
+which are wholly marine, while others are more or less completely
+fluviatile. They are divided into a number of genera, such as <i>Prodelphinus</i>,
+<i>Steno</i>, <i>Lagenorhynchus</i>, <i>Cephalorhynchus</i>, <i>Tursiops</i>, &amp;c., best
+distinguished from one another by the number and size of the teeth,
+the form and relations of the bones on the hinder part of the palate,
+the length of the beak and of the union of the two halves of the lower
+jaw, and the number of vertebrae. For the distinctive characters
+of these genera the reader may refer to one of the works mentioned
+below; and it must suffice to state that, collectively, all these
+dolphins are characterized by the following features. The teeth
+are numerous in both jaws, and more than <span class="spp">20</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">20</span>  in number, occupying
+nearly the whole length of the rostrum, and small, close-set, conical,
+pointed and slightly curved. Rostrum more or less elongated, and
+pointed in front, usually considerably longer than the cranial portion
+of the skull. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-14, L and Ca variable; total
+51 to 90. Flippers of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat
+sickle-shaped, with the first digit rudimentary, the second longest,
+third nearly equal, and the fourth and fifth extremely short. Externally
+the head shows a distinct beak or pointed snout, marked
+off from the antenasal fatty elevation by a V-shaped groove. Dorsal
+fin rather large, triangular or sickle-shaped, rarely wanting. A
+curiously marked brown and white species, perhaps referable to
+<i>Lagenorhynchus</i> is found on the fringe of the Antarctic ice (see
+report on the zoology of the &ldquo;Discovery,&rdquo; published in 1907 by the
+British Museum). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dolphin</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Extinct Cetacea.</i></p>
+
+<p>At present we are totally in the dark as to the origin of the whalebone-whales,
+not being even assured that they are derived from the
+same stock as the toothed whales. It is noteworthy,
+however, that some of the fossil representatives of the
+latter have nasal bones of a type recalling those of the
+former. Such fossil whalebone-whales as are known occur
+in Pliocene, and Miocene formations are either referable to
+existing genera, or to more or less nearly related extinct ones,
+such as <i>Plesiocetus</i>, <i>Herpetocetus</i> and <i>Cetotherium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The toothed whales, on the other hand, are very largely
+represented in a fossil state, reaching as low in the geological
+series as the upper Cretaceous. Many of these present much
+more generalized characters than their modern representatives,
+while others indicate apparently a transition towards
+the still more primitive zeuglodonts, which, as will be
+shown later, are themselves derived from the creodont
+Carnivora. In the Pliocene deposits of Belgium and England
+are preserved the teeth and other remains of a number of
+cetaceans, such as <i>Physodon</i>, <i>Encetus</i>, <i>Dinoziphius</i>, <i>Hoplocetus</i>,
+<i>Balaenodon</i> and <i>Scaldicetus</i>, more or less nearly related to the sperm-whale,
+but presenting several primitive characters. A complete
+skull of a member of this group from the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia,
+at first referred to <i>Physodon</i>, but subsequently to <i>Scaldicetus</i>,
+has a full series of enamelled teeth in the upper jaw; and it is probable
+that the same was the case in other forms. This entails either
+a modification of the definition of the <i>Physeteridae</i> as given above,
+or the creation of a separate family for these primitive sperm-whales.
+In other cases, however, as in the Miocene <i>Prophyseter</i> and <i>Placoziphius</i>,
+the anterior portion or the whole of the upper jaw had
+already become toothless; and these forms are regarded as indicating
+the descent of the sperm-whales from the under-mentioned
+<i>Squalodon</i>. The beaked whales, again, are believed to be independently
+descended from the latter type, <i>Berardius</i> being traced
+into the Miocene <i>Mioziphius</i>, <i>Anoplonassa</i> and <i>Palaeoziphius</i>, the
+last of which shows signs in its dentition of approximating to the
+complicated tooth-structure of the squalodonts.</p>
+
+<p>Another line of descent from the latter, apparently culminating
+in the modern <i>Platanistidae</i>, is represented by the family
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span>
+<i>Eurhinodelphidae</i>, typified by the European Miocene <i>Eurhinodelphis</i>,
+but also including the contemporary Patagonian <i>Argyrocetus</i> and the
+nearly allied European <i>Cyrtodelphis</i>. All these were very long-beaked
+dolphins; and in <i>Argyrocetus</i>, at all events, the occipital condyles,
+instead of being closely pressed to the skull, are as prominent as
+in ordinary mammals, while the nasal bones, instead of forming
+mere rudimentary nodules, were squared and roofed over the hind
+part of the nasal chamber.</p>
+
+<p>In the Miocene <i>Squalodon</i>, representing the family <i>Squalodontidae</i>,
+the dentition is differentiated into incisors, canines and cheek-teeth,
+the hinder ones of the latter series having double roots and
+compressed crowns carrying serrations on the hinder edge; generally
+the dental formula has been given as i. <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> , c. <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1</span> , p. <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span> , m. <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">7</span> , the
+single-rooted cheek-teeth being regarded as premolars and those with
+double roots as molars. Dr Abel is, however, of opinion that the
+formula is better represented as i. <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> , c. <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1</span> , p. <span class="spp">8 or 9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">9</span>, m. <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span> ; the teeth
+reckoned as molars corresponding to those of the creodont Carnivora.
+The single-rooted cheek-teeth are regarded as due, not to the division
+of double-rooted ones, but to the fusion of the two roots of teeth
+of the latter type. In <i>Squalodon</i> the nasal bones were of the modern
+nodular type, but in the Miocene Patagonian <i>Prosqualodon</i> they
+partially covered the nasal chamber.</p>
+
+<p>At present there is a gap between the most primitive squalodonts
+and the Eocene zeuglodonts (<i>Zeuglodontidae</i>), which are regarded by
+Messrs Max Weber, O. Abel and C.W. Andrews as the direct
+forerunners of the modern-toothed whales, forming the suborder
+<i>Archaeoceti</i>. It is, however, right to mention that some
+authorities refuse to admit the relation of the Archaeoceti to the
+whales.</p>
+
+<p>In the typical zeuglodonts the long and flat skull has large temporal
+fossae, a strong sagittal crest, a long beak formed mainly by the
+premaxillae (in place of the maxillae, as in modern whales), and long
+nasal bones covering over the nasal chamber, so that the nostrils
+opened about half-way down the beak. All the cervical vertebrae
+were free. Normally the dentition in the typical genus <i>Zeuglodon</i>
+(which is common to the Eocene of North America and Egypt)
+is i. <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> , c. <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1</span> , p. <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span> , m. <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ; the cheek-teeth being two-rooted, with
+compressed pointed crowns, of which the fore-and-aft edges are coarsely
+serrated. In the Egyptian <i>Zeuglodon osiris</i> the number of the molars
+is, however, reduced to <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> , while some of the earlier cheek-teeth have
+become single-rooted, as in the squalodonts. The probable transitional
+form between the latter and the zeuglodonts is the small
+<i>Microzeuglodon caucasicus</i> described by the present writer, from the
+Caucasus. As regards the origin of the zeuglodonts themselves,
+remains discovered in the Eocene formations of Egypt indicate a
+practically complete transition, so far at least as dental characters
+are concerned, from these whale-like creatures to the creodont
+Carnivora. In the earliest type, <i>Protocetus</i>, the skull is practically
+that of a zeuglodont, the snout being in fact more elongated than
+in some of the earliest representatives of the latter, although the
+nostrils are placed nearer the tip. The incisors are unknown, but
+the cheek-teeth are essentially those of a creodont, none of them
+having acquired the serrated edges distinctive of the typical zeuglodonts;
+and the hinder premolars and molars retaining the three
+roots of the creodonts. In the somewhat later <i>Prozeuglodon</i> the
+skull is likewise essentially of the zeuglodont type, although the
+nostrils have shifted a little more backwards; as regards the cheek-teeth,
+which have acquired serrated crowns, the premolars at any
+rate retain the inner buttress supported by a distinct third root, so
+that they are precisely intermediate between <i>Protocetus</i> and <i>Zeuglodon</i>.
+Yet another connecting form is <i>Eocetus</i>, a very large animal
+from nearly the same horizon as <i>Prozeuglodon</i>; its skull approaching
+that of <i>Zeuglodon</i> as regards the backward position of the nostrils,
+although the cheek-teeth are of the creodont type, having inner, or
+third, roots. It is noteworthy that <i>Zeuglodon</i> apparently occurs in
+the same beds as these intermediate types.</p>
+
+<p>It follows from the foregoing that if zeuglodonts are the ancestors
+of the true Cetacea&mdash;and the probability that they are so is very
+great&mdash;the latter are derived from primitive Carnivora, and not, as
+has been suggested, from herbivorous Ungulata. The idea that the
+zeuglodonts were provided with a bony armour does not appear
+to be supported by recent discoveries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The above article is based on that by Sir W.H.
+Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See also W.H. Flower,
+&ldquo;On the Characters and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae,&rdquo;
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> (London, 1883); F.W. True, &ldquo;Review of the
+Family Delphinidae,&rdquo; <i>Proc. U.S. Museum</i>, No. 36 (1889); R. Lydekker,
+&ldquo;Cetacean Skulls from Patagonia,&rdquo; <i>Palaeontol. Argentina</i>,
+vol. ii: <i>An. Mus. La Plata</i> (1893); W. Dames, &ldquo;Über Zeuglodonten
+aus Ägypten,&rdquo; <i>Paläontol. Abhandlungen</i>, vol. i. (1894); F.E.
+Beddard, <i>A Book of Whales</i> (London, 1900); O. Abel, &ldquo;Untersuchungen
+über die fossilen Platanistiden des Wiener Beckens,&rdquo;
+<i>Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien.</i>, vol. lxviii. (1899); &ldquo;Les Dauphins
+longirostres du Bolérien,&rdquo; <i>Mém. musée d&rsquo;hist. nat. belgique</i> (1901
+and 1902); &ldquo;Die phylogenetische Entwickelung des Cetaceengebisses
+und die systematische Stellung der Physeteriden,&rdquo; <i>Verhandl.
+deutsch. zool. Gesellschaft</i> (1905); E. Fraas, &ldquo;Neue Zeuglodonten
+aus dem unteren Mittelocean vom Mokattam bei Cairo,&rdquo; <i>Geol.
+und paläontol. Abhandl.</i> ser. 2, vol. vi. (1904); C.W. Andrews,
+&ldquo;Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum&rdquo;
+(British Museum, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CETHEGUS,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> the name of a Roman patrician family of
+the Cornelian gens. Like the younger Cato its members
+kept up the old Roman fashion of dispensing with the
+tunic and leaving the arms bare (Horace, <i>Ars Poëtica</i>, 50;
+Lucan, <i>Pharsalia</i>, ii. 543). Two individuals are of some
+importance:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) <span class="sc">Marcus Cornelius Cethegus</span>, pontifex maximus and
+curule aedile, 213 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 211, as praetor, he had charge of
+Apulia; later, he was sent to Sicily, where he proved a successful
+administrator. In 209 he was censor, and in 204 consul. In
+203 he was proconsul in Upper Italy, where, in conjunction with
+the praetor P. Quintilius Varus, he gained a hard-won victory
+over Mago, Hannibal&rsquo;s brother, in Insubrian territory, and
+obliged him to leave Italy. He died in 196. He had a great
+reputation as an orator, and is characterized by Ennius as &ldquo;the
+quintessence of persuasiveness&rdquo; (<i>suadae medulla</i>). Horace (<i>Ars
+Poët.</i> 50; <i>Epistles</i>, ii. 2. 117) calls him an authority on the use
+of Latin words.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Livy xxv. 2, 41, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11, xxx. 18.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(2) <span class="sc">Gaius Cornelius Cethegus</span>, the boldest and most
+dangerous of Catiline&rsquo;s associates. Like many other youthful
+profligates, he joined the conspiracy in the hope of getting his
+debts cancelled. When Catiline left Rome in 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after
+Cicero&rsquo;s first speech, Cethegus remained behind as leader of the
+conspirators with P. Lentulus Sura. He himself undertook to
+murder Cicero and other prominent men, but was hampered
+by the dilatoriness of Sura, whose age and rank entitled
+him to the chief consideration. The discovery of arms in
+Cethegus&rsquo;s house, and of the letter which he had given to the
+ambassadors of the Allobroges, who had been invited to co-operate,
+led to his arrest. He was condemned to death, and
+executed, with Sura and others, on the night of the 5th of
+December.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Sallust, <i>Catilina</i>, 46-55; Cicero, <i>In Cat.</i> iii. 5-7; Appian, <i>Bell.
+Civ.</i> ii. 2-5; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catiline</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CETINA, GUTIERRE DE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1518?-1572?), Spanish poet and
+soldier, was born at Seville shortly before 1520. He served
+under Charles V. in Italy and Germany, but retired from the
+army in 1545 to settle in Seville. Soon afterwards, however,
+he sailed for Mexico, where he resided for some ten years; he
+appears to have visited Seville in 1557, and to have returned
+to Mexico, where he died at some date previous to 1575. A
+follower of Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega, a friend of Jerónimo
+de Urrea and Baltavar del Alcázar, Cetina adopted the doctrines
+of the Italian school and, under the name of Vandalio, wrote
+an extensive series of poems in the newly introduced metres;
+his sonnets are remarkable for elegance of form and sincerity of
+sentiment, his other productions being in great part adaptations
+from Petrarch, Ariosto and Ludovico Dolce. His patrons were
+Antonio de Leyva, prince of Ascoli, Hurtado de Mendoza, and
+Alva&rsquo;s grandson, the duke de Sessa, but he seems to have profited
+little by their protection. His works have been well edited by
+Joaquín Hazañas y la Rúa in two volumes published at Seville
+(1895).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CETTE,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a seaport of southern France in the department of
+Hérault, 18 m. S.W. of Montpellier by the Southern railway.
+Pop. (1906) 32,659. After Marseilles it is the principal commercial
+port on the south coast of France. The older part of
+Cette occupies the foot and slope of the Mont St Clair (the
+ancient <i>Mons Setius</i>), a hill 590 ft. in height, situated on a
+tongue of land that lies between the Mediterranean and the
+lagoon of Thau. This quarter with its wide streets and lofty
+stone buildings is bounded on the east by the Canal de Cette,
+which leads from the lagoon of Thau to the Old Basin and the
+outer harbour. Across the canal lie the newer quarters, which
+chiefly occupy two islands separated from each other by a wet
+dock and limited on the east by the Canal Maritime, parallel to
+the Canal de Cette. A lateral canal unites the northern ends
+of the two main canals. A breakwater running W.S.W. and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span>
+E.N.E. protects the entrance to the harbour, which is one of
+the safest in France. The outer port and the Old Basin are
+enclosed by a mole to the south and by a jetty to the east.
+Behind the outer port lies an inner and more recent basin which
+communicates with the Canal Maritime. The entire area of the
+harbour, including the canals, is 111 acres with a quayage
+length of over 8000 yds. The public institutions of Cette
+include tribunals of commerce and of maritime commerce,
+councils of arbitration in commercial and fishing affairs, an
+exchange and chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of
+France and a large hospital. There are also a communal college,
+a naval school, and schools of music, commerce and industry,
+and navigation. Cette is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The
+town is connected with Lyons by the canal from the Rhone to
+Cette, and with Bordeaux by the Canal du Midi, and is a
+junction of the Southern and Paris-Lyon railways. The shipping
+trade is carried on with South America, the chief ports of the
+Mediterranean, and especially with Spain. The chief exports
+are wines and brandy, chemical products, skins and soap; the
+chief imports are wine, cereals, coal, timber, petroleum, sulphur,
+tar and chemical substances. In the five years 1901-1905 the
+average annual value of imports was £3,720,000 (£4,980,000 in
+years 1896-1900), of exports £1,427,000 (£1,237,000 in 1896-1900).
+More than 400 small craft are employed in the sardine, tunny,
+cod and other fisheries. Large quantities of shell-fish are
+obtained from the lagoon of Thau. There are factories for the
+pickling of sardines, for the manufacture of liqueurs and casks,
+and for the treatment of sulphur, phosphates, and nitrate of
+soda. The Schneider Company of Creusot also have metallurgical
+works at Cette, and the establishments for making wine
+give employment to thousands. The port of Cette was created
+in 1666 by the agency of Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., and
+according to the plans of Vauban; toward the end of the 17th
+century its development was aided by the opening of the Canal
+du Midi.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CETTIGNE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (Servian, <i>Tsetinye</i>; also written <i>Cettinje</i>, <i>Tzetinje</i>,
+and <i>Tsettinye</i>), the capital of Montenegro; in a narrow plain
+deeply sunk in the heart of the limestone mountains, at a height
+of 2093 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900) about 3200. The surrounding
+country is bare and stony, with carefully cultivated
+patches of rich red soil among the crevices of the rock. In
+winter it is often so deeply covered with snow as to be well-nigh
+inaccessible, while in spring and autumn it is frequently flooded
+by the waters of a small brook which becomes a torrent after
+rain or a thaw. Cettigne itself is little more than a walled
+village, consisting of a cluster of whitewashed cottages and
+some unadorned public buildings. These include a church;
+a fortified monastery which was founded in 1478, but so often
+burned and rebuilt as to seem quite modern, and which is
+visited by pilgrims to the tomb of Peter I. (1782-1830); residences
+for the archimandrite and the <i>vladika</i> or metropolitan
+of Cettigne; a palace built in 1863, which accommodates the
+ministries; the court of appeal, and a school modelled on the
+gymnasia of Germany and Austria; the newer palaces of the
+prince and his heir; foreign legations; barracks; a seminary
+for priests and teachers, established by the tsar Alexander II.
+(1855-1881), with a very successful girls&rsquo; school founded and
+endowed by the tsaritsa Marie; a library and reading-room;
+a theatre, a museum and a hospital. In an open space near
+the old palace stood the celebrated plane tree, beneath which
+Prince Nicholas gave audience to his subjects, and administered
+justice until the closing years of the 19th century. A zigzag
+highway, regarded as a triumph of engineering, winds through
+the mountain passes between Cettigne and the Austrian seaport
+of Cattaro; and other good roads give access to the richest
+parts of the interior. There is, however, little trade, though
+mineral waters are manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>Cettigne owes its origin to Ivan the Black, who was
+forced, towards the end of the 15th century, to withdraw from
+Zhabliak, his former capital. It has often been taken and
+sacked by the Turks, but has seldom been occupied by them
+for long.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CETUS<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (&ldquo;The Whale&rdquo;), in astronomy, a constellation of the
+southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and fabled by the Greeks to be
+the monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda, but which
+was slain by Perseus. Ptolemy catalogued 22 stars in this
+constellation; Tycho Brahe, 21; and Hevelius, 45. The most
+remarkable star of this constellation is <i>o</i>-(<i>Mira</i>) <i>Ceti</i>, a long-period
+variable, discovered by the German astronomer Fabricius;
+its magnitude varies between about 3 to 9, and its period is 331
+days. <i>&tau;-Ceti</i> is an irregular variable, its extreme magnitudes
+being 5 and 7; <i>&gamma;-Ceti</i> is a beautiful double star, consisting of a
+yellow star of magnitude 3 and a blue of magnitude 6.8; <i>&nu;-Ceti</i>
+is also a double star.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CETYWAYO<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (&emsp;&emsp;?-1884), king of the Zulus, was the eldest
+son of King Umpande or Panda, and a nephew of the two
+previous kings, Dingaan and Chaka. Cetywayo was a young
+man when in 1840 his father was placed on the throne by the
+aid of the Natal Boers; and three years later Natal became
+a British colony. Cetywayo had inherited much of the military
+talent of his uncle Chaka, the organizer of the Zulu military
+system, and chafed under his father&rsquo;s peaceful policy towards
+his British and Boer neighbours. Suspecting Panda of favouring
+a younger son, Umbulazi, as his successor, Cetywayo made
+war on his brother, whom he defeated and slew at a great battle
+on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856. In the following
+year, at an assembly of the Zulus, it was resolved that Panda
+should retire from the management of the affairs of the nation,
+which were entrusted to Cetywayo, though the old chief kept
+the title of king. Cetywayo was, however, suspicious of the
+Natal government, which afforded protection to two of his
+brothers. The feeling of distrust was removed in 1861 by a
+visit from Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus Shepstone, secretary
+for native affairs in Natal, who induced Panda to proclaim
+Cetywayo publicly as the future king. Friendly relations were
+then maintained between the Zulus and Natal for many years.
+In 1872 Panda died, and Cetywayo was declared king, August
+1873, in the presence of Shepstone, to whom he made solemn
+promises to live at peace with his neighbours and to govern his
+people more humanely. These promises were not kept. Not
+only were numbers of his own people wantonly slain (Cetywayo
+returning defiant messages to the governor of Natal when
+remonstrated with), and the military system of Chaka and
+Dingaan strengthened, but he had a feud with the Transvaal
+Boers as to the possession of the territory between the Buffalo
+and Pongola rivers, and encouraged the chief Sikukuni (Secocoeni)
+in his struggle against the Boers. This feud with the Boers was
+inherited by the British government on the annexation of the
+Transvaal in 1877. Cetywayo&rsquo;s attitude became menacing; he
+allowed a minor chief to make raids into the Transvaal, and
+seized natives within the Natal border.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Bartle Frere, who became high commissioner of South
+Africa in March 1877, found evidence which convinced him that
+the Kaffir revolt of that year on the eastern border of Cape
+Colony was part of a design or desire &ldquo;for a general and
+simultaneous rising of Kaffirdom against white civilization&rdquo;; and
+the Kaffirs undoubtedly looked to Cetywayo and the Zulus as
+the most redoubtable of their champions. In December 1878
+Frere sent the Zulu king an ultimatum, which, while awarding
+him the territory he claimed from the Boers, required him to
+make reparation for the outrages committed within the British
+borders, to receive a British resident, to disband his regiments,
+and to allow his young men to marry without the necessity
+of having first &ldquo;washed their spears.&rdquo; Cetywayo, who had
+found a defender in Bishop Colenso, vouchsafed no reply, and
+Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand, at the head of 13,000 troops,
+on the 11th of January 1879 to enforce the British demands.
+The disaster of Isandhlwana and the defence of Rorke&rsquo;s Drift
+signalized the commencement of the campaign, but on the 4th
+of July the Zulus were utterly routed at Ulundi. Cetywayo
+became a fugitive, but was captured on the 28th of August. His
+kingdom was divided among thirteen chiefs and he himself
+taken to Cape Town, whence he was brought to London in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span>
+August 1882. He remained in England less than a month,
+during which time the government (the second Gladstone
+administration) announced that they had decided upon his
+restoration. To his great disappointment, however, restoration
+proved to refer only to a portion of his old kingdom. Even
+there one of his kinsmen and chief enemies, Usibepu, was allowed
+to retain the territory allotted to him in 1879. Cetywayo was
+reinstalled on the 29th of January 1883 by Shepstone, but his
+enemies, headed by Usibepu, attacked him within a week, and
+after a struggle of nearly a year&rsquo;s duration he was defeated and
+his kraal destroyed. He then took refuge in the Native Reserve,
+where he died on the 8th of February 1884. For a quarter of a
+century he had been the most conspicuous native figure in South
+Africa, and had been the cause of long and bitter political
+controversy in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>His son <span class="sc">Dinizulu</span> afterwards attempted to become king, was
+exiled (1889) to St Helena, permitted to return (1898), and
+granted the position of a chief. In December 1907 Dinizulu
+was imprisoned at Maritzburg, being suspected of complicity
+in the revolt which had occurred in Zululand the previous
+year. He was kept many months waiting trial, there being
+considerable friction between the colonial government and the
+British government over the incident. He was eventually
+brought to trial in November 1908 before a special court, his
+defence (to the cost of which the British government contributed
+£2000) being undertaken by Mr W.P. Schreiner. The trial was
+not concluded until March 1909. The charge of high treason
+was not proved, but Dinizulu was convicted of harbouring rebels
+and was sentenced to four years&rsquo; imprisonment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Life of Sir Bartle Frere</i>, by John Martineau, vol. ii. chaps. 18
+to 21, contains much information concerning Cetywayo.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEUTA<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Arabic <i>Sebta</i>), a Spanish military and convict station
+and seaport on the north coast of Morocco, in 35° 54&prime; N., 5° 18&prime;
+W. Pop. about 13,000. It is situated on a promontory connected
+with the mainland by a narrow isthmus. This promontory
+marks the south-eastern end of the straits of Gibraltar,
+which between Ceuta and Gibraltar have a width of 14 m.
+The promontory terminates in a bold headland, the Montagne
+des Singes, with seven distinct peaks. Of these the highest
+is the Monte del Hacko, the ancient <i>Abyla</i>, one of the &ldquo;Pillars
+of Hercules,&rdquo; which faces Gibraltar and rises 636 ft. above the
+sea. On the westernmost point&mdash;Almina, 476 ft. high&mdash;is a
+lighthouse with a light visible for 23 m. Ceuta consists of two
+quarters, the old town, covering the low ground of the isthmus,
+and the modern town, built on the hills forming the north and
+west faces of the peninsula. Between the old and new quarters
+and on the north side of the isthmus lies the port. The public
+buildings in the town, thoroughly Spanish in its character, are
+not striking: they include the cathedral (formerly a mosque),
+the governor&rsquo;s palace, the town hall, barracks, and the convict
+prison in the old convent of San Francisco. Ceuta has been
+fortified seaward, the works being furnished with modern
+artillery intended to command the entrance to the Mediterranean.
+Landward are three lines of defence, the inner line stretching
+completely across the isthmus. These fortifications, which date
+from the time of the Portuguese occupation, have been partly
+modernized. The citadel, El Hacho, built on the neck of the
+isthmus, dates from the 15th century. The garrison consists of
+between 3000 and 4000 men, inclusive of a disciplinary corps
+of military convicts. Of the rest of the population about 2000
+are civilian convicts; and there are colonies of Jews, negroes
+and Moors, the last including descendants of Moors transferred
+to Ceuta from Oran when Spain abandoned that city in 1796.</p>
+
+<p>Ceuta occupies in part the site of a Carthaginian colony,
+which was succeeded by a Roman colony said to have been called
+<i>Ad Septem Fratres</i> and also <i>Exilissa</i> or <i>Lissa Civitas</i>.
+From the Romans the town passed to the Vandals and afterwards
+to Byzantium, the emperor Justinian restoring its fortifications
+in 535. In 618 the town, then known as <i>Septon</i>, fell into the
+hands of the Visigoths. It was the last stronghold in North
+Africa which held out against the Arabs. At that date (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+711) the governor of the town was the Count Julian who, in
+revenge for the betrayal of his daughter by King Roderick of
+Toledo, invited the Arabs to cross the straits under Tarik and
+conquer Spain for Islam. By the Arabs the town was called
+<i>Cibta</i> or <i>Sebta</i>, hence the Spanish form <i>Ceuta</i>. From
+the date of its occupation by the Arabs the town had a stormy history,
+being repeatedly captured by rival Berber and Spanish-Moorish
+dynasties. It became nevertheless an important commercial
+and industrial city, being noted for its brass ware, its trade in
+ivory, gold and slaves. It is said to have been the first place
+in the West where a paper manufactory was established. In
+1415 the town was captured by the Portuguese under John I.,
+among those taking part in the attack being Prince Henry
+&ldquo;the Navigator&rdquo; and two of his brothers, who were knighted
+on the day following in the mosque (hastily dedicated as a
+Christian church). Ceuta passed to Spain in 1580 on the
+subjugation of Portugal by Philip II., and was definitely assigned
+to the Spanish crown by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688. The town
+has been several times unsuccessfully besieged by the Moors&mdash;one
+siege, under Mulai Ismail, lasting twenty-six years (1694-1720).
+In 1810, with the consent of Spain, it was occupied by
+British troops under General Sir J.F. Fraser. The town was
+restored to Spain by the British at the close of the Napoleonic
+Wars. As the result of the war between Spain and Morocco in
+1860 the area of Spanish territory around the town was increased.
+The military governor of the town also commands the troops in
+the other Spanish stations on the coast of Morocco. For civil
+purposes Ceuta is attached to the province of Cadiz. It is a
+free port, but does little trade.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See de Prado, <i>Recuerdos de Africa; historia de la plaza de Ceuta</i>
+(Madrid, 1859-1860); Budgett Meakin, <i>The Land of the Moors</i>
+(London, 1901), chap, xix., where many works dealing with Spanish
+Morocco are cited.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEVA,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo,
+33 m. E. by rail from the town of Cuneo, 1270 ft. above sea-level.
+Pop. (1901) 2703. In the middle ages it was a strong fortress
+defending the confines of Piedmont towards Liguria, but the
+fortifications on the rock above the town were demolished in
+1800 by the French, to whom it had been ceded in 1796. Its
+cheese (<i>caseus cebanus</i>) was famous in Roman times, but it does
+not seem ever to have been a Roman town. It lay on the road
+between Augusta Taurinorum and Vada Sabatia. A branch
+railway runs from Ceva through Garessio, with its marble
+quarries, to Ormea (2398 ft.), 22 m. to the south through the
+upper valley of the Tanaro, which in Roman times was under
+Albingaunum (Th. Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> v. (Berlin,
+1877), p. 898). From Ormea a road runs south to (31 m.) Oneglia
+on the Ligurian coast.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CÉVENNES<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Cebenna</i> or <i>Gebenna</i>), a mountain range
+of southern France, forming the southern and eastern fringe of
+the central plateau and part of the watershed between the
+Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. It consists of a narrow
+ridge some 320 m. long, with numerous lofty plateaus and
+secondary ranges branching from it. The northern division of
+the range, which nowhere exceeds 3320 ft. in height, extends,
+under the name of the mountains of Charolais, Beaujolais and
+Lyonnais, from the Col de Longpendu (west of Chalon-sur-Saône)
+in a southerly direction to the Col de Gier. The central Cévennes,
+comprising the volcanic chain of Vivarais, incline south-east
+and extend as far as the Lozère group. The northern portion of
+this chain forms the Boutières range. Farther south it includes
+the Gerbier des Joncs (5089 ft.), the Mont de Mézenc (5755 ft.),
+the culminating point of the entire range, and the Tanargue
+group. South of the Mont Lozère, where the Pic Finiels reaches
+5584 ft., lies that portion of the range to which the name Cévennes
+is most strictly applied. This region, now embraced in the
+departments of Lozère and Gard, stretches south to include the
+Aigoual and Espérou groups. Under various local names (the
+Garrigues, the mountains of Espinouse and Lacaune) and with
+numerous offshoots the range extends south-east and then east
+to the Montagne Noire, which runs parallel to the Canal du
+Midi and comes to an end some 25 m. east of Toulouse. In the
+south the Cévennes separate the cold and barren table-lands
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span>
+known as the Causses from the sunny region of Languedoc,
+where the olive, vine and mulberry flourish. Northwards the
+contrast between the two slopes is less striking.</p>
+
+<p>The Cévennes proper are formed by a folded belt of Palaeozoic
+rocks which lies along the south-east border of the central
+plateau of France. Concealed in part by later deposits, this
+ancient mountain chain extends from Castelnaudary to the
+neighbourhood of Valence, where it sinks suddenly beneath the
+Tertiary and recent deposits of the valley of the Rhone. It is
+in the Montagne Noire rather than in the Cévennes proper that
+the structure of the chain has been most fully investigated. All
+the geological systems from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous
+are included in the folded belt, and J. Bergeron has shown that
+the gneiss and schist which form so much of the chain consist,
+in part at least, of metamorphosed Cambrian beds. The direction
+of the folds is about N. 60° E., and the structure is complicated
+by overthrusting on an extensive scale. The overthrust came
+from the south-east, and the Palaeozoic beds were crushed and
+crumpled against the ancient massif of the central plateau.
+The principal folding took place at the close of the Carboniferous
+period, and was contemporaneous with that of the old Hercynian
+chain of Belgium, &amp;c. The Permian and later beds lie unconformably
+upon the denuded folds, and in the space between the
+Montagne Noire and the Cévennes proper the folded belt is
+buried beneath the horizontal Jurassic strata of the Causses.
+Although the chain was completed in Palaeozoic times, a second
+folding took place along its south-east margin at the close of
+the Eocene period. The Secondary and Tertiary beds of the
+Languedoc were crushed against the central plateau and were
+frequently overfolded. But by this time the ancient Palaeozoic
+chain had become a part of the unyielding massif, and the
+folding did not extend beyond its foot.</p>
+
+<p>As the division between the basins of the Loire and the
+Garonne to the west and those of the Saône and Rhone to the
+east, the Cévennes send many affluents to those rivers. In the
+south the Orb, the Hérault and the Vidourle are independent
+rivers flowing to the Golfe du Lion; farther north, the Gard&mdash;formed
+by the union of several streams named Gardon&mdash;the
+Cèze and the Ardèche flow to the Rhone. The Vivarais mountains
+and the northern Cévennes approach the right banks of the
+Rhone and Saône closely, and on that side send their waters by
+way of short torrents to those rivers; on the west side the
+streams are tributaries of the Loire, which rises at the foot of
+Mont Mézenc. A short distance to the south on the same side
+are the sources of the Allier and Lot. The waters of the north-western
+slope of the southern Cévennes drain into the Tarn
+either directly or by way of the Aveyron, which rises in the
+outlying chain of the Lévezou, and, in the extreme south, the
+Agout. The Tarn itself rises on the southern slope of the Mont
+Lozère.</p>
+
+<p>In the Lozère group and the southern Cévennes generally,
+good pasturage is found, and huge flocks spend the summer
+there. Silkworm-rearing and the cultivation of peaches, chestnuts
+and other fruits are also carried on. In the Vivarais
+cattle are reared, while on the slopes of the Beaujolais excellent
+wines are grown.</p>
+
+<p>The chief historical event in the history of the Cévennes is the
+revolt of the Camisards in the early years of the 18th century
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Camisards</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEYLON,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a large island and British colony in the Indian
+Ocean, separated on the N.W. from India by the Gulf of Manaar
+and Palk Strait. It lies between 5° 55&prime; and 9° 51&prime; N. and between
+79° 41&prime; and 81° 54&prime; E. Its extreme length from north to south
+is 271½ m.; its greatest width is 137½ m.; and its area amounts
+to 25,481 sq. m., or about five-sixths of that of Ireland. In its
+general outline the island resembles a pear, the apex of which
+points towards the north.</p>
+
+<p>The coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks,
+rocks and shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with
+India by the island of Rameswaram and Adam&rsquo;s
+Bridge, a succession of bold rocks reaching almost
+<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span>
+across the gulf at its narrowest point. Between the island and
+the opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying
+depth and width, beset by rocks and shoals. One of these, the
+Manaar Passage, is only navigable by very small craft. The
+other, called the Paumben Passage, lying between Rameswaram
+and the mainland, has been deepened at considerable outlay,
+and is used by large vessels in passing from the Malabar to the
+Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing so
+to make the circuit of the island. The west and south coasts,
+which are uniformly low, are fringed their entire length by coco-nut
+trees, which grow to the water&rsquo;s edge in great luxuriance,
+and give the island a most picturesque appearance. Along these
+shores there are numerous inlets and backwaters of the sea, some
+of which are available as harbours for small native craft. The
+east coast from Point de Galle to Trincomalee is of an entirely
+opposite character, wanting the ample vegetation of the other,
+and being at the same time of a bold precipitous character. The
+largest ships may freely approach this side of the island, provided
+they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks, whose localities,
+however, are well known to navigators.</p>
+
+<p>Seen from a distance at sea this &ldquo;utmost Indian isle&rdquo; of
+the old geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance. The
+remarkable elevation known as &ldquo;Adam&rsquo;s Peak,&rdquo; the most
+prominent, though not the loftiest, of the hilly ranges of the
+interior, towers like a mountain monarch amongst an assemblage
+of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the navigator
+when as yet the Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid
+the green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the
+waters of the ocean. The low coast-line encircles the mountain
+zone of the interior on the east, south and west, forming a belt
+which extends inland to a varying distance of from 30 to 80 m.;
+but on the north the whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya
+to Batticaloa is an almost unbroken plain, containing magnificent
+forests of great extent.</p>
+
+<p>The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and
+covers an area of about 4212 sq. m. The uplifting force seems
+to have been exerted from south-west to north-east, and
+although there is much confusion in many of the intersecting
+<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
+ridges, and spurs of great size and extent are sent
+off in many directions, the lower ranges manifest a remarkable
+tendency to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to
+north-west. Towards the north the offsets of the mountain system
+radiate to short distances and speedily sink to the level of the
+plain. Detached hills are rare; the most celebrated of these are
+Mihintale (anc. <i>Missïaka</i>), which overlooks the sacred city of
+Anuradhapura, and Sigiri. The latter is the only example in
+Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which form so remarkable a
+feature in the tableland of the Deccan&mdash;which, starting abruptly
+from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are frequently
+converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous pathways
+or by steps hewn in the solid rock.</p>
+
+<p>For a long period Adam&rsquo;s Peak was supposed to be the highest
+mountain in Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft.
+above sea-level. This elevation is chiefly remarkable as the
+resort of pilgrims from all parts of the East. The hollow in the
+lofty rock that crowns the summit is said by the Brahmans to
+be the footstep of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha, by the
+Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were
+divided between the conflicting claims of St Thomas and the
+eunuch of Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered
+by a handsome roof, and is guarded by the priests of a rich
+monastery half-way up the mountain, who maintain a shrine on
+the summit of the peak. The highest mountains in Ceylon are
+Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in altitude; Kirigalpota, 7836 ft.; and
+Totapelakanda, 7746 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure,
+and along their base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect
+them in every direction, the slopes were formerly covered with
+forests of gigantic and valuable trees, which, however, have
+disappeared under the axe of the planter, who felled and burnt
+the timber on all the finest slopes at an elevation of 2000 to 4500
+ft., and converted the hillsides into highly cultivated coffee and
+afterwards tea estates.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span></p>
+
+<p>The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the sanatorium of the island, is at
+an elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of
+an alpine country. The climate of the Horton plains, at an
+elevation of 7000 ft., is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but
+they are difficult of access, and are but little known to Europeans.
+The town of Kandy, in the Central Province, formerly the capital
+of the native sovereigns of the interior, is situated 1727 ft. above
+sea-level.</p>
+
+<p>The island, though completely within the influence of oceanic
+evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable
+extent, does not boast of any rivers of great volume.
+The rains which usher in each monsoon or change of
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+season are indeed heavy, and during their fall swell the streams
+to torrents and impetuous rivers. But when these cease the water-courses
+fall back to their original state, and there are few of the
+rivers which cannot generally be passed on horseback. The
+largest river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m., draining
+about one-sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the
+sea at Trincomalee on the east coast. There are twelve other
+considerable rivers, running to the west, east and south, but
+none of these exceeds 90 m. in length. The rivers are not
+favourable for navigation, except near the sea, where they
+expand into backwaters, which were used by the Dutch for the
+construction of their system of canals all round the western and
+southern coasts. Steamers ply between Colombo and Negombo
+along this narrow canal and lake. A similar service on the
+Kaluganga did not prove a success. There are no inland lakes
+except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north
+and east of the island, and the backwaters on the coast. The
+lakes which add to the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake Gregory,
+Nuwara Eliya and Kurunegala are artificial or partly so. Giant&rsquo;s
+Tank is said to have an area of 6380 acres, and Minneri and
+Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The magnificent basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east
+coast of Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, security and
+beauty by any haven in the world. The admiralty had a dockyard
+here which was closed in 1905.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly
+rising from the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in
+marine shells, which occur in situations far above high-water
+mark, and at some miles distance from the sea. A great portion
+of the north of the island may be regarded as the joint production
+of the coral polyps and the currents, which for the greater part
+of the year set impetuously towards the south; coming laden
+with alluvial matter collected along the coast of Coromandel,
+and meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they have
+deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro;
+and these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by sand
+drifts, have formed the peninsula of Jaffna, and the plains that
+trend westward till they unite with the narrow causeway of
+Adam&rsquo;s Bridge. Tertiary rocks are almost unknown. The great
+geological feature of the island is the profusion of gneiss, overlaid
+in many places in the interior by extensive beds of dolomitic
+limestone. This formation appears to be of great thickness;
+and when, as is not often the case, the under-surface of
+the gneiss series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on
+granite. Veins of pure quartz and felspar of considerable extent
+have been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the
+elevated lands of the interior in the Galle districts may be seen
+copious deposits of disintegrated felspar, or <i>kaolin</i>, commonly
+known as porcelain clay. At various elevations the gneiss may
+be found intersected by veins of trap rock, upheaved whilst in a
+state of fusion subsequent to the consolidation of the former.
+In some localities on the seashore these veins assume the
+character of pitch-stone porphyry highly impregnated with
+iron. Hornblende and primitive greenstone are found in the
+vicinity of Adam&rsquo;s Peak and in the Pussellava district. Laterite,
+known in Ceylon as <i>kabuk</i>, a product of disintegrated gneiss,
+exists in vast quantities in many parts, and is quarried for
+building purposes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from
+those prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The
+two distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds
+which accompany them, the south-west and the north-east.
+The former is very regular in its approach, and may be looked
+for along the south-west coast between the 10th and 20th of
+May; the latter reaches the north-east coast between the end
+of October and the middle of November. There is a striking
+contrast in the influence which the south-west monsoon exerts
+on the one side of the island and on the other. The clouds are
+driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western
+and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there
+in copious showers. But the rains do not reach the opposite
+side of the island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and
+north are sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently
+happens that different sides of the same mountain
+present at the same moment the opposite extreme of droughts
+and moisture. The influence of the north-east monsoon is more
+general. The mountains which face the north-east are lower
+and more remote from the sea than those on the south-west;
+the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains simultaneously
+on both sides of the island.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the day, owing to the proximity of the island
+to the equator, does not vary more than an hour at any season.
+The mean time of the rising of the sun&rsquo;s centre at Colombo on
+February 1st is 6<span class="sp">h</span> 23<span class="sp">m</span> <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and of its setting 6<span class="sp">h</span> 5<span class="sp">m</span> <span class="scs">P.M.</span> On
+August 15th its rising is at 5<span class="sp">h</span> 45<span class="sp">m</span> <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and its setting at 6<span class="sp">h</span> 7<span class="sp">m</span> <span class="scs">P.M.</span>
+It is mid-day in Colombo when it is morning in England.
+Colombo is situated in 79° 50&prime; 45&Prime; E., and the day is further
+advanced there than at Greenwich by 5<span class="sp">h</span> 19<span class="sp">m</span> 23<span class="sp">s</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The characteristics of the low-growing plants of Ceylon
+approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India. The
+<i>Rhizophoreae</i> are numerous along the low muddy shores of salt lakes
+and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant. The
+list comprises <i>Aegiceras fragrans</i>, <i>Epithinia malayana</i>, <i>Thespesia
+populnea</i>, <i>Feronia elephantum</i>, <i>Salvadora persica</i> (the true mustard
+tree of Scripture), <i>Eugenia bracteata</i>, <i>Elaeodendron Roxburghii</i>, <i>Cassia
+Fistula</i>, <i>Cassia Roxburghii</i>, &amp;c. The herbaceous plants of the low
+country belong mostly to the natural orders <i>Compositae</i>, <i>Leguminosae</i>,
+<i>Rubiaceae</i>, <i>Scrophulariaceae</i> and <i>Euphorbiaceae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a
+height of 4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and
+trees assume an altered character. The foliage of the latter is larger
+and deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the hot
+low country. The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns,
+<i>Cyrtandreae</i>, <i>Compositae</i>, <i>Scitamineae</i> and <i>Urticaceae</i>. The dense
+masses of lofty forest at that altitude are interspersed with large
+open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives <i>patanas</i>, and
+of value to them as affording pasturage for their cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to
+be met with partaking of European forms, yet blended with tropical
+characteristics. The guelder rose, St John&rsquo;s wort, the <i>Nepenthes
+distillatoria</i> or pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups, sundews,
+ladies&rsquo; mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of <i>Magnoliaceae</i>,
+<i>Ranunculaceae</i>, <i>Elaeocarpeae</i>, &amp;c. The most beautiful
+flowering shrub of this truly alpine region is the rhododendron, which
+in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft. It is met with in
+great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated land above
+Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in June and July. There are
+two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having its
+leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty colour on the under side;
+the other, peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the loftiest
+elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the under side,
+and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft. round the
+stem. At these altitudes English flowers, herbs and vegetables have
+been cultivated with perfect success, as also wheat, oats and barley.
+English fruit-trees grow, but rarely bear. Grapes are grown successfully
+in the north of the island. The vines were introduced by the
+Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual summer by exposing
+the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial winter.</p>
+
+<p>The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every
+altitude from the sea-beach to the loftiest mountain peak. They
+vary much in their hardiness and durability, from the common
+cashew-nut tree, which when felled decays in a month, to the ebony
+and satinwood, which for many years resist the attacks of insects
+and climate. Many of the woods are valuable for furniture, and
+house and shipbuilding, and are capable of standing long exposure
+to weather. The most beautiful woods adapted to furniture work
+are the calamander, ebony, flowered satinwood, tamarind, nedun,
+dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &amp;c.; the sack-yielding tree
+(<i>Antiaris saccidora</i>), for a long time confounded with the far-famed
+upas tree of Java (<i>Antiaris toxicaria</i>), grows in the Kurunegala
+district of the island. The <i>Cocos nucifera</i>, or coco-nut palm, is a
+native of the island, and may justly be considered the most valuable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span>
+of its trees. It grows in vast abundance alone the entire sea-coast
+of the west and south sides of the island, and furnishes almost all
+that a Sinhalese villager requires. Its fruit, when green, supplies food
+and drink; when ripe, it yields oil. The juice of the unopened
+flower gives him toddy and arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit
+when woven makes him ropes, nets, matting. The nut-shells form
+drinking-vessels, spoons, &amp;c. The plaited leaves serve as plates and
+dishes, and as thatch for his cottage. The dried leaves are used as
+torches, the large leaf-stalks as garden fences. The trunk of the tree
+sawn up is employed for every possible purpose, from knife-handles
+to door-posts; hollowed out it forms a canoe or a coffin. There are
+four kinds of this palm&mdash;the common, the king, the dwarf and the
+Maldive. The Palmyra and Areca palms grow luxuriantly and
+abundantly, the former in the northern, the latter in the western
+and central districts. The one is valuable chiefly for its timber, of
+which large quantities are exported to the Indian coasts; the other
+supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst natives of the eastern
+tropics as a masticatory. The export trade in the latter to India and
+eastern ports is very considerable. Next in importance to the coco-nut
+palm among the indigenous products of Ceylon is the cinnamon
+plant, yielding the well-known spice of that name.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the elephant,
+which, though far inferior to those of Africa and the Indian continent,
+is nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on account of its
+strength, sagacity and docility. They are to be met with in greater
+or less numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior.
+Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds
+and plantations, committing great damage. In order to protect
+these lands, and at the same time keep up the government stud of
+draught elephants, &ldquo;kraals&rdquo; or traps on a large scale are erected
+in the forests, into which the wild herds are driven; and once secured
+they are soon tamed and fit for service. The oxen are of small size,
+but hardy, and capable of drawing heavy loads. Buffaloes exist in
+great numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed
+in a half-tame state for ploughing rice-fields and treading out the
+corn. They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be maintained
+on the village pasture-lands where oxen would not find
+support. Of deer, Ceylon possesses the spotted kind (<i>Axis maculata</i>),
+the muntjac (<i>Stylocerus muntjac</i>), a red deer (the Sambur of India),
+popularly called the Ceylon elk (<i>Musa Aristotelis</i>), and the small
+musk (<i>Moschus minima</i>). There are five species of monkeys, one
+the small rilawa (<i>Macacus pileatus</i>), and four known in Ceylon by
+the name of &ldquo;wandaru&rdquo; (<i>Presbytes ursinus</i>, <i>P. Thersites</i>, <i>P. cephalopterus</i>,
+<i>P. Priamus</i>), and the small quadrumanous animal, the loris
+(<i>Loris gracilis</i>), known as the &ldquo;Ceylon sloth.&rdquo; Of the Cheiroptera
+sixteen species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette
+or flying fox (<i>Pteropus Edwardsii</i>). Of the Carnivora the only one
+dangerous to man is the small black bear (<i>Prochilus labiatus</i>). The
+tiger is not known in Ceylon, but the true panther (<i>Felis pardus</i>) is
+common, as is the jackal (<i>Canis aureus</i>) and the mongoose or ichneumon
+(<i>Herpestes vitticollis</i>). Rats are numerous, as are the
+squirrel and the porcupine, and the pig-rat or bandicoot (<i>Mus bandicota</i>),
+while the scaly ant-eater (<i>Manis pentedactyla</i>), locally known
+by the Malay name of pangolin, is occasionally found. The dugong
+(<i>Halicore dugong</i>), is frequently seen on various points of the coast.
+A game preservation society and the judicious action of government
+have done much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer,
+elephants, &amp;c., by establishing a close season. It is estimated that
+there must be 5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests. A licence
+to shoot or capture and an export royalty are now levied by government.</p>
+
+<p>Captain V. Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many
+of them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed
+by the birds of South America and Northern India. The eagles are
+small and rare, but hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter
+is a remarkable brown species, the cry of which has earned for it
+the name of the &ldquo;devil-bird.&rdquo; The esculent swift, which furnishes
+in its edible nest the celebrated Chinese dainty, builds in caves in
+Ceylon. Crows of various species are numerous, and in the wilder
+parts pea-fowl are abundant. There are also to be mentioned king-fishers,
+sun-birds, several beautiful fly-catchers and snatchers, the
+golden oriole, parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are
+at least a dozen species. The Ceylon jungle-fowl (<i>Gallus Lafayetti</i>)
+is distinct from the Indian species. Ceylon is singularly rich in
+wading and water birds&mdash;ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons
+being frequently seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the
+beach in long files, and on the deeper waters inland are found teal
+and a countless variety of ducks and smaller fowl. Of the birds
+familiar to European sportsmen there are partridge, quail and snipe
+in abundance, and the woodcock has been seen.</p>
+
+<p>The poisonous snakes of Ceylon are not numerous. Four species
+have been enumerated&mdash;the ticpolonga (<i>Daboia elegans</i>), the cobra
+di capello (<i>Naja tripudians</i>), the carawilla (<i>Trigonocephalus hypnale</i>),
+and the <i>Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus</i>, which is so rare that it has
+no popular name. The largest snake in Ceylon is the &ldquo;boa,&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;anaconda&rdquo; of Eastern story (<i>Python reticulatus</i>); it is from
+20 to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller
+animals. Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large
+fresh-water reservoirs which supply the rice-fields; there are two
+species (<i>C. biporcatus</i> and <i>C. palustris</i>). Of lizards the most noteworthy
+are the iguana, several bloodsuckers, the chameleon and the
+familiar geckoes, which are furnished with pads to each toe, by
+which they are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to
+glass and ceilings.</p>
+
+<p>Insects exist in great numbers. The leaf and stick insects are of
+great variety and beauty. Ceylon has four species of the ant-lion,
+renowned for the predaceous ingenuity of its larvae; and the white
+ants or termites, the ravages of which are most destructive, are at
+once ubiquitous and innumerable in every place where the climate
+is not too chilly or the soil too sandy for them to construct their
+domed dwellings. They make their way through walls and floors,
+and in a few hours destroy every vegetable substance within their
+reach. Of all the insect pests that beset an unseasoned European
+the most annoying are the mosquitoes. Ticks are also an intolerable
+nuisance; they are exceedingly minute, and burrow under the skin.
+In the lower ranges of the hill country land leeches are found in
+tormenting profusion. But insects and reptiles do not trouble European
+residents so much as in early years&mdash;at any rate in the towns,
+while in the higher planting districts there is almost complete
+exemption from their unwelcome attentions. Bungalows are more
+carefully built to resist white ants, drainage and cleanliness prevent
+mosquitoes and ticks from multiplying, while snakes and leeches
+avoid cultivated, occupied ground.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fish in ordinary use for the table the finest is the seir, a
+species of scomber (<i>Cybium guttatum</i>). Mackerel, dories, carp,
+whitings, mullet (red and striped), soles and sardines are abundant.
+Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and the huge saw fish (<i>Pristis
+antiquorum</i>) infests the eastern coast of the island, where it attains
+a length of 12 to 15 ft. There are also several fishes remarkable for
+the brilliancy of their colouring; <i>e.g.</i> the Red Sea perch (<i>Holocentrum
+rubrum</i>), of the deepest scarlet, and the great fire fish (<i>Scorpaena
+miles</i>), of a brilliant red. Some are purple, others yellow, and numbers
+with scales of a lustrous green are called &ldquo;parrots&rdquo; by the natives;
+of these one (<i>Sparus Hardwickii</i>) is called the &ldquo;flower parrot,&rdquo; from
+its exquisite colouring&mdash;irregular bands of blue, crimson and purple,
+green, yellow and grey, crossed by perpendicular stripes of black.
+The pearl fishery, as indicated below, is of great importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population</i>.&mdash;The total population of Ceylon in 1901, inclusive
+of military, shipping and 4914 prisoners of war, was 3,578,333,
+showing an increase of 18.8% in the decade. The population of
+Colombo was 158,228.</p>
+
+<p>The population and area of the nine provinces was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">District.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Western Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">925,342</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,432</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Central Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">623,011</td> <td class="tcl rb">2,299½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Northern Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">341,985</td> <td class="tcl rb">3,363¼</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Southern Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">566,925</td> <td class="tcl rb">2,146¼</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eastern Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">174,288</td> <td class="tcl rb">4,036½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North-Western Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">353,845</td> <td class="tcl rb">2,996<span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Central Province</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,110</td> <td class="tcl rb">4,002¼</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Province of Uva</td> <td class="tcr rb">192,072</td> <td class="tcl rb">3,154½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Province of Sabaragamuwa</td> <td class="tcr rb">321,755</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,901<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,578,333</td> <td class="tcl allb">25,332</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The table of nationality gives the principal groups as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Europeans</td> <td class="tcr">9,509</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Burghers and Eurasians</td> <td class="tcr">23,539</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Low-country Sinhalese</td> <td class="tcr">1,458,320</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kandyan Sinhalese</td> <td class="tcr">872,487</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tamils</td> <td class="tcr">953,535</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Moors (Mahommedan)</td> <td class="tcr">228,706</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Malays</td> <td class="tcr">11,963</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Veddahs (Aborigines)</td> <td class="tcr">3,971</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Altogether there are representatives of some seventy races in Ceylon.
+The Veddahs, who run wild in the woods, are the aborigines of the
+island.</p>
+
+<p><i>Language</i>.&mdash;The language of nearly 70% of the population is
+Sinhalese, which is nearly allied to Pali (<i>q.v.</i>); of the remaining
+30%, with the exception of Europeans, the language is Tamil. A
+corrupt form of Portuguese is spoken by some natives of European
+descent. The Veddahs, a small forest tribe, speak a distinct language,
+and the Rodiyas, an outcast tribe, possess a large vocabulary of their
+own. The Sinhalese possess several original poems of some merit,
+and an extensive and most interesting series of native chronicles, but
+their most valuable literature is written in Pali, though the greater
+portion of it has been translated into Sinhalese, and is best known
+to the people through these Sinhalese translations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion</i>.&mdash;The principal religions may be distributed as follows:&mdash;Christians,
+349,239; Buddhists, 2,141,404; Hindus, 826,826;
+Mahommedans, 246,118. Of the Christians, 287,419 are Roman
+Catholics, and 61,820 are Protestants of various denominations;
+and of these Christians 319,001 are natives, and 30,238 Europeans.
+The Mahommedans are the descendants of Arabs (locally termed
+Moormen) and the Malays. The Tamils, both the inhabitants of the
+island and the immigrants from India, are Hindus, with the exception
+of 93,000 Christians. The Sinhalese, numbering 70% of the whole
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span>
+population, are, with the exception of 180,000 Christians, Buddhists.
+Ceylon may properly be called a Buddhist country, and it is here that
+Buddhism is found almost in its pristine purity. Ceylon was converted
+to Buddhism in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the great Augustine
+of Buddhism, Mahinda, son of the Indian king Asoka; and the extensive
+ruins throughout Ceylon, especially in the ancient cities of
+Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, bear witness to the sacrifices
+which kings and people joined in making to create lasting monuments
+of their faith. The Buddhist temples in the Kandyan country
+possess valuable lands, the greater portion of which is held by
+hereditary tenants on the tenure of service. These lands were given
+out with much care to provide for all that was necessary to maintain
+the temple and its connected monastery. Some tenants had to do
+the blacksmiths&rsquo; work, others the carpenters&rsquo;, while another set of
+tenants had to cultivate the land reserved for supplying the monastery;
+others again had to attend at the festivals, and prepare
+decorations, and carry lamps and banners. In course of time
+difficulties arose; the English courts were averse to a system under
+which the rent of lands was paid by hereditary service, and a commission
+was issued by Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards Lord
+Rosmead) when governor, to deal with the whole question, to define
+the services and to enable the tenants to commute these for a money
+payment. The result of the inquiry was to show that the services,
+except in a few instances, were not onerous, and that almost without
+an exception the tenants were willing to continue the system. The
+anomaly of an ecclesiastical establishment of Anglican and Presbyterian
+chaplains with a bishop of Colombo paid out of the general
+revenues has now been abolished in Ceylon, and only the bishop and
+two or three incumbents remain on the list for life, or till they retire
+on pension.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education</i>.&mdash;There has been a great advance in public instruction
+since 1875, through the multiplication of vernacular, Anglo-vernacular
+and English schools by government, by the different
+Christian missions and by the Buddhists and Hindus who have
+come forward to claim the government grant. The government has
+also started a technical college, and an agricultural school has been
+reorganized. An agricultural department, recommended by a
+commission, should profit by the services of the entomologist,
+mycologist and chemical analyst added by the governor to the staff
+of the royal botanic gardens at Peradeniya. There are industrial
+and reformatory schools, which are partially supported by government.
+In spite of the great advance that has been made, however,
+at the census of 1901 no fewer than 2,790,235 of the total population
+were entered as unable to read or write their own tongue. Of this
+number 1,553,078 were females, showing a very unsatisfactory state
+of things.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The natural soils of Ceylon are composed of quartzose
+gravel, felspathic clay and sand often of a pure white, blended with
+or overlaid by brown and red loams, resulting; from the
+decay of vegetable matter, or the disintegration of the
+<span class="sidenote">Soil.</span>
+gneiss and hornblende formations. The whole of the great northern
+extremity of the island consists of a sandy and calcareous admixture,
+made to yield productive crops of grain, tobacco, cotton and vegetables
+by the careful industry of the Tamil population, who spare
+no pains in irrigating and manuring their lands. Between the
+northern districts and the elevated mountain ranges which overlook
+the Bintenne and Uva countries are extensive plains of alluvial soil
+washed down from the table-lands above, where once a teeming population
+produced large quantities of grain. The remains of ancient
+works of irrigation bear testimony to the bygone agriculture of these
+extensive regions now covered by swamps or dense jungle.</p>
+
+<p>The general character of the soil in the maritime provinces to the
+east, south and west is sandy. Large tracts of quartzose sand spread
+along the whole line of sea-coast, some of which, of a pure white, and
+very deficient in vegetable matter, is admirably adapted to the
+growth of the cinnamon plant. In the light sandy districts where
+the soil is perfectly free, and contains a portion of vegetable and
+mineral loam, the coco-nut palm flourishes in great luxuriance.
+This is the case along the entire coast line from Kalpitiya to Point
+de Galle, and farther eastward and northward to Matara, stretching
+to a distance inland varying from 100 yds. to 3 m. From this light
+sandy belt as far as the mountain-zone of the Kandyan country the
+land is mainly composed of low hilly undulations of sandstone and
+ferruginous clay, incapable of almost any cultivation, but intersected
+in every direction with extensive valleys and wide plains of a more
+generous soil, not highly fertile, but still capable, with a little
+industry, of yielding ample crops of rice.</p>
+
+<p>The soil of the central province, although frequently containing
+great quantities of quartzose sand and ferruginous clay, is in many
+of the more elevated districts of a fine loamy character. Sand
+sufficiently vegetable and light for rice culture may be seen at all
+elevations in the hill districts; but the fine chocolate and brown
+loams overlying gneiss or limestone formations, so admirably adapted
+for coffee cultivation, are only to be found on the steep sides or along
+the base of mountain ranges at an elevation varying from 2000 to
+4000 ft. Such land, well-timbered, contains in its elements the decomposed
+particles of the rocks above, blended with the decayed vegetable
+matter of forests that have for centuries scattered beneath them
+the germs of fertility. The quantity of really rich coffee land in these
+districts is but small as compared with the extent of country&mdash;vast
+tracts of open valleys consisting of an indifferent yellow tenacious
+soil interspersed with many low ranges of quartz rock, but tea is a
+much hardier plant than coffee, and grows on poorer soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Irrigation</i>.&mdash;The native rulers covered the whole face of the
+country with a network of irrigation reservoirs, by which Ceylon
+was enabled in ancient times to be the great granary of southern
+Asia. Wars, and the want of a strong hand to guide the agriculture
+of the country, led to the decay of these ancient works, and large
+tracts of land, which were formerly highly productive, became
+swampy wastes or dense forests. The remains of some of the larger
+irrigation works are amongst the most interesting of the memorials
+of Ceylon&rsquo;s former greatness. Some of the artificial lakes were of
+great size. Minneri, formed by damming across the valleys between
+the low hills which surround it with an embankment 60 ft. wide at
+the top, is at this day 20 m. in circumference. It has recently been
+restored by government, and is capable of irrigating 15,000 acres;
+while the Giant&rsquo;s Tank, which has also been restored, irrigates
+20,000 acres. Another lake, with an embankment several miles in
+length, the Kalawewa, was formed by damming back the waters of
+the Kalaoya, but they have forced their way through the embankment,
+and in the ancient bed of the lake, or tank, are now many small
+villages. In connexion with these large tanks were numerous canals
+and channels for supplying smaller tanks, or for irrigating large
+tracts of fields. Throughout the district of Nuwarakalawiya every
+village has its tank. The embankments have been formed with great
+skill, and advantage has been taken to the utmost of the slightest
+fall in the land; but they in common with the larger works had been
+allowed to fall into decay, and were being brought to destruction
+by the evil practice of cutting them every year to irrigate the fields.
+The work of restoring these embankments was undertaken by the
+government, and 100 village tanks were repaired every year, besides
+eighteen larger works. In 1900 a sum of five million rupees was set
+apart for these larger undertakings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cultivation and Products.</i>&mdash;The area of uncultivated land is little
+over 3½ million acres, whereas fully four times that amount is capable
+of cultivation. A great deal is waste, besides lagoons, tanks, backwaters,
+&amp;c. Thick forest land does not cover more than 5000 sq. m.
+Scrub, or chena, and patana grass cover a very great area. Tea,
+cacao, cardamoms, cinchona, coffee and indiarubber are the products
+cultivated by European and an increasing number of native planters
+in the hill country and part of the low country of Ceylon. A great
+change has been effected in the appearance of the country by the
+introduction of the tea plant in place of the coffee plant, after the
+total failure of the latter owing to disease. For some time coffee
+had been the most important crop. In the old days it grew wild like
+cinnamon, and was exported so far back as the time of the Portuguese,
+but was lightly esteemed as an article of European commerce,
+as the berry was gathered unripe, was imperfectly cured and had
+little flavour. In 1824 the governor, Sir E. Barnes, introduced coffee
+cultivation on the West Indian plan; in 1834 the falling off of other
+sources of supply drew general attention to Ceylon, and by 1841
+the Ceylon output had become considerable, and grew steadily (with
+an interval in 1847 due to a commercial crisis) till 1877 when 272,000
+acres were under coffee cultivation, the total export amounting to
+103,000,000 &#8468; Then owing to disease came a crisis, and a rapid
+decline, and now only a few thousand acres are left. On the failure
+of the coffee crops planters began extensively to grow the tea plant,
+which had already been known in the island for several years. By
+1882 over 20,000 acres had been planted with tea, but the export
+that year was under 700,000 &#8468; Five years later the area planted
+was 170,000 acres, while the export had risen to nearly 14,000,000 &#8468;
+By 1892 there were 262,000 acres covered with tea, and 71,000,000 &#8468;
+were that year exported. In 1897, 350,000 acres were planted, and
+the export was 116,000,000 &#8468; By the beginning of the 20th century,
+the total area cultivated with tea was not under 390,000 acres, while
+the estimate of shipments was put at 146,000,000 &#8468; annually.
+Nearly every plantation has its factory, with the machinery necessary
+to prepare the leaf as brought in from the bushes until it becomes
+the tea of commerce. The total amount of capital now invested in
+the tea industry in Ceylon cannot be less than £10,000,000. The
+tea-planting industry more than anything else has raised Ceylon
+from the depressed state to which it fell in 1882.</p>
+
+<p>Before tea was proved a success, however, <i>cinchona</i> cultivation
+was found a useful bridge from coffee to the Ceylon planter, who,
+however, grew it so freely that in one year 15,000,000 &#8468; bark was
+shipped, bringing the price of quinine down from 16s. to 1s. 6d. an
+ounce.</p>
+
+<p>In a few places, where the rainfall is abundant, rice cultivation
+is allowed to depend on the natural supply of water, but in most
+parts the cultivation is not attempted unless there is secured beforehand
+a certain and sufficient supply, by means of canals or reservoirs.
+In the hill country every valley and open plain capable of tillage is
+made to yield its crops of grain, and the steep sides of the hills are
+cut into terraces, on which are seen waving patches of green rice
+watered by mountain streams, which are conducted by means of
+channels ingeniously carried round the spurs of the hills and along
+the face of acclivities, by earthen water-courses and bamboo aqueducts,
+so as to fertilize the fields below. These works bear witness to
+the patience, industry and skill of the Kandyan villagers. In the
+low country to the north and east and north-west of the hills,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span>
+irrigation works of a more expensive kind are necessary. In January
+1892, the immemorial rent or tax on fields of <i>paddy</i> (rice in the husk)
+was removed, but not the customs duty on imported rice. But even
+with the advantage of protection to the extent of 10% in the local
+markets, there has been no extension of paddy cultivation; on the
+contrary, the import of grain from India has grown larger year by
+year. Through the multiplication of irrigation works and the
+northern railway, rice culture may be sufficiently extended to save
+some of the large imports (8,000,000 to 9,000,000 bushels annually)
+now required from India.</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco is extensively cultivated in various parts of the island,
+and the growth of particular places, such as Dumbara and Uva,
+is much prized for local consumption. The tobacco of export is
+grown in the peninsula of Jaffna. The exports of this article in 1850
+were 22,176 cwts., valued at £20,698. The cultivation of the plant
+has not greatly increased of recent years, and is almost entirely in
+the hands of natives in the northern and parts of the central Province.</p>
+
+<p>Ceylon has been celebrated since the middle of the 14th century
+for its cinnamon, and during the period of the Dutch occupation this
+spice was the principal article of commerce; under their rule and
+up to 1832 its cultivation was a government monopoly. With the
+abolition of the monopoly the quantity exported increased, but the
+value declined.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the coffee plant, the hardy tea plant grows from sea-level
+to 7000 ft. altitude; but crown forest-lands above 5000 ft. are no
+longer sold, so that a very large area on the highest mountain ranges
+and plateaus is still under forest. Moreover, on the tea plantations
+arboriculture is attended to in a way unknown in 1875; the Australian
+eucalypts, acacias and grevilleas, Indian and Japanese
+conifers, and other trees of different lands, are now freely planted for
+ornament, for protection from wind, for firewood or for timber.
+A great advance has been made at Hakgalla and Nuwara Eliya, in
+Upper Uva, and other high districts, in naturalizing English fruits
+and vegetables. The calamander tree is nearly extinct, and ebony
+and other fine cabinet woods are getting scarce; but the conservation
+of forests after the Indian system has been taken in hand
+under a director and trained officers, and much good has been done.
+The cinnamon tree (wild in the jungles, cultivated as a shrub in
+plantations) is almost the only one yielding a trade product which is
+indigenous to the island. The coco-nut and nearly all other palms
+have been introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Among other agricultural products mention must be made of
+<i>cacao</i>, the growth and export of which have steadily extended since
+coffee failed. Important also is the spice or aromatic product of
+cardamoms.</p>
+
+<p>The culture of <i>indiarubber</i> was begun on low-country plantations,
+and Ceylon rubber is of the best quality in the market. The area
+of cultivation of the coco-nut palm has been greatly extended
+since 1875 by natives as well as by Europeans. The products of this
+palm that are exported, apart from those so extensively used in the
+island itself, exceed in a good year £1,000,000 sterling in value.
+Viticulture and cotton cultivation, as well as tobacco growing, are
+being developed along the course of the new northern railway.</p>
+
+<p>Taking the trade in the products mentioned as a whole, no country
+can compete with the United Kingdom as a customer of Ceylon.
+But there is a considerable trade in nearly all products with Germany
+and America; in cardamoms with India; in cinnamon with Spain,
+Italy, Belgium, Australia, Austria and France; and in one or other
+of the products of the coco-nut palm (coco-nuts, coco-nut oil,
+copra, desiccated coco-nut, poonac, coir) with Belgium, Russia,
+France, Austria, Australia and Holland.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pearl Fishery.</i>&mdash;Pearl oysters are found in the Tambalagam bay,
+near Trincomalee, but the great banks on which these oysters are
+usually found lie near Arippu, off the northern part of the west coast
+of Ceylon, at a distance of from 16 to 20 m. from the shore. They
+extend for many miles north and south, varying considerably in their
+size and productiveness. It is generally believed that the oyster
+arrives at maturity in its seventh year, that the pearl is then of full
+size and perfect lustre, and that if the oyster be not then secured it
+will shortly die, and the pearl be lost. It is certain that from some
+unexplained cause the oysters disappear from their known beds for
+years together. The Dutch had no fishery from 1732 to 1746, and
+it failed them again for twenty-seven years from 1768 to 1796.
+The fishery was again interrupted between 1820 and 1828, also from
+1833 to 1854, from 1864 to 1873, and again from 1892 to 1900. The
+fishery of 1903 was the first since 1891, and produced a revenue of
+Rs. 829,348, being the third largest on record. In 1797 and 1798
+the government sold the privilege of fishing the oyster-beds for
+£123,982 and £142,780 respectively. From that time the fishery
+was conducted by the government itself until 1906, when it was
+leased to the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries Company for twenty years at
+a rent of £20,000 a year. Professor Herdman, F.R.S., was appointed
+to inquire and report on the conservation and cultivation of the
+Ceylon pearl-oyster, and visited Ceylon in January 1902. In
+consequence of his report, a marine laboratory for the culture of the
+pearl oysters was established in Galle harbour under the care of
+Mr Hornell.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mineral Industries.</i>&mdash;Commercially there are two established
+mineral industries:&mdash;(1) that of digging for precious stones; and
+(2) the much more important industry of digging for plumbago or
+graphite, the one mineral of commercial importance found. Further
+developments may result in the shipment of the exceptionally pure
+iron ore found in different parts of Ceylon, though still no coal has
+been found to be utilized with it. Several places, too&mdash;Ruanwella,
+Rangalla, Rangbodde, &amp;c.&mdash;indicate where gold was found in the
+time of the Kandyan kings; and geologists might possibly indicate
+a paying quartz reef, as in Mysore. Owing to the greatly increased
+demand in Europe and America, plumbago in 1899 more than doubled
+in price, rising from £40 to £80, and even £100 a ton for the
+finest. Latterly there has been a considerable fall, but the permanent
+demand is likely to continue keen in consequence mainly of the Ceylon
+kind being the best for making crucibles. The trade with Great
+Britain and the United States has slightly decreased, but there has
+been a rapid expansion in the exports to Belgium and Holland,
+Russia, Japan and Victoria; and the industry seems to be established
+on a sound basis. One consequence of its development has been
+to bring European and American capitalists and Cornish and Italian
+miners into a field hitherto almost entirely worked by Sinhalese.
+Though some of the mines were carried to a depth of 1000 ft., the
+work was generally very primitive in character, and Western
+methods of working are sure to lead to greater safety and economy.
+Besides a royalty or customs duty of 5 rupees (about 6s. 8d.) per
+ton on all plumbago exported, the government issue licenses at
+moderate rates for the digging of plumbago on crown lands, a certain
+share of the resulting mineral also going to government. The plumbago
+industry, in all its departments of mining, carting, preparing,
+packing and shipping, gives employment to fully 100,000 men and
+women, still almost entirely Sinhalese. The wealthiest mine-owners,
+too, are Sinhalese land-owners or merchants.</p>
+
+<p>As regards <i>gems</i>, there are perhaps 500 gem pits or quarries worked
+in the island during the dry season from November to June in the
+Ratnapura, Rakwane and Matara districts. Some of these are on
+a small scale; but altogether several thousands of Sinhalese find a
+precarious existence in digging for gems. Rich finds of a valuable
+ruby, sapphire, cat&rsquo;s-eye, amethyst, alexandrite or star stone, are
+comparatively rare; it is only of the commoner gems, such as
+moonstone, garnet, spinels, that a steady supply is obtained. The
+cat&rsquo;s-eye in its finer qualities is peculiar to Ceylon, and is occasionally
+in great demand, according to the fashion. The obstacle to the
+investment of European capital in &ldquo;gemming&rdquo; has always been the
+difficulty of preventing the native labourers in the pits&mdash;-even if
+practically naked&mdash;from concealing and stealing gems. A Chamber of
+Mines, with a suitable library, was established in Colombo during 1899.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manufactures.</i>&mdash;Little is done save in the preparation in factories
+and stores, in Colombo or on the plantations, of the several products
+exported. The manufacture of jewellery and preparation of precious
+stones, and, among native women and children, of pillow lace, give
+employment to several thousands. Iron and engineering works are
+numerous in Colombo and in the planting districts. The Sinhalese
+are skilful cabinetmakers and carpenters. The Moormen and Tamils
+furnish good masons and builders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;There has been rapid development since 1882, and
+the returns for 1903 showed a total value of 22½ millions sterling.
+The principal imports were articles of food and drink (chiefly rice
+from India) manufactured metals (with specie), coal, cotton yarns
+and piece goods from Manchester, machinery and millwork and
+apparel. The Ceylon customs tariff for imports is one of 6½% <i>ad
+valorem</i>, save in the case of intoxicating drinks, arms, ammunition,
+opium, &amp;c. The chief export is tea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Roads.</i>&mdash;The policy of the Sinhalese rulers of the interior was to
+exclude strangers from the hill country. Prior to the British occupation
+of the Kandyan territory in 1815, the only means of
+access from one district to another was by footpaths through the
+forests. The Portuguese do not appear to have attempted to
+open up the country below the hills, and the Dutch confined themselves
+to the improvement of the inland water-communications.
+The British government saw from the first the necessity of making
+roads into the interior for military purposes, and, more recently, for
+developing the resources of the country. The credit of opening up
+the country is due mainly to the governor, Sir Edward Barnes, by
+whose direction the great military road from Colombo to Kandy
+was made. Gradually all the military stations were connected by
+broad tracks, which by degrees were bridged and converted into
+good carriage roads. The governors Sir Henry Ward and Sir
+Hercules Robinson recognized the importance of giving the coffee
+planters every assistance in opening up the country, and the result
+of their policy is that the whole of the hill country is now intersected
+by a vast number of splendid roads, made at a cost of upwards of
+£2000 per mile. In 1848 an ordinance was passed to levy from every
+adult male in the colony (except Buddhist priests and British soldiers)
+six days&rsquo; labour on the roads, or an equivalent in money. The labour
+and money obtained by this wise measure have enabled the local
+authorities to connect the government highways by minor roads,
+which bring every village of importance into communication with
+the principal towns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways.</i>&mdash;After repeated vain attempts by successive governors
+to connect Colombo with the interior by railways, Sir Charles
+MacCarthy successfully set on foot a railway of 75 m. in length from
+Colombo to Kandy. The railway mileage had developed to 563 m.
+in 1908, including one of the finest mountain lines in the world&mdash;over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span>
+160 m. long, rising to 6200 ft. above sea-level, and falling at the
+terminus to 4000 ft. The towns of Kandy, Matale, Gampola, Nawalapitiya,
+Hatton and Haputale (and practically Nuwara Eliya) in the
+hills, are thus connected by rail, and in the low country the towns of
+Kurunegala, Galle, Matara, Kalutara, &amp;c. Most of the debt on the
+railways (all government lines) is paid off, and the traffic receipts
+now make up nearly one-third of the general revenue. An Indo-Ceylon
+railway to connect the Indian and Ceylon systems has been
+the subject of separate reports and estimates by engineers serving
+the Ceylon and Indian governments, who have pronounced the
+work across the coral reef between Manaar and Rameswaram quite
+feasible. A commission sat in 1903 to consider the gauge of an
+Indo-Ceylon railway. Such a line promised to serve strategic as
+well as commercial purposes, and to make Colombo more than ever
+the port for southern India. The headquarters of the mail steamers
+have been removed from Galle to Colombo, where the colonial
+government have constructed a magnificent breakwater, and undertaken
+other harbour works which have greatly augmented both
+the external trade and the coasting trade of the island.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;Ceylon is a crown colony, that is, a possession of the
+British crown acquired by conquest or cession, the affairs of which
+are administered by a governor, who receives his appointment from
+the crown, generally for a term of six years. He is assisted by an
+executive and a legislative council. The executive council acts as
+the cabinet of the governor, and consists of the attorney-general,
+the three principal officers of the colony (namely, the colonial secretary,
+the treasurer and the auditor-general), and the general in
+command of the forces. The legislative council includes, besides
+the governor as president and nine official members, eight unofficial
+members&mdash;one for the Kandyan Sinhalese (or Highlanders) and one
+for the &ldquo;Moormen&rdquo; having been added in 1890. The term of office
+for the unofficial members is limited to five years, though the
+governor may reappoint if he choose. The king&rsquo;s advocate, the
+deputy-advocate, and the surveyor-general are now respectively
+styled attorney-general, solicitor-general, and director of public
+works. The civil service has been reconstituted into five classes,
+not including the colonial secretary as a staff appointment, nor ten
+cadets; these five classes number seventy officers. The district
+judges can punish up to two years&rsquo; imprisonment, and impose
+fines up to Rs.1000. The police magistrates can pass sentences
+up to six months&rsquo; imprisonment, and impose fines of Rs.150. The
+criminal law has since 1890 been codified on the model of the Indian
+penal code; criminal and civil procedure have also been the subject
+of codification. There are twenty-three prisons in the island, mostly
+small; but convict establishments in and near the capital take all
+long-sentence prisoners.</p>
+
+<p><i>Banks and Currency.</i>&mdash;Ceylon has agencies of the National Bank
+of India, Bank of Madras, Mercantile Bank of India, Chartered Bank
+of India, Australia and China, and of the Hong-kong and Shanghai
+Bank, besides mercantile agencies of other banks, also a government
+savings bank at Colombo, and post-office savings banks all
+over the island. In 1884, on the failure of the Oriental Bank, the
+notes in currency were guaranteed by government, and a government
+note currency was started in supersession of bank notes. The coin
+currency of Ceylon is in rupees and decimals of a rupee, the value
+of the standard following that fixed for the Indian rupee, about
+1s. 4d. per rupee.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;With the disease of the coffee plant the general revenue
+fell from Rs.1,70,00,000 in 1877 to Rs.1,20,00,000 in 1882, when
+trade was in a very depressed state, and the general prosperity of
+the island was seriously affected. Since then, however, the revenue
+has steadily risen with the growing export of tea, cocoa-nut produce,
+plumbago, &amp;c., and in 1902 it reached a total of 28 millions of
+rupees.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. F. D.; C. L.)</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The island of Ceylon was known to the Greeks and
+Romans under the name of <i>Taprobane</i>, and in later times Serendib,
+Sirinduil and Zeylan have been employed to designate it by
+writers of the Western and Eastern worlds. Serendib is a
+corruption of the Sanskrit <i>Sinhaladvïpa</i>. Like most oriental
+countries, Ceylon possesses a great mass of ancient records, in
+which fact is so confused with fable that they are difficult to
+distinguish. The labours of George Turnour (1799-1843),
+however, helped to dissipate much of this obscurity, and his
+admirable edition (1836) of the <i>Mahavamsa</i> first made it possible
+to trace the main lines of Sinhalese history.</p>
+
+<p>The Sinhalese inscriptional records, to which George Turnour
+first called attention, and which, through the activity of Sir
+William Gregory in 1874, began to be accurately transcribed
+and translated, extend from the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards.
+Among the oldest inscriptions discovered are those on the rock
+cells of the Vessagiri Vihara of Anuradhapura, cut in the old
+Brahma-lipi character. The inscriptions show how powerful
+was the Buddhist hierarchy which dominated the government
+and national life. The royal decrees of successive rulers are
+mainly concerned with the safeguarding of the rights of the
+hierarchy, but a few contain references to executive acts of the
+kings, as in a slab inscription of Kassapa V. (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 929-939).
+In an edict ascribed to Mahinda IV. (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 975-991) reference
+is made to the Sinhalese palladium, the famous tooth-relic of
+Buddha, now enshrined at Kandy, and the decree confirms
+tradition as to the identity of the fine stone temple, east of the
+Thuparama at Anuradhapura, with the shrine in which the
+tooth was first deposited when brought from Kalinga in the
+reign of Kirti Sri Meghavarna (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 304-324).</p>
+
+<p>The earliest inhabitants of Ceylon were probably the ancestors
+of the modern Veddahs, a small tribe of primitive hunters who
+inhabit the eastern jungles; and the discovery of palaeolithic
+stone implements buried in some of their caves points to the fact
+that they represent a race which has been in the island for untold
+ages. As to subsequent immigrations, the great Hindu epic,
+the <i>Ramayana</i>, tells the story of the conquest of part of the
+island by the hero Rama and his followers, who took the capital
+of its king Rawana. Whatever element of truth there may be
+in this fable, it certainly represents no permanent occupation.
+The authentic history of Ceylon, so far as it can be traced,
+begins with the landing in 543 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> of Vijaya, the founder of the
+Sinhalese dynasty, with a small band of Aryan-speaking followers
+from the mainland of India. Vijaya married the daughter of a
+native chief, with whose aid he proceeded to master the whole
+island, which he parcelled out among his followers, some of whom
+formed petty kingdoms. The Sinhalese introduced from the
+mainland a comparatively high type of civilization, notably
+agriculture. The earliest of the great irrigation tanks, near
+Anuradhapura, was opened about 504 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the successor of
+Vijaya; and about this time was established that system of
+village communities which still obtains over a large part of Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p>The island was converted to Buddhism at the beginning of
+the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the preaching of Mahinda, a son of the
+great Buddhist emperor Asoka; a conversion that was followed
+by an immense multiplication of <i>daghobas</i>, curious bell-shaped
+reliquaries of solid stone, and of Buddhist monasteries. For
+the rest, the history of ancient Ceylon is largely a monotonous
+record of Malabar or Tamil invasions, conquests and usurpations.
+Of these latter the first was in 237 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> when two officers in the
+cavalry and fleet revolted, overthrew the Sinhalese ruler with
+the aid of his own Tamil mercenaries, and reigned jointly, as
+Sena I. and Guptika, until 215. The Sinhalese Asela then ruled
+till 205, when he was overthrown by a Tamil from Tanjore,
+Elala, who held the reins of power for 44 years. In 161 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Elala was defeated and slain by Dutegemunu, still remembered
+as one of the great Sinhalese heroes of Ceylon. The ruins of the
+great monastery, known as the Brazen Palace, at Anuradhapura,
+remain a memorial of King Dutegemunu&rsquo;s splendour and religious
+zeal. He died in 137 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and thenceforth the history of Ceylon
+is mainly that of further Tamil invasions, of the construction
+of irrigation tanks, and of the immense development of the
+Buddhist monastic system. A tragic episode in the royal family
+in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> is, however, worthy of notice as connected
+with one of Ceylon&rsquo;s most interesting remains, the S&#299;giri rock
+and tank (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">S&#299;giri</a></span>). In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 477 King Datu Sen was murdered
+by his son, who mounted the throne as Kasyapa I., and when
+he was driven from the capital by the inhabitants, infuriated
+by his crime, built himself a stronghold on the inaccessible
+S&#299;giri rock, whence he ruled the country until in 495 he was
+overthrown and slain by his brother Mugallana (495-513), who
+at the time of his father&rsquo;s murder had escaped to India.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the 10th century Ceylon was invaded by
+Rajaraja the Great, the Chola king, and after a series of protracted
+campaigns was annexed to his empire in 1005. The
+island, did not, however, remain long under Tamil domination.
+In 1071 Vijaya Bahu succeeded in re-establishing the Sinhalese
+dynasty, and for a while Ceylon was freed from foreign intervention.
+The most notable of the successors of Vijaya Bahu,
+and indeed of all the long line of Sinhalese rulers, was Parakrama
+Bahu I. (1155-1180), whose colossal statue still stands near
+Polonnaruwa. He not only took advantage of the unaccustomed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span>
+tranquillity of the country to restore the irrigation tanks and
+the monasteries, but he availed himself of a disputed succession
+to the Pandya throne of Madura to turn the tables on his Tamil
+enemies by invading India. According to the <i>Mahavamsa</i> his
+generals met with immediate and unbroken success; according
+to the more probable account preserved in a long Chola inscription
+at Arpakkam near Kanchi, they were, though at first
+successful, ultimately driven out by a coalition of the southern
+princes (V.A. Smith, <i>Early History of India</i>, ed. 1908, p. 411).
+In any case, within thirty years of Parakrama Bahu&rsquo;s death
+his work was undone; the Malabar invaders were once more
+able to effect a settlement in the island, and the Sinhalese capital
+was moved farther and farther south, till in 1410 it had become
+established at Kotta, now a suburb of Colombo. In 1408 a new
+misfortune had befallen the Sinhalese dynasty; in revenge for
+an insult offered to a Chinese envoy, a Chinese army invaded
+the island and carried away King Vijaya Bahu IV. into captivity.
+For thirty years from this date the Sinhalese kings of Ceylon
+were tributary to China.</p>
+
+<p>When, in 1505, the Portuguese Francisco de Almeida landed
+in Ceylon, he found the island divided into seven kingdoms.
+Twelve years later the viceroy of Goa ordered the erection of a
+fort at Colombo, for which permission was obtained from the
+king of Kotta; and from this time until the advent of the Dutch
+in the 17th century the Portuguese endeavoured, amid perpetual
+wars with the native kings, who were assisted by Arab and other
+traders jealous of European rivalry, to establish their control
+over the island. They ultimately succeeded so far as the coast
+was concerned, though their dominion scarcely penetrated inland.
+Materially their gain was but small, for the trade of Ceylon was
+quite insignificant; but they had the spiritual satisfaction of
+prosecuting a vigorous propaganda of Catholicism, St Francis
+Xavier being the most notable of the missionaries who at this
+time laboured in the island.</p>
+
+<p>The fanatical zeal and the masterful attitude of the Portuguese
+were a constant source of dissension with the native rulers, and
+when the Dutch, under Admiral Spilberg, landed on the east
+coast in 1602 and sought the alliance of the king of Kandy in
+the interior of the island, every inducement was held out to them
+to aid in expelling the Portuguese. Nothing seems to have come
+of this until 1638-1639, when a Dutch expedition attacked and
+razed the Portuguese forts on the east coast. In the following
+year they landed at Negombo, without however establishing
+themselves in any strong post. In 1644 Negombo was captured
+and fortified by the Dutch, while in 1656 they took Colombo,
+and in 1658 they drove the Portuguese from Jaffna, their last
+stronghold in Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p>Pursuing a wiser policy than their predecessors, the Dutch
+lost no opportunity of improving that portion of the country
+which owned their supremacy, and of opening a trade with the
+interior. More tolerant and less disposed to stand upon their
+dignity than the Portuguese, they subordinated political to commercial
+ends, flattered the native rulers by a show of deference,
+and so far succeeded in their object as to render their trade
+between the island and Holland a source of great profit. Many
+new branches of industry were developed. Public works were
+undertaken on a large scale, and education, if not universally
+placed within the reach of the inhabitants of the maritime
+provinces, was at least well cared for on a broad plan of government
+supervision. That which they had so much improved by
+policy, they were, however, unable to defend by force when the
+British turned their arms against them. A century and a half
+had wrought great changes in the physical and mental status
+of the Dutch colonists. The territory which in 1658 they had
+slowly gained by undaunted and obstinate bravery, they as
+rapidly lost in 1796 by imbecility and cowardice.</p>
+
+<p>The first intercourse of the English with Ceylon was as far
+back as 1763, when an embassy was despatched from Madras
+to the king of Kandy, without, however, leading to any result.
+On the rupture between Great Britain and Holland in 1795, a
+force was sent against the Dutch possessions in Ceylon, where
+the opposition offered was so slight that by the following year
+the whole of their forts were in the hands of the English
+commander.</p>
+
+<p>The abiding results of the occupation of Ceylon by the
+Portuguese and Dutch is described by Sir Emerson Tennent
+(<i>Ceylon</i>) as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The dominion of the Netherlands in Ceylon was nearly equal in
+duration with that of Portugal, about 140 years; but the policies
+of the two countries have left a very different impress on the character
+and institutions of the people amongst whom they lived. The
+most important bequest left by the utilitarian genius of Holland is
+the code of Roman Dutch law, which still prevails in the supreme
+courts of justice, whilst the fanatical propagandism of the Portuguese
+has reared for itself a monument in the abiding and expanding
+influence of the Roman Catholic faith. This flourishes in every
+hamlet and province where it was implanted by the Franciscans,
+whilst the doctrines of the reformed church of Holland, never
+preached beyond the walls of the fortresses, are already almost
+forgotten throughout the island, with the exception of an expiring
+community at Colombo. Already the language of the Dutch, which
+they sought to extend by penal enactments, has ceased to be spoken
+even by their direct descendants, whilst a corrupted Portuguese is
+to the present day the vernacular of the lower classes in every town
+of importance. As the practical and sordid government of the
+Netherlands only recognized the interest of the native population
+in so far as they were essential to uphold their trading monopolies,
+their memory was recalled by no agreeable associations: whilst the
+Portuguese, who, in spite of their cruelties, were identified with the
+people by the bond of a common faith, excited a feeling of admiration
+by the boldness of their conflicts with the Kandyans, and the
+chivalrous though ineffectual defence of their beleaguered fortresses.
+The Dutch and their proceedings have almost ceased to be remembered
+by the lowland Sinhalese; but the chiefs of the south and
+west perpetuate with pride the honorific title Don, accorded to them
+by their first European conquerors, and still prefix to their ancient
+patronymics the sonorous Christian names of the Portuguese.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The British forces by which the island had been conquered
+were those of the East India Company, and Ceylon was therefore
+at first placed under its jurisdiction and administered from
+Madras. The introduction of the Madras revenue system, however,
+together with a host of Malabar collectors, led to much
+discontent, which culminated in rebellion; and in 1798 the
+colony was placed directly under the crown. By the treaty of
+Amiens, in 1803, this situation was regularized, from the international
+point of view, by the formal cession to Great Britain
+of the former Dutch possessions in the island. For a while the
+British dominion was confined to the coast. The central tract
+of hilly country, hedged in by impenetrable forests and precipitous
+mountain ranges, remained in possession of Sri Vikrama
+Raja Sinha, the last of the Sinhalese dynasty, who showed
+no signs of encouraging communication with his European
+neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>Minor differences led in 1803 to an invasion of the Kandyan
+territory; but sickness, desertion and fatigue proved more
+formidable adversaries to the British forces than the troops of
+the Sinhalese monarch, and peace was eventually concluded upon
+terms by no means favourable to the English. The cruelty and
+oppression of the king now became so intolerable to his subjects
+that disaffection spread rapidly amongst them. Punishments
+of the most horrible kinds were inflicted, but failed to repress
+the popular indignation; and in 1815 the British, at the urgent
+request of many of the Adigars and other native chiefs, proceeded
+against the tyrant, who was captured near Kandy, and subsequently
+ended his days in exile. With him ended a long line of
+sovereigns, whose pedigree may be traced through upwards of
+two thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>By a convention entered into with the Kandyan chiefs on the
+2nd of March 1815, the entire sovereignty of the island passed
+into the hands of the British, who in return guaranteed to the
+inhabitants civil and religious liberty. The religion of Buddha
+was declared inviolable, and its rights, ministers and places of
+worship were to be maintained and protected; the laws of the
+country were to be preserved and administered according to
+established forms; and the royal dues and revenues were to be
+levied as before for the support of government.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of a serious outbreak in some parts of the
+interior in 1817, which lasted for upwards of a year, and of two
+minor attempts at rebellion easily put down, in 1843 and 1848,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span>
+the political atmosphere of Ceylon has remained undisturbed
+since the deportation of the last king of Kandy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Major Thomas Skinner, <i>Fifty Years in Ceylon</i>,
+edited by his son, A. Skinner (London, 1891); Constance F. Gordon
+Gumming, <i>Two Happy Years in Ceylon</i> (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892);
+H.W. Cave, <i>The Ruined Cities of Ceylon</i> (London, 1897), and <i>The
+Book of Ceylon</i> (London, 1908); Sir Emerson Tennent, <i>Ceylon</i>
+(2 vols. 4th ed., 1860); J. Ferguson, <i>Ceylon in 1903</i> (Colombo);
+J.C. Willis, <i>Ceylon</i> (Colombo, 1907). See also E. Müller, <i>Ancient
+Inscriptions in Ceylon</i>, published for the government (1883-1884),
+and the important archaeological survey in <i>Epigraphia Zeylonica</i>,
+part i., 1904, ii., 1907, iii., 1907, by Don Martino de Silva Wickremasinghe,
+who in 1899 was appointed epigraphist to the Ceylon
+government. Among other works on special subjects may be
+mentioned H. Trimen, F.R.S., director of Ceylon Botanic Gardens,
+<i>Ceylon Flora</i>, in 5 vols., completed by Sir Joseph Hooker; Captain
+V. Legge, F.Z.S., <i>History of the Birds of Ceylon</i> (London, 1870);
+Dr Copleston, bishop of Colombo, <i>Buddhism, Primitive and Present,
+in Magadha and in Ceylon</i> (London, 1892); review by Sir West
+Ridgeway, <i>Administration of Ceylon, 1896-1903</i>; Professor W.A.
+Herdman, <i>Report on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries, 1903-1904</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHABAZITE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a mineral species belonging to the group of
+zeolites. It occurs as white to flesh-red crystals which vary from
+transparent to translucent and have a vitreous lustre. The
+crystals are rhombohedral, and the predominating form is often
+a rhombohedron (<i>r</i>) with interfacial angles of 85° 14&prime;; they
+therefore closely resemble cubes in appearance, and the mineral
+was in fact early (in 1772) described as a cubic zeolite. A
+characteristic feature is the twinning, the crystals being frequently
+interpenetration twins with the principal axis as twin-axis
+(figs, 1, 2). The appearance shown in fig. 1, with the corners
+of small crystals in twinned position projecting from the faces
+<i>r</i> of the main crystal, is especially characteristic of chabazite.
+Such groups resemble the interpenetrating twinned cubes of
+fluorspar, but the two minerals are readily distinguished by
+their cleavage, fluorspar having a perfect octahedral cleavage
+truncating the corners of the cube, whilst in chabazite there are
+less distinct cleavages parallel to the rhombohedral (cube-like)
+faces. Another type of twinned crystal is represented in fig. 2,
+in which the predominating form is an obtuse hexagonal pyramid
+(<i>t</i>); the faces of these flatter crystals are often rounded, giving
+rise to lenticular shapes, hence the name phacolite (from <span class="grk" title="phakos">&#966;&#945;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>,
+a lentil) for this variety of chabazite.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:507px; height:196px" src="images/img785.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Twinned Crystals of Chabazite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The hardness of chabazite is 4½, and the specific gravity
+2.08-2.16. As first noticed by Sir David Brewster in 1830, the
+crystals often exhibit anomalous optical characters: instead
+of being uniaxial, a basal section may be divided into sharply-defined
+biaxial sectors. Heating of the crystals is attended by
+a loss of water and a change in their optical characters; it is
+probable therefore that the anomalous optical characters are
+dependent on the amount of water present.</p>
+
+<p>Besides phacolite, mentioned above, other varieties of chabazite
+are distinguished. Herschelite and seebachite are essentially
+the same as phacolite. Haydenite is the name given to small
+yellowish crystals, twinned on a rhombohedron plane <i>r</i>, from
+Jones&rsquo;s Falls near Baltimore in Maryland. Acadialite is a
+reddish chabazite from Nova Scotia (the old French name of
+which is Acadie).</p>
+
+<p>Chemically, chabazite is a complex hydrated calcium and
+sodium silicate, with a small proportion of the sodium replaced by
+potassium, and sometimes a small amount of the calcium replaced
+by barium and strontium. The composition is however variable,
+and is best expressed as an isomorphous mixture of the molecules
+(Ca, Na<span class="su">2</span>) Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span> + 4H<span class="su">2</span>O and (Ca, Na<span class="su">2</span>) Al<span class="su">2</span>(Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">8</span>)<span class="su">2</span> + 8H<span class="su">2</span>O,
+which are analogous to the felspars. Most analyses correspond
+with a formula midway between these extremes, namely,
+(Ca, Na<span class="su">2</span>)Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">4</span> + 6H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p>
+
+<p>Chabazite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal
+cavities of basaltic rocks; occasionally it has been found in
+gneisses and schists. Well-formed crystals are known from
+many localities; for example, Kilmalcolm in Renfrewshire, the
+Giant&rsquo;s Causeway in Co. Antrim, and Oberstein in Germany.
+Beautiful, clear glassy crystals of the phacolite (&ldquo;seebachite&rdquo;)
+variety occur with phillipsite and radiating bundles of brown
+calcite in cavities in compact basalt near Richmond, Melbourne,
+Victoria. Small crystals have been observed lining the cavities
+of fossil shells from Iceland, and in the recent deposits of the
+hot springs of Plombières and Bourbonne-les-Bains in France.</p>
+
+<p>Gmelinite and levynite are other species of zeolites which may
+be mentioned here, since they are closely related to chabazite,
+and like it are rhombohedral and frequently twinned. Gmelinite
+forms large flesh-red crystals usually of hexagonal habit, and
+was early known as soda-chabazite, it having the composition
+of chabazite but with sodium predominating over
+calcium (Na<span class="su">2</span>, Ca)Al<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">4</span>6H<span class="su">2</span>O. The formula of levynite is
+CaAl<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">10</span> + 5H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHABLIS, <a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span>a town of north-central France, in the department
+of Yonne, on the left bank of the Serein, 14 m. E. by N. of Auxerre
+by road. Pop. (1906) 2227. Its church of St Martin belongs
+to the end of the 12th century. The town gives its name to a
+well-known white wine produced in the neighbouring vineyards,
+of which the most esteemed are Clos, Bouguerots, Moutonne,
+Grenouille, Montmaires, Lys and Vaux-Désirs. There are
+manufactures of biscuits.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHABOT, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1757-1794), French revolutionist,
+had been a Franciscan friar before the Revolution, and after the
+civil constitution of the clergy continued to act as &ldquo;constitutional&rdquo;
+priest, becoming grand vicar of Henri Grégoire, bishop
+of Blois. Then he was elected to the Legislative Assembly,
+sitting at the extreme left, and forming with C. Bazire and Merlin
+de Thionville the &ldquo;Cordelier trio.&rdquo; Re-elected to the Convention
+he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and opposed the proposal
+to prosecute the authors of the massacre of September, &ldquo;because
+among them there are heroes of Jemmapes.&rdquo; Some of his
+sayings are well known, such as that Christ was the first &ldquo;<i>sans-culotte</i>.&rdquo;
+Compromised in the falsification of a decree suppressing
+the India Company and in a plot to bribe certain members of
+the Convention, especially Fabre d&rsquo;Eglantine and C. Bazire, he
+was arrested, brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal, and
+was condemned and executed at the same time as the Dantonists,
+who protested against being associated with such a &ldquo;<i>fripon</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> known as <span class="sc">Chabot de
+l&rsquo;Allier</span> (1758-1819), French jurist and statesman, was president
+of the tribunal of Montluçon when he was elected as
+a deputy <i>suppléant</i> to the National Convention. A member of
+the council of the Ancients, then of the Tribunate, he was
+president of the latter when the peace of Amiens was signed.
+He had a resolution adopted, tending to give Napoleon Bonaparte
+the consulship for life; and in 1804 supported the proposal
+to establish a hereditary monarchy. Napoleon named him
+inspector-general of the law schools, then judge of the court of
+cassation. He published various legal works, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Tableau de la
+législation ancienne sur les successions et de la législation nouvelle
+établie par le code civil</i> (Paris, 1804), and <i>Questions fransitoires
+sur le code Napoléon</i> (Paris, 1809).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de Brion, Count of
+Charny and Buzançais</span> (c. 1492-1543), admiral of France.
+The Chabot family was one of the oldest and most powerful in
+Poitou. Philippe was a cadet of the Jarnac branch. He was a
+companion of Francis I. as a child, and on that king&rsquo;s accession
+was loaded with honours and estates. After the battle of Pavia
+he was made admiral of France and governor of Burgundy
+(1526), and shared with Anne de Montmorency the direction of
+affairs. He was at the height of his power in 1535, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span>
+commanded the army for the invasion of the states of the duke of
+Savoy; but in the campaigns of 1536 and 1537 he was eclipsed
+by Montmorency, and from that moment his influence began to
+wane. He was accused by his enemies of peculation, and
+condemned on the 10th of February 1541 to a fine of 1,500,000
+livres, to banishment, and to the confiscation of his estates.
+Through the good offices of Madam d&rsquo;Étampes, however, he
+obtained the king&rsquo;s pardon almost immediately (March 1541),
+was reinstated in his posts, and regained his estates and even
+his influence, while Montmorency in his turn was disgraced.
+But his health was affected by these troubles, and he died soon
+afterwards on the 1st of June 1543. His tomb in the Louvre,
+by an unknown sculptor, is a fine example of French Renaissance
+work. It was his nephew, Guy Chabot, seigneur de Jarnac,
+who fought the famous duel with François de Vivonne, seigneur
+de la Châtaigneraie, in 1547, at the beginning of the reign of
+Henry II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The main authorities for Chabot&rsquo;s life are his MS. correspondence
+in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and contemporary memoirs.
+See also E de Barthélemy, &ldquo;Chabot de Brion,&rdquo; in the <i>Revue des
+questions historiques</i> (vol. xx. 1876); Martineau, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Amiral Chabot,&rdquo;
+in the <i>Positions des thèses de l&rsquo;École des Chartes</i> (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHABRIAS<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a celebrated Athenian general.
+In 388 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he defeated the Spartans at Aegina and commanded
+the fleet sent to assist Evagoras, king of Cyprus, against the
+Persians. In 378, when Athens entered into an alliance with,
+Thebes against Sparta, he defeated Agesilaus near Thebes. On
+this occasion he invented a manoeuvre, which consisted in
+receiving a charge on the left knee, with shields resting on the
+ground and spears pointed against the enemy. In 376 he
+gained a decisive victory over the Spartan fleet off Naxos, but,
+when he might have destroyed the Spartan fleet, remembering
+the fate of the generals at Arginusae, he delayed to pick up the
+bodies of his dead. Later, when the Athenians changed sides
+and joined the Spartans, he repulsed Epaminondas before the
+walls of Corinth. In 366, together with Callistratus, he was
+accused of treachery in advising the surrender of Oropus to the
+Thebans. He was acquitted, and soon after he accepted a
+command under Tachos, king of Egypt, who had revolted
+against Persia. But on the outbreak of the Social War (357)
+he joined Chares in the command of the Athenian fleet. He lost
+his life in an attack on the island of Chios.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Cornelius Nepos, <i>Chabrias</i>; Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, v. 1-4;
+Diod. Sic. xv. 29-34; and C. Rehdantz, <i>Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae,
+et Timothei</i> (1845); art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>, section B, and authorities
+there quoted.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1841-1894), French
+composer, was born at Ambert, Puy de Dôme, on the 18th of
+January 1841. At first he only cultivated music as an amateur,
+and it was not until 1879 that he threw up an administration
+appointment in order to devote himself entirely to the art. He
+had two years previously written an <i>opéra bouffe</i> entitled <i>L&rsquo;Étoile</i>,
+which was performed at the Bouffes Parisiens. In 1881 he was
+appointed chorus-master of the concerts then recently established
+by Lamoureux. In 1883 he composed the brilliant orchestral
+rhapsody entitled <i>España</i>, the themes of which he had jotted
+down when travelling in Spain. His opera <i>Gwendoline</i> was
+brought out with considerable success at Brussels on the 10th
+of April 1886, and was given later at the Paris Grand Opéra.
+The following year 1887, <i>Le Roi malgré lui</i>, an opera of a lighter
+description, was produced in Paris at the Opéra Comique, its
+run being interrupted by the terrible fire by which this theatre
+was destroyed. His last opera, <i>Briseis</i>, was left unfinished,
+and performed in a fragmentary condition at the Paris Opéra,
+after the composer&rsquo;s death in Paris on the 13th of September
+1894. Chabrier was also the author of a set of piano pieces
+entitled <i>Pièces pittoresques, Valses romantiques</i>, for two pianos,
+a fantasia for horn and piano, &amp;c. His great admiration for
+Wagner asserted itself in <i>Gwendoline</i>, a work which, in spite of
+inequalities due to want of experience, is animated by a high
+artistic ideal, is poetically conceived, and shows considerable
+harmonic originality, besides a thorough mastery over the
+treatment of the orchestra. The characteristics of <i>Le Roi</i>
+<i>malgré lui</i> have been well summed up by M. Joncières when he
+alludes to &ldquo;cette verve inépuisable, ces rythmes endiablés, cette
+exubérance de gaieté et de vigueur, à laquelle venait se joindre
+la note mélancolique et émue.&rdquo; Chabrier&rsquo;s premature death
+prevented him from giving the full measure of his worth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHACMA,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the Hottentot name of the Cape baboon, <i>Papio
+porcarius</i>, a species inhabiting the mountains of South Africa
+as far north as the Zambezi. Of the approximate size of an
+English mastiff, this powerful baboon is blackish grey in colour
+with a tinge of green due to the yellow rings on most of the hairs.
+Unlike most of its tribe, it is a good climber; and where wooded
+cliffs are not available, will take up its quarters in tall trees.
+Chacmas frequently strip orchards and fruit-gardens, break
+and devour ostrich eggs, and kill lambs and kids for the sake of
+the milk in their stomachs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHACO,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a territory of northern Argentina, part of a large
+district known as the Gran Chaco, bounded N. by the territory
+of Formosa, E. by Paraguay and Corrientes, S. by Santa Fé,
+and W. by Santiago del Estero and Salta. The Bermejo river
+forms its northern boundary, and the Paraguay and Paraná
+rivers its eastern; these rivers are its only means of communication.
+Pop. (1895) 10,422; (1904, est.) 13,937; area, 52,741 sq.
+m. The northern part consists of a vast plain filled with numberless
+lagoons; the southern part is slightly higher and is covered
+with dense forests, occasionally broken by open grassy spaces.
+Its forests contain many species of trees of great economic
+value; among them is the <i>quebracho</i>, which is exported for the
+tannin which it contains. The capital, Resistencia, with an
+estimated population of 3500 in 1904, is situated on the Paraná
+river opposite the city of Corrientes. There is railway communication
+between Santa Fé and La Sabana, an insignificant timber-cutting
+village on the southern frontier. In the territory there
+are still several tribes of uncivilized Indians, who occasionally
+raid the neighbouring settlements of Santa Fé.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHACONNE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (Span. <i>chacona</i>), a slow dance, introduced into
+Spain by the Moors, now obsolete. It resembles the Passacaglia.
+The word is used also of the music composed for this
+dance&mdash;a slow stately movement in ¾ time. Such a movement
+was often introduced into a sonata, and formed the conventional
+finale to an opera or ballet until the time of Gluck.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAD<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Ceadda</span>], <span class="bold">SAINT</span> (d. 672), brother of Cedd, whom he
+succeeded as abbot at Lastingham, was consecrated bishop of
+the Northumbrians by Wine, the West Saxon bishop, at the
+request of Oswio in 664. On the return of Wilfrid from France,
+where he had been sent to be consecrated to the same see, a
+dispute of course arose, which was settled by Theodore in favour
+of Wilfrid after three years had passed. Chad thereupon retired
+to Lastingham, whence with the permission of Oswio he was
+summoned by Wulfhere of Mercia to succeed his bishop Jaruman,
+who died 667. Chad built a monastery at Barrow in Lincolnshire
+and fixed his see at Lichfield. He died after he had held
+his bishopric in Mercia two and a half years, and was succeeded
+by Wynfrith. Bede gives a beautiful character of Chad.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bede&rsquo;s <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> edited by C. Plummer, iii. 23, 24, 28; iv.
+2, 3 (Oxford, 1896); Eddius, <i>Vita Wilfridi</i>, xiv., xv. edited by
+J. Raine, Rolls Series (London, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAD,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a lake of northern Central Africa lying between
+12° 50&prime; and 14° 10&prime; N. and 13° and 15° E. The lake is situated
+about 850 ft. above the sea in the borderland between the fertile
+and wooded regions of the Sudan on the south and the arid
+steppes which merge into the Sahara on the north. The area of
+the lake is shrinking owing to the progressive desiccation of the
+country, Saharan climate and conditions replacing those of the
+Sudan. The drying-up process has been comparatively rapid
+since the middle of the 19th century, a town which in 1850 was
+on the southern margin of the lake being in 1905 over 20 m. from
+it. On the west the shore is perfectly flat, so that a slight rise
+in the water causes the inundation of a considerable area&mdash;a
+fact not without its influence on the estimates made at varying
+periods as to the size of the lake. Around the north-west and
+north shores is a continuous chain of gently sloping sand-hills
+covered with bush. This region abounds in big game and birds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span>
+are plentiful. In the east, the country of Kanem, the desiccation
+has been most marked. Along this coast is a continuous chain
+of islands running from north-west to south-east. But what
+were islands when viewed by Overweg in 1851, formed in 1903
+part of the mainland and new islands had arisen in the lake.
+They are generally low, being composed of sand and clay, and lie
+from 5 to 20 m. from the shore, which throughout its eastern side
+nowhere faces open water. The channels between the islands
+do not exceed 2 m. in width. Two principal groups are distinguished,
+the Kuri archipelago in the south, and the Buduma
+in the north. The inhabitants of the last-named islands were
+noted pirates until reduced to order by the French. The coast-line
+is, in general, undefined and marshy, and broken into numerous
+bays and peninsulas. It is also, especially on the east,
+lined by lagoons which communicate with the lake by intricate
+channels. The lake is nowhere of great depth, and about midway
+numerous mud-banks, marshes, islands and dense growths of
+aqueous plants stretch across its surface. Another stretch
+of marsh usually cuts off the northernmost part of the lake from
+the central sections. The open water varies in depth from 3 ft.
+in the north-west to over 20 in the south, where desiccation
+is less apparent. Fed by the Shari (<i>q.v.</i>) and other rivers, the
+lake has no outlet and its area varies according to the season.
+The flood water brought down by the Shari in December and
+January causes the lake to rise to a maximum of 24 ft., the
+water spreading over low-lying ground, left dry again in May or
+June. But after several seasons of heavy rainfall the waters
+have remained for years beyond their low-water level. Nevertheless
+the secular shrinking goes on, the loss by evaporation and
+percolation exceeding the amount of water received; whilst,
+on the average, the rainfall is diminishing. In 1870 the lake
+rose to an exceptional height, but since then, save in 1897, there
+has been only the normal seasonal rise. The prevalent north-east
+wind causes at times a heavy swell on the lake. Fish
+abound in its waters, which are sweet, save at low-level, when
+they become brackish. The lagoons are believed to act as
+purifying pans in which the greater part of the salt in the water
+is precipitated. In the south-west end of the lake the water is
+yellow, caused by banks of clay; elsewhere it is clear.</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:513px; height:533px" src="images/img787.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>The southern basin of Chad is described under the Shari,
+which empties its waters into the lake about the middle of the
+southern shore, forming a delta of considerable extent. Beyond
+the south-east corner of the lake is a depression known as the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal (not to be confounded with the Nile affluent of
+the same name). This depression is the termination of what is
+in all probability the bed of one of the dried-up Saharan rivers.
+Coming from the Tibesti highlands the Bahr-el-Ghazal has a
+south-westerly trend to Lake Chad. Near the lake the valley
+was formerly swampy, and at high-water the lake overflowed into
+it. There was also at one time communication between the
+Shari and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, so that the water of the first-named
+stream reached Chad by way of the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
+There is now neither inlet nor outlet to the lake in this direction,
+the mouth of the Ghazal having become a fertile millet field.
+There is still, however, a distinct current from the Shari delta
+to the east end of the lake&mdash;known to the natives, like the depression
+beyond, as the Bahr-el-Ghazal&mdash;indicative of the former
+overflow outlet.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Shari, the only important stream entering Lake
+Chad is the Waube or Yo (otherwise the Komadugu Yobe),
+which rises near Kano, and flowing eastward enters the lake on its
+western side 40 m. north of Kuka. In the rains the Waube
+carries down a considerable body of water to the lake.</p>
+
+<p>Lake Chad is supposed to have been known by report to
+Ptolemy, and is identified by some writers with the Kura lake
+of the middle ages. It was first seen by white men in 1823
+when it was reached by way of Tripoli by the British expedition
+under Dr Walter Oudney, R.N., the other members being Captain
+Hugh Clapperton and Major (afterwards Lieut.-Colonel) Dixon
+Denham. By them the lake was named Waterloo. In 1850
+James Richardson, accompanied by Heinrich Barth and Adolf
+Overweg, reached the lake, also via Tripoli, and Overweg was
+the first European to navigate its waters (1851). The lake was
+visited by Eduard Vogel (1855) and by Gustav Nachtigal (1870),
+the last-named investigating its hydrography in some detail.
+In 1890-1893 its shores were divided by treaty between Great
+Britain, France and Germany. The first of these nations to
+make good its footing in the region was France. A small steamer,
+brought from the Congo by Emile Gentil, was in 1897 launched
+on the Shari, and reaching the Chad, navigated the southern
+part of the lake. Communication between Algeria and Lake Chad
+by way of the Sahara was opened, after repeated failures, by the
+French explorer F. Foureau in 1899-1900. At the same time
+a French officer, Lieut. Joalland, reached the lake from the
+middle Niger, continuing his journey round the north end to
+Kanem. A British force under Colonel T.L.N. Morland visited
+the lake at the beginning of 1902, and in May of the same year
+the Germans first reached it from Cameroon. In 1902-1903
+French officers under Colonel Destenave made detailed surveys
+of the south-eastern and eastern shores and the adjacent islands.
+In 1903 Captain E. Lenfant, also a French officer, succeeded in
+reaching the lake (which he circumnavigated) via the Benue,
+proving the existence of water communication between the Shari
+and the Niger. In 1905 Lieut. Boyd Alexander, a British
+officer, further explored the lake, which then contained few
+stretches of open water. The lake is bordered W. and S.W. by
+Bornu, which is partly in the British protectorate of Nigeria
+and partly in the German protectorate of Cameroon. Bagirmi
+to the S.E. of the lake and Kanem to the N.E. are both French
+possessions. The north and north-west shores also belong to
+France. One of the ancient trade routes across the Sahara&mdash;that
+from Tripoli to Kuka in Bornu&mdash;strikes the lake at its north-west
+corner, but this has lost much of its former importance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the works of Denham, Clapperton, Barth and Nachtigal cited
+in the biographical notices; <i>Geog. Journal</i>, vol. xxiv. (1904); Capt.
+Tilho in <i>La Géographie</i> (March 1906); Boyd Alexander, <i>From the
+Niger to the Nile</i>, vol. i. (London, 1907); A. Chevalier, <i>Mission
+Chari-Lac Tchad 1902-1904</i> (Paris 1908); E. Lenfant, <i>La Grande
+Route du Tchad</i> (Paris, 1905); H. Freydenberg, <i>Étude sur le Tchad
+et le bassin du Chari</i> (Paris, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHADDERTON,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> an urban district of Lancashire, England,
+within the parliamentary borough of Oldham (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop.
+(1901) 24,892. Cotton and chemical works, and the coal-mines
+of the neighbourhood, employ the large industrial population.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHADERTON, LAURENCE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (?1536-1640), Puritan divine, was
+born at Lees Hall, in the parish of Oldham, Lancashire, probably
+in September 1536, being the second son of Edmund Chaderton,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span>
+a gentleman of an ancient and wealthy family, and a zealous
+Catholic. Under the tuition of Laurence Vaux, a priest, he
+became an able scholar. In 1564 he entered Christ&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge, where, after a short time, he formally adopted the
+reformed doctrines and was in consequence disinherited by his
+father. In 1567 he was elected a fellow of his college, and
+subsequently was chosen lecturer of St Clement&rsquo;s church,
+Cambridge, where he preached to admiring audiences for many
+years. He was a man of moderate views, though numbering
+among his friends extremists like Cartwright and Perkins. So
+great was his reputation that when Sir Walter Mildmay founded
+Emmanuel College in 1584 he chose Chaderton for the first
+master, and on his expressing some reluctance, declared that if
+he would not accept the office the foundation should not go on.
+In 1604 Chaderton was appointed one of the four divines for
+managing the cause of the Puritans at the Hampton Court
+conference; and he was also one of the translators of the Bible.
+In 1578 he had taken the degree of B.D., and in 1613 he was
+created D.D. At this period he made provision for twelve
+fellows and above forty scholars in Emmanuel College. Fearing
+that he might have a successor who held Arminian doctrines,
+he resigned the mastership in favour of John Preston, but
+survived him, and lived also to see the college presided over
+successively by William Sancroft (or Sandcroft) and Richard
+Holdsworth. He died on the 13th of November 1640 at the age
+of about 103, preserving his bodily and mental faculties to the end.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chaderton published a sermon preached at St Paul&rsquo;s Cross about
+1580, and a treatise of his <i>On Justification</i> was printed by
+Anthony Thysius, professor of divinity at Leiden. Some other works by
+him on theological subjects remain in manuscript.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1800-1890), English sanitary
+reformer, was born at Longsight, near Manchester, on the 24th
+of January 1800. Called to the bar without any independent
+means, he sought to support himself by literary work, and his
+essays in the <i>Westminster Review</i> (mainly on different methods
+of applying scientific knowledge to the business of government)
+introduced him to the notice of Jeremy Bentham, who engaged
+him as a literary assistant and left him a handsome legacy. In
+1832 he was employed by the royal commission appointed to
+inquire into the operation of the poor laws, and in 1833 he was
+made a full member of that body. In conjunction with Nassau
+W. Senior he drafted the celebrated report of 1834 which procured
+the reform of the old poor law. His special contribution was the
+institution of the union as the area of administration. He
+favoured, however, a much more centralized system of
+administration than was adopted, and he never ceased to complain
+that the reform of 1834 was fatally marred by the rejection of
+his views, which contemplated the management of poor-law
+relief by salaried officers controlled from a central board,
+the boards of guardians acting merely as inspectors. In 1834
+he was appointed secretary to the poor law commissioners.
+Finding himself unable to administer in accordance with his
+own views an act of which he was largely the author, his relations
+with his official chiefs became much strained, and the disagreement
+led, among other causes, to the dissolution of the poor law
+commission in 1846. Chadwick&rsquo;s chief contribution to political
+controversy was his constant advocacy of entrusting certain
+departments of local affairs to trained and selected experts,
+instead of to representatives elected on the principle of local
+self-government. While still officially connected with the poor
+law he had taken up the question of sanitation in conjunction
+with Dr Southwood Smith, and their joint labours produced a
+most salutary improvement in the public health. His report
+on &ldquo;The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population&rdquo;
+(1842) is a valuable historical document. He was a commissioner
+of the Board of Health from its establishment in 1848 to its
+abolition in 1854, when he retired upon a pension, and occupied
+the remainder of his life in voluntary contributions to sanitary
+and economical questions. He died at East Sheen, Surrey, on
+the 6th of July 1890. He had been made K.C.B. in 1889.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See a volume on <i>The Evils of Disunity in Central and Local
+Administration ... and the New Centralization for the People</i>, by
+Edwin Chadwick (1885); also <i>The Health of Nations, a Review of the
+Works of Edwin Chadwick, with a Biographical Introduction</i>, by
+Sir B.W. Richardson (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAEREMON,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> Athenian dramatist of the first half of the
+4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is generally considered a tragic poet.
+Aristotle (<i>Rhetoric</i>, iii. 12) says his works were intended for
+reading, not for representation. According to Suidas, he was
+also a comic poet, and the title of at least one of his plays (<i>Achilles
+Slayer of Thersites</i>) seems to indicate that it was a satyric drama.
+His <i>Centaurus</i> is described by Aristotle (<i>Poet.</i> i. 12) as a rhapsody
+in all kinds of metres. The fragments of Chaeremon are distinguished
+by correctness of form and facility of rhythm, but
+marred by a florid and affected style reminiscent of Agathon.
+He especially excelled in descriptions (irrelevantly introduced)
+dealing with such subjects as flowers and female beauty. It is
+not agreed whether he is the author of three epigrams in the
+Greek Anthology (Palatine vii. 469, 720, 721) which bear
+his name.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Bartsch, <i>De Chaeremone Poëta tragico</i> (1843); fragments
+in A. Nauck, <i>Fragmenta Tragicorum Graecorum</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAEREMON,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> of Alexandria (1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), Stoic philosopher
+and grammarian. He was superintendent of the portion
+of the Alexandrian library that was kept in the temple of
+Serapis, and as custodian and expounder of the sacred books
+(<span class="grk" title="ierogrammateus">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#941;&#973;&#962;</span> sacred scribe) belonged to the higher ranks of
+the priesthood. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 49 he was summoned to Rome, with
+Alexander of Aegae, to become tutor to the youthful Nero.
+He was the author of a <i>History of Egypt</i>; of works on <i>Comets,
+Egyptian Astrology</i>, and <i>Hieroglyphics</i>; and of a grammatical
+treatise on <i>Expletive Conjunctions</i> (<span class="grk" title="syndesmoi paraplêrôpaeromatikoi">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#948;&#949;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#8054; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#960;&#955;&#951;&#961;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>).
+Chaeremon was the chief of the party which explained the
+Egyptian religious system as a mere allegory of the worship of
+nature. His books were not intended to represent the ideas of his
+Egyptian contemporaries; their chief object was to give a
+description of the sanctity and symbolical secrets of ancient
+Egypt. He can hardly be identical with the Chaeremon who
+accompanied (c. 26 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; Strabo xvii. p. 806) Aelius Gallus,
+praefect of Egypt, on a journey into the interior of the country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in C. Müller, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, iii.
+495-499.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAERONEIA,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chaeronea</span>, an ancient town of Boeotia,
+said by some to be the Homeric Arne, situated about 7 m. W.
+of Orchomenus. Until the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was a dependency
+of Orchomenus, and at all times it played but a subordinate
+part in Boeotian politics. Its importance lay in its strategic
+position near the head of the defile which presents the last serious
+obstacle to an invader in central Greece. Two great battles
+were fought on this site in antiquity. In 338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Philip II.
+and Alexander of Macedon were confronted by a confederate
+host from central Greece and Peloponnese under the leadership
+of Thebes and Athens, which here made the last stand on behalf
+of Greek liberty. A hard-fought conflict, in which the Greek
+infantry displayed admirable firmness, was decided in favour
+of Philip through the superior organization of his army. In 86
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla defeated the army of
+Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, near Chaeroneia. The latter&rsquo;s
+enormous numerical superiority was neutralized by Sulla&rsquo;s
+judicious choice of ground and the steadiness of his legionaries;
+the Asiatics after the failure of their attack were worn down and
+almost annihilated. Chaeroneia is also notable as the birthplace
+of Plutarch, who returned to his native town in old age,
+and was held in honour by its citizens for many successive
+generations. Pausanias (ix. 40) mentions the divine honours
+accorded at Chaeroneia to the sceptre of Agamemnon, the work
+of Hephaestus (cf. <i>Iliad</i>, ii. 101). The site of the town is partly
+occupied by the village of Kapraena; the ancient citadel was
+known as the Petrachus, and there is a theatre cut in the rock.
+A colossal seated lion a little to the S.E. of the site marks the
+grave of the Boeotians who fell fighting against Philip; this
+lion was found broken to pieces; the tradition that it was blown
+up by Odysseus Androutsos is incorrect (see Murray, <i>Handbook
+for Greece</i>, ed. 5, 1884, p. 409). It has now been restored and
+re-erected (1905).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Thucydides iv. 76; Diodorus xvi. 85-86; Plutarch,
+<i>Alexander</i>, ch. 9; <i>Sulla</i>, chs. 16-19; Appian, <i>Mithradatica</i>,
+chs. 42-45; W.M. Leake, <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i> (London, 1835),
+ii. 112-117, 192-201; B.V. Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i> (Oxford, 1887),
+p. 292; J. Kromayer, <i>Antike Schlachtfelder in Griechenland</i> (Berlin,
+1903), pp. 127-195; G. Sotiriades in <i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> 1903, pp. 301 ff.;
+1905, p. 120; 1906, p. 396; <span class="grk" title="Ephêm. Archaiol.">&#904;&#966;&#951;&#956;. &#902;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#955;.</span>, 1908, p. 65.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:180px; height:711px" src="images/img789.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><i>Spadella cephaloptera</i>
+(Busch).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>St</i>, Septa dividing
+    body-cavity transversely.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>², Cerebral ganglia.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>¹, Commissure uniting
+    this with ventral
+    ganglion (not
+    shown in fig.).</p>
+<p><i>n</i>², Nerve uniting cerebral
+    ganglia with
+    small ganglia on
+    head.</p>
+<p><i>nr</i>, Olfactory nerve.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Alimentary canal.</p>
+<p><i>r</i>, Olfactory organ.</p>
+<p><i>te</i>, Tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>, Tactile hairs springing
+    from surface
+    of body.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Ovary.</p>
+<p><i>el</i>, Oviduct.</p>
+<p><i>ho</i>, Testes.</p>
+<p><i>sg</i>, Vas deferens.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>², <i>f</i>³, Lateral and caudal
+    fins.</p>
+<p><i>sb</i>, Seminal pouch.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1">The eyes are indicated
+as black dots
+behind the cerebral
+ganglia.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHAETOGNATHA,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the name given by R. Leuckhart to a small
+group of transparent and for the most part pelagic organisms,
+whose position in the animal kingdom is
+a very isolated one. Only three genera,
+<i>Sagitta</i>, <i>Spadella</i> and <i>Krohnia</i>, are recognised,
+and the number of species is small.
+Nevertheless these animals exist in extraordinary
+quantities, so that at certain
+seasons and under certain conditions the
+surface of the sea seems almost stiff with
+the incredible multitude of organisms
+which pervade it. Rough seas, &amp;c., cause
+them to seek safety in dropping into
+deeper water. Deep-sea forms also occur,
+but in spite of this the group is essentially
+pelagic.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>As a rule the body is some 1 to 2 or 3 cm.
+in length, though some species are larger, by
+4 or 5 mm. in breadth, and it is shaped
+something like a torpedo with side flanges
+and a slightly swollen, rounded head. It
+can be divided into three regions&mdash;(i.) head,
+(ii.) trunk, and (iii.) tail, separated from one
+another by two transverse septa. The
+almost spherical head is covered by a hood
+which can be retracted; it bears upon its
+side a number of sickle-shaped, chitinous
+hooks and one or more short rows of low
+spines&mdash;both of these features are used in
+characterizing the various species. A pair
+of eyes lie dorsally and behind them is a
+closed circlet, often pulled out into various
+shapes, of modified epidermis, to which an
+olfactory function has been attributed. The
+interior of the head is filled up with masses
+of muscle fibres which are mainly occupied
+with moving the sickle-shaped hooks. The
+trunk contains a spacious body-cavity filled
+during the breeding season by the swollen
+ovaries, and the same is true of the tail if
+we substitute testes for ovaries.</p>
+
+<p>The skin consists of a transparent cuticle
+excreted by the underlying ectoderm, the
+cells of which though usually one-layered
+may be heaped up into several layers in
+the head; beneath this is a basement
+membrane, and then a layer of longitudinal
+muscle fibres which are limited inside by a
+layer of peritoneal cells. The muscles are
+striated and arranged in four quadrants,
+two dorso-lateral and two ventro-lateral,
+an arrangement which recalls that of the
+Nematoda, whilst in their histology they
+somewhat resemble the muscles of the
+Oligochaeta. Along each side of the body
+stretches a horizontal fin and a similar
+flange surrounds the tail. Into these fins,
+which are largely cuticular and strengthened
+by radiating bars, a single layer of ectoderm
+cells projects.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth, a longitudinal slit, opens on
+to the ventral surface of the head. It leads
+into a straight alimentary canal whose walls
+consist of a layer of ciliated cells ensheathed
+in a thin layer of peritoneal cells. There is
+no armature, and no glands, and the whole
+tract can only be divided into an oesophagus
+and an intestine. The latter runs with no
+twists or coils straight to the anus, which is
+situated at the junction of the trunk with
+the tail. A median mesentery running dorso-ventrally
+supports the alimentary canal and
+is continued behind it into the tail, thus
+dividing the body cavity into two lateral
+halves.</p>
+
+<p>There are no specialized circulatory,
+respiratory or excretory organs.</p>
+
+<p>The nervous system consists of a cerebral ganglion in the head,
+a conspicuous ventral ganglion in the trunk, and of lateral commissures
+uniting these ganglia on each side. The whole of this
+system has retained its primitive connexion with the ectoderm.
+The cerebral ganglion also gives off a nerve on each side to a pair of
+small-ganglia, united by a median commissure, which have sunk
+into and control the muscles of the head. As in other animals there
+is a minute but extensive nervous plexus, which permeates the whole
+body and takes its origin from the chief ganglia. In addition to the
+eyes and the olfactory circle on the head scattered tactile papillae
+are found on the ectoderm.</p>
+
+<p>Chaetognatha are hermaphrodite. The ovaries are attached to
+the side walls of the trunk region; between them and the body wall
+lie the two oviducts whose inner and anterior end is described as
+closed, their outer ends opening one on each side of the anus, where
+the trunk joins the tail. According to Miss N.M. Stevens the so-called
+oviduct acts only as a &ldquo;sperm-duct&rdquo; or receptaculum seminis.
+The spermatozoa enter it and pass through its walls and traverse a
+minute duct formed of two accessory cells, and finally enter the
+ripe ovum. Temporary oviducts are formed between the &ldquo;sperm-duct&rdquo;
+and the germinal epithelium at each oviposition. A number
+of ova ripen simultaneously. The two testes lie in the tail and are
+formed by lateral proliferations of the living peritoneal cells. These
+break off and, lying in the coelomic fluid, break up into spermatozoa.
+They pass out through short vasa deferentia with internal ciliated
+funnels, sometimes an enlargement on their course&mdash;the seminal
+vesicles&mdash;and a minute external pore situated on the side of the tail.</p>
+
+<p>With hardly an exception the transparent eggs are laid into the
+sea and float on its surface. The development is direct and there is
+no larval stage. The segmentation is complete; one side of the
+hollow blastosphere invaginates and forms a gastrula. The blastopore
+closes, a new mouth and a new anus subsequently arising.
+The archenteron gives off two lateral pounchs and thus becomes
+trilobed. The middle lobe forms the alimentary canal; it closes
+behind and opens to the exterior anteriorly and so makes the mouth.
+The two lateral lobes contain the coelom; each separates off in front
+a segment which forms the head and presumably then divides again
+to form anteriorly the trunk, and posteriorly the tail regions. An
+interesting feature of the development of Chaetognaths is that,
+as in some insects, the cells destined to form the reproductive organs
+are differentiated at a very early period, being apparent even in the
+gastrula stage.</p>
+
+<p>The great bulk of the group is pelagic, as the transparent nature
+of all their tissues indicates. They move by flexing their bodies.
+<i>Spadella cephaloptera</i> is, however, littoral and oviposits on seaweed,
+and the &ldquo;Valdivia&rdquo; brought home a deep-sea species.</p>
+
+<p>The three genera are differentiated as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Sagitta</i> M. Slabber, with two pairs of lateral fins. This genus was
+named as long ago as 1775.</p>
+
+<p><i>Krohnia</i> P. Langerhans, with one lateral fin on each side, extending
+on to the tail.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spadella</i> P. Langerhans, with a pair of lateral fins on the tail and
+a thickened ectodermic ridge running back on each side from the
+head to the anterior end of the fin.</p>
+
+<p>The group is an isolated one and should probably be regarded as a
+separate phylum. It has certain histological resemblances with
+the Nematoda and certain primitive Annelids, but little stress must
+be laid on these. The most that can be said is that the Chaetognaths
+begin life with three segments, a feature they share with such widely-differing
+groups as the Brachiopoda, the Echinoderma and the
+Enteropneusta, and probably Vertebrata generally.</p>
+
+<p>See O. Hertwig, <i>Die Chaetognathen, eine Monographie</i> (Jena,
+1880); B.J. Grassi, <i>Chetognathi: Flora u. Fauna d. Golfes von
+Neapel</i> (1883); S. Strodtman, <i>Arch. Naturg.</i> lviii., 1892; N.M.
+Stevens, <i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> xviii., 1903, and xxi., 1905.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAETOPODA<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="chaitê">&#967;&#945;&#943;&#964;&#951;</span>, hair, <span class="grk" title="pous">&#960;&#959;&#973;&#962;</span>, foot), a zoological class,
+including the majority of the Annelida (<i>q.v.</i>), and indeed, save
+for the Echiuroidea (<i>q.v.</i>), co-extensive with that group as
+usually accepted. They are divisible into the Haplodrili (<i>q.v.</i>)
+or Archiannelida, the Polychaeta containing the marine worms,
+the Oligochaeta or terrestrial and fresh-water annelids (see
+EARTHWORM), the Hirudinea or leeches (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leech</a></span>), and a small
+group of parasitic worms, the Myzostomida (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The distinctive characters of the class Chaetopoda as a whole
+are partly embodied in the name. They possess (save for certain
+Archiannelida, most Hirudinea, and other very rare exceptions)
+setae or chaetae implanted in epidermal pits. The setae are
+implanted metamerically in accordance with the metamerism
+of the body, which consists of a prostomium followed by a number
+of segments. The number of segments in an individual is frequently
+more or less definite. The anterior end of body always
+shows some &ldquo;cephalization.&rdquo; The internal organs are largely
+repeated metamerically, in correspondence with the external
+metamerism. Thus the body cavity is divided into a sequence
+of chambers by transverse septa; and even among the Hirudinea,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span>
+where this condition is usually not to be observed, there is
+embryological evidence that the existing state of affairs is derived
+from this. Commonly the nephridia are strictly paired a single
+pair to each segment, while the branches of the blood vascular
+system are similarly metameric. The alimentary canal is nearly
+always a straight tube running from the mouth, which is surrounded
+by the first segment of the body and overhung by the
+prostomium, to the anus, which is then either surrounded by the last
+segment of the body or opens dorsally a little way in front of this.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The Class as a Whole</span>.&mdash;The Chaetopoda are with but few
+exceptions (Myzostomida in part, <i>Sternaspis</i>) elongated worms,
+flattened or, more usually, cylindrical, and bilaterally symmetrical.
+The body consists of a number of exactly similar
+or closely similar segments, which are never fused and metamorphosed,
+as in the Arthropoda, to form specialized regions
+of the body. It is, however, always possible to recognize a
+head, which consists at least of the peristomial segment with a
+forward projection of the same, the prostomium. A thorax also
+is sometimes to be distinguished from an abdomen. Where
+locomotive appendages (the parapodia of the Polychaeta) exist,
+they are never jointed, as always in the Arthropoda; nor are
+they modified anteriorly to form jaws, as in that group.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:487px; height:288px" src="images/img790.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;A, side view of the head region of <i>Nereis cultrifera</i>;
+B, dorsal view of the same.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>E</i>,    Eye.</p>
+<p><i>M</i>,     Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>d.c</i>,   Dorcal cirrus.</p>
+<p><i>per</i>,   Peristomium, probably equal
+  to two segments,</p>
+<p><i>per.c</i>, Peristomial cirri.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>pl</i>,   Prostomial palp.</p>
+<p><i>pp</i>,   Parapodium.</p>
+<p><i>pr</i>,   Prostomium.</p>
+<p><i>pr.t</i>, Prostomial tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>t.s</i>, Trunk segment.</p>
+<p><i>v.c</i>, Ventral cirrus.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The prostomium overhangs the mouth, and is often of considerable
+size and, as a rule, quite distinct from the segment following, being
+separated by an external groove, and containing, at least temporarily,
+the brain, which always arises there. Its cavity also is at first
+independent of the coelom though later invaded by the latter. In
+any case the cavity of the prostomium is single, and not formed,
+as is the cavity of the segments of the body, by paired coelomic
+chambers. It has, however, been alleged that this cavity is formed
+by a pair of mesoblastic somites (N. Kleinenberg), in which case there
+is more reason for favouring the view that would assign an equality
+between the prostomium and the (in that case) other segments of the
+body. The peculiar prostomium of <i>Tomopteris</i> is described below.
+The body wall of the Chaetopoda consists of a &ldquo;dermo-muscular&rdquo;
+tube which is separated from the gut by the coelom and its peritoneal
+walls, except in most leeches. A single layer of epidermic cells, some
+of which are glandular, forms the outer layer. Rarely are these
+ciliated, and then only in limited tracts. They secrete a cuticle
+which never approaches in thickness the often calcified cuticle of
+Arthropods. Below this is a circular, and below that again a longitudinal,
+layer of muscle fibres. These muscles are not striated, as
+they are in the Arthropoda.</p>
+
+<p><i>Setae</i>.&mdash;These chitinous, rod-like, rarely squat and then hook-like
+structures are found in the majority of the Chaetopoda, being absent
+only in certain Archiannelida, most leeches, and a very few Oligochaeta.
+They exist in the Brachiopoda (which are probably not
+unrelated to the Chaetopoda), but otherwise are absolutely distinctive
+of the Chaetopods. The setae are invariably formed each within
+an epidermic cell, and they are sheathed in involutions of the epidermis.
+Their shape and size varies greatly and is often of use in
+classification. The setae are organs of locomotion, though their
+large size and occasionally jagged edges in some of the Polychaeta
+suggest an aggressive function. They are disposed in two groups on
+either side, corresponding in the Polychaeta to the parapodia;
+the two bundles are commonly reduced among the earthworms to
+two pairs of setae or even to a single seta. On the other hand, in
+certain Polychaeta the bundles of setae are so extensive that they
+nearly form a complete circle surrounding the body; and in the
+Oligochaet genus <i>Perichaeta</i> (= <i>Pheretima</i>), and some allies, there
+is actually a complete circle of setae in each segment broken only by
+minute gaps, one dorsal, the other ventral.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coelom</i>.&mdash;The Chaetopoda are characterized by a spacious coelom,
+which is divided into a series of chambers in accordance with the
+general metamerism of the body. This is the typical arrangement,
+which is exhibited in the majority of the Polychaeta and Oligochaeta;
+in these the successive chambers of the coelom are separated
+by the intersegmental septa, sheets of muscle fibres extending from
+the body wall to the gut and thus forming partitions across the body.
+The successive cavities are not, however, completely closed from
+each other; there is some communication between adjoining segments,
+and the septa are sometimes deficient here and there. Thus
+in the Chaetopoda the perivisceral cavity is coelomic; in this
+respect the group contrasts with the Arthropoda and Molluscs,
+where the perivisceral cavity is, mainly at least, part of the vascular
+or haemal system, and agrees with the Vertebrata. The coelom is
+lined throughout by cells, which upon the intestine become large
+and loaded with excretory granules, and are known as chloragogen
+cells. Several forms of cells float freely in the fluid of the coelom.
+In another sense also the coelom is not a closed cavity, for it communicates
+in several ways with the external medium. Thus, among
+the Oligochaeta there are often a series of dorsal pores, or a single
+head pore, present also among the Polychaeta (in <i>Ammochares</i>).
+In these and other Chaetopods the coelom is also put into indirect
+relations with the outside world by the nephridia and by the gonad
+ducts. In these features, and in the fact that the gonads are local
+proliferations of the coelomic epithelium, which have undergone no
+further changes in the simpler forms, the coelom of this group shows
+in a particularly clear fashion the general characters of the coelom
+in the higher Metazoa. It has been indeed largely upon the conditions
+characterizing the Chaetopoda that the conception of the
+coelom in the Coelomocoela has been based.</p>
+
+<p>Among the simpler Chaetopoda the coelom retains the character
+of a series of paired chambers, showing the above relations to the
+exterior and to the gonads. There are, however, further complications
+in some forms. Especially are these to be seen in the
+more modified Oligochaeta and in the much more modified Hirudinea.
+In the Polychaeta, which are to be regarded as structurally simpler
+forms than the two groups just referred to, there is but little subdivision
+of the coelom of the segments, indeed a tendency in the
+reverse direction, owing to the suppression of septa. Among the
+Oligochaeta the dorsal vessel in <i>Dinodrilus</i> and <i>Megascolides</i> is
+enclosed in a separate coelomic chamber which may or may not
+communicate with the main coelomic cavity. To this pericardial
+coelom is frequently added a gonocoel enclosing the gonads and the
+funnels of their ducts. This condition is more fully dealt with below
+in the description of the Oligochaeta. The division and, indeed,
+partial suppression of the coelom culminates in the leeches, which
+in this, as in some other respects, are the most modified of Annelids.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;In all Chaetopods this system consists of
+cerebral ganglia connected by a circumoesophageal commissure
+with a ventral ganglionated cord. The plan of the central nervous
+system is therefore that of the Arthropoda. Among the Archiannelida,
+in <i>Aeolosoma</i> and some Polychaetes, the whole central nervous system
+remains imbedded in the epidermis. In others, it lies in the coelom,
+often surrounded by a special and occasionally rather thick sheath.
+The cerebral ganglia constitute an archicerebrum for the most part,
+there being no evidence that, as in the Arthropoda, a movement
+forward of post-oral ganglia has taken place. In the leeches, however,
+there seems to be the commencement of the formation of a syncerebrum.
+In the latter, the segmentally arranged ganglia are more
+sharply marked off from the connectives than in other Chaetopods,
+where nerve cells exist along the whole ventral chain, though more
+numerous in segmentally disposed swellings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vascular System.</i>&mdash;In addition to the coelom, another system of
+fluid-holding spaces lies between the body wall and the gut in the
+Chaetopoda. This is the vascular or haemal system (formerly and
+unnecessarily termed pseudhaemal). With a few exceptions among
+the Polychaeta the vascular system is always present among the
+Chaetopoda, and always consists of a system of vessels with definite
+walls, which rarely communicate with the coelom. It is in fact
+typically a closed system. The larger trunks open into each other
+either directly by cross branches, or a capillary system is formed.
+There are no lacunar blood spaces with ill-defined or absent walls
+except for a sinus surrounding the intestine, which is at least frequently
+present. The principal trunks consist of a dorsal vessel
+lying above the gut, and a ventral vessel below the gut but above the
+nervous cord. These two vessels in the Oligochaeta are united in
+the anterior region of the body by a smaller or greater number of
+branches which surround the oesophagus and are, some of them at
+least, contractile and in that case wider than the rest. The dorsal
+vessel also communicates with the ventral vessel indirectly by the
+intestinal sinus, which gives off branches to both the longitudinal
+trunks, and by tegementary vessels and capillaries which supply the
+skin and the nephridia. In the smaller and simpler forms the
+capillary networks are much reduced, but the dorsal and ventral
+vessels are usually present. The former, however, is frequently
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span>
+developed only in the anterior region of the body where it emerges
+from the peri-intestinal blood sinus. On the other hand, additional
+longitudinal trunks are sometimes developed, the chief one of which
+is a supra-intestinal vessel lying below the dorsal vessel and closely
+adherent to the walls of the oesophagus in which region it appears.
+The capillaries sometimes (in many leeches and Oligochaeta) extend
+into the epidermis itself. Usually they do not extend outwards of
+the muscular layers of the body wall. The main trunks of the
+vascular system often possess valves at the origin of branches which
+regulate the direction of the blood flow. Among many Oligochaeta
+the dorsal blood-vessel is partly or entirely a double tube, which is
+a retention of a character shown by F. Vezhdovský to exist in the
+embryo of certain forms. The blood in the Chaetopoda consists
+of a plasma in which float a few corpuscles. The plasma is coloured
+red by haemoglobin: it is sometimes (in <i>Sabella</i> and a few other
+Polychaeta) green, which tint is due to another respiratory pigment.
+The plasma may be pink (<i>Magelona</i>) or yellow (<i>Aphrodite</i>) in which
+cases the colour is owing to another pigment. In <i>Aeolosoma</i> it is
+usually colourless. The vascular system is in the majority of
+Chaetopods a closed system. It has been asserted (and denied) that
+the cellular rod which is known as the &ldquo;Heart-body&rdquo; (<i>Herzkorper</i>),
+and is to be found in the dorsal vessel of many Oligochaeta and
+Polychaeta, is formed of cells which are continuous with the chloragogen
+cells, thus implying the existence of apertures of communication
+with the coelom. The statement has been often made and
+denied, but it now seems to have been placed on a firm basis (E.S.
+Goodrich), that among the Hirudinea the coelom, which is largely
+broken up into narrow tubes, may be confluent with the tubes of
+the vascular system. This state of affairs has no antecedent improbability
+about it, since in the Vertebrata the coelom is unquestionably
+confluent with the haemal system through the lymphatic
+vessels. Finally, there are certain Polychaeta, <i>e g.</i> the <i>Capitellidae</i>,
+in which the vascular system has vanished altogether, leaving a
+coelom containing haemoglobin-impregnated corpuscles. It has
+been suggested (E. Ray Lankester) that this condition has been
+arrived at through some such intermediate stage as that offered by
+Polychaet <i>Magelona</i>. In this worm the ventral blood-vessel is so
+swollen as to occupy nearly the whole of the available coelom.
+Carry the process but a little farther and the coelom disappears and
+its place is taken by a blood space or haemocoel. It has been held
+that the condition shown in certain leeches tend to prove that the
+coelom and haemocoel are primitively one series of spaces which
+have been gradually differentiated. The facts of development,
+however, prove their distinctness, though those same facts do not
+speak clearly as to the true nature of the blood system. One view
+of the origin of the latter (largely based upon observations upon the
+development of <i>Polygordius</i>) sees in the blood system a persistent
+blastocoel. F. Vezhdovský has lately seen reasons for regarding
+the blood system as originating entirely from the hypoblast by the
+secretion of fluid, the blood, from particular intestinal cells and the
+consequent formation of spaces through pressure, which become
+lined with these cells.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nephridia and Coelomoducts</i>.&mdash;The name &ldquo;Nephridium&rdquo; was
+originally given by Sir E. Ray Lankester to the members of a series
+of tubes, proved in some cases to be excretory in nature, which
+exist typically to the number of a single pair in most of the segments
+of the Chaetopod body, and open each by a ciliated orifice into the
+coelom on the one hand, and by a pore on to the exterior of the
+body on the other. In its earlier conception, this view embraced
+as homologous organs (so far as the present group is concerned) not
+only the nephridia of Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, which are obviously
+closely similar, but the wide tubes with an intercellular lumen and
+large funnels of certain Polychaeta, and (though with less assurance)
+the gonad ducts in Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. The function of
+nitrogenous excretion was not therefore a necessary part of the
+view&mdash;though it may be pointed out that there are grounds for
+believing that the gonad ducts are to some extent also organs of
+excretion (see below). Later, the investigations of E. Meyer and
+E.S. Goodrich, endorsed by Lankester, led to the opinion that under
+the general morphological conception of &ldquo;nephridium&rdquo; were
+included two distinct sets of organs, viz. nephridia and coelomoducts.
+The former (represented by, <i>e.g.</i> the &ldquo;segmental organs&rdquo;
+of <i>Lumbricus</i>) have been asserted to be &ldquo;ultimately, though not
+always, actually traceable to the ectoderm&rdquo;; the latter (represented
+by, <i>e.g.</i> the oviduct of <i>Lumbricus</i>) are parts of the coelomic
+wall itself, which have grown out to the exterior. The nephridia, in
+fact, on this view, are <i>ectodermic ingrowths</i>, the coelomoducts <i>coelomic
+outgrowths</i>. The cavity of the former has nothing to do with coelom.
+The cavity of the latter is coelom.</p>
+
+<p>The embryological facts upon which this view has been based,
+however, have been differently interpreted. According to C.O.
+Whitman the entire nephridial system (in the leech <i>Clepsine</i>) is
+formed by the differentiation of a continuous epiblastic band on
+each side. The exact opposite is maintained by R.S. Bergh (for
+<i>Lumbricus</i> and <i>Criodrilus</i>), whose figures show a derivation of the
+entire nephridium from mesoblast, and an absence of any connexion
+between successive nephridia by any continuous band, epiblastic
+or mesoblastic. A midway position is taken up by Wilson, who
+asserts the mesoblastic formation of the funnel, but also asserts
+the presence of a continuous band of epiblast from which certainly
+the terminal vesicle of the nephridium, and doubtfully the glandular
+part of the tube is derived. Vezhdovský&rsquo;s figures of <i>Rhynchelmis</i>
+agree with those of Bergh in showing the backward growth of the
+nephridium from the funnel cell. There are thus substantial reasons
+for believing that the nephridium grows backwards from a funnel
+as does the coelomoduct. It is therefore by no means certain that
+so profound a difference embryologically can be asserted to exist
+between the excretory nephridia and the ducts leading from the
+coelom to the exterior, which are usually associated with the extrusion
+of the genital products among the Chaetopoda.</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, anatomical and histological differences to be
+seen at any rate at the extremes between the undoubted nephridia
+of Goodrich, Meyer and Lankester, and the coelomoducts of the same
+authors.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:464px; height:532px" src="images/img791.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2. (from Goodrich).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Diagram of the nephridium
+of <i>Nereis diversicolor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>B, Diagram of the nephridium of
+<i>Alciope</i>, into which opens the
+large  genital  funnel   (coelomostome).</p>
+
+<p>C, Small portion of the nephridium
+of <i>Glycera siphonostoma</i>,
+showing the canal cut
+through, and the solenocytes
+on the outer surface.</p>
+
+<p>D, Optical section of a branch of
+the nephridium of <i>Nephthys
+scolopendroides</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c.s</i>, Cut surface.</p>
+
+<p><i>cst</i>, Coelomostome.</p>
+
+<p><i>f</i>, Flagellum.</p>
+
+<p><i>g.f</i>, Genital funnel.</p>
+
+<p><i>n</i>, Neck of solenocyte.</p>
+
+<p><i>n.c</i>, Nephridial canal.</p>
+
+<p><i>n.p</i>, Nephridiopore.</p>
+
+<p><i>nst</i>, Nephridiostome.</p>
+
+<p><i>nu</i>, Nucleus of solenocyte.</p>
+
+<p><i>s</i>, Solenocytes.</p>
+
+<p><i>t</i>, Tube.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>I. <i>Nephridia</i>.&mdash;Excretory organs which are undisputed nephridia
+are practically universal among the Oligochaeta, Hirudinea and
+Archiannelida, and occur in many Polychaeta. Their total absence
+has been asserted definitely only in <i>Paranais littoralis</i>. Usually these
+organs are present to the number of a single pair per somite, and are
+commonly present in the majority of the segments of the body,
+failing often among the Oligochaeta in a varying number of the
+anterior segments. They are considerably reduced in number in
+certain Polychaeta. Essentially, a nephridium is a tube, generally very
+long and much folded upon itself, composed of a string of cells placed
+end to end in which the continuous lumen is excavated. Such cells
+are termed &ldquo;drain pipe&rdquo; cells. Frequently the lumen is branched
+and may form a complicated anastomosing network in these cells.
+Externally, the nephridium opens by a straight part of the tube,
+which is often very wide, and here the intracellular lumen becomes
+intercellular. Rarely the nephridium does not communicate with
+the coelom; in such cases the nephridium ends in a single cell, like
+the &ldquo;flame cell&rdquo; of a Platyhelminth worm, in which there is a lumen
+blocked at the coelomic end by a tuft of fine cilia projecting into the
+lumen. This is so with <i>Aeolosoma</i> (Vezhdovský). The condition
+is interesting as a persistence of the conditions obtaining in the
+provisional nephridia of <i>e.g.</i> <i>Rhynchelmis</i>, which afterwards become
+by an enlargement and opening up of the funnel the permanent
+nephridia of the adult worm. In some Polychaets (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Glycera</i>,
+see fig. 2) there are many of these flame cells to a single nephridium
+which are specialized in form, and have been termed &ldquo;solenocytes&rdquo;
+(Goodrich). They are repeated in <i>Polygordius</i>, and are exactly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span>
+to be compared with similarly-placed cells in the nephridia of
+<i>Amphioxus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>More usually, and indeed in nearly every other case among the
+Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, the coelomic aperture of the nephridium
+consists of several cells, ciliated like the nephridium itself for a greater
+or less extent, forming a funnel. The funnel varies greatly in size
+and number of its component cells. There are so many differences
+of detail that no line can be drawn between the one-celled funnel
+of <i>Aeolosoma</i> and the extraordinarily large and folded funnel of the
+posterior nephridia in the Oligochaete <i>Thamnodrilus</i>. In the last-mentioned
+worm the funnels of the anterior nephridia are small and
+but few celled; it is only the nephridia in and behind the 17th
+segment of the body which are particularly large and with a sinuous
+margin, which recall the funnels of the gonad ducts (<i>i.e.</i> coelomoducts).</p>
+
+<p>Among the Polychaeta the nephridium of <i>Nereis</i> (see fig. 2) is like
+that of the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in that the coiled glandular
+tube has an intracellular duct which is ciliated in the same way in
+parts. The Polychaeta, however, present us with another form
+of nephridium seen, for example, in <i>Arenicola</i>, where a large funnel
+leads into a short and wide excretory tube whose lumen is intercellular.
+In the young stages of this worm which have been investigated
+by W.B. Benham, the tube, though smaller, and with a
+but little pronounced funnel, has still an intercellular duct. That
+these organs in Polychaeta serve for the removal of the generative
+products to the exterior is proved not only by the correspondence
+in number to them of the gonads, but by actual observation of the
+generative products in transit. This form of nephridia leads to the
+shorter but essentially similar organs in the Polychaete <i>Sternaspis</i>,
+and to those of the Echiuroidea (<i>q.v.</i>) and of the Gephyrea (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Though the paired arrangement of the nephridia is the prevalent
+one in the Chaetopoda, there are many examples, among the Oligochaeta,
+of species and genera in which there are several, even many,
+nephridia in each segment of the body, which may or may not be
+connected among themselves, but have in any case separate orifices
+on to the exterior.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Coelomoducis.</i>&mdash;In this category are included (by Goodrich
+and Lankester) the gonad ducts of the Oligochaeta, certain funnels
+without any aperture to the exterior that have been detected in
+<i>Nereis</i>, &amp;c., funnels with wide and short ducts attached to nephridia
+in other Polychaeta, gonad ducts in the <i>Capitellidae</i>, the gonad
+ducts of the leeches. In all these cases we have a duct which has
+a usually wide, always intercellular, lumen, generally, if not
+always, ciliated, which opens directly into the coelom on the one
+hand and on to the exterior of the body on the other. These characters
+are plain in all the cases cited, excepting only the leeches
+which will be considered separately.</p>
+
+<p>There is not a great deal of difference between most of these
+structures and true nephridia. It is not clear, for example, to which
+category it is necessary to refer the excretory organs of <i>Arenicola</i>,
+or <i>Polynoe</i>. Both series of organs consist essentially of a ciliated
+tube leading from the coelom to the exterior. Both series of organs
+grow back centrifugally from the funnel. In both the cavity originally
+or immediately continuous with the coelom appears first in the
+funnel and grows backwards. In some cases, <i>e.g.</i> oviducts of Oligochaeta,
+sperm ducts of <i>Phreoryctes</i>, the coelomoducts occupy, like
+the nephridia, two segments, the funnel opening into that in front
+of the segment which carries the external pore. It is by no means
+certain that a hard and fast line can be drawn between intra- and
+intercellular lumina. Finally, in function there are some points of likeness.
+The gonad ducts of <i>Lumbricus</i>, &amp;c., must perform one function
+of nephridia; they must convey to the exterior some of the coelomic
+fluid with its disintegrated products of waste. There is no possibility
+that sperm and ova can escape by these tubes not in company
+with coelomic fluid. In the case of many Oligochaeta where there
+is no vascular network surrounding the nephridium, this function
+must be the chief one of those glands, the more elaborate process
+of excretion taking place in the case of nephridia surrounded by a
+rich plexus of blood capillaries. A consideration of the mode of
+development and appearance of the coelomoducts that have thus
+far been enumerated (with the possible exception of those of the
+leeches) seems to show that there is a distinct though varying relation
+between them and the nephridia. It has been shown that in <i>Tubifex</i>,
+and some other aquatic Oligochaeta, the genital segments are at first
+provided with nephridia, and that these disappear on the appearance
+of the generative ducts, which are coelomoducts. In <i>Lumbricus</i>
+the connexion is a little closer; the funnel of the nephridium, in the
+segments in which the funnels of the gonad ducts are to be developed,
+persists and is continuous with the gonad duct funnels on their first
+appearance. In the development of the Acanthodrilid earthworm
+<i>Octochaetus</i> (F.E. Beddard) the funnels of the pronephridia disappear
+except in the genital segments, where they seem to be actually
+converted into the genital funnels. At the least there is no doubt
+that the genital funnels are developed precisely where the nephridial
+funnels formerly existed. If the genital funnels are not wholly or
+partly formed out of the nephridial funnels they have replaced them.
+In the genital segments of <i>Eudrilus</i> the nephridia are present, but
+the funnels have not been found though they are obvious in other
+segments. Here also the genital funnels have either replaced or
+been formed out of nephridial funnels. In <i>Haplotaxis heterogyne</i>
+(W.B. Benham) the sperm ducts are hardly to be distinguished from
+nephridia; they are sinuous tubes with an intra-cellular duct. But
+the funnel is large and thus differs from the funnels of the nephridia
+in adjoining segments. Here again the nephridial funnel seems to
+have been converted into or certainly replaced by a secondarily
+developed funnel. This example is similar to cases among the Polychaeta
+where a true nephridium is provided with a large funnel,
+coelomostome, according to the nomenclature of Lankester. The
+whole organ, having, as is thought but not known, this double origin,
+is termed a nephromixium. The various facts, however, seem to be
+susceptible of another interpretation. It may be pointed out that
+the several examples described recall a phenomenon which is not
+uncommon and is well known to anatomists. That is the replacement
+of an organ by, sometimes coupled with its partial conversion
+into, a similar or slightly different organ performing the same or an
+analogous function. Thus the postcaval vein of the higher vertebrata
+is partly a new structure altogether, and is partly formed out
+of the pre-existing posterior cardinals. The more complete replacements,
+such as the nephridia of the genital segment of <i>Tubifex</i> by
+a subsequently formed genital duct, may be compared with the
+succession of the nesonephros to the pronephros in vertebrates, and
+of the metanephros to the mesonephros in the higher vertebrates.
+It might be well to term these structures, mostly serving as gonad
+ducts, which have an undoubted resemblance to nephridia, and for
+the most part an undoubted connexion with nephridia, &ldquo;Nephrodinia,&rdquo;
+to distinguish them from another category of &ldquo;ducts&rdquo;
+which are communications between the coelom and the exterior,
+and which have no relation whatever to nephridia or to the organs
+just discussed. For these latter, the term coelomoducts might
+well be reserved. To this category belong certain sacs and pouches
+in many, perhaps most, genera of the Oligochaeta family, <i>Eudrilidae</i>,
+and possibly the gonad ducts in the Hirudinea. As an example of
+the former it has been shown (Beddard) that a large median sac in
+<i>Lybiodrilus</i> is at first freely open to the coelom, that it later becomes
+shut off from the same, that it then acquires an external orifice, and,
+finally, that it encloses the ovary or ovaries, between which and the
+exterior a passage is thus effected. To this category will belong the
+oviducts in Teleostean fishes and probably the gonad ducts in several
+groups of invertebrates.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Polychaeta</span>.&mdash;This group may be thus defined and the
+definition contrasted and compared with those of the other
+divisions of the Chaetopoda. Setae always present and often
+very large, much varied in form and very numerous, borne by
+the dorsal and ventral parapodia (when present). The prostomium
+and the segments generally often bear processes sensory
+and branchial. Eyes often present and comparatively complicated
+in structure. Clitellum not present as a definite organ,
+as in Oligochaeta. The anus is mostly terminal, and there are
+no anterior and posterior suckers. Nervous system often
+imbedded in the epidermis. Vascular system generally present
+forming a closed system of tubes. Alimentary canal rarely
+coiled, occasionally with glands which are simple caeca and
+sometimes serve as air reservoirs; jaws often present and an
+eversible pharynx. Nephridia sometimes of the type of those
+of the Oligochaeta; in other cases short, wide tubes with a large
+funnel serving also entirely or in part as gonad ducts. Frequently
+reduced in number of pairs; rarely (<i>Capitellidae</i>) more
+than one pair per segment. Gonads not so restricted in position
+as in Oligochaets, and often more abundant; the individuals
+usually unisexual. No specialized system of spermathecae,
+sperm reservoirs, and copulatory apparatus, as in Oligochaeta;
+development generally through a larval form; reproduction by
+budding also occurs. Marine (rarely fresh-water) in habit.</p>
+
+<p>The Polychaeta contrast with the Oligochaeta by the great
+variety of outward form and by the frequency of specialization
+of different regions of the body. The head is always recognizable
+and much more conspicuous than in other Chaetopoda. As in
+the Oligochaeta the peristomial segment is often without setae,
+but this character is not by any means so constant as in the
+Oligochaeta. The prostomium bears often processes, both
+dorsal and ventral, which in the Sabellids are split into the circle
+of branchial plumes, which surround or nearly surround the
+mouth in those tube-dwelling Annelids. <i>Tomopteris</i> is remarkable
+for the fact that the hammer-shaped prostomium has paired
+ventral processes each with a single seta. It is held, however,
+that these are a pair of parapodia which have shifted forwards.
+The presence of parapodia distinguish this from other groups
+of Chaetopoda. Typically, the parapodium consists of two
+processes of the body on each side, each of which bears a bundle
+of setae; these two divisions of the &ldquo;limb&rdquo; are termed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span>
+respectively notopodium and neuropodium. The notopodium may
+be rudimentary or absent and the entire parapodium reduced to
+the merest ridge or even completely unrepresented. Naturally,
+it is among the free living forms that the parapodium is best
+developed, and least developed among the tubicolous
+Polychaeta. To each division of the parapodium
+belongs typically a long tentacle, the cirrus, which
+may be defective upon one or other of the notopodium
+or neuropodium, and may be developed into
+an arborescent gill or into a flat scale-like process,
+the elytron (in <i>Polynoe</i>, &amp;c.). There are other gills
+developed in addition to those which represent the
+cirri.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:76px; height:429px" src="images/img793a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:184px; height:194px" src="images/img793b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;<i>a</i>, Bristle of <i>Pionosyllis
+Malmgreni</i>; <i>b</i>, Hook of <i>Terebella</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Setae</i>.&mdash;The setae of the Polychaeta are disposed in
+two bundles in many genera, but in only one bundle in
+such forms as have no notopodium (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Syllis</i>). In
+some genera the setae are in vertical rows, and in certain
+<i>Capitellidae</i> these rows so
+nearly meet that an arrangement
+occurs reminiscent of
+the continuous circle of setae
+in the perichaetous Oligochaeta.
+The setae vary much
+in form and are often longer
+and stronger than in the Oligochaetes.
+Jointed setae and
+very short hooks or &ldquo;uncini&rdquo;
+(see fig. 3) are among the most
+remarkable forms. Simple
+bifid setae, such as those of
+Oligochaetes, are also present
+in certain forms.</p>
+
+<p>Among the burrowing and
+tubicolous forms it is not uncommon for the body to be distinguishable
+into two or more regions; a &ldquo;thorax,&rdquo; for example, is sharply
+marked off from an &ldquo;abdomen&rdquo; in the Sabellids. In these forms
+the bundles of setae are either capilliform or uncinate, and the dorsal
+setae of the thorax are like the ventral setae of the abdomen. It is
+a remarkable and newly-ascertained fact that in regeneration (in
+<i>Potamilla</i>) the thorax is not replaced by the growth of uninjured
+thoracic segments; but that the anterior segments of the abdomen
+take on the same characters, the setae dropping out and being
+replaced in accordance with the plan of the setae in the thorax of
+uninjured worms. Among the Oligochaeta the sexually mature
+worm is distinguished from the immature worm by the clitellum
+and by the development of genital setae. Among the Polychaeta
+the sexual worm is often more marked from the asexual form, so
+much so that these latter have been placed in different species or
+even genera. The alteration in form does not only affect structures
+used in generation; but the form of the parapodia, &amp;c., alter.
+There are even dimorphic forms among the Syllids where the sexes
+are, as in many Polychaets, separate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nephridia</i>.&mdash;The nephridia of the Polychaeta have been generally
+dealt with above in considering the nephridial system of the Chaetopoda
+as a whole. They contrast with those of the Oligochaeta and
+Hirudinea by reason of their frequently close association with the
+gonads, the same organ sometimes serving the two functions of
+excretion and conveyance of the ova and spermatozoa out of the
+body. On the hypothesis that such a form as <i>Dinophilus</i> (see
+Haplodrili) has preserved the characters of the primitive Chaetopod
+more nearly than any existing Polychaet or Oligochaet, it is clear
+that the nephridia in the Oligochaeta have preserved the original
+features of those organs more nearly than most Polychaeta. Thus
+<i>Nereis</i> among the latter worms, from the resemblance which its
+excretory system bears to that of the Oligochaeta, may be made the
+starting-point of a series. In this worm the paired nephridia exist
+in most of the segments of the body, and their form (see fig. 2) is much
+like that of the nephridia in the <i>Enchytraeidae</i>. The funnel, which
+is not large, appears to open, as a rule at least, into the segment in
+front of that which bears the external orifice. Quite independent
+of these are certain large dorsally situate funnel-like folds of the
+coelomic epithelium, ciliated, but of which no duct has been discovered
+leading to the exterior. It is possible that we have here
+gonad ducts distinct from nephridia which at the time of sexual
+maturity do open on to the exterior.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Polynoe</i> the nephridia are short tubes with a slightly folded
+funnel whose lumen is intercellular, and this intercellular lumen
+is characteristic of the Polychaetes as contrasted with leeches and
+Oligochaetes. Among the Terebelloidea there is a remarkable
+differentiation of the nephridia into two series. One set lies in front
+of the diaphragm, which is the most anterior and complete septum,
+the rest having disappeared or being much less developed. The
+anterior nephridia, of which there are one to three pairs, contrast
+with the posterior series by their small funnels and large size, the
+posterior nephridia having a large funnel followed by a short tube.
+In <i>Chaetozone setosa</i> the anterior nephridia occupy five segments.
+There is usually a gap between the two series, several segments being
+without nephridia. It seems that the posterior nephridia are mainly
+gonad ducts, and the gonads are developed in close association with
+the funnels. The same arrangement is found in some other Polychaetes;
+for instance, in <i>Sabellaria</i> there is a single pair of large
+anterior nephridia, which open by a common pore, followed after an
+interval by large-funnelled and short nephridia. This differentiation
+is not, however, peculiar to the Polychaetes; for in several Oligochaetes
+the anterior nephridia are of large size, and opening as they
+do into the buccal cavity clearly play a different function to those
+which follow. In <i>Thamnodrilus</i>, as has been pointed out, there are
+two series of nephridia which resemble those of the Terebelloidea
+in the different sizes of their funnels. In <i>Lanice conchilega</i> the
+posterior series of nephridia are connected by a thick longitudinal
+duct, which seems to be seen in its most reduced form in <i>Owenia</i>,
+where a duct on each side runs in the epidermis, being in parts a
+groove, and receives one short tubular nephridium only and occupies
+only one segment. This connexion of successive nephridia (in
+<i>Lanice</i>) has its counterpart in <i>Allolobophora, Lybiodrilus</i>, and
+apparently in the Lumbriculids <i>Teleuscolex</i> and <i>Styloscolex</i>, among
+the Oligochaeta. Among the <i>Capitellidae</i>, which in several respects
+resemble the Oligochaeta, wide and short gonad ducts coexist in
+the same segments with nephridia, the latter being narrower and
+longer. It is noteworthy that in this family only among the Polychaeta,
+the nephridia are not restricted to a single pair in each segment;
+so that the older view that the gonad ducts are metamorphosed
+nephridia is not at variance with the anatomical facts
+which have been just stated.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:359px; height:639px" src="images/img793c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;<i>Dasychone
+infracta</i>, Kr. (After
+Malmgren.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Alimentary Canal.</i>&mdash;The alimentary canal of Polychaetes is usually
+a straight tube running from the anterior mouth to the posterior
+anus. But in some forms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sternaspis</i>, the gut is coiled. In others,
+again, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Cobangia</i>, the anus is anterior and ventral. A gizzard is
+present in a few forms. The buccal cavity is sometimes armed with
+jaws. The oesophagus is provided often with caeca which in Syllids
+and <i>Hesionidae</i> have been found to contain air, and possibly therefore
+perform the function of the fish&rsquo;s air-bladder. In other Polychaetes
+one or more pairs of similar outgrowths are glandular. The intestine
+is provided with numerous branched caeca in <i>Aphrodite</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reproduction.</i>&mdash;As is the case with the Oligochaeta, the Polychaeta
+furnish examples of species which multiply asexually by
+budding. There is
+a further resemblance
+between the
+two orders of Chaetopoda
+in that this
+budding is not a
+general phenomenon,
+but confined
+to a few forms
+only. Budding, in
+fact, among the
+Polychaetes is
+limited to the
+family <i>Syllidae</i>. In
+the Oligochaetes
+it is only the
+families <i>Aeolosomatidae</i>
+and <i>Naididae</i>
+that show
+the same phenomenon. It has been mentioned
+that in the Nereids a sexual form
+occurs which differs structurally from the
+asexual worms, and was originally placed in
+a separate genus, <i>Heteronereis</i>; hence the
+name &ldquo;Heteronereid&rdquo; for the sexual worm.
+In <i>Syllis</i> there is also a &ldquo;Heterosyllid&rdquo; form
+in which the gonads are limited to a posterior
+region of the body which is further marked
+off from the anterior non-sexual segments
+by the oak-like setae. In some Syllids this
+posterior region separates off from the rest,
+producing a new head; thus a process of
+fission occurs which has been termed schizogamy.
+A similar life history distinguishes
+certain Sabellid worms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Filigrana</i>. Among
+the Syllids this simple state of affairs is
+further complicated. In <i>Autolytus</i> there is,
+to begin with, a conversion of the posterior
+half of the body to form a sexual zooid. But
+before this separates off a number of other
+zooids are formed from a zone of budding
+which appears between the two first-formed
+individuals. Ultimately, a chain of sexual
+zooids is thus formed. A given stock only
+produces zooids of one sex. In <i>Myrianida</i> there is a further
+development of this process. The conversion of the posterior
+end of the simple individual into a sexual region is dispensed
+with; but from a preanal budding segment a series of sexual buds
+are produced. The well-known Syllid, discovered during the voyage
+of the &ldquo;Challenger,&rdquo; shows a modification of this form of budding.
+Here, however, the buds are lateral, though produced from a budding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span>
+zone, and they themselves produce other buds, so that a ramifying
+colony is created.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:502px" src="images/img794a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;A, <i>Autolytus</i> (after Mensch) with numerous buds. B,
+Portion of a colony of <i>Syllis ramosa</i> (from M&lsquo;Intosh). <i>b.z</i>, Budding
+zone; <i>p</i>, anterior region of the parent worm; 1-5, buds.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Quite recently, another mode of budding has been described in
+<i>Trypanosyllis gemmipara</i>, where a crowd of some fifty buds arising
+symmetrically are produced at the tail end of the worm. In some
+Syllids, such as <i>Pionosyllis gestans</i>, the ova are attached to the body
+of the parent in a regular line, and develop in situ; this process,
+which has been attributed to budding, is an &ldquo;external gestation,&rdquo;
+and occurs in a number of species.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:467px; height:347px" src="images/img794b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;A, Side view of the larva of <i>Lopadorhynchus</i> (from Kleinenberg),
+showing the developing trunk region. B, Side view of the
+trochophore larva of <i>Eupomatus uncinatus</i> (from Hatschek).<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>A</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>E</i>, Eye.</p>
+<p><i>M</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>ap</i>, Apical organ.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, &ldquo;Head Kidney.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>me</i>, Mesoblast.</p>
+<p><i>ms</i>, Larval muscle.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Otocyst.</p>
+<p><i>pp</i>, Parapodium.</p>
+<p><i>pr</i>, Praeoral ciliated ring, or prototroch.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:107px; height:660px" src="images/img794c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;<i>Nereis
+pelagica</i>, L. (After
+Oersted.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">As is very frequently the case with marine forms, as compared
+with their fresh-water and terrestrial allies, the Polychaeta differ
+from the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in possessing a free living
+larval form which is hatched at an early stage in development.
+This larva is termed the Trochosphere larva, and typically (as it is
+held) is an egg-shaped larva with two bands of cilia, one preoral and
+one postoral, with an apical nervous plate surmounted by a tuft of
+longer cilia, and with a simple bent alimentary canal, with lateral
+mouth and posterior anus, between which and the ectoderm is a
+spacious cavity (blastocoel) traversed by muscular strands and often
+containing a larval kidney. The segmentation is of the mesoblast
+to begin with, and appears later behind the mouth, the part anterior
+to this becoming the prostomium of the adult. The chief modifications
+of this form are seen in the <i>Mitraria</i>
+larva of <i>Ammochares</i> with only the preoral band,
+which is much folded and which has provisional
+and long setae; the atrochous larva, where the
+covering of cilia is uniform and not split into
+bands; and the polytrochous larva where there
+are several bands surrounding the body. There
+are also other modifications.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification</i>.&mdash;The older arrangement of the
+Polychaeta into Errantia or free living and
+Tubicola or tube-dwelling forms will hardly fit
+the much increased knowledge of the group.
+W.B. Benham&rsquo;s division into Phanerocephala
+in which the prostomium is plain, and Crytocephala
+in which the prostomium is hidden by
+the peristomium adopted by Sedgwick, can only
+be justified by the character used; for the Terebellids,
+though phanerocephalous, have many
+of the features of the Sabellids. It is perhaps
+safer to subdivide the Order into 6 Suborders
+(in the number of these following Benham, except
+in combining the Sabelliformia and Hermelliformia).
+Of these 6, the two first to be considered
+are very plainly separable and represent
+the extremes of Polychaete organization, (1)
+<i>Nereidiformia</i>.&mdash;&ldquo;Errant&rdquo; Polychaetes with
+well-marked prostomium possessing tentacles
+and palps with evident and locomotor parapodia,
+supported (with few exceptions) by strong
+spines, the aciculi; muscular pharynx usually
+armed with jaws; septa and nephridia regularly
+metameric and similar throughout body;
+free living and predaceous. (2) <i>Cryptocephala</i>.&mdash;Tube-dwelling
+with body divided into thorax
+and abdomen marked by the setae, which are
+reversed in position in the neuropodium and
+notopodium respectively in the two regions.
+Parapodia hardly projecting; palps of prosomium
+forming branched gills; no pharynx or
+eversible buccal region; no septa in thorax,
+septa in abdomen regularly disposed. Nephridia
+in two series; large, anterior nephridia followed
+by small, short tubes in abdomen. The remaining
+groups are harder to define, with the exception
+of the (3) <i>Capitelliformia</i>, which are mud-living
+worms of an &ldquo;oligochaetous&rdquo; appearance, and
+with some affinities to that order. The peristomium has no setae, and
+the setae generally are hair-like or uncinate, often forming almost complete
+rings. The genital ducts are limited to one segment (the 8th in
+<i>Capitella capitata</i>), and there are genital setae on this and the next
+segment. In other forms genital ducts and nephridia coexist in the
+same segment. The nephridia are sometimes numerous in each segment.
+There is no blood system, and the coelomic corpuscles contain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span>
+haemoglobin. (4) <i>Terebelliformia</i>. These worms are in some
+respects like the Sabellids (Cryptocephala). The parapodia, as in
+the Capitellidae, are hardly developed. The buccal region is unarmed
+and not eversible. The prostomium has many long filaments
+which recall the gills of the Sabellids, &amp;c. The nephridia are specialized
+into two series, as in the last-mentioned worms. (5) <i>Spioniformia</i>
+(including <i>Chaetopterus</i>, <i>Spio</i>, &amp;c.) and (6) <i>Scoleciformia</i>
+(<i>Arenicola</i>, <i>Chloraema</i>, <i>Sternaspis</i>) are the remaining groups. In
+both, the nephridia are all alike; there are no jaws; the prostomium
+rarely has processes. The body is often divisible into
+regions.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:189px; height:487px" src="images/img794d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:109px; height:498px" src="images/img794e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;<i>Sabella vesiculosa</i>, Mont.
+(After Montagu.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.
+<i>Arenicola marina</i>, L.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;W.B. Benham, &ldquo;Polychaeta&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge
+Natural History</i>; E. Claparède, <i>Annélides chétopodes du golfe de
+Naples</i> (1868 and 1870); E. Ehlers, <i>Die Börstenwürmer</i> (1868);
+H. Eisig, <i>Die Capitelliden</i> (Naples Monographs), and development
+of do. in <i>Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel</i> (1898); W.C. M&rsquo;Intosh, <i>&rdquo;Challenger&rdquo;
+Reports</i> (1885); E.R. Lankester, Introductory Chapter in
+<i>A Treatise on Zoology</i>; E.S. Goodrich, <i>Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.</i>
+(1897-1900); E. Meyer, <i>Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel</i> (1887, 1888), as
+well as numerous other memoirs by the above and by J.T. Cunningham,
+de St Joseph, A. Malaquin, A. Agassiz, A.T. Watson, Malmgren,
+Bobretsky and A.F. Marion, E.A. Andrews, L.C. Cosmovici,
+R. Horst, W. Michaelsen, G. Gilson, F. Buchanan, H. Levinsen,
+Joyeux-Laffuie, F.W. Gamble, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:393px" src="images/img795a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 10.&mdash;Diagrams of various Earthworms,
+to illustrate external characters.
+A, B, C, anterior segments from the
+ventral surface; D, hinder end of body
+of <i>Urochaeta</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>A, <i>Lumbricus</i>: 9, 10, segments containing
+spermathecae, the orifices of
+which are indicated; 14, segment
+bearing oviducal pores; 15, segment
+bearing male pores; 32, 37,
+first and last segments of clitellum.</p>
+
+<p>B, <i>Acanthodrilus</i>: <i>cp</i>, orifices of spermathecae;
+&#9792;, oviducal pores;
+&#9794;, male pores; on 17th and 19th
+segments are the apertures of the
+atria.</p>
+
+<p>C, <i>Perichaeta</i>: the spermathecal pores
+are between segments 6 and 7, 7
+and 8, 8 and 9, the oviducal pores
+upon the 14th and the male pores
+upon the 18th segment.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1">In all the figures the nephridial pores
+are indicated by dots and the setae by
+strokes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Oligochaeta</span>.&mdash;As contrasted with the other subdivisions
+of the Chaetopoda, the Oligochaeta may be thus defined. Setae
+very rarely absent (genus
+<i>Achaeta</i>) and as a rule not
+so large or so numerous in
+each segment as in the
+Polychaeta, and different
+in shape. Eyes rarely
+present and then rudimentary.
+Prostomium generally
+small, sometimes prolonged,
+but never bearing
+tentacles or processes.
+Appendages of body reduced
+to branchiae, present
+only in four species, and
+to the ventral copulatory
+appendages of <i>Alma</i> and
+<i>Criodrilus</i>. Clitellum
+always present, extending
+over two (many limicolous
+forms) to forty-five segments
+(<i>Alma</i>). Segments
+of body numerous and not
+distinctive of species, being
+irregular and not fixed in
+numbers. In terrestrial
+forms dorsal pores are usually
+present; in aquatic
+forms a head pore only.
+Anus nearly always terminal,
+rarely dorsal, at a
+little distance from end
+of body. Suckers absent.
+Nervous system rarely
+(<i>Aeolosoma</i>) in continuity
+with epidermis. Vascular
+system always present,
+forming a closed system,
+more complicated in the
+larger forms than in the
+aquatic genera. Several
+specially large contractile
+trunks in the anterior segments uniting the dorsal and ventral
+vessels. Nephridia generally paired, often very numerous in each
+segment, in the form of long, much-coiled tubes with intracellular
+lumen. Gonads limited in number of pairs, testes and ovaries
+always present in the same individual. Special sacs developed
+from the intersegmental septa lodge the developing ova and
+sperm. Special gonad ducts always present. Male ducts often
+open on to exterior through a terminal chamber which is
+variously specialized, and sometimes with a penis.</p>
+
+<p>Generative pores usually paired, sometimes single and median.
+Spermathecae nearly always present. Alimentary canal straight,
+often with appended glands of complicated or simpler structure;
+no jaws. Eggs deposited in a cocoon after copulation. Development
+direct. Reproduction by budding also occurs. Fresh-water
+(rarely marine) and terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p>The Oligochaeta show a greater variety of size than any other
+group of the Chaetopoda. They range from a millimetre or
+so (smaller species of <i>Aeolosoma</i>) to 6 ft. or even rather more
+(<i>Microchaeta rappi</i>, &amp;c.) in length.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:426px; height:359px" src="images/img795b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 11.&mdash;Setae of <i>Oligochaeta.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Penial seta of <i>Perichaeta ceylonica.</i></p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Extremity of penial seta of <i>Acanthodrilus</i> (after Horst).</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Seta of <i>Urochaeta</i> (Perier).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d</i>, Seta of <i>Lumbricus.</i></p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Seta of <i>Criodrilus.</i></p>
+<p><i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, Setae of <i>Bohemilla comata.</i></p>
+<p><i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>j</i>, Setae of <i>Psammoryctes barbatus</i> (f to j after Vezhdovský).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Setae.</i>&mdash;The setae, which are always absent from the peristomial
+segment, are also sometimes absent from a greater number of the
+anterior segments of the body, and have completely disappeared in
+<i>Achaeta cameranoi.</i> When present they are either arranged in four
+bundles of from one to ten or even more setae, or are disposed in continuous
+lines completely encircling each segment of the body. This
+latter arrangement characterizes many genera of the family <i>Megascolicidae</i>
+and one genus (<i>Periscolex</i>) of the <i>Glossoscolicidae.</i> It has
+been shown (Bourne) that the &ldquo;perichaetous&rdquo; condition is probably
+secondary, inasmuch as in worms which are, when adult,
+&ldquo;perichaetous&rdquo; the setae develop in pairs so that the embryo
+passes through a stage in which it has four bundles of setae, two
+to each bundle, the prevalent condition in the group. Rarely there
+is an irregular disposition of the setae which are not paired, though
+the total number is eight to a segment (fig. 10), <i>e.g.</i> <i>Pontoscolex.</i>
+The varying forms of the setae are illustrated in fig. 11.</p>
+
+<p><i>Structure.</i>&mdash;The body wall consists of an epidermis which secretes
+a delicate cuticle and is only ciliated in <i>Aeolosoma</i>, and in that genus
+only on the under surface of the prostomium. The epidermis contains
+numerous groups of sense cells; beneath the epidermis there
+is rarely (<i>Kynotus</i>) an extensive connective tissue dermis. Usually
+the epidermis is immediately followed by the circular layer of muscles,
+and this by the longitudinal coat. Beneath this again is a distinct
+peritoneum lining the coelom, which appears to be wanting as a
+special layer in some Polychaetes (Benham, Gilson). The muscular
+layers are thinner in the aquatic forms, which possess only a single
+row of longitudinal fibres, or (<i>Enchytracidae</i>) two layers. In the
+earthworms, on the other hand, this coat is thick and composed of
+many layers.</p>
+
+<p>The clitellum consists of a thickening of the epidermis, and is of
+two forms among the Oligochaeta. In the aquatic genera the
+epidermis comes to consist entirely of glandular cells, which are,
+however, arranged in a single layer. In the earthworms, on the other
+hand, the epidermis becomes specialized into several layers of cells,
+all of which are glandular. It is therefore obviously much thicker
+than the clitellum in the limicolous forms. The position of the
+clitellum, which is universal in occurrence, varies much as does the
+number of component segments. As a rule&mdash;to which, however,
+there are exceptions&mdash;the clitellum consists of two or three segments
+only in the small aquatic Oligochaeta, while in the terrestrial forms
+it is as a general rule, to which again there are exceptions, a more
+extensive, sometimes much more extensive, region.</p>
+
+<p>In the Oligochaeta there is a closer correspondence between external
+metamerism and the divisions of the coelom than is apparent
+in some Chaetopods. The external segments are usually definable
+by the setae; and if the setae are absent, as in the anterior segments
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span>
+of several <i>Geoscolicidae</i>, the nephridiopores indicate the segments;
+to each segment corresponds internally a chamber of the coelom
+which is separated from adjacent segments by transverse septa, which
+are only unrecognizable in the genus <i>Aeolosoma</i> and in the head
+region of other Oligochaeta. In the latter case, the numerous bands
+of muscle attaching the pharynx to the parietes have obliterated the
+regular partition by means of septa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nephridia</i>.&mdash;The nephridia in this group are invariably coiled tubes
+with an intracellular lumen and nearly invariably open into the
+coelom by a funnel. There are no renal organs with a wide intercellular
+lumen, such as occur in the Polychaeta, nor is there ever any
+permanent association between nephridia and ducts connected with
+the evacuation of the generative products, such as occur in <i>Alciope</i>,
+<i>Saccocirrus</i>, &amp;c. In these points the Oligochaeta agree with the
+Hirudinea. They also agree in the general structure of the nephridia.
+It has been ascertained that the nephridia of Oligochaeta are preceded
+in the embryo by a pair of delicate and sinuous tubes, also found in
+the Hirudinea and Polychaeta, which are larval excretory organs.
+It is not quite certain whether these are to be regarded as the remnant
+of an earlier excretory system, replaced among the Oligochaeta by
+the subsequently developed paired structures, or whether these
+&ldquo;head kidneys&rdquo; are the first pair of nephridia precociously developed.
+The former view has been extensively held, and it is
+supported by the fact that in <i>Octochaetus</i> the first segment of the
+body has a pair of nephridia which is exactly like those which follow,
+and, like them, persists. On the other hand, in most Oligochaeta the
+first segment has in the adult no nephridium, and in the case of
+<i>Octochaetus</i> the existence of a &ldquo;head kidney&rdquo; antedating the subsequently
+developed nephridia of the first and other segments has
+neither been seen nor proved to be absent. In any case the nephridia
+which occupy the segments of the body generally are first of all
+represented by paired structures, the &ldquo;pronephridia,&rdquo; in which the
+funnel is composed of but one cell, which is flagellate. This stage
+has at any rate been observed in <i>Rhynchelmis</i> and <i>Lumbricus</i> (in
+its widest sense) by Vezhdovský. It is further noticeable that in
+<i>Rhynchelmis</i> the covering of vesicular cells which clothes the drain-pipe
+cells of the adult nephridium is cut off from the nephridial
+cells themselves and is not a peritoneal layer surrounding the
+nephridium. Thus the nephridia, in this case at least, are a part
+of the coelom and are not shut off from it by a layer of peritoneum,
+as are other organs which lie in it, <i>e.g.</i> the gut. A growth both of
+the funnel, which becomes multicellular, and of the rest of the nephridium
+produces the adult nephridia of the genera mentioned. The
+paired disposition of these organs is the prevalent one among the
+Oligochaeta, and occurs in all of twelve out of the thirteen families
+into which the group is divided.</p>
+
+<p>Among the <i>Megascolicidae</i>, however, which in number of genera
+and species nearly equals the remaining families taken together,
+another form of the excretory system occurs. In the genera <i>Pheretima,
+Megascolex</i>, <i>Dichogaster</i>, &amp;c., each segment contains a large
+number of nephridia, which, on account of the fact that they are
+necessarily smaller than the paired nephridia of <i>e.g.</i> <i>Lumbricus</i>, have
+been termed micronephridia, as opposed to meganephridia; there is,
+however, no essential difference in structure, though micronephridia
+are not uncommonly (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Megascolides</i>, <i>Octochaetus</i>) unprovided
+with funnels. It is disputed whether these micronephridia are or
+are not connected together in each segment and from segment to
+segment. In any case they have been shown in three genera to develop
+by the growth and splitting into a series of original paired
+pronephridia. A complex network, however, does occur in <i>Lybiodrilus</i>
+and certain other <i>Eudrilidae</i>, where the paired nephridia
+possess ducts leading to the exterior which ramify and anastomose
+on the thickness of the body wall. The network is, however, of the
+duct of the nephridium, possibly ectodermic in origin, and does not
+affect the glandular tubes which remain undivided and with one
+coelomic funnel each.</p>
+
+<p>The Oligochaeta are the only Chaetopods in which undoubted
+nephridia may possess a relationship with the alimentary canal.
+Thus, in <i>Octochaetus multiporus</i> a large nephridium opens anteriorly
+into the buccal cavity, and numerous nephridia in the same worm
+evacuate their contents into the rectum. The anteriorly-opening
+and usually very large nephridia are not uncommon, and have
+been termed &ldquo;peptonephridia.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 450px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:421px" src="images/img796.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;Female reproductive system
+of <i>Heliodrilus</i>.&mdash;XI-XIV, eleventh to fourteenth
+segments, <i>sperm</i>, spermatheca;
+<i>sp.o</i>, its external orifice; <i>sp.sac</i>, spermathecal
+sac; <i>ov</i>, sac containing ovary;
+<i>r.o</i>, egg sac; <i>od</i>, oviduct.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Gonads and Gonad Ducts</i>.&mdash;The Oligochaeta agree with the leeches
+and differ from most Polychaeta in that they are hermaphrodite.
+There is no exception to this generalization. The gonads are, moreover,
+limited and fixed in numbers, and are practically invariably
+attached to the intersegmental septa, usually to the front septum
+of a segment, more rarely to the posterior septum. The prevalent
+number of testes is one pair in the aquatic genera and two pairs in
+earthworms. But there are exceptions; thus a species of <i>Lamprodrilus</i>
+has four pairs of testes. The ovaries are more usually one
+pair, but two are sometimes present. The segments occupied by
+the gonads are fixed, and are for earthworms invariably X, XI, or one
+of them for the testes, and XIII for the ovaries The position
+varies in the aquatic Oligochaeta. The Oligochaeta contrast with
+the Polychaeta in the general presence of outgrowths of the septa
+in the genital segments, which are either close to, or actually involve,
+the gonads, and into which may also open the funnels of the gonad
+ducts. These sacs contain the developing sperm cells or eggs, and
+are with very few exceptions universal in the group. The testes
+are more commonly thus involved than are the ovaries. It is indeed
+only among the <i>Eudrilidae</i> that the enclosure of the ovaries in septal
+sacs is at all general. Recently the same thing has been recorded in
+a few species of <i>Pheretima</i> (= <i>Perichaeta</i>), but details are as yet
+wanting. We can thus speak in these worms of <i>gonocoels</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
+coelomic cavities connected only with the generative system. These
+cavities communicate with the exterior through the gonad ducts,
+which have nothing to do with them, but whose coelomic funnels are
+taken up by them in the course of their growth. There are, however,
+in the <i>Eudrilidae</i>, as already mentioned, sacs envolving the ovaries
+which bore their own way to the exterior, and thus may be termed
+coelomoducts. These sacs are dealt with later under the description
+of the spermathecae, which function they appear to perform. The
+gonad ducts are male and female, and open opposite to or, rarely,
+alongside of the gonads, whose products they convey to the exterior.
+The oviducts are always short trumpet-shaped tubes and are sometimes
+reduced (<i>Enchytraeidae</i>) to merely the external orifices. It
+is possible, however, that those oviducts belong to a separate morphological
+category, more comparable to the dorsal pores and to
+abdominal pores in some fishes. The sperm ducts are usually longer
+than the oviducts; but in Limicolae both series of tubes opening
+by the funnel into one segment and on to the exterior in the following
+segment. While the oviducts always open directly on to the exterior,
+it is the rule for the sperm ducts to open on to the exterior
+near to or through certain
+terminal chambers, which
+have been variously
+termed atrium and prostate,
+or spermiducal
+gland. The distal extremity
+of this apparatus
+is sometimes eversible as
+a penis. Associated with
+these glands are frequently
+to be found bundles or
+pairs of long and variously
+modified setae which are
+termed penial setae, to distinguish
+them from other
+setae sometimes but not
+always associated with
+rather similar glands which
+are found anteriorly to
+these, and often in the
+immediate neighbourhood
+of the spermathecae; the
+latter are spoken of as
+genital setae.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spermathecae.</i>&mdash;These
+structures appear to be
+absolutely distinctive of
+the Oligochaeta, unless
+the sacs which contain
+sperm and open in common
+with the nephridia of <i>Saccocirrus</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Haplodrili</a></span>)
+are similar. Spermathecae
+are generally present in
+the Oligochaeta and are absent only in comparatively few genera and
+species. Their position varies, but is constant for the species, and
+they are rarely found behind the gonads. They are essentially
+spherical, pear-shaped or oval sacs opening on to the exterior but
+closed at the coelomic end. In a few <i>Enchytraeidae</i> and <i>Lumbriculidae</i>
+the spermathecae open at the distal extremity into the
+oesophagus, which is a fact difficult of explanation. Among the
+aquatic Oligochaeta and many earthworms (the families <i>Lunibricidae</i>,
+<i>Geoscolicidae</i> and a few other genera) the spermathecae are
+simple structures, as has been described. In the majority of the
+<i>Megascolicidae</i> each sac is provided with one or more diverticula,
+tubular or oval in form, of a slightly different histological character
+in the lining epithelium, and in them is invariably lodged the sperm.</p>
+
+<p>The spermathecae are usually paired structures, one pair to each
+of the segments where they occur. In many <i>Geoscolicidae</i>, however,
+and certain <i>Lumbricidae</i> and <i>Perichaetidae</i>, there are several, even
+a large number, of pairs of very small spermathecae to each of the
+segments which contain them.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Eudrilidae</i> there are spermathecae of different morphological
+value. In figs. 12 and 13 are shown the spermathecae of the
+genera <i>Hyperiodrilus</i> and <i>Heliodrilus</i>, which are simple sacs ending
+blindly as in other earthworms, but of which there is only one median
+opening in the thirteenth segment or in the eleventh. In <i>Heliodrilus</i>
+the blind extremity of the spermatheca is enclosed in a coelomic sac
+which is in connexion with the sacs envolving the ovaries and oviducts.
+In <i>Hyperiodrilus</i> the whole spermatheca is thus included
+in a corresponding sac, which is of great extent. In such other
+genera of the family as have been examined, the true spermatheca
+has entirely disappeared, and the sac which contains it in <i>Hyperiodrilus</i>
+alone remains. This sac has been already referred to as a
+coelomoduct. Its orifice on to the exterior is formed by an involution
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span>
+(as it appears) of the epidermis, and that it performs the function
+of a spermatheca is shown by its containing spermatozoa, or, in
+<i>Stuhlmannia</i>, a spermatophore. In <i>Polytoreutus</i>, also, spermatophores
+have been found in these spermathecal sacs. We have thus
+the replacement of a spermatheca, corresponding to those of the
+remaining families of Oligochaeta, and derived, as is believed, from
+the epidermis, by a structure performing the same function, but
+derived from the mesoblastic tissues, and with a cavity which is
+coelom.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:290px" src="images/img797.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;Female reproductive system
+of <i>Hyperiodrilus</i>.&mdash;XIII, XIV, thirteenth
+and fourteenth segments.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>sp</i>, Spermatheca.</p>
+
+<p><i>sp&rsquo;</i>, Spermathecal sac
+involving the last.</p>
+
+<p><i>ov</i>, Ovary.</p>
+
+<p><i>r.o</i>, Egg sac.</p>
+
+<p><i>od</i>, Oviduct.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Alimentary Canal.</i>&mdash;The alimentary canal is always a straight tube,
+and the anus, save in the genera <i>Criodrilus</i> and <i>Dero</i>, is completely
+terminal. A buccal cavity, a pharynx, an oesophagus and an
+intestine are always distinguishable. Commonly among the terrestrial
+forms there is a gizzard, or two gizzards, or a larger number,
+in the oesophageal region. There is no armed protrusible pharynx,
+such as exists in some other Chaetopods. This may be associated
+with mud-eating habits; but it is not wholly certain that this is the
+case; for in <i>Chaetogaster</i> and <i>Agriodrilus</i>, which are predaceous
+worms, there is no protrusible pharynx, though in the latter the
+oesophagus is thickened through its extent with muscular fibres.
+The oesophagus is often furnished with glandular diverticula, the
+&ldquo;glands of Morren,&rdquo; which are often of complex structure through
+the folding of their walls. Among the purely aquatic families such
+structures are very rare, and are represented by two caeca in the
+genus <i>Limnodriloides</i>. It is a remarkable fact, not yet understood,
+that in certain <i>Enchytraeidae</i> and <i>Lumbriculidae</i> the spermathecae
+open into the oesophagus as well as on to the exterior. The only
+comparable fact among other worms is the Laurer&rsquo;s canal or genito-intestinal
+canal in the Trematoda. The intestine is usually in
+the higher forms provided
+with a typhlosole, in
+which, in <i>Pontoscolex</i>, runs
+a ciliated canal or canals
+communicating with the
+intestine. It is possible
+that this represents the
+syphon or supplementary
+intestine of <i>Capitellidae</i>,
+which has been shown to
+develop as a grooving of
+the intestine ultimately
+cut off from it. The intestine
+has a pair of caeca
+or two or three pairs (but
+all lie in one segment) in
+the genus <i>Pheretima</i> and
+in one species of <i>Rhinodrilus</i>.
+In <i>Typhoeus</i> and
+<i>Megascolex</i> there are complex
+glands appended to
+the intestine.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Benhamia caecifera</i>
+and at least one other
+earthworm there are
+numerous caeca, one pair
+to each segment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;The classifications of Adolf Eduard, Grube and
+Claparède separated into two subdivisions the aquatic and the terrestrial
+forms. This scheme, opposed by many, has been reinstated by
+Sedgwick. The chief difficulty in this scheme is offered by the
+Moniligastridae, which in some degree combine the characters of
+both the suborders, into neither of which will they fit accurately.
+The following arrangement is a compromise:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Group I. <i>Aphaneura.</i>&mdash;This group is referred by A. Sedgwick to the
+Archiannelida. It is, however, though doubtless near to the base
+of the Oligochaetous series, most nearly allied in the reproductive
+system to the Oligochaeta. It contains but one family, <i>Aeolosomatidae</i>.
+There are three pairs of spermathecae situated in segments
+III-V, a testis in V and an ovary in VI. There are a clitellum
+and sperm ducts which though like nephridia have a larger funnel
+and a less complexly wound duct. This family consists of only one
+well-known genus, <i>Aeolosoma</i>, which contains several species. They
+are minute worms with coloured oil drops (green, olive green or
+orange) contained in the epidermis. The nervous system is embedded
+in the epidermis, and the pairs of ganglia are separated as
+in <i>Serpula</i>, &amp;c.; each pair has a longish commissure between its
+two ganglia. The intersegmental septa are absent save for the
+division of the first segment. The large prostomium is ciliated
+ventrally. The setae are either entirely capillary or there are in
+addition some sigmoid setae even with bifid free extremities. This
+genus also propagates asexually, like <i>Ctenodrilus</i>, which may possibly
+belong to the same family. Asexual reproduction universal.</p>
+
+<p>Group II. <i>Limicolae.</i>&mdash;With a few exceptions the Limicolae are,
+as the name denotes, aquatic in habit. They are small to moderate-sized
+Oligochaeta, with a smaller number of segments than in the
+Terricolae. The alimentary canal is simple and a gizzard or oesophageal
+diverticula rarely developed. The vascular system is simple
+with as a rule direct communication between dorsal and ventral
+vessels in each segment. Nerve cord lies in coelom; brain in first
+segment or prostomium in many forms. Clitellum generally only
+two or three segments and more anterior in position than in Terricolae.
+Nephridia always paired and without plexus of blood capillaries.
+Spermatheca rarely with diverticula; sperm ducts as a rule
+occupying two segments only, usually opening by means of an
+atrium. Sperm sacs generally occupying a good many segments
+and with simple interior undivided by a network of trabeculae.
+Ova large and with much yolk. Asexual reproduction only in Naids.
+Egg sacs as large or nearly so as sperm sacs. Testes and ovaries
+always free. The following families constitute the group, viz.
+<i>Naididae</i>, <i>Enchytraeidae</i>, <i>Tubificidae</i>, <i>Lumbriculidae</i>, <i>Phreoryctidae</i>,
+<i>Phreodrilidae</i>, <i>Alluroididae</i>, the latter possibly not referable to this
+group.</p>
+
+<p>Group III. <i>Moniligastres.</i>&mdash;Moderate-sized to very large Oligochaeta,
+terrestrial in habit, with the appearance of Terricolae.
+Generative organs anterior in position as in Limicolae. Sperm
+ducts and atria as in Limicolae; egg sacs large; body wall thick;
+vascular system and nephridia as in Terricolae. Only one family,
+<i>Moniligastridae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Group IV. <i>Terricolae.</i>&mdash;Earthworms, rarely aquatic in habit.
+Of small to very large size. Clitellum commonly extensive and
+more posterior in position than in other groups. Vascular system
+complicated without regular connexion between dorsal and ventral
+vessels, except in anterior segments. Nephridia as a rule with
+abundant vascular supply. Testes, and occasionally ovaries, enclosed
+in sacs. Sperm sacs generally limited to one or two segments
+with interior subdivided by trabeculae. Sperm ducts traverse several
+segments on their way to exterior. They open in common with,
+or near to, or, more rarely, into, glands which are not certainly
+comparable to the atria of the Limicolae. Egg sacs minute and
+functionless(?). Eggs minute with little yolk. Nephridia sometimes
+very numerous in each segment. Spermathecae often with
+diverticula.</p>
+
+<p>Earthworms are divided into the following families, viz. <i>Megascolicidae</i>,
+<i>Geoscolicidae</i>, <i>Eudrilidae</i>, <i>Lumbricidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As an appendix to the Oligochaeta, and possibly referable to that
+group, though their systematic position cannot at present be determined
+with certainty, are to be placed the <i>Bdellodrilidae</i> (<i>Discodrilidae</i>
+auct.), which are small parasites upon crayfish. These worms
+lay cocoons like the Oligochaeta and leeches, and where they depart
+from the structure of the Oligochaeta agree with that of leeches.
+The body is composed of a small and limited number of segments
+(not more than fourteen), and there is a sucker at each end of the
+body. There are no setae and apparently only two pairs of nephridia,
+of which the anterior pair open commonly by a common pore on the
+third segment after the head, whose segments have not been accurately
+enumerated. The intervening segments contain the genitalia,
+which are on the Oligochaeta plan in that the gonads are independent
+of their ducts and that there are special spermathecae, one pair.
+The male ducts are either one pair or two pairs, which open by a
+common and complicated efferent terminal apparatus furnished
+with a protrusible penis. The ganglia are crowded at the posterior
+end of the body as in leeches, and there is much tendency to the
+obliteration of the coelom as in that group. <i>Pterodrilus</i> and <i>Cirrodrilus</i>
+bear a few, or circles of, external processes which may be
+branchiae; <i>Bdellodrilus</i> and <i>Astacobdella</i> have none. The vascular
+system is as in the lower Oligochaeta. There are two chitinous
+jaws in the buccal cavity, a dorsal and a ventral, which are of
+specially complicated structure in <i>Cirrodrilus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;F.E. Beddard, <i>A Monograph of the Oligochaeta</i>
+(Oxford, 1895), also <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1886-1895, and <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i>, 1885-1906; W.B. Benham, <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>,
+1886-1905; W. Michaelsen, &ldquo;Oligochaeta&rdquo; in <i>Das Tierreich</i>,
+1900, and <i>Mitth. Mus.</i> (Hamburg, 1890-1906); A.G. Bourne, <i>Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1894; H.J. Moore, <i>Journ. Morph.</i>, 1895; F.
+Vezhdovský, <i>System d. Oligochaeten</i> (Prague, 1884), and <i>Entwicklungsgeschichtliche
+Untersuchungen</i>; and numerous papers by the
+above and by G. Eisen, E. Perrier, D. Rosa, R. Horst, L. Cognetti,
+U. Pierantoni, W. Baldwin Spencer, H. Ude, &amp;c., and embryological
+memoirs by R.S. Bergh, E.B. Wilson, N. Kleinenberg, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Hirudinea</span>.&mdash;The leeches are more particularly to be compared
+with the Oligochaeta, and the following definition embraces the
+main features in which they agree and disagree with that group.
+Setae are only present in the genus <i>Acanthobdella</i>. Eyes are
+present, but hardly so complex as in certain genera of Polychaetes.
+The appendages of the body are reduced to branchiae, present
+in certain forms. A clitellum is present. The segments of body
+are few (not more than thirty-four) and fixed in number. The
+anus is dorsal. One or two (anterior and posterior) suckers
+always present. Nervous system always in coelom. Coelom
+generally reduced to a system of tubes, sometimes communicating
+with vascular system; in <i>Acanthobdella</i> and <i>Ozobranchus</i> a series
+of metamerically arranged chambers as in Oligochaeta. Nephridia
+always paired, rarely (<i>Pontobdella</i>) forming a network
+communicating from segment to segment; lumen of nephridia
+always intracellular, funnels pervious or impervious. Alimentary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span>
+canal sometimes with protrusible proboscis; never with gizzard
+or oesophageal glands; intestine with caeca as a rule. Jaws
+often present. Testes several pairs, rarely one pair, continuous
+with sperm ducts; ovaries, one pair, continuous with oviducts;
+generative pores single and median. No separate spermathecae
+or septal chambers for the development of the ova and sperm.
+Eggs deposited in a cocoon. Development direct. No asexual
+generation. Fresh-water, marine and terrestrial. Parasitic
+or carnivorous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In external characters the Hirudinea are unmistakable and not
+to be confused with other Annelids, except perhaps with the <i>Bdellodrilidae</i>,
+which resemble them in certain particulars. The absence
+of setae&mdash;save in <i>Acanthobdella</i>, where five of the anterior segments
+possess each four pairs of setae with reserve setae placed close behind
+them (fig. 14), and the presence of an anterior and posterior sucker,
+produce a looping mode of progression similar to that of a Geometrid
+larva. The absence of setae and the great secondary annulation
+render the mapping of the segments a subject of some difficulty.
+The most reliable test appears to be the nerve ganglia, which are
+more distinct from the intervening connectives than in other
+Annelids.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:287px" src="images/img798a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;<i>Acanthobdella</i>, from the ventral
+surface, showing the five sets of setae
+(<i>S</i><span class="su">1</span> to <i>S</i><span class="su">5</span>) and the replacing setae (<i>Sr</i>)
+behind them. The three pairs of pigmented
+spots show the position of the
+eyes on the dorsal surface. (After
+Kovalevsky.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the middle of the body, where the limits of the somites can be
+checked by a comparison with the arrangement of the nephridia
+and the gonads, and where the ganglia are quite distinct and separated
+by long connectives, each ganglion is seen to consist of six
+masses of cells enclosed by capsules and to give off three nerves on
+each side. This corresponds
+to the usual presence
+(in the <i>Rhynchobdellidae</i>)
+of three annuli
+to each segment. Anteriorly
+and posteriorly
+separate ganglia have
+fused. The brain consists
+not only of a group
+of six capsules corresponding
+to the archicerebrum
+of the Oligochaeta,
+but of a further
+mass of cells surrounding
+and existing below the
+alimentary canal, which
+can be analysed into five
+or six more separate ganglia.
+The whole mass lies
+in the seventh or eighth
+segment. At the posterior
+end of the body
+there are likewise seven
+separate ganglia partially
+fused to form a single
+ganglionic mass, which
+innervates the segments lying behind the anus and corresponding
+to the posterior sucker. So that a leech in which only
+twenty-seven segments are apparent by the enumeration of the
+annuli, separate ganglia, nephridia, lines of sensillae upon the body,
+really possesses an additional seven lying behind that which is
+apparently the last of the series and crowded together into a minute
+space. The annuli into which segments are externally divided are
+so deeply incised as to render it impossible to distinguish, as can be
+readily done in the Oligochaeta as a rule, the limits of an annulus
+from that of a true segment. As remarked, the prevalent number
+of annuli to a segment is three in the <i>Rhynchobdellidae</i>. But in that
+group (<i>Cystobranchus</i>) there may be as many as eight annuli. In
+the <i>Gnathobdellidae</i> the prevailing number of annuli to a segment
+is five; but here again the number is often increased, and <i>Trocheta</i>
+has no less than eleven. The reason for this excessive annulation
+has been seen in the limited number of segments (thirty-four) of
+which the body is composed, which are laid down early and do not
+increase. In the Oligochaeta, on the other hand, there is growth of
+new segments. It is important to notice that the metameric plan
+of growth of Chaetopods is still preserved.</p>
+
+<p>The nephridia are like those of the Oligochaeta in general structure;
+that is to say, they consist of drain-pipe cells which are placed
+end to end and are perforated by their duct. The internal funnel
+varies in the same way as in the Oligochaeta in the number of cells
+which form it. In <i>Clepsine</i> (<i>Glossiphonia</i>) there are only three cells,
+and in <i>Nephelis</i> five to eight cells. In <i>Hirudo</i> the funnel is not
+pervious and is composed of a large number of cells. Externally,
+the nephridium opens by a vesicle, as in many Oligochaetes whose
+lumen is intercellular. In <i>Pontobdella</i> and <i>Branchellion</i> the nephridia
+form a network extending from segment to segment, but there is
+only one pair of funnels in each segment. Slight differences in form
+have been noted between nephridia of different segments; but the
+Hirudinea do not show the marked differentiation that is to be seen
+in some other Chaetopods; nor do the nephridia ever acquire any
+relations to the alimentary canal.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:285px" src="images/img798b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;Section of <i>Acanthobdella</i> (after Kovalevsky).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>,    Coelom.</p>
+<p><i>c.ch</i>, Coelomic epithelium (yellow-cells).</p>
+<p><i>cg</i>,   Glandular cells.</p>
+<p><i>cl</i>,   Muscle cells of lateral line.</p>
+<p><i>cp</i>,   Pigment cells.</p>
+<p><i>ep</i>,   Ectoderm.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>g</i>,    Nerve cord.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>,    Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>mc</i>,   Circular muscle.</p>
+<p><i>ml</i>,   Longitudinal muscle.</p>
+<p><i>vd</i>,   Dorsal vessel.</p>
+<p><i>vv</i>,   Ventral vessel.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:416px; height:355px" src="images/img798c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;Section of <i>Acanthobdella</i> (after Kovalevsky). Identical
+letters as in fig. 2; in addition,
+<i>cn</i>, nerve cord;
+<i>in</i>, intestine;
+<i>nf</i>, parts of nephridium;
+<i>on</i>, external opening of nephridium;
+<i>ov</i>, ova;
+<i>t</i>, testis.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Coelom.</i>&mdash;The coelom of the Hirudinea differs in most genera from
+that of the Oligochaeta and Polychaeta. The difference is that it is
+broken up into a complex sinus system. The least modified type
+is shown by <i>Acanthobdella</i>, a leech, parasitic upon fishes, in which
+transverse sections (see figs. 15 and 16) show the gut, the nervous
+system, &amp;c., lying in a spacious chamber which is the coelom. This
+coelom is lined by peritoneal cells and is divided into a series of
+metameres by septa which correspond to the segmentation of the
+body, the arrangement being thus precisely like that of typical
+Chaetopoda. Moreover, upon the intestine the coelomic cells are
+modified into chloragogen cells. In <i>Acanthobdella</i> the testes are,
+however, not contained in the general coelom, and the nephridia
+lie in the septa. It is remarkable, in view of the spaciousness of the
+coelom, that the funnels of the latter have not been seen.
+<i>Ozobranchus</i> possesses a coelom which is less typically chaetopodous
+than that of <i>Acanthobdella</i>, but more so than in other leeches. There
+is a spacious cavity surrounding the gut and containing also blood-vessels,
+and to some extent the generative organs, and the nervous
+cord. Furthermore, in the mid region of the body this coelom is
+broken up by metamerically arranged septa, as in <i>Acanthobdella</i>.
+These septa are, however, rather incomplete and are not fastened
+to the gut; and, as in <i>Acanthobdella</i>, the nephridia are embedded
+in them. In addition to the median lacuna there are two lateral
+lacunae, one upon each side. These regions of the coelom end at the
+ends of the body and communicate with each other by means of a
+branched system of coelomic sinuses, which are in places very fine
+tubes. Neither in this genus nor in the last is there any communication
+between coelom and vascular system. In <i>Clepsine</i> (<i>Glossiphonia</i>)
+there is a further breaking up of the coelom. The median
+lacuna no longer exists, but is represented by a dorsal and ventral
+sinus. The former lodges the dorsal, the latter the ventral, blood-vessel.
+The gut has no coelomic space surrounding it. A complex
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span>
+network places these sinuses and the lateral sinuses in communication.
+Here also the blood system has no communication with the
+sinus system of the coelom. In <i>Hirudo</i> and the <i>Gnathobdellidae</i>
+there is only one system of cavities which consist of four principal
+longitudinal trunks, of which the two lateral are contractile, which
+communicate with a network ramifying everywhere, even among
+the cells of the epidermis. The network is partly formed out of
+pigmented cells which are excavated and join to form tubes, the so-called
+botryoidal tissue, not found among the <i>Rhynchobdellidae</i> at
+all. It seems clear from the recent investigations of A.G. Bourne
+and E.S. Goodrich that the vascular system and the coelom are in
+communication (as in vertebrates by means of the lymph system).
+On the other hand, it has been held that in these leeches there is no
+vascular system at all and that the entire system of spaces is coelom.
+In favour of regarding the vascular system as totally absent, is the
+fact that the median coelomic channels contain no dorsal and
+ventral vessel. In favour of seeing in the lateral trunks and their
+branches a vascular system, is the contractility of the former, and
+the fact of the intrusion of the latter into the epidermis, matched
+among the Oligochaeta, where undoubted blood capillaries perforate
+the epidermis. A further fact must be considered in deciding this
+question, which is the discovery of ramifying coelomic tubes, approaching
+close to, but not entering, the epidermis in the Polychaete
+<i>Arenicola</i>. These tubes are lined by flattened epithelium and often
+contain blood capillaries; they communicate with the coelom and
+are to be regarded as prolongation of it into the thickness of the
+body wall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gonads and Gonad Ducts.</i>&mdash;The gonads and their ducts in the
+Hirudinea invariably form a closed system of cavities entirely shut
+off from the coelom in which they lie. There is thus a broad resemblance
+to the <i>Eudrilidae</i>, to which group of Oligochaeta the Hirudinea
+are further akin by reason of the invariably unpaired condition
+of the generative apertures, and the existence of a copulatory
+apparatus (both of which characters, however, are present occasionally
+in other Oligochaeta).</p>
+
+<p>The testes are more numerous than the ovaries, of which latter
+there are never more than one pair. The testes vary in numbers of
+pairs. Four (<i>Ozobranchus</i>) to six (<i>Glossiphonia</i>) or ten (<i>Philaemon</i>)
+are common numbers. In <i>Acanthobdella</i>, however, the testes of each
+side of the body have grown together to form a continuous band,
+which extends in front of external pore. Each testis communicates
+by means of an efferent duct with a common collecting duct of its
+side of the body, which opens on to the exterior by means of a protrusible
+penis, and to which is sometimes appended a seminal vesicle.
+The efferent ducts are ciliated, and there is a patch of cilia at the
+point where they communicate with the cavity of each testis. The
+ovaries are more extensive in some forms (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Ozobranchus</i>) than
+in others, where they are small rounded bodies. The two ducts
+continuous with the gonads open by a common vagina on to the
+exterior behind the male pores. This &ldquo;vagina&rdquo; is sometimes of
+exaggerated size. Thus, in <i>Philaemon pungens</i> (Lambert) it has
+the form of a large sac, into which open by a single orifice the conjoined
+oviducts. From this vagina arises a narrow duct leading to
+the exterior. In <i>Ozobranchus</i> the structures in question are still
+more complicated. The two long ovarian sacs communicate with
+each other by a transverse bridge before uniting to form the terminal
+canal. Into each ovarian sac behind the transverse junction opens
+a slender tube, which is greatly coiled, and, in its turn, opens into
+a spherical &ldquo;spermathecal sac.&rdquo; From this an equally slender tube
+proceeds, which joins its fellow of the opposite side, and the two form
+a thick, walled tube, which opens on to the exterior within the bursa
+copulatrix through which the penis protrudes. These two last-mentioned
+types show features which can be, as it seems, matched
+in the Eudrilidae.</p>
+
+<p>The gonads develop (O. Bürger) in coelomic spaces close to
+nephridial funnels, which have, however, no relation to the gonad
+ducts. The ovaries are solid bodies, of which the outer layer becomes
+separated from the plug of cells lying within; thus a cavity is formed
+which is clearly coelom. This cavity and its walls becomes prolonged
+to form the oviducts. A stage exactly comparable to the
+stage in the leeches, where the ovary is surrounded by a closed sac,
+has been observed in <i>Eudrilus</i>. In this Annelid later the sac in
+question joins its fellow, passing beneath the nerve cord exactly
+as in the leech, and also grows out to reach the exterior. The sole
+difference is therefore that in <i>Eudrilus</i> the ovarian sac gives rise
+to a tube which bifurcates, one branch meeting a corresponding
+branch of the other ovary of the pair, while the second branch
+reaches the exterior. In the leech the two branches are fused into
+one. We have here clearly a case of a true coelomoduct performing
+the function of an oviduct in both leeches and <i>Eudrilidae</i>. The facts
+just referred to suggest further comparisons between the Hirudinea
+and <i>Eudrilidae</i>. The large sacs which have been termed vagina
+are suggestive of the large coelomic spermathecae in Eudrilids, a
+comparison which needs, however, embryological data, not at
+present forthcoming, for its justification. It is at least clear that in
+<i>Ozobranchus</i> this comparison is justifiable; but only probable, or
+perhaps possible, in the case of <i>Philaemon</i>. In the former, the duct,
+leading from the ovarian sac, and swelling along its course into the
+spherical sac, the &ldquo;spermatheca,&rdquo; is highly suggestive of the oviduct
+and receptaculum of the <i>Eudrilidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The testes during development become hollowed out and are
+prolonged into the vasa efferentia. These ducts therefore have not
+their exact counterparts in the Oligochaeta, unless we are to assume
+that they collectively are represented by the seminal vesicles of
+earthworms and the vasa deferentia. It is to be noted that the
+Hirudinea differ from the Oligochaeta in that the male pore is in
+advance of the gonads (except in <i>Acanthobdella</i>, which here, as in
+so many points, approximates to the Oligochaeta), whereas in
+Oligochaeta that pore is behind the gonads (again with an exception,
+<i>Allurus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification</i>.&mdash;The Hirudinea may be divided into three families:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(i.) <i>Rhynchobdellidae</i>.&mdash;A protrusible proboscis exists, but there
+are no jaws. The blood is colourless. <i>Pontobdella</i>, <i>Glossiphonia</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) <i>Gnathobdellidae</i>.&mdash;A proboscis absent, but jaws usually
+present. Blood coloured red with haemoglobin. <i>Hirudo</i>, <i>Nephelis</i>,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) <i>Acanthobdellidae</i>.&mdash;Proboscis present, but short. Paired
+setae of Oligochaetous pattern present in anterior segments. Blood
+red. <i>Acanthobdella</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;A.O. Kovalevsky, <i>Bull. Imp. Sci.</i> (St Petersburg,
+November 1896) (<i>Acanthobdella</i>); A.G. Bourne, <i>Quart. Journ.
+Micr. Sci.</i>, 1884; A. Oka, <i>Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.</i>, 1894; E.S. Goodrich,
+<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1899; W.E. Castle, <i>Bull. Mus. Comp.
+Zool.</i>, 1900; A.M. Lambert, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> (Victoria, 1897); C.O.
+Whitman, <i>Journ. Morph.</i>, 1889 and 1891; O. Bürger, <i>Zeitschr. wiss.
+Zool.</i>, 1902, and other memoirs by the above, and by St V. Apáthy,
+R. Blanchard, H. Bolsius, A. Dendy, R.S. Bergh, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. E. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:384px" src="images/img799.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1 f80">From <i>Cambridge Natural
+History</i>, vol. ii. &ldquo;Worms.&rdquo;
+by permission of Macmillan &amp;
+Co., Ltd.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Mature female of
+<i>Chaetosoma daparedii</i>,
+(From Mechnikov.) <i>a</i>,
+Oesophagus; <i>b</i>, intestine;
+<i>c</i>, anus; <i>d</i>, ovary;
+<i>e</i>, generative pore; <i>f</i>,
+ventral bristles.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHAETOSOMATIDA,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a small group of minute, free-living,
+aquatic organisms which are usually placed as an annex to
+the Nematoda. Indeed Mechnikov, to
+whom we owe much of our knowledge
+of these forms, calls them &ldquo;creeping
+Nematoda.&rdquo; They are usually found
+amongst seaweed in temperate seas, but
+they are probably widely distributed;
+some are fresh-water. The genus <i>Chaetosoma</i>,
+with the two species <i>Ch. claparedii</i>
+and <i>Ch. ophicephalum</i> and the genus
+<i>Tristicochaeta</i>, have swollen heads. The
+third genus <i>Rhabdogaster</i> has no such
+distinct head, though the body may be
+swollen anteriorly. The mouth is terminal
+and anterior and surrounded by a
+ring of spicules or a half-ring of hooks.
+Scattered hairs cover the body. Just in
+front of the anus there is in <i>Chaetosoma</i>
+a double, and in <i>Tristicochaeta</i> a triple
+row of about fifteen stout cylindrical
+projections upon which the animals
+creep. The females are a little larger
+than the males; in <i>Ch. claparedii</i> the
+former attain a length of 1.5 mm., the
+latter of  1.12 mm.    The mouth opens
+into an oesophagus which passes into an
+intestine; this opens by a ventral anus
+situated a little in front of the posterior
+end.    The testis is single, and its duct
+opens with the anus,  and is provided
+with a couple of spicules.    The ovary is
+double, and the oviducts open by a median ventral pore about
+the middle of the body; in this region there is a second swelling
+both in <i>Chaetosoma</i> and in <i>Rhabdogaster</i>.    The last-named form
+is in the female 0.36 mm. in length.    In it the hairs are confined
+to the dorsal middle line and the creeping setae are hooked, of
+a finer structure than in <i>Chaetosoma</i>, and situated so far forward
+that the vagina opens amongst them.    <i>Ch. ophicephalum</i> has
+been taken in the English Channel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Mechnikov, <i>Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.</i> xvii., 1867, p. 537;
+Panceri, <i>Atti Acc. Napoli</i>, vii., 1878, p. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAFER,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a word used in modern speech to distinguish the
+beetles of the family <i>Scarabaeidae</i>, and more especially those
+species which feed on leaves in the adult state. The word is
+derived from the O. Eng. <i>ceafor</i>, and it is interesting to note
+that the cognate Ger. <i>Käfer</i> is applied to beetles of all kinds.
+For the characters of the <i>Scarabaeidae</i> see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>. This
+family includes a large number of beetles, some of which feed on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span>
+dung and others on vegetable tissues. The cockchafers and their
+near allies belong to the subfamily <i>Melolonthinae</i>, and the
+rose-chafers to the <i>Cetoniinae</i>; in both the beetles eat leaves, and
+their grubs spend a long life underground devouring roots.
+In Britain the Melolonthines that are usually noted as injurious
+are the two species of cockchafer (<i>Melolontha vulgaris</i> and <i>M.
+hippocastani</i>), large heavy beetles with black pubescent pro-thorax,
+brown elytra and an elongated pointed tail-process;
+the summer-chafer (<i>Rhizotrogus solstitialis</i>), a smaller pale
+brown chafer; and the still smaller garden-chafer or &ldquo;cocker-bundy&rdquo;
+(<i>Phyllopertha horticola</i>), which has a dark green pro-thorax
+and brown elytra. Of the Cetoniines, the beautiful
+metallic green rose-chafer, <i>Cetonia aurata</i>, sometimes causes
+damage, especially in gardens. The larvae of the chafers are
+heavy, soft-skinned grubs, with hard brown heads provided with
+powerful mandibles, three pairs of well-developed legs, and a
+swollen abdomen. As they grow, the larvae become strongly
+flexed towards the ventral surface, and lie curled up in their
+earthen cells, feeding on roots. The larval life lasts several
+years, and in hard frosts the grubs go deep down away from the
+surface. Pupation takes place in the autumn, and though the
+perfect insect emerges from the cuticle very soon afterwards,
+it remains in its underground cell for several months, not making
+its way to the upper air until the ensuing summer. After pairing,
+the female crawls down into the soil to lay her eggs. The grubs
+of chafers, when turned up by the plough, are greedily devoured
+by poultry, pigs and various wild birds. When the beetles
+become so numerous as to call for destruction, they are usually
+shaken off the trees where they rest on to sheets or tarred boards.
+On the continent of Europe chafers are far more numerous than
+in the United Kingdom, and the rural governments in France
+give rewards for their destruction. D. Sharp states that in the
+department of Seine-inférieure 867,173,000 cockchafers and
+647,000,000 larvae were killed in the four years preceding 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The anatomy of <i>Melolontha</i> is very fully described in a classical
+memoir by H.E. Strauss-Dürckheim (Paris, 1828).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAFF<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (from the A.S. <i>ceaf</i>, allied to the O. High Ger. <i>cheva</i>,
+a husk or pod), the husks left after threshing grain, and also hay
+and straw chopped fine as food for cattle; hence, figuratively,
+the refuse or worthless part of anything. The colloquial use
+of the word, to chaff, in the sense of to banter or to make fun of a
+person, may be derived from this figurative sense, or from
+&ldquo;to chafe,&rdquo; meaning to vex or irritate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAFFARINAS,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Zaitarines</span>, a group of islands belonging
+to Spain off the north coast of Morocco, near the Algerian
+frontier, 2½ m. to the north of Cape del Agna. The largest of
+these isles, Del Congreso, is rocky and hilly. It has a watch-house
+on the coast nearest to Morocco. Isabella II., the central
+island, contains several batteries, barracks and a penal convict
+settlement. The Spanish government has undertaken the construction
+of breakwaters to unite this island with the neighbouring
+islet of El Rey, with a view to enclose a deep and already sheltered
+anchorage. This roadstead affords a safe refuge for many large
+vessels. The Chaffarinas, which are the <i>Tres Insulae</i> of the
+Romans and the <i>Zafr&#257;n</i> of the Arabs, were occupied by Spain
+in 1848. The Spanish occupation anticipated by a few days a
+French expedition sent from Oran to annex the islands to Algeria.
+The population of the islands is under 1000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1842-&emsp;&emsp;), American general,
+was born at Orwell, Ohio, on the 14th of April 1842. At the
+outbreak of the Civil War he entered the United States cavalry
+as a private, and he rose to commissioned rank in 1863,
+becoming brevet captain in 1865. He remained in the army
+after the war and took part with distinction in many Indian
+campaigns. His promotion was, however, slow, and he was at
+the age of fifty-six still a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. But in
+1898, at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, he was made
+brigadier-general and soon afterwards major-general of volunteers.
+In the Cuban campaign he won particular distinction, and the
+victory of the Americans in the action of El Caney was in large
+measure due to his careful personal reconnaissances of the ground
+to be attacked and to the endurance of his own brigade. After
+reverting for a time to the rank of brigadier-general, he was made
+a major-general U.S.V. again in 1900 and was appointed to
+command the United States contingent in China. He took a
+brilliant and successful part in the advance on Peking and the
+relief of the Legations. In 1901 he became a major-general in
+the regular army, and in 1901-1902 commanded the Division of
+the Philippines. In 1902-1903 he commanded the Department of
+the East, and from 1904 to 1906 was chief of the general staff
+of the army. In 1904 he received the rank of lieutenant-general
+in the United States army, being the first enlisted man of the
+regular army to attain this, the highest rank in the service.
+He was retired at his own request on the 1st of February 1906,
+after more than forty years&rsquo; service.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAFFINCH<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (<i>Fringilla coelebs</i>), the common English name
+of a bird belonging to the family <i>Fringillidae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Finch</a></span>), and
+distinguished, in the male sex, by the deep greyish blue of its
+crown feathers, the yellowish green of its rump, the white of the
+wing coverts, so disposed as to form two conspicuous bars, and
+the reddish brown passing into vinous red of the throat and
+breast. The female is drab, but shows the same white markings
+as the male, and the young males resemble the females until
+after the first autumn moult, when they gradually assume the
+plumage of their sex. The chaffinch breeds early in the season,
+and its song may often be heard in February. Its nest, which
+is a model of neatness and symmetry, it builds on trees and bushes,
+preferring such as are overgrown with moss and lichens. It is
+chiefly composed of moss and wool, lined internally with grass,
+wool, feathers, and whatever soft material the locality affords.
+The outside consists of moss and lichens, and according to Selby,
+&ldquo;is always accordant with the particular colour of its situation.&rdquo;
+When built in the neighbourhood of towns the nest is somewhat
+slovenly and untidy, being often composed of bits of dirty straw,
+pieces of paper and blackened moss; in one instance, near
+Glasgow, the author of the <i>Birds of the West of Scotland</i> found
+several postage-stamps thus employed. It lays four or five eggs
+of a pale purplish buff, streaked and spotted with purplish red.
+In spring the chaffinch is destructive to early flowers, and to
+young radishes and turnips just as they appear above the surface;
+in summer, however, it feeds principally on insects and their
+larvae, while in autumn and winter its food consists of grain and
+other seeds. On the continent of Europe the chaffinch is a
+favourite song-bird, especially in Germany, where great attention
+is paid to its training.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAFING-DISH<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>chaufer</i>, to make warm),
+a kind of portable grate heated with charcoal, and used for
+cooking or keeping food warm. In a light form, and heated
+over a spirit lamp, it is also used for cooking various dainty
+dishes at table. The employment of the chafing-dish for the
+latter purpose has been largely restored in modern cookery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAGOS,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, belonging to
+Britain, disposed in circular form round the Chagos bank, in
+4° 44&prime; to 7° 39&prime; S., and 70° 55&prime; to 72° 52&prime; E. The atolls on the
+south and east side of the bank, which has a circumference of
+about 270 m., have disappeared through subsidence; a few&mdash;Egmont,
+Danger, Eagle, and Three Brothers&mdash;still remain on
+the east side, but most of the population (about 700) is centred
+on Diego Garcia, which lies on the south-east side, and is nearly
+13 m. long by 6 m. wide. The lagoon, which is enclosed by two
+coral barriers and accessible to the largest vessels on the north
+side, forms one of the finest natural harbours in the world. The
+group, which has a total land area of 76 sq. m., is dependent for
+administrative purposes on Mauritius, and is regularly visited
+by vessels from that colony. The only product is cocoa-nut oil,
+of which about 106,000 gallons are annually exported. The
+French occupied the islands in 1791 from Mauritius, and the oil
+industry (from which the group is sometimes called the Oil Islands)
+came into the hands of French Creoles.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAGRES,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a village of the Republic of Panama, on the
+Atlantic coast of the Isthmus, at the mouth of the Chagres
+river, and about 8 m. W. of Colon. It has a harbour from 10 to
+12 ft. deep, which is difficult to enter, however, on account of
+bars at its mouth. The port was discovered by Columbus in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span>
+1502, and was opened for traffic with Panama, on the Pacific
+coast, by way of the Chagres river, in the 16th century.
+With the decline of Porto Bello in the 18th century
+Chagres became the chief Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and was
+at the height of its importance during the great rush of gold-hunters
+across the Isthmus to California in 1849 and the years
+immediately following. With the completion of the Panama
+railway in 1855, however, travel was diverted to Colon, and
+Chagres soon became a village of miserable huts, with no evidence
+of its former importance. On a high rock at the mouth of the
+river stands the castle of Lorenzo, which was destroyed by Sir
+Henry Morgan when he captured the town in 1671, but
+was rebuilt soon afterwards by the Spaniards. Chagres was
+again captured in 1740 by British forces under Admiral Edward
+Vernon.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAIN<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (through the O. Fr. <i>choeine</i>, <i>choene</i>, &amp;c., from Lat.
+<i>catena</i>), a series of links of metal or other material so connected
+together that the whole forms a flexible band or cord. Chains
+are used for a variety of purposes, such as fastening, securing,
+or connecting together two or more objects, supporting or lifting
+weights, transmitting mechanical power, &amp;c.; or as an ornament
+to serve as a collar, as a symbol of office or state, or as part of
+the insignia of an order of knighthood; or as a device from
+which to hang a jewelled or other pendant, a watch, &amp;c. (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Collar</a></span>). Ornamental chains are made with a great variety of
+links, but those intended for utilitarian purposes are mostly of
+two types. In stud chains a stud or brace is inserted across each
+link to prevent its sides from collapsing inwards under strain,
+whereas in open link chains the links have no studs. The addition
+of studs is reckoned to increase the load which the chain can
+safely bear by 50%. Small chains of the open-link type are
+to a great extent made by machinery. For larger sizes the
+smith cuts off a length of iron rod of suitable diameter, forms it
+while hot to the shape of the link by repeated blows of his hammer,
+and welds together the two ends of the link, previously slipped
+inside its fellow, by the aid of the same tool; in some cases the
+bending is done in a mechanical press and the welding under a
+power hammer (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cable</a></span>). Weldless chains are also made;
+in A.G. Strathern&rsquo;s process, for instance, cruciform steel bars
+are pressed, while hot, into links, each without join and engaging
+with its neighbours. Chains used for transmitting power are
+known as pitch-chains; the chain of a bicycle (<i>q.v.</i>) is an example.</p>
+
+<p>From the use of the chain as employed to bind or fetter a
+prisoner or slave, comes the figurative application to anything
+which serves as a constraining or restraining force; and from
+its series of connected links, to any series of objects, events,
+arguments, &amp;c., connected by succession, logical sequence or
+reasoning. Specific uses are for a measuring line in land-surveying,
+consisting of 100 links, <i>i.e.</i> iron rods, 7.92 in. in length,
+making 22 yds. in all, hence a lineal measure of that length;
+and, as a nautical term, for the contrivance by which the lower
+shrouds of a mast are extended and secured to the ship&rsquo;s
+sides, consisting of dead-eyes, chain-plates, and chain-wale or
+&ldquo;channel.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAIR<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (in. Mid. Eng. <i>choere</i>, through O. Fr. <i>chaëre</i> or <i>chaiere</i>,
+from Lat. <i>cathedra</i>, later <i>caledra</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kathedra">&#954;&#945;&#952;&#941;&#948;&#961;&#945;</span>, seat, cf. &ldquo;cathedral&rdquo;;
+the modern Fr. form <i>chaise</i>, a chair, has been adopted in English
+with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; <i>chaire</i> in French
+is still used of a professorial or ecclesiastical &ldquo;chair,&rdquo; or <i>cathedra</i>),
+a movable seat, usually with four legs, for a single person, the
+most varied and familiar article of domestic furniture. The
+chair is of extreme antiquity, although for many centuries and
+indeed for thousands of years it was an appanage of state and
+dignity rather than an article of ordinary use. &ldquo;The chair&rdquo; is
+still extensively used as the emblem of authority in the House
+of Commons and in public meetings. It was not, in fact, until
+the 16th century that it became common anywhere. The chest,
+the bench and the stool were until then the ordinary seats of
+everyday life, and the number of chairs which have survived
+from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most of such examples
+are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Our knowledge
+of the chairs of remote antiquity is derived almost entirely from
+monuments, sculpture and paintings. A few actual examples
+exist in the British Museum, in the Egyptian museum at Cairo,
+and elsewhere. In ancient Egypt they appear to have been of
+great richness and splendour. Fashioned of ebony and ivory,
+or of carved and gilded wood, they were covered with costly
+stuffs and supported upon representations of the legs of beasts
+of the chase or the figures of captives. An arm-chair in fine
+preservation found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is
+astonishingly similar, even in small details, to that &ldquo;Empire&rdquo;
+style which followed Napoleon&rsquo;s campaign in Egypt. The
+earliest monuments of Nineveh represent a chair without a back
+but with tastefully carved legs ending in lions&rsquo; claws or bulls&rsquo;
+hoofs; others are supported by figures in the nature of caryatides
+or by animals. The earliest known form of Greek chair,
+going back to five or six centuries before Christ, had a back but
+stood straight up, front and back. On the frieze of the Parthenon
+Zeus occupies a square seat with a bar-back and thick turned
+legs; it is ornamented with winged sphinxes and the feet of
+beasts. The characteristic Roman chairs were of marble, also
+adorned with sphinxes; the curule chair was originally very
+similar in form to the modern folding chair, but eventually
+received a good deal of ornament.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous of the very few chairs which have come down
+from a remote antiquity is the reputed chair of St Peter in St
+Peter&rsquo;s at Rome. The wooden portions are much decayed, but
+it would appear to be Byzantine work of the 6th century, and
+to be really an ancient <i>sedia gestatoria</i>. It has ivory carvings
+representing the labours of Hercules. A few pieces of an earlier
+oaken chair have been let in; the existing one, Gregorovius
+says, is of acacia wood. The legend that this was the curule
+chair of the senator Pudens is necessarily apocryphal. It is not,
+as is popularly supposed, enclosed in Bernini&rsquo;s bronze chair,
+but is kept under triple lock and exhibited only once in a century.
+Byzantium, like Greece and Rome, affected the curule form of
+chair, and in addition to lions&rsquo; heads and winged figures of
+Victory and dolphin-shaped arms used also the lyre-back which
+has been made familiar by the pseudo-classical revival of the
+end of the 18th century. The chair of Maximian in the cathedral
+of Ravenna is believed to date from the middle of the 6th century.
+It is of marble, round, with a high back, and is carved in high
+relief with figures of saints and scenes from the Gospels&mdash;the
+Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, the flight into Egypt
+and the baptism of Christ. The smaller spaces are filled with
+carvings of animals, birds, flowers and foliated ornament.
+Another very ancient seat is the so-called &ldquo;Chair of Dagobert&rdquo; in
+the Louvre. It is of cast bronze, sharpened with the chisel and
+partially gilt; it is of the curule or faldstool type and supported
+upon legs terminating in the heads and feet of animals. The
+seat, which was probably of leather, has disappeared. Its attribution
+depends entirely upon the statement of Suger, abbot of
+St Denis in the 12th century, who added a back and arms. Its
+age has been much discussed, but Viollet-le-Duc dated it to early
+Merovingian times, and it may in any case be taken as the oldest
+faldstool in existence. To the same generic type belongs
+the famous abbots&rsquo; chair of Glastonbury; such chairs might
+readily be taken to pieces when their owners travelled. The
+<i>faldisterium</i> in time acquired arms and a back, while retaining
+its folding shape. The most famous, as well as the most ancient,
+English chair is that made at the end of the 13th century for
+Edward I., in which most subsequent monarchs have been
+crowned. It is of an architectural type and of oak, and was
+covered with gilded <i>gesso</i> which long since disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>Passing from these historic examples we find the chair monopolized
+by the ruler, lay or ecclesiastical, to a comparatively
+late date. As the seat of authority it stood at the head of the
+lord&rsquo;s table, on his dais, by the side of his bed. The seigneurial
+chair, commoner in France and the Netherlands than in England,
+is a very interesting type, approximating in many respects to
+the episcopal or abbatial throne or stall. It early acquired a
+very high back and sometimes had a canopy. Arms were invariable,
+and the lower part was closed in with panelled or
+carved front and sides&mdash;the seat, indeed, was often hinged and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span>
+sometimes closed with a key. That we are still said to sit &ldquo;in&rdquo;
+an arm-chair and &ldquo;on&rdquo; other kinds of chairs is a reminiscence of
+the time when the lord or seigneur sat &ldquo;in his chair.&rdquo; These
+throne-like seats were always architectural in character, and as
+Gothic feeling waned took the distinctive characteristics of
+Renaissance work. It was owing in great measure to the Renaissance
+that the chair ceased to be an appanage of state, and
+became the customary companion of whomsoever could afford
+to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily
+came into general use, and almost at once began to reflect the
+fashions of the hour. No piece of furniture has ever been so
+close an index to sumptuary changes. It has varied in size,
+shape and sturdiness with the fashion not only of women&rsquo;s dress
+but of men&rsquo;s also. Thus the chair which was not, even with its
+arms purposely suppressed, too ample during the several reigns
+of some form or other of hoops and farthingale, became monstrous
+when these protuberances disappeared. Again, the costly laced
+coats of the dandy of the 18th and early 19th centuries were so
+threatened by the ordinary form of seat that a &ldquo;conversation
+chair&rdquo; was devised, which enabled the buck and the ruffler to sit
+with his face to the back, his valuable tails hanging unimpeded
+over the front. The early chair almost invariably had arms, and
+it was not until towards the close of the 16th century that the
+smaller form grew common.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the chairs of all countries until the middle of
+the 17th century were of oak without upholstery, and when it became
+customary to cushion them, leather was sometimes employed;
+subsequently velvet and silk were extensively used, and at a
+later period cheaper and often more durable materials. Leather
+was not infrequently used even for the costly and elaborate
+chairs of the faldstool form&mdash;occasionally sheathed in thin plates
+of silver&mdash;which Venice sent all over Europe. To this day,
+indeed, leather is one of the most frequently employed materials
+for chair covering. The outstanding characteristic of most
+chairs until the middle of the 17th century was massiveness and
+solidity. Being usually made of oak, they were of considerable
+weight, and it was not until the introduction of the handsome
+Louis XIII. chairs with cane backs and seats that either weight
+or solidity was reduced. Although English furniture derives
+so extensively from foreign and especially French and Italian
+models, the earlier forms of English chairs owed but little to
+exotic influences. This was especially the case down to the end
+of the Tudor period, after which France began to set her mark
+upon the British chair. The squat variety, with heavy and
+sombre back, carved like a piece of panelling, gave place to a
+taller, more slender, and more elegant form, in which the framework
+only was carved, and attempts were made at ornament
+in new directions. The stretcher especially offered opportunities
+which were not lost upon the cabinet-makers of the Restoration.
+From a mere uncompromising cross-bar intended to strengthen
+the construction it blossomed, almost suddenly, into an elaborate
+scroll-work or an exceedingly graceful semicircular ornament
+connecting all four legs, with a vase-shaped knob in the centre.
+The arms and legs of chairs of this period were scrolled, the
+splats of the back often showing a rich arrangement of spirals
+and scrolls. This most decorative of all types appears to have
+been popularized in England by the cavaliers who had been in
+exile with Charles II. and had become familiar with it in the
+north-western parts of the European continent. During he
+reign of William and Mary these charming forms degenerated
+into something much stiffer and more rectangular, with a solid,
+more or less fiddle-shaped splat and a cabriole leg with pad feet.
+The more ornamental examples had cane seats and ill-proportioned
+cane backs. From these forms was gradually developed
+the Chippendale chair, with its elaborately interlaced back, its
+graceful arms and square or cabriole legs, the latter terminating
+in the claw and ball or the pad foot. Hepplewhite, Sheraton
+and Adam all aimed at lightening the chair, which, even in the
+master hands of Chippendale, remained comparatively heavy.
+The endeavour succeeded, and the modern chair is everywhere
+comparatively slight. Chippendale and Hepplewhite between
+them determined what appears to be the final form of the chair,
+for since their time practically no new type has lasted, and in
+its main characteristics the chair of the 20th century is the direct
+derivative of that of the later 18th.</p>
+
+<p>The 18th century was, indeed, the golden age of the chair,
+especially in France and England, between which there was
+considerable give and take of ideas. Even Diderot could not
+refrain from writing of them in his <i>Encyclopédie</i>. The typical
+Louis Seize chair, oval-backed and ample of seat, with descending
+arms and round-reeded legs, covered in Beauvais or some such
+gay tapestry woven with Boucher or Watteau-like scenes, is a
+very gracious object, in which the period reached its high-water
+mark. The Empire brought in squat and squabby shapes,
+comfortable enough no doubt, but entirely destitute of inspiration.
+English Empire chairs were often heavier and more sombre
+than those of French design. Thenceforward the chair in all
+countries ceased to attract the artist. The <i>art nouveau</i> school
+has occasionally produced something of not unpleasing simplicity;
+but more often its efforts have been frankly ugly or even
+grotesque. There have been practically no novelties, with the
+exception perhaps of the basket-chair and such like, which have
+been made possible by modern command over material. So
+much, indeed, is the present indebted to the past in this
+matter that even the revolving chair, now so familiar in
+offices, has a pedigree of something like four centuries (see also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sedan-chair</a></span>).</p>
+<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAISE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (the French for &ldquo;chair,&rdquo; through a transference from
+a &ldquo;sedan-chair&rdquo; to a wheeled vehicle), a light two- or four-wheeled
+carriage with a movable hood or &ldquo;calash&rdquo;; the &ldquo;post-chaise&rdquo;
+was the fast-travelling carriage of the 18th and early 19th
+centuries. It was closed and four-wheeled for two or four horses
+and with the driver riding postillion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAKRATA,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a mountain cantonment in the Dehra Dun
+district of the United Provinces of India, on the range of hills
+overlooking the valleys of the Jumna and the Tons, at an
+elevation of 7000 ft. It was founded in 1866 and first occupied
+in April 1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALCEDON,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> more correctly <span class="sc">Calchedon</span> (mod. <i>Kadikeui</i>), an
+ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost
+directly opposite Byzantium, south of Scutari. It was a Megarian
+colony founded on a site so obviously inferior to that which was
+within view on the opposite shore, that it received from the
+oracle the name of &ldquo;the City of the Blind.&rdquo; In its early history
+it shared the fortunes of Byzantium, was taken by the satrap
+Otanes, vacillated long between the Lacedaemonian and the
+Athenian interests, and was at last bequeathed to the Romans
+by Attalus III. of Pergamum (133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). It was partly destroyed
+by Mithradates, but recovered during the Empire, and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451
+was the seat of the Fourth General Council. It fell under the
+repeated attacks of the barbarian hordes who crossed over after
+having ravaged Byzantium, and furnished an encampment to
+the Persians under Chosroes, c. 616-626. The Turks used it as
+a quarry for building materials for Constantinople. The site
+is now occupied by the village of Kadikeui (&ldquo;Village of the
+Judge&rdquo;), which forms the tenth &ldquo;cercle&rdquo; of the municipality
+of Constantinople. Pop. about 33,000, of whom 8000 are
+Moslems. There is a large British colony with a church, and
+also Greek and Armenian churches and schools, and a training
+college for Roman Catholic Armenians. To the S. are the ruins
+of Panteichion (mod. <i>Pendik</i>), where Belisarius is said to have
+lived in retirement.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. von Hammer, <i>Constantinopolis</i> (Pesth, 1822); Murray&rsquo;s
+<i>Handbook for Constantinople</i> (London, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the fourth ecumenical council of
+the Catholic Church, was held in 451, its occasion being the
+Eutychian heresy and the notorious &ldquo;Robber Synod&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eutyches</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ephesus, Council of</a></span>), which called forth
+vigorous protests both in the East and in the West, and a loud
+demand for a new general council, a demand that was ignored
+by the Eutychian Theodosius II., but speedily granted by his
+successor, Marcian, a &ldquo;Flavianist.&rdquo; In response to the imperial
+summons, five to six hundred bishops, all Eastern, except the
+Roman legates and two Africans, assembled in Chalcedon on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span>
+8th of October 451. The bishop of Rome claimed for his legates
+the right to preside, and insisted that any act that failed to receive
+their approval would be invalid. The first session was tumultuous;
+party feeling ran high, and scurrilous and vulgar epithets
+were bandied to and fro. The acts of the Robber Synod were
+examined; fraud, violence and coercion were charged against
+it; its entire proceedings were annulled, and, at the third
+session, its leader, Dioscurus, was deposed and degraded. The
+emperor requested a declaration of the true faith; but the
+sentiment of the council was opposed to a new symbol. It
+contented itself with reaffirming the Nicene and Constantinopolitan
+creeds and the Ephesine formula of 431, and accepting,
+only after examination, the Christological statement contained
+in the <i>Epistola Dogmatica</i> of Leo I. (<i>q.v.</i>) to Flavianus. Thus
+the council rejected both Nestorianism and Eutychianism, and
+stood upon the doctrine that Christ had two natures, each
+perfect in itself and each distinct from the other, yet perfectly
+united in one person, who was at once both God and man. With
+this statement, which was formally subscribed in the presence
+of the emperor, the development of the Christological doctrine
+was completed, but not in a manner to obviate further controversy
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monophysites</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monothelites</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The remaining sessions, vii.-xvi., were occupied with matters
+of discipline, complaints, claims, controversies and the like.
+Canons were adopted, thirty according to the generally received
+tradition, although the most ancient texts contain but twenty-eight,
+and, as Hefele points out, the so-called twenty-ninth and
+thirtieth are properly not canons, but repetitions of proposals
+made in a previous session.</p>
+
+<p>The most important enactments of the council of Chalcedon
+were the following: (1) the approval of the canons of the first
+three ecumenical councils and of the synods of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea,
+Changra, Antioch and Laodicea; (2) forbidding trade,
+secular pursuits and war to the clergy, bishops not even being
+allowed to administer the property of their dioceses; (3) forbidding
+monks and nuns to marry or to return to the world;
+likewise forbidding the establishment of a monastery in any
+diocese without the consent of the bishop, or the disestablishment
+of a monastery once consecrated; (4) punishing with
+deposition an ordination or clerical appointment made for
+money; forbidding &ldquo;absolute ordination&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> without assignment
+to a particular charge), the translation of clerics except
+for good cause, the enrolment of a cleric in two churches at once,
+and the performance of sacerdotal functions outside of one&rsquo;s
+diocese without letters of commendation from one&rsquo;s bishop;
+(5) confirming the jurisdiction of bishops over all clerics, regular
+and secular alike, and punishing with deposition any conspiracy
+against episcopal authority; (6) establishing a gradation of
+ecclesiastical tribunals, viz. bishop, provincial synod, exarch
+of the diocese, patriarch of Constantinople (obviously the council
+could not here have been legislating for the entire church);
+forbidding clerics to be running to Constantinople with complaints,
+without the consent of their respective bishops; (7)
+confirming the possession of rural parishes to those who had
+actually administered them for thirty years, providing for the
+adjudication of conflicting claims, and guaranteeing the integrity
+of metropolitan provinces; (8) confirming the third canon of
+the second ecumenical council, which accorded to Constantinople
+equal privileges (<span class="grk" title="isa presbeia">&#7988;&#963;&#945; &#960;&#961;&#949;&#963;&#946;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>) with Rome, and the second
+rank among the patriarchates, and, in addition, granting to
+Constantinople patriarchal jurisdiction over Pontus, Asia and
+Thrace.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman legates, who were absent (designedly?) when this
+famous twenty-eighth canon was adopted, protested against
+it, but in vain, the imperial commissioners deciding in favour of
+its regularity and validity. Leo I., although he recognized the
+council as ecumenical and confirmed its doctrinal decrees, rejected
+canon xxviii. on the ground that it contravened the sixth canon
+of Nicaea and infringed the rights of Alexandria and Antioch.
+In what proportion zeal for the ancient canons and the rights
+of others, and jealous fear of encroachment upon his own jurisdiction,
+were mixed in the motives of Leo, it would be interesting
+to know. The canon was universally received in the East, and
+was expressly confirmed by the Quinisext Council, 692 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constantinople, Councils of</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The emperor Marcian approved the doctrinal decrees of the
+council and enjoined silence in regard to theological questions.
+Eutyches and Dioscurus and their followers were deposed and
+banished. But harmony was not thus to be restored; hardly
+had the council dissolved when the church was plunged into the
+Monophysite controversy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mansi vi. pp. 529-1102, vii. pp. 1-868; Hardouin ii. pp. 1-772;
+Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 394-578 (English translation, iii. pp. 268-464);
+also extended bibliographies in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>,
+3rd ed., <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Eutyches&rdquo; (by Loofs) and <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Nestorianer&rdquo;
+(by Kessler).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALCEDONY,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Calcedony</span> (sometimes called by old
+writers cassidoine), a variety of native silica, often used as an
+ornamental stone. The present application of the term is comparatively
+modern. The &ldquo;chalcedonius&rdquo; of Pliny was quite
+a different mineral, being a green stone from the copper-mines
+of Chalcedon, in Asia Minor, whence the name. There has been
+some confusion between chalcedony and the ancient &ldquo;carcedonia,&rdquo;
+a stone which seems to have been a carbuncle from Africa,
+brought by way of Carthage (<span class="grk" title="Karchêdôn">&#922;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#951;&#948;&#974;&#957;</span>). Our chalcedony
+was probably included by the ancients among the various kinds
+of jasper and agate, especially the varieties termed &ldquo;leucachates&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;cerachates.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By modern mineralogists the name chalcedony is restricted
+to those kinds of silica which occur not in distinct crystals like
+ordinary quartz, but in concretionary, mammillated or stalactitic
+forms, which break with a fine splintery fracture, and
+display a delicate fibrous structure. Chalcedony may be regarded
+as a micro-crystalline form of quartz. It is rather softer and
+less dense than crystallized quartz, its hardness being about
+6.5 and its specific gravity 2.6, the difference being probably
+due to the presence of a small amount of opaline silica between
+the fibres. Chalcedony is a translucent substance of rather
+waxy lustre, presenting great variety of colours, though usually
+white, grey, yellow or brown. A rare blue chalcedony is sometimes
+polished under the name of &ldquo;sapphirine&rdquo;&mdash;a term applied
+also to a distinct mineral (an aluminium-magnesium silicate)
+from Greenland.</p>
+
+<p>Chalcedony occurs as a secondary mineral in volcanic rocks,
+representing usually the silica set free by the decomposition of
+various silicates, and deposited in cracks, forming veins, or in
+vesicular hollows, forming amygdales. Its occurrence gives the
+name to Chalcedony Park, Arizona. It is found in the basalts
+of N. Ireland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland: it is common in
+the traps of the Deccan in India, and in volcanic rocks in Uruguay
+and Brazil. Certain flat oval nodules from a decomposed lava
+(augite-andesite) in Uruguay present a cavity lined with quartz
+crystals and enclosing liquid (a weak saline solution), with a
+movable air-bubble, whence they are called &ldquo;enhydros&rdquo; or
+water-stones. Very fine examples of stalactitic chalcedony, in
+whimsical forms, have been yielded by some of the Cornish
+copper-mines. The surface of chalcedony is occasionally coated
+with a delicate bluish bloom. A chalcedonic deposit in the form
+of concentric rings, on fossils and fragments of limestone in S.
+Devon, is known as &ldquo;orbicular silica&rdquo; or &ldquo;beekite,&rdquo; having
+been named after Dr Henry Beeke, dean of Bristol, who first
+directed attention to such deposits. Certain pseudomorphs of
+chalcedony after datolite, from Haytor in Devonshire, have
+received the name of &ldquo;haytorite.&rdquo; Optical examination of
+many chalcedonic minerals by French mineralogists has shown
+that they are aggregates of various fibrous crystalline bodies
+differing from each other in certain optical characters, whence
+they are distinguished as separate minerals under such names
+as calcedonite, pseudocalcedonite, quartzine, lutecite and lussatite.
+Many coloured and variegated chalcedonies are cut and polished
+as ornamental stones, and are described under special headings.
+Chalcedony has been in all ages the commonest of the stones used
+by the gem-engraver.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agate</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bloodstone</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnelian</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chrysoprase</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heliotrope</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mocha Stone</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Onyx</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sard</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sardonyx</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CHALCIDICUM,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> in Roman architecture, the vestibule or
+portico of a public building opening on to the forum; as in the
+basilica of Eumactria at Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine
+at Rome, where it was placed at one end.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALCIS, <a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece,
+situated on the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point.
+The name is preserved from antiquity and is derived from the
+Greek <span class="grk" title="chalkos">&#967;&#945;&#955;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> (copper, bronze), though there is no trace of
+any mines in the neighbourhood. Chalcis was peopled by an
+Ionic stock which early developed great industrial and colonizing
+activity. In the 8th and 7th centuries it founded thirty town-ships
+on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and several important cities
+in Sicily (<i>q.v.</i>). Its mineral produce, metal-work, purple and
+pottery not only found markets among these settlements, but
+were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth
+and Samos. With the help of these allies Chalcis engaged the
+rival league of its neighbour Eretria (<i>q.v.</i>) in the so-called
+Lelantine War, by which it acquired the best agricultural district
+of Euboea and became the chief city of the island. Early in the
+6th century its prosperity was broken by a disastrous war with
+the Athenians, who expelled the ruling aristocracy and settled
+a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently became a member
+of both the Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period
+it gained <span class="correction" title="amended from inportance">importance</span> as a fortress by which the Macedonian
+rulers controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus
+III. of Syria (192) and Mithradates VI. of Pontus (88) as a base
+for invading Greece. Under Roman rule Chalcis retained a
+measure of commercial prosperity; since the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+it again served as a fortress for the protection of central Greece
+against northern invaders. From 1209 it stood under Venetian
+control; in 1470 it passed to the Ottomans, who made it the
+seat of a pasha. In 1688 it was successfully held against a
+strong Venetian attack. The modern town has about 10,000
+inhabitants, and maintains a considerable export trade which
+received an impetus from the establishment of railway connexion
+with Athens and Peiraeus (1904). It is composed of two parts&mdash;the
+old walled town towards the Euripus, called the Castro,
+where the Jewish and Turkish families who have remained there
+mostly dwell; and the more modern suburb that lies outside it,
+which is chiefly occupied by the Greeks. A part of the walls of
+the Castro and many of the houses within it were shaken down
+by the earthquake of 1894; part has been demolished in the
+widening of the Euripus. The most interesting object is the
+church of St Paraskeve, which was once the chief church of the
+Venetians; it dates from the Byzantine period, though many
+of its architectural features are Western. There is also a Turkish
+mosque, which is now used as a guard-house.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Strabo vii. fr. 11, x. p. 447; Herodotus v. 77;
+Thucydides i. 15; <i>Corpus Inscr. Atticarum</i>, iv. (1) 27a, iv. (2) 10, iv.
+(2) p. 22; W.M. Leake, <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i> (London, 1835),
+ii. 254-270; E. Curtius in <i>Hermes</i>, x. (1876), p. 220 sqq.; A. Holm,
+<i>Lange Fehde</i> (Berlin, 1884); H. Dondorff, <i>De Rebus Chalcidensium</i>
+(Göttingen, 1869); for coinage, B.V. Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i>
+(Oxford, 1887), pp. 303-5; and art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: <i>Greek</i> § Euboea.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALCONDYLES<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (or <span class="sc">Chalcocondylas</span>), <span class="bold">LAONICUS,</span> the
+only Athenian Byzantine writer. Hardly anything is known
+of his life. He wrote a history, in ten books, of the period from
+1298-1463, describing the fall of the Greek empire and the rise
+of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the centre of the narrative,
+down to the conquest of the Venetians and Mathias, king of
+Hungary, by Mahommed II. The capture of Constantinople
+he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching
+importance, although the comparison of it to the fall of Troy is
+hardly appropriate. The work incidentally gives a quaint and
+interesting sketch of the manners and civilization of England,
+France and Germany, whose assistance the Greeks sought to
+obtain against the Turks. Like that of other Byzantine writers,
+Chalcondyles&rsquo; chronology is defective, and his adherence to the
+old Greek geographical nomenclature is a source of confusion.
+For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain information
+from his father, who was one of the most prominent
+men in Athens during the struggles between the Greek and
+Frankish nobles. His model is Thucydides (according to Bekker,
+Herodotus); his language is tolerably pure and correct, his
+style simple and clear. The text, however, is in a very corrupt
+state.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Editio princeps</i>, ed. J.B. Baumbach (1615); in Bonn <i>Corpus
+Scriptorum Hist. Byz.</i> ed. I. Bekker (1843); Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>,
+clix. There is a French translation by Blaise de Vigenère (1577,
+later ed. by Artus Thomas with valuable illustrations on Turkish
+matters); see also F. Gregorovius, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Athen im
+Mittelalter</i>, ii. (1889); Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, ch. 66; C. Krumbacher,
+<i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897). There is a
+biographical sketch of Laonicus and his brother in Greek by Antonius
+Calosynas, a physician of Toledo, who lived in the latter part
+of the 16th century (see C. Hopf, <i>Chroniques gréco-romanes</i>, 1873).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Demetrius Chalcondyles</span> (1424-1511), was
+born in Athens. In 1447 he migrated to Italy, where Cardinal
+Bessarion gave him his patronage. He became famous as a
+teacher of Greek letters and the Platonic philosophy; in 1463
+he was made professor at Padua, and in 1479 he was summoned
+by Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici to Florence to fill the professorship
+vacated by John Argyropoulos. In 1492 he removed to Milan,
+where he died in 1511. He was associated with Marsilius
+Ficinus, Angelus Politianus, and Theodorus Gaza, in the revival
+of letters in the western world. One of his pupils at Florence
+was the famous John Reuchlin. Demetrius Chalcondyles
+published the editio princeps of Homer, Isocrates, and Suidas,
+and a Greek grammar (<i>Erotemata</i>) in the form of question and
+answer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Hody, <i>De Graecis illustribus</i> (1742); C. Hopf, <i>Chroniques
+gréco-romanes</i> (1873); E. Legrand, <i>Bibliographic hellénique</i>, i.
+(1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A shortened form of Chalcocondyles, from <span class="grk" title="chalkos">&#967;&#945;&#955;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, copper, and
+<span class="grk" title="kondylos">&#954;&#972;&#957;&#948;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, knuckle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALDAEA.<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> The expressions &ldquo;Chaldaea&rsquo;&rdquo; and &ldquo;Chaldaeans&rdquo;
+are frequently used in the Old Testament as equivalents for
+&ldquo;Babylonia&rdquo; and &ldquo;Babylonians.&rdquo; Chaldaea was really the
+name of a country, used in two senses. It was first applied to
+the extreme southern district, whose ancient capital was the
+city of <i>B&#299;t Yak&#299;n</i>, the chief seat of the renowned Chaldaean
+rebel Merodach-baladan, who harassed the Assyrian kings
+Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not as yet possible to fix the
+exact boundaries of the original home of the Chaldaeans, but
+it may be regarded as having been the long stretch of alluvial
+land situated at the then separate mouths of the Tigris and
+Euphrates, which rivers now combine to flow into the Persian
+Gulf in the waters of the majestic <i>Shatt el &lsquo;Arab</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;Chaldaea,&rdquo; however, soon came to have a more
+extensive application. In the days of the Assyrian king Ramm&#257;n-nir&#257;ri
+III. (812-783 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the term <i>mat Kald&#363;</i> covered practically
+all Babylonia. Furthermore, Merodach-baladan was called by
+Sargon II. (722-705 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) &ldquo;king of the land of the Chaldaeans&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;king of the land of B&#299;t Yak&#299;n&rdquo; after the old capital city,
+but there is no satisfactory evidence that Merodach-baladan
+had the right to the title &ldquo;Babylonian.&rdquo; The racial distinction
+between the Chaldaeans and the Babylonians proper seems to
+have existed until a much later date, although it is almost
+certain that the former were originally a Semitic people. That
+they differed from the Arabs and Aramaeans is also seen from the
+distinction made by Sennacherib (705-681 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) between the
+Chaldaeans and these races. Later, during the period covering
+the fall of Assyria and the rise of the Neo-Babylonian empire,
+the term <i>mat Kald&#363;</i> was not only applied to all Babylonia,
+but also embraced the territory of certain foreign nations who
+were later included by Ezekiel (xxiii. 23) under the expression
+&ldquo;Chaldaeans.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>As already indicated, the Chaldaeans were most probably
+a Semitic people. It is likely that they first came from Arabia,
+the supposed original home of the Semitic races, at a very early
+date along the coast of the Persian Gulf and settled in the
+neighbourhood of Ur (&ldquo;Ur of the Chaldees,&rdquo; Gen. xi. 28), whence
+they began a series of encroachments, partly by warfare and
+partly by immigration, against the other Semitic Babylonians.
+These aggressions after many centuries ended in the Chaldaean
+supremacy of Nabopolassar and his successors (c. 626 ff.),
+although there is no positive proof that Nabopolassar was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span>
+purely Chaldaean in blood. The sudden rise of the later Babylonian
+empire under Nebuchadrezzar, the son of Nabopolassar,
+must have tended to produce so thorough an amalgamation of
+the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, who had theretofore been
+considered as two kindred branches of the same original Semite
+stock, that in the course of time no perceptible differences
+existed between them. A similar amalgamation, although in
+this case of two peoples originally racially distinct, has taken
+place in modern times between the Manchu Tatars and the
+Chinese. It is quite evident, for example, from the Semitic
+character of the Chaldaean king-names, that the language of
+these Chaldaeans differed in no way from the ordinary Semitic
+Babylonian idiom which was practically identical with that of
+Assyria. Consequently, the term &ldquo;Chaldaean&rdquo; came quite
+naturally to be used in later days as synonymous with &ldquo;Babylonian.&rdquo;
+When subsequently the Babylonian language went
+out of use and Aramaic took its place, the latter tongue was
+wrongly termed &ldquo;Chaldee&rdquo; by Jerome, because it was the only
+language known to him used in Babylonia. This error was
+followed until a very recent date by many scholars.</p>
+
+<p>The derivation of the name &ldquo;Chaldaean&rdquo; is extremely
+uncertain. Peter Jensen has conjectured with slight probability
+that the Chaldaeans were Semitized Sumerians, <i>i.e.</i> a non-Semitic
+tribe which by contact with Semitic influences had lost
+its original character. There seems to be little or no evidence
+to support such a view. Friedrich Delitzsch derived the name
+&ldquo;Chaldaean&rdquo; = <i>Kasd&#299;m</i> from the non-Semitic Ka&#353;&#353;ites who
+held the supremacy over practically all Babylonia during an
+extended period (c. 1783-1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). This theory seems also
+to be extremely improbable. It is much more likely that the
+name &ldquo;Chaldaean&rdquo; is connected with the Semitic stem <i>kas&#257;du</i>
+(conquer), in which case <i>Kaldi-Ka&#353;di</i>, with the well-known
+interchange of <i>l</i> and <i>&#353;</i>, would mean &ldquo;conquerors.&rdquo; It is also
+possible that <i>Ka&#353;du-Kaldu</i> is connected with the proper name
+Chesed, who is represented as having been the nephew of
+Abraham (Gen. xxii. 22). There is no connexion whatever
+between the Black Sea peoples called &ldquo;Chaldaeans&rdquo; by Xenophon
+(<i>Anab</i>. vii. 25) and the Chaldaeans of Babylonia.</p>
+
+<p>In Daniel, the term &ldquo;Chaldaeans&rdquo; is very commonly employed
+with the meaning &ldquo;astrologers, astronomers,&rdquo; which sense also
+appears in the classical authors, notably in Herodotus, Strabo
+and Diodorus. In Daniel i. 4, by the expression &ldquo;tongue of
+the Chaldaeans,&rdquo; the writer evidently meant the language in
+which the celebrated Babylonian works on astrology and divination
+were composed. It is now known that the literary idiom
+of the Babylonian wise men was the non-Semitic Sumerian;
+but it is not probable that the late author of Daniel (c. 168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+was aware of this fact.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;Chaldaean&rdquo; is used in Daniel in two senses. It is
+applied as elsewhere in the Old Testament as a race-name to the
+Babylonians (Dan. iii. 8, v. 30, ix. 1); but the expression is
+used oftener, either as a name for some special class of magicians,
+or as a term for magicians in general (ix. 1). The transfer of the
+name of the people to a special class is perhaps to be explained
+in the following manner. As just shown, &ldquo;Chaldaean&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Babylonian&rdquo; had become in later times practically synonymous,
+but the term &ldquo;Chaldaean&rdquo; had lived on in the secondary restricted
+sense of &ldquo;wise men.&rdquo; The early <i>Kaldi</i> had seized and
+held from very ancient times the region of old Sumer, which
+was the centre of the primitive non-Semitic culture. It seems
+extremely probable that these Chaldaean Semites were so strongly
+influenced by the foreign civilization as to adopt it eventually as
+their own. Then, as the Chaldaeans soon became the dominant
+people, the priestly caste of that region developed into a Chaldaean
+institution. It is reasonable to conjecture that southern
+Babylonia, the home of the old culture, supplied Babylon and
+other important cities with priests, who from their descent were
+correctly called &ldquo;Chaldaeans.&rdquo; This name in later times, owing
+to the racial amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians,
+lost its former national force, and became, as it occurs in Daniel,
+a distinctive appellation of the Babylonian priestly class. It is
+possible, though not certain, that the occurrence of the word <i>kal&#363;</i>
+(priest) in Babylonian, which has no etymological connexion
+with <i>Kald&#363;</i>, may have contributed paronomastically towards
+the popular use of the term &ldquo;Chaldaeans&rdquo; for the Babylonian
+Magi. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astrology</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Delattre, <i>Les Chaldéens jusqu&rsquo;à la fond. de l&rsquo;emp.
+de Nebuch.</i> (1889); Winckler, <i>Untersuchungen zur altor. Gesch.</i>
+(1889), pp. 49 ff.; <i>Gesch. Bab. u. Assyr.</i> (1892), pp. 111 ff.; Prince,
+<i>Commentary on Daniel</i> (1899), pp. 59-61; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia and
+Assyria</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sumer and Sumerian</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. D. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALDEE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a term sometimes applied to the Aramaic portions
+of the biblical books of Ezra and Daniel or to the vernacular
+paraphrases of the Old Testament (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Targum</a></span>). The explanation
+formerly adopted and embodied in the name Chaldee is
+that the change took place in Babylon. That the so-called
+Biblical Chaldee, in which considerable portions of the books of
+Ezra and Daniel are written, was really the language of Babylon
+was supposed to be clear from Dan. ii. 4, where the Chaldaeans
+are said to have spoken to the king in Aramaic. But the cuneiform
+inscriptions show that the language of the Chaldaeans was
+Assyrian; and an examination of the very large part of the
+Hebrew Old Testament written later than the exile proves conclusively
+that the substitution of Aramaic for Hebrew as the
+vernacular of Palestine took place very gradually. Hence
+scholars are now agreed that the term &ldquo;Chaldee&rdquo; is a misnomer,
+and that the dialect so called is really the language of the South-Western
+Arameans, who were the immediate neighbours of the
+Jews (W. Wright, <i>Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages</i>,
+p. 16). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Semitic Languages</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALICE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (through a central O. Fr. form of the Lat. <i>calix</i>,
+<i>calicis</i>, cup), a drinking-vessel of the cup or goblet form, now only
+used of the cup used in the celebration of the Eucharist (<i>q.v.</i>).
+For the various forms which the &ldquo;chalice&rdquo; so used has taken,
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drinking-Vessels</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>. When, in the eucharistic
+service, water is mixed with the wine, the &ldquo;chalice&rdquo; is known
+as the &ldquo;mixed chalice.&rdquo; This has been customary both in the
+Eastern and Western Churches from early times. The Armenian
+Church does not use the &ldquo;mixed chalice.&rdquo; It was used in the
+English Church before the Reformation. According to the
+present law of the English Church, the mixing of the water with
+wine is lawful, if this is not done as part of or during the services,
+<i>i.e.</i> if it is not done ceremonially (<i>Martin</i> v. <i>Mackonochie</i>, 1868,
+L.R. 2 P.C. 365; <i>Read</i> v. <i>Bp. of Lincoln</i>, 1892, A C. 664).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALIER, JOSEPH<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1747-1793), French Revolutionist. He
+was destined by his family for the church, but entered business,
+and became a partner in a firm at Lyons for which he travelled
+in the Levant, in Italy, Spain and Portugal. He was in Paris in
+1789, and entered into relations with Marat, Camille Desmoulins
+and Robespierre. On his return to Lyons, Chalier was the first
+to be named member of the municipal bureau. He organized
+the national guard, applied the civil constitution of the clergy,
+and regulated the finances of the city so as to tax the rich heavily
+and spare the poor. Denounced to the Legislative Assembly
+by the directory of the department of Rhone-et-Loire for having
+made a nocturnal domiciliary perquisition, he was sent to the
+bar of the Assembly, which approved of his conduct. In the
+election for mayor of Lyons, in November 1792, he was defeated
+by a Royalist. Then Chalier became the orator and leader of
+the Jacobins of Lyons, and induced the other revolutionary clubs
+and the commune of his city to arrest a great number of Royalists
+in the night of the 5th and 6th of February 1793. The mayor,
+supported by the national guard, opposed this project. Chalier
+demanded of the Convention the establishment of a revolutionary
+tribunal and the levy of a revolutionary army at Lyons. The
+Convention refused, and the anti-revolutionary party, encouraged
+by this refusal, took action. On the 29th and 30th of May 1793
+the sections rose; the Jacobins were dispossessed of the municipality
+and Chalier arrested. On the 15th of July, in spite
+of the order of the Convention, he was brought before the
+criminal tribunal of the Rhone-et-Loire, condemned to death,
+and guillotined the next day. The Terrorists paid a veritable
+worship to his memory, as to a martyr of Liberty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See N. Wahl, &ldquo;Étude sur Chalier,&rdquo; in <i>Revue historique</i>, t. xxxiv.;
+and <i>Les Premières Années de la Révolution à Lyon</i> (Paris, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CHALK,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> the name given to any soft, pulverulent, pure white
+limestone. The word is an old one, having its origin in the
+Saxon <i>cealc</i>, and the hard form &ldquo;kalk&rdquo; is still in use amongst
+the country folk of Lincolnshire. The German <i>Kalk</i> comprehends
+all forms of limestone; therefore a special term, <i>Kreide</i>, is employed
+for chalk&mdash;French <i>craie</i>. From being used as a common
+name, denoting a particular material, the word was subsequently
+utilized by geologists as an appellation for the <i>Chalk formation</i>;
+and so prominent was this formation in the eyes of the earlier
+workers that it imposed its name upon a whole system of rocks,
+the Cretaceous (Lat. <i>creta</i>, chalk), although this rock itself is by
+no means generally characteristic of the system as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>The Chalk formation, in addition to the typical chalk material&mdash;<i>creta
+scriptoria</i>&mdash;comprises several variations; argillaceous
+kinds&mdash;<i>creta marga</i> of Linnaeus&mdash;known locally as malm, marl,
+clunch, &amp;c.; and harder, more stony kinds, called rag, freestone,
+rock, hurlock or harrock in different districts. In certain parts
+of the formation layers of nodular flints (<i>q.v.</i>) abound; in parts,
+it is inclined to be sandy, or to contain grains of glauconite
+which was originally confounded with another green mineral,
+chlorite, hence the name &ldquo;chloritic marl&rdquo; applied to one of the
+subdivisions of the chalk. In its purest form chalk consists of
+from 95 to 99% of calcium carbonate (carbonate of lime); in
+this condition it is composed of a mass of fine granular particles
+held together by a somewhat feeble calcareous cement. The
+particles are mostly the broken tests of foraminifera, along with
+the débris of echinoderm and molluscan shells, and many minute
+bodies, like coccoliths, of somewhat obscure nature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The earliest attempts at subdivision of the Chalk formation
+initiated by Wm. Phillips were based upon lithological characters,
+and such a classification as &ldquo;Upper Chalk with Flints,&rdquo; &ldquo;Lower
+Chalk without Flints,&rdquo; &ldquo;Chalk marl or Grey chalk,&rdquo; was generally
+in use in England until W. Whitaker established the following order
+in 1865:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl bb1" colspan="2">Upper Chalk, with flints</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1">Lower Chalk</td>
+<td class="tclm bb1">chalk rock<br />
+chalk with few flints<br />
+chalk without flints</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm" style="padding-top: 1em">Chalk Marl</td>
+<td class="tclm" style="padding-top: 1em">Totternhoe stone<br />
+Totternhoe marl</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In France, a similar system of classification was in vogue, the
+subdivisions being <i>craie blanche</i>, <i>craie tufan</i>, <i>craie chloritée</i>, until
+1843 when d&rsquo;Orbigny proposed the term <i>Senonien</i> for the Upper
+Chalk and <i>Turonien</i> for the Lower; later he divided the <i>Turonien</i>,
+giving the name <i>Cénomanien</i> to the lower portion. The subdivisions
+of d&rsquo;Orbigny were based upon the fossil contents and not upon the
+lithological characters of the rocks. In 1876 Prof. Ch. Barrois
+showed how d&rsquo;Orbigny&rsquo;s classification might be applied to the
+British chalk rocks; and this scheme has been generally adopted
+by geologists, although there is some divergence of opinion as to
+the exact position of the base line of the Cenomanian.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying table shows the classification now adopted in
+England, with the zonal fossils and the continental names of the
+substages:&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Zonal fossils used in Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Stages.</td> <td class="tccm allb">N. France<br />and<br />Belgium.*</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">S.E. and<br />S. France.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb bb1">A.</td>
+<td class="tclm rb bb1"><i>Ostrea lunata</i> (Norfolk)<br /><br />
+<i>Belemnitella mucronata</i><br />
+<i>Actinocamax quadratus</i><br />
+= <i>Inoceramus lingua</i> in Yorkshire <br />
+<i>Marsupites testudinarium</i><br />
+&emsp;&emsp;{<i>Marsupites</i>, <i>Uintacrinus</i>}</td>
+
+<td class="tcl rb bb" rowspan="2">
+Danian?<br />
+(Trimingham)<br /><br />
+Upper Chalk<br />
+Senonian<br />
+<i>Craie blanche</i></td>
+
+<td class="tccm rb cl" rowspan="2">
+Flint-<br />bearing<br />chalk.</td>
+
+<td class="tccm rb bb" rowspan="5">
+Marls, sandstones<br />and limestones<br />(not chalky)<br />with <i>Hippurites</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb bb">B.</td>
+<td class="tclm rb bb"><i>Micraster cor-anguinum</i><br />
+<i>Micraster cor-testudinarium</i><br />
+<i>Holaster planus</i>, Chalk rock</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tclm rb bb">
+<i>Terebratulina gracilis</i><br /><br />
+<i>Rhynchonella Cuvieri</i>, Melbourne rock</td>
+
+<td class="tclm rb bb">
+Middle Chalk<br />
+Turonian<br />
+<i>Craie marneuse</i></td>
+<td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tclm rb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tclm rb">
+Lower Chalk,<br />
+Chalk Marl and<br />
+Cambridge Greensand</td>
+<td class="tccm rb bb cl" rowspan="2">Marly<br />chalk.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tclm rb bb">
+<i>Actinocamax plenus</i><br />
+<i>Holaster subglobosus</i>, Totternhoe stone.<br />
+<i>Schloenbachia varians</i>.</td>
+<td class="tcl rb bb">
+Cenomanian<br />
+<i>Craie glauconieuse</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="5">*(See table in article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretaceous System</a></span>.)
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Since Prof. Barrois introduced the zonal system of subdivision
+(C. Evans had used a similar scheme six years earlier), our knowledge
+of the English chalk has been greatly increased by the work
+of Jukes-Browne and William Hill, and particularly by the
+laborious studies of Dr A.W. Rowe. Instead of employing the
+mixed assemblage of animals indicated as zone fossils in the
+table, A. de Grossouvre proposed a scheme for the north of
+France based upon ammonite faunas alone, which he contended
+would be of more general applicability (<i>Recherches sur la Craie
+Supérieure</i>, Paris, 1901).</p>
+
+<p>The Upper Chalk has a maximum thickness in England of
+about 1000 ft., but post-cretaceous erosion has removed much
+of it in many districts. It is more constant in character, and
+more typically chalky than the lower stages; flints are abundant,
+and harder nodular beds are limited to the lower portions, where
+some of the compact limestones are known as &ldquo;chalk rock.&rdquo;
+The thickness of the Middle Chalk varies from about 100 to 240 ft.;
+flints become scarcer in descending from the upper to the lower
+portions. The whole is more compact than the upper stage,
+and nodular layers are more frequent&mdash;the &ldquo;chalk rock&rdquo; of
+Dorset and the Isle of Wight belong to this stage. At the base
+is the hard &ldquo;Melbourne rock.&rdquo; The thickness of the Lower
+Chalk in England varies from 60 to 240 ft. This stage includes
+part of the &ldquo;white chalk without flints,&rdquo; the &ldquo;chalk marl,&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;grey chalk.&rdquo; The Totternhoe stone is a hard freestone
+found locally in this stage. The basement bed in Norfolk is a
+pure limestone, but very frequently it is marly with grains of
+sand and glauconite, and often contains phosphatic nodules;
+this facies is equivalent to the &ldquo;Cambridge Greensand&rdquo; of
+some districts and the &ldquo;chloritic marl&rdquo; of others. In Devonshire
+the Lower Chalk has become thin sandy calcareous series.</p>
+
+<p>The chalk can be traced in England from Flamborough Head
+in Yorkshire, in a south-westerly direction, to the coast of Dorset;
+and it not only underlies the whole of the S.E. corner, where it
+is often obscured by Tertiary deposits, but it can be followed
+across the Channel into northern France. Rocks of the same
+age as the chalk are widespread (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretaceous System</a></span>);
+but the variety of limestone properly called by this name is
+almost confined to the Anglo-Parisian basin. Some chalk occurs
+in the great Cretaceous deposits of Russia, and in Kansas, Iowa,
+Nebraska and S. Dakota in the United States. Hard white
+chalk occurs in Ireland in Antrim, and on the opposite shore of
+Scotland in Mull and Morven.</p>
+
+<p><i>Economic Products of the Chalk.</i>&mdash;Common chalk has been
+frequently used for rough building purposes, but the more
+important building stones are &ldquo;Beer stone,&rdquo; from Beer Head
+in Devonshire, &ldquo;Sutton stone&rdquo; from a little north of Beer, and
+the &ldquo;Totternhoe stone.&rdquo; It is burned for lime, and when mixed
+with some form of clay is used for the manufacture of cement;
+chalk marl has been used alone for this purpose. As a manure,
+it has been much used as a dressing for
+clayey land. Flints from the chalk are used
+for road metal and concrete, and have been
+employed in building as a facing for walls.
+Phosphatic nodules for manure have been
+worked from the chloritic marl and Cambridge
+Greensand, and to some extent from
+the Middle Chalk. The same material is
+worked at Ciply in Belgium and Picardy in
+France. Chalk is employed in the manufacture
+of carbonate of soda, in the preparation
+of carbon dioxide, and in many other
+chemical processes; also for making paints,
+crayons and tooth-powder. <i>Whiting</i> or
+<i>Spanish white</i>, used to polish glass and
+metal, is purified chalk prepared by triturating
+common chalk with a large quantity of
+water, which is then decanted and allowed
+to deposit the finely-divided particles it
+holds in suspension.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chalk   Scenery.</i>&mdash;Where   exposed   at   the
+surface,   chalk produces   rounded,   smooth,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span>
+grass-covered hills as in the Downs of southern England and the
+Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The hills are often intersected
+by clean-cut dry valleys. It forms fine cliffs on the coast
+of Kent, Yorkshire and Devonshire.</p>
+
+<p>Chalk is employed medicinally as a very mild astringent either
+alone or more usually with other astringents. It is more often
+used, however, for a purely mechanical action, as in the preparation
+hydrargyrum cum creta. As an antacid its use has been
+replaced by other drugs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Black chalk</i> or <i>drawing slate</i> is a soft carbonaceous schist,
+which gives a black streak, so that it can be used for drawing or
+writing. <i>Brown chalk</i> is a kind of umber. <i>Red chalk</i> or <i>reddle</i>
+is an impure earthy variety of haematite. <i>French chalk</i> is a
+soft variety of steatite, a hydrated magnesium silicate.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The most comprehensive account of the British chalk is contained
+in the <i>Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom</i>,
+&ldquo;The Cretaceous Rocks of Britain,&rdquo; vol. ii. 1903, vol. iii. 1904
+(with bibliography), by Jukes-Browne and Hill. See also &ldquo;The
+White Chalk of the English Coast,&rdquo; several papers in the <i>Proceedings
+of the Geologists&rsquo; Association</i>, London, (1) Kent and Sussex, xvi. 1900,
+(2) Dorset, xvii., 1901, (3) Devon, xviii., 1903, (4) Yorkshire, xviii.,
+1904.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALKHILL, JOHN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (fl. 1600?), English poet. Two songs by
+him are included in Izaak Walton&rsquo;s <i>Compleat Angler</i>, and in 1683
+appeared &ldquo;Thealma and Clearchus. A Pastoral History in
+smooth and easie Verse. Written long since by John Chalkhill,
+Esq., an Acquaintant and Friend of Edmund Spencer&rdquo; (1683),
+with a preface written five years earlier by Walton. Another
+poem, &ldquo;Alcilia, Philoparthens Loving Follie&rdquo; (1595, reprinted
+in vol. x. of the <i>Jahrbuch des deutschen Shakespeare-Vereins</i>), was
+at one time attributed to him. Nothing further is known of the
+poet, but a person of his name occurs as one of the coroners for
+Middlesex in the later years of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign. Professor
+Saintsbury, who included <i>Thealma and Clearchus</i> in vol. ii.
+of his <i>Minor Poets of the Caroline Period</i> (Oxford, 1906), points out
+a marked resemblance between his work and that of William
+Chamberlayne.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALKING THE DOOR,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a Scottish custom of landlord and
+tenant law. In former days the law was that &ldquo;a burgh officer, in
+presence of witnesses, chalks the most patent door forty days
+before Whit Sunday, having made out an execution of &lsquo;chalking,&rsquo;
+in which his name must be inserted, and which must be subscribed
+by himself and two witnesses.&rdquo; This ceremony now
+proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The
+execution of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal
+will be pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the
+tenant may be ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1818-1894),
+French historian, was born in Paris on the 18th of March
+1818. His writings consist chiefly of popular works, which
+enjoyed great success. The value of some of his books is enhanced
+by numerous illustrations, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Histoire-museé de la
+Révolution française</i>, which appeared in 50 numbers in 1841-1842
+(3rd ed., in 72 numbers, 1857-1858); <i>Histoire de la mode en
+France; la toilette des femmes depuis l&rsquo;époque gallo-romaine
+jusqu&rsquo;à nos jours</i> (1874, with 12 plates; new ed., 1880, with
+21 coloured plates). His <i>Mémoires du peuple française</i> (1865-1873)
+and <i>La France et les Français a travers les siécles</i> (1882) at
+least have the merit of being among the first books written on
+the social history of France. In this sense Challamel was a
+pioneer, of no great originality, it is true, but at any rate of
+fairly wide information. He died on the 20th of October 1894.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1827-1896), French
+statesman, was born at Avranches on the 19th of May 1827.
+After passing through the École Normale Supérieure he became
+professor of philosophy successively at Pau and at Limoges.
+The <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1851 caused his expulsion from France for his
+republican opinions. He travelled on the continent, and in 1856
+settled down as professor of French literature at the Polytechnic
+of Zürich. The amnesty of 1859 enabled him to return to France,
+but a projected course of lectures on history and art was immediately
+suppressed. He now supported himself by his pen, and
+became a regular contributor to the reviews. On the fall of the
+Second Empire in September 1870 the government of national
+defence appointed him prefect of the department of the Rhone,
+in which capacity he had to suppress the Communist rising at
+Lyons. Resigning his post on the 5th of February 1871, he was
+in January 1872 elected to the National Assembly, and in 1876
+to the Senate. He sat at first on the Extreme Left; but his
+philosophic and critical temperament was not in harmony with
+the recklessness of French radicalism, and his attitude towards
+political questions underwent a steady modification, till the close
+of his life saw him the foremost representative of moderate
+republicanism. During Gambetta&rsquo;s lifetime, however, Challemel-Lacour
+was one of his warmest supporters, and he was for a time
+editor of Gambetta&rsquo;s organ, the <i>République française</i>. In 1879
+he was appointed French ambassador at Bern, and in 1880
+was transferred to London; but he lacked the suppleness and
+command of temper necessary to a successful diplomatist. He
+resigned in 1882, and in February 1883 became minister of foreign
+affairs in the Jules Ferry cabinet, but retired in November
+of the same year. In 1890 he was elected vice-president of the
+Senate, and in 1893 succeeded Jules Ferry as its president. His
+influence over that body was largely due to his clear and reasoned
+eloquence, which placed him at the head of contemporary French
+orators. In 1893 he also became a member of the French
+Academy. He distinguished himself by the vigour with which he
+upheld the Senate against the encroachments of the chamber, but
+in 1895 failing health forced him to resign, and he died in Paris on
+the 26th of October 1896. He published a translation of A.
+Heinrich Ritter&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Philosophie</i> (1861); <i>La Philosophie
+individualiste: étude sur Guillaume de Humboldt</i> (1864);
+and an edition of the works of Madame d&rsquo;Épinay (1869).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1897 appeared Joseph Reinach&rsquo;s edition of the <i>&OElig;uvres oratoires
+de Challemel-Lacour</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALLENGE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>chalonge, calenge</i>, &amp;c., from Lat. <i>calumnia</i>,
+originally meaning trickery, from <i>calvi</i>, to deceive, hence a false
+accusation, a &ldquo;calumny&rdquo;), originally a charge against a person
+or a claim to anything, a defiance. The term is now particularly
+used of an invitation to a trial of skill in any contest, or to a
+trial by combat as a vindication of personal honour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duel</a></span>),
+and, in law, of the objection to the members of a jury allowed
+in a civil action or in a criminal trial (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jury</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">&ldquo;CHALLENGER&rdquo; EXPEDITION.<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> The scientific results of
+several short expeditions between 1860 and 1870 encouraged
+the council of the Royal Society to approach the British government,
+on the suggestion of Sir George Richards, hydrographer
+to the admiralty, with a view to commissioning a vessel for
+a prolonged cruise for oceanic exploration. The government
+detailed H.M.S. &ldquo;Challenger,&rdquo; a wooden corvette of 2306 tons,
+for the purpose. Captain (afterwards Sir) George Nares was
+placed in command, with a naval crew; and a scientific staff
+was selected by the society with Professor (afterwards Sir) C.
+Wyville Thomson as director. The staff included Mr (afterwards
+Sir) John Murray and Mr H.N. Moseley, biologists; Dr von
+Willemoes-Suhm, Commander Tizard, and Mr J.Y. Buchanan,
+chemist and geologist. A complete scheme of instructions was
+drawn up by the society. The &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; sailed from Portsmouth
+in December 1872. For nearly a year the work of the
+expedition lay in the Atlantic, which was crossed several times.
+Teneriffe, the Bermudas, the Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd
+Islands, Bahia and Tristan da Cunha were successively visited,
+and in October 1873 the ship reached Cape Town. Steering then
+south-east and east she visited the various islands between 45°
+and 50° S., and reached Kerguelen Island in January 1874.
+She next proceeded southward about the meridian of 80° E.
+She was the first steamship to cross the Antarctic circle, but
+the attainment of a high southerly latitude was not an object of
+the voyage, and early in March the ship left the south polar
+regions and made for Melbourne. Extensive researches were
+now made in the Pacific. The route led by New Zealand, the
+Fiji Islands, Torres Strait, the Banda Sea, and the China Sea to
+Hong Kong. The western Pacific was then explored northward
+to Yokohama, after which the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; struck across the
+ocean by Honolulu and Tahiti to Valparaiso. She then coasted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span>
+southward, penetrated the Straits of Magellan, touched at
+Montevideo, recrossed the Atlantic by Ascension and the Azores,
+and reached Sheerness in May 1876. This voyage is without
+parallel in the history of scientific research. The <i>&rdquo;Challenger&rdquo;
+Report</i> was issued in fifty volumes (London, 1880-1895), mainly
+under the direction of Sir John Murray, who succeeded Wyville
+Thomson in this work in 1882. Specialists in every branch of
+science assisted in its production. The zoological collections
+alone formed the basis for the majority of the volumes; the
+deep-sea soundings and samples of the deposits, the chemical
+analysis of water samples, the meteorological, water-temperature,
+magnetic, geological, and botanical observations were fully
+worked out, and a summary of the scientific results, narrative
+of the cruise and indices were also provided.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Lord G. Campbell, <i>Log Letters from the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo;</i>,
+(1876); W.J.J. Spry, <i>Cruise of H.M.S. &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo;</i> (1876);
+Sir C. Wyville Thomson, <i>Voyage of the &ldquo;Challenger,&rdquo; The Atlantic,
+Preliminary Account of General Results</i> (1877); J.J. Wild, <i>At
+Anchor; Narrative of Experiences afloat and ashore during the
+Voyage of H.M.S. &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo;</i> (1878); H.N. Moseley, <i>Notes by a
+Naturalist on the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo;</i> (1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALLONER, RICHARD<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1691-1781), English Roman
+Catholic prelate, was born at Lewes, Sussex, on the 29th of
+September 1691. After the death of his father, who was a rigid
+Dissenter, his mother, left in poverty, lived with some Roman
+Catholic families. Thus it came about that he was brought up
+as a Roman Catholic, chiefly at the seat of Mr Holman at
+Warkworth, Northamptonshire, where the Rev. John Gother,
+a celebrated controversialist, officiated as chaplain. In 1704 he
+was sent to the English College at Douai, where he was ordained
+a priest in 1716, took his degrees in divinity, and was appointed
+professor in that faculty. In 1730 he was sent on the English
+mission and stationed in London. The controversial treatises
+which he published in rapid succession attracted much attention,
+particularly his <i>Catholic Christian Instructed</i> (1737), which was
+prefaced by a witty reply to Dr Conyers Middleton&rsquo;s <i>Letters from
+Rome, showing an Exact Conformity between Popery and Paganism</i>.
+Middleton is said to have been so irritated that he endeavoured
+to put the penal laws in force against his antagonist, who
+prudently withdrew from London. In 1741 Challoner was raised
+to the episcopal dignity at Hammersmith, and nominated co-adjutor
+with right of succession to Bishop Benjamin Petre,
+vicar-apostolic of the London district, whom he succeeded in
+1758. He resided principally in London, but was obliged to
+retire into the country during the &ldquo;No Popery&rdquo; riots of 1780.
+He died on the 12th of January 1781, and was buried at Milton,
+Berkshire. Bishop Challoner was the author of numerous controversial
+and devotional works, which have been frequently
+reprinted and translated into various languages. He compiled
+the <i>Garden of the Soul</i> (1740 ?), which continues to be the most
+popular manual of devotion among English-speaking Roman
+Catholics, and he revised an edition of the Douai version of the
+Scriptures (1749-1750), correcting the language and orthography,
+which in many places had become obsolete. Of his historical
+works the most valuable is one which was intended to be a Roman
+Catholic antidote to Foxe&rsquo;s well-known martyrology. It is
+entitled <i>Memoirs of Missionary Priests and other Catholicks of
+both Sexes who suffered Death or Imprisonment in England on
+account of their Religion, from the year 1577 till the end of
+the reign of Charles II.</i> (2 vols. 1741, frequently reprinted).
+He also published anonymously, in 1745, the lives of English,
+Scotch and Irish saints, under the title of <i>Britannia Sancta</i>, an
+interesting work which has, however, been superseded by that of
+Alban Butler.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a complete list of his writings see J. Gillow&rsquo;s <i>Bibl. Dict. of
+Eng. Cath.</i> i. 452-458; Barnard, <i>Life of R. Challoner</i> (1784);
+Flanagan, <i>History of the Catholic Church in England</i> (1857); there
+is also a critical history of Challoner by Rev. E. Burton.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, ALEXANDER<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1750-1834), Scottish writer,
+was born in Aberdeen on the 29th of March 1759. He was
+educated as a doctor, but gave up this profession for journalism,
+and he was for some time editor of the <i>Morning Herald</i>. Besides
+editions of the works of Shakespeare, Beattie, Fielding, Johnson,
+Warton, Pope, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, he published <i>A General
+Biographical Dictionary</i> in 32 vols.(1812-1817); a <i>Glossary to
+Shakspeare</i> (1797); an edition of Steevens&rsquo;s Shakespeare
+(1809); and the <i>British Essayists</i>, beginning with the <i>Tatler</i> and
+ending with the <i>Observer</i>, with biographical and historical prefaces
+and a general index. He died in London on the 19th of December
+1834.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, GEORGE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1742-1825), Scottish antiquarian and
+political writer, was born at Fochabers, a village in the county of
+Moray, in 1742. His father, James Chalmers, was a grandson of
+George Chalmers of Pittensear, a small estate in the parish of
+Lhanbryde, now St Andrews-Lhanbryde, in the same county,
+possessed by the main line of the family from about the beginning
+of the 17th to the middle of the 18th century. After completing
+the usual course at King&rsquo;s College, Aberdeen, young Chalmers
+studied law in Edinburgh for several years. Two uncles on the
+father&rsquo;s side having settled in America, he visited Maryland in
+1763, with the view, it is said, of assisting to recover a tract of
+land of some extent about which a dispute had arisen, and was in
+this way induced to commence practice as a lawyer at Baltimore,
+where for a time he met with much success. Having, however,
+espoused the cause of the Royalist party on the breaking out of
+the American War of Independence, he found it expedient to
+abandon his professional prospects in the New World, and return
+to his native country. For the losses he had sustained as a
+colonist he received no compensation, and several years elapsed
+before he obtained an appointment that placed him in a state of
+comfort and independence.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Chalmers applied himself with great diligence
+and assiduity to the investigation of the history and establishment
+of the English colonies in North America; and enjoying
+free access to the state papers and other documents preserved
+among what were then termed the plantation records, he became
+possessed of much important information. His work entitled
+<i>Political Annals of the present United Colonies from their Settlement
+to the Peace of 1763</i>, 4to, London, 1780, was to have formed two
+volumes; but the second, which should have contained the period
+between 1688 and 1763, never appeared. The first volume,
+however, is complete in itself, and traces the original settlement of
+the different American colonies, and the progressive changes in
+their constitutions and forms of government as affected by the
+state of public affairs in the parent kingdom. Independently of
+its value as being compiled from original documents, it bears
+evidence of great research, and has been of essential benefit to
+later writers. Continuing his researches, he next gave to the
+world <i>An Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Britain during
+the Present and Four Preceding Reigns</i>, London, 1782, which passed
+through several editions. At length, in August 1786, Chalmers,
+whose sufferings as a Royalist must have strongly recommended
+him to the government of the day, was appointed chief clerk to
+the committee of privy council on matters relating to trade, a
+situation which he retained till his death in 1825, a period of
+nearly forty years. As his official duties made no great demands
+on his time, he had abundant leisure to devote to his favourite
+studies,&mdash;the antiquities and topography of Scotland having
+thenceforth special attractions for his busy pen.</p>
+
+<p>Besides biographical sketches of Defoe, Sir John Davies, Allan
+Ramsay, Sir David Lyndsay, Churchyard and others, prefixed to
+editions of their respective works, Chalmers wrote a life of
+Thomas Paine, the author of the <i>Rights of Man</i>, which he published
+under the assumed name of Francis Oldys, A.M., of the
+University of Pennsylvania; and a life of Ruddiman, in which
+considerable light is thrown on the state of literature in Scotland
+during the earlier part of the last century. His life of Mary,
+Queen of Scots, in two 4to vols., was first published in 1818. It is
+founded on a MS. left by John Whitaker, the historian of Manchester;
+but Chalmers informs us that he found it necessary to
+rewrite the whole. The history of that ill-fated queen occupied
+much of his attention, and his last work, <i>A Detection of the Love-Letters
+lately attributed in Hugh Campbell&rsquo;s work to Mary Queen of
+Scots</i>, is an exposure of an attempt to represent as genuine some
+fictitious letters said to have passed between Mary and Bothwell
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span>
+which had fallen into deserved oblivion. In 1797 appeared his
+<i>Apology for the Believers in the Shakespeare Papers which were
+exhibited in Norfolk Street</i>, followed by other tracts on the same
+subject. These contributions to the literature of Shakespeare
+are full of curious matter, but on the whole display a great waste of
+erudition, in seeking to show that papers which had been proved
+forgeries might nevertheless have been genuine. Chalmers also
+took part in the Junius controversy, and in <i>The Author of Junius
+Ascertained, from a Concatenation of Circumstances amounting
+to Moral Demonstration</i>, Lond. 1817, 8vo, sought to fix the authorship
+of the celebrated letters on Hugh Boyd. In 1824 he published
+<i>The Poetical Remains of some of the Scottish Kings, now first
+collected</i>; and in the same year he edited and presented as a
+contribution to the Bannatyne Club <i>Robene and Makyne and the
+Testament of Cresseid, by Robert Henryson</i>. His political writings
+are equally numerous. Among them may be mentioned <i>Collection
+of Treaties between Great Britain and other Powers</i>, Lond.
+1790, 2 vols. 8vo; <i>Vindication of the Privileges of the People in
+respect to the Constitutional Right of Free Discussion</i>, &amp;c., Lond.
+1796, 8vo, published anonymously; <i>A Chronological Account of
+Commerce and Coinage in Great Britain from the Restoration till
+1810</i>, Lond. 1810, 8vo; <i>Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on various
+points of English Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies,
+Fisheries, and Commerce of Great Britain</i>, Lond. 1814, 2 vols.
+8vo; <i>Comparative Views of the State of Great Britain before and
+since the War</i>, Lond. 1817, 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>But Chalmers&rsquo;s greatest work is his <i>Caledonia</i>, which, however,
+he did not live to complete. The first volume appeared in 1807,
+and is introductory to the others. It is divided into four books,
+treating successively of the Roman, the Pictish, the Scottish
+and the Scoto-Saxon periods, from 80 to 1306 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> In these we are
+presented, in a condensed form, with an account of the people,
+the language and the civil and ecclesiastical history, as well as
+the agricultural and commercial state of Scotland during the
+first thirteen centuries of our era. Unfortunately the chapters
+on the Roman period are entirely marred by the author&rsquo;s having
+accepted as genuine Bertram&rsquo;s forgery <i>De Situ Britanniae</i>;
+but otherwise his opinions on controverted topics are worthy of
+much respect, being founded on a laborious investigation of all
+the original authorities that were accessible to him. The second
+volume, published in 1810, gives an account of the seven
+south-eastern counties of Scotland&mdash;Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington,
+Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Peebles and Selkirk&mdash;each of them being
+treated of as regards name, situation and extent, natural objects,
+antiquities, establishment as shires, civil history, agriculture,
+manufactures and trade, and ecclesiastical history. In 1824,
+after an interval of fourteen years, the third volume appeared,
+giving, under the same headings, a description of the seven
+south-western counties&mdash;Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigtown,
+Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew and Dumbarton. In the preface to this
+volume the author states that the materials for the history of
+the central and northern counties were collected, and that he
+expected the work would be completed in two years, but this
+expectation was not destined to be realized. He had also been
+engaged on a history of Scottish poetry and a history of printing
+in Scotland. Each of them he thought likely to extend to two
+large quarto volumes, and on both he expended an unusual
+amount of enthusiasm and energy. He had also prepared for the
+press an elaborate history of the life and reign of David I. In
+his later researches he was assisted by his nephew James, son of
+Alexander Chalmers, writer in Elgin.</p>
+
+<p>George Chalmers died in London on the 31st of May 1825.
+His valuable and extensive library he bequeathed to his nephew,
+at whose death in 1841 it was sold and dispersed. Chalmers was a
+member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies of London, an
+honorary member of the Antiquarian Society of Scotland, and
+a member of other learned societies. In private life he was
+undoubtedly an amiable man, although the dogmatic tone that
+disfigures portions of his writings procured him many opponents.
+Among his avowed antagonists in literary warfare the most
+distinguished were Malone and Steevens, the Shakespeare editors;
+Mathias, the author of the <i>Pursuits of Literature</i>; Dr Jamieson,
+the Scottish lexicographer; Pinkerton, the historian; Dr Irving,
+the biographer of the Scottish poets; and Dr Currie of Liverpool,
+But with all his failings in judgment Chalmers was a valuable
+writer. He uniformly had recourse to original sources of information;
+and he is entitled to great praise for his patriotic
+and self-sacrificing endeavours to illustrate the history, literature
+and antiquities of his native country.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. M&lsquo;D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1836-1878), Scottish painter,
+was born at Montrose, and studied at Edinburgh. His landscapes
+are now more valued than the portraits which formed his
+earlier work. The best of these are &ldquo;The End of the Harvest&rdquo;
+(1873), &ldquo;Running Water&rdquo; (1875), and &ldquo;The Legend&rdquo; (in the
+National Gallery, Edinburgh). He became an associate (1867)
+and a full member (1871) of the Scottish Academy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, JAMES<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1841-1901), Scottish missionary to
+New Guinea, was born at Ardrishaig in Argyll. After serving
+in the Glasgow City Mission he passed through Cheshunt College,
+and, being accepted by the London Missionary Society, was
+appointed to Rarotonga in the South Pacific in 1866. Here the
+natives gave him the well-known name &ldquo;Tamate.&rdquo; After ten
+years&rsquo; service, especially in training native evangelists, he was
+transferred to New Guinea. In addition to his enthusiastic but
+sane missionary work, Chalmers did much to open up the island,
+and, with his colleague W.G. Lawes, gave valuable aid in the
+British annexation of the south-east coast of the island. On
+the 8th of April 1901, in company with a brother missionary,
+Oliver Tomkins, he was killed by cannibals at Goaribari Island.
+R.L. Stevenson has left on record his high appreciation of
+Chalmers&rsquo;s character and work.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chalmers&rsquo;s <i>Autobiography and Letters</i> were edited by Richard
+Lovett in 1902, who also wrote a popular life called <i>Tamate</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALMERS, THOMAS<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1780-1847), Scottish divine, was born
+at Anstruther in Fifeshire, on the 17th of March 1780. At the
+age of eleven he was entered as a student at St Andrews, where he
+devoted himself almost exclusively to mathematics. In January
+1799 he was licensed as a preacher of the Gospel by the St
+Andrews presbytery. In May 1803, after attending further
+courses of lectures in Edinburgh, and acting as assistant to the
+professor of mathematics at St Andrews, he was ordained as
+minister of Kilmany in Fifeshire, about 9 m. from the university
+town, where he continued to lecture. His mathematical lectures
+roused so much enthusiasm that they were discontinued by order
+of the authorities, who disliked the disturbance of the university
+routine which they involved. Chalmers then opened mathematical
+classes on his own account which attracted many students;
+at the same time he delivered a course of lectures on chemistry,
+and ministered to his parish at Kilmany. In 1805 he became a
+candidate for the vacant professorship of mathematics at
+Edinburgh, but was unsuccessful. In 1808 he published an
+<i>Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of National Resources</i>, a
+contribution to the discussion created by Bonaparte&rsquo;s commercial
+policy. Domestic bereavements and a severe illness then turned
+his thoughts in another direction. At his own request the article
+on Christianity was assigned to him in Dr Brewster&rsquo;s <i>Edinburgh
+Encyclopaedia</i>, and in studying the credentials of Christianity he
+received a new impression of its contents. His journal and letters
+show how he was led from a sustained effort to attain the morality
+of the Gospel to a profound spiritual revolution. After this his
+ministry was marked by a zeal which made it famous. The
+separate publication of his article in the <i>Edinburgh Encyclopaedia</i>,
+and contributions to the <i>Edinburgh Christian Instructor</i>
+and the <i>Eclectic Review</i>, enhanced his reputation as an author.
+In 1815 he became minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow, in
+spite of determined opposition to him in the town council on the
+ground of his evangelical teaching. From Glasgow his repute
+as a preacher spread throughout the United Kingdom. A
+series of sermons on the relation between the discoveries of
+astronomy and the Christian revelation was published in January
+1817, and within a year nine editions and 20,000 copies were in
+circulation. When he visited London Wilberforce wrote, &ldquo;all
+the world is wild about Dr Chalmers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In Glasgow Chalmers made one of his greatest contributions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span>
+to the life of his own time by his experiments in parochial organization.
+His parish contained about 11,000 persons, and of
+these about one-third were unconnected with any church. He
+diagnosed this evil as being due to the absence of personal influence,
+spiritual oversight, and the want of parochial organizations
+which had not kept pace in the city, as they had done in rural
+parishes, with the growing population. He declared that twenty
+new churches, with parishes, should be erected in Glasgow, and
+he set to work to revivify, remodel and extend the old parochial
+economy of Scotland. The town council consented to build one
+new church, attaching to it a parish of 10,000 persons, mostly
+weavers, labourers and factory workers, and this church was
+offered to Dr Chalmers that he might have a fair opportunity
+of testing his system.</p>
+
+<p>In September 1819 he became minister of the church and
+parish of St John, where of 2000 families more than 800 had no
+connexion with any Christian church. He first addressed himself
+to providing schools for the children. Two school-houses
+with four endowed teachers were established, where 700 children
+were taught at the moderate fees of 2s. and 3s. per quarter.
+Between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools were opened, where
+more than 1000 children were taught the elements of secular and
+religious education. The parish was divided into 25 districts
+embracing from 60 to 100 families, over each of which an elder
+and a deacon were placed, the former taking oversight of their
+spiritual, the latter of their physical needs. Chalmers was the
+mainspring of the whole system, not merely superintending the
+visitation, but personally visiting all the families, and holding
+evening meetings, when he addressed those whom he had visited.
+This parochial machinery enabled him to make a singularly
+successful experiment in dealing with the problem of poverty.
+At this time there were not more than 20 parishes north of the
+Forth and Clyde where there was a compulsory assessment for
+the poor, but the English method of assessment was rapidly
+spreading. Chalmers believed that compulsory assessment
+ended by swelling the evil it was intended to mitigate, and that
+relief should be raised and administered by voluntary means.
+His critics replied that this was impossible in large cities. When
+he undertook the management of the parish of St John&rsquo;s, the
+poor of the parish cost the city £1400 per annum, and in four
+years, by the adoption of his method, the pauper expenditure
+was reduced to £280 per annum. The investigation of all new
+applications for relief was committed to the deacon of the district,
+and every effort was made to enable the poor to help themselves.
+When once the system was in operation it was found that a
+deacon, by spending an hour a week among the families committed
+to his charge, could keep himself acquainted with their
+character and condition.</p>
+
+<p>In 1823, after eight years of work at high pressure, he was glad
+to accept the chair of moral philosophy at St Andrews, the
+seventh academic offer made to him during his eight years in
+Glasgow. In his lectures he excluded mental philosophy and
+included the whole sphere of moral obligation, dealing with
+man&rsquo;s duty to God and to his fellow-men in the light of Christian
+teaching. Many of his lectures are printed in the first and
+second volumes of his published works. In ethics he made contributions
+to the science in regard to the place and functions of
+volition and attention, the separate and underived character of
+the moral sentiments, and the distinction between the virtues
+of perfect and imperfect obligation. His lectures kindled the
+religious spirit among his students, and led some of them to
+devote themselves to missionary effort. In November 1828 he
+was transferred to the chair of theology in Edinburgh. He then
+introduced the practice of following the lecture with a viva voce
+examination on what had been delivered. He also introduced
+text-books, and came into stimulating contact with his people;
+perhaps no one has ever succeeded as he did by the use of these
+methods in communicating intellectual, moral and religious impulse
+to so many students.</p>
+
+<p>These academic years were prolific also in a literature of various
+kinds. In 1826 he published a third volume of the <i>Christian and
+Civic Economy of Large Towns</i>, a continuation of work begun
+at St John&rsquo;s, Glasgow. In 1832 he published a <i>Political Economy</i>,
+the chief purpose of which was to enforce the truth that the
+right economic condition of the masses is dependent on their
+right moral condition, that character is the parent of comfort,
+not vice versa. In 1833 appeared a treatise on <i>The Adaptation of
+External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man</i>.
+In 1834 Dr Chalmers was elected fellow of the Royal Society of
+Edinburgh, and in the same year he became corresponding
+member of the Institute of France; in 1835 Oxford conferred on
+him the degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he became leader of the
+evangelical section of the Scottish Church in the General
+Assembly. He was appointed chairman of a committee for
+church extension, and in that capacity made a tour through
+a large part of Scotland, addressing presbyteries and holding
+public meetings. He also issued numerous appeals, with the
+result that in 1841, when he resigned his office as convener of the
+church extension committee, he was able to announce that in
+seven years upwards of £300,000 had been contributed, and 220
+new churches had been built. His efforts to induce the Whig
+government to assist in this effort were unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p>In 1841 the movement which ended in the Disruption was
+rapidly culminating, and Dr Chalmers found himself at the
+head of the party which stood for the principle that &ldquo;no minister
+shall be intruded into any parish contrary to the will of the
+congregation&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Free Church of Scotland</a></span>). Cases of conflict
+between the church and the civil power arose in Auchterarder,
+Dunkeld and Marnoch; and when the courts made it
+clear that the church, in their opinion, held its temporalities
+on condition of rendering such obedience as the courts required,
+the church appealed to the government for relief. In January
+1843 the government put a final and peremptory negative on
+the church&rsquo;s claims for spiritual independence. On the 18th of
+May 1843 470 clergymen withdrew from the general assembly
+and constituted themselves the Free Church of Scotland, with
+Dr Chalmers as moderator. He had prepared a sustentation
+fund scheme for the support of the seceding ministers, and this
+was at once put into successful operation. On the 30th of May
+1847, immediately after his return from the House of Commons,
+where he had given evidence as to the refusal of sites for Free
+Churches by Scottish landowners, he was found dead in bed.</p>
+
+<p>Dr Chalmers&rsquo; action throughout the Free Church controversy
+was so consistent in its application of Christian principle and
+so free from personal or party animus, that his writings are a
+valuable source for argument and illustration on the question
+of Establishment. &ldquo;I have no veneration,&rdquo; he said to the
+royal commissioners in St Andrews, before either the voluntary
+or the non-intrusive controversies had arisen, &ldquo;for the Church of
+Scotland <i>qua</i> an establishment, but I have the utmost veneration
+for it <i>qua</i> an instrument of Christian good.&rdquo; He was transparent
+in character, chivalrous, kindly, firm, eloquent and sagacious;
+his purity of motive and unselfishness commanded absolute confidence;
+he had originality and initiative in dealing with new and
+difficult circumstances, and great aptitude for business details.</p>
+
+<p>During a life of incessant activity Chalmers scarcely ever
+allowed a day to pass without its modicum of composition;
+at the most unseasonable times, and in the most unlikely places,
+he would occupy himself with literary work. His writings
+occupy more than 30 volumes. He would have stood higher as
+an author had he written less, or had he indulged less in that
+practice of reiteration into which he was constantly betrayed by
+his anxiety to impress his ideas upon others. As a political
+economist he was the first to unfold the connexion that subsists
+between the degree of the fertility of the soil and the social
+condition of a community, the rapid manner in which capital
+is reproduced (see Mill&rsquo;s <i>Political Economy</i>, i. 94), and the
+general doctrine of a limit to all the modes by which national
+wealth may accumulate. He was the first also to advance that
+argument in favour of religious establishments which meets
+upon its own ground the doctrine of Adam Smith, that religion
+like other things should be left to the operation of the natural
+law of supply and demand. In the department of natural
+theology and the Christian evidences he ably advocated that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span>
+method of reconciling the Mosaic narrative with the indefinite
+antiquity of the globe which William Buckland (1784-1856)
+advanced in his Bridgewater Treatise, and which Dr Chalmers
+had previously communicated to him. His refutation of Hume&rsquo;s
+objection to the truth of miracles is perhaps his intellectual
+<i>chef-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre</i>. The distinction between the laws and dispositions
+of matter, as between the ethics and objects of theology, he was
+the first to indicate and enforce, and he laid great emphasis on
+the superior authority as witnesses for the truth of Revelation of
+the Scriptural as compared with the Extra-Scriptural writers, and
+of the Christian as compared with the non-Christian testimonies.
+In his <i>Institutes of Theology</i>, no material modification is attempted
+on the doctrines of Calvinism, which he received with all simplicity
+of faith as revealed in the Divine word, and defended as in
+harmony with the most profound philosophy of human nature
+and of the Divine providence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For biographical details see Dr W. Hanna&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs</i> (Edinburgh,
+4 vols., 1849-1852); there is a good short <i>Life</i> by Mrs Oliphant
+(1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Ha.; D. Mn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALONER, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1521-1565), English statesman
+and poet, was the son of Roger Chaloner, mercer of London,
+a descendant of the Denbighshire Chaloners. No details are
+known of his youth except that he was educated at both Oxford
+and Cambridge. In 1540 he went, as secretary to Sir Henry
+Knyvett, to the court of Charles V., whom he accompanied in
+his expedition against Algiers in 1541, and was wrecked on the
+Barbary coast. In 1547 he joined in the expedition to Scotland,
+and was knighted, after the battle of Musselburgh, by the
+protector Somerset, whose patronage he enjoyed. In 1549 he
+was a witness against Dr Bonner, bishop of London; in 1551
+against Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester; in the spring
+of the latter year he was sent as a commissioner to Scotland, and
+again in March 1552. In 1553 he went with Sir Nicholas Wotton
+and Sir William Pickering on an embassy to France, but was
+recalled by Queen Mary on her accession. In spite of his Protestant
+views, Chaloner was still employed by the government,
+going to Scotland in 1555-1556, and providing carriages for
+troops in the war with France, 1557-1558. In 1558 he went as
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s ambassador to the emperor Ferdinand at Cambrai,
+from July 1559 to February 1559/60 he was ambassador to
+King Philip at Brussels, and in 1561 he went in the same capacity
+to Spain. His letters are full of complaints of his treatment
+there, but it was not till 1564, when in failing health, that he
+was allowed to return home. He died at his house in Clerkenwell
+on the 14th of October 1565. He acquired during his years of
+service three estates, Guisborough in Yorkshire, Steeple Claydon
+in Buckinghamshire, and St Bees in Cumberland. He married
+(1) Joan, widow of Sir Thomas Leigh; and (2) Etheldreda, daughter
+of Edward Frodsham, of Elton, Cheshire, by whom he had one
+son, Sir Thomas Chaloner (1561-1615), the naturalist. Chaloner
+was the intimate of most of the learned men of his day, and with
+Lord Burghley he had a life-long friendship. Throughout his
+busy official life he occupied himself with literature, his Latin
+verses and his pastoral poems being much admired by his contemporaries.
+Chaloner&rsquo;s &ldquo;Howe the Lorde Mowbray ... was ... banyshed
+the Realme,&rdquo; printed in the 1559 edition of William
+Baldwin&rsquo;s <i>Mirror for Magistrates</i> (repr. in vol. ii. pt. 1 of Joseph
+Haslewood&rsquo;s edition of 1815), has sometimes been attributed
+to Thomas Churchyard. His most important work, <i>De Rep.
+Anglorum instauranda libri decem</i>, written while he was in Spain,
+was first published by William Malim (1579, 3 pts.), with complimentary
+Latin verses in praise of the author by Burghley and
+others. Chaloner&rsquo;s epigrams and epitaphs were also added to
+the volume, as well as <i>In laudem Henrici octavi ... carmen
+Panegericum</i>, first printed in 1560. Amongst his other works
+are <i>The praise of folie, Moriae encomium</i> ... by Erasmus.... Englished
+by Sir Thomas Chaloner, Knight (1549, ed. Janet E.
+Ashbee, 1901); <i>A book of the Office of Servantes</i> (1543), translated
+from Gilbert Cognatus; and <i>An homilie of Saint John Chrysostome</i>.... Englished
+by T.C. (1544).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St Bees,&rdquo; by William
+Jackson, in <i>Transactions of the Cumberland Assoc. for the Advancement
+of Literature and Science</i>, pt. vi. pp. 47-74, 1880-1881.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a town of north-eastern France,
+capital of the department of Marne, 107 m. E. of Paris on the
+main line of the Eastern railway to Nancy, and 25 m. S.S.E. of
+Reims. Pop. (1906) 22,424. Châlons is situated in a wide level
+plain principally on the right bank of the Marne, its suburb of
+Marne, which contains the railwaystations of the Eastern and Est-État
+railways, lying on the left bank. The town proper is bordered
+on the west by the lateral canal of the Marne, across which lies
+a strip of ground separating it from the river itself. Châlons
+is traversed by branches of the canal and by small streams, and
+its streets are for the most part narrow and irregular, but it is
+surrounded by ample avenues and promenades, the park known
+as the Jard, in the south-western quarter, being especially
+attractive. Huge barracks lie to the north and east. There are
+several interesting churches in the town. The cathedral of St
+Étienne dates chiefly from the 13th century, but its west façade
+is in the classical style and belongs to the 17th century. There
+are stained-glass windows of the 13th century in the north
+transept. Notre-Dame, of the 12th and 13th centuries, is conspicuous
+for its four Romanesque towers, two flanking the apse;
+the other two, surmounted by tall lead spires, flanking the
+principal façade. The churches of St. Alpin, St Jean and St
+Loup date from various periods between the 11th and the 17th
+centuries. The hôtel-de-ville (1771), facing which stands a
+monument to President Carnot; the prefecture (1750-1764), once
+the residence of the intendants of Champagne; the college, once
+a Jesuit establishment; and a training college which occupies
+the Augustinian abbey of Toussaints (16th and 17th centuries),
+are noteworthy civil buildings. The houses of Châlons are
+generally ill-built of timber and plaster, or rough-cast, but some
+old mansions, dating from the 15th to the 16th centuries, remain.
+The church of Ste Pudentienne, on the left bank of the river, is a
+well-known place of pilgrimage. The town is the seat of a bishop
+and a prefect, and headquarters of the VI. army corps; it has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of
+commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a museum, a library,
+training colleges, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a communal
+college and an important technical school. The principal industry
+is brewing, which is carried on in the suburb of Marne. Galleries
+of immense length, hewn in a limestone hill and served by lines
+of railway, are used as store-houses for beer. The preparation
+of champagne, the manufacture of boots and shoes, brushes,
+wire-goods and wall-paper also occupy many hands. There is
+trade in cereals.</p>
+
+<p>Châlons-sur-Marne occupies the site of the chief town of the
+Catalauni, and some portion of the plains which lie between it
+and Troyes was the scene of the defeat of Attila in the conflict
+of 451. In the 10th and following centuries it attained great
+prosperity as a kind of independent state under the supremacy
+of its bishops, who were ecclesiastical peers of France. In 1214
+the militia of Châlons served at the battle of Bouvines; and in
+the 15th century the citizens maintained their honour by twice
+(1430 and 1434) repulsing the English from their walls. In the
+16th century the town sided with Henry IV., king of France,
+who in 1589 transferred thither the parlement of Paris, which
+shortly afterwards burnt the bulls of Gregory XIV. and Clement
+VIII. In 1856 Napoleon III. established a large camp, known
+as the Camp of Châlons, about 16 m. north of the town by the
+railway to Reims. It was situated in the immediate neighbourhood
+of Grand Mourmelon and Petit Mourmelon, and occupied
+an area of nearly 30,000 acres. The &ldquo;Army of Châlons,&rdquo; formed
+by Marshal MacMahon in the camp after the first reverses of the
+French in 1870, marched thence to the Meuse, was surrounded
+by the Germans at Sedan, and forced to capitulate. The camp
+is still a training-centre for troops.</p>
+
+<p>About 5 m. E. of Châlons is L&rsquo;Epine, where there is a beautiful
+pilgrimage church (15th and 16th centuries, with modern restoration)
+with a richly-sculptured portal. In the interior there is
+a fine choir-screen, an organ of the 16th century, and an ancient
+and much-venerated statue of the Virgin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a town of east-central France, capital
+of an arrondissement in the department of Saône-et-Loire,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span>
+81 m. N. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906)
+26,538. It is a well-built town, with fine quays, situated in an
+extensive plain on the right bank of the Saône at its junction
+with the Canal du Centre. A handsome stone bridge of the 15th
+century, decorated in the 18th century with obelisks, connects
+it with the suburb of St Laurent on an island in the river. The
+principal building is the church of St Vincent, once the cathedral.
+It dates mainly from the 12th to the 15th centuries, but the
+façade is modern and unpleasing. The old bishop&rsquo;s palace is
+a building of the 15th century. The church of St Pierre, with
+two lofty steeples, dates from the late 17th century. Chalon preserves
+remains of its ancient ramparts and a number of old houses.
+The administrative buildings are modern. An obelisk was erected
+in 1730 to commemorate the opening of the canal. There is a
+statue of J.N. Niepce, a native of the town. Chalon is the seat
+of a sub-prefect and a court of assizes, and there are tribunals
+of first instance and commerce, a branch of the Bank of France,
+a chamber of commerce, communal colleges for boys and girls,
+a school of drawing, a public library and a museum. Chalon
+ranks next to Le Creusot among the manufacturing towns of
+Burgundy; its position at the junction of the Canal du Centre
+and the Saône, and as a railway centre for Lyons, Paris, Dôle,
+Lons-le-Saunier and Roanne, brings it a large transit trade. The
+founding and working of copper and iron is its main industry;
+the large engineering works of Petit-Creusot, a branch of those
+of Le Creusot, construct bridges, tug-boats and torpedo-boats;
+distilleries, glass-works, chemical works, straw-hat manufactories,
+oil-works, tile-works and sugar refineries also occupy many
+hands. Wine, grain, iron, leather and timber are among the
+many products for which the town is an entrepôt. About 2 m.
+east of Chalon is St Marcel (named after the saint who in the
+2nd century preached Christianity at Chalon), which has a church
+of the 12th century, once belonging to a famous abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Chalon-sur-Saône is identified with the ancient <i>Cabillonum</i>,
+originally an important town of the Aedui. It was chosen in
+the 6th century by Gontram, king of Burgundy, as his capital;
+and it continued till the 10th to pay for its importance by being
+frequently sacked. The bishopric, founded in the 4th century, was
+suppressed at the Revolution. In feudal times Chalon was the
+capital of a countship. In 1237 it was given in exchange for other
+fiefs in the Jura by Jean le Sage, whose descendants nevertheless
+retained the title. Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy, the other
+party to the exchange, gave the citizens a communal charter
+in 1256. In its modern history the most important event was
+the resistance offered to a division of the Austrian army in
+1814.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALUKYA,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> the name of an Indian dynasty which ruled
+in the Deccan from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 550 to 750, and again from 973 to 1190.
+The Chalukyas themselves claimed to be Rajputs from the north
+who imposed their rule on the Dravidian inhabitants of the
+Deccan tableland, and there is some evidence for connecting
+them with the Chapas, a branch of the foreign Gurjaras. The
+dynasty was founded by a chief named Pulakesin I., who
+mastered the town of Vatapi (now Badami, in the Bijapur
+district) about 550. His sons extended their principality east
+and west; but the founder of the Chalukya greatness was his
+grandson Pulakesin II., who succeeded in 608 and proceeded
+to extend his rule at the expense of his neighbours. In 609 he
+established as his viceroy in Vengi his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana,
+who in 615 declared his independence and established
+the dynasty of Eastern Chalukyas, which lasted till 1070. In
+620 Pulakesin defeated Harsha (<i>q.v.</i>), the powerful overlord of
+northern India, and established the Nerbudda as the boundary
+between the South and North. He also defeated in turn the
+Chola, Pandya and Kerala kings, and by 630 was beyond
+dispute the most powerful sovereign in the Deccan. In 642,
+however, his capital was taken and he himself killed by the
+Pallava king Narasimhavarman. In 655 the Chalukya power was
+restored by Pulakesin&rsquo;s son Vikramaditya I.; but the struggle
+with the Pallavas continued until, in 740, Vikramaditya II.
+destroyed the Pallava capital. In 750 Vikramaditya&rsquo;s son,
+Kirtivarman Chalukya, was overthrown by the Rashtrakutas.</p>
+
+<p>In 973, Taila or Tailapa II. (d. 995), a scion of the royal
+Chalukya race, succeeded in overthrowing the Rashtrakuta
+king Kakka II., and in recovering all the ancient territory of
+the Chalukyas with the exception of Gujarat. He was the founder
+of the dynasty known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+1000 a formidable invasion by the Chola king Rajaraja the
+Great was defeated, and in 1052 Somesvara I., or Ahamavalla
+(d. 1068), the founder of Kalyani, defeated and slew the Chola
+Rajadhiraja. The reign of Vikramaditya VI., or Vikramanka,
+which lasted from 1076 to 1126, formed another period of
+Chalukya greatness. Vikramanka&rsquo;s exploits against the Hoysala
+kings and others, celebrated by the poet Bilhana, were held to
+justify him in establishing a new era dating from his accession.
+With his death, however, the Chalukya power began to decline.
+In 1156 the commander-in-chief Bijjala (or Vijjana) Kalachurya
+revolted, and he and his sons held the kingdom till 1183. In
+this year Somesvara IV. Chalukya recovered part of his patrimony,
+only to succumb, about 1190, to the Yadavas of Devagiri
+and the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra. Henceforth the Chalukya
+rajas ranked only as petty chiefs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.F. Fleet, <i>Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts</i>; Prof. R.G.
+Bhandarker, &ldquo;Early History of the Deccan,&rdquo; in the <i>Bombay
+Gazetteer</i> (1896), vol. i. part ii.; Vincent A. Smith, <i>Early Hist. of
+India</i> (Oxford, 1908), pp. 382 ff.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1796-1862), German
+philosopher, was born at Pfaffroda in Saxony. For some years
+he taught at Dresden, and won a high reputation by his lectures
+on the history of philosophy in Germany. In 1839 he became
+professor in Kiel University, where, with the exception of one
+brief interval, when he was expelled with several colleagues
+because of his German sympathies, he remained till his death.
+His first published work, <i>Historische Entwickelung der spekulativen
+Philosophic von Kant bis Hegel</i> (1837, 5th ed. 1860), which
+still ranks among the best expositions of modern German thought,
+has been twice translated into English, by A. Tulk (London,
+1854), and by A. Edersheim (Edinburgh, 1854). His chief works
+are <i>Entwurf eines Systems der Wissenschaftslehre</i> (Kiel, 1846)
+and <i>System der spekulativen Ethik</i> (2 vols., 1850). He opposed
+both the extreme realism of Herbart and what he regarded as
+the one-sided idealism of Hegel, and endeavoured to find a mean
+between them, to discover the ideal or formal principle which
+unfolds itself in the real or material world presented to it.
+His <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>, accordingly, divides itself into (1)
+<i>Principlehre</i>, or theory of the one principle; (2) <i>Vermittelungslehre</i>,
+or theory of the means by which this principle realizes
+itself; and (3) <i>Teleologie</i>. The most noticeable point is the position
+assigned by Chalybäus to the &ldquo;World Ether,&rdquo; which is defined
+as the infinite in time and space, and which, he thinks, must
+be posited as necessarily coexisting with the Infinite Spirit or
+God. The fundamental principle of the <i>System der Ethik</i> is
+carried out with great strength of thought, and with an unusually
+complete command of ethical material.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.E. Erdmann, <i>Grundriss der Gesch. d. Philos.</i> ii. 781-786;
+K. Prantl, in <i>Allgem. deutsch. Biog.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:213px; height:162px" src="images/img813.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Crystal of Chalybite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHALYBITE,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of iron carbonate
+(FeCO<span class="su">3</span>) and forming an important ore of iron. It was early
+known as spathose iron, spathic iron or steel ore. F.S. Beudant
+in 1832 gave the name siderose (from <span class="grk" title="sidêros">&#963;&#943;&#948;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, iron), which was
+modified by W. Haidinger in 1845 to siderite. Chalybite (from
+<span class="grk" title="chalyps">&#967;&#940;&#955;&#965;&#968;</span>, <span class="grk" title="chalybos">&#967;&#940;&#955;&#965;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>chalybs</i>, steel) is of slightly later date,
+having been given by E.F. Glocker in 1847. The name siderite
+is in common use, but it is open to objection since it had earlier
+been applied to several other species, and is also now used as a
+group name for meteoric irons. Chalybite crystallizes in the
+rhombohedral system and is isomorphous with calcite; like this
+it possesses perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the primitive
+rhombohedron, the angles between which are 73° 0&prime;. Crystals
+are usually rhombohedral in habit, and the primitive rhombohedron
+<i>r</i>{100} is a common form, the faces being often curved
+as represented in the figure. Acute rhombohedra in combination
+with the basal pinacoid are also frequent, giving crystals of
+octahedral aspect. The mineral often occurs in cleavable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span>
+masses with a coarse or fine granular texture; also in botryoidal
+or globular (sphaerosiderite) and oolitic forms. When compact
+and mixed with much clay and sand it constitutes the well-known
+clay ironstone. Chalybite is usually yellowish-grey or
+brown in colour; it is translucent and has a vitreous lustre.
+Hardness 3½; sp. gr. 3.8. The double refraction (&omega; &minus; &epsilon; = 0.241)
+is stronger than that of calcite. When pure it contains 48.2%
+of iron, but this is often partly
+replaced isomorphously by manganese,
+magnesium or calcium: the
+varieties known as oligon-spar or
+oligonite, sideroplesite and siderodote
+contain these elements respectively
+in large amount. These
+varieties form a passage to ankerite
+(<i>q.v.</i>) and mesitite, and all are
+referred to loosely as brown-spar.</p>
+
+<p>Chalybite is a common gangue mineral in metalliferous veins,
+and well-crystallized specimens are found with ores of copper,
+lead, tin, &amp;c., in Cornwall, the Harz, Saxony and many other
+places. It also occurs alone as large masses in veins and beds
+in rocks of various kinds. The clay ironstone so extensively
+worked as an ore of iron occurs as nodules and beds in the Coal
+Measures of England and the United States, and the oolitic iron
+ore of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire forms beds in the Lias.
+The mineral is occasionally found as concretionary masses
+(sphaerosiderite) in cavities in basic igneous rocks such as
+dolerite.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBA,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a native state of India, within the Punjab, amid
+the Himalayas, and lying on the southern border of Kashmir.
+It has an area of 3216 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 127,834. The sanatorium
+of Dalhousie, though within the state, is attached to the
+district of Gurdaspur. Chamba is entirely mountainous; in
+the east and north, and in the centre, are snowy ranges. The
+valleys in the west and south are fertile. The chief rivers are the
+Chandra and Ravi. The country is much in favour with sportsmen.
+The principal crops are rice, maize and millet. Mineral
+ores of various kinds are known, but unworked. Trade is
+chiefly in forest produce. The capital of the state is Chamba
+(pop. 6000), situated above the gorge of the Ravi. External
+communications are entirely by road. The state was founded
+in the 6th century, and, though sometimes nominally subject
+to Kashmir and afterwards tributary to the Mogul empire,
+always practically maintained its independence. Its chronicles
+are preserved in a series of inscriptions, mostly engraved on
+copper. It first came under British influence in 1846, when it
+was declared independent of Kashmir. The line of the rajas of
+Chamba was founded in the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> by Marut, of
+an ancient family of Rajputs. In 1904 Bhuri Singh, K.C.S.I.,
+C.I.E., an enlightened and capable ruler, succeeded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBAL,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a river of India, one of the principal tributaries
+of the Jumna. Rising amid the summits of the Vindhya
+mountains in Malwa, it flows north, and after being joined by
+the Chambla and Sipra, passes through the gorges of the Mokandarra
+hills. After receiving the waters of the Kali-Sind, Parbati
+and Banas, its principal confluents, the Chambal becomes a
+great river, enters the British district of Etawah, and joins
+the Jumna 40 m. below Etawah town, its total length being
+650 m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1836-&emsp;&emsp;), British statesman,
+third son of Joseph Chamberlain, master of the Cordwainers&rsquo;
+Company, was born at Camberwell Grove, London, on the 8th
+of July 1836. His father was a well-to-do man of business, a
+Unitarian in religion and a Liberal in politics. Young Chamberlain
+was educated at Canonbury from 1845 to 1850, and at
+University College school, London, from 1850 to 1852. After
+two years in his father&rsquo;s office in London, he was sent to Birmingham
+to join his cousin Joseph Nettlefold in a screw business in
+which his father had an interest; and by degrees, largely owing
+to his own intelligent management, this business became very
+successful. Nettlefold &amp; Chamberlain employed new methods
+of attracting customers, and judiciously amalgamated rival
+firms with their own so as to reduce competition, with the result
+that in 1874, after twenty-two years of commercial life, Mr
+Chamberlain was able to retire with an ample fortune. Meanwhile
+he had in 1861 married his first wife, Miss Harriet Kenrick
+(she died in 1863), and had gradually come to take an increasingly
+important part in the municipal and political life of Birmingham.
+He was a constant speaker at the Birmingham and Edgbaston
+Debating Society; and when in 1868 the Birmingham Liberal
+Association was reorganized, he became one of its leading
+members. In 1869 he was elected chairman of the executive
+council of the new National Education League, the outcome
+of Mr George Dixon&rsquo;s movement for promoting the education
+of the children of the lower classes by paying their school fees,
+and agitating for more accommodation and a better national
+system. In the same year he was elected a member of the town
+council, and married his second wife&mdash;a cousin of his first&mdash;Miss
+Florence Kenrick (d. 1875).</p>
+
+<p>In 1870 he was elected a member of the first school board for
+Birmingham; and for the next six years, and especially after
+1873, when he became leader of a majority and chairman, he
+actively championed the Nonconformist opposition to denominationalism.
+He was then regarded as a Republican&mdash;the term
+signifying rather that he held advanced Radical opinions, which
+were construed by average men in the light of the current
+political developments in France, than that he really favoured
+Republican institutions. His programme was &ldquo;free Church,
+free land, free schools, free labour.&rdquo; At the general election of
+1874 he stood as a parliamentary candidate for Sheffield, but
+without success. Between 1869 and 1873 he was a prominent
+advocate in the Birmingham town council of the gospel of
+municipal reform preached by Mr Dawson, Dr Dale and Mr
+Bunce (of the <i>Birmingham. Post</i>); and in 1873 his party obtained
+a majority, and he was elected mayor, an office he retained until
+June 1876. As mayor he had to receive the prince and princess
+of Wales on their visit in June 1874, an occasion which excited
+some curiosity because of his reputation as a Republican; but
+those who looked for an exhibition of bad taste were disappointed,
+and the behaviour of the Radical mayor satisfied the requirements
+alike of <i>The Times</i> and of <i>Punch</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The period of his mayoralty was one of historic importance
+in the growth of modern Birmingham. New municipal buildings
+were erected, Highgate Park was opened as a place of recreation,
+the free library and art gallery were developed. But the great
+work carried through by Mr Chamberlain for Birmingham was
+the municipalization of the supply of gas and water, and the
+improvement scheme by which slums were cleared away and
+forty acres laid out in new streets and open spaces. The prosperity
+of modern Birmingham dates from 1875 and 1876, when
+these admirably administered reforms were initiated, and by
+his share in them Mr Chamberlain became not only one of its
+most popular citizens but also a man of mark outside. An orator
+of a business-like, straightforward type, cool and hard-hitting,
+his spare figure, incisive features and single eye-glass soon made
+him a favourite subject for the caricaturist; and in later life
+his aggressive personality, and the peculiarly irritating effect it
+had on his opponents, made his actions and speeches the object
+of more controversy than was the lot of any other politician of
+his time. His hobby for orchid-growing at his house &ldquo;Highbury&rdquo;
+near Birmingham also became famous. In private life his loyalty
+to his friends, and his &ldquo;genius for friendship&rdquo; (as John Morley
+said) made a curious contrast to his capacity for arousing the
+bitterest political hostility. It may be added here that the
+interest taken by him in Birmingham remained undiminished
+during his life, and he was largely instrumental in starting the
+Birmingham University (1900), of which he became chancellor.
+His connexion with Birmingham University was indeed peculiarly
+appropriate to his character as a man of business; but in
+spite of his representing a departure among men of the front
+rank in politics from the &ldquo;Eton and Oxford&rdquo; type, his general
+culture sometimes surprised those who did not know him.
+In later life Oxford and Cambridge gave him their doctors&rsquo;
+degrees; and in 1897 he was made lord rector of Glasgow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span>
+University (delivering an  address on  &ldquo;Patriotism&rdquo;  at  his
+installation).</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 Mr Dixon resigned his seat in parliament, and Mr
+Chamberlain was returned for Birmingham in his place unopposed,
+as John Bright&rsquo;s colleague. He made his maiden speech in the
+House of Commons on the 4th of August 1876, on Lord Sandon&rsquo;s
+Education Bill. At this period, too, he paid much attention
+to the question of licensing reform, and in 1876 he examined the
+Gothenburg system in Sweden, and advocated a solution of the
+problem in England on similar lines. During 1877 the new
+federation of Liberal Associations which became known as the
+&ldquo;Caucus&rdquo; was started under Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s influence in
+Birmingham&mdash;its secretary, Mr Schnadhorst, quickly making
+himself felt as a wire-puller of exceptional ability; and the new
+organization had a remarkable effect in putting life into the
+Liberal party, which since Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s retirement in 1874
+had been much in need of a stimulus. When the general election
+came in 1880, Mr Schnadhorst&rsquo;s powers were demonstrated in
+the successes won under his auspices. The Liberal party numbered
+349, against 243 Conservatives and 60 Irish Nationalists; and
+the Radical section of the Liberal party, led by Mr Chamberlain
+and Sir Charles Dilke, was recognized by Mr Gladstone by his
+inclusion of the former in his cabinet as president of the Board
+of Trade, and the appointment of the latter as under secretary for
+foreign affairs. In his new capacity Mr Chamberlain was responsible
+for carrying such important measures as the Bankruptcy
+Act 1883, and the Patents Act. Another bill which he
+had much at heart, on merchant shipping, had to be abandoned,
+and a royal commission substituted, but the subsequent legislation
+in 1888-1894 owed much to his efforts. The Franchise
+Act of 1884 was also one in which he took a leading part as a
+champion of the opinions of the labouring class. At this time
+he took the current advanced Radical views of both Irish and
+foreign policy, hating &ldquo;coercion,&rdquo; disliking the occupation of
+Egypt, and prominently defending the Transvaal settlement after
+Majuba. Both before and after the defeat of Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s
+government on the Budget in June 1885, he associated himself
+with what was known as the &ldquo;Unauthorized Programme,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+free education, small holdings, graduated taxation and local
+government. In June 1885 he made a speech at Birmingham,
+treating the reforms just mentioned as the &ldquo;ransom&rdquo; that
+property must pay to society for the security it enjoys&mdash;for
+which Lord Iddesleigh called him &ldquo;Jack Cade&rdquo;; and he
+continually urged the Liberal party to take up these Radical
+measures. At the general election of November 1885 Mr
+Chamberlain was returned for West Birmingham. The Liberal
+strength generally was, however, reduced to 335 members,
+though the Radical section held their own; and the Irish vote
+became necessary to Mr Gladstone if he was to command a
+majority. In December it was stated that Mr Gladstone intended
+to propose Home Rule for Ireland, and in January Lord
+Salisbury&rsquo;s ministry was defeated on the Address, on an amendment
+moved by Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s Birmingham henchman,
+Mr Jesse Collings (b. 1831), embodying the &ldquo;three acres and a
+cow&rdquo; of the Radical programme. Unlike Lord Hartington (afterwards
+duke of Devonshire) and other Liberals, who declined to
+join Mr Gladstone in view of the altered attitude he was adopting
+towards Ireland, Mr Chamberlain entered the cabinet as president
+of the Local Government Board (with Mr Jesse Collings
+as parliamentary secretary), but on the 15th of March 1886 he
+resigned, explaining in the House of Commons (8th April) that,
+while he had always been in favour of the largest possible extension
+of local government to Ireland consistently with the
+integrity of the empire and the supremacy of parliament, and
+had therefore joined Mr Gladstone when he believed that this
+was what was intended, he was unable to consider that the
+scheme communicated by Mr Gladstone to his colleagues maintained
+those limitations. At the same time he was not irreconcilable,
+and he invited Mr Gladstone even then to modify his bill
+so as to remove the objections made to it. This indecisive
+attitude did not last long, and the split in the party rapidly
+widened. At Birmingham Mr Chamberlain was supported by
+the &ldquo;Two Thousand,&rdquo; but deserted by the &ldquo;Caucus&rdquo; and Mr
+Schnadhorst. In May the Radicals who followed Mr Bright
+and Mr Chamberlain, and the Whigs who took their cue from
+Lord Hartington, decided to vote against the second reading
+of the Home Rule Bill, instead of allowing it to be taken and
+then pressing for modifications in committee, and on 7th June
+the bill was defeated by 343 to 313, 94 Liberal Unionists&mdash;as
+they were generally called&mdash;voting against the government.
+Mr Chamberlain was the object of the bitterest attacks from the
+Gladstonians for his share in this result; he was stigmatized as
+&ldquo;Judas,&rdquo; and open war was proclaimed by the Home Rulers
+against the &ldquo;dissentient Liberals&rdquo;&mdash;the description used by Mr
+Gladstone. The general election, however, returned to parliament
+316 Conservatives, 78 Liberal Unionists, and only 276
+Gladstonians and Nationalists, Birmingham returning seven
+Unionist members. When the House met in August, it was
+decided by the Liberal Unionists, under Lord Hartington&rsquo;s
+leadership, that their policy henceforth was essentially to combine
+with the Tories to keep Mr Gladstone out. The old Liberal feeling
+still prevailing among them was too strong, however, for their
+leaders to take office in a coalition ministry. It was enough for
+them to be able to tie down the Conservative government to such
+measures as were not offensive to Liberal Unionist principles.
+It still seemed possible, moreover, that the Gladstonians might
+be brought to modify their Home Rule proposals, and in January
+1887 a Round Table conference (suggested by Mr Chamberlain)
+was held between Mr Chamberlain, Sir G. Trevelyan, Sir William
+Harcourt, Mr Morley and Lord Herschell. But no <i>rapprochement</i>
+was effected, and reconciliation became daily more and
+more difficult. The influence of Liberal Unionist views upon
+the domestic legislation of the government was steadily bringing
+about a more complete union in the Unionist party, and
+destroying the old lines of political cleavage. Before 1892 Mr
+Chamberlain had the satisfaction of seeing Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s
+ministry pass such important acts, from a progressive point of
+view, as those dealing with Coal Mines Regulation, Allotments,
+County Councils, Housing of the Working Classes, Free Education
+and Agricultural Holdings, besides Irish legislation like the
+Ashbourne Act, the Land Act of 1891, and the Light Railways
+and Congested Districts Acts. In October 1887 Mr Chamberlain,
+Sir L. Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper were selected by
+the government as British plenipotentiaries to discuss with the
+United States the Canadian fisheries dispute, and a treaty was
+arranged by them at Washington on the 15th of February 1888.
+The Senate refused to ratify it; but a protocol provided for a
+<i>modus vivendi</i> pending ratification, giving American fishing vessels
+similar advantages to those contemplated in the treaty; and on
+the whole Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s mission to America was accepted
+as a successful one in maintaining satisfactory relations with the
+United States. He returned to England in March 1888, and was
+presented with the freedom of the borough of Birmingham. The
+visit also resulted, in November 1888, in his marriage with his
+third wife, Miss Endicott, daughter of the United States secretary
+of war in President Cleveland&rsquo;s first administration.</p>
+
+<p>At the general election of 1892 Mr Chamberlain was again
+returned, with an increased majority, for West Birmingham;
+but the Unionist party as a whole came back with only 315
+members against 355 Home Rulers. In August Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s
+ministry was defeated; and on the 13th of February 1893 Mr
+Gladstone introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which was
+eventually read a third time on the 1st of September. During
+the eighty-two days&rsquo; discussion in the House of Commons Mr
+Chamberlain was the life and soul of the opposition, and his
+criticisms had a vital influence upon the attitude of the country
+when the House of Lords summarily threw out the bill. His
+chief contribution to the discussions during the later stages of
+the Gladstone and Rosebery ministries was in connexion with
+Mr Asquith&rsquo;s abortive Employers&rsquo; Liability Bill, when he foreshadowed
+the method of dealing with this question afterwards
+carried out in the Compensation Act of 1897. Outside parliament
+he was busy formulating proposals for old age pensions, which
+had a prominent place in the Unionist programme of 1895. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span>
+that year, on the defeat of Lord Rosebery, the union of the
+Unionists was sealed by the inclusion of the Liberal Unionist
+leaders in Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s ministry; and Mr Chamberlain
+became secretary of state for the colonies. There had been much
+speculation as to what his post would be, and his nomination
+to the colonial office, then considered one of secondary rank,
+excited some surprise; but Mr Chamberlain himself realized
+how important that department had become. He carried with
+him into the ministry his close Birmingham municipal associates,
+Mr Jesse Collings (as under secretary of the home office), and Mr
+J. Powell-Williams (1840-1904) as financial secretary to the war
+office. Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s influence in the Unionist cabinet was
+soon visible in the Workmen&rsquo;s Compensation Act and other
+measures. This act, though in Sir Matthew White Ridley&rsquo;s charge
+as home secretary, was universally and rightly associated with
+Mr Chamberlain; and its passage, in the face of much interested
+opposition from highly-placed, old-fashioned conservatives and
+capitalists on both sides, was principally due to his determined
+advocacy. Another &ldquo;social&rdquo; measure of less importance, which
+formed part of the Chamberlain programme, was the Small
+Houses Acquisition Act of 1899; but the problem of old age
+pensions was less easily solved. This subject had been handed
+over in 1893 to a royal commission, and further discussed by a
+select committee in 1899 and a departmental committee in 1900,
+but both of these threw cold water on the schemes laid before
+them&mdash;a result which, galling enough to one who had made so
+much play with the question in the country, offered welcome
+material to his opponents for electioneering recrimination, as
+year by year went by between 1895 and 1900 and nothing resulted
+from all the confident talk on the subject in which Mr
+Chamberlain had indulged when out of office. Eventually it
+was the Liberal and not the Unionist party that carried an Old
+Age Pensions scheme through parliament, during the 1908
+session, when Mr Chamberlain was <i>hors de combat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From January 1896 (the date of the Jameson Raid) onwards
+South Africa demanded the chief attention of the colonial
+secretary (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>, and for details <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>). In
+his negotiations with President Kruger one masterful temperament
+was pitted against another. Mr Chamberlain had a very
+difficult part to play, in a situation dominated by suspicion on
+both sides, and while he firmly insisted on the rights of Great
+Britain and of British subjects in the Transvaal, he was the
+continual object of Radical criticism at home. Never has a
+statesman&rsquo;s personality been more bitterly associated by his
+political opponents with the developments they deplored.
+Attempts were even made to ascribe financial motives to Mr
+Chamberlain&rsquo;s actions, and the political atmosphere was thick
+with suspicion and scandal. The report of the Commons committee
+(July 1897) definitely acquitted both Mr Chamberlain
+and the colonial office of any privity in the Jameson Raid, but
+Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s detractors continued to assert the contrary.
+Opposition hostility reached such a pitch that in 1899 there was
+hardly an act of the cabinet during the negotiations with President
+Kruger which was not attributed to the personal malignity
+and unscrupulousness of the colonial secretary. The elections of
+1900 (when he was again returned, unopposed, for West Birmingham)
+turned upon the individuality of a single minister more
+than any since the days of Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s ascendancy, and Mr
+Chamberlain, never conspicuous for inclination to turn his other
+cheek to the smiter, was not slow to return the blows with interest.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from South Africa, his most important work at this time
+was the successful passing of the Australian Commonwealth Act
+(1900), in which both tact and firmness were needed to settle
+certain differences between the imperial government and the
+colonial delegates.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s tenure of the office of colonial secretary
+between 1895 and 1900 must always be regarded as a turning-point
+in the history of the relations between the British colonies
+and the mother country. His accession to office was marked by
+speeches breathing a new spirit of imperial consolidation, embodied
+either in suggestions for commercial union or in more
+immediately practicable proposals for improving the &ldquo;imperial
+estate&rdquo;; and at the Diamond Jubilee of 1897 the visits of the
+colonial premiers to London emphasized and confirmed the new
+policy, the fruits of which were afterwards seen in the cordial
+support given by the colonies in the Boer War. Even in what
+Mr Chamberlain called his &ldquo;Radical days&rdquo; he had never
+supported the &ldquo;Manchester&rdquo; view of the value of a colonial
+empire; and during the Gladstone ministry of 1882-1885 Mr
+Bright had remarked that the junior member for Birmingham
+was the only Jingo in the cabinet&mdash;meaning, no doubt, that
+he objected to the policy of <i>laissez-faire</i> and the timidity of
+what was afterwards known as &ldquo;Little Englandism.&rdquo; While he was
+still under Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s influence these opinions were kept in
+subordination; but Mr Chamberlain was always an imperial
+federationist, and from 1887 onwards he constantly gave expression
+to his views on the desirability of drawing the different
+parts of the empire closer together for purposes of defence and
+commerce. In 1895 the time for the realization of these views
+had come; and Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s speeches, previously remarkable
+chiefly for debating power and directness of argument,
+were now dominated by a new note of constructive statesmanship,
+basing itself on the economic necessities of a world-wide empire.
+Not the least of the anxieties of the colonial office during this
+period was the situation in the West Indies, where the cane-sugar
+industry was being steadily undermined by the European
+bounties given to exports of continental beet; and though the
+government restricted themselves to attempts at removing the
+bounties by negotiation and to measures for palliating the worst
+effects in the West Indies, Mr Chamberlain made no secret of his
+repudiation of the Cobden Club view that retaliation would be
+contrary to the doctrines of free trade, and he did his utmost
+to educate public opinion at home into understanding that the
+responsibilities of the mother country are not merely to be construed
+according to the selfish interests of a nation of consumers.
+As regards foreign affairs, Mr Chamberlain more than once (and
+particularly at Leicester on 30th November 1899) indicated his
+leanings towards a closer understanding between the British
+empire, the United States and Germany,&mdash;a suggestion which
+did not save him from an extravagant outburst of German
+hostility during the Boer War. The unusually outspoken and
+pointed expression, however, of his disinclination to submit to
+Muscovite duplicity or to &ldquo;pin-pricks&rdquo; or &ldquo;unmannerliness&rdquo;
+from France was criticized on the score of discretion by a wider
+circle than that of his political adversaries.</p>
+
+<p>During the progress of the Boer War from 1899 to 1902, Mr
+Chamberlain, as the statesman who had represented the cabinet
+in the negotiations which led to it, remained the object of constant
+attacks from his Radical opponents&mdash;the &ldquo;little Englanders&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Pro-Boers,&rdquo; as he called them&mdash;and he was supported by
+the Imperialist and Unionist party with at least equal ardour.
+But as colonial secretary, except in so far as his consistent
+support of Lord Milner and his enthusiastic encouragement of
+colonial assistance were concerned, he naturally played only a
+subordinate part during the carrying out of the military operations.
+Among domestic statesmen he was felt, however, to be the
+backbone of the party in power. He was the hero of the one
+side, just as he was the bugbear of the other. On the 13th of
+February 1902 he was presented with an address in a gold casket
+by the city corporation, and entertained at luncheon at the
+Mansion House, an honour not unconnected with the strong
+feeling recently aroused by his firm reply (at Birmingham,
+January 11) to some remarks made by Count von Büllow, the
+German chancellor, in the Reichstag (January 8), reflecting the
+offensive allegations current in Germany against the conduct
+of the army in South Africa. Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s speech, in answer
+to what had been intended as a contemptuous rebuke, was universally
+applauded. His own imperialism was intensified by the
+way in which England&rsquo;s difficulties resulted in calling forth
+colonial assistance and so cementing the bonds of empire. The
+domestic crisis, and the sharp cleavage between parties at home,
+had driven the bent of his mind and policy further and further
+away from the purely municipal and national ideals which he
+had followed so keenly before he became colonial minister. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span>
+problems of empire engrossed him, and a new enthusiasm for
+imperial projects arose in the Unionist party under his inspiration.
+No English statesman probably has ever been, at different
+times in his career, so able an advocate of absolutely contradictory
+policies, and his opponents were not slow to taunt him
+with quotations from his earlier speeches. As the war drew to
+its end, new plans for imperial consolidation were maturing in
+his brain. Subsidiary points of utility, such as the formation of
+the London and Liverpool schools of tropical medicine from 1899
+onwards, were taken up by him with characteristic vigour.
+But the next step was to prove a critical one indeed for the
+loyalty of the party which had so far been unanimous in his
+favour.</p>
+
+<p>The settlement after the war was full of difficulties, financial
+and others, in South Africa. When Mr Arthur Balfour succeeded
+Lord Salisbury as prime minister in July 1902, Mr Chamberlain
+agreed to serve loyally under him, and the friendship between
+the two leaders was indeed one of the most marked features of the
+political situation. In November 1902 it was arranged that Mr
+Chamberlain should go out to South Africa, and it was hoped,
+not without reason, that his personality would effect more good
+than any ordinary official negotiations. At the time the best
+results appeared to be secured. He went from place to place in
+South Africa (December 26-February 25); arranged with the
+leading Transvaal financiers that in return for support from the
+British government in raising a Transvaal loan they would
+guarantee a large proportion of a Transvaal debt of £30,000,000,
+which should repay the British treasury so much of the cost of
+the war; and when he returned in March 1903, satisfaction was
+general in the country over the success of his mission. But
+meantime two things had happened. He had looked at the
+empire from the colonial point of view, in a way only possible
+in a colonial atmosphere; and at home some of his colleagues
+had gone a long way, behind the scenes, to destroy one of the
+very factors on which the question of a practical scheme for
+imperial commercial federation seemed to hinge. In the budget
+of 1902 a duty of a shilling a quarter on imported corn had been
+reintroduced. This small tax was regarded as only a registration
+duty. Even by free-trade ministers like Gladstone it had been
+left up to 1869 untouched, and its removal by Robert Lowe
+(Lord Sherbrooke) had since then been widely regarded as a
+piece of economic pedantry. Its reimposition, officially supported
+for the sake of necessary revenue in war-time, and
+cordially welcomed by the Unionist party, had justified itself,
+as they contended, in spite of the criticisms of the Opposition
+(who raised the cry of the &ldquo;dear loaf&rdquo;), by proving during the
+year to have had no general or direct effect on the price of bread.
+And the more advanced Imperialists, as well as the more old-fashioned
+protectionists (like Mr Chaplin) who formed an integral
+body of the Conservative party, had looked forward to this
+tax being converted into a differential one between foreign and
+colonial corn, so as to introduce a scheme of colonial preference
+and commercial consolidation between the colonies and the
+mother country. In South Africa&mdash;as in any other British
+colony, since all of them were accustomed to tariffs of a protectionist
+nature, and the idea of a preference (already started by
+Canada) was fairly popular&mdash;Mr Chamberlain had found this
+view well established. The agitation in England against the
+tax had now blown over. The Unionist rank and file were
+committed to its support,&mdash;many even advocating its increase
+to two shillings at least. But Mr Ritchie, the chancellor of the
+exchequer, having a surplus in prospect and taxation to take off,
+carried the cabinet in favour of again remitting this tax on corn.
+Mr Chamberlain himself had proposed only to take it off as
+regards colonial, and not foreign corn,&mdash;thus inaugurating a
+preferential system. But a majority of the cabinet supported
+Mr Ritchie. The remission of this tax, after all the conviction
+with which its restoration had been supported a year before,
+was very difficult for the party itself to stomach, and on any
+ground it was a distasteful act, loyally as the party followed
+their leaders. But to those who had looked to it as providing
+a lever for a gradual change in the established fiscal system,
+the <i>volte-face</i> was a bitter blow, and at once there began, though
+not at first openly, a split between the more rigid free-traders&mdash;advocates
+of cheap food and free imports&mdash;and those who
+desired to use the opportunities of a tariff, of however moderate
+a kind, for attaining national and imperial and not merely
+revenue advantages. This idea, which had for some time been
+floating in Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s mind (see especially his speech
+at Birmingham of May 16, 1902), now took full possession of it.
+For the moment he remained in the cabinet, but the seed of
+dissension was sown. The first public intimation of his views
+was given in a speech to his constituents at Birmingham (May 15,
+1903), when he outlined a plan for raising more money by a
+rearranged tariff, partly to obtain a preferential system for the
+empire and partly to produce funds for social reform at home.
+On May 28th in the House of Commons he spoke on the same
+subject, and declared &ldquo;if you are to give a preference to the
+colonies, you must put a tax on food.&rdquo; Considered in the light
+of after events, this putting the necessity of food-taxes in the
+forefront was decidedly injudicious; but imperialist conviction
+and enthusiasm were more conspicuous than electioneering tact
+in the launching of Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s new scheme.</p>
+
+<p>The movement grew quickly, its supporters including a
+number of the cleverest younger politicians and journalists in
+the Unionist party. The idea of tariff reform&mdash;to broaden the
+basis of taxation, to introduce a preference, and to stimulate
+home industries and increase employment&mdash;took firm root;
+and the political economists of the party&mdash;Prof. W. Cunningham,
+Prof. W. Ashley and Prof. W.A.S. Hewins, in particular&mdash;brought
+effective criticism to bear on the one-sided &ldquo;free trade&rdquo;
+in vogue. The first demand was for inquiry. The country was
+still bearing an income-tax of elevenpence in the pound; it
+appeared that the old sources of revenue were inadequate; and
+meanwhile the statistics of trade, it was argued, showed that
+the English free-import system hampered English trade while
+providing the foreigner with a free market. Mr Chamberlain
+and his supporters argued that since 1870 certain other countries
+(Germany and the United States), with protective tariffs, had
+increased their trade in much larger proportion, while English
+trade had only been maintained by the increased business done
+with British colonies. A scientific inquiry into the facts was
+needed. By the Opposition, who now found themselves the
+defenders of conservatism in the established fiscal policy of the
+country, this whole argument was scouted; but for a time the
+demand merely for inquiry, and the production of figures, gave
+no sufficient occasion for dissension among Unionists, even when,
+like Sir M. Hicks Beach, they were convinced free-importers
+on purely economic grounds; and Mr Balfour (<i>q.v.</i>), as premier,
+managed to hold his colleagues and party together by taking the
+line that particular opinions on economic subjects should not
+be made a test of party loyalty. The Board of Trade was set
+to work to produce fiscal Blue-books, and hum-drum politicians
+who had never shown any genius for figures suddenly blossomed
+out into arithmeticians of the deepest dye. The Tariff Reform
+League was founded in order to further Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s
+policy, holding its inaugural meeting on July 21st; and it
+began to take an active part in issuing leaflets and in work at
+by-elections. Discussion proceeded hotly on the merits of a
+preferential tariff, and on August 15th a manifesto appeared
+against it signed by fourteen professors or lecturers on political
+economy, including Mr Leonard Courtney, Professor Edgeworth,
+Professor Marshall, Professor Bastable, Professor Smart,
+Professor J.S. Nicholson, Professor Conner, Mr Bowley, Mr E.
+Cannan and Mr L.R. Phelps,&mdash;men of admitted competence,
+yet, after all, of no higher authority than the economists supporting
+Mr Chamberlain, such as Dr Cunningham and Professor
+Ashley.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the death of Lord Salisbury (August 22) removed
+a weighty figure from the councils of the Unionist party. The
+cabinet met several times at the beginning of September, and
+the question of their attitude towards the fiscal problem became
+acute. The public had its first intimation of impending events
+in the appearance on September 16th of Mr Balfour&rsquo;s <i>Economic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span>
+Notes on Insular Free Trade</i>, which had been previously circulated
+as a cabinet memorandum. The next day appeared
+the Board of Trade Fiscal Blue-book. And on the 18th the
+resignations were announced, not only of the more rigid free-traders
+in the cabinet, Mr Ritchie and Lord George Hamilton,
+but also of Mr Chamberlain. Letters in cordial terms were
+published, which had passed between Mr Chamberlain (September
+9) and Mr Balfour (September 16). Mr Chamberlain pointed
+out that he was committed to a preferential scheme involving
+new duties on food, and could not remain in the government
+without prejudice while it was excluded from the party programme;
+remaining loyal to Mr Balfour and his general objects,
+he could best promote this course from outside, and he suggested
+that the government might confine its policy to the &ldquo;assertion
+of our freedom in the case of all commercial relations with
+foreign countries.&rdquo; Mr Balfour, while reluctantly admitting
+the necessity of Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s taking a freer hand, expressed
+his agreement in the desirability of a closer fiscal union with the
+colonies, but questioned the immediate practicability of any
+scheme; he was willing to adopt fiscal reform so far as it covered
+retaliatory duties, but thought that the exclusion of taxation
+of food from the party programme was in existing circumstances
+necessary, so long as public opinion was not ripe. At the same
+time he welcomed the fact that Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s son, Mr
+Austen Chamberlain, was ready to remain a member of the
+government. Mr Austen Chamberlain (b. 1863) accordingly
+became the new chancellor of the exchequer; he was already
+in the cabinet as postmaster-general, having previously made
+his mark as civil lord of the admiralty (1895-1900), and financial
+secretary to the treasury (1900-1902).</p>
+
+<p>From the turning-point of Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s resignation, it is
+not necessary here to follow in detail the discussions and dissensions
+in the party as a whole in its relations with the prime
+minister (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balfour, A.J.</a></span>). It is sufficient to say that while
+Mr Balfour&rsquo;s sympathetic &ldquo;send off&rdquo; appeared to indicate his
+inclination towards Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s programme, if only further
+support could be gained for it, his endeavour to keep the party
+together, and the violent opposition which gathered against
+Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s scheme, combined to make his real attitude
+during the next two years decidedly obscure, both sections of the
+party&mdash;free-traders and tariff reformers&mdash;being induced from
+time to time to regard him as on their side. The tariff reform
+movement itself was now, however, outside the purely official
+programme, and Mr Chamberlain (backed by a majority of the
+Unionist members) threw himself with impetuous ardour into a
+crusade on its behalf, while at the same time supporting Mr
+Balfour in parliament, and leaving it to him to decide as to the
+policy of going to the country when the time should be ripe.
+In his own words, he went in front of the Unionist army as a
+pioneer, and if his army was attacked he would go back to it; in
+no conceivable circumstances would he allow himself to be put in
+any sort of competition, direct or indirect, with Mr Balfour, his
+friend and leader, whom he meant to follow (October 6).</p>
+
+<p>On October 6th he opened his campaign with a speech at
+Glasgow. Analysing the trade statistics as between 1872 and
+1902, he insisted that British progress involved a relative decline
+compared with that of protectionist foreign countries like Germany
+and the United States; Great Britain exported less and
+less of manufactured goods, and imported more and more; the
+exports to foreign countries had decreased, and it was only the
+increased exports to the colonies that maintained the British
+position. This was the outcome of the working of a one-sided
+free-trade system. Now was the time, and it might soon be lost,
+for consolidating British trade relations with the colonies.
+If the mother country and her daughter states did not draw
+closer, they would inevitably drift apart. A further increase of
+£26,000,000 a year in the trade with the colonies might be
+obtained by a preferential tariff, and this meant additional
+employment at home for 166,000 workmen, or subsistence for a
+population of a far larger number. His positive proposals were:
+(1) no tax on raw materials; (2) a small tax on food other than
+colonial, <i>e.g.</i> two shillings a quarter on foreign corn but excepting
+maize, and 5% on meat and dairy produce excluding bacon; (3)
+a 10% general tariff on imported manufactured goods. To meet
+any increased cost of living, he proposed to reduce the duties on
+tea, sugar and other articles of general consumption, and he
+estimated that his scheme would in no case increase a working-man&rsquo;s
+expenditure, and in most cases would reduce it. &ldquo;The
+colonies,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;are prepared to meet us; in return for a very
+moderate preference, they will give us a substantial advantage
+in their markets.&rdquo; This speech, delivered with characteristic
+vigour and Imperialistic enthusiasm, was the type of others
+which followed in quick succession during the year. At Greenock
+next day he emphasized the necessity of retaliating against
+foreign tariffs&mdash;&ldquo;I never like being hit without striking back.&rdquo;
+The practice of &ldquo;dumping&rdquo; must be fairly met; if foreign goods
+were brought into England to undersell British manufacturers,
+either the Fair Wages Clause and the Factory Acts and the Compensation
+Act would have to be repealed, or the workmen would
+have to take lower wages, or lose their work. &ldquo;Agriculture has
+been practically destroyed, sugar has gone, silk has gone, iron is
+threatened, wool is threatened, cotton will go! How long are
+you going to stand it?&rdquo; On October 20th he spoke at Newcastle,
+on the 21st at Tynemouth, on the 27th at Liverpool,
+insisting that free-trade had never been a working-class measure
+and that it could not be reconciled with trade-unionism; on
+November 4th at Birmingham, on the 20th at Cardiff, on the
+21st at Newport, and on December 16th at Leeds. In all these
+speeches he managed to point his argument by application to
+local industries. In the Leeds speech he announced that, with a
+view to drawing up a scientific model tariff, a non-political
+commission of representative experts would be appointed under
+the auspices of the Tariff Reform League to take evidence from
+every trade; it included many heads of businesses, and Mr Charles
+Booth, the eminent student of social and industrial London, with
+Sir Robert Herbert as chairman, and Professor W.A.S. Hewins
+as secretary. The name of &ldquo;Tariff Commission,&rdquo; given to this
+voluntary and unofficial body, was a good deal criticized, but
+though flouted by the political free-traders it set to work in
+earnest, and accumulated a mass of evidence as to the real facts
+of trade, which promised to be invaluable to economic inquirers.
+On January 18th, 1904, Mr Chamberlain ended his series of
+speeches by a great meeting at the Guildhall, in the city of
+London, the key-note being his exhortation to his audience to
+&ldquo;think imperially.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>All this activity on Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s part represented a great
+physical and intellectual feat on the part of a man now sixty-seven
+years of age; but his bodily vigour and comparatively
+youthful appearance were essential features of his personality.
+Nothing like this campaign had been known in the political world
+since Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s Midlothian days; and it produced a great
+public impression, stirring up both supporters and opponents.
+Free-trade unionists like Lord Goschen and Lord Hugh Cecil, and
+the Liberal leaders&mdash;for whom Mr Asquith became the principal
+spokesman, though Lord Rosebery&rsquo;s criticisms also had considerable
+weight&mdash;found new matter in Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s speeches
+for their contention that any radical change in the traditional
+English fiscal policy, established now for sixty years, would only
+result in evil. The broad fact remained that while Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s
+activity gathered round him the bulk of the Unionist
+members and an enthusiastic band of economic sympathizers,
+the country as a whole remained apathetic and unconvinced.
+One reason was the intellectual difficulty of the subject and the
+double-faced character of all arguments from statistics, which
+were either incomprehensible or disputable; another was the
+fact that substantially this was a political movement, and that
+tariff reform was, after all, only one in a complexity of political
+issues, most of which during this period were being interpreted
+by the electorate in a sense hostile to the Unionist party. Mr
+Chamberlain had relied on his personal influence, which from
+1895 to 1902 had been supreme; but his own resignation, and the
+course of events, had since 1903 made his personality less authoritative,
+and new interests&mdash;such as the opposition to the Education
+Act, to the heavy taxation, and to Chinese labour in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span>
+Transvaal, and indignation over the revelations concerned with
+the war&mdash;were monopolizing attention, to the weakening of his
+hold on the public. The revival in trade, and the production of
+new statistics which appeared to stultify Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s
+prophecies of progressive decline, enabled the free-trade
+champions to reassure their audiences as to the very foundation
+of his case, and to represent the whole tariff reform movement as
+no less unnecessary than risky. Moreover, the split in the
+Unionist party brought the united Liberal party in full force into
+the field, and at last the country began to think that the danger
+of Irish Home Rule was practically over, and that a Liberal
+majority might be returned to power in safety, with the prospect
+of providing an alternative government which would assure
+commercial repose (Lord Rosebery&rsquo;s phrase), relief from extravagant
+expenditure, and&mdash;as the working-classes were led to
+believe&mdash;a certain amount of labour legislation which the Tory
+leaders would never propose. On the other hand the colonies
+took a great interest in the new movement, though without
+putting any such pressure on the home public as Mr Chamberlain
+might have expected. At the opening of 1904 he was officially
+invited by Mr Deakin, the prime minister of the Commonwealth,
+to pay a visit to Australia, in order to expound his scheme,
+being promised an enthusiastic welcome &ldquo;as the harbinger of
+commercial reciprocity between the mother country and her
+colonies.&rdquo; Mr Chamberlain, however, declined; his work at
+home was too pressing.</p>
+
+<p>From the end of Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s series of expository speeches
+on his scheme of tariff reform, onwards during the various fiscal
+debates and discussions of 1904, it is unnecessary to follow
+events in detail. The scheme was now before the country, and
+Mr Chamberlain was anxious to take its verdict. Time was not
+on his side at his age, and if he had to be beaten at one election
+he was anxious to get rid of the other issues which would encumber
+the popular vote, and to press on to a second when he would
+be on the attacking side. But he would make no move which
+would embarrass Mr Balfour in parliament, and adhered to his
+promise of loyalty. The result was a long drawn out interval,
+while the government held on and its supporters became more
+embittered over their differences. Mr Chamberlain needed a rest,
+and was away in Italy and Egypt from March to May, and again
+in November. He made three important speeches at Welbeck
+(August 4), at Luton (October 5), and at Limehouse (December
+15), but he had nothing substantial to add to his case, and
+the party situation continued in all its embarrassments. Mr
+Balfour&rsquo;s introduction of his promise (at Edinburgh on October 3)
+to convene an imperial conference after the general election if the
+Unionists came back to power, in order to discuss a scheme for
+fiscal union, represented an academic rather than a practical
+advance, since the by-elections showed that the Unionists were
+certain to be defeated. The one important new development
+concerned the Liberal-Unionist organization. In January some
+correspondence was published between Mr Chamberlain and
+the duke of Devonshire, dating from the previous October, as
+to difficulties arising from the central Liberal-Unionist organization
+subsidizing local associations which had adopted the programme
+of tariff reform. The duke objected to this departure
+from neutrality, and suggested that it was becoming &ldquo;impossible
+with any advantage to maintain under existing circumstances
+the existence of the Liberal-Unionist organization.&rdquo; Mr Chamberlain
+retorted that this was a matter for a general meeting of
+delegates to decide; if the duke was outvoted he might resign
+his presidency; for his own part he was prepared to allow the
+local associations to be subsidized impartially, so long as they
+supported the government, but he was not prepared for the
+violent disruption, which the duke apparently contemplated,
+of an association so necessary to the success of the Unionist
+cause. The duke was in a difficult position as president of the
+organization, since most of the local associations supported
+Mr Chamberlain, and he replied that the differences between
+them were vital, and he would not be responsible for dividing
+the association into sections, but would rather resign. Mr
+Chamberlain then called a general meeting on his own responsibility
+in February, when a new constitution was proposed;
+and in May, at the annual meeting of the Liberal-Unionist council,
+the free-food Unionists, being in a minority, retired, and the
+association was reorganized under Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s auspices,
+Lord Lansdowne and Lord Selborne (both of them cabinet
+ministers) becoming vice-presidents. On July 14th the reconstituted
+Liberal-Unionist organization held a great demonstration
+in the Albert Hall, and Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s success in ousting
+the duke of Devonshire and the other free-trade members of
+the old Liberal-Unionist party, and imposing his own fiscal
+policy upon the Liberal-Unionist caucus, was now complete.</p>
+
+<p>During the spring and summer of 1905 Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s
+more active supporters were in favour of forcing a dissolution
+by leaving the government in a minority, but he himself preferred
+to leave matters to take their course, so long as the prime minister
+was content to be publicly identified with the policy of eventually
+fighting on tariff reform lines. Speaking at the Albert Hall in
+July Mr Chamberlain pushed somewhat further than before
+his &ldquo;embrace&rdquo; of Mr Balfour; and in the autumn, when foreign
+affairs no longer dominated the attention of the government,
+the crisis rapidly came to a head. In reply to Mr Balfour&rsquo;s
+appeal for the sinking of differences (Newcastle, November 14),
+Mr Chamberlain insisted at Bristol (November 21) on the adoption
+of his fiscal policy; and Mr Balfour resigned on December 4.
+on the ground that he no longer retained the confidence of the
+party. At the crushing Unionist defeat in the general election
+which followed in January 1906, Mr Chamberlain was triumphantly
+returned for West Birmingham, and all the divisions of
+Birmingham returned Chamberlainite members. Amid the wreck
+of the party&mdash;Mr Balfour and several of his colleagues themselves
+losing their seats&mdash;he had the consolation of knowing that the
+tariff reformers won the only conspicuous successes of the election.
+But he had no desire to set himself up as leader in Mr Balfour&rsquo;s
+place, and after private negotiations with the ex-prime minister,
+a common platform was arranged between them, on which
+Mr Balfour, for whom a seat was found in the City of London,
+should continue to lead the remnant of the party. The formula
+was given in a letter from Mr Balfour of February 14th (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balfour, A.J.</a></span>) which admitted the necessity of making fiscal
+reform the first plank in the Unionist platform, and accepted a
+general tariff on manufactured goods and a small duty on foreign
+corn as &ldquo;not in principle objectionable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It may be left to future historians to attempt a considered
+judgment on the English tariff reform movement, and on Mr
+Chamberlain&rsquo;s responsibility for the Unionist <i>débâcle</i> of 1906.
+But while his enemies taunted him with having twice wrecked his
+party&mdash;first the Radical party under Mr Gladstone, and secondly
+the Unionist party under Mr Balfour&mdash;no well-informed critic
+doubted his sincerity, or failed to recognize that in leaving the
+cabinet and embarking on his fiscal campaign he showed real
+devotion to an idea. In championing the cause of imperial
+fiscal union, by means involving the abandonment of a system
+of taxation which had become part of British orthodoxy, he
+followed the guidance of a profound conviction that the stability
+of the empire and the very existence of the hegemony of the
+United Kingdom depended upon the conversion of public
+opinion to a revision of the current economic doctrine. There
+were doubtless miscalculations at the outset as to the resistance
+to be encountered. But from the purely party point of view
+he was entitled to say that he followed the path of loyalty to
+Mr Balfour which he had marked out from the moment of his
+resignation, and that he persistently, refused to be put in competition
+with him as leader. Even in the absence of the new issue,
+defeat was foredoomed for Mr Balfour&rsquo;s administration by the
+ordinary course of political events; and it might fairly be claimed
+that &ldquo;Chinese slavery,&rdquo; &ldquo;passive resistance,&rdquo; and labour
+irritation at the Taff Vale judgment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trade Unions</a></span>) were
+mainly responsible for the Unionist collapse. Time alone would
+show whether the system of free imports could be permanently
+reconciled with British imperial policy or commercial prosperity.
+It remained the fact that Mr Chamberlain staked an already
+established position on his refusal to compromise with his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span>
+convictions on a question which appeared to him of vital and
+immediate importance.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s own activity in the political field was cut
+short in the middle of the session of 1906 by a serious attack of
+gout, which was at first minimized by his friends, but which,
+it was gradually discovered, had completely crippled him.
+Though encouragement was given to the idea that he might
+return to the House of Commons, where he continued to retain
+his seat for Birmingham, he was quite incapacitated for any
+public work; and this invalid condition was protracted throughout
+1907, 1908 and 1909. But he remained in the background as
+the inspirer and adviser of the Tariff Reformers. The cause
+made continuous headway at by-elections, and though the general
+election of January 1910 gave the Unionists no majority it saw
+them returned in much increased strength, which was chiefly
+due to the support obtained for tariff reform principles. Mr
+Chamberlain himself was returned unopposed for West Birmingham
+again.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1828-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+soldier and educationalist, was born at Brewer, Maine,
+on the 8th of September 1828. He graduated at Bowdoin College
+in 1852, and at the Bangor Theological Seminary in 1855, and
+was successively tutor in logic and natural theology (1855-1856),
+professor of rhetoric and oratory (1856-1861), and professor
+of modern languages (1861-1865), at Bowdoin. In 1862 he
+entered the Federal army as lieutenant-colonel of the 20th
+Maine Infantry. His military career was marked by great
+personal bravery and energy and intrepidity as a leader. He
+was six times wounded, and participated in all the important
+battles in the East from Antietam onwards, including Fredericksburg,
+Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, the Wilderness, Cold Harbor,
+Petersburg and Five Forks. For his conduct at Petersburg,
+where he was severely wounded, he was promoted to be brigadier-general
+of volunteers. He was breveted major-general of
+volunteers on the 29th of March 1865, and led the Federal
+advance in the final operations against General R.E. Lee.
+In 1893 he received a Congressional medal of honour &ldquo;for daring
+heroism and great tenacity in holding his position on the Little
+Round Top and carrying the advance position on the Great
+Round Top at the Battle of Gettysburg.&rdquo; After the war he was
+again professor of rhetoric and oratory at Bowdoin in 1865-1866,
+and in 1867-1870 was governor of Maine, having been elected
+as a Republican. From 1871 to 1883 he was president of Bowdoin
+College, and during 1874-1879 was professor of mental and moral
+philosophy also. Appointed in 1880 by Alonzo Garcelon, the
+retiring governor, to protect the property and institutions of the
+state until a new governor should be duly qualified, and acting
+as major-general of the state militia, Chamberlain did much to
+avert possible civil war, at a time of great political excitement
+and bitter partisan feeling. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maine</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) In 1883-1885
+he was a lecturer on political science and public law at
+Bowdoin, and in 1900 became surveyor of customs for the district
+of Portland, Maine. He published <i>Maine, Her Place in History</i>
+(1877), and edited <i>Universities and Their Sons</i> (6 vols., 1898).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1820-1902),
+British field marshal, was the third son of Sir Henry Chamberlain,
+first baronet, consul-general and chargé d&rsquo;affaires in Brazil, and
+was born at Rio on the 10th of January 1820. He entered the
+Indian army in 1837, served as a subaltern in the first Afghan
+War (1839-42), and was wounded on six occasions. He was
+attached to the Governor-General&rsquo;s Bodyguard at the battle
+of Maharajpur, in the Gwalior campaign of 1843, was appointed
+military secretary to the governor of Bombay in 1846, and
+honorary aide-de-camp to the governor-general of India in 1847.
+He served on the staff throughout the Punjab campaign of 1848-49,
+and was given a brevet majority. In 1850 he was appointed
+commandant of the Punjab military police, and in 1852 military
+secretary to the Punjab government. Promoted lieut.-colonel in
+1854, he was given the command of the Punjab Frontier Force
+with rank of brigadier-general, and commanded in several
+expeditions against the frontier tribes. In the Indian Mutiny
+he succeeded Colonel Chester as adjutant-general of the Indian
+army, and distinguished himself at the siege of Delhi, where he
+was severely wounded. He was rewarded with a brevet-colonelcy,
+the appointment of A.D.C. to the queen, and the C.B.
+He was reappointed to the command of the Punjab Frontier
+Force in 1858, and commanded in the Umbeyla campaign (1863),
+in which he was severely wounded. He was now made major-general
+for distinguished service and a K.C.B. He was made
+K.C.S.I. in 1866, lieut.-general in 1872, G.C.S.I. in 1873, G.C.B
+in 1875, and general in 1877. From 1876 to 1881 he was commander-in-chief
+of the Madras army, and in 1878 was sent on
+a mission to the amir of Afghanistan, whose refusal to allow
+him to enter the country precipitated the second Afghan War.
+He was for some time acting military member of the council of
+the governor-general of India. He retired in 1886, was made
+a field marshal in 1900, and died on the 18th of February 1902.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An excellent biography by G.W. Forrest appeared in 1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAIN<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>chamberlain, chamberlenc</i>, Mod. Fr.
+<i>chambellan</i>, from O.H. Ger. <i>Chamarling, Chamarlinc</i>, whence
+also the Med. Lat. <i>cambellanus, camerlingus, camerlengus</i>; Ital.
+<i>camerlingo</i>; Span, <i>camerlengo</i>, compounded of O.H. Ger.
+<i>Chamara, Kamara</i> [Lat. <i>camera</i>, &ldquo;chamber&rdquo;], and the Ger.
+suffix <i>-ling</i>), etymologically, and also to a large extent historically,
+an officer charged with the superintendence of domestic affairs.
+Such were the chamberlains of monasteries or cathedrals, who
+had charge of the finances, gave notice of chapter meetings, and
+provided the materials necessary for the various services. In
+these cases, as in that of the apostolic chamberlain of the Roman
+see, the title was borrowed from the usage of the courts of the
+western secular princes. A royal chamberlain is now a court
+official whose function is in general to attend on the person of
+the sovereign and to regulate the etiquette of the palace. He is
+the representative of the medieval <i>camberlanus, cambellanus</i>,
+or <i>cubicularius</i>, whose office was modelled on that of the <i>praefectus
+sacri cubiculi</i> or <i>cubicularius</i> of the Roman emperors. But
+at the outset there was another class of chamberlains, the
+<i>camerarii</i>, <i>i.e.</i> high officials charged with the administration of
+the royal treasury (<i>camera</i>). The <i>camerarius</i> of the Carolingian
+emperors was the equivalent of the <i>hordere</i> or <i>thesaurarius</i>
+(treasurer) of the Anglo-Saxon kings; he develops into the
+<i>Erzkämmerer</i> (<i>archicamerarius</i>) of the Holy Roman Empire,
+an office held by the margraves of Brandenburg, and the <i>grand
+chambrier</i> of France, who held his <i>chamberie</i> as a fief. Similarly
+in England after the Norman conquest the <i>hordere</i> becomes the
+chamberlain. This office was of great importance. Before the
+Conquest he had been, with the marshal, the principal officer of
+the king&rsquo;s court; and under the Norman sovereigns his functions
+were manifold. As he had charge of the administration of the
+royal household, his office was of financial importance, for a
+portion of the royal revenue was paid, not into the exchequer, but
+in <i>camera regis</i>. In course of time the office became hereditary
+and titular, but the complexities of the duties necessitated a
+division of the work, and the office was split up into three: the
+hereditary and sinecure office of <i>magister camerarius</i> or lord
+great chamberlain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Great Chamberlain</a></span>), the more
+important domestic office of <i>camerarius regis</i>, king&rsquo;s chamberlain
+or lord chamberlain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Chamberlain</a></span>), and the chamberlains
+(<i>camerarii</i>) of the exchequer, two in number, who were
+originally representatives of the chamberlain at the exchequer,
+and afterwards in conjunction with the treasurer presided over
+that department. In 1826 the last of these officials died, when
+by an act passed forty-four years earlier they disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>In France the office of <i>grand chambrier</i> was early overshadowed
+by the <i>chamberlains (cubicularii, cambellani</i>, but sometimes
+also <i>camerarii</i>), officials in close personal attendance on the king,
+men at first of low rank, but of great and ever-increasing influence.
+As the office of <i>grand chambrier</i>, held by great feudal
+nobles seldom at court, became more and more honorary, the
+chamberlains grew in power, in numbers and in rank, until,
+in the 13th century, one of them emerges as a great officer
+of state, the <i>chambellan de France</i> or <i>grand chambellan</i> (also
+<i>magister cambellanorum, mestre chamberlenc</i>), who at times shares
+with the <i>grand chambrier</i> the revenues derived from certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span>
+trades in the city of Paris (see <i>Regestum Memoralium Camerae
+computorum</i>, quoted in du Cange, s. <i>Cameranus</i>). The honorary
+office of <i>grand chambrier</i> survived till the time of Henry II.,
+who was himself the last to hold it before his accession; that of
+<i>grand chambellan</i>, which in its turn soon became purely honorary,
+survived till the Revolution. Among the prerogatives of the
+<i>grand chambellan</i> which survived to the last not the least
+valued was the right to hand the king his shirt at the ceremonial
+levée. The offices of <i>grand chambellan, premier chambellan</i>, and
+<i>chambellan</i> were revived by Napoleon, continued under the
+Restoration, abolished by Louis Philippe, and again restored
+by Napoleon III.</p>
+
+<p>In the papal Curia the apostolic chamberlain (Lat. <i>camerarius</i>,
+Ital. <i>camerlingo</i>) occupies a very important position. He is at
+the head of the treasury (<i>camera thesauraria</i>) and, in the days of
+the temporal power, not only administered the papal finances
+but possessed an extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction.
+During a vacancy of the Holy See he is at the head of the administration
+of the Roman Church. The office dates from the
+11th century, when it superseded that of archdeacon of the
+Roman Church, and the close personal relations of the <i>camerarius</i>
+with the pope, together with the fact that he is the official
+guardian of the ceremonial vestments and treasures, point to
+the fact that he is also the representative of the former <i>vestararius</i>
+and <i>vice-dominus</i>, whose functions were merged in the new
+office, of which the idea and title were probably borrowed from
+the usage of the secular courts of the West (Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>,
+i. 405, &amp;c.). There are also attached to the papal household
+(<i>famiglia pontificia</i>) a large number of chamberlains whose
+functions are more or less ornamental. These are divided into
+several categories: privy chamberlains (<i>camerieri segreti</i>),
+chamberlains, assistant and honorary chamberlains. These
+are gentlemen of rank and belong to the highest class of the
+household (<i>famiglia nobile</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In England the modern representatives of the <i>cubicularii</i> are
+the gentlemen and grooms of the bed-chamber, in Germany the
+<i>Kammerherr</i> (<i>Kämmerer</i>, from <i>camerarius</i>, in Bavaria and Austria)
+and <i>Kammerjunker</i>. The insignia of their office is a gold key
+attached to their coats behind.</p>
+
+<p>Many corporations appoint a chamberlain. The most
+important in England is the chamberlain of the corporation
+of the city of London, who is treasurer of the corporation,
+admits persons entitled to the freedom of the city, and, in
+the chamberlain&rsquo;s court, of which he and the vice-chamberlain
+are judges, exercises concurrent jurisdiction with the police
+court in determining disputes between masters and apprentices.
+Formerly nominated by the crown, since 1688 he has been elected
+annually by the liverymen. He has a salary of £2000 a year.
+Similarly in Germany the administration of the finances of a
+city is called the <i>Kämmerei</i> and the official in charge of it the
+<i>Kämmerer</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">State, Great Officers of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Household, Royal</a></span>; Du
+Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s. &ldquo;Camerarius&rdquo; and &ldquo;Cambellanus&rdquo;; Père
+Anselme (Pierre de Guibours), <i>Hist. généalogique et chronologique de
+la maison royale de France, &amp;c</i>. (9 vols., 3rd ed., 1726-1733); A.
+Luchaire, <i>Manuel des institutions françaises</i> (Paris, 1892); W.R.
+Anson, <i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i> (Oxford, 1896); Hinschius,
+<i>Kirchenrecht</i>, i. 405 (Berlin, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1619-1679), English poet,
+was born in 1619. Nothing is known of his history except that
+he practised as a physician at Shaftesbury in Dorsetshire, and
+fought on the Royalist side at the second battle of Newbury.
+He died on the 11th of July 1679. His works are: <i>Pharonnida</i>
+(1659), a verse romance in five books; <i>Love&rsquo;s Victory</i> (1658), a
+tragi-comedy, acted under another title in 1678 at the Theatre
+Royal; <i>England&rsquo;s Jubilee</i> (1660), a poem in honour of the
+Restoration. A prose version of <i>Pharonnida</i>, entitled <i>Eromena</i>,
+or the <i>Noble Stranger</i>, appeared in 1683. Southey speaks of him
+as &ldquo;a poet to whom I am indebted for many hours of delight.&rdquo;
+<i>Pharonnida</i> was reprinted by S.W. Singer in 1820, and again
+in 1905 by Prof. G. Saintsbury in <i>Minor Poets of the Caroline
+Period</i> (vol. i.). The poem is loose in construction, but contains
+some passages of great beauty.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (d. 1740), English encyclopaedist,
+was born at Kendal, Westmorland, in the latter part of the 17th
+century. He was apprenticed to a globe-maker in London, but
+having conceived the plan of his Cyclopaedia, or <i>Universal
+Dictionary of Arts and Sciences</i>, he devoted himself entirely to it.
+The first edition appeared by subscription in 1728, in two vols.
+fol., and dedicated to the king (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Encyclopaedia</a></span>). The
+<i>Encyclopédie</i> of Diderot and d&rsquo;Alembert owed its inception to a
+French translation of Chambers&rsquo;s work. In addition to the <i>Cyclopaedia</i>,
+Chambers wrote for the <i>Literary Magazine</i> (1735-1736),
+and translated the <i>History and Memoirs of the Royal Academy of
+Sciences at Paris</i> (1742), and the <i>Practice of Perspective</i> from the
+French of Jean Dubreuil. He died on the 15th of May 1740.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS, GEORGE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1803-1840), English marine painter,
+born at Whitby, Yorkshire, was the son of a seaman, and for
+several years he pursued his father&rsquo;s calling. While at sea he
+was in the habit of sketching the different classes of vessels. His
+master, observing this, gratified him by cancelling his indentures,
+and thus set him free to follow his natural bent. Chambers then
+apprenticed himself to an old woman who kept a painter&rsquo;s shop
+in Whitby, and began by house-painting. He also took lessons
+of a drawing-master, and found a ready sale for small and cheap
+pictures of shipping. Coming afterwards to London, he was
+employed by Thomas Horner to assist in painting the great
+panorama of London for the Colosseum (the exhibition building
+in Regent&rsquo;s Park, demolished towards 1860), and he next became
+scene-painter at the Pavilion theatre. In 1834 he was elected
+an associate, and in 1836 a full member, of the Water-colour
+Society. His best works represent naval battles. Two of these&mdash;the
+&ldquo;Bombardment of Algiers in 1816,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Capture of
+Porto Bello&rdquo;&mdash;are in Greenwich hospital. Not long before his
+death he was introduced to William IV., and his professional
+prospects brightened; but his constitution, always frail, gave
+way, and he died on the 28th of October 1840.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A <i>Life</i>, by John Watkins, was published in 1841.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS, ROBERT<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1802-1871), Scottish author and
+publisher, was born at Peebles on the 10th of July 1802. He
+was sent to the local schools, and gave evidence of unusual
+literary taste and ability. A small circulating library in the
+town, and a copy of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> which his
+father had purchased, furnished him with stores of reading of
+which he eagerly availed himself. Long afterwards he wrote
+of his early years&mdash;&ldquo;Books, not playthings, filled my hands in
+childhood. At twelve I was deep, not only in poetry and fiction,
+but in encyclopaedias.&rdquo; Robert had been destined for the
+church, but this design had to be abandoned for lack of means.
+The family removed to Edinburgh in 1813, and in 1818 Robert
+began business as a bookstall-keeper in Leith Walk. He was
+then only sixteen, and his whole stock consisted of a few old
+books belonging to his father. In 1819 his elder brother William
+had begun a similar business, and the two eventually united as
+partners in the publishing firm of W. &amp; R. Chambers. Robert
+Chambers showed an enthusiastic interest in the history and
+antiquities of Edinburgh, and found a most congenial task in
+his <i>Traditions of Edinburgh</i> (2 vols., 1824), which secured for him
+the approval and the personal friendship of Sir Walter Scott.
+A <i>History of the Rebellions in Scotland from 1638 to 1745</i> (5
+vols., 1828) and numerous other works followed.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1832 William Chambers started a weekly
+publication under the title of <i>Chambers&rsquo;s Edinburgh Journal</i>
+(known since 1854 as <i>Chambers&rsquo;s Journal of Literature, Science
+and Arts</i>), which speedily attained a large circulation. Robert
+was at first only a contributor. After fourteen numbers had
+appeared, however, he was associated with his brother as joint-editor,
+and his collaboration contributed more perhaps than
+anything else to the success of the <i>Journal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other numerous works of which Robert was in
+whole or in part the author, the <i>Biographical Dictionary of
+Eminent Scotsmen</i> (4 vols., Glasgow, 1832-1835), the <i>Cyclopaedia
+of English Literature</i> (1844), the <i>Life and Works of Robert Burns</i>
+(4 vols., 1851), <i>Ancient Sea Margins</i> (1848), the <i>Domestic Annals
+of Scotland</i> (3 vols., 1859-1861) and the <i>Book of Days</i> (2 vols.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span>
+1862-1864) were the most important. <i>Chambers&rsquo;s Encyclopaedia</i>
+(1859-1868), with Dr Andrew Findlater as editor, was carried
+out under the superintendence of the brothers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Encyclopaedia</a></span>).
+The <i>Cyclopaedia of English Literature</i><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> contains a
+series of admirably selected extracts from the best authors of
+every period, &ldquo;set in a biographical and critical history of the
+literature itself.&rdquo; For the <i>Life of Burns</i> he made diligent and
+laborious original investigations, gathering many hitherto
+unrecorded facts from the poet&rsquo;s sister, Mrs Begg, to whose
+benefit the whole profits of the work were generously devoted.
+Robert Chambers was a scientific geologist, and availed himself
+of tours in Scandinavia and Canada for the purpose of geological
+exploration. The results of his travels were embodied in
+<i>Tracings of the North of Europe</i> (1851) and <i>Tracings in Iceland
+and the Faroe Islands</i> (1856). His knowledge of geology was
+one of the principal grounds on which the authorship of the
+<i>Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</i> (2 vols., 1843-1846)
+was eventually assigned to him. The book was published
+anonymously. Robert Chambers was aware of the storm that
+would probably be raised at the time by a rational treatment
+of the subject, and did not wish to involve his firm in the discredit
+that a charge of heterodoxy would bring with it. The arrangements
+for publication were made through Alexander Ireland
+of Manchester, and the secret was so well kept that such different
+names as those of Prince Albert and Sir Charles Lyell were
+coupled with the book. Ireland in 1884 issued a 12th edition,
+with a preface giving an account of its authorship, which there
+was no longer any reason for concealing. The <i>Book of Days</i> was
+Chambers&rsquo;s last publication, and perhaps his most elaborate.
+It was a miscellany of popular antiquities in connexion with the
+calendar, and it is supposed that his excessive labour in connexion
+with this book hastened his death, which took place at St Andrews
+on the 17th of March 1871. Two years before, the university
+of St Andrews had conferred upon him the degree of doctor of
+laws, and he was elected a member of the Athenaeum club in
+London. It is his highest claim to distinction that he did so
+much to give a healthy tone to the cheap popular literature
+which has become so important a factor in modern civilization.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">William Chambers</span> (1800-1883) was born at
+Peebles, on the 16th of April 1800. He was the financial genius
+of the publishing firm. He laid the city of Edinburgh under the
+greatest obligations by his public spirit and munificence. As
+lord provost he procured the passing in 1867 of the Improvement
+Act, which led to the reconstruction of a great part of the Old
+Town, and at a later date he proposed and carried out, largely
+at his own expense, the restoration of the noble and then
+neglected church of St Giles, making it in a sense &ldquo;the Westminster
+Abbey of Scotland.&rdquo; This service was fitly acknowledged
+by the offer of a baronetcy, which he did not live to receive,
+dying on the 20th of May 1883, three days before the reopening
+of the church. He was the author of a history of St Giles&rsquo;s, of
+a memoir of himself and his brother (1872), and of many other
+useful publications. On his death in 1883 Robert Chambers
+(1832-1888), son of Robert Chambers, succeeded as head of the
+firm, and edited the <i>Journal</i> until his death. His eldest son,
+Charles Edward Stuart Chambers (b. 1859), became editor of
+the <i>Journal</i> and chairman of W. &amp; R. Chambers, Limited.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>Memoir of Robert Chambers, with Autobiographic Reminiscences
+of William Chambers</i> (1872), the 13th ed. of which (1884) has
+a supplementary chapter; Alexander Ireland&rsquo;s preface to the 12th
+ed. (1884) of the <i>Vestiges of Creation</i>; the <i>Story of a Long and Busy
+Life</i> (1884), by William Chambers; and some discriminating
+appreciation in James Payn&rsquo;s <i>Some Literary Recollections</i> (1884),
+chapter v. The <i>Select Writings of Robert Chambers</i> were published
+in 7 vols. in 1847, and a complete list of the works of the brothers
+is added to <i>A Catalogue of Some of the Rarer Books ... in the Collection
+of C.E.S. Chambers</i> (Edinburgh, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A new and enlarged edition of this work, edited by David
+Patrick, LL. D., appeared in 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1726-1796), British architect,
+was the grandson of a rich merchant who had financed the
+armies of Charles XII., but was paid in base money, and whose
+son remained in Sweden many years endeavouring to obtain
+redress. In 1728 the latter returned to England and settled at
+Ripon, where William, who was born in Stockholm, was educated.
+At the age of sixteen he became supercargo to the Swedish East
+India Company, and voyaging to Canton made drawings of Chinese
+architecture, furniture and costume which served as basis for
+his <i>Designs for Chinese Buildings</i>, &amp;c. (1757). Two years later
+he quitted the sea to study architecture seriously, and spent a
+long time in Italy, devoting special attention to the buildings
+of classical and Renaissance architects. He also studied under
+Clérisseau in Paris, with whom and with the sculptor Wilton he
+lived at Rome. In 1755 he returned to England with Cipriani
+and Wilton, and married the beautiful daughter of the latter.
+His first important commission was a villa for Lord Bessborough
+at Roehampton, but he made his reputation by the grounds
+he laid out and the buildings he erected at Kew between
+1757 and 1762 for Augusta, princess dowager of Wales. Some
+of them have since been demolished, but the most important,
+the pagoda, still survives. The publication in a handsome
+volume of the designs for these buildings assured his position in
+the profession. He was employed to teach architectural drawing
+to the prince of Wales (George III.), and gained further professional
+distinction in 1759 by the publication of his <i>Treatise
+of Civil Architecture</i>. He began to exhibit with the Society of
+Artists in 1761 at Spring Gardens, and was one of the original
+members and treasurer of the Royal Academy when it was
+established in 1768. In 1772 he published his <i>Dissertation on
+Oriental Gardening</i>, which attempted to prove the inferiority
+of European to Chinese landscape gardening. As a furniture
+designer and internal decorator he is credited with the creation
+of that &ldquo;Chinese Style&rdquo; which was for a time furiously popular,
+although Thomas Chippendale (<i>q.v.</i>) had published designs in
+that manner at a somewhat earlier date. It is not unreasonable
+to count the honours as divided, since Chippendale unquestionably
+adapted and altered the Chinese shapes in a manner
+better to fit them for European use. To the rage for every
+possible form of <i>chinoiserie</i>, for which he is chiefly responsible,
+Sir William Chambers owed much of his success in life. He
+became architect to the king and queen, comptroller of his
+majesty&rsquo;s works, and afterwards surveyor-general. In 1775 he
+was appointed architect of Somerset House, his greatest monument,
+at a salary of £2000 a year. He also designed town
+mansions for Earl Gower at Whitehall and Lord Melbourne in
+Piccadilly, built Charlemont House, Dublin, and Duddingston
+House near Edinburgh. He designed the market house at
+Worcester, was employed by the earl of Pembroke at Wilton, by
+the duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, and by the duke of Bedford
+in Bloomsbury. The state coach of George III., his constant
+patron, was his work; it is now in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum. Although his practice was mainly Classic, he made
+Gothic additions to Milton Abbey in Dorset. Sir William Chambers
+achieved considerable distinction as a designer of furniture. In
+addition to his work in the Chinese style and in the contemporary
+fashions, he was the author of what is probably the most
+ambitious and monumental piece of furniture ever produced in
+England. This was a combined bureau, dressing-case, jewel-cabinet
+and organ, made for Charles IV., king of Spain, in 1793.
+These combination pieces were in the taste of the time, and the
+effort displays astonishing ingenuity and resource. The panels
+were painted by W. Hamilton, R.A., with representations of the
+four seasons, night and morning, fire and water, Juno and Ceres,
+together with representations of the Golden Fleece and the
+Immaculate Conception. The organ, in the domed top, is in a
+case decorated with ormolu and Wedgwood. This remarkable
+achievement, which possesses much sober elegance, formed part
+of the loan collection of English furniture at the Franco-British
+Exhibition in London in 1908. Sir William Chambers
+numbered among his friends Dr Johnson, Goldsmith, Sir Joshua
+Reynolds, David Garrick and Dr Burney.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERS<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (the Fr. <i>chambre</i>, from Lat. <i>camera</i>, a room), a
+term used generally of rooms or apartments, but especially in
+law of the offices of a lawyer or the semi-private rooms in which
+judges or judicial officers deal with questions of practice and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span>
+other matters not of sufficient importance to be dealt with in
+court. It is a matter of doubt at what period the practice of
+exercising jurisdiction &ldquo;in chambers&rdquo; commenced in England;
+there is no statutory sanction before 1821, though the custom
+can be traced back to the 17th century. An act of 1821 provided
+for sittings in chambers between terms, and an act of 1822
+empowered the sovereign to call upon the judges by warrant to
+sit in chambers on as many days in vacation as should seem fit,
+while the Law Terms Act 1830 defined the jurisdiction to be
+exercised at chambers. The Judges&rsquo; Chambers Act 1867 was
+the first act, however, to lay down proper regulations for chamber
+work, and the Judicature Act 1873 preserved that jurisdiction
+and gave power to increase it as might be directed or authorized
+by rules of court to be thereafter made. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancery</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">King&rsquo;s Bench, Court of</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBERSBURG,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a borough and the county-seat of Franklin
+county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of Conoco-cheague
+Creek and Falling Spring, 52 m. S.W. of Harrisburg.
+Pop. (1890) 7863; (1900) 8864, of whom 769 were negroes;
+(1910) 11,800. It is served by the Cumberland Valley and
+the Western Maryland railways, and is connected by electric
+lines with Greencastle, Waynesboro, Caledonia, a beautiful park
+in the Pennsylvania timber reservation, on South Mountain,
+12 m. east of Chambersburg, and Pen Mar, a summer resort,
+on South Mountain, near the boundary line between Pennsylvania
+and Maryland. Chambersburg is built on an elevated
+site in the broad and fertile Cumberland Valley, and commands
+a fine view of the distant hills and dales. The borough is the
+seat of Chambersburg Academy, a preparatory school; Penn
+Hall, a school for girls; and Wilson College, a Presbyterian
+institution for women, opened in 1870. The Wilson College
+campus, the former estate of Col. A.K. McClure (1828-1909),
+a well-known journalist, was laid out by Donald G. Mitchell
+(&ldquo;Ik Marvel&rdquo;), who was an enthusiastic landscape gardener.
+The shops of the Cumberland Valley railway are at Chambersburg,
+and among the borough&rsquo;s manufactures are milling machinery,
+boilers, engines, hydraulic presses, steam-hammers, engineering
+and bridge supplies, hosiery, shoes, gloves, furniture, flour,
+paper, leather, carriages and agricultural implements; the
+total value of its factory product in 1905 was $1,085,185. The
+waterworks and the electric-lighting plant are owned and
+operated by the municipality. A settlement was founded here
+in 1730 by Benjamin Chambers, in whose honour the borough
+was named, and who, immediately after General Edward
+Braddock&rsquo;s defeat in 1755, built a stone fort and surrounded it
+with a stockade for the protection of the community from the
+Indians. Chambersburg was laid out in 1764 and was incorporated
+as a borough in 1803. On the 30th of July 1864 Chambersburg
+was occupied by a Confederate cavalry force under
+General McCausland (acting under General Jubal A. Early&rsquo;s
+orders), who, upon the refusal of the citizens to pay $100,000
+for immunity, burned a large part of the borough.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBÉRY,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city of France, capital of the department of
+Savoie, pleasantly situated in a fertile district, between two
+hills, on the rivers Leysse and Albane, 79 m. by rail S.S.W.
+of Geneva. Pop. (1906) town, 16,852; commune, 23,027. The
+town is irregularly built, and has only two good streets&mdash;the
+Place Saint-Léger and the Rue de Boigne, the latter being named
+after General Benoît Boigne (1741-1830), who left a fortune
+of 3,400,000 francs (accumulated in India) to the town. The
+principal buildings are the cathedral, dating from the 14th and
+15th centuries; the Hôtel-Dieu, founded in 1647; the castle,
+a modern building serving as the prefecture, and preserving
+only a great square tower belonging to the original structure;
+the palace of justice, the theatre, the barracks, and the covered
+market, which dates from 1863. Several of the squares are
+adorned with fountains; the old ramparts of the city, destroyed
+during the French Revolution, have been converted into public
+walks; and various promenades and gardens have been constructed.
+Chambéry is the seat of an archbishop (raised to that
+dignity from a bishopric in 1817) and of a superior tribunal.
+It has also a Jesuit college, a royal academical society, a society
+of agriculture and commerce, a public library with 60,000 volumes,
+a museum (antiquities and paintings), a botanic garden, and
+many charitable institutions. It manufactures silk-gauze, lace,
+leather and hats, and has a considerable trade in liqueurs, wine,
+lead, copper and other articles. Overlooking the town on the
+north is the Rocher de Lémenc, which derives its name from the
+<i>Lemincum</i> of the Romans; and in the vicinity is Les Charmettes,
+for some time (1736-1740) the residence of Rousseau.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of Chambéry is unknown, but its lords are mentioned
+for the first time in 1029. In 1232 it was sold to the count of
+Savoy, Thomas I., who bestowed several important privileges on
+the inhabitants. As capital of the duchy of Savoy, it has passed
+through numerous political vicissitudes. Between 1536 and 1713
+it was several times occupied by the French; in 1742 it was
+captured by a Franco-Spanish army; and in 1792 it was occupied
+by the Republican forces, and became the capital of the department
+of Mont Blanc. Restored to the house of Savoy by the
+treaties of Vienna and Paris, it was again surrendered to France
+in 1860. Among the famous men whom it has given to France,
+the most important are Vaugelas (1585-1650), Saint-Réal (1639-1692),
+and the brothers Joseph (1754-1821) and Xavier (1763-1852)
+de Maistre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE
+DIEUDONNÉ<a name="ar117a" id="ar117a"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1820-1883), the &ldquo;King Henry V.&rdquo; of the
+French legitimists, was born in Paris on the 29th of September
+1820. His father was the duc de Berry, the elder son of the comte
+d&rsquo;Artois (afterwards Charles X.); his mother was the princess
+Caroline Ferdinande Louise of Naples. Born seven months after
+the assassination of his father, he was hailed as the &ldquo;enfant du
+miracle,&rdquo; and was made the subject of one of Lamartine&rsquo;s most
+famous poems. He was created duc de Bordeaux, and in 1821,
+as the result of a subscription organized by the government,
+received the château of Chambord. He was educated by tutors
+inspired by detestation of the French Revolution and its principles,
+and from the duc de Damas in particular imbibed those
+ideas of divine right and of devotion to the Church to which
+he always remained true. After the revolution of July, Charles
+X. vainly endeavoured to save the Bourbon cause by abdicating
+in his favour and proclaiming him king under the title of Henry V.
+(August 2, 1830). The comte de Chambord accompanied his
+grandfather into exile, and resided successively at Holyrood,
+Prague, and Görz. In 1841, during an extensive tour through
+Europe, he broke his leg&mdash;an accident that resulted in permanent
+lameness. The death of his grandfather, Charles X., in 1836,
+and of his uncle, the duc d&rsquo;Angoulême, in 1844, left him the last
+male representative of the elder branch of the Bourbon family;
+and his marriage with the archduchess Maria Theresa, eldest
+daughter of the duke of Modena (November 7, 1846), remained
+without issue. The title to the throne thus passed to the comte
+de Paris, as representative of the Orleans branch of the house of
+Bourbon, and the history of the comte de Chambord&rsquo;s life is
+largely an account of the efforts made to unite the Royalist party
+by effecting a reconciliation between the two princes. Though he
+continued to hold an informal court, both on his travels and at
+his castle of Frohsdorf, near Vienna, yet he allowed the revolution
+of 1848 and the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1851 to pass without any decisive
+assertion of his claims. It was the Italian war of 1859, with its
+menace to the pope&rsquo;s independence, that roused him at last to
+activity. He declared himself ready &ldquo;to pay with his blood for
+the triumph of a cause which was that of France, the Church,
+and God himself.&rdquo; Making common cause with the Church, the
+Royalists now began an active campaign against the Empire.
+On the 9th of December 1866 he addressed a manifesto to General
+Saint-Priest, in which he declared the cause of the pope to be that
+of society and liberty, and held out promises of retrenchment,
+civil and religious liberty, &ldquo;and above all honesty.&rdquo; Again, on
+the 4th of September 1870, after the fall of the Empire, he invited
+Frenchmen to accept a government &ldquo;whose basis was right and
+whose principle was honesty,&rdquo; and promised to drive the enemy
+from French soil. These vague phrases, offered as a panacea to a
+nation fighting for its life, showed conclusively his want of all
+political genius; they had as little effect on the French as his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span>
+protest against the bombardment of Paris had on the Germans.
+Yet fortune favoured him. The elections placed the Republican
+party in a minority in the National Assembly; the abrogation of
+the law of exile against the royal family permitted him to return
+to his castle of Chambord; and it was thence that on the 5th of
+July 1871 he issued a proclamation, in which for the first time he
+publicly posed as king, and declared that he would never abandon
+the white standard of the Bourbons, &ldquo;the flag of Henry IV.,
+Francis I., and Joan of Arc,&rdquo; for the tricolour of the Revolution.
+He again quitted France, and answered the attempts to make
+him renounce his claims in favour of the comte de Paris by the
+declaration (January 25, 1872) that he would never abdicate.
+In the following month he held a great gathering of his adherents
+at Antwerp, which was the cause of serious disturbances. A
+constitutional programme, signed by some 280 members of the
+National Assembly, was presented for his acceptance, but without
+result. The fall of Thiers in May 1873, however, offered an opportunity
+to the Royalists by which they hastened to profit. The
+comte de Paris and the prince de Joinville journeyed to Frohsdorf,
+and were formally reconciled with the head of the family (August
+5). The Royalists were united, the premier (the duc de Broglie)
+an open adherent, the president (MacMahon) a benevolent neutral.
+MM. Lucien Brun and Chesnelong were sent to interview the
+comte de Chambord at Salzburg, and obtain the definite assurances
+that alone were wanting. They returned with the news
+that he accepted the principles of the French Revolution and the
+tricolour flag. But a letter to Chesnelong, dated Salzburg, 27th
+of October, declared that he had been misunderstood: he would
+give no guarantees; he would not inaugurate his reign by an act
+of weakness, nor become &ldquo;le roi légitime de la Révolution.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Je suis le pilote nécessaire,&rdquo; he added, &ldquo;le seul capable de
+conduire le navire au port, parce que j&rsquo;ai mission et autorité pour
+cela.&rdquo; This outspoken adherence to the principle of divine right
+did credit to his honesty, but it cost him the crown. The duc de
+Broglie carried the septennate, and the Republic steadily established
+itself in popular favour. A last effort was made in the
+National Assembly in June 1874 by the duc de la Rochefoucauld-Bisaccia,
+who formally moved the restoration of the monarchy.
+The comte de Chambord on the 2nd of July issued a fresh manifesto,
+which added nothing to his former declarations. The
+motion was rejected by 272 to 79, and on the 25th of February
+1875 the Assembly definitely adopted the Republic as the national
+form of government. From this time the comte de Chambord,
+though continuing to publish letters on political affairs, made no
+further effort to regain the throne. He died at Frohsdorf on the
+24th of August 1883.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Manifestes et programmes politiques de M. le comte de Chambord,
+1848-1873</i> (1873), and <i>Correspondance de la famille royale et
+principalement de Mgr. le comte de Chambord avec le comte de Bouillé</i>
+(1884). Of the enormous literature relating to him, mention may
+be made of <i>Henri V et la monarchie traditionnelle</i> (1871), <i>Le Comte de
+Chambord étudié dans ses voyages et sa correspondance</i> (1880), and
+<i>Henri de France</i>, by H. de Pène (1885).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Sy.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBORD,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a village of central France, in the department
+of Loir-et-Cher, on the left bank of the Cosson, 10 m. E. by N.
+of Blois by road. The village stands in the park of Chambord,
+which is enclosed by a wall 21 m. in circumference. The celebrated
+château (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>: <i>Renaissance Architecture
+in France</i>) forms a parallelogram flanked at the angles by
+round towers and enclosing a square block of buildings, the
+façade of which forms the centre of the main front. The profusion
+of turrets, pinnacles, and dormer windows which decorates the
+roof of this, the chief portion of the château, constitutes the main
+feature of the exterior, while in the interior are a well-preserved
+chapel of the 16th century and a famous double staircase, the
+construction of which permits two people to ascend and descend
+respectively without seeing one another. There are 440 apartments,
+containing pictures of the 17th century and souvenirs
+of the comte de Chambord. The château was originally a hunting-box
+of the counts of Blois, the rebuilding of which was begun
+by Francis I. in 1526, and completed under Henry II. It was
+the residence of several succeeding monarchs, and under Louis
+XIV. considerable alterations were made. In the same reign
+Molière performed <i>Monsieur de Pourceaugnac</i> and <i>Le Bourgeois
+gentilhomme</i> for the first time in the theatre. Stanislaus, king
+of Poland, lived at Chambord, which was bestowed by his son-in-law,
+Louis XV., upon Marshal Saxe. It was given by Napoleon
+to Marshal Berthier, from whose widow it was purchased by
+subscription in 1821, and presented to the duc de Bordeaux,
+the representative of the older branch of the Bourbons, who
+assumed from it the title of comte de Chambord. On his death
+in 1883 it came by bequest into the possession of the family of
+Parma.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMBRE ARDENTE<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (Fr. &ldquo;burning chamber&rdquo;), the term
+for an extraordinary court of justice in France, mainly held for
+the trials of heretics. The name is perhaps an allusion to the
+fact that the proceedings took place in a room from which all
+daylight was excluded, the only illumination being from torches,
+or there may be a reference to the severity of the sentences in
+<i>ardente</i>, suggesting the burning of the prisoners at the stake.
+These courts were originated by the Cardinal of Lorraine, the
+first of them meeting in 1535 under Francis I. The <i>Chambre
+Ardente</i> co-operated with an inquisitorial tribunal also established
+by Francis I., the duty of which was to discover cases of heresy
+and hand them over for final judgment to the <i>Chambre Ardente</i>.
+The reign of Henry II. of France was particularly infamous for
+the cruelties perpetrated by this court on the Huguenots. The
+marquise de Brinvilliers (<i>q.v.</i>) and her associates were tried
+in the <i>Chambre Ardente</i> in 1680. The court was abolished in
+1682.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See N. Weiss, <i>La Chambre Ardente</i> (Paris, 1889), and F. Ravaisson,
+<i>Archives de la Bastille</i> (Paris, 1866-1884, 16 vols.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:268px; height:191px" src="images/img823.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Left Forefoot of <i>Chamaeleon
+o&rsquo;shaughenesii</i>, outer view.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMELEON,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> the common name of one of the three suborders
+of Lacertilia or lizards. The chief genus is <i>Chamaeleon</i>, containing
+most of the fifty to sixty species of the whole group, and with
+the most extensive range,
+all through Africa and
+Madagascar into Arabia,
+southern India and Ceylon.
+The Indian species is <i>Ch.
+calcaratus</i>; the dwarf
+chameleon of South Africa
+is <i>Ch. pumilus</i>; the giant of
+the whole tribe, reaching a
+total length of 2 ft., is
+<i>Ch. parsoni</i> of Madagascar.
+The commonest species in
+the trade is <i>Ch. vulgaris</i> of North Africa, introduced into
+southern Andalusia. A few queer genera, with much stunted
+tail, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Rhampholeon</i>, in tropical Africa and <i>Brookesia</i> in
+Madagascar are the most aberrant. The common chameleon is
+the most typical. The head is raised into a pyramidal crest far
+beyond the occiput, there is no outer ear, nor a drum-cavity.
+The limbs are very long and slender, and the digits form stout
+grasping bundles; on the hand the first three form an inner
+bundle, opposed to the remaining two; on the foot the inner
+bundle is formed by the first and second toe, the outer by the
+other three toes. The tail is prehensile, by being rolled downwards;
+it is not brittle and cannot be renewed. The eyeballs are
+large, but the lids are united into one concentric fold, leaving only
+the small pupil visible. The right and left eyes are incessantly
+moved separately from each other and literally in every direction,
+up and down, forwards and straight backwards, producing the
+most terrible squinting. Chameleons alone of all reptiles can
+focus their eyes upon one spot, and conformably they alone
+possess a retinal <i>macula centralis</i>, or spot of acutest, binocular
+vision. The tongue has attained an extraordinary development.
+It is club-shaped, covered with a sticky secretion, and based
+upon a very narrow root, which is composed of extremely elastic
+fibres and telescoped over the much elongated, style-shaped,
+copular piece of the hyoid. The whole apparatus is kept in
+a contracted state like a spring in a tube. When the spring
+is released, so to speak, by filling the apparatus with blood and
+by the play of the hyoid muscles, the heavy thick end shoots out
+upon the insect prey and is withdrawn by its own elasticity.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span>
+The whole act is like a flash. An ordinary chameleon can shoot
+a fly at the distance of fully 6 in., and it can manage even a big
+sphinx moth.</p>
+
+<p>Another remarkable feature is their changing of colour. This
+proverbial power is greatly exaggerated. They cannot assume
+in succession all the colours of the rainbow, nor are the changes
+quick. The common chameleon may be said to be greenish grey,
+changing to grass-green or to dull black, with or without maroon
+red, or brown, lateral series of patches. At night the same
+specimen assumes as a rule a more or less uniform pale straw-colour.
+After it has been watched for several months, when all
+its possibilities seem exhausted, it will probably surprise us by
+a totally new combination, for instance, a black garb with many
+small yellow specks, or green with many black specks. Pure
+red and blue are not in the register of this species, but they are
+rather the rule upon the dark green ground colour of the South
+African dwarf chameleon. The changes are partly under control
+of the will, partly complicated reflex actions, intentionally
+adaptive to the physical and psychical surroundings. The
+mechanism is as follows. The cutis contains several kinds of
+specialized cells in many layers, each filled with minute granules
+of guanine. The upper cells are the smallest, most densely
+filled with crystals, and cause the white colour by diffusion
+of direct light; near the Malpighian layer the cells are charged
+with yellow oil drops; the deeper cells are the largest, tinged
+light brown, and acting as a turbid medium they cause a blue
+colour, which, owing to the superimposed yellow drops, reaches
+our eye as green; provided always that there is an effective
+screen at the back, and this is formed by large chromatophores
+which lie at the bottom and send their black pigment half-way
+up, or on to the top of the layers of guanine and oil containing
+cells. When all the pigment is shifted towards the surface, as
+near the epidermis as possible, the creature looks black; when
+the black pigment is withdrawn into the basal portions of the
+chromatophores the skin appears yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The lungs are very capacious, and end in several narrow
+blind sacs which extend far down into the body cavity, so that
+not only the chest but the whole body can be blown up. This
+happens when the animals hiss and fight, as they often do. But
+when they know themselves discovered, they make themselves
+as thin as possible by compressing the chest and belly vertically
+by means of their peculiarly elongated ribs. The whole body
+is then put into such a position that it presents only its narrow
+edge to the enemy, and with the branch of the tree or shrub
+interposed. They are absolutely arboreal, but they hibernate
+in the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The usual mode of propagation is by eggs, which are oval,
+numerous, provided with a calcareous shell, and buried in humus,
+whence they are hatched about four months later. But a few
+species, <i>e.g.</i> the dwarf chameleon, are viviparous.</p>
+
+<p>Chameleons are insectivorous. They prefer locusts, grass-hoppers
+and lepidoptera, but are also fond of flies and mealworms.
+They are notoriously difficult to keep in good health. They
+want not only warmth, but sunshine, and they must have water,
+which they lick up in drops from the edges of wet leaves whenever
+they have a chance. The silliness of the fable that they live on
+air is shown by the fact that they usually die in an absolutely
+emaciated and parched condition after three or four months&rsquo;
+starvation.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. F. G.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In astronomy, &ldquo;Chamaeleon&rdquo; is a constellation situated near
+the south pole and surrounded by the constellations of Octans,
+Mensa, Piscis volans, Carina (Nauta), Musca and Apus. In
+chemistry, &ldquo;chameleon mineral&rdquo; is a name applied to the green mass
+which is obtained when pyrolusite (manganese dioxide) is fused with
+nitre, since a solution in water assumes a purple tint on exposure to
+the air; this change is due to the oxidation of the manganate, which
+is first formed, to a permanganate.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMFER,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> <span class="sc">Champfer</span> or <span class="sc">Chaumfer</span> (Fr. <i>chanfrein</i>; possibly
+from Lat. <i>cantus</i>, corner, and <i>frangere</i>, to break), an architectural
+term; when the edge or arris of any work is cut off at an angle
+of 45° in a small degree, it is said to be &ldquo;chamfered,&rdquo; while it
+would be &ldquo;canted&rdquo; if on a large scale. The chamfer is much
+used in medieval work, and is sometimes plain, sometimes
+hollowed out and sometimes moulded. Chamfers are sometimes
+&ldquo;stopped&rdquo; by a bead or some moulding, but when cut short by
+a slope they are generally known as &ldquo;stop chamfer.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1741-1794),
+French man of letters, was born at a little village near Clermont
+in Auvergne in 1741. He was, according to a baptismal certificate
+found among his papers, the son of a grocer named Nicolas. A
+journey to Paris resulted in the boy&rsquo;s obtaining a bursary at the
+Collège des Grassins. He worked hard, although he wrote later
+in one of his most contemptuous epigrams&mdash;<i>&rdquo;Ce que j&rsquo;ai appris
+je ne le sais plus; le peu que je sais je l&rsquo;ai diviné.&rdquo;</i> His college
+career ended, Chamfort assumed the dress of a <i>petit abbé. &ldquo;C&rsquo;est
+un costume, et non point un état,&rdquo;</i> he said; and to the principal
+of his college who promised him a benefice, he replied that he
+would never be a priest, inasmuch as he preferred honour to
+honours&mdash;<i>&rdquo;j&rsquo;aime l&rsquo;honneur et non les honneurs.&rdquo;</i> About this
+time he assumed the name of Chamfort.</p>
+
+<p>For some time he contrived to exist by teaching and as a
+booksellers&rsquo; hack. His good looks and ready wit, however, soon
+brought him into notice; but though endowed with immense
+strength&mdash;&ldquo;Hercule sous la figure d&rsquo;Adonis,&rdquo; Madame de Craon
+called him&mdash;he lived so hard that he was glad of the chance of
+doing a &ldquo;cure&rdquo; at Spa when the Belgian minister in Paris,
+M. van Eyck, took him with him to Germany in 1761. On his
+return to Paris he produced a comedy, <i>La Jeune Indienne</i> (1764),
+which was performed with some success, and this was followed
+by a series of &ldquo;epistles&rdquo; in verse, essays and odes. It was not,
+however, until 1769, when he won the prize of the French
+Academy for his <i>Éloge</i> on Molière, that his literary reputation
+was established.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile he had lived from hand to mouth, mainly on the
+hospitality of people who were only too glad to give him board
+and lodging in exchange for the pleasure of the conversation
+for which he was famous. Thus Madame Helvétius entertained
+him at Sèvres for some years. In 1770 another comedy, <i>Le
+Marchand de Smyrne</i>, brought him still further into notice, and
+he seemed on the road to fortune, when he was suddenly smitten
+with a horrible disease. His distress was relieved by the generosity
+of a friend, who made over to him a pension of 1200 livres charged
+on the <i>Mercure de France</i>. With this assistance he was able to
+go to the baths of Contrexéville and to spend some time in the
+country, where he wrote an <i>Éloge</i> on La Fontaine which won the
+prize of the Academy of Marseilles (1774). In 1775, while taking
+the waters at Barèges, he met the duchesse de Grammont, sister
+of Choiseul, through whose influence he was introduced at court.
+In 1776 his poor tragedy, <i>Mustapha et Zeangir</i>, was played at
+Fontainebleau before Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette; the
+king gave him a further pension of 1200 livres, and the prince de
+Condé made him his secretary. But he was a Bohemian naturally
+and by habit, the restraints of the court irked him, and with
+increasing years he was growing misanthropical. After a year
+he resigned his post in the prince&rsquo;s household and retired into
+solitude at Auteuil. There, comparing the authors of old with
+the men of his own time, he uttered the famous <i>mot</i> that proclaims
+the superiority of the dead over the living as companions; and
+there too he presently fell in love. The lady, attached to the
+household of the duchesse du Maine, was forty-eight years old,
+but clever, amusing, a woman of the world; and Chamfort
+married her. They left Auteuil, and went to Vaucouleurs,
+where in six months Madame Chamfort died. Chamfort lived in
+Holland for a time with M. de Narbonne, and returning to Paris
+received in 1781 the place at the Academy left vacant by the
+death of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye, the author of the <i>Dictionnaire
+des antiquités françaises</i>. In 1784, through the influence
+of Calonne, he became secretary to the king&rsquo;s sister, Madame
+Elizabeth, and in 1786 he received a pension of 2000 livres from the
+royal treasury. He was thus once more attached to the court,
+and made himself friends in spite of the reach and tendency of
+his unalterable irony; but he quitted it for ever after an unfortunate
+and mysterious love affair, and was received into the
+house of M. de Vaudreuil. Here in 1783 he had met Mirabeau, with
+whom he remained to the last on terms of intimate friendship.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span>
+whom he assisted with money and influence, and one at least
+of whose speeches&mdash;that on the Academies&mdash;he wrote.</p>
+
+<p>The outbreak of the Revolution made a profound change in
+the relations of Chamfort&rsquo;s life. Theoretically he had long been
+a republican, and he now threw himself into the new movement
+with almost fanatical ardour, devoting all his small fortune to
+the revolutionary propaganda. His old friends of the court he
+forgot. &ldquo;Those who pass the river of revolutions,&rdquo; he said,
+&ldquo;have passed the river of oblivion.&rdquo; Until the 31st of August
+1791 he was secretary of the Jacobin club; he became a street
+orator and entered the Bastille among the first of the storming
+party. He worked for the <i>Mercure de France</i>, collaborated with
+Ginguené in the <i>Feuille villageoise</i>, and drew up for Talleyrand
+his <i>Adresse au peuple français</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With the reign of Marat and Robespierre, however, his uncompromising
+Jacobinism grew critical, and with the fall of the
+Girondins his political life came to an end. But he could not
+restrain the tongue that had made him famous; he no more
+spared the Convention than he had spared the court. His
+notorious republicanism failed to excuse the sarcasms he lavished
+on the new order of things, and denounced by an assistant in
+the Bibliothèque Nationale, to a share in the direction of which
+he had been appointed by Roland, he was taken to the Madelonnettes.
+Released for a moment, he was threatened again
+with arrest; but he had determined to prefer death to a repetition
+of the moral and physical restraint to which he had been subjected.
+He attempted suicide with pistol and with poniard;
+and, horribly hacked and shattered, dictated to those who came
+to arrest him the well-known declaration&mdash;<i>&rdquo;Moi, Sebastien-Roch-Nicolas
+Chamfort, déclare avoir voulu mourir en homme libre plutôt
+que d&rsquo;être reconduit en esclave dans une maison d&rsquo;arrêt&rdquo;</i>&mdash;which
+he signed in a firm hand and in his own blood. He did not die
+at once, but lingered on until the 13th of April 1794 in charge
+of a gendarme, for whose wardship he paid a crown a day. To
+the Abbé Sieyès Chamfort had given fortune in the title of a
+pamphlet (&ldquo;<i>Qu&rsquo;est-ce que le Tiers-État? Tout. Qu&rsquo;a-t-il?
+Rien</i>&rdquo;), and to Sieyès did Chamfort retail his supreme sarcasm,
+the famous &ldquo;<i>Je m&rsquo;en vais enfin de ce monde où il faut que le c&oelig;ur
+se brise ou se bronze.</i>&rdquo; The maker of constitutions followed the
+dead wit to the grave.</p>
+
+<p>The writings of Chamfort, which include comedies, political
+articles, literary criticisms, portraits, letters, and verses, are
+colourless and uninteresting in the extreme. As a talker, however,
+he was of extraordinary force. His <i>Maximes et Pensées</i>,
+highly praised by John Stuart Mill, are, after those of La Rochefoucauld,
+the most brilliant and suggestive sayings that have
+been given to the modern world. The aphorisms of Chamfort,
+less systematic and psychologically less important than those of
+La Rochefoucauld, are as significant in their violence and
+iconoclastic spirit of the period of storm and preparation that
+gave them birth as the <i>Réflexions</i> in their exquisite restraint and
+elaborate subtlety are characteristic of the tranquil elegance of
+their epoch; and they have the advantage in richness of colour,
+in picturesqueness of phrase, in passion, in audacity. Sainte-Beuve
+compares them to &ldquo;well-minted coins that retain their
+value,&rdquo; and to keen arrows that &ldquo;<i>arrivent brusquement et sifflent
+encore.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An edition of his works&mdash;<i>&OElig;uvres complètes de Nicolas Chamfort</i>&mdash;Was
+published at Paris in five volumes in 1824-1825. Selections&mdash;<i>&OElig;uvres
+de Chamfort</i>&mdash;in one volume, appeared in 1852, with a biographical
+and critical preface by Arsène Houssaye, reprinted from
+the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>; and <i>Oeuvres choisies</i> (2 vols.), with a
+preface and notes by M. de Lescure (1879). See also Sainte-Beuve,
+<i>Causeries du Lundi</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMIER, FREDERICK<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1796-1870), English novelist, was
+the son of an Anglo-Indian official. In 1809 he entered the navy,
+and was in active service until 1827. He retired in 1833, and
+was promoted to be captain in 1856. On his retirement he
+settled near Waltham Abbey, and wrote several nautical novels
+on the lines popularized by Marryat, that had considerable
+success. These were <i>The Life of a Sailor</i> (1832), <i>Ben Brace</i> (1836),
+<i>The Arethusa</i> (1837), <i>Jack Adams</i> (1838), <i>Tom Bowling</i> (1841)
+and <i>Jack Malcolm&rsquo;s Log</i> (1846). He wrote a number of other
+books, and edited and brought down to 1827 James&rsquo;s <i>Naval
+History</i> (1837).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMILLART, MICHEL<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1652-1721), French statesman,
+minister of Louis XIV., was born at Paris of a family of the
+noblesse of recent elevation. Following the usual career of a
+statesman of his time he became in turn councillor of the parlement
+of Paris (1676), master of requests (1686), and intendant
+of the generality of Rouen (January 1689). Affable, of polished
+manners, modest and honest, Chamillart won the confidence of
+Madame de Maintenon and pleased the king. In 1690 he was
+made intendant of finances, and on the 5th of September 1699
+the king appointed him controller-general of finances, to which
+he added on the following 7th of January the ministry of war.
+From the first Chamillart&rsquo;s position was a difficult one. The
+deficit amounted to more than 53 million livres, and the credit
+of the state was almost exhausted. He lacked the great intelligence
+and energy necessary for the situation, and was unable
+to moderate the king&rsquo;s warlike tastes, or to inaugurate economic
+reforms. He could only employ the usual expedients of the
+time&mdash;the immoderate sale of offices, the debasement of the
+coinage (five times in six years), reduction of the rate of interest
+on state debts, and increased taxation. He attempted to force
+into circulation a kind of paper money, <i>billets de monnaie</i>, but
+with disastrous results owing to the state of credit. He studied
+Vauban&rsquo;s project for the royal tithe and Boisguillebert&rsquo;s proposition
+for the <i>taille</i>, but did not adopt them. In October 1706
+he showed the king that the debts immediately due amounted
+to 288 millions, and that the deficit already foreseen for 1707
+was 160 millions. In October 1707 he saw with consternation
+that the revenue for 1708 was already entirely eaten up by
+anticipation, so that neither money nor credit remained for 1708.
+In these conditions Chamillart, who had often complained of
+the overwhelming burden he was carrying, and who had already
+wished to retire in 1706, resigned his office of controller-general.
+Public opinion attributed to him the ruin of the country, though
+he had tried in 1700 to improve the condition of commerce by
+the creation of a council of commerce. As secretary of state
+for war he had to place in the field the army for the War of the
+Spanish Succession, and to reorganize it three times, after the
+great defeats of 1704, 1706 and 1708. With an empty treasury
+he succeeded only in part, and he frankly warned the king that
+the enemy would soon be able to dictate the terms of peace.
+He was reproached with having secured the command of the
+army which besieged Turin (1706) for his son-in-law, the incapable
+duc de la Feuillade. Madame de Maintenon even became hostile
+to him, and he abandoned his position on the 10th of June 1709,
+retiring to his estates. He died on the 14th of April 1721.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chamillart&rsquo;s papers have been published by G. Esnault, <i>Michel
+Chamillart, contrôleur général et secrétaire d&rsquo;état de la guerre, correspondance
+et papiers inédits</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1885); and by A. de Boislisle
+in vol. 2 of his <i>Correspondance des contrôleurs généraux</i> (1883).
+See D&rsquo;Auvigny, <i>Vies des hommes illustres</i> (1739), tome vi. pp. 288-402;
+E. Moret, <i>Quinze années du règne de Louis XIV</i> (Paris, 1851); and
+the new edition of the <i>Mémoires de St-Simon</i>, by A. de Boislisle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMINADE, CÉCILE<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1861-&emsp;&emsp;), French musical composer,
+was born at Paris on the 8th of August 1861. She studied in
+Paris, her musical talent being shown at the age of eight by the
+writing of some church music which attracted Bizet&rsquo;s attention;
+and at eighteen she came out in public as a pianist. Her own
+compositions, both songs (in large numbers) and instrumental
+pieces, were soon produced in profusion: melodious and interesting,
+and often charming, they became very popular, without
+being entitled to rank with the greater style of music. Both
+in Paris and in England Mlle Chaminade and her works became
+well known at the principal concerts. In 1908 she visited
+America and was warmly welcomed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Louis Charles Adelaide de</span>]
+(1781-1838), German poet and botanist, was born at the château
+of Boncourt in Champagne, France, the ancestral seat of his
+family, on the 30th of January 1781. Driven from France by
+the Revolution, his parents settled in Berlin, where in 1796
+young Chamisso obtained the post of page-in-waiting to the
+queen, and in 1798 entered a Prussian infantry regiment as ensign.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span>
+His family were shortly afterwards permitted to return to France;
+he, however, remained behind and continued his career in the
+army. He had but little education, but now sought distraction
+from the soulless routine of the Prussian military service
+in assiduous study. In collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense,
+he founded in 1803 the <i>Berliner Musenalmanach</i>, in which his
+first verses appeared. The enterprise was a failure, and, interrupted
+by the war, it came to an end in 1806. It brought
+him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities
+of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet. He
+had become lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 accompanied his
+regiment to Hameln, where he shared in the humiliations following
+the treasonable capitulation of that fortress in the ensuing
+year. Placed on parole he went to France, where he found that
+both his parents were dead; and, returning to Berlin in the
+autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from the service
+early in the following year. Homeless and without a profession,
+disillusioned and despondent, he lived in Berlin until 1810, when,
+through the services of an old friend of the family, he was offered
+a professorship at the <i>lycée</i> at Napoléonville in La Vendée. He
+set out to take up the post, but drawn into the charmed circle
+of Madame de Staël, followed her in her exile to Coppet in
+Switzerland, where, devoting himself to botanical research, he
+remained nearly two years. In 1812 he returned to Berlin,
+where he continued his scientific studies. In the summer of the
+eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative <i>Peter Schlemihl</i>,
+the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of all his
+works, has been translated into most European languages
+(English by W. Howitt). It was written partly to divert his
+own thoughts and partly to amuse the children of his friend
+Hitzig. In 1815 Chamisso was appointed botanist to the Russian
+ship &ldquo;Rurik,&rdquo; which Otto von Kotzebue (son of August von
+Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the world.
+His diary of the expedition (<i>Tagebuch</i>, 1821) affords some interesting
+glimpses of England and English life. On his return in 1818
+he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and
+was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1820
+he married. Chamisso&rsquo;s travels and scientific researches restrained
+for a while the full development of his poetical talent,
+and it was not until his forty-eighth year that he turned again
+to literature. In 1829, in collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and
+from 1832 in conjunction with Franz von Gaudy, he brought
+out the <i>Deutsche Musenalmanach</i>, in which his later poems were
+mainly published. He died on the 21st of August 1838.</p>
+
+<p>As a scientist Chamisso has not left much mark, although his
+<i>Bemerkungen und Ansichten</i>, published in an incomplete form
+in O. von Kotzebue&rsquo;s <i>Entdeckungsreise</i> (Weimar, 1821) and more
+completely in Chamisso&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> (1836), and the
+botanical work, <i>Übersicht der nutzbarsten und schädlichsten
+Gewächse in Norddeutschland</i> (1829) are esteemed for their
+careful treatment of the subjects with which they deal. As
+a poet Chamisso&rsquo;s reputation stands high, <i>Frauen Liebe und
+Leben</i> (1830), a cycle of lyrical poems, which was set to music
+by Schumann, being particularly famous. Noteworthy are
+also <i>Schloss Boncourt</i> and <i>Salas y Gomez</i>. In estimating his
+success as a writer, it should not be forgotten that he was cut
+off from his native speech and from his natural current of
+thought and feeling. He often deals with gloomy and sometimes
+with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in his
+lighter and gayer <span class="correction" title="Amended from proudctions">productions</span> there is an undertone of sadness
+or of satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions
+he displays a fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with
+true feeling a tale of love or vengeance. <i>Die Löwenbraut</i> may
+be taken as a sample of his weird and powerful simplicity; and
+<i>Vergeltung</i> is remarkable for a pitiless precision of treatment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first collected edition of Chamisso&rsquo;s works was edited by J.E.
+Hitzig, 6 vols. (1836); 6th edition (1874); there are also excellent
+editions by M. Koch (1883) and O.F. Walzel (1892). On Chamisso&rsquo;s
+life see J.E. Hitzig, &ldquo;Leben und Briefe von Adelbert yon Chamisso&rdquo;
+(in the <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>); K. Fulda, <i>Chamisso und seine Zeit</i> (1881);
+G. Hofmeister, <i>Adelbert von Chamisso</i> (1884); and, for the scientific
+side of Chamisso&rsquo;s life, E. du Bois-Raymond, <i>Adelbert von Chamisso
+als Naturforscher</i> (1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMKANNI,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of
+the North-West Province of India. They inhabit the western
+part of the Kurmana Valley in the Orakzai portion of Tirah,
+but are supposed to be a distinct race. They took part in the
+frontier risings of 1897, and during the Tirah expedition of
+that year a brigade under General Gaselee was sent to punish
+them.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMOIS,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> the Franco-Swiss name of an Alpine ruminant
+known in the German cantons as <i>Gemse</i>, and to naturalists as
+<i>Rupicapra tragus</i> or <i>R. rupicapra tragus</i>. It is the only species
+of its genus, and typifies a subfamily, <i>Rupicaprinae</i>, of hollow-horned
+ruminants in some degree intermediate between antelopes
+and goats (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antelope</a></span>). About equal in height to a roebuck,
+and with a short black tail, the chamois is readily distinguishable
+from all other ruminants by its vertical, backwardly-hooked,
+black horns, which are common to males and females, although
+smaller in the latter. Apart from black and white face-markings,
+and the black tail and dorsal stripe, the prevailing colour of the
+Alpine chamois is chestnut brown in summer, but lighter and
+greyer in winter. In the Pyrenees the species is represented by a
+small race locally known as the izard; a very brightly-coloured
+form, <i>R.t. picta</i>, inhabits the Apennines; the Carpathian
+chamois is very dark-coloured, and the one from the Caucasus
+is the representative of yet another race. A thick under-fur is
+developed in the winter-coat, as in all other ruminants dwelling
+at high altitudes. Chamois are gregarious, living in herds of 15
+or 20, and feeding generally in the morning or evening. The old
+males, however, live alone except in the rutting season, which
+occurs in October, when they join the herds, driving off the
+younger bucks, and engaging in fierce contests with each other,
+that often end fatally for one at least of the combatants. The
+period of gestation is twenty weeks, when the female, beneath
+the shelter generally of a projecting rock, produces one and
+sometimes two young. In summer they ascend to the limits of
+perpetual snow, being only exceeded in the loftiness of their
+haunts by the ibex; and during that season they show their
+intolerance of heat by choosing such browsing-grounds as have
+a northern exposure. In winter they descend to the wooded
+districts that immediately succeed the region of glaciers, and it
+is there only they can be successfully hunted. Chamois are
+exceedingly shy; and their senses, especially those of sight and
+smell, very acute. The herd never feeds without having a
+sentinel posted on some prominence to give notice of the approach
+of danger; which is done by stamping on the ground with the
+forefeet, and uttering a shrill whistling note, thus putting the
+entire herd on the alert. No sooner is the object of alarm scented
+or seen than each one seeks safety in the most inaccessible
+situations, which are often reached by a series of astounding
+leaps over crevasses, up the faces of seemingly perpendicular
+rocks, or down the sides of equally precipitous chasms. The
+chamois will not hesitate, it is said, thus to leap down 20 or even
+30 ft., and this it effects with apparent ease by throwing itself
+forward diagonally and striking its feet several times in its
+descent against the face of the rock. Chamois-shooting is most
+successfully pursued when a number of hunters form a circle
+round a favourite feeding ground, which they gradually narrow;
+the animals, scenting the hunters to windward, fly in the opposite
+direction, only to encounter those coming from leeward.
+Chamois-hunting, in spite of, or perhaps owing to the great
+danger attending it, has always been a favourite pursuit among
+the hardy mountaineers of Switzerland and Tirol, as well as of
+the amateur sportsmen of all countries, with the result that the
+animal is now comparatively rare in many districts where it was
+formerly common. Chamois feed in summer on mountain-herbs
+and flowers, and in winter chiefly on the young shoots and buds
+of fir and pine trees. They are particularly fond of salt, and
+in the Alps sandstone rocks containing a saline impregnation
+are often met with hollowed by the constant licking of these
+creatures. The skin of the chamois is very soft; made into
+leather it was the original <i>shammy</i>, which is now made, however,
+from the skins of many other animals. The flesh is prized as
+venison.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMOMILE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Camomile Flowers</span>, the <i>flores anthemidis</i>
+of the British Pharmacopoeia, the flower-heads of <i>Anthemis
+nobilis</i> (Nat. Ord. <i>Compositae</i>), a herb indigenous to England
+and western Europe. It is cultivated for medicinal purposes
+in Surrey, at several places in Saxony, and in France and
+Belgium,&mdash;that grown in England being much more valuable
+than any of the foreign chamomiles brought into the market.
+In the wild plant the florets of the ray are ligulate and white,
+and contain pistils only, those of the disk being tubular and
+yellow; but under cultivation the whole of the florets tend to
+become ligulate and white, in which state the flower-heads are
+said to be double. The flower-heads have a warm aromatic
+odour, which is characteristic of the entire plant, and a very
+bitter taste. In addition to a bitter extractive principle, they
+yield about 2% of a volatile liquid, which on its first extraction
+is of a pale blue colour, but becomes a yellowish brown on
+exposure to light. It has the characteristic odour of the flowers,
+and consists of a mixture of butyl and amyl angelates and
+valerates. Angelate of potassium has been obtained by treatment
+of the oil with caustic potash, and angelic acid may be isolated
+from this by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid. Chamomile
+is used in medicine in the form of its volatile oil, of which the
+dose is ½-3 minims. There is an official extract which is never
+used. Like all volatile oils the drug is a stomachic and carminative.
+In large doses the infusion is a simple emetic.</p>
+
+<p>Wild chamomile is <i>Matricaria Chamomilla</i>, a weed common
+in waste and cultivated ground especially in the southern counties
+of England. It has somewhat the appearance of true chamomile,
+but a fainter scent.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMONIX,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a mountain valley in south-east France, its chief
+village, of the same name, being the capital of a canton of the
+arrondissement of Bonneville in the department of Haute-Savoie.
+The valley runs from N.E. to S.W., and is watered by
+the Arve, which rises in the Mer de Glace. On the S.E. towers
+the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, and on the N.W. the less lofty,
+but rugged chain of the Brévent and of the Aiguilles Rouges.
+Near the head of the valley is the village of Argentière (4101
+ft.), which is connected with Switzerland by &ldquo;char&rdquo; (light
+carriage) roads over the Tête Noire and past Salvan, and by a
+mule path over the Col de Balme, which joins the Tête Noire
+route near Trient and then crosses by a &ldquo;char&rdquo; road the Col de la
+Forclaz to Martigny in the Rhone valley. The principal village,
+Chamonix (3416 ft.), is 6 m. below Argentière by electric railway
+(which continues via Finhaut to Martigny) and is visited annually
+by a host of tourists, as it is the best starting-point for the
+exploration of the glaciers of the Mont Blanc chain, as well as
+for the ascent of Mont Blanc itself. It is connected with Geneva
+by a railway (55 m.). In 1906 the population of the village was
+806, of the commune 3482.</p>
+
+<p>The valley is first heard of about 1091, when it was granted by
+the count of the Genevois to the great Benedictine house of St
+Michel de la Cluse, near Turin, which by the early 13th century
+established a priory therein. But in 1786 the inhabitants bought
+their freedom from the canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory
+had been transferred in 1519. In 1530 the inhabitants obtained
+from the count of the Genevois the privilege of holding two fairs
+a year, while the valley was often visited by the civil officials and
+by the bishops of Geneva (first recorded visit in 1411, while
+St Francis de Sales came thither in 1606). But travellers for
+pleasure were long rare. The first party to publish (1744) an
+account of their visit was that of Dr R. Pococke, Mr W. Windham
+and other Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741.
+In 1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760
+H.B. de Saussure, and rather later Bourrit.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.A. Bonnefoy and A. Perrin, <i>Le Prieuré de Chamonix</i> (2 vols.,
+Chambery, 1879 and 1883); A. Perrin, <i>Histoire de la vallée et du
+prieuré de Chamonix</i> (Chambéry, 1887); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld,
+<i>Carte de la chaîne du Mont Blanc</i> (1896; new ed., 1905); L. Kurz,
+<i>Climbers&rsquo; Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc</i> (London, 1892); also
+works referred to under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Blanc, Mont</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPAGNE,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> an ancient province of the kingdom of France,
+bounded N. by Liége and Luxemburg; E. by Lorraine; S. by
+Burgundy; and W. by Picardy and Isle de France. It now
+forms the departments of Ardennes, Marne, Aube and Haute
+Marne, with part of Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne and Meuse.
+Its name&mdash;in Latin Campania, &ldquo;country of plains&rdquo;&mdash;is derived
+from the immense plains near Reims, Châlons and Troyes. It
+was constituted towards the end of the middle ages by joining
+to the countship of Champagne the ecclesiastical duchies of
+Reims and Langres, together with the ecclesiastical countship of
+Châlons. Documents of the 12th and 13th centuries make it
+possible to determine the territorial configuration of the countship
+of Champagne with greater accuracy than in the case of any other
+fief of the crown of France. Formed at random by the acquisitions
+of the counts of the houses of Vermandois and Blois,
+Champagne reckoned among its dependencies, from 1152 to 1234,
+the countship of Blois and Chartres, of which Touraine was a fief,
+the countship of Sancerre, and various scattered fiefs in the
+Bourbonnais and in Burgundy. Officially called the &ldquo;countship of
+Champagne and Brie&rdquo; since 1217, this state was formed by the
+union of the countships of Troyes and Meaux, to which the greater
+part of the districts embraced in the country known, since the
+beginning of the middle ages, by the name of Champagne and Brie
+came in course of time to be attached. Placed under the authority
+of a single count in 960, the countships of Troyes and Meaux
+were not again separated after 1125. For the counts of Troyes
+before the 11th century see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Troyes</a></span>. We confine ourselves here
+to the counts of Champagne of the house of Blois.</p>
+
+<p>About 1020 Eudes or Odo I. (Odo II., count of Blois) became
+count of Champagne. He disputed the kingdom of Burgundy
+with the emperor Conrad, and died in 1037, in a battle near Bar-le-Duc.
+In 1037 he was succeeded by his younger son, Stephen
+II. About 1050 Odo II., son of Stephen II., became count.
+This prince, guilty of murder, found refuge in Normandy, where
+he received the castle of Aumale. He took part in 1066 in the
+conquest of England, and became earl of Holderness. About
+1063 Theobald (Thibaud) I., count of Blois and Meaux, eldest son
+of Odo I., became count of Champagne. In 1077 he seized the
+countships of Vitry and Bar-sur-Aube, left vacant by Simon of
+Valois, who had retired to a monastery. In 1089 Odo III., second
+son of Theobald II., became count, and was succeeded about
+1093 by his younger brother, Hugh, who became a templar in
+1125, and gave up the countship to his suzerain, the count of Blois.
+In 1125 the countship of Champagne passed to Theobald II. the
+Great, already count of Blois and Meaux, and one of the most
+powerful French barons of his time. He was related to the royal
+house of England, and incurred the displeasure of the king of
+France, who in 1142 invaded Champagne and burnt the town
+of Vitry. After Theobald the Great the countship of Blois ceased
+to be the dominant fief of his house and became the appanage
+of a younger branch. In 1152 Henry the Liberal, eldest son of
+Theobald II., became count of Champagne; he married Mary,
+daughter of Louis VII. of France, and went to the crusade in 1178.
+He was taken prisoner by the Turks, recovered his liberty through
+the good offices of the emperor of the East, and died a few days
+after his return to Champagne. In 1181 his eldest son, Henry II.,
+succeeded him under the tutelage of Mary of France. In 1190
+he went to the Holy Land, and became king of Jerusalem in 1192
+by his marriage with Isabelle, widow of the marquis of Montferrat.
+He died in 1197 in his town of Acre from the results of an
+accident. In 1197 Theobald III., younger son of Henry I., became
+count, and was succeeded in 1201 by Theobald IV., &ldquo;le
+Chansonnier&rdquo; (the singer), who was the son of Theobald III. and
+Blanche of Navarre, and was born some days after the death of
+his father. From 1201 to 1222 he remained under the tutelage
+of his mother, who governed Champagne with great sagacity.
+The reign of this prince was singularly eventful. The two
+daughters of count Henry II. successively claimed the countship,
+so that Theobald had to combat the claims of Philippa, wife of
+Erard of Brienne, seigneur of Rameru, from 1216 to 1222, and
+those of Alix, queen dowager of Cyprus, in 1233 and 1234. In
+1226 he followed king Louis VII. to the siege of Avignon, and after
+the death of that monarch played a prominent part during the
+reign of St Louis. At first leagued with the malcontent barons,
+he allowed himself to be gained over by the queen-mother, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span>
+thus came into collision with his old allies. He became king of
+Navarre in 1234 by the death of his maternal uncle, Sancho VII.
+but by the onerous treaty which he concluded in that year with
+the queen of Cyprus he was compelled to cede to the king, in return
+for a large sum of money, the overlordship of the countships of
+Blois, Chartres and Sancerre, and the viscounty of Châteaudun.
+In 1239 and 1240 he took part in an expedition to the Holy Land,
+probably accompanied St Louis in 1242 in the campaign of
+Saintonge against the English, and died on the 14th of July 1254
+at Pampeluna. If the author of the <i>Grandes chroniques de
+France</i> can be believed, Theobald IV. conceived a passion for
+Queen Blanche, the mother of St Louis,&mdash;a passion which she
+returned, and which explains the changes in his policy; but this
+opinion apparently must be relegated to the category of historical
+fables. The witty and courtly songs he composed place him in
+the front rank of the poets of that class, in which he showed
+somewhat more originality than his rivals. In 1254 Theobald V.
+the Young, eldest son of Theobald IV. and, like his father, king
+of Navarre, became count of Champagne. He married Isabelle of
+France, daughter of St Louis, and followed his father-in-law to
+Tunis to the crusade, dying on his return. In 1270 he was
+succeeded by Henry III. the Fat, king of Navarre. Henry was
+succeeded in 1274 by his only daughter, Joan of Navarre, under
+the tutelage of her mother, Blanche of Artois, and afterwards of
+Edmund, earl of Lancaster, her mother&rsquo;s second husband. In
+1284 she married the heir-presumptive to the throne of France,
+Philip the Fair, to whom she brought the countship of Champagne
+as well as the kingdom of Navarre. She became queen of France
+in 1285, and died on the 4th of April 1305, when her eldest son
+by King Philip, Louis Hutin, became count of Champagne. He
+was the last independent count of the province, which became
+attached to the French crown on his accession to the throne of
+France in 1314.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated fairs of Champagne, which flourished in the 12th
+and 13th centuries, were attended by merchants from all parts
+of civilized Europe. They were six in number: two at Troyes,
+two at Provins, one at Lagny-sur-Marne, and one at Bar-sur-Aube.
+They formed a kind of continuous market, divided into
+six periods, and passed in turn from Lagny to Bar, from Bar to
+Provins, from Provins to Troyes, from Troyes to Provins and
+from Provins to Troyes, to complete the year. It was, in fact,
+a perpetual fair, which had at once unity and variety, offering to
+the different parts of the countship the means of selling successively
+the special productions of their soil or their industry, and of
+procuring in exchange riches and comforts. These fairs had
+special legislation; and special magistrates, called &ldquo;masters of
+the fairs,&rdquo; had control of the police.</p>
+
+<p>For the wine &ldquo;champagne&rdquo; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wine</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;H. d&rsquo;Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Histoire des ducs et des
+comtes de Champagne</i> (1859-1866); A. Longnon, <i>Documents relatifs
+au comté de Champagne et de Brie</i> (1901 seq.; vol. i. with map); F.
+Bourquelot, <i>Études sur les foires de Champagne</i> (1865).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Lo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1756-1834),
+French politician, was born at Roanne, and entered the navy in
+1774. He fought through the war in America and resigned in
+1787. Elected deputy by the <i>noblesse</i> of Forex to the states-general
+in 1789, he went over to the third estate on the 21st of
+June and collaborated in the work of the Constituent Assembly,
+especially occupying himself with the reorganization of the navy.
+A political career seems to have attracted him little; he remained
+in private life from 1791 to 1799, when Napoleon named him
+member of the council of state. From July 1801 to August 1804
+he was ambassador of France at Vienna, and directed with great
+intelligence the incessant negotiations between the two courts.
+In August 1804 Napoleon made him minister of the interior, and
+in this position, which he held for three years, he proved an
+administrator of the first order. In addition to the ordinary
+charges of his office, he had to direct the recruitment of the army,
+organize the industrial exhibition of 1808, and to complete the
+public works undertaken in Paris and throughout France. He
+was devoted to Napoleon, on whom he lavished adulation in his
+speeches. In August 1807 the emperor chose him to succeed
+Talleyrand as minister for foreign affairs. He directed the
+annexation of the Papal States in April 1808, worked to secure the
+abdication of Charles IV. of Spain in May 1808, negotiated the
+peace of Vienna (1809) and the marriage of Napoleon. In April
+1811 a quarrel with the emperor led to his retirement, and he
+obtained the sinecure office of intendant general of the crown.
+In 1814, after the abdication, the empress sent him on a fruitless
+mission to the emperor of Austria. Then he went over to the
+Bourbons. During the Hundred Days he again joined Napoleon.
+This led to his exclusion by Louis XVIII., but in 1819 he recovered
+his dignity of peer. He died in Paris in 1834. He had
+three sons who became men of distinction. François (1804-1882)
+was a well-known author, who was made a member of the
+French Academy in 1869. His great work was a history of the
+Roman empire, in three parts, (1) <i>Les Césars</i> (1841-1843, 4 vols.),
+(2) <i>Les Antonins</i> (1863, 3 vols.), (3) <i>Les Césars du IIIe siècle</i>
+(1870, 3 vols.). Napoléon (1806-1872) published a <i>Traité de la
+police municipale</i> in 4 volumes (1844-1861), and was a deputy in
+the Corps Législatif from 1852 to 1870. Jérome Paul (1809-1886)
+was also deputy in the Corps Législatif from 1853 to 1870,
+and was made honorary chamberlain in 1859. He worked at the
+official publication of the correspondence of Napoleon I.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPAIGN,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> a city of Champaign county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
+about 125 m. S. by W. of Chicago, on the head-waters of the
+Vermilion river. Pop. (1890) 5839; (1900) 9098, of whom 973
+were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,421. It is served by the
+Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis, the Wabash, and
+the Illinois Central railways (the last having repair shops here),
+and by the Illinois (electric) Traction System from Danville,
+Illinois, to St Louis, Missouri. In 1906 the city covered 3.5 sq. m.;
+it is situated in a rich agricultural region, and has small manufacturing
+interests. Immediately east of Champaign is the city
+of Urbana, the county-seat of Champaign county, served by
+the Wabash and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis
+railways, with repair shops of the latter. In 1890 the population
+of Urbana was 3511; in 1900, 5728 (300 foreign-born); in 1910,
+8245. Partly in Urbana and partly in Champaign is the University
+of Illinois (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Illinois</a></span>); immediately south of its
+campus is the 400-acre farm of the university. Each city has a
+public library, and in Champaign are the Burnham Athenaeum,
+the Burnham hospital, the Garwood home for old ladies, and
+several parks, all gifts of former citizens. Champaign was
+founded in 1855, incorporated as a city in 1860, and re-chartered
+in 1883. Urbana secured a city charter in 1855.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1602-1674), Belgian painter
+of the French school, was born at Brussels of a poor family. He
+was a pupil of J. Fouquières; and, going to Paris in 1621, was
+employed by N. Du Chesne to paint along with Nicholas Poussin
+in the palace of the Luxembourg. His best works are to be
+found at Vincennes, and in the church of the Carmelites at Paris,
+where is his celebrated Crucifix, a signal perspective success, on
+one of the vaultings. After the death of Du Chesne, Philippe
+became first painter to the queen of France, and ultimately
+rector of the Academy of Paris. As his age advanced and his
+health failed, he retired to Port Royal, where he had a daughter
+cloistered as a nun, of whom (along with Catherine Agnès Arnauld)
+he painted a celebrated picture, now in the Louvre, highly remarkable
+for its solid unaffected truth. This, indeed, is the general
+character of his work,&mdash;grave reality, without special elevation or
+depth of character, or charm of warm or stately colour. He produced
+an immense number of paintings, religious and other
+subjects as well as portraits, dispersed over various parts of
+France, and now over the galleries of Europe. Philippe was a
+good man, indefatigable, earnest and scrupulously religious.
+He died on the 12th of August 1674.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPARAN,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chumparun</span>, a district of British India,
+in the Patna division of Bengal, occupying the north-west
+corner of Behar, between the two rivers Gandak and Baghmati
+and the Nepal hills. It has an area of 3531 sq. m. In 1901 the
+population was 1,790,463, showing a decrease of 4% in the
+decade. A broad grass-covered road or embankment defines the
+Nepal frontier, except where rivers or streams form a natural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span>
+boundary. The district is a vast level except in the N. and N.W.,
+where it undulates, and gradually assumes a rugged appearance
+as it approaches the mountains and forests of Nepal. Wide
+uncultivated tracts cover its north-western corner; the southern
+and western parts are carefully cultivated, and teem with an
+active agricultural population. The principal rivers are the
+Gandak, navigable all the year round, the Buri Gandak, Panch
+Nadi, Lalbagia, Koja and Teur. Old beds of rivers intersect
+Champaran in every direction, and one of these forms a chain
+of lakes which occupy an area of 139 sq. m. in the centre of the
+district. Champaran, with the rest of Bengal and Behar, was
+acquired by the British in 1765. Up to 1866 it remained a
+subdivision of Saran. In that year it was separated and formed
+into a separate district. The administrative headquarters are
+at Motihari (population, 13,730); Bettia is the centre of a very
+large estate; Segauli, still a small military station, was the
+scene of a massacre during the Mutiny. Champaran was the
+chief seat of indigo planting in Behar before the decline of that
+industry. There are about 40 saltpetre refineries. The district
+suffered severely from drought in 1866 and 1874, and again in
+1897. In the last year a small government canal was opened,
+and a canal from the Gandak has also been constructed. The
+district is traversed almost throughout its length to Bettia by
+the Tirhoot state railway. A considerable trade is conducted
+with Nepal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gulielmus Campellensis</span>]
+(c. 1070-1121), French philosopher and theologian was born
+at Champeaux near Melun. After studying under Anselm of
+Laon and Roscellinus, he taught in the school of the cathedral
+of Notre Dame, of which he was made canon in 1103. Among
+his pupils was Abelard. In 1108 he retired into the abbey of
+St Victor, where he resumed his lectures. He afterwards
+became bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne, and took part in the
+dispute concerning investitures as a supporter of Calixtus II.,
+whom he represented at the conference of Mousson. His only
+printed works are a fragment on the Eucharist (inserted by
+Jean Mabillon in his edition of the works of St Bernard), and the
+<i>Moralia Abbreviata</i> and <i>De Origine Animae</i> (in E. Martène&rsquo;s
+<i>Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum</i>, 1717, vol. 5). In the last of
+these he maintains that children who die unbaptized must be lost,
+the pure soul being denied by the grossness of the body, and
+declares that God&rsquo;s will is not to be questioned. He upholds
+the theory of Creatianism (that a soul is specially created for
+each human being). Ravaisson-Mollien has discovered a
+number of fragments by him, among which the most important is the
+<i>De Essentia Dei et de Substantia Dei</i>; a <i>Liber Sententiarum</i>,
+consisting of discussions on ethics and Scriptural interpretation,
+is also ascribed to Champeaux. He is reputed the founder of
+Realism. For his views and his controversy with Abelard, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abelard</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Victor Cousin, introduction to his <i>Ouvrages inédits d&rsquo;Abélard</i>
+(1836), and <i>Fragments pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire de la philosophie</i>
+(1865); G.A. Patru, <i>Wilhelmi Campellensis de natura et de origine rerum
+placita</i> (1847); E. Michaud, <i>Guillaume de Champeaux et les écoles
+de Paris au XIIe siècle</i> (2nd ed., 1868); &ldquo;William of Champeaux
+and his Times&rdquo; in <i>Christian Observer</i>, lxxii. 843; B. Hauréau, <i>De
+la philosophie scolastique</i> (Paris, 1850); Opuscula in J.P. Migne&rsquo;s
+<i>Patrologia</i>, clxiii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPERTY,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Champarty</span> (Lat. <i>campi partitio</i>, O. Fr.
+<i>champ parti</i>), in English law, a bargain between a plaintiff or
+defendant in a cause and another person, to divide the land
+(<i>campum partiri</i>) or other matter sued for, if they prevail, in
+consideration of that person carrying on or defending the suit
+at his own expense. It is a misdemeanour punishable by fine
+or imprisonment. It differs only from maintenance (<i>q.v.</i>), in
+that the recompense for the service which has been given is
+always part of the matter in suit, or some profit growing out of
+it. So an agreement by a solicitor not to charge costs on
+condition of retaining for himself a share of the sums recovered
+would be illegal and void. It is not, however, champerty to
+charge the subject-matter of a suit in order to obtain the means
+of prosecuting it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Fifth Report of the Criminal Law Commissioners</i>, pp. 34-9.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPION<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (Fr. <i>champion</i>, Late Lat. <i>campio</i> from <i>campus</i>,
+a field or open space, <i>i.e.</i> one &ldquo;who takes the field&rdquo; or fights;
+cf. Ger. <i>Kampf</i>, battle, and <i>Kämpfer</i>, fighter), in the
+judicial combats of the middle ages the substitute for a party to the suit
+disabled from bearing arms or specially exempt from the duty
+to do so (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>). Hence the word has come to be applied
+to any one who &ldquo;champions,&rdquo; or contends on behalf of, any
+person or cause. In the laws of the Lombards (lib. ii. tit. 56
+§§ 38, 39), those who by reason of youth, age or infirmity could
+not bear arms were allowed to nominate champions, and the
+same provision was made in the case of women (lib. i. tit.
+3 § 6, tit. 16, §2). This was practically the rule laid down in all
+subsequent legislation on the subject. Thus the <i>Assize of
+Jerusalem</i> (cap. 39) says: &ldquo;These are the people who may defend
+themselves through champions; a woman, a sick man, a man
+who has passed the age of sixty, &amp;c.&rdquo; The clergy, too, whether
+as individuals or corporations, were represented by champions;
+in the case of bishops and abbots this function was part of the
+duties of the <i>advocatus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Advocate</a></span>). Du Cange gives
+instances of mercenary champions (<i>campiones conductitii</i>), who
+were regarded as &ldquo;infamous persons&rdquo; and sometimes, in case
+of defeat, were condemned to lose hand or foot. Sometimes
+championships were &ldquo;serjeanties,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> rendered service to lords,
+churches or cities in consideration of the grant of certain fiefs, or
+for annual money payments, the champion doing homage to the
+person or corporation represented by him (<i>campiones homagii</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The office of &ldquo;king&rsquo;s champion&rdquo; (<i>campio regis</i>) is peculiar
+to England. The function of the king&rsquo;s champion, when the
+ceremonial of the coronation was carried out in its completeness,
+was to ride, clad in complete armour, on his right the high
+constable, on his left the earl marshal, into Westminster Hall
+during the coronation banquet, and challenge to single combat
+any who should dispute the king&rsquo;s right to reign. The challenge
+was thrice repeated by the herald, at the entrance to the hall,
+in the centre, and at the foot of the dais. On picking up his
+gauntlet for the third time the champion was pledged by the
+king in a gilt-covered cup, which was then presented to him as
+his fee by the king. If he had had occasion to fight, and was
+victorious, his fee would have been the armour he wore and the
+horse he rode, the second best in the royal stables; but no such
+occasion has ever arisen. This picturesque ceremonial was last
+performed at the coronation of George IV. The office of king&rsquo;s
+champion is of great antiquity, and its origins are involved in
+great obscurity. It is said to have been held under William the
+Conqueror by Robert or Roger Marmion, whose ancestors had
+been hereditary champions in Normandy. The first authentic
+record, however is a charter of Henry I., signed by Robert
+Marmion (<i>Robertus de Bajucis campio regis</i>). Of the actual
+exercise of the office the earliest record dates from the coronation
+of Richard II. On this occasion the champion, Sir John Dymoke,
+appeared at the door of the Abbey immediately after the coronation
+mass, but was peremptorily told to go away and return
+later; moreover, in his bill presented to the court of claims, he
+stated that the champion was to ride in the procession before
+the service, and make his challenge to all the world. This seems
+to show that the ceremony, as might be expected, was originally
+performed <i>before</i> the king&rsquo;s coronation, when it would have had
+some significance. The office of king&rsquo;s champion is hereditary,
+and is now held by the family of Dymoke (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Campio&rdquo;; L.G. Wickham Legg,
+<i>English Coronation Records</i> (Westminster, 1901); J.H.T. Perkins,
+<i>The Coronation Book</i> (London, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1762-1800), French
+general, enlisted in the army at an early age and served in the
+great siege of Gibraltar. When the Revolution broke out he
+took a prominent part in the movement, and was elected by the
+men of a battalion to command them. In May 1793 he was
+charged with the suppression of the disturbances in the Jura,
+which he quelled without bloodshed. Under Pichegru he took
+part in the Rhine campaign of that year as a brigade commander,
+and at Weissenburg and in the Palatinate won the warm commendation
+of Lazare Hoche. At Fleurus his stubborn fighting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span>
+in the centre of the field contributed greatly to Jourdan&rsquo;s victory.
+In the subsequent campaigns he commanded the left wing of the
+French armies on the Rhine between Neuwied and Düsseldorf,
+and took a great part in all the successful and unsuccessful
+expeditions to the Lahn and the Main. In 1798 Championnet
+was named commander-in-chief of the &ldquo;army of Rome&rdquo; which
+was protecting the infant Roman republic against the Neapolitan
+court and the British fleet. Nominally 32,000 strong, the army
+scarcely numbered 8000 effectives, with a bare fifteen cartridges
+per man. The Austrian general Mack had a tenfold superiority
+in numbers, but Championnet so well held his own that he ended
+by capturing Naples itself and there setting up the Parthenopean
+Republic. But his intense earnestness and intolerance of
+opposition soon embroiled him with the civilians, and the
+general was recalled in disgrace. The following year, however,
+saw him again in the field as commander-in-chief of the &ldquo;army
+of the Alps.&rdquo; This, too, was at first a mere paper force, but after
+three months&rsquo; hard work it was able to take the field. The
+campaign which followed was uniformly unsuccessful, and,
+worn out by the unequal struggle, Championnet died at Antibes
+on the 9th of January 1800. In 1848 a statue was erected in his
+honour at Valence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.R.C. de St Albin, <i>Championnet, ou les Campagnes de
+Hollande, de Rome et de Naples</i> (Paris, 1860).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1567-1635), French explorer,
+colonial pioneer and first governor of French Canada, was born
+at Brouage, a small French port on the Bay of Biscay, in 1567.
+His father was a sea captain, and the boy was early skilled in
+seamanship and navigation. He entered the army of Henry IV.,
+and served in Brittany under Jean d&rsquo;Aumont, François de St
+Luc and Charles de Brissac. When the army of the League
+was disbanded he accompanied his uncle, who had charge of the
+ships in which the Spanish allies were conveyed home, and on
+reaching Cadiz secured (1599) the command of one of the vessels
+about to make an expedition to the West Indies. He was gone
+over two years, visiting all the principal ports and pushing
+inland from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. The MS. account
+of his adventures, <i>Bref Discours des Choses plus remarquables
+que Samuel Champlain de Brouage a recognues aux Indes Occidentales</i>,
+is in the library at Dieppe. It was not published in
+French until 1870, although an English translation was printed
+by the Hakluyt Society in 1859. It contains a suggestion of a
+Panama Canal, &ldquo;by which the voyage to the South Sea would
+be shortened by more than 1500 leagues.&rdquo; In 1603 Champlain
+made his first voyage to Canada, being sent out by Aymar de
+Clermont, seigneur de Chastes, on whom the king had bestowed
+a patent. Champlain at once established friendly relations
+with the Indians and explored the St Lawrence to the rapids
+above Montreal. On his return he published an interesting
+and historically valuable little book, <i>Des sauvages, ou voyage de
+Samuel Champlain de Brouage fait en la France Nouvelle</i>. During
+his absence de Chastes had died, and his privileges and fur trade
+monopolies were conferred upon Pierre de Guast, sieur de Monts
+(1560-1611). With him, in 1604, Champlain was engaged in
+exploring the coast as far south as Cape Cod, in seeking a site
+for a new settlement, and in making surveys and charts. They
+first settled on an island near the mouth of the St Croix river,
+and then at Port Royal&mdash;now Annapolis, N.S.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Basques and Bretons, asserting that they were
+being ruined by de Monts&rsquo; privileges, got his patent revoked,
+and Champlain returned with the discouraged colonists to Europe.
+When, however, in modified form, the patent was re-granted to
+his patron Champlain induced him to abandon Acadia and
+establish a settlement on the St Lawrence, of the commercial
+advantages of which, perhaps even as a western route to China
+and Japan, he soon convinced him. Champlain was placed in
+command of one of the two vessels sent out. He was to explore
+and colonize, while the other vessel traded, to pay for the expedition.
+Champlain fixed on the site of Quebec and founded
+the first white settlement there in July 1608, giving it its present
+name. In the spring he joined a war party of Algonquins and
+Hurons, discovered the great lake that bears his name, and, near
+the present Ticonderoga, took with his arquebus an important
+part in the victory which his savage friends obtained over the
+Iroquois. The Iroquois naturally turned first to the Dutch and
+then to the English for allies. &ldquo;Thus did new France rush into
+collision with the redoubted warriors of the Five Nations. Here
+was the beginning, and in some measure doubtless the cause, of
+a long suite of murderous conflicts, bearing havoc and flame to
+generations yet unborn&rdquo; (Parkman). Champlain returned to
+France and again related to Henry IV.&mdash;who had previously
+learned his worth and had pensioned him&mdash;his exciting adventures.
+De Monts failed to secure a renewal of his patent, but resolved
+to proceed without it. Champlain was again (1611) in Canada,
+fighting for and against the Indians and establishing a trading
+post at Mont Royal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montreal</a></span>). He was the third white
+man to descend, and the second to descend successfully, the
+Lachine Rapids. De Monts, now governor of Paris, was too busy
+to occupy himself in the waning fortunes of the colony, and left
+them entirely to his associate. An influential protector was
+needed; and Champlain prevailed upon Charles de Bourbon,
+comte de Soissons, to interest himself to obtain from the king
+the appointment of lieutenant-general in New France. The
+comte de Soissons died almost immediately, and was succeeded
+in the office by Henri de Bourbon, prince de Condé, and he, like
+his predecessors and successors, retained Champlain as lieutenant-governor.
+&ldquo;In Champlain alone was the life of New France.
+By instinct and temperament he was more impelled to the
+adventurous toils of exploration than to the duller task of
+building colonies. The profits of trade had value in his eyes only
+as means to these ends, and settlements were important chiefly
+as a base of discovery. Two great objects eclipsed all others,&mdash;to
+find a route to the Indies, and to bring the heathen tribes
+into the embraces of the Church, since, while he cared little for
+their bodies, his solicitude for their souls knew no bounds&rdquo;
+(Parkman).</p>
+
+<p>In 1613 Champlain again crossed the Atlantic and endeavoured
+to confirm Nicolas de Vignau&rsquo;s alleged discovery of a short route
+to the ocean by the Ottawa river, a great lake at its source, and
+another river flowing north therefrom. That year he got as
+far as Allumette Island in the Ottawa, but two years later, with
+a &ldquo;Great War Party&rdquo; of Indians, he crossed Lake Nipissing
+and the eastern ends of Lakes Huron and Ontario, and made a
+fierce but unsuccessful attack on an Onondaga fortified town
+a few miles south of Lake Oneida. This was the end of his
+wanderings. He now devoted himself to the growth and
+strengthening of Quebec. Every year he went to France with
+this end in view. He was one of the hundred associates of the
+Company of New France, created by Richelieu to reform abuses
+and take over all his country&rsquo;s interests in the new world. These
+ill-defended possessions England now prepared to seize. Three
+ships were sent out under letters of marque commanded by
+David, Lewis and Thomas Kirke, and Quebec, already on the
+verge of starvation, was compelled to surrender (1629). Champlain
+was taken to England a prisoner, but when Canada was
+restored to the French he returned (1633) to his post, where he
+died on the 25th of December 1635. He had married in 1610,
+Hélène Boullé, then but twelve years old. She did not leave
+France for Canada, however, until ten years later. After his
+death she became a nun.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Champlain&rsquo;s complete works in 6 vols. were published under the
+patronage of the university of Laval in 1870. There is a careful
+translation of <i>Champlain&rsquo;s Voyages</i>, by Professor and Mrs E.G.
+Bourne in the &ldquo;Trailmaker&rdquo; series edited by Prof. J.B. McMaster.
+See F. Parkman, <i>Pioneers of France in the New World</i> (1865); J.
+Winsor, <i>Cartier to Frontenac</i> (1894); N.E. Dionne, <i>Champlain</i>
+(1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. E. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPLAIN,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a lake lying between the states of New York
+and Vermont, U.S.A., and penetrating for a few miles into
+Canada. It extends about 130 m. from N. to S., varies from
+¼ m. to 1 m. in width for 40 m. from its S. terminus, and then
+widens until it reaches a maximum width of about 11 m. near
+Ausable Point. Its area is about 500 sq. m. Its surface is 96
+ft. above the sea. In the north part it is generally from 200 to
+300 ft. deep; opposite Essex, N.Y., near its middle, the depth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span>
+increases to 400 ft.; but farther south it is much less; throughout
+the greater part of the lake there is a depth of water of more
+than 100 ft. Since the lake is caused by the ponding of water
+in a broad irregular valley, the shore line is nearly everywhere
+much broken, and in the northern portion are several islands,
+both large and small, most of which belong to Vermont. These
+islands divide the lake&rsquo;s northern end into two large arms
+which extend into Canada. From the western arm the Richelieu
+river flows out, carrying the water of Champlain to the St
+Lawrence. The waters abound in salmon, salmon-trout, sturgeon
+and other fish, and are navigated from end to end by large
+steamboats and vessels of considerable tonnage. The lake
+was formerly the seat of extensive traffic, especially in lumber,
+but navigation has greatly decreased; the tonnage entering and
+clearing at the lake was twice as great in the early &rsquo;70&rsquo;s as it
+was thirty years later. The principal ports are Burlington, Vt.,
+and Plattsburg, N.Y. Lake Champlain lies in a valley from 1 to
+30 m. wide, between the Green Mountains on the east and the
+Adirondack Mountains on the west, and the scenery is most
+picturesque. On the east side is a rather gradual ascent for 20 m.
+or more from shore to summit, while on the west side the ascent
+is by a succession of hills, in some places from the water&rsquo;s edge.
+North of Crown Point low mountains rise 1000 to 1600 ft. above
+the lake, and behind these are the higher peaks of the Adirondacks,
+reaching an elevation of more than 5000 ft. Lake George is
+a tributary on the south, several small streams flow in from each
+side; the Champlain Canal, 63 m. in length, connects the lake
+with the Hudson river; and through the Richelieu it has a
+natural outlet to the north into the St Lawrence.</p>
+
+<p>Lake Champlain was named from Samuel de Champlain, who
+discovered it in July 1609. The valley is a natural pathway
+between the United States and Canada, and during the various
+wars which the English have waged in America it had great
+strategic importance. In 1731 the French built a fort at Crown
+Point; in 1756, another at Ticonderoga; and both were important
+strategic points in the French and Indian War as well as in
+the American War of Independence. On the 11th of October
+1776, the first battle between an American and a British fleet,
+the battle of Valcour Island, was fought on the lake. Benedict
+Arnold, the American commander, with a decidedly inferior
+force, withstood the British under Thomas Pringle for about
+seven hours, and then during the night escaped through the
+enemy&rsquo;s line. Although overtaken the next day he again, after
+a fight of a few hours, made a successful retreat.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the War of 1812 the American naval
+force on the lake, though very small, was superior to that of the
+British, but on the 3rd of June 1813 the British captured two
+American sloops in the narrow channel at the northern end and
+gained supremacy. Both sides now began to build and equip
+vessels for a decisive contest; by May 1814 the Americans
+had regained supremacy, and four months later a British land
+force of 11,000 men under Sir George Prevost (1767-1816) and a
+naval force of 16 vessels of about 2402 tons with 937 men and
+92 guns under Captain George Downie (d. 1814) confronted an
+American land force of 1500 men under Brigadier-General
+Alexander Macomb (1782-1841), strongly entrenched at Plattsburg,
+and an American naval force (anchored in Plattsburg Bay)
+of 14 vessels of about 2244 tons with 882 men and 86 guns under
+Commodore Thomas Macdonough (1783-1825). In the open
+lake the British naval force should have been the superior, but
+at anchor in the bay the Americans had a decided advantage.
+Expecting the British land force to drive the American fleet
+from its anchorage, Captain Downie, on the 11th of September
+1814, began the battle of Lake Champlain. It had continued
+only fifteen minutes when he was killed; the land force failed
+to co-operate, and after a severe fight at close range for 2½ hours,
+during which the British lost about 300 men, the Americans 200
+and the vessels of both sides were greatly shattered, the British
+retreated both by land and by water, abandoning their plan of
+invading New York.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.E. Peet, &ldquo;Glacial and Post-Glacial History of the Hudson
+and Champlain Valleys,&rdquo; in vol. xii. of the <i>Journal of Geology</i>
+(Chicago, 1904); P.S. Palmer, <i>History of Lake Champlain</i> (Albany.
+1866); and Capt. A.T. Mahan, <i>Sea Power in its Relations to the War
+of 1812</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1642-1698), French actress, was
+born in Rouen of a good family. Her father&rsquo;s name was Desmares.
+She made her first appearance on the stage at Rouen with
+Charles Chevillet (1645-1701), who called himself sieur de
+Champmeslé, and they were married in 1666. By 1669 they
+were playing in Paris at the Théatre du Marais, her first appearance
+there being as Venus in Boyer&rsquo;s <i>Fête de Venus</i>. The next
+year, as Hermione in Racine&rsquo;s <i>Andromaque</i>, she had a great
+success at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Her intimacy with Racine
+dates from then. Some of his finest tragedies were written for
+her, but her repertoire was not confined to them, and many an
+indifferent play&mdash;like Thomas Corneille&rsquo;s <i>Ariane</i> and <i>Comte
+d&rsquo;Essex</i>&mdash;owed its success to &ldquo;her natural manner of acting,
+and her pathetic rendering of the hapless heroine.&rdquo; <i>Phèdre</i>
+was the climax of her triumphs, and when she and her husband
+deserted the Hôtel de Bourgogne (see BÉJART <i>ad fin.</i>), it was
+selected to open the Comédie Française on the 26th of August
+1680. Here, with Mme Guérin as the leading comedy actress,
+she played the great tragic love parts for more than thirty years,
+dying on the 15th of May 1698. La Fontaine dedicated to her
+his novel <i>Belphégor</i>, and Boileau immortalized her in verse.
+Her husband distinguished himself both as actor and playwright,
+and his <i>Parisien</i> (1682) gave Mme Guérin one of her greatest
+successes.</p>
+
+<p>Her brother, the actor <span class="sc">Nicolas Desmares</span> (c. 1650-1714),
+began as a member of a subsidized company at Copenhagen, but
+by her influence he came to Paris and was received in 1685
+<i>sans début</i>&mdash;the first time such an honour had been accorded&mdash;at
+the Comédie Française, where he became famous for peasant
+parts. His daughter, to whom Christian V. and his queen stood
+sponsors, <span class="sc">Christine Antoinette Charlotte Desmares</span> (1682-1753),
+was a fine actress in both tragedy and soubrette parts.
+She made her début at the Comédie Française in 1699, in La
+Grange Chancel&rsquo;s <i>Oreste et Pylade</i>, and was at once received as
+<i>sociétaire</i>. She retired in 1721.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1790-1832), French
+Egyptologist, called <span class="sc">Le Jeune</span> to distinguish him from Champollion-Figeac
+(<i>q.v.</i>), his elder brother, was born at Figeac, in the
+department of Lot, on the 23rd of December 1790. He was
+educated by his brother, and was then appointed government
+pupil at the Lyceum, which had recently been founded. His
+first work (1804) was an attempt to show by means of their
+names that the giants of the Bible and of Greek mythology were
+personifications of natural phenomena. At the age of sixteen
+(1807) he read before the academy of Grenoble a paper in which
+he maintained that the Coptic was the ancient language of
+Egypt. He soon after removed to Paris, where he enjoyed the
+friendship of Langlès, De Sacy and Millin. In 1809 he was
+made professor of history in the Lyceum of Grenoble, and there
+published his earlier works. Champollion&rsquo;s first decipherment
+of hieroglyphics dates from 1821. In 1824 he was sent by Charles
+X. to visit the collections of Egyptian antiquities in the museums
+of Turin, Leghorn, Rome and Naples; and on his return he
+was appointed director of the Egyptian museum at the Louvre.
+In 1828 he was commissioned to undertake the conduct of a
+scientific expedition to Egypt in company with Rosellini, who
+had received a similar appointment from Leopold II., grand
+duke of Tuscany. He remained there about a year. In March
+1831 he received the chair of Egyptian antiquities, which had
+been created specially for him, in the Collège de France. He
+was engaged with Rosellini in publishing the results of Egyptian
+researches at the expense of the Tuscan and French governments,
+when he was seized with a paralytic disorder, and died at Paris
+in 1832. Champollion, whose claims were hotly disputed for
+many years after his death, is now universally acknowledged
+to have been the founder of Egyptology.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He wrote <i>L&rsquo;Égypte sous les Phraons</i> (2 vols. 8vo, 1814); <i>Sur
+l&rsquo;écriture hiératique</i> (1821); <i>Sur l&rsquo;écriture démotique</i>; <i>Précis du systéme
+hiéroglyphique</i>, &amp;c. (1824); <i>Panthéon égyptien, ou collection
+des personnages mythologiques de l&rsquo;ancienne Egypte</i> (incomplete);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span>
+<i>Monumens de l&rsquo;Égypte et de la Nubie considérés par rapport a l&rsquo;histoire,
+la religion, &amp;c.</i>; <i>Grammaire égyptienne</i> (1836), and <i>Dictionnaire
+égyptienne</i>(1841), edited by his brother; <i>Analyse méthodique du
+texte démotique de Rosette</i>; <i>Aperçu des résultats historiques de la
+découverte de l&rsquo;alphabet hiéroglyphique</i> (1827); <i>Mémoires sur les signes
+employés par les Égyptiens dans leurs trois systèmes graphiques à la
+notation des principales divisions du temps</i>; <i>Lettres ecrites d&rsquo;Égypte
+et de Nubie</i> (1833); and also seveial letters on Egyptian subjects,
+addressed at different periods to the duc de Blacas and others.</p>
+
+<p>See H. Hartleben, <i>Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk</i> (2 vols.,
+1906); also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Language and Writing</i> (<i>ad init.</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1778-1867),
+French archaeologist, elder brother of Jean François Champollion,
+was born at Figeac in the department of Lot, on the
+5th of October 1778. He became professor of Greek and librarian
+at Grenoble, but was compelled to retire in 1816 on account of
+the part he had taken during the Hundred Days. He afterwards
+became keeper of manuscripts at the Bibliothèque Nationale in
+Paris, and professor of palaeography at the École des Chartes.
+In 1849 he became librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau.
+He edited several of his brother&rsquo;s works, and was also author of
+original works on philological and historical subjects, among
+which may be mentioned <i>Nouvelles recherches sur les patois ou
+idiomes vulgaires de la France</i> (1809), <i>Annales de Lagides</i> (1819)
+and <i>Chartes latines sur papyrus du VI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle de l&rsquo;ère chrétienne</i>.
+His son <span class="sc">Aimé</span> (1812-1894) became his father&rsquo;s assistant at the
+Bibliothèque Nationale, and besides a number of works on
+historical subjects wrote a biographical and bibliographical study
+of his family in <i>Les Deux Champollion</i> (Grenoble, 1887).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANCE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (through the O. Fr. <i>chéance</i>, from the Late Lat.
+<i>cadentia</i>, things happening, from <i>cadere</i>, to fall out, happen;
+cf. &ldquo;case&rdquo;), an accident or event, a phenomenon which has no
+apparent or discoverable cause; hence an event which has not
+been expected, a piece of good or bad fortune. From the popular
+idea that anything of which no assignable cause is known has
+therefore no cause, chance (Gr. <span class="grk" title="tuchê">&#964;&#973;&#967;&#951;</span>) was regarded as having a
+substantial objective existence, being itself the source of such
+uncaused phenomena. For the philosophic theories relating to
+this subject see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accidentalism</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Chance,&rdquo; in the theory of probability, is used in two ways.
+In the stricter, or mathematical usage, it is synonymous with
+probability; <i>i.e.</i> if a particular event may occur in <i>n</i> ways in an
+aggregate of <i>p</i> events, then the &ldquo;chance&rdquo; of the particular event
+occurring is given by the fraction <i>n/p</i>. In the second usage, the
+&ldquo;chance&rdquo; is regarded as the ratio of the number of ways which
+a particular event may occur to the number of ways in which it
+may not occur; mathematically expressed, this chance is
+<i>n/(p-n)</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Probability</a></span>). In the English law relating to gaming
+and wagering a distinction is drawn between games of chance
+and games of skill (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaming and Wagering</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANCEL<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (through O. Fr. from Lat. plur. <i>cancelli</i>, dim. of
+<i>cancer</i>, grating, lattice, probably connected with an Indo-European
+root <i>Kar</i>-, to bend; cf. circus, curve, &amp;c.), in the
+earliest and strictest sense that part of a church near the altar
+occupied by the deacons and sub-deacons assisting the officiating
+priest, this space having originally been separated from the rest
+of the church by <i>cancelli</i> or lattice work. The word <i>cancelli</i> is
+used in classical Latin of a screen, bar or the like, set to mark
+off an enclosed space in a building or in an open place. It is
+thus used of the bar in a court of justice (Cicero, <i>Verres</i>, ii. 3 seq.).
+It is particularly used of the lattice or screen in the ancient
+basilica, which separated the <i>bema</i>, or raised tribunal, from the
+rest of the building. The use of the name in ecclesiastical
+buildings is thus natural, for the altar stood in the place occupied
+by the <i>bema</i> in the apse of the basilica. From the screen the
+term was early transferred to the space <i>inter cancellos</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the
+<i>locus altaris cancellis septus</i>. This railed-off space is now generally
+known among Roman Catholics as the &ldquo;sanctuary,&rdquo; the
+word chancel being little used. In the Church of England,
+however, the word chancel survived the Reformation, and is
+applied, both in the ecclesiastical and the architectural sense,
+to that part of the church occupied by the principal altar or
+communion table and by the clergy and singers officiating at the
+chief services; it thus includes presbytery, chancel proper and
+choir (<i>q.v.</i>), and in this sense, in the case of cathedrals and
+other large churches, is often used synonymously with choir.
+In this more inclusive sense the early basilican churches had no
+chancels, which were a comparatively late development; the
+<i>cancelli</i>, <i>e.g.</i> of such a church as San Clemente at Rome are
+equivalent not to the &ldquo;chancel screen&rdquo; of a medieval church
+but to the &ldquo;altar rails&rdquo; that divide off the sanctuary. In
+churches of the type that grew to its perfection in the middle
+ages the chancels are clearly differentiated from the nave by
+structural features: by the raising of the floor level, by the
+presence of a &ldquo;chancel arch,&rdquo; and by a chancel or rood screen
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rood</a></span>). The chancel screen might be no more than a low
+barrier, some 4 ft. high, or a light structure of wood or wrought
+iron; sometimes, however, they were massive stone screens,
+which in certain cases were continued on either side between the
+piers of the choir and (on the European continent) round the
+east end of the sanctuary, as in the cathedrals of Paris, Bourges,
+Limoges, Amiens and Chartres. These screens served the
+purpose, in collegiate and conventual churches, of cutting off
+the space reserved for the services conducted for and by the
+members of the chapter or community. For popular services a
+second high altar was usually set up to the west of the screen,
+as formerly at Westminster Abbey. In parish churches the
+screen was set, partly to differentiate the space occupied by the
+clergy from that reserved for the laity, partly to support the
+representation of the crucifixion known as the Rood. In these
+churches, too, the chancel is very usually structurally differentiated
+by being narrower and, sometimes, less high than the nave.</p>
+
+<p>In the Church of England, the duty of repairing the chancel
+falls upon the parson by custom, while the repair of the body
+of the church falls on the parishioners. In particular cases,
+as in certain London churches, the parishioners also have to
+repair the chancel. Where there are both a rector and a vicar
+the repairs are shared between them, and this is also the case
+where the rector is a lay impropriator. By the rubric of the
+English Prayer Book &ldquo;the chancels shall remain as they have
+done in times past,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> distinguished from the body of the
+church by some partition sufficient to separate the two without
+interfering with the view of the congregation. At the Reformation,
+and for some time after, this distinction was regarded by
+the dominant Puritan party as a mark of sacerdotalism, and
+services were commonly said in other parts of the church, the
+chancels being closed and disused. The rubric, however, directs
+that &ldquo;&rsquo;Morning and Evening Prayer&rsquo; shall be used in the
+accustomed place in the church, chapel or chancel, except it
+shall be otherwise determined by the Ordinary.&rdquo; Chancel screens,
+with or without gates, are lawful, but chancellors of dioceses
+have refused to grant a faculty to erect gates, as unnecessary or
+inexpedient.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANCELLOR<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. <i>canceler</i>, <i>chanceler</i>, Fr.
+<i>chancelier</i>, Lat. <i>cancellarius</i>), an official title used by most of the
+peoples whose civilization has arisen directly or indirectly out of
+the Roman empire. At different times and in different countries
+it has stood and stands for very various duties, and has been, and
+is, borne by officers of various degrees of dignity. The original
+chancellors were the <i>cancelarii</i> of Roman courts of justice,
+ushers who sat at the <i>cancelli</i> or lattice work screens of a
+&ldquo;basilica&rdquo; or law court, which separated the judge and counsel
+from the audience (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancel</a></span>). In the later Eastern empire
+the <i>cancellarii</i> were promoted at first to notarial duties. The
+barbarian kingdoms which arose on the ruin of the empire in the
+West copied more or less intelligently the Roman model in all
+their judicial and financial administration. Under the Frankish
+kings of the Merovingian dynasty the <i>cancellarii</i> were subordinates
+of the great officer of state called the <i>referendarius</i>,
+who was the predecessor of the more modern chancellor. The
+office became established under the form <i>archi-cancellarius</i>, or
+chief of the <i>cancellarii</i>. Stubbs says that the Carolingian
+chancellor was the royal notary and the arch-chancellor keeper
+of the royal seal. His functions would naturally be discharged
+by a cleric in times when book learning was mainly confined to
+the clergy. From the reign of Louis the Pious the post was held
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span>
+by a bishop. By an equally natural process he became the chief
+secretary of the king and of the queen, who also had her chancellor.
+Such an office possessed an obvious capacity for developing on
+the judicial as well as the administrative side. Appeals and
+petitions of aggrieved persons would pass through the chancellor&rsquo;s
+hands, as well as the political correspondence of the king. Nor
+was the king the only man who had need of a chancellor. Great
+officers and corporations also had occasion to employ an agent to
+do secretarial, notarial and judicial work for them, and called
+him by the convenient name of chancellor. The history of the
+office in its many adaptations to public and private service is the
+history of its development on judicial, administrative, political,
+secretarial and notarial lines.</p>
+
+<p>The model of the Carolingian court was followed by the
+medieval states of Western Europe. In England the office of
+chancellor dates back to the reign of Edward the Confessor,
+the first English king to use the Norman practice
+<span class="sidenote">The chancellor in England.</span>
+of sealing instead of signing documents; and from the
+Norman Conquest onwards the succession of chancellors
+is continuous. The chancellor was originally, and long continued
+to be, an ecclesiastic, who combined the functions of the most
+dignified of the royal chaplains, the king&rsquo;s secretary in secular
+matters, and keeper of the royal seal. From the first, then,
+though at the outset overshadowed by that of the justiciar, the
+office of chancellor was one of great influence and importance.
+As chaplain the chancellor was keeper of the king&rsquo;s conscience;
+as secretary he enjoyed the royal confidence in secular affairs;
+as keeper of the seal he was necessary to all formal expressions
+of the royal will. By him and his staff of chaplains the whole
+secretarial work of the royal household was conducted, the
+accounts were kept under the justiciar and treasurer, writs were
+drawn up and sealed, and the royal correspondence was carried on.
+He was, in fact, as Stubbs puts it, a sort of secretary of state for
+all departments. &ldquo;This is he,&rdquo; wrote John of Salisbury (d. 1180),
+&ldquo;who cancels (<i>cancellat</i>) the evil laws of the realm, and
+makes equitable (<i>aequa</i>) the commands of a pious prince,&rdquo; a
+curious anticipation of the chancellor&rsquo;s later equitable jurisdiction.
+Under Henry II., indeed, the chancellor was already
+largely employed in judicial work, either in attendance on the
+king or in provincial visitations; though the peculiar jurisdiction
+of the chancery was of later growth. By this time, however,
+the chancellor was &ldquo;great alike in Curia and Exchequer&rdquo;; he
+was <i>secundus a rege</i>, <i>i.e.</i> took precedence immediately after the
+justiciar, and nothing was done either in the Curia or the exchequer
+without his consent. So great was his office that William
+FitzStephen, the biographer of Becket, tells us that it was not
+purchasable (<i>emenda non est</i>), a statement which requires modification,
+since it was in fact more than once sold under Henry I.,
+Stephen, Richard and John (Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist.</i> i. pp. 384-497;
+Gneist, <i>Const. Hist. of England</i>, p. 219), an evil precedent which
+was, however, not long followed.</p>
+
+<p>The judicial duties of the chancellor grew out of the fact that
+all petitions addressed to the king passed through his hands.
+The number and variety of these became so great that in 1280,
+under Edward I., an ordinance was issued directing the chancellor
+and the justices to deal with the greater number of them; those
+which involved the use of the great seal being specially referred
+to the chancellor. The chancellor and justices were to determine
+which of them were &ldquo;so great, and of grace, that the chancellor
+and others would not despatch them without the king,&rdquo; and these
+the chancellor and other chief ministers were to carry in person to
+the king (Stubbs ii. 263, note, and p. 268). At this period the
+chancellor, though employed in equity, had ministerial functions
+only; but when, in the reign of Edward III., the chancellor
+ceased to follow the court, his tribunal acquired a more definite
+character, and petitions for grace and favour began to be addressed
+primarily to him, instead of being merely examined and
+passed on by him to the king; and in the twenty-second year of
+this reign matters which were of grace were definitely committed
+to the chancellor for decision. This is the starting-point of
+the equitable jurisdiction of the chancellor, whence developed
+that immense body of rules, supplementing the deficiencies or
+modifying the harshness of the common law, which is known
+as Equity (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The position of the chancellor as speaker or prolocutor of the
+House of Lords dates from the time when the ministers of the
+royal Curia formed <i>ex officio</i> a part of the <i>commune
+concilium</i> and parliament. The chancellor originally
+<span class="sidenote">The chancellor in parliament.</span>
+attended with the other officials, and he continued to
+attend <i>ex officio</i> after they had ceased to do so. If he
+chanced to be a bishop, he was summoned regularly <i>qua</i> bishop;
+otherwise he attended without summons. When not a peer the
+chancellor had no place in parliament except as chancellor, and
+the act of 31 Henry VIII. cap. 10 (1539) laid down that, if not
+a peer, he had &ldquo;no interest to give any assent or dissent in
+the House.&rdquo; Yet Sir Robert Bourchier (d. 1349), the first lay
+chancellor, had protested in 1341 against the first statute of 15
+Edward III. (on trial by peers, &amp;c.), on the ground that it had not
+received his assent and was contrary to the laws of the realm.
+From the time, however, of William, Lord Cowper (first lord
+high chancellor of Great Britain in 1705, created Baron Cowper
+in 1706), all chancellors have been made peers on their elevation
+to the woolsack. Sometimes the custody of the great seal has
+been transferred from the chancellor to a special official, the lord
+keeper of the great seal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Keeper</a></span>); this was notably
+the case under Queen Elizabeth (cf. the French <i>garde des sceaux</i>,
+below). Sometimes it is put into commission, being affixed by
+lords commissioners of the great seal. By the Catholic Emancipation
+Act of 1829 it was enacted that none of these offices could
+be held by a Roman Catholic (see further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord High
+Chancellor</a></span>). The office of lord chancellor of Ireland, and that
+of chancellor of Scotland (who ceased to be appointed after the
+Act of Union of 1707) followed the same lines of development.</p>
+
+<p>The title of chancellor, without the predicates &ldquo;high&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;lord,&rdquo; is also applied in the United Kingdom to a number of
+other officials and functionaries of varying rank and
+importance.    Of  these  the  most  important  is  the
+<span class="sidenote">Chancellor of the exchequer.</span>
+chancellor of the exchequer, an office which originated
+in the separation of the chancery from the exchequer
+in the reign of Henry III. (1216-1272). His duties consisted
+originally in the custody and employment of the seal of the
+exchequer, in the keeping of a counter-roll to check the roll kept
+by the treasurer, and in the discharge of certain judicial functions
+in the exchequer of account. So long as the treasury board was
+in active working, the chancellorship of the exchequer was an
+office of small importance, and even during a great part of the
+19th century was not necessarily a cabinet office, unless held in
+conjunction with that of first lord of the treasury. At the present
+time the chancellor of the exchequer is minister of finance, and
+therefore always of cabinet rank (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exchequer</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster is the representative
+of the crown in the management of its lands and the control
+of its courts in the duchy of Lancaster, the property
+of which is scattered over several counties.    These
+<span class="sidenote">Chancellor of the duchy.</span>
+lands and privileges, though their inheritance has
+always been vested in the king and his heirs, have
+always been kept distinct from the hereditary revenues of the
+sovereign, whose palatine rights as duke of Lancaster were
+distinct from his rights as king. The Judicature Act of 1873 left
+only the chancery court of the duchy, but the chancellor can
+appoint and dismiss the county court judges within the limits
+of the duchy; he is responsible also for the land revenues of
+the duchy, which are the private property of the sovereign,
+and keeps the seal of the duchy. His appointment is by letters
+patent, and his salary is derived from the revenue of the duchy.
+As the judicial and estate work is done by subordinate officials,
+the office is practically a sinecure and is usually given to a minister
+whose assistance is necessary to a government, but who for one
+reason or another cannot undertake the duties of an important
+department. John Bright described him as the maid-of-all-work
+of the cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>The chancellor of a diocese is the official who presides over
+the bishop&rsquo;s court and exercises jurisdiction in his name.
+This use of the word is comparatively modern, and, though
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span>
+employed in acts of parliament, is not mentioned in the commission,
+<span class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical chancellors.</span>
+having apparently been adopted on the analogy of the
+like title in the state. The chancellor was originally
+the keeper of the archbishop or bishop&rsquo;s seals; but
+the office, as now understood, includes two other
+offices distinguished in the commission by the titles
+of vicar-general and official principal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical
+Jurisdiction</a></span>). The chancellor of a diocese must be distinguished
+from the chancellor of a cathedral, whose office is the
+same as that of the ancient <i>scholasticus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The chancellor of an order of knighthood discharges notarial
+duties and keeps the seal. The chancellor of a university is
+an official of medieval origin. The appointment was
+originally made by the popes, and the office from the
+<span class="sidenote">Academic, &amp;c.</span>
+first was one of great dignity and originally of great
+power. The chancellor was, as he remains, the head of the
+university; he had the general superintendence of its studies
+and of its discipline, could make and unmake laws, try and
+punish offences, appoint to professorial chairs and admit students
+to the various degrees (see Du Cange, s. &ldquo;<i>Cancellarii Academiarum</i>&rdquo;).
+In England the chancellorship of the universities
+is now a more or less ornamental office and is conferred on noblemen
+or statesmen of distinction, whose principal function is to
+look after the general interests of the university, especially
+in its relations with the government. The chancellor is represented
+in the university by a vice-chancellor, who performs the
+administrative and judicial functions of the office. In the United
+States the heads of certain educational establishments have
+the title of chancellor. In Scotland the foreman of a jury is
+called its chancellor. In the United States the chancellors are
+judges of the chancery courts of the states, <i>e.g.</i> Delaware and
+New Jersey, where these courts are still maintained as distinct
+from the courts of common law. In other states, <i>e.g.</i> New York
+since 1847, the title has been abolished, and there is no federal
+chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>In diplomacy generally the chancellor of an embassy or
+legation is an official attached to the suite of an ambassador or
+minister. He performs the functions of a secretary, archivist,
+notary and the like, and is at the head of the chancery, or
+chancellery (Fr. <i>chancellerie</i>), of the mission. The functions
+of this office are the transcribing and registering of official
+despatches and other documents, and generally the transaction
+of all the minor business, <i>e.g.</i> marriages, passports and the like,
+connected with the duties of a diplomatic agent towards his
+nationals in a foreign country. The dignified connotation of the
+title chancellor has given to this office a prestige which in itself
+it does not deserve; and &ldquo;chancery&rdquo; or &ldquo;chancellery&rdquo; is
+commonly used as though it were synonymous with embassy,
+while diplomatic style is sometimes called <i>style de chancellerie</i>,
+though as a matter of fact the chanceries have nothing to do
+with it.</p>
+
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;The country in which the office of chancellor followed
+most closely the same lines as in England is France. He had
+become a great officer under the Carolingians, and he grew still
+greater under the Capetian sovereigns. The great chancellor,
+<i>summus cancellarius</i> or <i>archi-cancellarius</i>, was a dignitary who
+had indeed little real power. The post was commonly filled by
+the archbishop of Reims, or the bishop of Paris. The <i>cancellarius</i>,
+who formed part of the royal court and administration, was
+officially known as the <i>sub-cancellarius</i> in relation to the <i>summus
+cancellarius</i>, but as <i>proto-cancellarius</i> in regard to his subordinate
+<i>cancellarii</i>. He was a very great officer, an ecclesiastic who was
+the chief of the king&rsquo;s chaplains or king&rsquo;s clerks, who administered
+all ecclesiastical affairs; he had judicial powers, and from the
+12th century had the general control of foreign affairs. The
+chancellor in fact became so great that the Capetian kings, who
+did not forget the mayor of the palace, grew afraid of him.
+Few of the early ecclesiastical chancellors failed to come into
+collision with the king, or parted with him on good terms.
+Philip Augustus suspended the chancellorship throughout the
+whole of his reign, and appointed a keeper of the seals (<i>garde
+des sceaux</i>). The office was revived under Louis VIII., but the
+ecclesiastical chancellorship was finally suppressed in 1227.
+The king of the 13th century employed only keepers of the seal.
+Under the reign of Philip IV. le Bel lay chancellors were first
+appointed. From the reign of Charles V. to that of Louis XI. the
+French <i>chancelier</i> was elected by the royal council. In the 16th
+century he became irremovable, a distinction more honourable
+than effective, for though the king could not dismiss him from
+office he could, and on some occasions did, deprive him of the
+right to exercise his functions, and entrusted them to a keeper of
+the seal. The <i>chancelier</i> from the 13th century downwards was
+the head of the law, and performed the duties which are now
+entrusted to the minister of justice. His office was abolished
+when in 1790 the whole judicial system of France was swept
+away by the Revolution. The smaller <i>chanceliers</i> of the provincial
+parlements and royal courts disappeared at the same time. But
+when Napoleon was organizing the empire he created an arch-chancellor,
+an office which was imitated rather from the <i>Erz-Kanzler</i>
+of the Holy Roman Empire than from the old French
+<i>chancelier</i>. At the Restoration the office of chancellor of France
+was restored, the chancellor being president of the House of
+Peers, but it was finally abolished at the revolution of 1848.
+The administration of the Legion of Honour is presided over by
+a <i>grand chancelier</i>, who is a grand cross of the order, and who
+advises the head of the state in matters concerning the affairs
+of the order. The title of <i>chancelier</i> continues also to be used
+in France for the large class of officials who discharge notarial
+duties in some public offices, in embassies and consulates. They
+draw up diplomas and prepare all formal documents, and have
+charge of the registration and preservation of the archives.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spain.</i>&mdash;In Spain the office of chancellor, <i>canciller</i>, was introduced
+by Alphonso VII. (1126-1157), who adopted it from the
+court of his cousins of the Capetian dynasty of France. The
+<i>canciller</i> did not in Spain go beyond being the king&rsquo;s notary.
+The chancellor of the privy seal, <i>canciller del sello de la puridad</i>
+(literally the secret seal), was the king&rsquo;s secretary, and sealed
+all papers other than diplomas and charters. The office was
+abolished in 1496, and its functions were transferred to the royal
+secretaries. The <i>cancelario</i> was the chancellor of a university.
+The <i>canciller</i> succeeded the <i>maesescuela</i> or <i>scholasticus</i> of a church
+or monastery. <i>Canciller mayor de Castilla</i> is an honorary title
+of the archbishops of Toledo. The <i>gran canciller de las Indias</i>,
+high chancellor of the Indies, held the seal used for the American
+dominions of Spain, and presided at the council in the absence
+of the president. The office disappeared with the loss of Spain&rsquo;s
+empire in America.</p>
+
+<p><i>Italy, Germany, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;In central and northern Europe, and in
+Italy, the office had different fortunes. In southern Italy, where
+Naples and Sicily were feudally organized, the chancellors of
+the Norman kings, who followed Anglo-Norman precedents very
+closely, and, at least in Sicily, employed Englishmen, were such
+officers as were known in the West. The similarity is somewhat
+concealed by the fact that these sovereigns also adopted names
+and offices from the imperial court at Constantinople. Their
+chancellor was officially known as Protonotary and Logothete,
+and their example was followed by the German princes of the
+Hohenstaufen family, who acquired the kingdoms of Naples and
+Sicily. The papal or apostolic chancery is dealt with in the
+article on the Curia Romana (<i>q.v.</i>). It may be pointed out here,
+however, that the close connexion of the papacy with the Holy
+Roman Empire is illustrated by the fact that the archbishop
+of Cologne, who by right of his see was the emperor&rsquo;s arch-chancellor
+(<i>Erz-Kanzler</i>) for Italy, was confirmed as papal arch-chancellor
+by a bull of Leo IX. in 1052. The origin and duration
+of this connexion are, however, obscure; it appears to have
+ceased before 1187. The last record of a papal chancellor in
+the middle ages dates from 1212, from which time onward, for
+reasons much disputed, the head of the papal chancery bore
+the title vice-chancellor (Hinschius i. 439), until the office of
+chancellor was restored by the constitution <i>Sapientius</i> of Pius X.
+in 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The title of arch-chancellor (<i>Erz-Kanzler</i>) was borne by three
+great ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Holy Roman Empire.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span>
+The archbishop of Mainz was arch-chancellor for Germany.
+The archbishop of Cologne held the dignity for Italy, and the
+archbishop of Trier for Gaul and the kingdom of Arles. The
+second and third of these dignities became purely formal with
+the decline of the Empire in the 13th century. But the arch-chancellorship
+of Germany remained to some extent a reality
+till the Empire was finally dissolved in 1806. The office continued
+to be attached to the archbishopric of Mainz, which was an
+electorate. Karl von Dalberg, the last holder of the office, and
+the first prince primate of the Confederation of the Rhine,
+continued to act in show at least as chancellor of that body,
+and was after a fashion the predecessor of the <i>Bundes Kanzler</i>,
+or chancellor of the North German Confederation. The duties
+imposed on the imperial chancery by the very complicated
+constitution of the Empire were, however, discharged by a vice-chancellor
+who was attached to the court of the emperor. The
+abbot of Fulda was chancellor to the empress.</p>
+
+<p>The house of Austria in their hereditary dominions, and in
+those of their possessions which they treated as hereditary,
+even where the sovereignty was in theory elective, made a large
+and peculiar use of the title chancellor. The officers so called
+were of course distinct from the arch-chancellor and vice-chancellor
+of the Empire, although the imperial crown became
+in practice hereditary in the house of Habsburg. In the family
+states their administration was, to use a phrase familiar to the
+French, &ldquo;polysynodic.&rdquo; As it was when fully developed, and
+as it remained until the March revolution of 1848, it was
+conducted through boards presided over by a chancellor. There
+were three aulic chancellorships for the internal affairs of their
+dominions, &ldquo;a united aulic chancellorship for all parts of the
+empire (<i>i.e.</i> of Austria, not the Holy Roman) not belonging to
+Hungary or Transylvania, and a separate chancellorship for
+each of those last-mentioned provinces&rdquo; (Hartig, <i>Genesis of
+the Revolution in Austria</i>). There were also a house, a court, and
+a state chancellor for the business of the imperial household
+and foreign affairs, who were not, however, the presidents of a
+board. These &ldquo;aulic&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> court) officers were in fact secretaries
+of the sovereign, and administrative or political rather than
+judicial in character, though the boards over which they presided
+controlled judicial as well as administrative affairs. In the case of
+such statesmen as Kaunitz and Metternich, who were house,
+court, and state chancellors as well as &ldquo;united aulic&rdquo; chancellors,
+the combination of offices made them in practice prime ministers,
+or rather lieutenants-general, of the sovereign. The system
+was subject to modifications, and in the end it broke down
+under its own complications. We are not dealing here with
+the confusing history of the Austrian administration, and these
+details are only quoted to show how it happened that in Austria
+the title chancellor came to mean a political officer and minister.
+There is obviously a vast difference between such an official
+as Kaunitz, who as house, court, and state chancellor was
+minister of foreign affairs, and as &ldquo;united aulic&rdquo; chancellor had a
+general superiority over the whole machinery of government, and
+the lord high chancellor in England, the <i>chancelier</i> in France, or
+the <i>canciller mayor</i> in Castile, though the title was the same. The
+development of the office in Austria must be understood in order
+to explain the position and functions of the imperial chancellor
+(<i>Reichs Kanzler</i>) of the modern German empire. Although the
+present empire is sometimes rhetorically and absurdly spoken of
+as a revival of the medieval Empire, it is in reality an adaptation
+of the Austrian empire, which was a continuation under a new
+name of the hereditary Habsburg monarchy. The <i>Reichs Kanzler</i>
+is the immediate successor of the <i>Bundes Kanzler</i>, or chancellor
+of the North German Confederation (<i>Bund</i>). But the <i>Bundes
+Kanzler</i>, who bore no sort of resemblance except in mere
+name to the <i>Erz-Kanzler</i> of the old Empire, was in a position
+not perhaps actually like that of Prince Kaunitz, but capable of
+becoming much the same thing. When the German empire was
+established in 1871 Prince Bismarck, who was <i>Bundes Kanzler</i>
+and became <i>Reichs Kanzler</i>, took care that his position should
+be as like as possible to that of Prince Kaunitz or Prince Metternich.
+The constitution of the German empire is separately
+dealt with, but it may be pointed out here that the <i>Reichs
+Kanzler</i> is the federal minister of the empire, the chief of the
+federal officials, and a great political officer, who directs the
+foreign affairs, and superintends the internal affairs, of the
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>In these German states the title of chancellor is also given as
+in France to government and diplomatic officials who do notarial
+duties and have charge of archives. The title of chancellor has
+naturally been widely used in the German and Scandinavian
+states, and in Russia since the reign of Peter the Great. It has
+there as elsewhere wavered between being a political and a
+judicial office. Frederick the Great of Prussia created a <i>Gross
+Kanzler</i> for judicial duties in 1746. But there was in Prussia
+a state chancellorship on the Austrian model. It was allowed
+to lapse on the death of Hardenberg in 1822. The Prussian
+chancellor after his time was one of the four court ministries
+(<i>Hofämter</i>) of the Prussian monarchy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Cancellarius&rdquo;;
+W. Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist. of England</i> (1874-1878); Rudolph Gneist,
+<i>Hist. of the English Constitution</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1891);
+L.O. Pike, <i>Const. Hist. of the House of Lords</i> (London, 1894);
+Sir William R. Anson, <i>The Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>,
+vol. ii. part i. (Oxford, 1907); A. Luchaire, <i>Manuel des institutions
+françaises</i> (Paris, 1892); K.F. Stumpf, <i>Die Reichs Kanzler</i> (3 vols.,
+Innsbruck, 1865-1873); G. Sceliger, <i>Erzkanzler und Reichskanzleien</i>
+(ib. 1889); P. Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i> (Berlin, 1869); Sir R.J.
+Phillimore, <i>Eccles. Law</i> (London, 1895); P. Pradier-Fodéré, <i>Cours
+de droit diplomatique</i>, ii. 542 (Paris, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANCELLORSVILLE,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a village of Spottsylvania county,
+Virginia, U.S.A., situated almost midway between Washington
+and Richmond. It was the central point of one of the greatest
+battles of the Civil War, fought on the 2nd and 3rd of May 1863,
+between the Union Army of the Potomac under Major-General
+Hooker, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia under
+General Lee. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness</a></span>.)
+General &ldquo;Stonewall&rdquo; Jackson was mortally wounded in this
+battle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANCE-MEDLEY<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (from the A.-Fr. <i>chance-medlée</i>, a mixed
+chance, and not from <i>chaude-medlée</i>, a hot affray), an accident
+of a mixed character, an old term in English law for a form of
+homicide arising out of a sudden affray or quarrel. The homicide
+has not the characteristic of &ldquo;malice prepense&rdquo; which would
+raise the death to murder, nor the completely accidental nature
+which would reduce it to homicide by misadventure. It was
+practically identical, therefore, with manslaughter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANCERY,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> in English law, the court of the lord chancellor
+of England, consolidated in 1873 along with the other superior
+courts in the Supreme Court of Judicature. Its origin is noticed
+under the head of Chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>It has been customary to say that the court of chancery
+consists of two distinct tribunals&mdash;one a court of common law,
+the other a court of equity. From the former have issued all
+the original writs passing under the great seal, all commissions
+of sewers, lunacy, and the like&mdash;some of these writs being originally
+kept in a <i>hanaper</i> or hamper (whence the &ldquo;hanaper office&rdquo;),
+and others in a little sack or bag (whence the &ldquo;petty-bag office&rdquo;).
+The court had likewise power to hold pleas upon <i>scire facias</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)
+for repeal of letters patent, &amp;c. &ldquo;So little,&rdquo; says Blackstone,
+&ldquo;is commonly done on the common law side of the court that
+I have met with no traces of any writ of error being actually
+brought since the fourteenth year of Queen Elizabeth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was
+founded on the supposed superiority of conscience and equity
+over the strict law. The appearance of equity in England is in
+harmony with the general course of legal history in progressive
+societies. What is remarkable is that, instead of being incorporated
+with or superseding the common law, it gave rise to a
+wholly independent set of tribunals. The English dislike of the
+civil law, and the tendency to follow precedent which has never
+ceased to characterize English lawyers, account for this unfortunate
+separation. The claims of equity in its earlier stages
+are well expressed in the little treatise called <i>Doctor and Student</i>,
+published in the reign of Henry VIII.:&mdash;&ldquo;Conscience never
+resisteth the law nor addeth to it, but only when the law is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span>
+directly in itself against the <i>law of God</i>, or <i>law of reason</i>.&rdquo;  So also
+King James, speaking in the Star Chamber, says: &ldquo;Where the
+rigour of the law in many cases will undo a subject, then the
+chancery tempers the law with equity, and so mixes mercy with
+justice, as it preserves a man from destruction.&rdquo; This theory
+of the essential opposition between law and equity, and of the
+natural superiority of the latter, remained long after equity had
+ceased to found itself on natural justice, and had become as
+fixed and rigid as the common law itself. The jealousy of the
+common lawyers came to a head in the time of Lord Ellesmere,
+when Coke disputed the right of the chancery to give relief
+against a judgment of the court of queen&rsquo;s bench obtained
+by gross fraud and imposition. James I., after consultation,
+decided in favour of the court of equity. The substitution of
+lay for clerical chancellors is regarded by G. Spence (<i>Equitable
+Jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery</i>, 2 vols., 1846-1849) as having
+at first been unfortunate, inasmuch as the laymen were ignorant
+of the principles on which their predecessors had acted. Lord
+Nottingham (1621-1682) is usually credited with the first attempt
+to reduce the decisions of the court to order, and his work was
+continued by Lord Hardwicke (1690-1764). By the time of
+Lord Eldon equity had become fixed, and the judges, like their
+brethren in the common law courts, strictly followed the precedents.
+Henceforward chancery and common law courts have
+exhibited the anomaly of two co-ordinate sets of tribunals,
+empowered to deal with the same matters, and compelled to
+proceed in many cases on wholly different principles. The court
+of chancery could in most cases prevent a person from taking
+advantage of a common law right, not approved of by its own
+system. But if a suitor chose to go to a court of common law,
+he might claim such unjust rights, and it required the special
+intervention of the court of equity to prevent his enforcing them.
+In many cases also a special application had to be made to
+chancery for facilities which were absolutely necessary to the
+successful conduct of a case at common law. Another source of
+difficulty and annoyance was the uncertainty in many cases
+whether the chancery or common law courts were the proper
+tribunal, so that a suitor often found at the close of an expensive
+and protracted suit that he had mistaken his court and must go
+elsewhere for relief. Attempts more or less successful were made to
+lessen those evils by giving the powers to both sets of courts; but
+down to the consolidation effected by the Judicature Act, the
+English judicial system justified the sarcasm of Lord Westbury,
+that one tribunal was set up to do injustice and another to stop it.</p>
+
+<p>The equitable jurisdiction of chancery was commonly divided
+into <i>exclusive</i>, <i>concurrent</i> and <i>auxiliary</i>. Chancery had exclusive
+jurisdiction when there were no forms of action by which relief
+could be obtained at law, in respect of rights which ought to be
+enforced. Trusts were the most conspicuous example of this
+class. It also included the rights of married women, infants
+and lunatics. Chancery had concurrent jurisdiction when the
+common law did not give <i>adequate</i> relief, <i>e.g.</i> in cases of fraud,
+accident, mistake, specific performance of contracts, &amp;c. It had
+auxiliary jurisdiction when the administrative machinery of the
+law courts was unable to procure the necessary evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The Judicature Act 1873 enacted (§ 24) that in every civil
+cause or matter commenced in the High Court of Justice, law
+and equity should be administered by the High Court of Justice
+and the court of appeal respectively, according to the rules therein
+contained, which provide for giving effect in all cases to &ldquo;equitable
+rights and other matters of equity.&rdquo; The 25th section
+declared the law hereafter to be administered in England on
+certain points, and ordained that &ldquo;generally in all matters not
+hereinbefore particularly mentioned in which there is any conflict
+or variance between the rules of equity and the rules of
+the common law with reference to the same matter, the rules
+of equity shall prevail.&rdquo; The 34th section specifically assigned
+to the chancery division the following causes and matters:&mdash;The
+administration of the estates of deceased persons; the
+dissolution of partnerships, or the taking of partnership, or
+other accounts; the redemption or foreclosure of mortgages;
+the raising of portions, or other charges on land; the sale
+and distribution of the proceeds of property subject to any
+lien or charge; the execution of trusts, charitable or private;
+the rectification, or setting aside, or cancellation of deeds or
+other written instruments; the specific performance of contracts
+between vendors and purchasers of real estates, including contracts
+for leases; the partition or sale of real estates; the wardship
+of infants and the care of infants&rsquo; estates.</p>
+
+<p>The chancery division originally consisted of the lord chancellor
+as president and the master of the rolls, and the three vice-chancellors.
+The master of the rolls was also a member of the
+court of appeal, but Sir George Jessel, who held that office when
+the new system came into force, regularly sat as a judge of
+first instance until 1881, when, by the act of that year (sec. 2),
+the master of the rolls became a member of the court of appeal
+only, and provision was made for the appointment of a judge
+to supply the vacancy thus occasioned (sec. 3). Sir James Bacon
+(1798-1895) was the last survivor of the vice-chancellors. He
+retained his seat on the bench until the year 1886, when he
+retired after more than seventeen years&rsquo; judicial service. For
+some reason the solicitors, when they had the choice, preferred
+to bring their actions in the chancery division. The practice
+introduced by the Judicature Act of trying actions with oral
+evidence instead of affidavits, and the comparative inexperience
+of the chancery judges and counsel in that mode of trial, tended
+to lengthen the time required for the disposal of the business.
+Demand was consequently made for more judges in the chancery
+division. By an act of 1877 the appointment of an additional
+judge in that division was authorized, and Sir Edward Fry
+(afterwards better known as a lord justice) was appointed.
+In August 1899 the crown consented to the appointment of a
+new judge of the High Court in the chancery division on an
+address from both Houses of Parliament, pursuant to the 87th
+section of the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The chancery
+division, therefore, consists of the lord chancellor and six puisne
+judges. The latter are styled and addressed in the same manner
+as was customary in the old common law courts.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>  Formerly
+there were only four judges of this division (being the successors
+of the master of the rolls and the three vice-chancellors) to whom
+chambers were attached. The fifth judge heard only causes
+with witnesses transferred to him from the overflowing of the
+lists of his four brethren. In each set of chambers there were
+three chief clerks, with a staff of assistant clerks under them.
+The chief clerks had no original jurisdiction, but heard applications
+only on behalf of the judge to whose chambers they belonged,
+and theoretically every suitor had the right to have his application
+heard by the judge himself in chambers. But the appointment
+of a sixth judge enabled the lord chancellor to carry out
+a reform recommended by a departmental committee which
+reported in 1885. The great difficulty in the chancery division
+always was to secure the continuous hearing of actions with
+witnesses, as nearly one-half of the judge&rsquo;s time was taken up
+with cases adjourned to him from chambers and other administrative
+business and non-witness actions and motions. The interruption
+of a witness action for two or three days, particularly
+in a country case, occasioned great expense, and had other
+inconveniences. It was a simple remedy to link the judges in
+pairs with one list of causes and one set of chambers assigned to
+each pair. This reform was effected by the alteration of a few
+words in certain rules of court. There are therefore, only three
+sets of chambers, each containing four chief clerks, or, as they
+are now styled, masters of the Supreme Court, and one of the
+linked judges, by arrangement between themselves, continuously
+tries the witness actions in their common list, while the other
+attends in chambers, and also hears the motions, petitions,
+adjourned summonses and non-witness cases.</p>
+
+<p>Although styled masters it does not appear that the chief
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span>
+clerks have any larger or different jurisdiction than they had
+before. They are still the representatives of and responsible
+to the judges to whom the chambers are attached. The judge
+may either hear an application in chambers, or may direct any
+matter which he thinks of sufficient importance to be argued
+before him in court, or a party may move in court to discharge
+an order made in chambers with a view to an appeal, but this is
+not required if the judge certifies that the matter was sufficiently
+discussed before him in chambers.</p>
+
+<p>Under the existing rules of court many orders can now be
+made on summons in chambers which used formerly to require
+a suit or petition in court (see Order LV. as to foreclosure,
+administration, payment out of money in court and generally).
+The judge is also enabled to decide any particular question arising
+in the administration of the estate of a deceased person or execution
+of the trusts of a settlement without directing administration
+of the whole estate or execution of the trusts generally by the
+court (Order LV. rule 10), and where an application for accounts
+is made by a dissatisfied beneficiary or creditor to order the
+accounts to be delivered out of court, and the application to
+stand over till it can be seen what questions (if any) arise upon
+the accounts requiring the intervention of the court (Order LV.
+2, 10a). Delay and consequent worry and expense are thus
+saved to the parties, and, at the same time, a great deal of routine
+administration is got rid of and a larger portion of the judicial
+term can be devoted to hearing actions and deciding any question
+of importance in court. The work of the chambers staff of the
+judges has probably been increased; but, on the other hand,
+it has been lightened by the removal of the winding-up business.
+The chancery division has also inherited from the court of
+chancery a staff of registrars and taxing masters.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States &ldquo;chancery&rdquo; is generally used as the
+synonym of &ldquo;equity.&rdquo; Chancery practice is practice in cases
+of equity. Chancery courts are equity courts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equity</a></span>).
+For the diplomatic sense of chancery (chancellery) see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancellor</a></span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The comte de Franqueville comments on the misuse of the title
+&ldquo;Lord&rdquo; in addressing judges as another anomaly which only adds to
+the confusion, but perhaps unnecessarily. According to Foss (vol.
+viii. p. 200) it was only in the 18th century that the judges began to
+be addressed by the title of &ldquo;Your Lordship.&rdquo; In the Year Books (he
+adds) they are constantly addressed by the title of &ldquo;Sir.&rdquo; &ldquo;Sir,
+vous voyez bien,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDA,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur
+division of the Central Provinces. In 1901 the town had a
+population of 17,803. It is situated at the junction of the Virai
+and Jharpat rivers. It was the capital of the Gond kingdom
+of Chanda, which was established on the ruins of a Hindu state
+in the 11th or 12th century, and survived until 1751 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gondwana</a></span>).
+The town is still surrounded by a stone wall 5½m. in
+circuit. It has several old temples and tombs, and the district
+at large is rich in remains of antiquity. There are manufactures
+of cotton, silk, brass-ware and leather slippers, and a considerable
+local trade.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Chanda</span> has an area of 10,156 sq. m. Excepting
+in the extreme west, hills are thickly dotted over the country,
+sometimes in detached ranges, occasionally in isolated peaks
+rising sheer out from the plain. Towards the east they increase
+in height, and form a broad tableland, at places 2000 ft. above
+sea-level. The Wainganga river flows through the district from
+north to south, meeting the Wardha river at Seoni, where their
+streams unite to form the Pranhita. Chanda is thickly studded
+with fine tanks, or rather artificial lakes, formed by closing the
+outlets of small valleys, or by throwing a dam across tracts
+intersected by streams. The broad clear sheets of water thus
+created are often very picturesque in their surroundings of wood
+and rock. The chief architectural objects of interest are the
+cave temples at Bhandak, Winjbasani, Dewala and Ghugus;
+a rock temple in the bed of the Wardha river below Ballalpur;
+the ancient temples at Markandi, Ambgaon and elsewhere;
+the forts of Wairagarh and Ballalpur; and the old walls of the
+city of Chanda, its system of waterworks, and the tombs of the
+Gond kings. In 1901 the population was 601,533, showing a
+decrease of 15% in the decade. The principal crops are rice,
+millet, pulse, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. The district contains
+the coalfield of Warora, which was worked by government till
+1906, when it was closed. Other fields are known, and iron ores
+also occur. The district suffered severely from famine in 1900,
+when in April the number of persons relieved rose to 90,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDAUSI,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Moradabad
+district of the United Provinces, 28 m. south of Moradabad.
+Pop. (1901) 25,711. It is an important station on the Oudh &amp;
+Rohilkhand railway, with a junction for Aligarh. Its chief
+exports are of cotton, hemp, sugar and stone. There is a factory
+for pressing cotton.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAND BARDAI<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (fl. c. 1200), Hindu poet, was a native of
+Lahore, but lived at the court of Prithwi Raja (Prithiraj), the
+last Hindu sovereign of Delhi. His <i>Prithiraj Rasau</i>, a poem of
+some 100,000 stanzas, chronicling his master&rsquo;s deeds and the
+contemporary history of his part of India, is valuable not only
+as historical material but as the earliest monument of the Western
+Hindi language, and the first of the long series of bardic
+chronicles for which Rajputana is celebrated. It is written in
+ballad form, and portions of it are still sung by itinerant bards
+throughout north-western India and Rajputana.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lieut.-Col. James Tod, <i>Annals and Antiquities of Rajast&rsquo;han</i>
+(2 vols., London, 1829-1832; repub. by Lalit Mohan Auddy, 2 vols.
+ib., 1894-1895), where good translations are given.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDELIER,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a frame of metal, wood, crystal, glass or china,
+pendent from roof or ceiling for the purpose of holding lights.
+The word is French, but the appliance has lost its original
+significance of a candle-holder, the chandelier being now chiefly
+used for gas and electric lighting. Clusters of hanging lights
+were in use as early as the 14th century, and appear originally
+to have been almost invariably of wood. They were, however,
+so speedily ruined by grease that metal was gradually subsituted,
+and fine and comparatively early examples in beaten
+iron, brass, copper and even silver are still extant. Throughout
+the 17th century the hanging candle-holder of brass or bronze
+was common throughout northern Europe, as innumerable
+pictures and engravings testify. In the great periods of the art
+of decoration in France many magnificent chandeliers were
+made by Boulle, and at a later date by Gouthière and Thomire
+and others among the extraordinarily clever <i>fondeurs-ciseleurs</i>
+of the second half of the 18th century. The chandelier in rock
+crystal and its imitations had come in at least a hundred years
+before their day, and continued in favour to the middle of the
+19th century, or even somewhat later. It reached at last the
+most extreme elaboration of banality, with ropes of pendants
+and hanging faceted drops often called lustres. When many
+lights were burning in one of these chandeliers an effect of
+splendour was produced that was not out of place in a ballroom,
+but the ordinary household varieties were extremely ugly and
+inartistic. The more purely domestic chandelier usually carries
+from two to six lights. The rapidly growing use of electricity
+as an illuminating medium and the preference for smaller clusters
+of lights have, however, pushed into the background an appliance
+which had grown extremely commonplace in design, and
+had become out of character with modern ideas of household
+decoration.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDERNAGORE,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chandarnagar</span>, a French settlement
+in India, with a small adjoining territory, situated on the right
+bank of the river Hugli, 20 m. above Calcutta, in 22° 51&prime; 40&Prime; N,
+and 88° 24&prime; 50&Prime; E. Area 3 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 25,000. Chandernagore
+has played an important part in the European history of
+Bengal. It became a permanent French settlement, in 1688, but
+did not rise to any importance till the time of Dupleix, during
+whose administration more than two thousand brick houses were
+erected in the town and a considerable maritime trade was carried
+on. In 1757 Chandernagore was bombarded by an English fleet
+under Admiral Watson and captured; the fortifications and
+houses were afterwards demolished. On peace being established
+the town was restored to the French in 1763. When hostilities
+afterwards broke out in 1794, it was again taken possession of by
+the English, and was held by them till 1816, when it was a second
+time given up to the French; it has ever since remained in their
+possession. All the former commercial grandeur of Chandernagore
+has now passed away, and at present it is little more
+than a quiet suburb of Calcutta, without any external trade. The
+European town is situated at the bottom of a beautiful reach of
+the Hugli, with clean wide thoroughfares, and many elegant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span>
+residences along the river-bank. The authorities of Chandernagore
+are subject to the jurisdiction of the governor-general of
+Pondicherry, to whom is confided the general government of
+all the French possessions in India.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1828-1889), English scholar,
+was born in London on the 31st of January 1828. In 1848 he
+entered Pembroke College, Oxford, where he was elected fellow
+in 1853. In 1867 he succeeded H.L. Mansel as Waynflete professor
+of moral and metaphysical philosophy, and in 1884 was
+appointed curator of the Bodleian library. He died by his own
+hand in Oxford on the 16th of May 1889. He was chiefly known
+as an Aristotelian scholar, and his knowledge of the Greek commentators
+on Aristotle was profound. He collected a vast amount
+of material for an edition of the fragments of his favourite author,
+but on the appearance of Valentine Rose&rsquo;s work in 1886 he
+abandoned the idea. Two works on the bibliography of Aristotle,
+<i>A Catalogue of Editions of Aristotle&rsquo;s Nicomachean Ethics and of
+Works illustrative of them printed in the 15th century</i> (1868), and
+<i>A Chronological Index to Editions of Aristotle&rsquo;s Nicomachean
+Ethics, and of Works illustrative of them from the Origin of Printing
+to 1799</i> (1878), are of great value. Chandler&rsquo;s collection of works
+on Aristotelian literature is now in the library of Pembroke
+College. His <i>Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation</i> (1862,
+ed. min. 1877) is the standard work in English.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDLER, RICHARD<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1738-1810), British antiquary, was
+born in 1738 at Elson in Hampshire, and educated at Winchester
+and at Queen&rsquo;s and Magdalen Colleges, Oxford. His first work
+consisted of fragments from the minor Greek poets, with notes
+(<i>Elegiaca Graeca</i>, 1759); and in 1763 he published a fine edition
+of the Arundelian marbles, <i>Marmora Oxoniensia</i>, with a Latin
+translation, and a number of suggestions for supplying the lacunae.
+He was sent by the Dilettanti Society with Nicholas Revett,
+an architect, and Pars, a painter, to explore the antiquities of
+Ionia and Greece (1763-1766); and the result of their work was
+the two magnificent folios of Ionian antiquities published in 1769.
+He subsequently held several church preferments, including the
+rectory of Tylehurst, in Berkshire, where he died on the 9th of
+February 1810. Other works by Chandler were <i>Inscriptiones
+Antiquae pleraeque nondum editae</i> (Oxford, 1774); <i>Travels in
+Asia Minor</i> (1775); <i>Travels in Greece</i> (1776); <i>History of Ilium</i>
+(1803), in which he asserted the accuracy of Homer&rsquo;s geography.
+His <i>Life of Bishop Waynflete</i>, lord high chancellor to Henry VI.,
+appeared in 1811.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition (with notes by Revett) of the <i>Travels in Asia
+Minor and Greece</i> was published by R. Churton (Oxford, 1825), with
+an &ldquo;Account of the Author.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDLER, SAMUEL<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1693-1766), English Nonconformist
+divine, was born in 1693 at Hungerford, in Berkshire, where his
+father was a minister. He was sent to school at Gloucester,
+where he began a lifelong friendship with Bishop Butler and
+Archbishop Secker; and he afterwards studied at Leiden. His
+talents and learning were such that he was elected fellow of the
+Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and was made D.D. of Edinburgh
+and Glasgow. He also received offers of high preferment in
+the Church of England. These he refused, remaining to the end
+of his life in the position of a Presbyterian minister. He was
+moderately Calvinistic in his views and leaned towards Arianism.
+He took a leading part in the deist controversies of the time, and
+discussed with some of the bishops the possibility of an act of
+comprehension. From 1716 to 1726 he preached at Peckham, and
+for forty years he was pastor of a meeting-house in Old Jewry.
+During two or three years, having fallen into pecuniary distress
+through the failure of the South Sea scheme, he kept a book-shop
+in the Poultry. On the death of George II. in 1760 Chandler
+published a sermon in which he compared that king to King David.
+This view was attacked in a pamphlet entitled <i>The History of the
+Man after God&rsquo;s own Heart</i>, in which the author complained of the
+parallel as an insult to the late king, and, following Pierre Bayle,
+exhibited King David as an example of perfidy, lust and cruelty.
+Chandler condescended to reply first in a review of the tract
+(1762) and then in <i>A Critical History of the Life of David</i>, which is
+perhaps the best of his productions. This work was just completed
+when he died, on the 8th of May 1766. He left 4 vols. of
+sermons (1768), and a paraphrase of the Epistles to the Galatians
+and Ephesians (1777), several works on the evidences of Christianity,
+and various pamphlets against Roman Catholicism.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1813-1879), American politician,
+was born at Bedford, New Hampshire, on the 10th of December
+1813. In 1833 he removed to Detroit, Michigan, where he became
+a prosperous dry-goods merchant. He took a prominent part as
+a Whig in politics (serving as mayor in 1851), and, impelled by
+his strong anti-slavery views, actively furthered the work of
+the &ldquo;Underground Railroad,&rdquo; of which Detroit was one of the
+principal &ldquo;transfer&rdquo; points. He was one of the organizers in
+Michigan of the Republican party, and in 1857 succeeded Lewis
+Cass in the United States Senate, serving until 1875, and at once
+taking his stand with the most radical opponents of slavery
+extension. When the Civil War became inevitable he endeavoured
+to impress upon the North the necessity of taking extraordinary
+measures for the preservation of the Union. After the fall of
+Fort Sumter he advocated the enlistment of 500,000 instead of
+75,000 men for a long instead of a short term, and the vigorous
+enforcement of confiscation measures. In July 1862 he made a
+bitter attack in the Senate on General George B. McClellan,
+charging him with incompetency and lack of &ldquo;nerve.&rdquo; Throughout
+the war he allied himself with the most radical of the Republican
+faction in opposition to President Lincoln&rsquo;s policy, and
+subsequently became one of the bitterest opponents of President
+Johnson&rsquo;s plan of reconstruction. From October 1875 to March
+1877 he was secretary of the interior in the cabinet of President
+Grant, succeeding Columbus Delano (1809-1896). In 1876, as
+chairman of the national republican committee, he managed
+the campaign of Hayes against Tilden. In February 1879 he was
+re-elected to the Senate to succeed Isaac P. Christiancy (1812-1890),
+and soon afterwards, in a speech concerning Mexican
+War pensions, bitterly denounced Jefferson Davis. He died at
+Chicago, Illinois, on the 1st of November 1879. By his extraordinary
+force of character he exercised a wide personal influence
+during his lifetime, but failed to stamp his personality upon any
+measure or policy of lasting importance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF.<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> The English title of
+Chandos began as a barony in 1554, and was continued in the
+family of Brydges (becoming a dukedom in 1719) till 1789. In
+1822 the dukedom was revived in connexion with that of
+Buckingham.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Brydges</span>, 1st Baron Chandos (c. 1490-1557), a son of
+Sir Giles Brydges, or Bruges (d. 1511), was a prominent figure
+at the English court during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI.
+and Mary. He took part in suppressing the rebellion of Sir
+Thomas Wyat in 1554, and as lieutenant of the Tower of London
+during the earlier part of Mary&rsquo;s reign, had the custody, not only
+of Lady Jane Grey and of Wyat, but for a short time of the
+princess Elizabeth. He was created Baron Chandos of Sudeley
+in 1554, one of his ancestors, Alice, being a grand-daughter of
+Sir Thomas Chandos (d. 1375), and he died in March 1557. The
+three succeeding barons, direct descendants of the 1st baron,
+were all members of parliament and persons of some importance.
+Grey, 5th Baron Chandos (c. 1580-1621), lord-lieutenant of
+Gloucestershire, was called the &ldquo;king of the Cotswolds,&rdquo; owing
+to his generosity and his magnificent style of living at his
+residence, Sudeley Castle. He has been regarded by Horace
+Walpole and others as the author of some essays, <i>Horae Subsecivae</i>.
+His elder son George, 6th Baron Chandos (1620-1655),
+was a supporter of Charles I. during his struggle with Parliament,
+and distinguished himself at the first battle of Newbury in 1643.
+He had six daughters but no sons, and after the death of his
+brother William in 1676 the barony came to a kinsman, Sir
+James Brydges, Bart. (1642-1714), who was English ambassador
+to Constantinople from 1680 to 1685.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">James Brydges</span>, 1st duke of Chandos (1673-1744), son and
+heir of the last-named, had been member of parliament for
+Hereford from 1698 to 1714, and, three days after his father&rsquo;s
+death, was created Viscount Wilton and earl of Carnarvon.
+For eight years, from 1705 to 1713, during the War of the Spanish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span>
+Succession, he was paymaster-general of the forces abroad,
+and in this capacity he amassed great wealth. In 1719 he was
+created marquess of Carnarvon and duke of Chandos. The duke
+is chiefly remembered on account of his connexion with Handel
+and with Pope. He built a magnificent house at Canons near
+Edgware in Middlesex, and is said to have contemplated the
+construction of a private road between this place and his unfinished
+house in Cavendish Square, London. For over two
+years Handel, employed by Chandos, lived at Canons, where
+he composed his oratorio <i>Esther</i>. Pope, who in his <i>Moral Essays</i>
+(<i>Epistle to the Earl of Burlington</i>) doubtless described Canons
+under the guise of &ldquo;Timon&rsquo;s Villa,&rdquo; referred to the duke in the
+line, &ldquo;Thus gracious Chandos is belov&rsquo;d at sight&rdquo;; but Swift,
+less complimentary, called him &ldquo;a great complier with every
+court.&rdquo; The poet was caricatured by Hogarth for his supposed
+servility to the duke. Chandos, who was lord-lieutenant of the
+counties of Hereford and Radnor, and chancellor of the university
+of St Andrews, became involved in financial difficulties, and after
+his death on the 9th of August 1744 Canons was pulled down.
+He was succeeded by his son Henry, 2nd duke (1708-1771), and
+grandson James, 3rd duke (1731-1789). On the death of the
+latter without sons in September 1789 all his titles, except
+that of Baron Kinloss, became extinct, although a claimant
+arose for the barony of Chandos of Sudeley. The 3rd duke&rsquo;s only
+daughter, Anna Elizabeth, who became Baroness Kinloss on
+her father&rsquo;s death, was married in 1796 to Richard Grenville,
+afterwards marquess of Buckingham; and in 1822 this nobleman
+was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buckingham,
+Dukes of</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G.E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898); and J.R.
+Robinson, <i>The Princely Chandos</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the 1st duke (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDOS, SIR JOHN<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (?-1370), one of the most celebrated
+English commanders of the 14th century. He is found at the
+siege of Cambrai in 1337, and at the battle of Crécy in 1346.
+At the battle of Poitiers, in 1356, it was he who decided the
+day and saved the life of the Black Prince. For these services
+Edward III. made him a knight of the Garter, gave him the lands
+of the viscount of Saint Sauveur in Cotentin, and appointed
+him his lieutenant in France and vice-chamberlain of the royal
+household. In 1362 he was made constable of Aquitaine, and
+won the victories of Auray (1364) and Navaret in Spain (1367)
+over Duguesclin. He was seneschal of Poitou in 1369, and was
+mortally wounded at the bridge of Lussac near Poitiers on the
+31st of December. He died on the following day, the 1st of
+January 1370.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Benjamin Fillon, &ldquo;John Chandos, Connétable d&rsquo;Aquitaine
+et Sénéchal de Poitou,&rdquo; in the <i>Revue des provinces de l&rsquo;ouest</i> (1855).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (reigned 321-296 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), known
+to the Greeks as Sandracottus, founder of the Maurya empire
+and first paramount ruler of India, was the son of a king of
+Magadha by a woman of humble origin, whose caste he took,
+and whose name, Mura, is said to have been the origin of that of
+Maurya assumed by his dynasty. As a youth he was driven into
+exile by his kinsman, the reigning king of Magadha. In the
+course of his wanderings he met Alexander the Great, and,
+according to Plutarch (<i>Alexander</i>, cap. 62), encouraged him to
+invade the Ganges kingdom by enlarging on the extreme unpopularity
+of the reigning monarch. During his exile he collected
+a large force of the warlike clans of the north-west frontier, and
+on the death of Alexander attacked the Macedonian garrisons
+and conquered the Punjab. He next attacked Magadha, dethroned
+and slew the king, his enemy, with every member of
+his family, and established himself on the throne (321). The
+great army acquired from his predecessor he increased until it
+reached the total of 30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, and 600,000
+infantry; and with this huge force he overran all northern India,
+establishing his empire from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of
+Bengal. In 305 Seleucus Nicator crossed the Indus, but was
+defeated by Chandragupta and forced to a humiliating peace
+(303), by which the empire of the latter was still farther extended
+in the north. About six years later Chandragupta died, leaving
+his empire to his son Bindusura.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent account of the court and administrative system
+of Chandragupta has been preserved in the fragments of Megasthenes,
+who came to Pataliputra as the envoy of Seleucus shortly
+after 303. The government was, of course, autocratic and even
+tyrannous, but it was organized on an elaborate system, army
+and civil service being administered by a series of boards, while
+the cities were governed by municipal commissioners responsible
+for public order and the upkeep of public works. Chandragupta
+himself is described as living in barbaric splendour,
+appearing in public only to hear causes, offer sacrifice, or to go
+on military and hunting expeditions, and withal so fearful of
+assassination that he never slept two nights running in the same
+room.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.W. MacCrindle, <i>Ancient India as described by Megasthenes
+and Arrian</i> (Calcutta, 1877); V.A. Smith, <i>Early Hist. of India</i>
+(Oxford, 1908); also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">India</a></span>: <i>History</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span>:
+<i>Indian</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1793-1877),
+French general, was born at Autun on the 26th of April 1793.
+Educated at St Cyr, he served for a short time in the bodyguard
+of Louis XVIII., and entered the line as a lieutenant in January
+1815. He achieved distinction in the Spanish campaign of 1823,
+and became captain in 1825. In 1830 he entered the Royal
+Guard and was sent to Africa, where he took part in the Mascara
+expedition. Promoted commandant in 1835, he distinguished
+himself under Marshal Clausel in the campaign against Ahmed
+Pasha, bey of Constantine, and became lieutenant-colonel in
+1837. The part he took in the expedition of Portes-de-Fer
+gained him a colonelcy, and his success against the Hajutas and
+Kabyles, the cross of the Legion of Honour. Three more years
+of brilliant service in Africa won for him the rank of <i>maréchal
+de camp</i> in 1840, and of lieutenant-general in 1843. In 1847 he
+held the Algiers divisional command. He visited France early
+in 1848, assisted the provisional government to establish order,
+and returned to Africa in May to succeed General Cavaignac in
+the government of Algeria. He was speedily recalled on his
+election to the general assembly for the department of the Seine,
+and received the command of the National Guard of Paris, to
+which was added soon afterwards that of the troops in Paris,
+altogether nearly 100,000 men. He held a high place and
+exercised great influence in the complicated politics of the next
+two years. In 1849 he received the grand cross of the Legion
+of Honour. An avowed enemy of republican institutions, he
+held a unique position in upholding the power of the president;
+but in January 1851 he opposed Louis Napoleon&rsquo;s policy, was
+in consequence deprived of his double command, and at the
+<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> in December was arrested and sent to Mazas, until
+his banishment from France by the decree of the 9th of January
+1852. He returned to France after the general amnesty, and
+resided in his estate in the department of Saône-et-Loire. In
+1870 he held no command, but was present with the headquarters,
+and afterwards with Bazaine in Metz. He was employed on an
+unsuccessful mission to Prince Frederick Charles, commanding
+the German army which besieged Metz, and on the capitulation
+became a prisoner of war. At the armistice he returned to Paris,
+and in 1871 was elected to the National Assembly by four departments,
+and sat for the Somme. He took an active part in politics,
+defended the conduct of Marshal Bazaine, and served on the
+committee which elaborated the monarchical constitution. When
+the comte de Chambord refused the compromise, he moved
+the resolution to extend the executive power for ten years to
+Marshal MacMahon. He was elected a life senator in 1875. He
+died in Paris on the 14th of February 1877.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANG-CHOW,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a town of China, in the province of Fu-kien,
+on a branch of the Lung Kiang, 35 m. W. of Amoy. It is
+surrounded by a wall 4½ m. in circumference, which, however,
+includes a good deal of open ground. The streets are paved with
+granite, but are very dirty. The river is crossed by a curious
+bridge, 800 ft. long, constructed of wooden planks supported on
+twenty-five piles of stones about 30 ft. apart. The city is a centre
+of the silk-trade, and carries on an extensive commerce in different
+directions. Brick-works and sugar-factories are among its chief
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span>
+industrial establishments. Its population is estimated at about
+1,000,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANG CHUN, KIU<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1148-1227), Chinese Taoist sage and
+traveller, was born in 1148. In 1219 he was invited by Jenghiz
+Khan, founder of the Mongol empire and greatest of Asiatic
+conquerors, to visit him. Jenghiz&rsquo; letter of invitation, dated the
+15th of May 1219 (by present reckoning), has been preserved,
+and is among the curiosities of history; here the terrible warrior
+appears as a meek disciple of wisdom, modest and simple,
+almost Socratic in his self-examination, alive to many of the
+deepest truths of life and government. Chang Chun obeyed this
+summons; and leaving his home in Shantung (February 1220)
+journeyed first to Peking. Learning that Jenghiz had gone far
+west upon fresh conquests, the sage stayed the winter in Peking.
+In February 1221 he started again and crossed eastern Mongolia
+to the camp of Jenghiz&rsquo; brother Ujughen, near Lake Bör or Buyur
+in the upper basin of the Kerulun-Amur. Thence he travelled
+south-westward up the Kerulun, crossed the Karakorum region
+in north-central Mongolia, and so came to the Chinese Altai,
+probably passing near the present Uliassutai. After traversing
+the Altai he visited Bishbalig, answering to the modern Urumtsi,
+and moved along the north side of the Tian Shan range to lake
+Sairam, Almalig (or Kulja), and the rich valley of the Ili. We
+then trace him to the Chu, over this river to Talas and the
+Tashkent region, and over the Jaxartes (or Syr Daria) to Samarkand,
+where he halted for some months. Finally, through the
+&ldquo;Iron Gates&rdquo; of Termit, over the Oxus, and by way of Balkh
+and northern Afghanistan, Chang Chun reached Jenghiz&rsquo; camp
+near the Hindu Kush. Returning home he followed much the
+same course as on his outward route: certain deviations, however,
+occur, such as a visit to Kuku-khoto. He was back in Peking
+by the end of January 1224. From the narrative of his expedition
+(the <i>Si yu ki</i>, written by his pupil and companion Li
+Chi Chang) we derive some of the most faithful and vivid pictures
+ever drawn of nature and man between the Great Wall of China
+and Kabul, between the Aral and the Yellow Sea: we may
+particularly notice the sketches of the Mongols, and of the
+people of Samarkand and its neighbourhood; the account of
+the fertility and products of the latter region, as of the Ili valley,
+at or near Almalig-Kulja; and the description of various great
+mountain ranges, peaks and defiles, such as the Chinese Altai,
+the Tian Shan, Mt Bogdo-ola (?), and the Iron Gates of Termit.
+There is, moreover, a noteworthy reference to a land apparently
+identical with the uppermost valley of the Yenisei. After his
+return Chang Chun lived at Peking till his death on the 23rd of
+July 1227. By order of Jenghiz some of the former imperial
+garden grounds were made over to him, for the foundation of a
+Taoist monastery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Bretschneider, <i>Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic
+Sources</i>, vol. i. pp. 35-108, where a complete translation of the
+narrative is given, with a valuable commentary; C.R. Beazley
+<i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, iii. 539.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANGE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. <i>cambium,
+cambiare</i>, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from
+the root which appears in the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kamptein">&#954;&#940;&#956;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to bend), properly
+the substitution of one thing for another, hence any alteration
+or variation, so applied to the moon&rsquo;s passing from one phase to
+another. The use of the word for a place of commercial business
+has usually been taken to be a shortened form of Exchange (<i>q.v.</i>)
+and so is often written &rsquo;Change. The <i>New English Dictionary</i>
+points out that &ldquo;change&rdquo; appears earlier than &ldquo;exchange&rdquo;
+in this sense. &ldquo;Change&rdquo; is particularly used of coins of lower
+denomination given in substitution for those of larger denomination
+or for a note, cheque, &amp;c., and also for the balance of a sum
+paid larger than that which is due. A further application is that
+in bell-ringing, of the variations in order in which a peal of bells
+may be rung. The term usually excludes the ringing of the bells
+according to the diatonic scale in which they are hung (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bell</a></span>).
+It is from a combination of these two meanings that the thieves&rsquo;
+slang phrase &ldquo;ringing the changes&rdquo; arises; it denotes the
+various methods by which wrong change may be given or
+extracted, or counterfeit coin passed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANGELING,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> the term used of a child substituted or changed
+for another, especially in the case of substitutions popularly
+supposed to be through fairy agency. There was formerly a
+widespread superstition that infants were sometimes stolen
+from their cradles by the fairies. Any specially peevish or weakly
+baby was regarded as a changeling, the word coming at last to
+be almost synonymous with imbecility. It was thought that
+the elves could only effect the exchange before christening, and
+in the highlands of Scotland babies were strictly watched till
+then. Strype states that in his time midwives had to take an
+oath binding themselves to be no party to the theft or exchange
+of babies. The belief is referred to by Shakespeare, Spenser
+and other authors. Pennant, writing in 1796, says: &ldquo;In this
+very century a poor cottager, who lived near the spot, had a
+child who grew uncommonly peevish; the parents attributed
+this to the fairies and imagined it was a changeling. They took
+the child, put it in a cradle, and left it all night beneath the
+&ldquo;Fairy Oak&rdquo; in hopes that the <i>tylwydd têg</i> or fairy family
+would restore their own before morning. When morning came
+they found the child perfectly quiet, so went away with it, quite
+confirmed in their belief&rdquo; (<i>Tour in Scotland</i>, 1796, p. 257).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Wirt Sikes, <i>British Goblins</i> (1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANGOS,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians who appear
+to have originally inhabited the Peruvian coast. A few of them
+still live on the coast of Atacama, northern Chile. They are a
+dwarfish race, never exceeding 5 ft. in height. Their sole occupation
+is fishing, and in former times they used boats of inflated
+sealskins, lived in sealskin huts, and slept on heaps of dried
+seaweed. They are a hospitable and friendly people, and never
+resisted the whites.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANGRA,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kanghari</span> (anc. <i>Gangra</i>; called also till the
+time of Caracalla, <i>Germanicopolis</i>, after the emperor Claudius),
+the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Kastamuni
+vilayet, Asia Minor, situated in a rich, well-watered valley;
+altitude 2500 ft. The ground is impregnated with salt, and
+the town is unhealthy. Pop. (1894) 15,632, of whom 1086 are
+Christians (Cuinet). Gangra, the capital of the Paphlagonian
+kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus, son of Castor, was taken
+into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 6-5 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+The earlier town, the name of which signified &ldquo;she-goat,&rdquo; was
+built on the hill behind the modern city, on which are the ruins
+of a late fortress; while the Roman city occupied the site of the
+modern. In Christian times Gangra was the metropolitan see
+of Paphlagonia. In the 4th century the town was the scene of
+an important ecclesiastical synod.</p>
+
+<p><i>Synod of Gangra.</i>&mdash;Conjectures as to the date of this synod
+vary from 341 to 376. All that can be affirmed with certainty
+is that it was held about the middle of the 4th century. The
+synodal letter states that twenty-one bishops assembled to take
+action concerning Eustathius (of Sebaste?) and his followers,
+who contemned marriage, disparaged the offices of the church,
+held conventicles of their own, wore a peculiar dress, denounced
+riches, and affected especial sanctity. The synod condemned
+the Eustathian practices, declaring however, with remarkable
+moderation, that it was not virginity that was condemned, but
+the dishonouring of marriage; not poverty, but the disparagement
+of honest and benevolent wealth; not asceticism, but
+spiritual pride; not individual piety, but dishonouring the
+house of God. The twenty canons of Gangra were declared
+ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mansi ii. pp. 1095-1122; Hardouin i. pp. 530-540; Hefele
+2nd ed., i. pp. 777 sqq. (English trans. ii. pp. 325 sqq.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANNEL ISLANDS<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (French <i>Îles Normandes</i>), a group of
+islands in the English Channel, belonging (except the Îles Chausey)
+to Great Britain. (For map, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England</a></span>, Section VI.) They
+lie between 48° 50&prime; and 49° 45&prime; N., and 1° 50&prime; and 2° 45&prime; W.,
+along the French coast of Cotentin (department of Manche),
+at a distance of 4 to 40 m. from it, within the great rectangular
+bay of which the northward horn is Cape La Hague. The greater
+part of this bay is shallow, and the currents among the numerous
+groups of islands and rocks are often dangerous to navigation.
+The nearest point of the English coast to the Channel Islands
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span>
+is Portland Bill, a little over 50 m. north of the northernmost
+outlier of the islands. The total land area of the islands is about
+75 sq. m. (48,083 acres), and the population in 1901 was 95,618.
+The principal individual islands are four:&mdash;<span class="sc">Jersey</span> (area 45
+sq. m., pop. 52,576), <span class="sc">Guernsey</span> (area 24.5 sq. m., pop. 40,446),
+<span class="sc">Alderney</span> (area 3.06 sq. m., pop. 2062), and <span class="sc">Sark</span> (area nearly
+2 sq. m., pop. 504). Each of these islands is treated in a separate
+article. The chief town and port of Jersey is St Helier, and of
+Guernsey St Peter Port; a small town on Alderney is called
+St Anne. Regular communication by steamer with Guernsey
+and Jersey is provided on alternate days from Southampton and
+Weymouth, by steamers of the London &amp; South-Western and
+Great Western railway companies of England. Railway communications
+within the islands are confined to Jersey. Regular
+steamship communications are kept up from certain French
+ports, and locally between the larger islands. In summer the
+islands, especially Jersey, Guernsey and Sark, are visited by
+numerous tourists, both from England and from France.</p>
+
+<p>The islands fall physically into four divisions. The northernmost,
+lying due west of Cape La Hague, and separated therefrom
+by the narrow Race of Alderney, includes that island, Burhou
+and Ortach, and numerous other islets west of it, and west again
+the notorious Casquets, <span class="correction" title="amended from 'and'">an</span> angry group of jagged rocks, on the
+largest of which is a powerful lighthouse. Doubtful tradition
+places here the wreck of the &ldquo;White Ship,&rdquo; in which William,
+son of Henry I., perished in 1120; in 1744 the &ldquo;Victory,&rdquo; a
+British man-of-war, struck on one of the rocks, and among
+calamities of modern times the wreck of the &ldquo;Stella,&rdquo; a passenger
+vessel, in 1899, may be recalled. The second division of islands
+is also the most westerly; it includes Guernsey with a few islets
+to the west, and to the east, Sark, Herm, Jethou (inhabited
+islands) and others. The strait between Guernsey and Herm
+is called Little Russel, and that between Herm and Sark Great
+Russel. Sark is famous for its splendid cliffs and caves, while
+Herm possesses the remarkable phenomenon of a shell-beach, or
+shore, half-a-mile in length, formed wholly of small shells,
+which accumulate in a tidal eddy formed at the north of the
+island. To the south-east of these, across the channel called La
+Déroute, lies Jersey, forming, with a few attendant islets, of
+which the Ecréhou to the north-east are the chief, the third
+division. The fourth and southernmost division falls into two
+main subdivisions. The Minquiers, the more western, are a
+collection of abrupt rocks, the largest of which, Maîtresse Ile,
+affords a landing and shelter for fishermen. Then eastern subdivision,
+the Îles Chausey, lies about 9 m. west by north of
+Granville (to which commune they belong) on the French coast,
+and belongs to France. These rocks are close set, low and
+curiously regular in form. On Grande Ile, the only permanently
+inhabited island (pop. 100), some farming is carried on, and
+several of the islets are temporarily inhabited by fishermen.
+There is also a little granite-quarrying, and seaweed-burning
+employs many.</p>
+
+<p>None of the islands is mountainous, and the fine scenery for
+which they are famous is almost wholly coastal. In this respect
+each main island has certain distinctive characteristics. Bold
+cliffs are found on the south of Alderney; in Guernsey they
+alternate with lovely bays; Sark is specially noted for its
+magnificent sea-caves, while the coast scenery of Jersey is on
+the whole more gentle than the rest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;Geologically, the Channel Islands are closely related
+to the neighbouring mainland of Normandy. With a few exceptions,
+to be noted later, all the rocks are of pre-Cambrian, perhaps in part of
+Archean age. They consist of massive granites, gneisses, diorites,
+porphyrites, schists and phyllites, all of which are traversed by
+dykes and veins. In Jersey we find in the north-west corner a
+granitic tract extending from Grosnez to St Mary and St John,
+beyond which it passes into a small granulitic patch. South of the
+granites is a schistose area, by St Ouen and St Lawrence, and reaching
+to St Aubin&rsquo;s Bay. Granitic masses again appear round St Brelade&rsquo;s
+Bay. The eastern half of the island is largely occupied by
+porphyrites and similar rocks (hornstone porphyry) with rhyolites
+and denitrified obsidians; some of the latter contain large spherulites
+with a diameter of as much as 24 in.; these are well exposed in
+Bouley Bay; a complex igneous and intrusive series of rocks lies
+around St Helier. In the north-east corner of the island a conglomerate,
+possibly of Cambrian age, occurs between Bouley Bay
+and St Catherine&rsquo;s Bay. Tracts of blown-sand cover the ground
+for some distance north of St Clement&rsquo;s Bay and again east of
+St Ouen&rsquo;s Bay. In the sea off the latter bay a submerged forest
+occurs. The northern half of Guernsey is mainly dioritic, the
+southern half, below St Peter, is occupied by gneisses. Several
+patches of granite and granulite fringe the western coast, the largest
+of these is a hornblende granite round Rocquaine Bay. Hornblende
+gneiss from St Sampson and quartz diorite from Capelles,
+Corvée and elsewhere are transported to England for road metal.
+Sark is composed almost wholly of hornblende-schists and gneisses
+with hornblendic granite at the north end of the island, in Little
+Sark and in the middle of Bréchou. Dykes of diabase and diorite
+are abundant. Alderney consists mainly of hornblende granite and
+granulite, which are covered on the east by two areas of sandstone
+which may be of Cambrian age. An enstatite-augite-diorite is sent
+from Alderney for road-making. Besides the submerged forest on
+the coast of Jersey already mentioned, there are similar occurrences
+near St Peter Port and St Sampson&rsquo;s harbour, and in Vazon Bay
+in Guernsey. Raised beaches are to be seen at several points in the
+islands.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate is mild and very pleasant. In Jersey
+the mean temperature for twenty years is found to be&mdash;in January
+(the coldest month) 42.1° F., in August (the hottest) 63°, mean
+annual 51.7°. In Guernsey the figures are, for January 42.5°,
+for August 59.7°, mean annual 49.5°. The mean annual rainfall
+for twenty-five years in Jersey is 34.21 in., and in Guernsey 38.64
+in. The average amount of sunshine in Jersey is considerably
+greater than in the most favoured spots on the south coast of
+England; and in Guernsey it is only a little less than in Jersey.
+Snow and frost are rare, and the seasons of spring and autumn
+are protracted. Thick sea-fogs are not uncommon, especially
+in May and June.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>&mdash;The flora of the islands is remarkably rich,
+considering their extent, nearly 2000 different species of plants
+having been counted throughout the group. Of timber properly
+speaking there is little, but the evergreen oak, the elm and the
+beech are abundant. Wheat is the principal grain in cultivation;
+but far more ground is taken up with turnips and potatoes,
+mangold, parsnip and carrot. The tomato ripens as in France,
+and the Chinese yam has been successfully grown. There is a
+curious cabbage, chiefly cultivated in Jersey, which shoots up
+into a long woody stalk from 10 to 15 ft. in height, fit for walking-sticks
+or palisades. Grapes and peaches come to perfection in
+greenhouses without artificial heat; and not only apples and
+pears but oranges and figs can be reared in the open air. The
+arbutus ripens its fruit, and the camellia clothes itself with
+blossom, as in more southern climates; the fuchsia reaches a
+height of 15 or 20 ft., and the magnolia attains the dimensions
+of a tree. Of the flowers, both indigenous and exotic, that
+abound throughout the islands, it is sufficient to mention the
+Guernsey lily with its rich red petals, which is supposed to have
+been brought from Japan.</p>
+
+<p>The number of the species of the mammalia is little over
+twenty, and several of these have been introduced by man.
+There is a special breed of horned cattle, and each island has its
+own variety, which is carefully kept from all intermixture. The
+animals are small and delicate, and marked by a peculiar yellow
+colour round the eyes and within the ears. The red deer was once
+indigenous, and the black rat is still common in Alderney, Sark
+and Herm. The list of birds includes nearly 200 species, nearly
+100 of which are permanent inhabitants of the islands. There
+are few localities in the northern seas which are visited by a
+greater variety of fish, and the coasts abound in crustacea,
+shell-fish and zoophytes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government</i>.&mdash;For the purposes of government the Channel
+Islands (excluding the French Chauseys) are divided into two
+divisions:&mdash;(1) Jersey, and (2) the bailiwick of Guernsey, which
+includes Alderney, Sark, Herm and Jethou with the island of
+Guernsey. The constitutions of each division are peculiar and
+broadly similar, but differing in certain important details; they
+may therefore be considered together for the sake of comparison.
+Until 1854 governors were appointed by the crown; now a
+separate military lieutenant-governor is appointed for each
+division on the recommendation of the war office after consultation
+with the home office. The other crown officials are the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
+bailiff (<i>bailli</i>) or chief magistrate, the <i>procureur du roi</i>, representing
+the attorney-general, and the <i>avocat du roi</i>, or in Guernsey
+the <i>contrôle</i>, representing the solicitor-general. In Jersey the
+<i>vicomte</i> is also appointed by the crown, in the position of a high
+sheriff (and coroner); but his counterpart in Guernsey, the
+<i>prévôt</i>, is not so appointed. The bailiff in each island is president
+of the royal court, which is composed of twelve jurats, elected for
+life, in Jersey by the ratepayers of each parish, in Guernsey by
+the Elective States, a body which also elects the <i>prévôt</i>, who,
+with the jurats, serves upon it. The rest of the body is made up
+of the rectors of the parishes, the <i>douzaines</i>, or elected parish
+councils (&ldquo;dozens,&rdquo; from the original number of their members)
+of the town parish of St Peter Port, the four cantons, and the
+county parishes, and certain other officials. The royal court
+administers justice (but in Jersey there is a trial by jury for
+criminal cases), and in Guernsey can pass temporary ordinances
+subject to no higher body. It also puts forward <i>projets de loi</i>
+for the approval of the Deliberative States. Alderney and Sark
+have a separate legal existence with courts dependent on the
+royal court of Guernsey. In both Jersey and Guernsey the chief
+administrative body is the Deliberative States. The Jersey States
+is composed of the lieutenant-governor (who has a veto on the
+deliberation of any question, but no vote), the bailiff, jurats,
+parish rectors, parish constables and deputies, the <i>procureur</i>
+and <i>avocat</i>, with right to speak but no vote, and the <i>vicomte</i>,
+with right of attendance only. Besides the veto of the lieutenant-governor,
+the bailiff has the power to dissent from any measure,
+in which case it is referred to the privy council. In Guernsey the
+States consists of the bailiff, jurats, eight out of ten rectors, the
+<i>procureur</i> and deputies; while the lieutenant-governor is always
+invited and may speak if he attends. By both States local
+administration is carried on (largely through committees); and
+relations with the British parliament are maintained through the
+privy council. Acts of parliament are transmitted to the islands
+by an order in council to be registered in the rolls of the royal
+court, and are not considered to be binding until this is done;
+moreover, registration may be held over pending discussion by
+the States if any act is considered to menace the privileges of
+the islands. The right of the crown to legislate by order in council
+is held to be similarly limited. In cases of encroachment on
+property, a remarkable form of appeal of very ancient origin
+called <i>Clameur de Haro</i> survives (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Haro, Clameur de</a></span>). The
+islands are in the diocese of Winchester, and there is a dean
+in both Jersey and Guernsey, who is also rector of a parish.</p>
+
+<p>These peculiar constitutions are of local development, the
+history of which is obscure. The bailiff was originally assisted
+in his judicial work by itinerant justices; their place was later
+taken by the elected jurats; later still the practice of summoning
+the States to assist in the passing of Ordinances was established
+by the bailiff and jurats, and at last the States claimed the
+absolute right of being consulted. This was confirmed to them
+in 1771.</p>
+
+<p>It is characteristic of these islands that there should be
+compulsory service in the militia. In Jersey and Alderney every
+man between the ages of sixteen and forty-five is liable, but in
+Jersey after ten years&rsquo; service militiamen are transferred to the
+reserve. In Guernsey the age limit is from sixteen to thirty-three,
+and the obligation is extended to all who are British
+subjects, and draw income from a profession practised in the
+island. Garrisons of regular troops are maintained in all three
+islands. Taxation is light in the islands, and pauperism is
+practically unknown.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1904 the revenue of Jersey was £70,191, and its expenditure
+£69,658; the revenue of Guernsey was £79,334, and the expenditure
+£43,385. The public debt in the respective islands was £322,070
+and £195,794. In Jersey the annual revenues from crown rights
+(principally seigneurial dues, houses and lands and tithes) amount
+to about £2700, and about £360 is remitted to the paymaster-general.
+In Guernsey these revenues, in which the principal item is fines on
+transference of property (<i>treizièmes</i> or fees), amount to about £4500,
+and about £1000 is remitted. In Alderney the revenues (chiefly from
+harbour dues) amount to about £1400.</p>
+
+<p>In Jersey the English gold and silver coinage are current, but there
+is a local copper coinage and local one-pound notes are issued.
+Guernsey has also such notes, and its copper coinage consists of
+pence, halfpence, two-double and one-double (one-eighth of a penny)
+pieces. A Guernsey pound is taken as equal to 24 francs, and
+English and French currency pass equally throughout the islands.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Industry</i>.&mdash;The old Norman system of land-tenure has survived,
+and the land is parcelled out among a great number of
+small proprietors; holdings ranging from 5 to 25 acres as a rule.
+The results of this arrangement seem to be favourable in the
+extreme. Every corner of the ground is carefully and intelligently
+cultivated, and a considerable proportion is allotted to
+market-gardening. The cottages are neat and comfortable,
+the hedges well-trimmed, and the roads kept in excellent repair.
+There is a considerable export trade in agricultural produce and
+stock, including vegetables and fruit, in fish (the fisheries
+forming an important industry) and in stone. There is no
+manufacture of importance. The inhabitants share in common
+the right of collecting and burning seaweed (called <i>vraic</i>) for
+manure. The cutting of the weed (vraicking) became a ceremonial
+occasion, taking place at times fixed by the government,
+and connected with popular festivities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Language</i>.&mdash;The language spoken in ordinary life by the
+inhabitants of the islands is in great measure the same as the old
+Norman French. The use of the <i>patois</i> has decreased naturally
+in modern times. Modern French is the official language, used
+in the courts and states, and English is taught in the parochial
+schools, and is familiar practically to all. The several islands
+have each its own dialect, differing from that of the others
+in vocabulary and idiom; differences are also observable in
+different localities within the same island, as between the north
+and the south of Guernsey. None of the dialects has received
+much literary cultivation, though Jersey is proud of being the
+birthplace of one of the principal Norman poets, Wace, who
+flourished in the 12th century.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;The original ethnology and pre-Christian history
+of the Channel Islands are largely matters of conjecture and
+debate. Of early inhabitants abundant proof is afforded by the
+numerous megalithic monuments&mdash;cromlechs, kistvaens and
+maenhirs&mdash;still extant. But little trace has been left of Roman
+occupation, and such remains as have been discovered are mainly
+of the portable description that affords little proof of actual
+settlement, though there may have been an unimportant garrison
+here. The constant recurrence of the names of saints in the
+place-names of the islands, and the fact that pre-Christian names
+do not occur, leads to the inference that before Christianity was
+introduced the population was very scanty. It may be considered
+to have consisted originally of Bretons (Celts), and to
+have received successively a slight admixture of Romans and
+Legionaries, Saxons and perhaps Jutes and Vandals. Christianity
+may have been introduced in the 5th century. Guernsey
+is said to have been visited in the 6th century by St Sampson of
+Dol (whose name is given to a small town and harbour in the
+island), St Marcou or Marculfus and St Magloire, a friend and
+fellow-evangelist of St Sampson, who founded monasteries at
+Sark and at Jersey, and died in Jersey in 575. Another evangelist
+of this period was St Helerius, whose name is borne by the chief
+town of Jersey, St Helier. In his life it is stated that the population
+of the island when he reached it was only 30. In 933 the
+islands were made over to William, duke of Normandy (d. 943),
+and after the Norman conquest of England their allegiance shifted
+between the English crown and the Norman coronet according to
+the vicissitudes of war and policy. During the purely Norman
+period they had been enriched with numerous ecclesiastical
+buildings, some of which are still extant, as the chapel of Rozel
+in Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of John of England the future of the islands was
+decided by their attachment to the English crown, in spite of the
+separation of the duchy of Normandy. To John it has been usual
+to ascribe a document, at one time regarded by the islanders as
+their Magna Carta; but modern criticism leaves little doubt
+that it is not genuine. An unauthenticated &ldquo;copy&rdquo; of uncertain
+origin alone has been discovered, and there is little proof of
+there ever having been an original. The reign of Edward I. was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
+full of disturbance; and in 1279 Jersey and Guernsey received
+from the king, by letters patent, a public seal as a remedy for the
+dangers and losses which they had incurred by lack of such a
+certificate. Edward II. found it necessary to instruct his
+collectors not to treat the islanders as foreigners: his successor,
+Edward III., fully confirmed their privileges, immunities and
+customs in 1341; and his charter was recognized by Richard II.
+in 1378. In 1343 there was a descent of the French on Guernsey;
+the governor was defeated, and Castle Cornet besieged. In 1372
+there was another attack on Guernsey, and in 1374 and 1404 the
+French descended on Jersey. None of these attempts, however,
+resulted in permanent settlement. Henry V. confiscated the
+alien priories which had kept up the same connexion with Normandy
+as before the conquest, and conferred them along with the
+regalities of the islands on his brother, the duke of Bedford.
+During the Wars of the Roses, Queen Margaret, the consort of
+Henry VI., made an agreement with Pierre de Brézé, comte de
+Maulevrier, the seneschal of Normandy, that if he afforded
+assistance to the king he should hold the islands independently
+of the crown. A force was accordingly sent to take possession of
+Mont Orgueil. It was captured and a small part of the island
+subjugated, and here Maulevrier remained as governor from 1460
+to 1465; but the rest held out under Sir Philip de Carteret,
+seigneur of St Ouen, and in 1467 the vice-admiral of England,
+Sir Richard Harliston, recaptured the castle and brought the
+foreign occupation to an end. In 1482-1483 Pope Sixtus IV., at
+the instance of King Edward IV., issued a bull of anathema
+against all who molested the islands; it was formally registered
+in Brittany in 1484, and in France in 1486; and in this way the
+islands acquired the right of neutrality, which they retained till
+1689. In the same reign (Edward IV.) Sark was taken by the
+French, and only recovered in the reign of Mary, by the strategy
+(according to tradition) of landing from a vessel a coffin nominally
+containing a body for burial, but in reality filled with arms.
+By a charter of 1494, the duties of the governors of Jersey were
+defined and their power restricted; and the educational interests
+of the island were furthered at the same time by the foundation
+of two grammar schools. The religious establishments in the
+islands were dissolved, as in England, in the reign of Henry VIII.
+The Reformation was heartily welcomed in the islands. The
+English liturgy was translated into French for their use. In the
+reign of Mary there was much religious persecution; and in that of
+Elizabeth Roman Catholics were maltreated in their turn. In
+1568 the islands were attached to the see of Winchester, being
+finally separated from that of Coutances, with which they had
+long been connected, with short intervals in the reign of John,
+when they had belonged to the see of Exeter, and that of Henry
+VI., when they had belonged to Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p>The Presbyterian form of church government was adopted
+under the influence of refugees from the persecution of Protestantism
+on the continent. It was formally sanctioned in St Helier and
+St Peter Port by Queen Elizabeth; and in 1603 King James
+enacted that the whole of the islands &ldquo;should quietly enjoy
+their said liberty.&rdquo; During his reign, however, disputes arose.
+An Episcopal party had been formed in Jersey, and in 1619
+David Bandinel was declared dean of the island. A body of
+canons which he drew up agreeable to the discipline of the Church
+of England was accepted after considerable modification by the
+people of his charge; but the inhabitants of Guernsey maintained
+their Presbyterian practices. Of the hold which this form of
+Protestantism had got on the minds of the people even in Jersey
+abundant proof is afforded by the general character of the worship
+at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>In the great struggle between king and parliament, Presbyterian
+Guernsey supported the parliament; in Jersey, however, there
+were at first parliamentarian and royalist factions. Sir Philip de
+Carteret, lieutenant-governor, declared for the king, but Dean
+Bandinel and Michael Lemprière, a leader of the people, headed
+the parliamentary party. They received a commission for the
+apprehension of Carteret, who established himself in Elizabeth
+Castle; but after some fighting had taken place he died in the
+castle in August 1643. Meanwhile in Guernsey Sir Peter Osborne,
+the governor, was defying the whole island and maintaining
+himself in Castle Cornet. A parliamentarian governor, Leonard
+Lydcott, arrived in Jersey immediately after Sir Philip de
+Carteret&rsquo;s death. But the dowager Lady Carteret was holding
+Mont Orgueil; George Carteret, Sir Philip&rsquo;s nephew, arrived
+from St Malo to support the royalist cause, and Lydcott and
+Lemprière presently fled to England. George Carteret established
+himself as lieutenant-governor and bailiff. Bandinel was
+imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and killed himself in trying to
+escape. Jersey was now completely royalist. In 1646 the prince
+of Wales, afterwards Charles II., arrived secretly at Jersey, and
+remained over two months at Elizabeth Castle. He went on to
+France, but returned in 1649, having been proclaimed king by
+George Carteret, and at Elizabeth Castle he signed the declaration
+of his claims to the throne on the 29th of October. In 1651,
+when Charles had fled to France again after the battle of
+Worcester, parliamentarian vessels of war appeared at Jersey.
+The islanders, weary of the tyrannical methods of their governor,
+now Sir George Carteret, offered little resistance. On the 15th of
+December the royalist remnant yielded up Elizabeth Castle;
+and at the same time Castle Cornet, Guernsey, which had been
+steadily held by Osborne, capitulated. In each case honourable
+terms of surrender were granted. Both islands had suffered
+severely from the struggle, and the people of Guernsey, appealing
+to Cromwell on the ground of their support of his cause, complained
+that two-thirds of the land was out of cultivation, and
+that they had lost &ldquo;their ships, their traffic and their trading.&rdquo;
+After the Restoration there was considerable improvement, and
+in the reign of James II. the islanders got a grant of wool for the
+manufacture of stockings&mdash;4000 tods<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of wool being annually
+allowed to Jersey, 2000 to Guernsey, 400 to Alderney and 200 to
+Sark. Alderney, which had been parliamentarian, was granted
+after the Restoration to the Carteret family; and it continued to
+be governed independently till 1825.</p>
+
+<p>By William of Orange the neutrality of the islands was
+abolished in 1689, and during the war between England and
+France (1778-1783) there were two unsuccessful attacks on
+Jersey, in 1779 and 1781, the second, under Baron de Rullecourt,
+being famous for the victory over the invaders due to the bravery
+of the young Major Peirson, who fell when the French were on the
+point of surrender. During the revolutionary period in France
+the islands were the home of many refugees. In the 18th century
+various attempts were made to introduce the English custom-house
+system; but proved practically a failure, and the islands
+throve on smuggling and privateering down to 1800.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Heylin, <i>Relation of two Journeys</i> (1656); P. Falle,
+<i>Account of the Island of Jersey</i> (1694; notes, &amp;c., by E. Durell,
+Jersey, 1837); J. Duncan, <i>History of Guernsey</i> (London, 1841);
+P. le Geyt, <i>Sur les constitutions, les lois et les usages de cette île</i> [Jersey],
+ed. R.P. Marett (Jersey, 1846-1847); F.B. Tupper, <i>Chronicles of
+Castle Cornet, Guernsey</i> (2nd ed. London, 1851), and <i>History of
+Guernsey and its Bailiwick</i> (Guernsey, 1854); S.E. Hoskins,
+<i>Charles II. in the Channel Islands</i> (London, 1854), and other works;
+Delacroix, <i>Jersey, ses antiquités, &amp;c.</i> (Jersey, 1859); T. le Cerf,
+<i>L&rsquo;archipel des Îles Normandes</i> (Paris, 1863); G. Dupont, <i>Le Cotentin
+et ses îles</i> (Caen, 1870-1885); J.P.E. Havet, <i>Les Cours royales des
+Îles Normandes</i> (Paris, 1878); E. Pégot-Ogier, <i>Histoire des Îles de
+la Manche</i> (Paris, 1881); C. Noury, <i>Géologie de Jersey</i> (Paris and
+Jersey, 1886); D.T. Ansted and R.G. Latham, <i>Channel Islands</i>
+(1865; 3rd ed., rev. by E.T. Nicolle, London, 1893), the principal
+general work of reference; Sir E. MacCulloch, <i>Guernsey Folklore</i>,
+ed. Edith F. Carey (London, 1903); E.F. Carey, <i>Channel Islands</i>
+(London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A tod generally equalled 28 &#8468;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1780-1842), American
+divine and philanthropist, was born in Newport, Rhode Island,
+on the 7th of April 1780. His maternal grandfather was William
+Ellery, a signer of the Declaration of Independence; his mother,
+Lucy Ellery, was a remarkable woman; and his father, William
+Channing, was a prominent lawyer in Newport. Channing had as
+a child a refined delicacy of feature and temperament, and seemed
+to have inherited from his father simple and elegant tastes,
+sweetness of temper, and warmth of affection, and from his
+mother that strong moral discernment and straightforward
+rectitude of purpose and action which formed so striking a feature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span>
+of his character. From his earliest years he delighted in the
+beauty of the scenery of Newport, and always highly estimated
+its influence upon his spiritual character. His father was a strict
+Calvinist, and Dr Samuel Hopkins, one of the leaders of the old
+school Calvinists, was a frequent guest in his father&rsquo;s house.
+He was, even as a child, he himself says, &ldquo;quite a theologian,
+and would chop logic with his elders according to the fashion of
+that controversial time.&rdquo; He prepared for college in New London
+under the care of his uncle, the Rev. Henry Channing, and in
+1794, about a year after the death of his father, entered Harvard
+College. Before leaving New London he came under religious
+influences to which he traced the beginning of his spiritual life.
+In his college vacations he taught at Lancaster, Massachusetts,
+and in term time he stinted himself in food that he might need
+less exercise and so save time for study,&mdash;an experiment which
+undermined his health, producing acute dyspepsia. From his
+college course he thought that he got little good, and said &ldquo;when
+I was in college, only three books that I read were of any moment
+to me:  ... Ferguson on <i>Civil Society</i>, ... Hutcheson&rsquo;s
+<i>Moral Philosophy</i>, and Price&rsquo;s <i>Dissertations</i>. Price saved me
+from Locke&rsquo;s philosophy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After graduating in 1798, he lived at Richmond, Virginia, as
+tutor in the family of David Meade Randolph, United States
+marshal for Virginia. Here he renewed his ascetic habits and
+spent much time in theological study, his mind being greatly
+disturbed in regard to Trinitarian teachings in general and
+especially prayer to Jesus. He returned to Newport in 1800
+&ldquo;a thin and pallid invalid,&rdquo; spent a year and a half there, and
+in 1802 went to Cambridge as regent (or general proctor) in
+Harvard; in the autumn of 1802 he began to preach, having
+been approved by the Cambridge Association. On the 1st of
+June 1803, having refused the more advantageous pastorate of
+Brattle Street church, he was ordained pastor of the Federal
+Street Congregational church in Boston. At this time it seems
+certain that his theological views were not fixed, and in 1808,
+when he preached a sermon at the ordination of the Rev. John
+Codman (1782-1847), he still applied the title &ldquo;Divine Master&rdquo;
+to Jesus Christ, and used such expressions as &ldquo;shed for souls&rdquo; of
+the blood of Jesus, and &ldquo;the Son of God himself left the abodes
+of glory and expired a victim of the cross.&rdquo; But his sermon
+preached in 1819 at Baltimore at the ordination of the Rev.
+Jared Sparks was in effect a powerful attack on Trinitarianism,
+and was followed in 1819 by an article in <i>The Christian Disciple</i>,
+&ldquo;Objections to Unitarian Christianity Considered,&rdquo; and in 1820
+by another, &ldquo;The Moral Argument against Calvinism&rdquo;&mdash;an
+excellent evidence of the moral (rather than the intellectual)
+character of Unitarian protest. In 1814 he had married a rich
+cousin, Ruth Gibbs, but refused to make use of the income from
+her property on the ground that clergymen were so commonly
+accused of marrying for money.</p>
+
+<p>He was now entering on his public career. Even in 1810, in a
+Fast Day sermon, he warned his congregation of Bonaparte&rsquo;s
+ambition; two years later he deplored &ldquo;this country taking part
+with the oppressor against that nation which has alone arrested
+his proud career of victory&rdquo;; in 1814 he preached a thanksgiving
+sermon for the overthrow of Napoleon; and in 1816 he
+preached a sermon on war which led to the organization of the
+Massachusetts Peace Society. His sermon on &ldquo;Religion, a
+Social Principle,&rdquo; helped to procure the omission from the state
+constitution of the third article of Part I., which made compulsory
+a tax for the support of religious worship. In 1821 he delivered
+the Dudleian lecture on the &ldquo;Evidences of Revealed Religion&rdquo;
+at Harvard, of whose corporation he had been a member since
+1813; he had received its degree of S.T.D. in 1820. In August
+1821 he undertook a journey to Europe, in the course of which
+he met in England many distinguished men of letters, especially
+Wordsworth and Coleridge. Both of these poets greatly influenced
+him personally and by their writings, and he prophesied
+that the Lake poets would be one of the greatest forces in a
+forming spiritual reform. Coleridge wrote of him, &ldquo;He has the
+love of wisdom and the wisdom of love.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On his return to America in August 1823, Dr Channing resumed
+his duties as pastor, but with a more decided attention than
+before to literature and public affairs, especially after receiving
+as colleague, in 1824, the Rev. Ezra Stiles Gannett. In 1830,
+because of his wife&rsquo;s bad health, Channing went to the West
+Indies. Negro slavery, as he saw it there, and as he had seen it
+in Richmond, more than thirty years before, so strongly impressed
+him that he began to write his book <i>Slavery</i> (1835).
+In this he insists that &ldquo;not what is profitable, but what is right&rdquo;
+is &ldquo;the first question to be proposed by a rational being&rdquo;; that
+slavery ought to be discussed &ldquo;with a deep feeling of responsibility,
+and so done as not to put in jeopardy the peace of the slave-holding
+states&rdquo;; that &ldquo;man cannot be justly held and used as
+property&rdquo;; that the tendency of slavery is morally, intellectually,
+and domestically, bad; that emancipation, however,
+should not be forced on slave-holders by governmental interference,
+but by an enlightened public conscience in the South
+(and in the North), if for no other reason, because &ldquo;slavery
+should be succeeded by a friendly relation between master and
+slave; and to produce this the latter must see in the former his
+benefactor and deliverer.&rdquo; He declined to identify himself
+with the Abolitionists, whose motto was &ldquo;Immediate Emancipation&rdquo;
+and whose passionate agitation he thought unsuited to
+the work they were attempting. The moderation and temperance
+of his presentation of the anti-slavery cause naturally resulted in
+some misunderstanding and misstatement of his position, such as
+is to be found in Mrs Chapman&rsquo;s <i>Appendix</i> to the <i>Autobiography
+of Harriet Martineau</i>, where Channing is represented as actually
+using his influence on behalf of slavery. In 1837 he published
+<i>Thoughts on the Evils of a Spirit of Conquest, and on Slavery: A
+Letter on the Annexation of Texas to the United States</i>, addressed
+to Henry Clay, and arguing that the Texan revolt from Mexican
+rule was largely the work of land-speculators, and of those who
+resolved &ldquo;to throw Texas open to slave-holders and slaves&rdquo;;
+that the results of annexation must be war with Mexico, embroiling
+the United States with England and other European powers,
+and at home the extension and perpetuation of slavery, not alone
+in Texas but in other territories which the United States, once
+started at conquest, would force into the Union. But he still
+objected to political agitation by the Abolitionists, preferring
+&ldquo;unremitting appeals to the reason and conscience,&rdquo; and, even
+after the prominent part he took in the meeting in Faneuil Hall,
+called to protest against the murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, he
+wrote to <i>The Liberator</i>, counselling the Abolitionists to &ldquo;disavow
+this resort to force by Mr Lovejoy.&rdquo; Channing&rsquo;s pamphlet
+<i>Emancipation</i> (1840) dealt with the success of emancipation
+in the West Indies, as related in Joseph John Gurney&rsquo;s <i>Familiar
+Letters to Henry Clay of Kentucky, describing a Winter in the
+West Indies</i> (1840), and added his own advice &ldquo;that we should
+each of us bear our conscientious testimony against slavery,&rdquo;
+and that the Free States &ldquo;abstain as rigidly from the use of
+political power against Slavery in the States where it is established,
+as from exercising it against Slavery in foreign communities,&rdquo;
+and should free themselves &ldquo;from any obligation
+to use the powers of the national or state governments in any
+manner whatever for the support of slavery.&rdquo; In 1842 he published
+<i>The Duty of the Free States</i>, or <i>Remarks Suggested by the
+Case of the Creole</i>, a careful analysis of the letter of complaint from
+the American to the British government, and a defence of the
+position taken by the British government. On the 1st of August
+1842 he delivered at Lenox, Massachusetts, an address celebrating
+the anniversary of emancipation in the British West Indies.
+Two months later, on the 2nd of October 1842, he died at
+Bennington, Vermont.</p>
+
+<p>Physically Channing was short and slight; his eyes were unnaturally
+large; his voice wonderfully clear, and like his face,
+filled with devotional spirit. He was not a great pastor, and
+lacked social tact, so that there were not many people who
+became his near friends; but by the few who knew him well,
+he was almost worshipped. As a preacher Channing was often
+criticised for his failure to deal with the practical everyday
+duties of life. But his sermons are remarkable for their rare
+simplicity and gracefulness of style as well as for the thought
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
+that they express. The first open defence of Unitarians was
+not based on doctrinal differences but on the peculiar nature
+of the attack on them made in June 1815 by the conservatives
+in the columns of <i>The Panoplist</i>, where it was stated that Unitarians
+were &ldquo;operating only in secret, ... guilty of hypocritical
+concealment of their sentiments.&rdquo; His chief objection to the
+doctrine of the Trinity (as stated in his sermon at the ordination
+of the Rev. Jared Sparks) was that it was no longer used philosophically,
+as showing God&rsquo;s relation to the triple nature of
+man, but that it had lapsed into mere Tritheism. To the name
+&ldquo;Unitarian&rdquo; Channing objected strongly, thinking &ldquo;unity&rdquo;
+as abstract a word as &ldquo;trinity&rdquo; and as little expressing the
+close fatherly relation of God to man. It is to be noted that
+he strongly objected to the growth of &ldquo;Unitarian orthodoxy&rdquo;
+and its increasing narrowness. His views as to the divinity
+of Jesus were based on phrases in the Gospels which to his mind
+established Christ&rsquo;s admission of inferiority to God the Father,&mdash;for
+example, &ldquo;Knoweth no man, neither the Son, but the
+Father&rdquo;; at the same time he regarded Christ as &ldquo;the sinless
+and spotless son of God, distinguished from all men by that
+infinite peculiarity&mdash;freedom from moral evil.&rdquo; He believed
+in the pre-existence of Jesus, and that it differed from the pre-existence
+of other souls in that Jesus was actually conscious
+of such pre-existence, and he reckoned him one with God the
+Father in the sense of spiritual union (and not metaphysical
+mystery) in the same way that Jesus bade his disciples &ldquo;Be ye
+one, even as I am one.&rdquo; Bunsen called him &ldquo;the prophet in the
+United States for the presence of God in mankind.&rdquo; Channing
+believed in historic Christianity and in the story of the resurrection,
+&ldquo;a fact which comes to me with a certainty I find in few
+ancient histories.&rdquo; He also believed in the miracles of the
+Gospels, but held that the Scriptures were not inspired, but
+merely records of inspiration, and so saw the possibility of error
+in the construction put upon miracles by the ignorant disciples.
+But in only a few instances did he refuse full credence of the
+plain gospel narrative of miracles. He held, however, that the
+miracles were facts and not &ldquo;evidences&rdquo; of Christianity, and
+he considered that belief in them followed and did not lead up to
+belief in Christianity. His character was absolutely averse from
+controversy of any sort, and in controversies into which he was
+forced he was free from any theological odium and continually
+displayed the greatest breadth and catholicity of view. The
+differences in New England churches he considered were
+largely verbal, and he said that &ldquo;would Trinitarians tell us what
+they mean, their system would generally be found little else
+than a mystical form of the Unitarian doctrine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His opposition to Calvinism was so great that even in 1812
+he declared &ldquo;existence a curse&rdquo; if Calvinism be true. Possibly
+his boldest and most elaborate defence of Unitarianism was
+his sermon on <i>Unitarianism most favourable to Piety</i>, preached in
+1826, criticizing as it did the doctrine of atonement by the
+sacrifice of an &ldquo;infinite substitute&rdquo;; and the Election Sermon
+of 1830 was his greatest plea for spiritual and intellectual
+freedom.</p>
+
+<p>Channing&rsquo;s reputation as an author was probably based
+largely on his publication in <i>The Christian Examiner</i> of <i>Remarks
+on the Character and Writings of John Milton</i> (1826), <i>Remarks on
+the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte</i> (1827-1828), and
+an <i>Essay on the Character and Writings of Fénelon</i> (1829). An
+<i>Essay on Self-Culture</i> (1838) was an address introducing the
+Franklin Lectures delivered in Boston September 1838. Channing
+was an intimate friend of Horace Mann, and his views on
+the education of children are stated, by no less an authority
+than Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, to have anticipated those of
+Froebel. His <i>Complete Works</i> have appeared in various editions
+(5 vols., Boston, 1841; 2 vols., London, 1865; 1 vol., New
+York, 1875).</p>
+
+<p>Among members of his family may be mentioned his two
+nephews William Henry (1810-1884), son of his brother Francis
+Dana, and William Ellery, commonly known as Ellery (1818-1901),
+son of his brother Walter, a Boston physician (1786-1876).
+The former, whose daughter married Sir Edwin Arnold, the
+English poet, became a Unitarian pastor, for some time in
+America, and also in England, where he died; he was deeply
+interested in Christian Socialism, and was a constant writer,
+translating Jouffroy&rsquo;s <i>Ethics</i> (1840), and assisting in editing the
+<i>Memoirs of Margaret Fuller</i> (1852); and he wrote the biography
+of his uncle (see O.B. Frothingham&rsquo;s <i>Memoir</i>, 1886). Ellery
+Channing married Margaret Fuller&rsquo;s sister (1842), and besides
+critical essays and poems published an intimate sketch of
+Thoreau in 1873.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Memoir</i> by William Henry Channing (3 vols., London,
+1848; republished in one volume, New York, 1880); Elizabeth
+Palmer Peabody, <i>Reminiscences of the Rev. William Ellery Channing,
+D.D</i>. (Boston, 1880), intimate but inexact; John White Chadwick,
+<i>William Ellery Channing, Minister of Religion</i> (Boston, 1903); and
+William M. Salter, &ldquo;Channing as a Social Reformer&rdquo; (<i>Unitarian
+Review</i>, March 1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. We.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANSONS DE GESTE,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> the name given to the epic chronicles
+which take so prominent a place in the literature of France from
+the 11th to the 15th century. Gaston Paris defined a chanson
+de geste as a song the subject of which is a series of historical
+facts or <i>gesta</i>. These facts form the centre around which are
+grouped sets of poems, called cycles, and hence the two terms
+have in modern criticism become synonymous for the epic
+family to which the hero of the particular group or cycle belongs.
+The earliest chansons de geste were founded on the fusion of the
+Teutonic spirit, under a Roman form, into the new Christian
+and French civilization. It seems probable that as early as the
+9th century epic poems began to be chanted by the itinerant
+minstrels who are known as jongleurs. It is conjectured that
+in a base Latin fragment of the 10th century we possess a translation
+of a poem on the siege of Girona. Gaston Paris dates from
+this lost epic the open expression of what he calls &ldquo;the epic
+fermentation&rdquo; of France. But the earliest existing chanson
+de geste is also by far the noblest and most famous, the <i>Chanson
+de Roland</i>; the conjectural date of the composition of this poem
+has been placed between the years 1066 and 1095. That the
+author, as has been supposed, was one of the conquerors of
+England, it is perhaps rash to assert, but undoubtedly the poem
+was composed before the First Crusade, and the writer lived at
+or near the sanctuary of Mont Saint-Michel. The <i>Chanson de
+Roland</i> stands at the head of modern French literature, and its
+solidity and grandeur give a dignity to the whole class of poetry
+of which it is the earliest and by far the noblest example. But
+it is in the crowd of looser and later poems, less fully characterized,
+less steeped in the individuality of their authors, that we
+can best study the form of the typical chanson de geste. These
+epics sprang from the soil of France; they were national and
+historical; their anonymous writers composed them spontaneously,
+to a common model, with little regard to the artificial
+niceties of style. The earlier examples, which succeed the
+<i>Roland</i>, are unlike that great work in having no plan, no system
+of composition. They are improvisations which wander on at
+their own pace, whither accident may carry them. This mass of
+medieval literature is monotonous, primitive and superficial.
+As Léon Gautier has said, in the rudimentary psychology of
+the chansons de geste, man is either entirely good or entirely
+bad. There are no fine shades, no observation of character.
+The language in which these poems are composed is extremely
+simple, without elaboration, without ornament. Everything
+is sacrificed to the telling of a story by a narrator of little skill,
+who helps himself along by means of a picturesque, but almost
+childish fancy, and a primitive sentiment of rhythm. Two great
+merits, however, all the best of these poems possess, force and
+lucidity; and they celebrate, what they did much to create, that
+unselfish elevation of temper which we call the spirit of chivalry.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most important cycle of chansons de geste was
+that which was collected around the name of Charlemagne, and
+was known as the <i>Geste du roi</i>. A group of this cycle dealt with
+the history of the mother of the emperor, and with Charlemagne
+himself down to the coming of Roland. To this group belong
+<i>Bertha Greatfoot</i> and <i>Aspremont</i>, both of the 12th century, and
+a variety of chansons dealing with the childhood of Charlemagne
+and of Ogier the Dane. A second group deals with the struggle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span>
+of Charlemagne with his rebellious vassals. This is what has
+been defined as the Feudal Epic; it includes <i>Girars de Viane</i>
+and <i>Ogier the Dane</i>, both of the 13th century, or the end of the
+12th. A third group follows Charlemagne and his peers to the
+East. It is in the principal of these poems, <i>The Pilgrimage to
+Jerusalem</i>, that Alexandrine verse first makes its appearance in
+French literature. This must belong to the beginning of the
+12th century. A fourth group, antecedent to the Spanish war,
+is of the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th;
+it includes <i>Aiquin</i>, <i>Fierabras</i> and <i>Otinel</i>. The fifth class discusses
+the war in Spain, and it is to this that <i>Roland</i> belongs; there are
+different minor epics dealing with the events of Roncevaux, and
+independent chansons of <i>Gui de Bourgogne</i>, <i>Gaidon</i> and <i>Anseïs
+de Carthage</i>. The <i>Geste du Roi</i> comprises a sixth and last group,
+proceeding with events up to the death of Charlemagne; this
+contains <i>Huon de Bordeaux</i> and a vast number of poems of
+minor originality and importance.</p>
+
+<p>Another cycle is that of Duke William Shortnose, <i>La Geste de
+Guillaume</i>. This includes the very early and interesting <i>Departure
+of the Aimeri Children</i>, <i>Aliscans</i> and <i>Rainoart</i>. It is
+thought that this cycle, which used to be called the <i>Geste de
+Garin de Monglane</i>, is less artificial than the others; it deals
+with the heroes of the South who remained faithful in their
+vassalage to the throne. The poems belonging to this cycle are
+extremely numerous, and some of them are among the earliest
+which survive. These chansons find their direct opposites in
+those which form the great cycle of <i>La Geste de Doon de Mayence</i>,
+sometimes called &ldquo;la faulse geste,&rdquo; because it deals with the
+feats of the traitors, of the rebellious family of Ganelon. This
+is the geste of the Northmen, always hostile to the Carlovingian
+dynasty. It comprises some of the most famous of the chansons,
+in particular <i>Parise la duchesse</i> and <i>The Four Sons of Aymon</i>.
+Several of its sections are the production of a known poet,
+Raimbert of Paris. From this triple division of the main body
+of the chansons de geste into <i>La Geste du Roi</i>, <i>La Geste de Guillaume</i>
+and <i>La Geste de Doon</i>, are excluded certain poems of minor
+importance,&mdash;some provincial, such as <i>Amis and Amiles</i> and
+<i>Garin</i>, some dealing with the Crusades, such as <i>Antioche</i>, and
+some which are not connected with any existing cycle, such as
+<i>Ciperis de Vignevaux</i>; most of this last category, however, are
+works of the decadence.</p>
+
+<p>The analysis which is here sketched is founded on the latest
+theories of Léon Gautier, who has given the labour of a lifetime
+to the investigation of this subject. The wealth of material is
+baffling to the ordinary student; of the medieval chansons de
+geste many hundreds of thousands of lines have been preserved.
+The habit of composing became in the 14th century, as has been
+said, no longer an art but a monomania. Needless to add that
+a very large proportion of the surviving poems have never yet
+been published. All the best of the early chansons de geste are
+written in ten-syllable verse, divided into stanzas or <i>laisses</i> of
+different length, united by a single assonance. Rhyme came
+in with the 13th century, and had the effect in languid bards of
+weakening the narrative; the sing-song of it led at last to the
+abandonment of verse in favour of plain historical prose. The
+general character of the chansons de geste, especially of those
+of the 12th century, is hard, coarse, inflexible, like the march
+of rough men stiffened by coats of mail. There is no art and
+little grace, but a magnificent display of force. These poems
+enshrine the self-sufficiency of a young and powerful people;
+they are full of Gallic pride, they breathe the spirit of an indomitable
+warlike energy. All their figures belong to the same
+social order of things, and all illustrate the same fighting
+aristocracy. The moving principle is that of chivalry, and what
+is presented is, invariably, the spectacle of the processional life
+of a medieval soldier. The age described is a disturbed one;
+the feudal anarchy of Europe is united, for a moment, in defending
+western civilization against the inroads of Asia, against &ldquo;the
+yellow peril.&rdquo; But it is a time of transition in Europe also, and
+Charlemagne, the immortal but enfeebled emperor, whose beard
+is whiter than lilies, represents an old order of things against
+which the rude barons of the North are perpetually in successful
+revolt. The loud cry of the dying Ronald, as E. Quinet said,
+rings through the whole poetical literature of medieval France;
+it is the voice of the individuality of the great vassal, who, in
+the decay of the empire, stands alone with himself and with
+his sword.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>,&mdash;Léon Gautier, <i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (4 vols.,
+1878-1894); Gaston Paris, <i>La Littérature française au moyen âge</i>
+(1890); Paul Meyer, <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;épopée française</i> (1867);
+G. Paris, <i>Histoire poétique de Charlemagne</i> (1865); A. Longnon, <i>Les
+Quatre Fits Aimon</i>, &amp;c. (1879).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANT<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. <i>cantare</i>, to
+sing; an old form is &ldquo;chaunt&rdquo;), a song or melody, particularly
+one sung according to the rules of church service-books. For
+an account of the chant or <i>cantus firmus</i> of the Roman Church
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plain-Song</a></span>. In the English church &ldquo;chants&rdquo; are the tunes
+set to the unmetrical verses of the psalms and canticles. The
+chant consisted of an &ldquo;intonation&rdquo; followed by a reciting note
+of indefinite length; a &ldquo;mediation&rdquo; closed the first part of the
+verse, leading to a second reciting note; a &ldquo;termination&rdquo; closed
+the second part of the verse. In the English chant the &ldquo;intonation&rdquo;
+disappeared. Chants are &ldquo;single,&rdquo; if written for one
+verse only, &ldquo;double,&rdquo; if for two. &ldquo;Quadruple&rdquo; chants for four
+verses have also been written.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANTABUN,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chantaburi</span>, the principal town of the
+Siamese province of the same name, on the E. side of the Gulf
+of Siam, in 102° 6&prime; E., 12° 38&prime; N. Pop. about 5000. The town
+lies about 12 m. from the sea on a river which is navigable for
+boats and inside the bar of which there is good anchorage for
+light-draft vessels. The trade is chiefly in rubies and sapphires
+from the mines of the Krat and Pailin districts, and in pepper,
+of which about 500 tons are exported annually. Cardamoms
+and rosewood are also exported. In 1905 Chantabun was made
+the headquarters of a high commissioner with jurisdiction extending
+over the coast districts from the Nam Wen on the East
+to Cape Liant on the West, which were thus united to form a
+provincial division (<i>Monton</i>). In 1893 Chantabun was occupied
+by a French force of four hundred men, a step taken by France
+as a guarantee for the execution by Siam of undertakings entered
+into by the treaty of that year. The occupation, which was
+merely military and did not affect the civil government, lasted
+until January 1905, when, in accordance with the provisions of
+the Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904, the garrison of occupation
+was withdrawn. Chantabun has been since the 17th century,
+and still is, a stronghold of the Roman Catholic missionaries,
+and the Christian element amongst the population is greater
+here than anywhere else in Siam.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANTADA,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province
+of Lugo, on the left bank of the Río de Chantada, a small right-hand
+tributary of the river Miño, and on the main road from
+Orerse, 18 m. S. by W., to Lugo, 28 m. N. by E. Pop. (1900)
+15,003. Chantada is the chief town of the fertile region between
+the Miño and the heights of El Faro, which mark the western
+border of the province. Despite the lack of railway communication,
+it has a thriving trade in grain, flax, hemp, and dairy
+produce.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANTAGE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (a Fr. word from <i>chanter</i>, to sing, slang for a
+criminal making an avowal under examination), a demand for
+money backed by the threat of scandalous revelations, the
+French equivalent of &ldquo;blackmail.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANTARELLE,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> an edible fungus, known botanically as
+<i>Cantharellus cibarius</i>, found in woods in summer. It is golden
+yellow, somewhat inversely conical in shape and about 2 in.
+broad and high. The cap is flattened above with a central
+depression and a thick lobed irregular margin. Running down
+into the stem from the cap are a number of shallow thick gills.
+The substance of the fungus is dry and opaque with a peculiar
+smell suggesting ripe apricots or plums. The flesh is whitish
+tinged with yellow. The chantarelle is sold in the markets on
+the continent of Europe, where it forms a regular article of food,
+but seems little known in Britain though often plentiful in the
+New Forest and elsewhere. Before being cooked they should be
+allowed to dry, and then thrown into boiling water. They may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
+then be stewed in butter or oil, or cut up small and stewed with
+meat. No fungus requires more careful preparation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M.C. Cooke, <i>British Edible Fungi</i>, (1891), pp. 104-105.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANTAVOINE, HENRI<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1850-&emsp;&emsp;), French man of letters,
+was born at Montpellier on the 6th of August 1850, and was
+educated at the École Normale Supérieure. After teaching in
+the provinces he moved, in 1876, to the Lycée Charlemagne in
+Paris, and subsequently became professor of rhetoric at the
+Lycée Henri IV. and <i>maître de conferences</i> at the École Normale
+at Sèvres. He was associated with the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i> from its
+foundation in 1879, and he joined the <i>Journal des débats</i> in 1884.
+His poems include <i>Poèmes sincères</i> (1877), <i>Satires contemporaines</i>
+(1881), <i>Ad memoriam</i> (1884), <i>Au fil des jours</i> (1889).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANTILLY,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of
+Oise, 25 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway to St Quentin.
+Pop. (1906) 4632. It is finely situated to the north of the forest
+of Chantilly and on the left bank of the river Nonette, and is one
+of the favourite Parisian resorts. Its name was long associated
+with the manufacture, which has now to a great extent decayed,
+of lace and blonde; it is still more celebrated for its château and
+its park (laid out originally by A. Le Nôtre in the second half of
+the 17th century), and as the scene of the great annual races of
+the French Jockey Club. The château consists of the palace
+built from 1876 to 1885 and of an older portion adjoining it
+known as the châtelet. The old castle must have been in existence
+in the 13th century, and in the reign of Charles VI. the lordship
+belonged to Pierre d&rsquo;Orgemont, chancellor of France. In 1484
+it passed to the house of Montmorency, and in 1632 from
+that family to the house of Condé. Louis II., prince de Condé,
+surnamed the Great, was specially attached to the place, and did
+a great deal to enhance its beauty and splendour. Here he
+enjoyed the society of La Bruyère, Racine, Molière, La Fontaine,
+Boileau, and other great men of his time; and here his steward
+Vatel killed himself in despair, because of a hitch in the preparations
+for the reception of Louis XIV. The stables close to the
+racecourse were built from 1719 to 1735 by Louis-Henri, duke
+of Bourbon. Of the two splendid mansions existing at that period
+known as the grand château and the châtelet, the former was
+destroyed about the time of the Revolution, but the latter,
+built for Anne de Montmorency by Jean Bullant, still remains
+as one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in
+France. The château d&rsquo;Enghien, facing the entrance to the
+grand château, was built in 1770 as a guest-house. On the death
+in 1830 of the duke of Bourbon, the last representative of the
+house of Condé, the estate passed into the hands of Henri, duc
+d&rsquo;Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe. In 1852 the house of
+Orleans was declared incapable of possessing property in France,
+and Chantilly was accordingly sold by auction. Purchased by
+the English bankers, Coutts &amp; Co., it passed back into the hands
+of the duc d&rsquo;Aumale, in 1872. By him a magnificent palace,
+including a fine chapel in the Renaissance style, was erected on
+the foundations of the ancient grand château and in the style
+of the châtelet. It is quadrilateral in shape, consisting of four
+unequal sides flanked by towers and built round a courtyard.
+The whole group of buildings as well as the pleasure-ground
+behind them, known as the Parterre de la Volière, is surrounded
+by fosses supplied with water from the Nonette. On the terrace
+in front of the château there is a bronze statue of the constable
+Anne de Montmorency. The duc d&rsquo;Aumale installed in the
+châtelet a valuable library, specially rich in incunabula and 16th
+century editions of classic authors, and a collection of the paintings
+of the great masters, besides many other objects of art.
+By a public act in 1886 he gave the park and château with its
+superb collections to the Institute of France in trust for the
+nation, reserving to himself only a life interest; and when he
+died in 1897 the Institute acquired full possession.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1782-1841), English
+sculptor, was born on the 7th of April 1782 at Norton near
+Sheffield, where his father, a carpenter, cultivated a small farm.
+His father died when he was eight years of age; and his mother
+having married again, his profession was left to be chosen by his
+friends. In his sixteenth year he was on the point of being
+apprenticed to a grocer in Sheffield, when, having seen some
+wood-carving in a shop-window, he requested to be made a carver
+instead, and was accordingly placed with a Mr Ramsey, wood-carver
+in Sheffield. In this situation he became acquainted with
+Raphael Smith, a distinguished draftsman in crayon, who gave
+him lessons in painting; and Chantrey, eager to commence his
+course as an artist, procured the cancelling of his indentures, and
+went to try his fortune in Dublin and Edinburgh, and finally
+(1802) in London. Here he first obtained employment as an
+assistant wood-carver, but at the same time devoted himself
+to portrait-painting, bust-sculpture, and modelling in clay. He
+exhibited pictures at the Academy for some years from 1804,
+but from 1807 onwards devoted himself mainly to sculpture.
+The sculptor Nollekens showed particular zeal in recognizing
+his merits. In 1807 he married his cousin, Miss Wale, who had
+some property of her own. His first imaginative work in sculpture
+was the model of the head of Satan, which was exhibited at the
+Royal Academy in 1808. He afterwards executed for Greenwich
+hospital four colossal busts of the admirals Duncan, Howe,
+Vincent and Nelson; and so rapidly did his reputation spread
+that the next bust which he executed, that of Horne Tooke,
+procured him commissions to the extent of £12,000. From this
+period he was almost uninterruptedly engaged in professional
+labour. In 1819 he visited Italy, and became acquainted with
+the most distinguished sculptors of Florence and Rome. He was
+chosen an associate (1815) and afterwards a member (1818)
+of the Royal Academy, received the degree of M.A. from
+Cambridge, and that of D.C.L. from Oxford, and in 1835
+was knighted. He died after an illness of only two hours&rsquo;
+duration on the 25th of November 1841, having for some years
+suffered from disease of the heart, and was buried in a tomb
+constructed by himself in the church of his native village.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Chantrey are extremely numerous. The principal
+are the statues of Washington in the State-house at Boston,
+U.S.A.; of George III. in the Guildhall, London; of George IV.
+at Brighton; of Pitt in Hanover Square, London; of James
+Watt in Westminster Abbey and in Glasgow; of Roscoe and
+Canning in Liverpool; of Dalton in Manchester; of Lord
+President Blair and Lord Melville in Edinburgh, &amp;c. Of his equestrian
+statues the most famous are those of Sir Thomas Munro
+in Calcutta, and the duke of Wellington in front of the London
+Exchange. But the finest of Chantrey&rsquo;s works are his busts,
+and his delineations of children. The figures of two children
+asleep in each other&rsquo;s arms, which form a monumental design in
+Lichfield cathedral, have always been lauded for beauty, simplicity
+and grace. So is also the statue of the girlish Lady Louisa
+Russell, represented as standing on tiptoe and fondling a dove
+in her bosom. Both these works appear, in design, to have
+owed something to Stothard; for Chantrey knew his own
+scantiness of ideal invention or composition, and on system
+sought aid from others for such attempts. In busts, his leading
+excellence is facility&mdash;a ready unconstrained air of life, a prompt
+vivacity of ordinary expression. Allan Cunningham and Weekes
+were his chief assistants, and were indeed the active executants
+of many works that pass under Chantrey&rsquo;s name. Chantrey
+was a man of warm and genial temperament, and is said to have
+borne noticeable though commonplace resemblance to the
+usual portraits of Shakespeare.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chantrey Bequest.</i>&mdash;By the will dated the 31st of December
+1840, Chantrey (who had no children) left his whole residuary
+personal estate after the decease or on the second marriage of his
+widow (less certain specified annuities and bequests) in trust for
+the president and trustees of the Royal Academy (or in the event
+of the dissolution of the Royal Academy, to such society as might
+take its place), the income to be devoted to the encouragement of
+British fine art in painting and sculpture only, by &ldquo;the purchase
+of works of fine art of the highest merit ... that can be obtained.&rdquo;
+The funds might be allowed to accumulate for not more than five
+years; works by British or foreign artists, dead or living, might be
+acquired, so long as such works were entirely executed within the
+shores of Great Britain, the artists having been in residence there
+during such execution and completion. The prices to be paid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span>
+were to be &ldquo;liberal,&rdquo; and no sympathy for an artist or his family
+was to influence the selection or the purchase of works, which
+were to be acquired solely on the ground of intrinsic merit. No
+commission or orders might be given: the works must be finished
+before purchase. Conditions were made as to the exhibition of
+the works, in the confident expectation that as the intention of
+the testator was to form and establish a &ldquo;public collection of
+British Fine Art in Painting and Sculpture,&rdquo; the government or
+the country would provide a suitable gallery for their display;
+and an annual sum of £300 and £50 was to be paid to the president
+of the Royal Academy and the secretary respectively, for the
+discharge of their duties in carrying out the provisions of the
+will.</p>
+
+<p>Lady Chantrey died in 1875, and two years later the fund
+became available for the purchase of paintings and sculptures.
+The capital sum available amounted to £105,000 in 3% Consols,
+which (since reduced to 2½%) produces an available annual
+income varying from £2500 to £2100. Galleries in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum at South Kensington were at first adopted
+as the depository of the works acquired, until in 1898 the Royal
+Academy arranged with the treasury, on behalf of the government,
+for the transference of the collection to the National
+Gallery of British Art, which had been erected by Sir Henry
+Tate at Millbank. It was agreed that the &ldquo;Tate Gallery&rdquo; should
+be its future home, and that &ldquo;no power of selection or elimination
+is claimed on behalf of the trustees and director of the National
+Gallery&rdquo; (Treasury Letter, 18054-98, 7th December 1898) in
+respect of the pictures and sculptures which were then to be
+handed over and which should, from time to time, be sent to
+augment the collection. Inasmuch as it was felt that the provision
+that all works must be complete to be eligible for purchase
+militated against the most advantageous disposition of the fund
+in respect of sculpture, in the case of wax models or plaster casts
+before being converted into marble or bronze, it was sought in
+the action of <i>Sir F. Leighton</i> v. <i>Hughes</i> (tried by Mr Justice
+North, judgment May 7th, 1888, and in the court of appeal,
+before the master of the rolls, Lord Justice Cotton, and Lord
+Justice Fry, judgment June 4th, 1889&mdash;the master of the rolls
+dissenting) to allow of sculptors being commissioned to complete
+in bronze or marble a work executed in wax or plaster, such
+&ldquo;completion&rdquo; being more or less a mechanical process. The
+attempt, however, was abortive.</p>
+
+<p>A growing discontent with the interpretation put by the
+Royal Academy upon the terms of the will as shown in the works
+acquired began to find expression more than usually forcible and
+lively in the press during the year 1903, and a debate raised in the
+House of Lords by the earl of Lytton led to the appointment of a
+select committee of the House of Lords, which sat from June to
+August 1904. The committee consisted of the earls of Carlisle,
+Lytton, and Crewe, and Lords Windsor, Ribblesdale, Newton,
+and Killanin, and the witnesses represented the Royal Academy
+and representative art institutions and art critics. The report
+(ordered to be printed on the 8th of August 1904) made certain
+recommendations with a view to the prevention of certain former
+errors of administration held to have been sustained, but dismissed
+other charges against the Academy. In reply thereto a
+memorandum was issued by the Royal Academy (February
+1905, ordered to be printed on the 7th of August 1905&mdash;Paper
+166) disagreeing with certain recommendations, but allowing
+others, either intact or in a modified form.</p>
+
+<p>Up to 1905 inclusive 203 works had been bought&mdash;all except
+two from living painters&mdash;at a cost of nearly £68,000. Of these,
+175 were in oil-colours, 12 in water-colours, and 16 sculptures
+(10 in bronze and 6 marble).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Administration of the Chantrey Bequest</i>, by D.S. MacColl
+(l6mo, London, 1904), a highly controversial publication by the
+leading assailant of the Royal Academy: <i>Chantrey and His Bequest</i>,
+by Arthur Fish, a complete illustrated record of the purchases, &amp;c.
+(London, 1904); <i>The Royal Academy, its Uses and Abuses</i>, by H.J.
+Laidlay (London, 1898), controversial; <i>Report from the Select Committee
+of the House of Lords on the Chantrey Trust; together with the
+Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix</i>
+(Wyman &amp; Sons, 1904), and <i>Index</i> (separate publication, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANT ROYAL,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> one of the fixed forms of verse invented by
+the ingenuity of the poets of medieval France. It is composed
+of five strophes, identical in arrangement, of eleven verses each,
+and of an envoi of five verses. All the strophes are written on the
+five rhymes exhibited in the first strophe, the entire poem,
+therefore, consisting of sixty lines in the course of which five
+rhymes are repeated. It has been conjectured that the chant
+royal is an extended ballade, or rather a ballade conceived upon a
+larger scale; but which form preceded the other appears to be
+uncertain. On this point Henri de Croï, who wrote about these
+forms of verse in his <i>Art et science de rhétorique</i> (1493), throws no
+light. He dwells, however, on the great dignity of what he calls
+the &ldquo;Champt Royal,&rdquo; and says that those who defy with success
+the ardour of its rules deserve crowns and garlands for their
+pains. Étienne Pasquier (1529-1615) points out the fact that the
+Chant Royal, by its length and the rigidity of its structure, is
+better fitted than the ballade for solemn and pompous themes.
+In Old French, the most admired chants royal are those of Clement
+Marot; his <i>Chant royal chrestien</i>, with its refrain</p>
+
+<p class="center">&ldquo;Santé au corps, et Paradis à l&rsquo;âme,&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">was celebrated. Théodore de Banville defines the chant royal as
+essentially belonging to ages of faith, when its subjects could be
+either the exploits of a hero of royal race or the processional
+splendours of religion. La Fontaine was the latest of the French
+poets to attempt the chant royal, until it was resuscitated in
+modern times.</p>
+
+<p>This species of poem was unknown in English medieval literature
+and was only introduced into Great Britain in the last
+quarter of the 19th century. The earliest chant royal in English
+was that published by Edmund Gosse in 1877; it is here
+given to exemplify the structure and rhyme-arrangement of the
+form:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">The Praise of Dionysus</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Behold, above the mountains there is light,</p>
+<p class="i05">A streak of gold, a line of gathering fire,</p>
+<p class="i05">And the dim East hath suddenly grown bright</p>
+<p class="i05">With pale aerial flame, that drives up higher</p>
+<p class="i05">The lurid mists which all the night long were</p>
+<p class="i05">Breasting the dark ravines and coverts bare;</p>
+<p class="i05">Behold, behold! the granite gates unclose,</p>
+<p class="i05">And down the vales a lyric people flows,</p>
+<p class="i05">Who dance to music, and in dancing fling</p>
+<p class="i05">Their frantic robes to every wind that blows,</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p>
+
+<p class="i05 s">Nearer they press, and nearer still in sight,</p>
+<p class="i05">Still dancing blithely in a seemly choir;</p>
+<p class="i05">Tossing on high the symbol of their rite,</p>
+<p class="i05">The cone-tipp&rsquo;d thyrsus of a god&rsquo;s desire;</p>
+<p class="i05">Nearer they come, tall damsels flushed and fair,</p>
+<p class="i05">With ivy circling their abundant hair,</p>
+<p class="i05">Onward, with even pace, in stately rows,</p>
+<p class="i05">With eye that flashes, and with cheek that glows,</p>
+<p class="i05">And all the while their tribute-songs they bring,</p>
+<p class="i05">And newer glories of the past disclose</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p>
+
+<p class="i05 s">The pure luxuriance of their limbs is white,</p>
+<p class="i05">And flashes clearer as they draw the nigher,</p>
+<p class="i05">Bathed in an air of infinite delight,</p>
+<p class="i05">Smooth without wound of thorn, or fleck of mire,</p>
+<p class="i05">Borne up by song as by a trumpet&rsquo;s blare,</p>
+<p class="i05">Leading the van to conquest, on they fare,</p>
+<p class="i05">Fearless and bold, whoever comes or goes,</p>
+<p class="i05">These shining cohorts of Bacchantes close,</p>
+<p class="i05">Shouting and shouting till the mountains ring,</p>
+<p class="i05">And forests grim forget their ancient woes,</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p>
+
+<p class="i05 s">And youths there are for whom full many a night</p>
+<p class="i05">Brought dreams of bliss, vague dreams that haunt and tire</p>
+<p class="i05">Who rose in their own ecstasy bedight,</p>
+<p class="i05">And wandered forth through many a scourging briar,</p>
+<p class="i05">And waited shivering in the icy air,</p>
+<p class="i05">And wrapped the leopard-skin about them there,</p>
+<p class="i05">Knowing for all the bitter air that froze,</p>
+<p class="i05">The time must come, that every poet knows,</p>
+<p class="i05">When he shall rise and feel himself a king,</p>
+<p class="i05">And follow, follow where the ivy grows,</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span></p>
+
+<p class="i05 s">But oh! within the heart of this great flight,</p>
+<p class="i05">Whose ivory arms hold up the golden lyre?</p>
+<p class="i05">What form is this of more than mortal height?</p>
+<p class="i05">What matchless beauty, what inspiréd ire?</p>
+<p class="i05">The brindled panthers know the prize they bear,</p>
+<p class="i05">And harmonize their steps with tender care;</p>
+<p class="i05">Bent to the morning, like a living rose,</p>
+<p class="i05">The immortal splendour of his face he shows;</p>
+<p class="i05">And, where he glances, leaf and flower and wing</p>
+<p class="i05">Tremble with rapture, stirred in their repose,</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center ptb1"><i>Envoi</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="i05"><span class="sc">Prince</span> of the flute and ivy, all thy foes</p>
+<p class="i05">Record the bounty that thy grace bestows,</p>
+<p class="i05">But we, thy servants, to thy glory cling,</p>
+<p class="i05">And with no frigid lips our songs compose,</p>
+<p class="i05"><i>And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the middle ages the chant royal was largely used for the
+praise of the Virgin Mary. Eustache Deschamps (1340-1410)
+distinguishes these Marian chants royaux, which were called
+&ldquo;serventois,&rdquo; by the absence of an envoi. These poems are first
+mentioned by Rutebeuf, a <i>trouvère</i> of the 13th century. The
+chant royal is practically unknown outside French and English
+literature.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANTRY<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (Fr. <i>chanterie</i>, from <i>chanter</i>, to sing; Med. Lat. <i>cantuaria</i>),
+a small chapel built out from a church, endowed in pre-Reformation
+times for the express purpose of maintaining priests
+for the chanting of masses for the soul of the founder or of some one
+named by him. It generally contained the tomb of the founder,
+and, as the officiator or mass-priest was often unconnected with
+the parochial clergy, had an entrance from the outside. The
+word passed through graduations of meaning. Its first sense was
+singing or chanting. Then it meant the endowment funds, next
+the priests, and then the church or chapel itself.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANUTE,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a city of Neosho county, Kansas, U.S.A., 1 m.
+from the Neosho river, and about 120 m. S.S.W. of Kansas city.
+Pop. (1890) 2826; (1900) 4208, of whom 210 were foreign-born
+and 171 were negroes; (1910 census) 9272. Chanute is served
+by the Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fe and the Missouri, Kansas
+&amp; Texas railways, the former having large repair shops. The
+city is in the Kansas-Oklahoma oil and gas field, and is
+surrounded by a fine farming and dairying region, in which
+special attention is given to the raising of small fruit; oil, gas,
+cement rock and brick shale are found in the vicinity. Among
+the city&rsquo;s manufactures are refined oil, Portland cement, vitrified
+brick and tile, glass, asphalt, ice, cigars, drilling machinery, and
+flour. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks,
+a natural gas plant, and an electric lighting plant. Four towns&mdash;
+New Chicago, Tioga, Chicago Junction and Alliance&mdash;were
+started here about the same time (1870). In 1872 they were
+consolidated, and the present name was adopted in honour of
+Octave Chanute (b. 1832), the civil engineer and aeronautist
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flight and Flying</a></span>), then the engineer of the Lawrence,
+Leavenworth &amp; Galveston railway (now part of the Atchison
+system). Chanute was incorporated as a city of the third class
+in 1873, and its charter was revised in 1888. Natural gas and
+oil were found here in 1899, and Chanute became one of the
+leaders of the Kansas independent refineries in their contest
+with the Standard Oil Company.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1823-1883), French
+general, was born at Nouart (Ardennes) on the 18th of March
+1823. The son of a cavalry officer, he was educated at the naval
+school at Brest, but enlisted in the artillery, and, subsequently
+passing through St Cyr, was commissioned in the Zouaves in
+1843. He saw a good deal of fighting in Algeria, and was promoted
+lieutenant in 1848, and captain in 1851. He became
+<i>chef de bataillon</i> in 1856, and served in the Lombardy campaign
+of 1859, being present at Magenta and Solferino. He took part
+in the Syrian campaign of 1860-61 as a lieutenant-colonel; and
+as colonel commanded the 48th regiment at Rome in 1864.
+He returned to Algeria as general of brigade, assisted to quell
+the Arab insurrection, and commanded the subdivisions of Bel
+Abbes and Tlemçen in 1868. Although he had acquired a good
+professional reputation, he was in bad odour at the war office
+on account of suspected contributions to the press, and at the
+outbreak of the Franco-German War he was curtly refused a
+brigade command. After the revolution, however, the government
+of national defence called him from Algeria, made him
+a general of division, and gave him command of the XVI. corps
+of the army of the Loire. (For the operations of the Orleans
+campaign which followed, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>.) The
+Loire army won the greatest success of the French during the
+whole war at Coulmiers, and followed this up with another
+victorious action at Patay; in both engagements General
+Chanzy&rsquo;s corps took the most brilliant part. After the second
+battle of Orleans and the separation of the two wings of the
+French army, Chanzy was appointed to command that in the
+west, designated the second army of the Loire. His enemies,
+the grand duke of Mecklenburg, Prince Frederick Charles, and
+General von der Tann, all regarded Chanzy as their most formidable
+opponent. He displayed conspicuous moral courage
+and constancy, not less than technical skill, in the fighting from
+Beaugency to the Loire, in his retreat to Le Mans, and in
+retiring to Laval behind the Mayenne. As Gambetta was
+the soul, Chanzy was the strong right arm of French resistance
+to the invader. He was made a grand officer of the Legion of
+Honour, and was elected to the National Assembly. At the
+outbreak of the Commune, Chanzy, then at Paris, fell into the
+hands of the insurgents, by whom he was forced to give his
+parole not to serve against them. It was said that he would
+otherwise have been appointed instead of MacMahon to command
+the army of Versailles. A ransom of £40,000 was also paid by
+the government for him. In 1872 he became a member of the
+committee of defence and commander of the VII. army corps,
+and in 1873 was appointed governor of Algeria, where he remained
+for six years. In 1875 he was elected a life senator, in
+1878 received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and in
+1879, without his consent, was nominated for the presidency of
+the republic, receiving a third of the total votes. For two years
+he was ambassador at St Petersburg, during which time he
+received many tokens of respect, not only from the Russians,
+but also from the German emperor, William I., and Prince
+Bismarck. He died suddenly, while commanding the VI. army
+corps (stationed nearest to the German frontier), at Châlons-sur-Marne,
+on the 4th of January 1883, only a few days after Gambetta,
+and his remains received a state funeral. He was the
+author of <i>La Deuxième Armée de la Loire</i> (1872). Statues of
+General Chanzy have been erected at Nouart and Le Mans.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAOS,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> in the Hesiodic theogony, the infinite empty space,
+which existed before all things (<i>Theog.</i> 116, 123). It is not,
+however, a mere abstraction, being filled with clouds and darkness;
+from it proceed Erebus and Nyx (Night), whose children
+are Aether (upper air) and Hemera (Day). In the Orphic
+cosmogony the origin of all goes back to Chronos, the personification
+of time, who produces Aether and Chaos. In the Aristophanic
+parody (<i>Birds</i>, 691) the winged Eros in conjunction with
+gloomy Chaos brings forth the race of birds. The later Roman
+conception (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> i. 7) makes Chaos the original
+undigested, amorphous mass, into which the architect of the
+world introduces order and harmony, and from which individual
+forms are created. In the created world (cosmos, order of the
+universe) the word has various meanings:&mdash;the universe;
+the space between heaven and earth; the under-world and its
+ruler. Metaphorically it is used for the immeasurable darkness,
+eternity, and the infinite generally. In modern usage &ldquo;chaos&rdquo;
+denotes a state of disorder and confusion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPBOOK<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>chap</i>, to buy and sell), the
+comparatively modern name applied by booksellers and bibliophiles
+to the little stitched tracts written for the common people
+and formerly circulated in England, Scotland and the American
+colonies by itinerant dealers or chapmen, consisting chiefly of
+vulgarized versions of popular stories, such as <i>Tom Thumb</i>,
+<i>Jack the Giant Killer</i>, <i>Mother Shipton</i>, and <i>Reynard the
+Fox</i>&mdash;travels, biographies and religious treatises. Few of the older
+chapbooks exist. Samuel Pepys collected some of the best and
+had them bound into small quarto volumes, which he called
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span>
+Vulgaria; also four volumes of a smaller size, which he lettered
+<i>Penny Witticisms, Penny Merriments, Penny Compliments</i> and
+<i>Penny Godlinesses</i>. The early chapbooks were the direct
+descendants of the black-letter tracts of Wynkyn de Worde. It
+was in France that the printing-press first began to supply
+reading for the common people. At the end of the 15th century
+there was a large popular literature of farces, tales in verse and
+prose, satires, almanacs, &amp;c., stitched together so as to contain
+a few leaves, and circulated by itinerant booksellers, known as
+colporteurs. Most early English chapbooks are adaptations or
+translations of these French originals, and were introduced into
+England early in the 16th century. The chapbooks of the 17th
+century present us with valuable illustrations of the manners
+of the time; one of the best known is that containing the story
+of Dick Whittington. Others which had a great vogue are <i>Jack
+the Giant Killer, Little Red Riding Hood</i>, and <i>Mother Shipton</i>.
+Those of the 18th century are far inferior in every way, both as
+regards the literature and the printing; and unfortunately it
+is these which form the bulk of what is now known to us in
+collections as chapbooks. They have never exercised any great
+influence in England nor received much attention, owing no
+doubt to their poor literary character. In France, on the other
+hand, their French equivalents have been the object of close and
+systematic study, and <i>L&rsquo;Histoire des livres populaires ou de la
+littérature du colportage</i> by Charles Nisard (1854) goes deeply into
+the subject. Amongst English books may be mentioned <i>Notices
+of Fugitive Tracts and Chapbooks</i>, by J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps
+(1849); <i>Chapbooks of the 18th Century</i>, by John Ashton (1882),
+and some reprints by the Villon Society in 1885. The word &ldquo;chapbook&rdquo;
+has not been noticed earlier than 1824, when Dibdin, the
+celebrated bibliographer, described a work as being &ldquo;a chapbook,
+printed in rather a neat black-letter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>chape</i>, a hood, cope or sheath), a cover
+or metal plate, such as the cap upon the needle in the compass,
+also the transverse guard of a sword which protects the hand.
+From the original meaning comes the use of the word as a support
+or catch to attach one thing to another, as the hook on a belt
+to which the sword is fastened. The word is also used for the tip
+of a fox&rsquo;s brush.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPEL,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> a place of religious worship,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a name properly applied
+to that of a Christian religious body, but sometimes to any small
+temple of pagan worship (Lat. <i>sacellum</i>). The word is derived
+through the O. Fr. <i>chapele</i>, modern <i>chapelle</i>, from the Late Lat.
+<i>capelle</i> or <i>cappella</i>, diminutive of <i>cappa</i>, a cape, particularly that
+of a monk. This word was transferred to any sanctuary containing
+relics, in the early history of the Frankish Church,
+because the cloak of St Martin, <i>cappa brevior Sancti Martini</i>,
+one of the most sacred relics of the Frankish kings, was carried
+in a sanctuary or shrine wherever the king went; and oaths were
+taken on it (see Ducange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> <i>Capella</i>). Such a
+sanctuary was served by a priest, who was hence called <i>capellanus</i>,
+from which is derived the English &ldquo;chaplain&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). The strict
+application of the word to a sanctuary containing relics was
+extended to embrace any place of worship other than a church,
+and it was synonymous, therefore, with &ldquo;oratory&rdquo; (<i>oratorium</i>),
+especially one attached to a palace or to a private dwelling-house.
+The celebrated Sainte Chapelle in Paris, attached to what is now
+the Palais de Justice, well illustrates the early and proper meaning
+of the word. It was built (consecration, 1248) by St Louis
+of France to contain the relic of the Crown of Thorns, ransomed
+by the king from the Venetians, who held it in pawn from the
+Latin emperor of the East, John of Brienne, lately dead. The
+chapel served as the sanctuary of the relic lodged in the
+upper chapel, and the whole building was attached as the place
+of worship to the king&rsquo;s palace. This, the primary meaning,
+survives in the chapels usually placed in the aisles of cathedrals
+and large churches. They were originally built either to contain
+relics of a particular saint to whom they were dedicated, or
+the tomb of a particular family.</p>
+
+<p>In the Church of England the word is applied to a private
+place of worship, attached either to the palaces of the sovereign,
+&ldquo;chapels royal,&rdquo; or to the residence of a private person, to a
+college, school, prison, workhouse, &amp;c. Further, the word has
+particular legal applications, though in each case the building
+might be and often is styled a church. These are places of
+worship supplementary to a parish church, and may be either
+&ldquo;chapels of ease,&rdquo; to ease or relieve the mother-church and serve
+those parishioners who may live far away, &ldquo;parochial chapels,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;churches&rdquo; of ancient divisions of a very large and widely
+scattered parish, or &ldquo;district chapels,&rdquo; those of a district of a
+parish divided under the various church building acts. A &ldquo;free
+chapel&rdquo; is one founded by the king and by his authority, and
+visited by him and not by the bishop. A &ldquo;proprietary chapel&rdquo;
+is one that belongs to a private person. They are anomalies
+to the English ecclesiastical law, have no parish rights, and can
+be converted to other than religious purposes, but a clergyman
+may be licensed to perform duty in such a place of worship. In
+the early and middle part of the 19th century such proprietary
+chapels were common, but they have practically ceased to exist.
+&ldquo;Chapel&rdquo; was early and still is in England the general name of
+places of worship other than those of the established Church,
+but the application of &ldquo;church&rdquo; to all places of worship without
+distinction of sect is becoming more and more common. The
+word &ldquo;chapel&rdquo; was in this restricted sense first applied to places
+of worship belonging to the Roman Church in England, and was
+thus restricted to those attached to foreign embassies, or to those
+of the consorts of Charles I. and II. and James II., who were
+members of that church. The word is still frequently the general
+term for Roman Catholic churches in Great Britain and always
+so in Ireland. The use of &ldquo;chapel&rdquo; as a common term for all
+Nonconformist places of worship was general through most of the
+19th century, so that &ldquo;church and chapel&rdquo; was the usual phrase
+to mark the distinction between members of the established
+Church and those of Nonconformist bodies. Here the widened
+use of &ldquo;church&rdquo; noticed above has been especially marked.
+Most of the recent buildings for worship erected by Nonconformist
+bodies will be found to be styled Wesleyan, Congregational,
+&amp;c., churches. It would appear that while the word
+&ldquo;chapel&rdquo; was not infrequent in the early history of Nonconformity,
+&ldquo;meeting-house&rdquo; was the more usual term.</p>
+
+<p>From the architectural point of view the addition of chapels
+to a cathedral or large church assumes some historical importance
+in consequence of the changes it involved in the plan. It was
+the introduction of the apsidal chapels in the churches of France
+which eventually led to the <i>chevet</i> or cluster of eastern chapels
+in many of the great cathedrals, and also sometimes to the
+extension of the transept so as to include additional apsidal
+chapels on the east side. In France, and to a certain extent in
+Italy, the multiplication of chapels led to their being placed on
+the north and south side of the aisles, and in some cases, as at
+Albi in France, to the suppression of the aisles and the instalment
+of the chapels in their place. The chapels of the colleges at
+Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes of large dimensions and
+architecturally of great importance, that of Christ Church being
+actually the cathedral of Oxford; among others may be mentioned
+the chapel of Merton College, and the new chapel of Exeter
+College, both in Oxford, and the chapel of King&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge, which is roofed over with perhaps the finest fan-vault
+in England. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span>, Plate II., fig. 19.)</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The only other English sense is that of a printer&rsquo;s workshop, or
+the body of compositors in it, who are presided over by a &ldquo;father
+of the chapel.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPELAIN, JEAN<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1595-1674), French poet and man of
+letters, the son of a notary, was born in Paris on the 4th of
+December 1595. His father destined him for his own profession;
+but his mother, who had known Ronsard, had determined
+otherwise. At an early age Chapelain began to qualify himself
+for literature, learning, under Nicolas Bourbon, Greek and Latin,
+and teaching himself Italian and Spanish. Having finished his
+studies, he was engaged for a while in teaching Spanish to a
+young nobleman. He was then appointed tutor to the two sons
+of a M. de la Trousse, grand provost of France. Attached for
+the next seventeen years to the family of this gentleman, the
+administration of whose fortune was wholly in his hands, he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span>
+seems to have published nothing during this period, yet to have
+acquired a great reputation as a probability. His first work
+given to the public was a preface for the <i>Adone</i> of Marini, who
+printed and published that notorious poem at Paris. This was
+followed by an excellent translation of Mateo Aleman&rsquo;s novel,
+<i>Guzmán de Alfarache</i>, and by four extremely indifferent odes,
+one of them addressed to Richelieu. The credit of introducing
+the law of the dramatic unities into French literature has been
+claimed for many writers, and especially for the Abbé d&rsquo;Aubignac,
+whose <i>Pratique du théâtre</i> appeared in 1657. The theory had
+of course been enunciated in the <i>Art poétique</i> of J.C. Scaliger
+in 1561, and subsequently by other writers, but there is no doubt
+that it was the action of Chapelain that transferred it from the
+region of theory to that of actual practice. In a conversation
+with Richelieu in about 1632, reported by the abbé d&rsquo;Olivet,
+Chapelain maintained that it was indispensable to maintain the
+unities of time, place and action, and it is explicitly stated that
+the doctrine was new to the cardinal and to the poets who were
+in his pay. French classical drama thus owes the riveting of its
+fetters to Chapelain. Rewarded with a pension of a thousand
+crowns, and from the first an active member of the newly-constituted
+Academy, Chapelain drew up the plan of the grammar
+and dictionary the compilation of which was to be a principal
+function of the young institution, and at Richelieu&rsquo;s command
+drew up the <i>Sentiments de l&rsquo;Académie sur le Cid</i>. In 1656 he
+published, in a magnificent form, the first twelve cantos of his
+celebrated epic <i>La Pucelle</i>,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> on which he had been engaged during
+twenty years. Six editions of the poem were disposed of in
+eighteen months. But this was the end of the poetic reputation
+of Chapelain, &ldquo;the legist of Parnassus&rdquo;. Later the slashing
+satire of Boileau (in this case fairly master of his subject) did
+its work, and Chapelain (&ldquo;<i>Le plus grand poète Français qu&rsquo; ait
+jamais été et du plus solide jugement</i>,&rdquo; as he is called in Colbert&rsquo;s
+list) took his place among the failures of modern art.</p>
+
+<p>Chapelain&rsquo;s reputation as a critic survived this catastrophe,
+and in 1663 he was employed by Colbert to draw up an account
+of contemporary men of letters, destined to guide the king in
+his distribution of pensions. In this pamphlet, as in his letters,
+he shows to far greater advantage than in his unfortunate epic.
+His prose is incomparably better than his verse; his criticisms
+are remarkable for their justice and generosity; his erudition
+and kindliness of heart are everywhere apparent; the royal
+attention is directed alike towards the author&rsquo;s firmest friends
+and bitterest enemies. To him young Racine was indebted
+not only for kindly and seasonable counsel, but also for that
+pension of six hundred livres which was so useful to him. The
+catholicity of his taste is shown by his <i>De la lecture des vieux
+romans</i> (pr. 1870), in which he praises the <i>chansons de geste</i>,
+forgotten by his generation. Chapelain refused many honours,
+and his disinterestedness in this and other cases makes it necessary
+to receive with caution the stories of Ménage and Tallemant des
+Réaux, who assert that he was in his old age a miser, and that
+a considerable fortune was found hoarded in his apartments
+when he died on the 22nd of February 1674.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is a very favourable estimate of Chapelain&rsquo;s merits as a
+critic in George Saintsbury&rsquo;s <i>History of Criticism</i>, ii. 256-261.
+An analysis of <i>La Pucelle</i> is given in pp. 23-79 of Robert Southey&rsquo;s
+<i>Joan of Arc</i>. See also <i>Les Lettres de Jean Chapelain</i> (ed. P. Tanuzey
+de Larroque, 1880-1882); <i>Lettres inédites ... à P.D. Huet</i> (1658-1673,
+ed. by L.G. Pellissier, 1894); Julien Duchesne, <i>Les Poèmes
+épiques du XVIIe siècle</i> (1870); the abbé A. Fabre, <i>Les Ennemis de
+Chapelain</i> (1888), <i>Chapelain et nos deux premières Académies</i> (1890);
+and A. Muehlan,<i> Jean Chapelain</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The last twelve cantos of <i>La Pucelle</i> were edited (1882) from the
+MS. with corrections and a preface in the author&rsquo;s autograph, in the
+<i>Bibliothèque Nationale</i>, by H. Herluison. Another edition, by E. de
+Molènes (2 vols.), was published in 1892.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> a market town in the High Peak
+parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 20 m. S.E. of
+Manchester, on the London &amp; North-Western and Midland
+railways. Pop. (1901) 4626. It lies in an upland valley of the
+Peak district, the hills of which rise above 1200 ft. in its immediate
+vicinity. There are paper-works and ironworks, and
+brewing is carried on. The foundation of the church of St
+Thomas of Canterbury is attributed to the foresters of the royal
+forest or frith of the Peak early in the 13th century; and from
+this the town took name. After the defeat of the Scottish forces
+at Preston by Cromwell in 1648, it is said that 1500 prisoners
+were confined in the church at Chapel-en-le-Frith.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPEL HILL,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a town of Orange county, North Carolina,
+U.S.A., about 28 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1900) 1099; (1910)
+1149. It is served by a branch of the Southern railway, connecting
+at University, 10 m. distant, with the Greensboro &amp; Goldsboro
+division. The town is best known as the seat of the University
+of North Carolina (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">North Carolina</a></span>), whose campus contains
+48 acres. There are cotton and knitting mills and lumber interests
+of some importance. Chapel Hill was settled late in the 18th
+century, and was first incorporated in 1851.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPELLE ARDENTE<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (Fr. &ldquo;burning chapel&rdquo;), the chapel
+or room in which the corpse of a sovereign or other exalted
+personage lies in state pending the funeral service. The name is
+in allusion to the many candles which arc lighted round the
+catafalque. This custom is first chronicled as occurring at the
+obsequies of Dagobert I. (602-638).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPERON,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> originally a cap or hood (Fr. <i>chape</i>) worn by
+nobles and knights of the Garter in full dress, and after the 16th
+century by middle-aged ladies. The modern use of the word is
+of a married or elderly lady (cf. &ldquo;duenna&rdquo;) escorting or protecting
+a young and unmarried girl in public places and in society.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPLAIN,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> strictly one who conducts service in a chapel
+(<i>q.v.</i>), <i>i.e.</i> a priest or minister without parochial charge who is
+attached for special duties to a sovereign or his representatives
+(ambassadors, judges, &amp;c.), to bishops, to the establishments of
+nobles, &amp;c., to institutions (<i>e.g.</i> parliament, congress, colleges,
+schools, workhouses, cemeteries), or to the army and the navy.
+In some cases a parish priest is also appointed to a chaplaincy,
+but in so far as he is a chaplain he has no parochial duties. Thus
+a bishop of the English Church appoints examining chaplains
+who conduct the examination of candidates for holy orders;
+such officials generally hold ordinary benefices also. The British
+sovereign has 36 &ldquo;Chaplains in Ordinary,&rdquo; who perform service
+at St James&rsquo;s in rotation, as well as &ldquo;Honorary Chaplains&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Chaplains of the Household.&rdquo; There are also royal chaplains
+in Scotland and Ireland. The Scottish chaplains in ordinary
+are on the same basis as those in England, but the Irish chaplains
+are attached to the household of the lord-lieutenant. The Indian
+civil service appoints a number of clergymen of the Church of
+England and the Church of Scotland. These clergymen are
+known as Chaplains, and are subject to the same conditions as
+other civil servants, being eligible for a retiring pension after 23
+years of service. Chaplains are also appointed under the foreign
+office to embassies, legations, consulates, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Workhouse chaplains are appointed by overseers and guardians
+on the direction of the Local Government Board, to which alone
+such chaplains are responsible. Prison chaplains are appointed
+by the home secretary.</p>
+
+<p>In the British army there are two kinds of chaplains, permanent
+and occasional. The former, described as Chaplains to the Forces,
+hold commissions, serving throughout the empire except in
+India: they include a Chaplain-General who ranks as a major-general,
+and four classes of subordinate chaplains who rank
+respectively as colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors and captains.
+There are about 100 in all. Special chaplains (Acting Chaplains
+for Temporary Service) may be appointed by a secretary of state
+under the Army Chaplains Act of 1868 to perform religious
+service for the army in particular districts. The permanent
+chaplains may be Church of England, Roman Catholic, or
+Presbyterian; Wesleyans (if they prefer not to accept commissions)
+may be appointed Acting Chaplains. The Church of
+England chaplains report to the chaplain-general, while other
+chaplains report to the War Office direct. In the navy, chaplains
+are likewise appointed but do not hold official rank. They must
+have a special ecclesiastical licence from the archbishop of
+Canterbury. In 1900 a Chaplains&rsquo; Department of the Territorial
+Force was formed; there is no denominational restriction.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span></p>
+
+<p>In the armies and navies of all Christian countries chaplains
+are officially appointed, with the single exception of France,
+where the office was abolished on the separation of Church and
+State. In the army of the United States of America chaplains
+are originally appointed by the president, and subsequently are
+under the authority of the secretary of war, who receives recommendations
+as regards transfer from department commanders.
+By act of Congress, approved in April 1904, the establishment of
+chaplains was fixed at 57 (15 with the rank of major), 12 for the
+artillery corps and 1 each for the cavalry and infantry regiments.
+There is no distinction of sect. In the U.S. navy the chaplains
+are 24 in number, of whom 13 rank as lieutenants, 7 as commanders,
+4 as captains.</p>
+
+<p>In the armies of Roman Catholic countries there are elaborate
+regulations. Where the chaplains are numerous a chaplain-major
+is generally appointed, but in the absence of special sanction
+from the pope such officer has no spiritual jurisdiction. Moreover,
+chaplains must be approved by the ordinary of the locality. In
+Austria there are Roman Catholic, Greek Church, Jewish and
+Mahommedan chaplains. The Roman Catholic chaplains are
+classed as parish priests, curates and assistants, and are subject
+to an army Vicar Apostolic. In war, at an army headquarters
+there are a &ldquo;field-rabbi,&rdquo; a &ldquo;military imam,&rdquo; an evangelical
+minister, as well as the Roman Catholic hierarchy. By a decree
+of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda (May 15, 1906), the
+archbishop of Westminster is the ecclesiastical superior of all
+commissioned Roman Catholic chaplains in the British army and
+navy, and he is empowered to negotiate with the civil authorities
+concerning appointments.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany, owing to the fact that there are different religions
+in the different states, there is no uniform system. In Prussia
+there are two <i>Feldprobste</i> (who are directly under the war
+minister), one Lutheran, one Roman Catholic. The latter is a
+titular bishop, and has sole spiritual authority over soldiers.
+There are also army corps and divisional chaplains of both
+faiths. Bavaria and Saxony, both Roman Catholic states, have
+no special spiritual hierarchy; in Bavaria, the archbishop of
+Munich and Freysing is <i>ex officio</i> bishop of the army.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the office of <i>capellanus</i> or <i>cappellanus</i> in the
+medieval church is generally traced (see Du Cange, <i>Gloss, med.
+et infim. Latin</i>.) to the appointment of persons to watch over
+the sacred cloak (<i>cappa</i> or <i>capella</i>) of St Martin of Tours, which
+was preserved as a relic by the French monarchs. In time of war
+this cloak was carried with the army in the field, and was kept
+in a tent which itself came to be known as a <i>cappella</i> or <i>capella</i>.
+It is also suggested that the <i>capella</i> was simply the tent or canopy
+which the French kings erected over the altar in the field for the
+worship of the soldiers. However this may be, the name <i>capellanus</i>
+was generally applied to those who were in charge of sacred
+relics: such officials were also known as <i>custodes, martyrarii,
+cubicularii</i>. Thus we hear of a <i>custos palatinae capellae</i> who was
+in charge of the palace chapel relics, and guarded them in the
+field; the chief of these <i>custodes</i> was sometimes called the <i>archicapellanus</i>.
+From the care of sacred relics preserved in royal
+chapels, &amp;c. (<i>sacella</i> or <i>capellae</i>), the office of <i>capellanus</i> naturally
+extended its scope until it covered practically that of the modern
+court chaplain, and was officially recognized by the Church.
+These clerics became the confessors in royal and noble houses,
+and were generally chosen from among bishops and other high
+dignitaries. The arch-chaplain not only received jurisdiction
+within the royal household, but represented the authority of the
+monarch in religious matters, and also acquired more general
+powers. In France the arch-chaplain was grand-almoner, and
+both in France and in the Holy Roman Empire was also high
+chancellor of the realm. The office was abolished in France at the
+Revolution in 1789, revived by Pius IX. in 1857, and again
+abolished on the fall of the Second Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Catholic Church also recognizes a class of beneficed
+chaplains, supported out of &ldquo;pious foundations&rdquo; for the specific
+duty of saying, or arranging for, certain masses, or taking part in
+certain services. These chaplains are classified as follows:&mdash;
+<i>Ecclesiastical</i>, if the foundation has been recognized officially
+as a benefice; <i>Lay</i>, if this recognition has not been obtained;
+<i>Mercenary</i>, if the person who has been entrusted with the duty
+of performing or procuring the desired celebration is a layman
+(such persons also are sometimes called &ldquo;Lay Chaplains&rdquo;);
+<i>Collative</i>, if it is provided that a bishop shall collate or confer the
+right to act upon the accepted candidate, who otherwise could
+not be recognized as an ecclesiastical chaplain. There are
+elaborate regulations governing the appointment and conduct
+of these chaplains.</p>
+
+<p>Other classes of chaplains are:&mdash;(1) <i>Parochial</i> or <i>Auxiliary
+Chaplains</i>, appointed either by a parish priest (under a provision
+authorized by the Council of Trent) or by a bishop to take over
+certain specified duties which he is unable to perform; (2)
+<i>Chaplains of Convents</i>, appointed by a bishop: these must be
+men of mature age, should not be regulars unless secular priests
+cannot be obtained, and are not generally to be appointed for
+life; (3) <i>Pontifical Chaplains</i>, some of whom (known as Private
+Chaplains) assist the pontiff in the celebration of Mass; others
+attached directly to the pope are honorary private chaplains
+who occasionally assist the private chaplains, private clerics of
+the chapel, common chaplains and supernumerary chaplains.
+The common chaplains were instituted by Alexander VII.,
+and in 1907 were definitely allowed the title &ldquo;Monsignore&rdquo; by
+Pius X.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPLIN, HENRY<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), English statesman, second
+son of the Rev. Henry Chaplin, of Blankney, Lincolnshire, was
+educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, and first entered
+parliament in 1868 as Conservative member for Mid-Lincolnshire.
+He represented this constituency (which under the Redistribution
+Act of 1885 became the Sleaford division) till 1906, when he was
+defeated, but in 1907 returned to the House of Commons as
+member for Wimbledon at a by-election. In 1876 he married a
+daughter of the 3rd duke of Sutherland, but lost his wife in
+1881. Outside the House of Commons he was a familiar figure
+on the Turf, winning the Derby with Hermit in 1867; and in
+politics from the first the &ldquo;Squire of Blankney&rdquo; took an active
+interest in agricultural questions, as a popular and typical
+representative of the English &ldquo;country gentleman&rdquo; class.
+Having filled the office of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
+in Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s short ministry of 1885-1886, he became
+president of the new Board of Agriculture in 1889, with a seat
+in the cabinet, and retained this post till 1892. In the Conservative
+cabinet of 1895-1900 he was president of the Local Government
+Board, and was responsible for the Agricultural Rates Act
+of 1896; but he was not included in the ministry after its
+reconstruction in 1900. Mr Chaplin had always been an advocate
+of protectionism, being in this respect the most prominent
+inheritor of the views of Lord George Bentinck; and when in
+1903 the Tariff Reform movement began under Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s
+leadership, he gave it his enthusiastic support, becoming a
+member of the Tariff Commission and one of the most strenuous
+advocates in the country of the new doctrines in opposition
+to free trade.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPMAN, GEORGE<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (? 1559-1634), English poet and
+dramatist, was born near Hitchin. The inscription on the
+portrait which forms the frontispiece of <i>The Whole Works of
+Homer</i> states that he was then (1616) fifty-seven years of age.
+Anthony à Wood (<i>Athen. Oxon.</i> ii. 575) says that about 1574 he
+was sent to the university, &ldquo;but whether first to this of Oxon, or
+that of Cambridge, is to me unknown; sure I am that he
+spent some time in Oxon, where he was observed to be most
+excellent in the Latin and Greek tongues, but not in logic or
+philosophy.&rdquo; Chapman&rsquo;s first extant play, <i>The Blind Beggar
+of Alexandria</i>, was produced in 1596, and two years later Francis
+Meres mentions him in <i>Palladis Tamia</i> among the &ldquo;best for
+tragedie&rdquo; and the &ldquo;best for comedie.&rdquo; Of his life between
+leaving the university and settling in London there is no account.
+It has been suggested, from the detailed knowledge displayed
+in <i>The Shadow of Night</i> of an incident in Sir Francis Vere&rsquo;s
+campaign, that he saw service in the Netherlands. There are
+frequent entries with regard to Chapman in Henslowe&rsquo;s diary for
+the years 1598-1599, but his dramatic activity slackened during
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span>
+the following years, when his attention was chiefly occupied by his
+<i>Homer</i>. In 1604 he was imprisoned with John Marston for his
+share in <i>Eastward Ho</i>, in which offence was given to the Scottish
+party at court. Ben Jonson voluntarily joined the two, who
+were soon released. Chapman seems to have enjoyed favour
+at court, where he had a patron in Prince Henry, but in 1605
+Jonson and he were for a short time in prison again for &ldquo;a play.&rdquo;
+Beaumont, the French ambassador in London, in a despatch of
+the 5th of April 1608, writes that he had obtained the prohibition
+of a performance of <i>Biron</i> in which the queen of France was
+represented as giving Mademoiselle de Verneuil a box on the
+ears. He adds that three of the actors were imprisoned, but that
+the chief culprit, the author, had escaped (Raumer, <i>Briefe aus
+Paris</i>, 1831, ii. 276). Among Chapman&rsquo;s patrons was Robert
+Carr, earl of Somerset, to whom he remained faithful after his
+disgrace. Chapman enjoyed the friendship and admiration of
+his great contemporaries. John Webster in the preface to <i>The
+White Devil</i> praised &ldquo;his full and heightened style,&rdquo; and Ben
+Jonson told Drummond of Hawthornden that Fletcher and Chapman
+&ldquo;were loved of him.&rdquo; These friendly relations appear to
+have been interrupted later, for there is extant in the Ashmole
+MSS. an &ldquo;Invective written by Mr George Chapman against
+Mr Ben Jonson.&rdquo; Chapman died in the parish of St Giles
+in the Fields, and was buried on the 12th of May 1634 in the
+churchyard. A monument to his memory was erected by Inigo
+Jones.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div>
+
+<p>Chapman, his first biographer is careful to let us know, &ldquo;was
+a person of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate,
+qualities rarely meeting in a poet&rdquo;; he had also certain other
+merits at least as necessary to the exercise of that profession.
+He had a singular force and solidity of thought, an admirable
+ardour of ambitious devotion to the service of poetry, a deep and
+burning sense at once of the duty implied and of the dignity
+inherent in his office; a vigour, opulence, and loftiness of phrase,
+remarkable even in that age of spiritual strength, wealth and
+exaltation of thought and style; a robust eloquence, touched
+not unfrequently with flashes of fancy, and kindled at times
+into heat of imagination. The main fault of his style is one more
+commonly found in the prose than in the verse of his time,&mdash;
+a quaint and florid obscurity, rigid with elaborate rhetoric and
+tortuous with labyrinthine illustration; not dark only to the
+rapid reader through closeness and subtlety of thought, like
+Donne, whose miscalled obscurity is so often &ldquo;all glorious
+within,&rdquo; but thick and slab as a witch&rsquo;s gruel with forced and
+barbarous eccentricities of articulation. As his language in the
+higher forms of comedy is always pure and clear, and sometimes
+exquisite in the simplicity of its earnest and natural grace, the
+stiffness and density of his more ambitious style may perhaps
+be attributed to some pernicious theory or conceit of the dignity
+proper to a moral and philosophic poet. Nevertheless, many of
+the gnomic passages in his tragedies and allegoric poems are of
+singular weight and beauty; the best of these, indeed, would not
+discredit the fame of the very greatest poets for sublimity of
+equal thought and expression: witness the lines chosen by
+Shelley as the motto for a poem, and fit to have been chosen as
+the motto for his life.</p>
+
+<p>The romantic and sometimes barbaric grandeur of Chapman&rsquo;s
+<i>Homer</i> remains attested by the praise of Keats, of Coleridge
+and of Lamb; it is written at a pitch of strenuous and laborious
+exaltation, which never flags or breaks down, but never flies
+with the ease and smoothness of an eagle native to Homeric
+air. From his occasional poems an expert and careful hand
+might easily gather a noble anthology of excerpts, chiefly
+gnomic or meditative, allegoric or descriptive. The most
+notable examples of his tragic work are comprised in the series
+of plays taken, and adapted sometimes with singular licence,
+from the records of such part of French history as lies between
+the reign of Francis I. and the reign of Henry IV., ranging in date
+of subject from the trial and death of Admiral Chabot to the
+treason and execution of Marshal Biron. The two plays bearing
+as epigraph the name of that famous soldier and conspirator are
+a storehouse of lofty thought and splendid verse, with scarcely
+a flash or sparkle of dramatic action. The one play of Chapman&rsquo;s
+whose popularity on the stage survived the Restoration is
+<i>Bussy d&rsquo;Ambois</i> (d&rsquo;Amboise),&mdash;a tragedy not lacking in violence
+of action or emotion, and abounding even more in sweet and sublime
+interludes than in crabbed and bombastic passages. His
+rarest jewels of thought and verse detachable from the context
+lie embedded in the tragedy of <i>Caesar and Pompey</i>, whence the
+finest of them were first extracted by the unerring and unequalled
+critical genius of Charles Lamb. In most of his tragedies the
+lofty and labouring spirit of Chapman may be said rather to
+shine fitfully through parts than steadily to pervade the whole;
+they show nobly altogether as they stand, but even better by
+help of excerpts and selections. But the excellence of his best
+comedies can only be appreciated by a student who reads them
+fairly and fearlessly through, and, having made some small
+deductions on the score of occasional pedantry and occasional
+indecency, finds in <i>All Fools</i>, <i>Monsieur d&rsquo;Olive</i>, <i>The Gentleman
+Usher</i>, and <i>The Widow&rsquo;s Tears</i> a wealth and vigour of humorous
+invention, a tender and earnest grace of romantic poetry, which
+may atone alike for these passing blemishes and for the lack of
+such clear-cut perfection of character and such dramatic progression
+of interest as we find only in the yet higher poets of the
+English heroic age.</p>
+
+<p>So much it may suffice to say of Chapman as an original
+poet, one who held of no man and acknowledged no master, but
+from the birth of Marlowe well-nigh to the death of Jonson held
+on his own hard and haughty way of austere and sublime ambition,
+not without kindly and graceful inclination of his high
+grey head to salute such younger and still nobler compeers as
+Jonson and Fletcher. With Shakespeare we should never have
+guessed that he had come at all in contact, had not the keen
+intelligence of William Minto divined or rather discerned him
+to be the rival poet referred to in Shakespeare&rsquo;s sonnets with a
+grave note of passionate satire, hitherto as enigmatic as almost
+all questions connected with those divine and dangerous poems.
+This conjecture Professor Minto fortified by such apt collocation
+and confrontation of passages that we may now reasonably accept
+it as an ascertained and memorable fact.</p>
+
+<p>The objections which a just and adequate judgment may
+bring against Chapman&rsquo;s master-work, his translation of Homer,
+may be summed up in three epithets: it is romantic, laborious,
+Elizabethan. The qualities implied by these epithets are the
+reverse of those which should distinguish a translator of Homer;
+but setting this apart, and considering the poems as in the main
+original works, the superstructure of a romantic poet on the
+submerged foundations of Greek verse, no praise can be too
+warm or high for the power, the freshness, the indefatigable
+strength and inextinguishable fire which animate this exalted
+work, and secure for all time that shall take cognizance of English
+poetry an honoured place in its highest annals for the memory
+of Chapman.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. C. S.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chapman&rsquo;s works include:&mdash;<span class="grk" title="Skia nyktos">&#931;&#954;&#953;&#940; &#957;&#965;&#954;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>: <i>The Shadow of Night:
+Containing two Poeticall Hymnes</i> ... (1594), the second of which
+deals with Sir Francis Vere&rsquo;s campaign in the Netherlands; <i>Ovid&rsquo;s
+Banquet of Sence. A Coronet for his Mistresse Philosophie; and
+His Amorous Zodiacke with a translation of a Latine coppie, written
+by a Fryer, Anno Dom. 1400</i> (1595, 2nd ed. 1639), a collection of
+poems frequently quoted from in <i>England&rsquo;s Parnassus</i> (1600); &ldquo;De
+Guiana, carmen epicum,&rdquo; a poem prefixed to Lawrence Keymis&rsquo;s
+<i>A Relation of the second voyage to Guiana</i> (1596); <i>Hero and Leander.
+Begun by Christopher Marloe; and finished by George Chapman</i>
+(1598); <i>The Blinde begger of Alexandria, most pleasantly discoursing
+his variable humours ...</i> (acted 1596, printed 1598), a popular
+comedy; <i>A Pleasant Comedy entituled An Humerous dayes Myrth</i>
+(identified by Mr Fleay with the &ldquo;Comodey of Umero&rdquo; noted by
+Henslowe on the 11th of May 1597; printed 1599); <i>Al Fooles, A
+Comedy</i> (paid for by Henslowe on the 2nd of July 1599, its original
+name being &ldquo;The World runs on wheels&rdquo;; printed 1605); <i>The Gentleman
+Usher</i> (c. 1601, pr. 1606), a comedy; <i>Monsieur d&rsquo;Olive</i> (1604,
+pr. 1606), one of his most amusing and successful comedies; <i>Eastward
+Hoe</i> (1605), written in conjunction with Ben Jonson and
+John Marston, an excellent comedy of city life; <i>Bussy d&rsquo;Ambois,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span>
+Tragedie</i> (1604, pr. 1607, 1608, 1616, 1641, &amp;c.), the scene of which
+is laid in the court of Henry III.; <i>The Revenge of Bussy d&rsquo;Ambois.
+A Tragedie</i> (pr. 1613, but probably written much earlier); <i>The
+Conspiracie, And Tragedie of Charles Duke of Byron. Marshall of
+France, ... in two plays</i> (1607 and 1608; pr. 1608 and 1625);
+<i>May-Day, A witty Comedie</i> (pr. 1611; but probably acted as early
+as 1601); <i>The widdowes Teares. A Comedie</i> (pr. 1612; produced
+perhaps as early as 1605); <i>Caesar and Pompey: A Roman Tragedy,
+declaring their warres. Out of whose events is evicted this Proposition.
+Only a just man is a freeman</i> (pr. 1631), written, says Chapman in
+the dedication, &ldquo;long since,&rdquo; but never staged.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Tragedy of Alphonsus Emperour of Germany</i> (see the edition
+by Dr Karl Elye; Leipzig, 1867) and <i>Revenge for Honour</i> (1654)<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+both bear Chapman&rsquo;s name on the title-page, but his authorship has
+been disputed. In <i>The Ball</i> (lic. 1632; pr. 1639), a comedy, and
+<i>The Tragedie of Chabot Admirall of France</i> (lic. 1635; pr. 1639) he
+collaborated with James Shirley. <i>The memorable Masque of the two
+Honourable Houses or Inns of Court; the Middle Temple and Lyncoln&rsquo;s
+Inne</i>, was performed at court in 1613 in honour of the marriage
+of the Princess Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Whole Works of Homer: Prince of Poets. In his Iliads and
+Odysseys ...</i> appeared in 1616, and about 1624 he added <i>The Crowne
+of all Homers works Batrachomyomachia or the Battaile of Frogs and
+Mise. His Hymns and Epigrams.</i> But the whole works had been
+already published by instalments. <i>Seaven Bookes of the Iliades of
+Homer</i> had appeared in 1598, <i>Achilles Shield</i> in the same year,
+books i.-xii. about 1609; in 1611 <i>The Iliads of Homer, Prince of
+Poets</i> ...; and in 1614 <i>Twenty-four Bookes of Homer&rsquo;s Odisses</i>
+were entered at Stationers&rsquo; Hall. In 1609 he addressed to Prince
+Henry <i>Enthymiae Raptus; or the Teares of Peace</i>, and on the death
+of his patron he contributed <i>An Epicede, or Funerall Song</i> (1612).
+A paraphrase of <i>Petrarchs Seven Penitentiall Psalms</i> (1612), a poem
+in honour of the marriage of Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, and
+Frances, the divorced countess of Essex, indiscreetly entitled
+<i>Andromeda Liberata</i> ... (1614), a translation of <i>The Georgicks of
+Hesiod</i> (1618), <i>Pro Vere Autumni Lachrymae</i> (1622), in honour of
+Sir Horatio Vere, <i>A justification of a Strange Action of Nero ... also ... the
+fifth Satyre of Juvenall</i> (1629), and <i>Eugenia</i> ... (1614),
+an elegy on Sir William Russell, complete the list of his separately
+published works.</p>
+
+<p>Chapman&rsquo;s <i>Homer</i> was edited in 1857 by the Rev. Richard Hooper;
+and a reprint of his dramatic works appeared in 1873. The standard
+edition of Chapman is the <i>Works</i>, edited by R.H. Shepherd (1874-1875),
+the third volume of which contains an &ldquo;Essay on the Poetical
+and Dramatic works of George Chapman,&rdquo; by Mr Swinburne, printed
+separately in 1875. The selection of his plays (1895) for the Mermaid
+Series is edited by Mr W.L. Phelps. For the sources of the plays
+see Emil Koeppel, &ldquo;Anellen Studien zu den Dramen George Chapman&rsquo;s,
+Philip Massinger&rsquo;s und John Ford&rsquo;s&rdquo; in <i>Quellen und Forschungen
+zur Sprach und Kulturgeschichte</i> (vol. 82, Strassburg, 1897).
+The suggestion of W. Minto (see <i>Characteristics of the English Poets</i>,
+1885) that Chapman was the &ldquo;rival poet&rdquo; of Shakespeare&rsquo;s sonnets
+is amplified in Mr A. Acheson&rsquo;s <i>Shakespeare and the Rival Poet</i> (1903).
+Much satire in Chapman&rsquo;s introduction is there applied to Shakespeare.
+For other criticisms of his translation of Homer see Matthew
+Arnold, <i>Lectures on translating Homer</i> (1861), and Dr A. Lohff,
+<i>George Chapman&rsquo;s Ilias-Übersetzung</i> (Berlin, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Chapman&rsquo;s source in this piece remains undetermined. It cannot
+be the <i>Historia sui temporis</i> of Jacques de Thorn, for the 4th volume
+of his work, which relates the story, was not published until 1609
+(see Koeppel, p. 14).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This play appears to have been issued in 1653 with the title
+<i>The Parracide, or Revenge for Honour</i> as the work of Henry Glathorne.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPMAN<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>céap</i>, and Mid. Eng. <i>cheap</i>, to barter,
+cf. &ldquo;Cheapside&rdquo; in London, and Ger. <i>Kaufmann</i>), one who buys
+or sells, a trader or dealer, especially an itinerant pedlar. The
+word &ldquo;chap,&rdquo; now a slang term, meant originally a customer.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPONE, HESTER<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1727-1801), English essayist, daughter
+of Thomas Mulso, a country gentleman, was born at Twywell,
+Northamptonshire, on the 27th of October 1727. She was a
+precocious child, and at the age of nine wrote a romance
+entitled <i>The Loves of Amoret and Melissa</i>. Hecky Mulso,
+as she was familiarly called, developed a beautiful voice, which
+earned her the name of &ldquo;the linnet.&rdquo; While on a visit to
+Canterbury she made the acquaintance of the learned Mrs
+Elizabeth Carter, and soon became one of the admirers of the
+novelist Samuel Richardson. She was one of the little court
+of women who gathered at North End, Fulham; and in Miss
+Susannah Highmore&rsquo;s sketch of the novelist reading <i>Sir Charles
+Grandison</i> to his friends Miss Mulso is the central figure. She
+corresponded with Richardson on &ldquo;filial obedience&rdquo; in letters
+as long as his own, signing herself his &ldquo;ever obliged and affectionate
+child.&rdquo; She admired, however, with discrimination,
+and in the words of her biographer (<i>Posthumous Works</i>, 1807,
+p. 9) &ldquo;her letters show with what dignity, tempered with proper
+humility, she could maintain her own well-grounded opinion.&rdquo;
+In 1760 Miss Mulso, with her father&rsquo;s reluctant consent, married
+the attorney, John Chapone, who had been befriended by
+Richardson. Her husband died within a year of her marriage.
+Mrs Chapone remained in London visiting various friends.
+She had already made small contributions to various periodicals
+when she published, in 1772, her best known work, <i>Letters on
+the Improvement of the Mind.</i> This book brought her numerous
+requests from distinguished persons to undertake the education
+of their children. She died on the 25th of December 1801.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Posthumous Works of Mrs Chapone, containing her correspondence
+with Mr Richardson; a series of letters to Mrs Elizabeth
+Carter ... together with an account of her life and character drawn
+up by her own family</i> (1807).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPPE, CLAUDE<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1763-1805), French engineer, was born
+at Brûlon (Sarthe) in 1763. He was the inventor of an optical
+telegraph which was widely used in France until it was superseded
+by the electric telegraph. His device consisted of an
+upright post, on the top of which was fastened a transverse bar,
+while at the ends of the latter two smaller arms moved on pivots.
+The position of these bars represented words or letters; and by
+means of machines placed at intervals such that each was
+distinctly visible from the next, messages could be conveyed
+through 50 leagues in a quarter of an hour. The machine was
+adopted by the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and in the following
+year Chappe was appointed <i>ingénieur-télégraphe</i>; but the
+originality of his invention was so much questioned that he
+was seized with melancholia and (it is said) committed suicide
+at Paris in 1805.</p>
+
+<p>His elder brother, Ignace Urbain Jean Chappe (1760-1829),
+took part in the invention of the telegraph, and with a younger
+brother, Pierre François, from 1805 to 1823 was administrator
+of the telegraphs, a post which was also held by two other
+brothers, René and Abraham, from 1823 to 1830. Ignace was
+the author of a <i>Histoire de la télégraphie</i> (1824). An uncle, Jean
+Chappe d&rsquo;Auteroche (1728-1769), was an astronomer who
+observed two transits of Venus, one in Siberia in 1761, and the
+other in 1769 in California, where he died.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPPELL, WILLIAM<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1809-1888), English writer on music,
+a member of the London musical firm of Chappell &amp; Co., was born
+on the 20th of November 1809, eldest son of Samuel Chappell (d.
+1834), who founded the business. William Chappell is particularly
+noteworthy for his starting the Musical Antiquarian
+Society in 1840, and his publication of the standard work <i>Popular
+Music of the Olden Time</i> (1855-1859)&mdash;an expansion of a collection
+of &ldquo;national English airs&rdquo; made by him in 1838-1840.
+The modern revival of interest in English folk-songs owes much
+to this work, which has since been re-edited by Professor H.E.
+Wooldridge (1893). W. Chappell died on the 20th of August
+1888. His brother, Thomas Patey Chappell (d. 1902), meanwhile
+had largely extended the publishing business, and had started
+(1859) the Monday and Saturday Popular Concerts at St James&rsquo;s
+Hall, which were successfully managed by a younger brother,
+S. Arthur Chappell, till they came to an end towards the close
+of the century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPRA,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chupra</span>, a town of British India, the administrative
+headquarters of Saran district in Bengal, near the left
+bank of the river Gogra, just above its confluence with the
+Ganges; with a railway station on the Bengal &amp; North-Western
+line towards Oudh. Pop. (1901) 45,901, showing a decrease of
+21% in the decade. There are a government high school, a
+German Lutheran mission, and a public library endowed by
+a former maharaja of Hatwa. Chapra is the centre of trade in
+indigo and saltpetre, and conducts a large business by water as
+well as by rail.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de Chante-loup</span>
+(1756-1832), French chemist and statesman, was born at
+Nogaret, Lozère, on the 4th of June 1756. The son of an
+apothecary, he studied chemistry at Montpellier, obtaining his
+doctor&rsquo;s diploma in 1777, when he repaired to Paris. In 1781
+the States of Languedoc founded a chair of chemistry for him
+at the school of medicine in Montpellier, where he taught the
+doctrines of Lavoisier. The capital he acquired by the death
+of a wealthy uncle he employed in the establishment of chemical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span>
+works for the manufacture of the mineral acids, alum, white-lead,
+soda and other substances. His labours in the cause of applied
+science were at length recognized by the French government,
+which presented him with letters of nobility, and the cordon of
+the order of Saint Michel. During the Revolution a publication
+by Chaptal, entitled <i>Dialogue entre un Montagnard et un Girondin</i>,
+caused him to be arrested; but being speedily set at liberty
+through the intermission of his friends, he undertook, in 1793,
+the management of the saltpetre works at Grenelle. In the
+following year he went to Montpellier, where he remained till
+1797, when he returned to Paris. After the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 18th
+of Brumaire (November 9, 1799) he was made a councillor of state
+by the First Consul, and succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as minister
+of the interior, in which capacity he established a chemical
+manufactory near Paris, a school of arts, and a society of industries;
+he also reorganized the hospitals, introduced the metrical
+system of weights and measures, and otherwise greatly
+encouraged the arts and sciences. A misunderstanding between
+him and Napoleon (who conferred upon him the title of comte de
+Chanteloup) occasioned Chaptal&rsquo;s retirement from office in 1804;
+but before the end of that year he was again received into favour
+by the emperor, who bestowed on him the grand cross of the
+Legion of Honour, and made him treasurer to the conservative
+senate. On Napoleon&rsquo;s return from Elba, Chaptal was made
+director-general of commerce and manufactures and a minister
+of state. He was obliged after the downfall of the emperor to
+withdraw into private life; and his name was removed from the
+list of the peers of France until 1819. In 1816, however, he was
+nominated a member of the Academy of Sciences by Louis XVIII.
+Chaptal was especially a popularizer of science, attempting to
+apply to industry and agriculture the discoveries of chemistry.
+In this way he contributed largely to the development of modern
+industry. He died at Paris on the 30th of July 1832.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His literary works exhibit both vigour and perspicuity of style;
+he wrote, in addition to various articles, especially in the <i>Annales
+de chimie, Élémens de chimie</i> (3 vols., 1790; new ed., 1796-1803);
+<i>Traité du salpètre et des goudrons</i> (1796); <i>Tableau des principaux
+sels terreux</i> (1798); <i>Essai sur le perfectionnement des arts chimiques
+en France</i> (1800); <i>Art de faire, de gouverner, et de perfectionner les
+vins</i> (1 vol., 1801; new ed., 1819); <i>Traité théorique et pratique sur
+la culture de la vigne, &amp;c.</i>,  (2 vols., 1801; new ed., 1811); <i>Essai sur
+le blanchiment</i> (1801); <i>La Chimie appliquée aux arts</i> (4 vols., 1806);
+<i>Art de la teinture du coton en rouge</i> (1807); <i>Art du teinturier et du
+dégraisseur</i> (1800); <i>De l&rsquo;industrie française</i> (2 vols., 1819); <i>Chimie
+appliquée a l&rsquo;agriculture</i> (2 vols., 1823; new ed., 1829).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPTER<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (a shortened form of <i>chapiter</i>, a word still used in
+architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. <i>chapitre</i>, Lat.
+<i>capitellum</i>, diminutive of <i>caput</i>, head), a principal division or
+section of a book, and so applied to acts of parliament, as forming
+&ldquo;chapters&rdquo; or divisions of the legislation of a session of parliament.
+The name &ldquo;chapter&rdquo; is given to the permanent body
+of the canons of a cathedral or collegiate church, presided over,
+in the English Church, by the dean, and in the Roman communion
+by the provost or the dean, and also to the body of the members
+of a religious order. This may be a &ldquo;conventual&rdquo; chapter of
+the monks of a particular monastery, &ldquo;provincial&rdquo; of the
+members of the order in a province, or &ldquo;general&rdquo; of the whole
+order. This ecclesiastical use of the word arose from the custom
+of reading a chapter of Scripture, or a head (<i>capitulum</i>) of the
+<i>regula</i>, to the assembled canons or monks. The transference
+from the reading to the assembly itself, and to the members
+constituting it, was easy, through such phrases as <i>convenire
+ad capitulum</i>. The title &ldquo;chapter&rdquo; is similarly used of the
+assembled body of knights of a military or other order. (See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dean</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPTER-HOUSE<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (Lat. <i>capitolium</i>, Ital. <i>capitolo</i>, Fr. <i>chapitre</i>,
+Ger. <i>Kapitelhaus</i>), the chamber in which the chapter or heads
+of the monastic bodies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbey</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>) assembled
+to transact business. They are of various forms; some are
+oblong apartments, as Canterbury, Exeter, Chester, Gloucester,
+&amp;c.; some octagonal, as Salisbury, Westminster, Wells, Lincoln,
+York, &amp;c. That at Lincoln has ten sides, and that at Worcester
+is circular; most are vaulted internally and polygonal externally,
+and some, as Salisbury, Wells, Lincoln, Worcester, &amp;c., depend
+on a single slight vaulting shaft for the support of the massive
+vaulting. They are often provided with a vestibule, as at Westminster,
+Lincoln, Salisbury and are almost exclusively English.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAPU,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> formerly an important maritime town of China, in
+the province of Cheh-kiang, 50 m. N.W. of Chên-hai, situated
+in one of the richest and best cultivated districts in the country.
+It is the port of Hang-chow, with which it has good canal communication,
+and it was formerly the only Chinese port trading
+with Japan. The town has a circuit of about 5 m. exclusive of
+the suburbs that lie along the beach; and the Tatar quarter is
+separated from the rest by a wall. It was captured and much
+injured by the British force in 1842, but was abandoned immediately
+after the engagement. The sea around it has now
+silted up, though in the middle of the 19th century it was
+accessible to the light-draught ships of the British fleet.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAR<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (<i>Salvelinus</i>), a fish of the family Salmonidae, represented
+in Europe, Asia and North America. The best known and most
+widely distributed species, the one represented in British and
+Irish lakes, is <i>S. alpinus</i>, a graceful and delicious fish, covered
+with very minute scales and usually dark olive, bluish or purplish
+black above, with or without round orange or red spots, pinkish
+white or yellowish pink to scarlet or claret red below. When the
+char go to sea, they assume a more silvery coloration, similar to
+that of the salmon and sea trout; the red spots become very
+indistinct and the lower parts are almost white. The very young
+are also silvery on the sides and white below, and bear 11 to 15
+bars, or parr-marks, on the side. This fish varies much according
+to localities; and the difference in colour, together with a few
+points of doubtful constancy, have given rise to the establishment
+of a great number of untenable so-called species, as many as
+seven having been ascribed to the British and Irish fauna, viz.
+<i>S. alpinus, nivalis, killinensis, willoughbyi, perisii, colii</i> and <i>grayi</i>,
+the last from Lough Melvin, Ireland, being the most distinct.
+<i>S. alpinus</i> varies much in size according to the waters it inhabits,
+remaining dwarfed in some English lakes, and growing to 2 ft.
+or more in other localities. In other parts of Europe, also, various
+local forms have been distinguished, such as the &ldquo;omble
+chevalier&rdquo; of the lakes of Switzerland and Savoy (<i>S. umbla</i>), the
+&ldquo;Säbling&rdquo; of the lakes of South Germany and Austria (<i>S. salvelinus</i>),
+the &ldquo;kullmund&rdquo; of Norway (<i>S. carbonarius</i>), &amp;c.,
+while the North American <i>S. parkei, alipes, stagnalis, arcturus,
+areolus, oquassa</i> and <i>marstoni</i> may also be regarded as varieties.
+Taken in this wide sense, <i>S. alpinus</i> has a very extensive distribution.
+In central Europe, in the British islands and in the greater
+part of Scandinavia it is confined to mountain lakes, but farther
+to the north, in both the Old World and the New, it lives in the sea
+and ascends rivers to spawn. In Lapland, Iceland, Greenland
+and other parts of the arctic regions, it ranks among the commonest
+fishes. The extreme northern point at which char
+have been obtained is 82° 34&prime; N. (Victoria lake and Floeberg
+Beach, Arctic America). It reaches an altitude of 2600 ft. in the
+Alps and 6000 ft. in the Carpathians.</p>
+
+<p>The American brook char, <i>S. fontinalis</i>, is a close ally of <i>S.
+alpinus</i>, differing from it in having fewer and shorter gill-rakers,
+a rather stouter body, the back more or less barred or marbled
+with dark olive or black, and the dorsal and caudal fins mottled
+or barred with black. Many local varieties of colour have been
+distinguished. Sea-run individuals are often nearly plain bright
+silvery. It is a small species, growing to about 18 in. abundant in
+all clear, cold streams of North America, east of the Mississippi,
+northward to Labrador. The fish has been introduced into other
+parts of the United States, and also into Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Another member of the same section of Salmonidae is the Great
+Lake char of North America, <i>S. namaycush</i>, one of the largest
+salmonids, said to attain a weight of 100 &#8468; The body is very
+elongate and covered with extremely small scales. The colour
+varies from grey to black, with numerous round pale spots,
+which may be tinged with reddish; the dorsal and caudal fins
+reticulate with darker. This fish inhabits the Great Lakes
+regions and neighbouring parts of North America.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAR-À-BANC<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (Fr. for &ldquo;benched carriage&rdquo;), a large form of
+wagonette-like vehicle for passengers, but with benched seats
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span>
+arranged in rows, looking forward, commonly used for large
+parties, whether as public conveyances or for excursions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARACTER<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="charaktêr">&#967;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span> from <span class="grk" title="charattein">&#967;&#945;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to scratch), a
+distinctive mark (spelt &ldquo;caracter&rdquo; up to the 16th century, with
+other variants); so applied to symbols of notation or letters of
+the alphabet; more figuratively, the distinguishing traits of
+anything, and particularly the moral and mental qualities of an
+individual human being, the sum of those qualities which distinguish
+him as a personality. From the latter usage &ldquo;a
+character&rdquo; becomes almost identical with &ldquo;reputation&rdquo;; and
+in the sense of &ldquo;giving a servant a character,&rdquo; the word involves
+a written testimonial. For the law relating to servants&rsquo; characters
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Master and Servant</a></span>. A further development
+is the use of &ldquo;character&rdquo; to mean an &ldquo;odd or eccentric person&rdquo;;
+or of a &ldquo;character actor,&rdquo; to mean an actor who plays a highly-coloured
+strange part. The word is also used as the name of a
+form of literature, consisting of short descriptions of types of
+character. Well-known examples of such &ldquo;characters&rdquo; are
+those of Theophrastus and La Bruyère, and in English, of Joseph
+Hall (1574-1656) and Sir Thomas Overbury.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARADE,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a kind of riddle, probably invented in France
+during the 18th century, in which a word of two or more syllables
+is divined by guessing and combining into one word (the answer)
+the different syllables, each of which is described, as an independent
+word, by the giver of the charade. Charades may be
+either in prose or verse. Of poetic charades those by W. Mackworth
+Praed are well known and excellent examples, while the
+following specimens in prose may suffice as illustrations. &ldquo;My
+<i>first</i>, with the most rooted antipathy to a Frenchman, prides
+himself, whenever they meet, upon sticking close to his jacket;
+my <i>second</i> has many virtues, nor is its least that it gives its name
+to my first; my <i>whole</i> may I never catch!&rdquo; &ldquo;My <i>first</i> is
+company; my <i>second</i> shuns company; my <i>third</i> collects company;
+and my <i>whole</i> amuses company.&rdquo; The solutions are
+<i>Tar-tar</i> and <i>Co-nun-drum</i>. The most popular form of this
+amusement is the acted charade, in which the meaning of the
+different syllables is acted out on the stage, the audience being
+left to guess each syllable and thus, combining the meaning of
+all the syllables, the whole word. A brilliant example of the
+acted charade is described in Thackeray&rsquo;s <i>Vanity Fair</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARCOAL,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon
+obtained by removing the volatile constituents of animal and
+vegetable substances; wood gives origin to wood-charcoal;
+sugar to sugar-charcoal; bone to bone-charcoal (which, however,
+mainly consists of calcium phosphate); while coal gives &ldquo;coke&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;gas-carbon.&rdquo; The first part of the word charcoal is of
+obscure origin. The independent use of &ldquo;char,&rdquo; meaning to
+scorch, to reduce to carbon, is comparatively recent, and must
+have been taken from &ldquo;charcoal,&rdquo; which is quite early. The
+<i>New English Dictionary</i> gives as the earliest instance of &ldquo;char&rdquo;
+a quotation dated 1679. Similarly the word &ldquo;chark&rdquo; or &ldquo;chak,&rdquo;
+meaning the same as &ldquo;char,&rdquo; is also late, and is probably due
+to a wrong division of the word &ldquo;charcoal,&rdquo; or, as it was often
+spelled in the 16th and 17th centuries, &ldquo;charkole&rdquo; and &ldquo;charke-coal.&rdquo;
+No suggestions for an origin of &ldquo;char&rdquo; are satisfactory.
+It may be a use of the word &ldquo;chare,&rdquo; which appears in &ldquo;char-woman,&rdquo;
+the American &ldquo;chore&rdquo;; in all these words it means
+&ldquo;turn,&rdquo; a turn of work, a job, and &ldquo;charcoal&rdquo; would have to
+mean &ldquo;turned coal,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> wood changed or turned to coal, a
+somewhat forced derivation, for which there is no authority.
+Another suggestion is that it is connected with &ldquo;chirk&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;chark,&rdquo; an old word meaning &ldquo;to make a grating noise.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Wood-charcoal.</i>&mdash;In districts where there is an abundance of
+wood, as in the forests of France, Austria and Sweden, the
+operation of charcoal-burning is of the crudest description. The
+method, which dates back to a very remote period, generally
+consists in piling billets of wood on their ends so as to form a
+conical pile, openings being left at the bottom to admit air, with
+a central shaft to serve as a flue. The whole is covered with turf
+of moistened soil. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue,
+and gradually spreads outwards and upwards. The success of
+the operation&mdash;both as to the intrinsic value of the product and
+its amount&mdash;depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under
+average conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts by
+volume, or 25 parts by weight, of charcoal. The modern process
+of carbonizing wood&mdash;either in small pieces or as sawdust&mdash;in
+cast iron retorts is extensively practised where wood is scarce,
+and also by reason of the recovery of valuable by-products
+(wood spirit, pyroligneous acid, wood-tar), which the process
+permits. The question of the temperature of the carbonization
+is important; according to J. Percy, wood becomes brown at
+220° C., a deep brown-black after some time at 280°, and an easily
+powdered mass at 310°. Charcoal made at 300° is brown, soft
+and friable, and readily inflames at 380°; made at higher
+temperatures it is hard and brittle, and does not fire until heated
+to about 700°. One of the most important applications of wood-charcoal
+is as a constituent of gunpowder (<i>q.v.</i>). It is also used
+in metallurgical operations as a reducing agent, but its application
+has been diminished by the introduction of coke, anthracite
+smalls, &amp;c. A limited quantity is made up into the form of
+drawing crayons; but the greatest amount is used as a fuel.</p>
+
+<p>The porosity of wood-charcoal explains why it floats on the
+surface of water, although it is actually denser, its specific gravity
+being about 1.5. The porosity also explains the property of
+absorbing gases and vapours; at ordinary temperatures ammonia
+and cyanogen are most readily taken up; and Sir James Dewar
+has utilized this property for the preparation of high vacua at
+low temperatures. This character is commercially applied in
+the use of wood-charcoal as a disinfectant. The fetid gases
+produced by the putrefaction and waste of organic matter enter
+into the pores of the charcoal, and there meet with the oxygen
+previously absorbed from the atmosphere; oxidation ensues,
+and the noxious effluvia are decomposed. Generally, however,
+the action is a purely mechanical one, the gases being only
+absorbed. Its pharmacological action depends on the same
+property; it absorbs the gases of the stomach and intestines
+(hence its use in cases of flatulence), and also liquids and solids.
+Wood-charcoal has also the power of removing colouring matters
+from solutions, but this property is possessed in a much higher
+degree by animal-charcoal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Animal-charcoal</i> or <i>bone black</i> is the carbonaceous residue
+obtained by the dry distillation of bones; it contains only about
+10% of carbon, the remainder being calcium and magnesium
+phosphates (80%) and other inorganic material originally present
+in the bones. It is generally manufactured from the residues
+obtained in the glue (<i>q.v.</i>) and gelatin (<i>q.v.</i>) industries. Its
+decolorizing power was applied in 1812 by Derosne to the
+clarification of the syrups obtained in sugar-refining; but its
+use in this direction has now greatly diminished, owing to the
+introduction of more active and easily managed reagents. It is
+still used to some extent in laboratory practice. The decolorizing
+power is not permanent, becoming lost after using for some
+time; it may be revived, however, by washing and reheating.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lampblack</i> or <i>soot</i> is the familiar product of the incomplete
+combustion of oils, pitch, resins, tallow, &amp;c. It is generally
+prepared by burning pitch residues (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal-tar</a></span>) and condensing
+the product. Thus obtained it is always oily, and, before using
+as a pigment, it must be purified by ignition in closed crucibles
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carbon</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (1825-1893), French physician,
+was born in Paris on the 29th of November 1825. In 1853 he
+graduated as M.D. of Paris University, and three years later was
+appointed physician of the Central Hospital Bureau. In 1860
+he became professor of pathological anatomy in the medical
+faculty of Paris, and in 1862 began that famous connexion with
+the Salpêtrière which lasted to the end of his life. He was elected
+to the Academy of Medicine in 1873, and ten years afterwards
+became a member of the Institute. His death occurred suddenly
+on the 16th of August 1893 at Morvan, where he had gone for a
+holiday. Charcot, who was a good linguist and well acquainted
+with the literature of his own as well as of other countries, excelled
+as a clinical observer and a pathologist. His work at the
+Salpêtrière exerted a great influence on the development of the
+science of neurology, and his classical <i>Leçons sur les maladies du
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span>
+système nerveux</i>, the first series of which was published in
+1873, represents an enormous advance in the knowledge and
+discrimination of nervous diseases. He also devoted much
+attention to the study of obscure morbid conditions like
+hysteria, especially in relation to hypnotism (<i>q.v.</i>); indeed, it is
+in connexion with his investigation into the phenomena and
+results of the latter that his name is popularly known. In addition
+to his labours on neurological and even physiological problems
+he made many contributions to other branches of medicine, his
+published works dealing, among other topics, with liver and
+kidney diseases, gout and pulmonary phthisis. As a teacher
+he was remarkably successful, and always commanded an
+enthusiastic band of followers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1847-1897), British
+soldier, was born at Boxhill, near Plymouth, on the 21st of
+December 1847, and in 1868 entered the Royal Engineers. In
+1878 Lieutenant Chard was ordered to South Africa to take
+part in the Zulu War, and was stationed at the small post of
+Rorke&rsquo;s Drift to protect the bridges across the Buffalo river,
+and some sick men and stores. Here, with Lieutenant Gonville
+Bromhead (1856-1891) and eighty men of the 2nd 24th Foot,
+he heard, on the 22nd of January 1879, of the disaster of Isandhlwana
+from some fugitives who had escaped the slaughter.
+Believing that the victorious Zulus would attempt to cross into
+Natal, they prepared, hastily, to hold the Drift until help
+should come. They barricaded and loopholed the old church
+and hospital, and improvised defences from wagons, mealie
+sacks and bags of Indian corn. Early in the afternoon they were
+attacked by more than 3000 Zulus, who, after hours of desperate
+hand-to-hand fighting, carried the outer defences, an inner low
+wall of biscuit boxes, and the hospital, room by room. The
+garrison then retired to the stone kraal, and repulsed attack
+after attack through the night. The next morning relieving
+forces appeared, and the enemy retired. The spirited defence
+of Rorke&rsquo;s Drift saved Natal from a Zulu invasion, and Chard&rsquo;s
+and Bromhead&rsquo;s gallantry was rewarded with the V.C. and
+immediate promotion to the rank of captain and brevet-major.
+On Chard&rsquo;s return to England he became a popular hero. From
+1893-1896 he commanded the Royal Engineers at Singapore,
+and was made a colonel in 1897. He died the same year at
+Hatch-Beauchamp, near Taunton, on the 1st of November.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARD,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the Southern
+parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 142½ m. W.
+by S. of London by the London &amp; South Western railway.
+Pop. (1901) 4437. It stands on high ground within 1 m. of the
+Devonshire border. Its cruciform parish church of St Mary
+the Virgin is Perpendicular of the 15th century. A fine east
+window is preserved. The manufactures include linen, lace,
+woollens, brassware and ironware. Chard is governed by a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 444 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Chard (<i>Cerdre</i>, <i>Cherdre</i>, <i>Cherde</i>) was commercial in origin,
+being a trade centre near the Roman road to the west. There
+are two Roman villas in the parish. There was a British camp
+at Neroche in the neighbourhood. The bishop of Bath held
+Chard in 1086, and his successor granted in 1234 the first charter
+which made Chard a free borough, each burgage paying a rent
+of 12d. Trade in hides was forbidden to non-burgesses. This
+charter was confirmed in 1253, 1280 and 1285. Chard is said
+to have been incorporated by Elizabeth, as the corporation seal
+dates from 1570, but no Elizabethan charter can be found.
+It was incorporated by grant of Charles I. in 1642, and Charles
+II. gave a charter in 1683. Chard was a mesne borough, the
+first overlord being Bishop Joceline, whose successors held it
+(with a brief interval from 1545 to 1552) until 1801, when it was
+sold to Earl Poulett. Parliamentary representation began in
+1312, and was lost in 1328. A market on Monday and fair on the
+25th of July were granted in 1253, and confirmed in 1642 and
+1683, when two more fair days were added (November 2 and
+May 3), the market being changed to Tuesday. The market day
+is now Monday, fairs being held on the first Wednesday in May,
+August and November, for corn and cattle only, their medieval
+importance as centres of the cloth trade having departed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1699-1779), French <i>genre</i> painter,
+was born in Paris, and studied under Pierre Jacques Cazes
+(1676-1754), the historical painter, and Noël Nicolas Coypel.
+He became famous for his still-life pictures and domestic
+interiors, which are well represented at the Louvre, and for
+figure-painting, as in his <i>Le Bénédicité</i> (1740).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARDIN, SIR JOHN<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1643-1713), French traveller, was
+born at Paris in 1643. His father, a wealthy jeweller, gave him
+an excellent education, and trained him in his own art; but
+instead of settling down in the ordinary routine of the craft,
+he set out in company with a Lyons merchant named Raisin
+in 1665 for Persia and India, partly on business and partly to
+gratify his own inclination. After a highly successful journey,
+during which he had received the patronage of Shah Abbas II.
+of Persia, he returned to France in 1670, and there published
+in the following year <i>Récit du Couronnement du roi de Perse
+Soliman III</i>. Finding, however, that his Protestant profession
+cut him off from all hope of honours or advancement in his
+native country, he set out again for Persia in August 1671.
+This second journey was much more adventurous than the first,
+as instead of going directly to his destination, he passed by
+Smyrna, Constantinople, the Crimea, Caucasia, Mingrelia and
+Georgia, and did not reach Ispahan till June 1673. After four
+years spent in researches throughout Persia, he again visited
+India, and returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope in
+1677. The persecution of Protestants in France led him, in
+1681, to settle in London, where he was appointed jeweller to
+the court, and received from Charles II. the honour of knighthood.
+In 1683 he was sent to Holland as representative of the English
+East India Company; and in 1686 he published the first part
+of his great narrative&mdash;<i>The Travels of Sir John Chardin into
+Persia and the East Indies, &amp;c.</i> (London). Sir John died in
+London in 1713, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where
+his monument bears the inscription <i>Nomen sibi fecit eundo</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It was not till 1711 that the complete account of Chardin&rsquo;s travels
+appeared, under the title of <i>Journal du voyage du chevalier Chardin</i>,
+at Amsterdam. The Persian portion is to be found in vol. ii. of
+Harris&rsquo;s <i>Collection</i>, and extracts are reprinted by Pinkerton in vol. ix.
+The best complete reprint is by Langlès (Paris, 1811). Sir John
+Chardin&rsquo;s narrative has received the highest praise from the most
+competent authorities for its fulness, comprehensiveness and fidelity;
+and it furnished Montesquieu, Rousseau, Gibbon and Helvétius
+with most important material.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARENTE,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> an inland department of south-western France,
+comprehending the ancient province of Angoumois, and inconsiderable
+portions of Saintonge, Poitou, Marche, Limousin and
+Périgord. It is bounded N. by the departments of Deux-Sèvres
+and Vienne, E. by those of Vienne and Dordogne, S. by Dordogne
+and W. by Charente-Inférieure. Area 2305 sq. m. Pop. (1906)
+351,733. The department, though it contains no high altitudes,
+is for the most part of a hilly nature. The highest points, many
+of which exceed 1000 ft., are found in the Confolentais, the
+granite region of the extreme north-east, known also as the
+Terres Froides. In the Terres Chaudes, under which name
+the remainder of the department is included, the levels vary
+in general between 300 and 650 ft., except in the western plains&mdash;the
+Pays-Bas and Champagne&mdash;where they range from 40 to
+300 ft. A large part of Charente is thickly wooded, the principal
+forests lying in its northern districts. The department, as its
+name indicates, belongs mainly to the basin of the river Charente
+(area of basin 3860 sq. m.; length of river 225 m.), the chief
+affluents of which, within its borders, are the Tardoire, the
+Touvre and the Né. The Confolentais is watered by the Vienne,
+a tributary of the Loire, while the arrondissement of Barbexieux
+in the south-west belongs almost wholly to the basin of the
+Gironde.</p>
+
+<p>The climate is temperate but moist, the rainfall being highest
+in the north-east. Agriculturally, Charente is prosperous. More
+than half its surface is arable land, on the greater part of which
+cereals are grown. The potato is an important crop. The
+vine is predominant in the region of Champagne, the wine
+produced being chiefly distilled into the famous brandy to which
+the town of Cognac gives its name. The best pasture is found
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span>
+in the Confolentais, where horned cattle are largely reared.
+The chief fruits are chestnuts, walnuts and cider-apples. The
+poultry raised in the neighbourhood of Barbezieux is highly
+esteemed. Charente has numerous stone quarries, and there
+are peat workings and beds of clay which supply brick and
+tile-works and earthenware manufactories. Among the other
+industries, paper-making, which has its chief centre at Angoulême,
+is foremost. The most important metallurgical establishment
+is the large foundry of naval guns at Ruelle. Flour-mills and
+leather-works are numerous. There are also many minor
+industries subsidiary to paper-making and brandy-distilling,
+and Angoulême manufactures gunpowder and confectionery.
+Coal, salt and timber are prominent imports. Exports include
+paper, brandy, stone and agricultural products. The department
+is served chiefly by the Orlêans and Ouest-État railways,
+and the Charente is navigable below Angoulême. Charente is
+divided into the five arrondissements of Angoulême, Cognac,
+Ruffec, Barbezieux and Confolens (29 cantons, 426 communes).
+It belongs to the region of the XII. army corps, to the province
+of the archbishop of Bordeaux, and to the académie (educational
+division) of Poitiers. Its court of appeal is at Bordeaux.</p>
+
+<p>Angoulême (the capital), Cognac, Confolens, Jarnac and La
+Rochefoucauld (<i>q.v.</i>) are the more noteworthy places in the department.
+Barbezieux and Ruffec, capitals of arrondissements
+and agricultural centres, are otherwise of little importance. The
+department abounds in churches of Romanesque architecture,
+of which those of Bassac, St Amant-de-Boixe (portions of which
+are Gothic in style), Plassac and Gensac-la-Pallue may be
+mentioned. There are remains of a Gothic abbey church at
+La Couronne, and Roman remains at St Cybardeaux, Brossac
+and Chassenon (where there are ruins of the Gallo-Roman town
+of Cassinomagus).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> a maritime department of south-western
+France, comprehending the old provinces of Saintonge
+and Aunis, and a small portion of Poitou, and including the
+islands of Ré, Oléron, Aix and Madame. Area, 2791 sq.m.
+Pop. (1906) 453,793. It is bounded N. by Vendée, N.E. by
+Deux-Sèvres, E. by Charente, S.E. by Dordogne, S.W. by
+Gironde and the estuary of the Gironde, and W. by the Bay of
+Biscay. Plains and low hills occupy the interior; the coast is
+flat and marshy, as are the islands (Ré, Aix, Oléron) which lie
+opposite to it. The department takes its name from the river
+Charente, which traverses it during the last 61 m. of its course
+and drains the central region. Its chief tributaries are on the
+right the Boutonne, on the left the Seugne. The climate is
+temperate and, except along the coast, healthy. There are
+several sheltered bays on the coast, and several good harbours,
+the chief of which are La Rochelle, Rochefort and Tonnay-Charente,
+the two latter some distance up the Charente. Royan
+on the north shore of the Gironde is an important watering-place
+much frequented for its bathing.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the inhabitants of Charente-Inférieure live
+by agriculture. The chief products of the arable land are wheat,
+oats, maize, barley and the potato. Horse and cattle-raising is
+carried on and dairying is prosperous. A considerable quantity
+of wine, most of which is distilled into brandy, is produced.
+The department has a few peat-workings, and produces freestone,
+lime and cement; the salt-marshes of the coast are important
+sources of mineral wealth. Glass, pottery, bricks and earthenware
+are prominent industrial products. Ship-building, brandy-distilling,
+iron-founding and machine construction are also
+carried on. Oysters and mussels are bred in the neighbourhood
+of La Rochelle and Marennes, and there are numerous fishing
+ports along the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The railways traversing the department belong to the
+Ouest-État system, except one section of the Paris-Bordeaux
+line belonging to the Orléans Company. The facilities of the
+department for internal communication are greatly increased
+by the number of navigable streams which water it. The
+Charente, the Sèvre Niortaise, the Boutonne, the Seudre and
+the Gironde furnish 142 m. of navigable waterway, to which
+must be added the 56 m. covered by the canals of the coast.
+There are 6 arrondissements (40 cantons, 481 communes), cognominal
+with the towns of La Rochelle, Rochefort, Marennes,
+Saintes, Jonzac and St Jean d&rsquo;Angély&mdash;La Rochelle being
+the chief town of the department. The department forms the
+diocese of La Rochelle, and is attached to the 18th military
+region, and in educational matters to the académie of Poitiers.
+Its court of appeal is at Poitiers.</p>
+
+<p>La Rochelle, St Jean d&rsquo;Angély, Rochefort and Saintes (<i>q.v.</i>) are
+the principal towns. Surgères and Aulnay possess fine specimens
+of the numerous Romanesque churches. Pons has a graceful
+château of the 15th and 16th centuries, beside which there rises
+a fine keep of the 12th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARENTON-LE-PONT,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> a town of northern France in the
+department of Seine, situated on the right bank of the Marne, at
+its confluence with the Seine, 1 m. S.E. of the fortifications of
+Paris, of which it is a suburb. Pop. (1906) 18,034. It derives
+the distinctive part of its name from the stone bridge of ten
+arches which crosses the Marne and unites the town with Alfortville,
+well known for its veterinary school founded in 1766. It
+has always been regarded as a point of great importance for the
+defence of the capital, and has frequently been the scene of
+sanguinary conflicts. The fort of Charenton on the left bank
+of the Marne is one of the older forts of the Paris defence. In the
+16th and 17th centuries Charenton was the scene of the ecclesiastical
+councils of the Protestant party, which had its principal
+church in the town. At St Maurice adjoining Charenton is the
+famous Hospice de Charenton, a lunatic asylum, the foundation
+of which dates from 1641. Till the time of the Revolution it was
+used as a general hospital, and even as a prison, but from 1802
+onwards it was specially appropriated to the treatment of lunacy.
+St Maurice has two other national establishments, one for the
+victims of accidents in Paris (<i>asile national Vacassy</i>), the other
+for convalescent working-men (<i>asile national de Vincennes</i>).
+Charenton has a port on the Canal de St Maurice, beside the
+Marne, and carries on boat-building and the manufacture of
+tiles and porcelain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARES,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> Athenian general, is first heard of in 366 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as
+assisting the Phliasians, who had been attacked by Argos and
+Sicyon. In 361 he visited Corcyra, where he helped the
+oligarchs to expel the democrats, a policy which led to the
+subsequent defection of the island from Athens. In 357, Chares
+was appointed to the command in the Social War, together with
+Chabrias, after whose death before Chios he was associated with
+Iphicrates and Timotheus (for the naval battle in the Hellespont,
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timotheus</a></span>). Chares, having successfully thrown the blame
+for the defeat on his colleagues, was left sole commander, but
+receiving no supplies from Athens, took upon himself to join the
+revolted satrap Artabazus. A complaint from the Persian king,
+who threatened to send three hundred ships to the assistance of
+the confederates, led to the conclusion of peace (355) between
+Athens and her revolted allies, and the recall of Chares. In 349, he
+was sent to the assistance of Olynthus (<i>q.v.</i>) against Philip II. of
+Macedon, but returned without having effected anything; in the
+following year, when he reached Olynthus, he found it already
+in the hands of Philip. In 340 he was appointed to the command
+of a force sent to aid Byzantium against Philip, but the inhabitants,
+remembering his former plunderings and extortions, refused
+to receive him. In 338 he was defeated by Philip at Amphissa,
+and was one of the commanders at the disastrous battle of
+Chaeroneia. Lysicles, one of his colleagues, was condemned
+to death, while Chares does not seem to have been even accused.
+After the conquest of Thebes by Alexander (335), Chares is said
+to have been one of the Athenian orators and generals whose
+surrender was demanded. Two years later he was living at
+Sigeum, for Arrian (<i>Anabasis</i> i. 12) states that he went from there
+to pay his respects to Alexander. In 332 he entered the service
+of Darius and took over the command of a Persian force in
+Mytilene, but capitulated on the approach of a Macedonian fleet
+on condition of being allowed to retire unmolested. He is last
+heard of at Taenarum, and is supposed to have died at Sigeum.
+Although boastful and vain-glorious, Chares was not lacking in
+personal courage, and was among the best Athenian generals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span>
+of his time. At the best, however, he was &ldquo;hardly more than an
+ordinary leader of mercenaries&rdquo; (A. Holm). He openly boasted
+of his profligacy, was exceedingly avaricious, and his bad faith
+became proverbial.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Diod. Sic. xv. 75, 95, xvi. 7, 21, 22, 85-88; Plutarch, <i>Phocion</i>, 14;
+Theopompus, <i>ap.</i> Athenaeum, xii. p. 532; A. Schäfer, <i>Demosthenes
+und seine Zeit</i> (1885); A. Holm, <i>History of Greece</i> (Eng. trans.,
+1896), vol. iii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARES,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> of Lindus in Rhodes, a noted sculptor, who fashioned
+for the Rhodians a colossal bronze statue of the sun-god, the cost
+of which was defrayed by selling the warlike engines left behind
+by Demetrius Poliorcetes, when he abandoned the siege of the
+city in 303 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiv. 41). The colossus was
+seventy cubits (105 ft.) in height; and its fingers were larger than
+many statues. The notion that the legs were planted apart, so
+that ships could sail between them, is absurd. The statue was
+thrown down by an earthquake after 56 years; but the remains
+lay for ages on the spot.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARES,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> of Mytilene, a Greek belonging to the suite of
+Alexander the Great. He was appointed court-marshal or
+introducer of strangers to the king, an office borrowed from the
+Persian court. He wrote a history of Alexander in ten books,
+dealing mainly with the private life of the king. The fragments
+are chiefly preserved in Athenaeus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Scriptores Rerum Alexandri</i> (pp. 114-120) in the Didot edition
+of Arrian.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARGE<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. <i>carricare</i>, to
+load in a <i>carrus</i> or wagon; cf. &ldquo;cargo&rdquo;), a load; from this, its
+primary meaning, also seen in the word &ldquo;charger,&rdquo; a large dish,
+come the uses of the word for the powder and shot to load a firearm,
+the accumulation of electricity in a battery, the necessary
+quantity of dynamite or other explosive in blasting, and a device
+borne on an escutcheon in heraldry. &ldquo;Charge&rdquo; can thus mean
+a burden, and so a care or duty laid upon one, as in &ldquo;to be in
+charge&rdquo; of another. With a transference to that which lays such
+a duty on another, &ldquo;charge&rdquo; is used of the instructions given by
+a judge to a jury, or by a bishop to the clergy of his diocese. In
+the special sense of a pecuniary burden the word is used of the
+price of goods, of an encumbrance on property, and of the
+expenses of running a business. Further uses of the word are of
+the violent, rushing attack of cavalry, or of a bull or elephant, or
+football player; hence &ldquo;charger&rdquo; is a horse ridden in a charge,
+or more loosely a horse ridden by an officer, whether of infantry
+or cavalry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARGÉ D&rsquo;AFFAIRES<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> (Fr. for &ldquo;in charge of business&rdquo;), the
+title of two classes of diplomatic agents, (1) <i>Chargés d&rsquo;affaires</i>
+(<i>ministres chargés d&rsquo;affaires</i>), who were placed by the <i>règlement</i>
+of the congress of Vienna in the 4th class of diplomatic agents,
+are heads of permanent missions accredited to countries to which,
+for some reason, it is not possible or not desirable to send agents
+of a higher rank. They are distinguished from these latter by the
+fact that their credentials are addressed by the minister for
+foreign affairs of the state which they are to represent to the
+minister for foreign affairs of the receiving state. Though still
+occasionally accredited, ministers of this class are now rare.
+They have precedence over the other class of <i>chargés d&rsquo;affaires</i>.
+(2) <i>Chargés d&rsquo;affaires per interim</i>, or <i>chargés des affaires</i>, are those
+who are presented as such, either verbally or in writing, by heads
+of missions of the first, second or third rank to the minister for
+foreign affairs of the state to which they are accredited, when
+they leave their post temporarily, or pending the arrival of their
+successor. It is usual to appoint a counsellor or secretary of
+legation <i>chargé d&rsquo;affaires</i>. Some governments are accustomed
+to give the title of minister to such <i>chargés d&rsquo;affaires</i>, which
+ranks them with the other heads of legation. Essentially
+<i>chargés d&rsquo;affaires</i> do not differ from ambassadors, envoys or
+ministers resident. They represent their nation, and enjoy the
+same privileges and immunities as other diplomatic agents
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diplomacy</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARGING ORDER,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> in English law, an order obtained from
+a court or judge by a judgment creditor under the Judgment
+Acts 1838 and 1840, by which the property of the judgment
+debtor in any stocks or funds stands charged with the payment
+of the amount for which judgment shall have been recovered,
+with interest. A charging order can only be obtained in respect
+of an ascertained sum, but this would include a sum ordered to be
+paid at a future date. An order can be made on stock standing
+in the name of a trustee in trust for the judgment debtor, or on
+cash in court to the credit of the judgment debtor, but not on
+stock held by a debtor as a trustee. The application for a charging
+order is usually made by motion to a divisional court, though
+it may be made to a judge. The effect of the order is not that of
+a contract to pay the debt, but merely of an instrument of charge
+on the shares, signed by the debtor. An interval of six months
+must elapse before any proceedings are taken to enforce the
+charge, but, it necessary, a stop order on the fund and the dividends
+payable by the debtor can be obtained by the creditor
+to protect his interest A solicitor employed to prosecute any
+suit, matter or proceeding in any court, is entitled, on declaration
+of the court, to a charge for his costs upon the property recovered
+or preserved in such suit or proceeding. (See <i>Rules of the
+Supreme Court</i>, o. XLIX.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARIBERT<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (d. 567), king of the Franks, was the son of
+Clotaire I. On Clotaire&rsquo;s death in 561 his estates were divided
+between his sons, Charibert receiving Paris as his capital,
+together with Rouen, Tours, Poitiers, Limoges, Bordeaux and
+Toulouse. Besides his wife, Ingoberga, he had unions with
+Merofleda, a wool-carder&rsquo;s daughter, and Theodogilda, the
+daughter of a neatherd. He was one of the most dissolute of
+the Merovingian kings, his early death in 567 being brought on
+by his excesses.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARIDEMUS,<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> of Oreus in Euboea, Greek mercenary leader.
+About 367 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he fought under the Athenian general Iphicrates
+against Amphipolis. Being ordered by Iphicrates to take the Amphipolitan
+hostages to Athens, he allowed them to return to their own
+people, and joined Cotys, king of Thrace, against Athens. Soon
+afterwards he fell into the hands of the Athenians and accepted
+the offer of Timotheus to re-enter their service. Having been
+dismissed by Timotheus (362) he joined the revolted satraps
+Memnon and Mentor in Asia, but soon lost their confidence, and
+was obliged to seek the protection of the Athenians. Finding,
+however, that he had nothing to fear from the Persians, he again
+joined Cotys, on whose murder he was appointed guardian to his
+youthful son Cersobleptes. In 357, on the arrival of Chares with
+considerable forces, the Chersonese was restored to Athens. The
+supporters of Charidemus represented this as due to his efforts,
+and, in spite of the opposition of Demosthenes, he was honoured
+with a golden crown and the franchise of the city. It was further
+resolved that his person should be inviolable. In 351 he commanded
+the Athenian forces in the Chersonese against Philip II.
+of Macedon, and in 349 he superseded Chares as commander in
+the Olynthian War. He achieved little success, but made himself
+detested by his insolence and profligacy, and was in turn
+replaced by Chares. After Chaeroneia the war party would
+have entrusted Charidemus<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> with the command against Philip,
+but the peace party secured the appointment of Phocion. He
+was one of those whose surrender was demanded by Alexander
+after the destruction of Thebes, but escaped with banishment.
+He fled to Darius III., who received him with distinction. But,
+having expressed his dissatisfaction with the preparations made
+by the king just before the battle of Issus (333), he was put to
+death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Diod. Sic. xvii. 30; Plutarch, <i>Phocion</i>, 16, 17; Arrian,
+<i>Anabasis</i>, i. 10; Quintus Curtius iii. 2; Demosthenes, <i>Contra
+Aristocratem</i>; A. Schäfer, <i>Demosthenes und seine Zeit</i> (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to some authorities, this is a second Charidemus, the
+first disappearing from history after being superseded by Chares in
+the Olynthian war.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARING CROSS,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> the locality about the west end of the
+Strand and the north end of Whitehall, on the south-east side
+of Trafalgar Square, London, England. It falls within the
+bounds of the city of Westminster. Here Edward I. erected
+the last of the series of crosses to the memory of his queen,
+Eleanor (d. 1290). It stood near the present entrance to Charing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span>
+Cross station of the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway, in the
+courtyard of which a fine modern cross has been erected within
+a few feet of the exact site. A popular derivation of the name
+connected it with Edward&rsquo;s &ldquo;dear queen&rdquo; (<i>chère reine</i>), and a
+village of Cherringe or Charing grew up here later, but the true
+origin of the name is not known. There is a village of Charing
+in Kent, and the name is connected by some with that of a
+Saxon family, Cerring.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7
+       "Cerargyrite" to "Charing Cross"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 6, 2010 [EBook #33365]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE CHALCIS: "Chalcis subsequently became a member of both the
+      Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period it gained importance as a
+      fortress by which the Macedonian rulers controlled central Greece".
+      'importance' amended from 'inportance'.
+
+    ARTICLE CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON: "He often deals with gloomy and
+      sometimes with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in his
+      lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or
+      of satire". 'productions' Amended from 'proudctions'.
+
+    ARTICLE CHANNEL ISLANDS: "... Burhou and Ortach, and numerous other
+      islets west of it, and west again the notorious Casquets, an angry
+      group of jagged rocks, on the largest of which is a powerful
+      lighthouse". 'an' amended from 'and'.
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME V, SLICE VII
+
+        Cerargyrite to Charing Cross
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CERARGYRITE                     CHAMBERS
+  CERBERUS                        CHAMBERSBURG
+  CERDIC                          CHAMBERY
+  CERDONIANS                      CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES DIEUDONNE
+  CEREALIS, PETILLIUS             CHAMBORD
+  CERES                           CHAMBRE ARDENTE
+  CERIGNOLA                       CHAMELEON
+  CERIGOTTO                       CHAMFER
+  CERINTHUS                       CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS
+  CERIUM                          CHAMIER, FREDERICK
+  CERNUSCHI, HENRI                CHAMILLART, MICHEL
+  CEROGRAPHY                      CHAMINADE, CECILE
+  CERRO DE PASCO                  CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON
+  CERTALDO                        CHAMKANNI
+  CERUSSITE                       CHAMOIS
+  CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE GIACHIMO      CHAMOMILE
+  CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE   CHAMONIX
+  CERVERA, PASCUAL TOPETE         CHAMPAGNE
+  CESAREVICH                      CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPERE DE
+  CESARI, GIUSEPPE                CHAMPAIGN
+  CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE            CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE
+  CESENA                          CHAMPARAN
+  CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI         CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF
+  CESPEDES, PABLO DE              CHAMPERTY
+  CESPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE  CHAMPION
+  CESS                            CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ETIENNE
+  CESSIO BONORUM                  CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE
+  CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO            CHAMPLAIN
+  CESTIUS, LUCIUS                 CHAMPMESLE, MARIE
+  CESTUI, CESTUY                  CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANCOIS
+  CETACEA                         CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH
+  CETHEGUS                        CHANCE
+  CETINA, GUTIERRE DE             CHANCEL
+  CETTE                           CHANCELLOR
+  CETTIGNE                        CHANCELLORSVILLE
+  CETUS                           CHANCE-MEDLEY
+  CETYWAYO                        CHANCERY
+  CEUTA                           CHANDA
+  CEVA                            CHANDAUSI
+  CEVENNES                        CHAND BARDAI
+  CEYLON                          CHANDELIER
+  CHABAZITE                       CHANDERNAGORE
+  CHABLIS                         CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM
+  CHABOT, FRANCOIS                CHANDLER, RICHARD
+  CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE         CHANDLER, SAMUEL
+  CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE             CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH
+  CHABRIAS                        CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF
+  CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL       CHANDOS, SIR JOHN
+  CHACMA                          CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
+  CHACO                           CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THEODULE
+  CHACONNE                        CHANG-CHOW
+  CHAD, SAINT                     CHANG CHUN, KIU
+  CHAD                            CHANGE
+  CHADDERTON                      CHANGELING
+  CHADERTON, LAURENCE             CHANGOS
+  CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN             CHANGRA
+  CHAEREMON (Athenian dramatist)  CHANNEL ISLANDS
+  CHAEREMON (Stoic philosopher)   CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY
+  CHAERONEIA                      CHANSONS DE GESTE
+  CHAETOGNATHA                    CHANT
+  CHAETOPODA                      CHANTABUN
+  CHAETOSOMATIDA                  CHANTADA
+  CHAFER                          CHANTAGE
+  CHAFF                           CHANTARELLE
+  CHAFFARINAS                     CHANTAVOINE, HENRI
+  CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA           CHANTILLY
+  CHAFFINCH                       CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT
+  CHAFING-DISH                    CHANT ROYAL
+  CHAGOS                          CHANTRY
+  CHAGRES                         CHANUTE
+  CHAIN                           CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGENE ALFRED
+  CHAIR                           CHAOS
+  CHAISE                          CHAPBOOK
+  CHAKRATA                        CHAPE
+  CHALCEDON                       CHAPEL
+  CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF           CHAPELAIN, JEAN
+  CHALCEDONY                      CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH
+  CHALCIDICUM                     CHAPEL HILL
+  CHALCIS                         CHAPELLE ARDENTE
+  CHALCONDYLES                    CHAPERON
+  CHALDAEA                        CHAPLAIN
+  CHALDEE                         CHAPLIN, HENRY
+  CHALICE                         CHAPMAN, GEORGE
+  CHALIER, JOSEPH                 CHAPMAN
+  CHALK                           CHAPONE, HESTER
+  CHALKHILL, JOHN                 CHAPPE, CLAUDE
+  CHALKING THE DOOR               CHAPPELL, WILLIAM
+  CHALLAMEL, JEAN AUGUSTIN        CHAPRA
+  CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND    CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE
+  CHALLENGE                       CHAPTER
+  "CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION         CHAPTER-HOUSE
+  CHALLONER, RICHARD              CHAPU
+  CHALMERS, ALEXANDER             CHAR
+  CHALMERS, GEORGE                CHAR-A-BANC
+  CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL           CHARACTER
+  CHALMERS, JAMES                 CHARADE
+  CHALMERS, THOMAS                CHARCOAL
+  CHALONER, SIR THOMAS            CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN
+  CHALONS-SUR-MARNE               CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT
+  CHALON-SUR-SAONE                CHARD
+  CHALUKYA                        CHARDIN, JEAN SIMEON
+  CHALYBAUS, HEINRICH MORITZ      CHARDIN, SIR JOHN
+  CHALYBITE                       CHARENTE
+  CHAMBA                          CHARENTE-INFERIEURE
+  CHAMBAL                         CHARENTON-LE-PONT
+  CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH             CHARES
+  CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE    CHARES
+  CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES CHARES
+  CHAMBERLAIN                     CHARGE
+  CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM           CHARGE D'AFFAIRES
+  CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM               CHARGING ORDER
+  CHAMBERS, GEORGE                CHARIBERT
+  CHAMBERS, ROBERT                CHARIDEMUS
+  CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM           CHARING CROSS
+
+
+
+
+CERARGYRITE, a mineral species consisting of silver chloride; an
+important ore of silver. The name cerargyrite is a Greek form (from
+[Greek: keras], horn, and [Greek: argyros], silver) of the older name
+hornsilver, which was used by K. Gesner as far back as 1565. The
+chloro-bromide and bromide of silver were also included under this term
+until they were distinguished chemically in 1841 and 1842, and described
+under the names embolite and bromargyrite (or bromyrite) respectively;
+the chloride then came to be distinguished as chlorargyrite, though the
+name cerargyrite is often now applied to this alone. Chloro-bromo-iodide
+of silver has also been recognized as a mineral and called iodembolite.
+All these are strikingly alike in appearance and general characters,
+differing essentially only in chemical composition, and it would seem
+better to reserve the name cerargyrite for the whole group, using the
+names chlorargyrite (AgCl), embolite (Ag(Cl, Bl)), bromargyrite (AgBr)
+and iodembolite (Ag(Cl, Br, I)) for the different isomorphous members of
+the group. They are cubic in crystallization, with the cube and the
+octahedron as prominent forms, but crystals are small and usually
+indistinct; there is no cleavage. They are soft (H = 2-1/2) and sectile
+to a high degree, being readily cut with a knife like horn. With their
+resinous to adamantine lustre and their translucency they also present
+somewhat the appearance of horn; hence the name hornsilver. The colour
+varies somewhat with the chemical composition, being grey or colourless
+in chlorargyrite, greenish-grey in embolite and bromargyrite, and
+greenish-yellow to orange-yellow in iodembolite. On exposure to light
+the colour quickly darkens. The specific gravity also varies with the
+composition: for the pure chloride it is 5.55, and the highest recorded
+for an iodembolite is 6.3.
+
+The hornsilvers all occur under similar conditions and are often
+associated together; they are found in metalliferous veins with native
+silver and ores of silver, and are usually confined to the upper
+oxidized parts of the lodes. They are important ores of silver (the pure
+chloride contains 75.3% of silver), and have been extensively mined at
+several places in Chile, also in Mexico, and at Broken Hill in New South
+Wales. The chloride and chloro-bromide have been found in several
+Cornish mines, but never in very large amounts.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CERBERUS, in Greek mythology, the dog who guarded the entrance to the
+lower world. He allowed all to enter, but seized those who attempted to
+escape. According to Hesiod (_Theog._ 311), he was a fifty-headed
+monster with a fearful bark, the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. He was
+variously represented with one, two or (usually) three heads, often
+with the tail of a snake or with snakes growing from his head or twined
+round his body. One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles was to fetch
+Cerberus from below to the upper world, a favourite subject of ancient
+vase-paintings.
+
+
+
+
+CERDIC (d. 534), founder of the West Saxon kingdom, is described as an
+ealdorman who in 495 landed with his son Cynric in Hampshire, where he
+was attacked at once by the Britons. Nothing more is heard of him until
+508, when he defeated the Britons with great slaughter. Strengthened by
+fresh arrivals of Saxons, he gained another victory in 519 at
+Certicesford, a spot which has been identified with the modern Charford,
+and in this year took the title of king. Turning westward, Cerdic
+appears to have been defeated by the Britons in 520 at Badbury or Mount
+Badon, in Dorset, and in 527 yet another fight with the Britons is
+recorded. His last work was the conquest of the Isle of Wight, probably
+in the interest of some Jutish allies. All the sovereigns of England,
+except Canute, Hardicanute, the two Harolds and William the Conqueror,
+are said to be descended from Cerdic.
+
+  See _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899);
+  Gildas, _De excidio Britanniae_, edited by Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1898);
+  Nennius, _Historia, Brittonum_, edited by Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1898);
+  Bede, _Historiae ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum libri v._, ed. C.
+  Plummer (Oxford, 1896); E. Guest, _Origines Celticae_ (London, 1883);
+  J.R. Green, _The Making of England_ (London, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+CERDONIANS, a Gnostic sect, founded by Cerdo, a Syrian, who came to Rome
+about 137, but concerning whose history little is known. They held that
+there are two first causes--the perfectly good and the perfectly evil.
+The latter is also the creator of the world, the god of the Jews, and
+the author of the Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the son of the good
+deity; he was sent into the world to oppose the evil; but his
+incarnation, and therefore his sufferings, were a mere appearance.
+Regarding the body as the work of the evil deity, the Cerdonians formed
+a moral system of great severity, prohibiting marriage, wine and the
+eating of flesh, and advocating fasting and other austerities. Most of
+what the Fathers narrate of Cerdo's tenets has probably been transferred
+to him from his famous pupil Marcion, like whom he is said to have
+rejected the Old Testament and the New, except part of Luke's Gospel and
+of Paul's Epistles. (See MARCION, and GNOSTICISM.)
+
+
+
+
+CEREALIS (CERIALIS), PETILLIUS (1st century A.D.), Roman general, a near
+relative of the emperor Vespasian. He is first heard of during the reign
+of Nero in Britain, where he was completely defeated (A.D. 61) by
+Boadicea. Eight years later he played an important part in the capture
+of Rome by the supporters of Vespasian. In 70 he put down the revolt of
+Civilis (q.v.). In 71, as governor of Britain, where he had as a
+subordinate the famous Agricola, he inflicted severe defeats upon the
+Brigantes, the most powerful of the tribes of Britain. Tacitus says that
+he was a bold soldier rather than a careful general, and preferred to
+stake everything on the issue of a single engagement. He possessed
+natural eloquence of a kind that readily appealed to his soldiers. His
+loyalty towards his superiors was unshakable.
+
+  Tacitus, _Annals_, xiv. 32; _Histories_, iii. 59, 78, iv. 71, 75, 86,
+  v. 21; _Agricola_, 8, 17.
+
+
+
+
+CERES, an old Italian goddess of agriculture. The name probably means
+the "creator" or "created," connected with _crescere_ and _creare_. But
+when Greek deities were introduced into Rome on the advice of the
+Sibylline books (in 495 B.C., on the occasion of a severe drought),
+Demeter, the Greek goddess of seed and harvest, whose worship was
+already common in Sicily and Lower Italy, usurped the place of Ceres in
+Rome, or rather, to Ceres were added the religious rites which the
+Greeks paid to Demeter, and the mythological incidents which originated
+with her. At the same time the cult of Dionysus and Persephone (see
+LIBER AND LIBERA) was introduced. The rites of Ceres were Greek in
+language and form. Her priestesses were Italian Greeks and her temple
+was Greek in its architecture and built by Greek artists. She was
+worshipped almost exclusively by plebeians, and her temple near the
+Circus Maximus was under the care of the plebeian aediles, one of whose
+duties was the superintendence of the corn-market. Her chief festivals
+were the _ludi Cereris_ or _Cerealia_ (more correctly, _Cerialia_),
+games held annually from April 12-19 (Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 392 ff.); a
+second festival, in August, to celebrate the reunion of Ceres and
+Proserpine, in which women, dressed in white, after a fast of nine days
+offered the goddess the first-fruits of the harvest (Livy xxii. 56); and
+the _Jejunium Cereris_, a fast also introduced (191 B.C.) by command of
+the Sibylline books (Livy xxvi. 37), at first held only every four
+years, then annually on the 4th of October. In later times Ceres was
+confused with Tellus. (See also DEMETER.)
+
+
+
+
+CERIGNOLA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, 26 m.
+S.E. by rail from the town of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 34,195. It was rebuilt
+after a great earthquake in 1731, and has a considerable agricultural
+trade. In 1503 the Spaniards under Gonzalo de Cordoba defeated the
+French under the duc de Nemours below the town--a victory which made the
+kingdom of Naples into a Spanish province in Italy. Cerignola occupies
+the site of Furfane, a station on the Via Traiana between Canusium and
+Herdoniae.
+
+
+
+
+CERIGOTTO, called locally LIUS (anc. _Aegilia_ or _Ogylos_; mod. Gr.
+officially _Antikythera_), an island of Greece, belonging to the Ionian
+group, and situated between Cythera (Cerigo) and Crete, about 20 m. from
+each. Some raised beaches testify to an upheaval in comparatively recent
+times. With an area of about 10 sq. m. it supports a population of about
+300, who are mainly Cretan refugees, and in favourable seasons exports a
+quantity of good wheat. It was long a favourite resort of Greek pirates.
+It is famous for the discovery in 1900, close to its coast, of the wreck
+of an ancient ship with a cargo of bronze and marble statues.
+
+
+
+
+CERINTHUS (c. A.D. 100), an early Christian heretic, contemporary with
+the closing years of the apostle John, who, according to the well-known
+story of Polycarp, reported by Irenaeus (iii. 3) and twice recorded in
+Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iii. 28, iv. 14), made a hasty exit from a bath
+in Ephesus on learning that Cerinthus was within. Other early accounts
+agree in making the province of Asia the scene of his activity, and
+Hippolytus (_Haer_. vii. 33) credits him with an Egyptian training.
+There can be no truth in the notice given by Epiphanius (_Haer_. xxviii.
+4) that Cerinthus had in earlier days at Jerusalem led the judaizing
+opposition against Paul.
+
+The difficulty of defining Cerinthus's theological position is due not
+only to the paucity of our sources but to the fact that the witness of
+the two principal authorities, Irenaeus (1. 26, iii. 11) and Hippolytus
+(_Syntagma_), does not agree. Further, Irenaeus himself in one passage
+fails to distinguish between Cerinthian and Valentinian doctrines. It
+would appear, however, that Cerinthus laid stress on the rite of
+circumcision and on the observance of the Sabbath. He taught that the
+world had been made by angels, from one of whom, the god of the Jews,
+the people of Israel had received their Law, which was not perfect. The
+only New Testament writing which he accepted was a mutilated Gospel of
+Matthew. Jesus was the offspring of Joseph and Mary, and on him at the
+baptism descended the Christ,[1] revealing the hitherto unknown Father,
+and endowing him with miraculous power. This Christ left Jesus again
+before the Passion, and the resurrection of Jesus was still in the
+future. Together with these somewhat gnostic ideas, Cerinthus, if we may
+trust the notices of Gaius the Roman presbyter (c. 290) and Dionysius of
+Alexandria (c. 340), held a violent and crude form of chiliasm. But the
+chief significance of the man is his "combination of zeal for legal
+observances with bold criticism of the Law itself as a whole and of its
+origin," which reminds us of the Clementine _Recognitions_. Cerinthus is
+a blend of judaizing christian and gnostic.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] So Irenaeus. According to Hippolytus and Epiphanius it was the
+    Holy Ghost that thus descended.
+
+
+
+
+CERIUM (symbol Ce, atomic weight 140.25), a metallic chemical element
+which occurs with the rare earths in the minerals cerite, samarskite,
+euxenite, monazite, parisite and many yttrium minerals. The particular
+earth containing cerium was discovered by M.H. Klaproth in 1803, whilst
+J. Berzelius at about the same time also examined it and came to the
+conclusion that it was the oxide of a new metal, which he termed
+cerium. The crude oxide of the metal is obtained from cerite, by
+evaporating the mineral with strong sulphuric acid, removing excess of
+acid and dissolving the residue in ice-cold water; sulphuretted hydrogen
+is passed through the solution, which is then filtered, acidified with
+hydrochloric acid, and precipitated as oxalate by oxalic acid; the
+oxalate is then converted into oxide by ignition. From the crude oxide
+so obtained (which contains lanthanum and didymium oxides) the cerium
+may be separated by conversion into its double sulphate on the addition
+of potassium sulphate, the sulphates of the cerium group being insoluble
+in a saturated solution of potassium sulphate. The sulphate is
+subsequently boiled with water, when a basic sulphate is precipitated.
+For the preparation of pure cerium compounds see Auer v. Welsbach,
+_Monatshefte_, 1884, v. 508.
+
+The metal was first obtained, in an impure state, by C.G. Mosander, by
+fusing its chloride with sodium. W.F. Hillebrand and T. Norton have
+prepared it by the electrolysis of the melted chloride (_Pogg. Ann._,
+1875, 156, p. 466); and C. Winkler (_Berichte_, 1891, xxiv. 884)
+obtained it by heating the dioxide with magnesium powder. The metal has
+somewhat the appearance of iron, and has a specific gravity of 6.628,
+which, after melting, is increased to 6.728. Its specific heat is
+0.04479 (W.F. Hillebrand). It is permanent in dry air, but tarnishes in
+moist air; it can be hammered and rolled; it melts at 623 deg. C. It
+burns readily on heating, with a brilliant flame; and it also combines
+with chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus and cyanogen. In the
+case of the two former elements the combination is accompanied by
+combustion of the metal. With water it is slowly converted into the
+dioxide. Cold concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids are without action
+on the metal, but it reacts rapidly with dilute nitric and hydrochloric
+acids. The dioxide is used in incandescent gas mantles (see LIGHTING).
+
+  Three oxides of cerium are known. The sesquioxide, Ce2O3, is obtained
+  by heating the carbonate in a current of hydrogen. It is a
+  bluish-green powder, which on exposure rapidly combines with the
+  oxygen of the air. By the addition of caustic soda to cerous salts, a
+  white precipitate of cerous hydroxide is formed. Cerium dioxide, CeO2,
+  is produced when cerium carbonate, nitrate, sulphate or oxalate is
+  heated in air. It is a white or pale yellow compound, which becomes
+  reddish on heating. Its specific gravity is 6.739, and its specific
+  heat 0.0877. It is not reduced to the metallic condition on heating
+  with carbon. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves this oxide, forming
+  a yellowish solution and ozone. By suspending the precipitated cerous
+  hydroxide in water and passing chlorine through the solution, a
+  hydrated form of the dioxide, 2CeO2.3H2O, is obtained, which is
+  readily soluble in nitric and sulphuric acids, forming ceric salts,
+  and in hydrochloric acid, where it forms cerous chloride, with
+  liberation of chlorine. A higher hydrated oxide, CeO3.xH2O, is formed
+  by the interaction of cerous sulphate with sodium acetate and hydrogen
+  peroxide (Lecoq de Boisbaudran, _Comptes rendus_, 1885, 100, p. 605).
+
+  Cerous chloride, CeCl3, is obtained when the metal is burned in
+  chlorine; when a mixture of cerous oxide and carbon is heated in
+  chlorine; or by rapid heating of the dioxide in a stream of carbon
+  monoxide and chlorine. It is a colourless substance, which is easily
+  fusible. A hydrated chloride of composition 2CeCl3.15H2O is also
+  known, and is obtained when a solution of cerous oxide in hydrochloric
+  acid is evaporated over sulphuric acid. Double salts of cerous
+  chloride with stannic chloride, mercuric chloride, and platinic
+  chloride are also known. Cerous bromide, 2CeBr3.3H2O, and iodide,
+  CeI3.9H2O, are known. Cerous sulphide, Ce2S3, results on heating
+  cerium with sulphur or cerium oxide in carbon bisulphide vapour. It is
+  a red infusible mass of specific gravity 5.1, and is slowly decomposed
+  by warm water. The sulphate, Ce2(SO4)3, is formed on dissolving the
+  carbonate in sulphuric acid, or on dissolving the basic sulphate in
+  sulphuric acid, in the presence of sulphur dioxide, evaporating the
+  solution, and drying the product obtained, at high temperature (B.
+  Brauner, _Monatshefte_, 1885, vi. 793). It is a white powder of
+  specific gravity 3.912, easily soluble in cold water. Many hydrated
+  forms of the sulphate are known, as are also double salts of the
+  sulphate with potassium, sodium, ammonium, thallium and cadmium
+  sulphates. Ceric fluoride, CeF4.H2O, is obtained when the hydrated
+  dioxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and the solution evaporated
+  on the water bath (B. Brauner). The sulphate, Ce(SO4)2.4H2O, is formed
+  when the basic sulphate is dissolved in sulphuric acid; or when the
+  dioxide is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, and evaporated _in
+  vacuo_ over sulphuric acid. It forms yellow crystals soluble in water;
+  the aqueous solution on standing gradually depositing a basic salt.
+  Double sulphates of composition 2Ce(SO4)2.2K2SO4.2H2O,
+  Ce(SO4)2.3(NH4)2SO4.4H2O are known. Nitrates of cerium have been
+  described, as have also phosphates, carbonates and a carbide.
+
+  Cerium compounds may be recognized by the red precipitate of ceric
+  hydroxide, which is formed when sodium hypochlorite is added to a
+  colourless cerous salt. For the quantitative determination of the
+  metal, the salts are precipitated by caustic potash, the precipitate
+  washed, dried and heated, and finally weighed as the dioxide.
+
+  The atomic weight of cerium has been determined by B. Brauner (_Chem.
+  News_, 1895, lxxi. 283) from the analysis of the oxalate; the values
+  obtained varying from 140.07 to 140.35.
+
+
+
+
+CERNUSCHI, HENRI (1821-1896), Italian politician and economist, was born
+of wealthy parents at Milan in 1821, and was destined for the legal
+profession. During his studies he became involved in the revolutionary
+movement. He played a conspicuous part in the insurrection at Milan in
+1848, and also at Rome in 1849, where he had a seat in the National
+Assembly. On the collapse of the revolutionary government he was
+arrested (1850), but managed to escape to France, where he engaged in
+commerce and banking, became naturalized, and acquired a large fortune.
+He took a prominent part in opposing the Socialist movement, and in
+April 1870, having subscribed a large sum to the funds of a committee
+formed to combat the Napoleonic plebiscite, had to leave the country. In
+September the formation of the Third Republic enabled him to return, but
+he soon left Paris to travel in the East, whence he returned with a fine
+art collection, particularly of Japanese objects. Cernuschi is best
+known for his publications on financial questions, more especially
+bimetallism. Of the latter he was an ardent champion, and the word
+itself is commonly supposed to have originated with him--at least in its
+English form it is first found in his _Silver Vindicated_ (1876). Among
+his other works may be mentioned: _Mecanique de l'echange_ (1861);
+_Illusion des societes cooperatives_ (1886); _Le Bimetallisme en
+Angleterre_ (1879); _Le Grand Proces de l'Union latine_ (1884). He died
+at Mentone on the 12th of May 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CEROGRAPHY (from the Gr. [Greek: keros], wax, and [Greek: graphein], to
+write), the art of painting in wax. (See ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.)
+
+
+
+
+CERRO DE PASCO, or PASCO, a mining town of Peru, capital of the
+department of Junin, 107 m. (221 m. by rail, via Oroya) N.E. of Lima.
+Pop. (1907 est.) 10,000. It is situated on the plateau of Bombon, 14,280
+ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of one of the oldest and richest
+silver-mining districts of Peru. There were 342 silver mines in this
+district in 1890, and at the end of the 19th century the average annual
+output since the discovery of the mines in 1630 was estimated at
+1,600,000 oz. A decline in the silver production having set in, the
+American company which had become owners of three-fourths of the mining
+properties in the district turned its attention to the extensive copper
+deposits there, built a railway to Oroya 83 m. distant, another, 25 m.
+long, to the coal-fields of Gollarisquisga, north of Pasco, and then
+erected large smelting works (in which 2500 men were regularly employed
+in 1907) 8 m. out of town and 4 m. from limestone beds. The railway to
+Oroya was completed in 1903, the coal mine branch and smelter later on,
+and in 1907 the copper output was 20,152,000 lb. The town of Pasco is
+badly built and unattractive, and is inhabited chiefly by mining
+labourers and their families. Its population is increased 50% in times
+of great mining activity. The name Cerro de Pasco is that of a "knot" of
+mountains uniting the two great ranges of the Andes at this point.
+
+
+
+
+CERTALDO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, 35 m.
+S.S.W. by rail and 18 m. direct from the town of Florence. Pop. (1901)
+town, 4552; commune, 9120. It was the home of the family of Giovanni
+Boccaccio, who died and was buried here in 1375. His house (of red
+brick, like the other old houses of the town) was restored in 1823 and
+fitted up with old furniture. A statue of him was erected in the
+principal square in 1875. The Palazzo Pretorio, or Vicariale, the
+residence of the Florentine governors, recently restored to its original
+condition, has a picturesque facade and court adorned with coats of
+arms, and in the interior are various frescoes dating from the 13th to
+the 16th century. The town as a whole is picturesque, and lies on a hill
+426 ft. above sea-level.
+
+  See R. Pantini, _S. Gimignano e Certaldo_ (Bergamo, 1904), p. 101 seq.
+
+
+
+
+CERUSSITE, a mineral consisting of lead carbonate (PbCO3), and an
+important ore of lead. The name (sometimes erroneously spelt cerusite)
+is from the Lat. _cerussa_, "white lead." "Cerussa nativa" was mentioned
+by K. Gesner in 1565, and in 1832 F.S. Beudant applied the name ceruse
+to the mineral, whilst the present form, cerussite, is due to W.
+Haidinger (1845). Popular names in early use were lead-spar and
+white-lead-ore.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+Cerussite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is isomorphous
+with aragonite. Like aragonite it is very frequently twinned, the
+compound crystals being pseudo-hexagonal in form. Three crystals are
+usually twinned together on two faces of the prism m{110}, producing
+six-rayed stellate groups (figs, 1 and 2) with the individual crystals
+intercrossing at angles of nearly 60 deg. Twinning on the faces of the
+prism r{130}, the angles of which are also nearly 60 deg., produces a
+similar kind of grouping, but is much less common. Crystals are of
+frequent occurrence, and they usually have very bright and smooth faces.
+The mineral also occurs in compact granular masses, and sometimes in
+fibrous forms. It is usually colourless or white, sometimes grey or
+greenish in tint; it varies from transparent to translucent, and has an
+adamantine lustre. It is very brittle, and has a conchoidal fracture.
+Hardness 3-3-1/2; sp. gr. 6.5. A variety containing 7% of zinc
+carbonate, replacing lead carbonate, is known as iglesiasite, from
+Iglesias in Sardinia, where it is found.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The mineral may be readily recognized by its characteristic twinning, in
+conjunction with the adamantine lustre and high specific gravity. It
+dissolves with effervescence in dilute nitric acid. Before the blow-pipe
+it fuses very readily, and gives reactions for lead. Cerussite occurs in
+metalliferous veins in association with galena, and has been formed by
+the action of carbonated waters on the galena; it is therefore found in
+the upper parts of the lodes together with other secondary minerals,
+such as limonite. Finely crystallized specimens have been obtained from
+the Friedrichssegen mine near Ems in Nassau, Johanngeorgenstadt in
+Saxony, Mies in Bohemia, Phenixville in Pennsylvania, Broken Hill in New
+South Wales, and several other localities. Delicate acicular crystals of
+considerable length were found long ago in the Pentire Glaze mine near
+St Minver in Cornwall. It is often found in considerable quantities, and
+contains as much as 77-1/2% of lead.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO (1738-1792), French author and
+politician, was born at Turin on the 13th of June 1738. He joined the
+Society of Jesus and became professor at the Jesuit college at Lyons. In
+1762, in reply to the attacks on his order, he published an _Apologie
+generale de l'institut et de la doctrine des Jesuites_, which won him
+much fame and some exalted patronage; notably that of the ex-king
+Stanislaus of Poland and of his grandson the dauphin. During the
+agitations that preceded the Revolution Cerutti took the popular side,
+and in 1788 published a pamphlet, _Memoire pour le peuple francais_, in
+which in a clear and trenchant style he advocated the claims of the
+_tiers etat_. In May 1789 he presided over the electors of Paris, by
+whom in January 1791 he was chosen member of the administration of the
+department and afterwards deputy to the Legislative Assembly. He was a
+friend of Mirabeau, whose policy he supported and whose funeral oration
+he pronounced. He himself died on the 3rd of February 1792. Of Cerutti's
+literary enterprises the most interesting, and probably the most
+influential, was the popular newspaper founded by him, on the 30th of
+September 1790, in collaboration with Rabaut Saint-Etienne and Philippe
+Antoine Grouvelle. Its character and objects are explained by its
+title: _La Feuille villageoise, adressee chaque semaine a tous les
+villages de France pour les instruire des lois, des evenements, des
+decouvertes qui interessent tout ban citoyen, &c._ It was continued by
+Grouvelle after Cerutti's death, the last number appearing on the 2nd of
+August 1795.
+
+  Cerutti's works were published in 1793 in 3 volumes. On the _Memoire
+  pour le peuple francais_, see F.A. Aulard in _La Revolution
+  francaise_, tom. xv. (1888).
+
+
+
+
+CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE (1547-1616), Spanish novelist, playwright
+and poet, was born at Alcala de Henares in 1547. The attempts of
+biographers to provide him with an illustrious genealogy are
+unsuccessful. The family history begins with the author's grandfather,
+Juan de Cervantes (b. 1490), a lawyer who at one time (1545-6)
+administered the estates of the duke de Osuna, and resided later at
+Cordova, where he died about 1555. Cervantes' father was Rodrigo de
+Cervantes, an apothecary-surgeon, who married Leonor de Cortinas in 1540
+or 1541. The children of this marriage were Andres (b. 1543), Andrea (b.
+1544), Luisa (b. 1546), Miguel, Rodrigo (b. 1550), Magdalena (b. 1554)
+and Juan (of whom nothing is known beyond the mention of him in his
+father's will).
+
+The exact date of Cervantes' birth is not recorded: he was baptized on
+the 9th of October 1547, in the church of Santa Maria la Mayor at
+Alcala. There are indications that Rodrigo de Cervantes resided at
+Valladolid in 1554, at Madrid in 1561, at Seville in 1564-1565, and at
+Madrid from 1566 onwards. It may be assumed that his family accompanied
+him, and it seems likely that either at Valladolid or at Madrid
+Cervantes saw the famous actor-manager and dramatist, Lope de Rueda, of
+whose performances he speaks enthusiastically in the preface to his
+plays. In 1569 a Madrid schoolmaster, Juan Lopez de Hoyos, issued a work
+commemorative of Philip II.'s third wife, Isabel de Valois, who had died
+on the 3rd of October 1568. This volume, entitled _Historia y relacion
+verdadera de la enfermedad, felicisimo transito y sumptuosas exequias
+funebres de la Serenisima Reyna de Espania Dona Isabel de Valoys_,
+contains six contributions by Cervantes: a sonnet, four _redondillas_,
+and an elegy. Lopez de Hoyos introduces Cervantes as "our dear and
+beloved pupil," and the elegy is dedicated to Cardinal Espinosa "in the
+name of the whole school." It has been inferred that Cervantes was
+educated by Lopez de Hoyos, but this conclusion is untenable, for Lopez
+de Hoyos' school was not opened till 1567. On the 13th of October 1568,
+Giulio Acquaviva reached Madrid charged with a special mission to Philip
+II.; he left for Rome on the 2nd of December, and Cervantes is supposed
+to have accompanied him. This conjecture is based solely on a passage in
+the dedication of the _Galatea_, where the writer speaks of having been
+"_camarero_ to Cardinal Acquaviva at Rome." There is, however, no reason
+to think that Cervantes met Acquaviva in Madrid; the probability is that
+he enlisted as a supernumerary towards the end of 1568, that he served
+in Italy, and there entered the household of Acquaviva, who had been
+raised to the cardinalate on the 17th of May 1570. There exists a
+warrant (dated September 15, 1569) for the arrest of one Miguel de
+Cervantes, who had wounded Antonio de Sigura, and had been condemned in
+absence to have his right hand cut off and to be exiled from the capital
+for ten years; and it has been sought to identify the offender with the
+future author of _Don Quixote_. No evidence is available. All that is
+known with certainty is that Cervantes was in Rome at the end of 1569,
+for on the 22nd of December of that year the fact was recorded in an
+official information lodged by Rodrigo de Cervantes with a view to
+proving his son's legitimacy and untainted Christian descent.
+
+If it is difficult to say precisely when Cervantes was in Acquaviva's
+service, it is no less difficult to say when he left it to join the
+regular army. There is evidence, more or less satisfactory, that his
+enlistment took place in 1570; in 1571 he was serving as a private in
+the company commanded by Captain Diego de Urbina which formed part of
+Miguel de Moncada's famous regiment, and on the 16th of September he
+sailed from Messina on board the "Marquesa," which formed part of the
+armada under Don John of Austria. At the battle of Lepanto (October 7,
+1571) the "Marquesa" was in the thickest of the conflict. As the fleet
+came into action Cervantes lay below, ill with fever; but, despite the
+remonstrances of his comrades, he vehemently insisted on rising to take
+his share in the fighting, and was posted with twelve men under him in a
+boat by the galley's side. He received three gunshot wounds, two in the
+chest, and one which permanently maimed his right hand--"for the greater
+glory of the right," in his own phrase. On the 30th of October the fleet
+returned to Messina, where Cervantes went into hospital, and during his
+convalescence received grants-in-aid amounting to eighty-two ducats. On
+the 29th of April 1572 he was transferred to Captain Manuel Ponce de
+Leon's company in Lope de Figueroa's regiment; he shared in the
+indecisive naval engagement off Navarino on the 7th of October 1572, in
+the capture of Tunis on the 10th of October 1573, and in the
+unsuccessful expedition to relieve the Goletta in the autumn of 1574.
+The rest of his military service was spent in garrison at Palermo and
+Naples, and shortly after the arrival of Don John at Naples on the 18th
+of June 1575, Cervantes was granted leave to return to Spain; he
+received a recommendatory letter from Don John to Philip II., and a
+similar testimonial from the duke de Sessa, viceroy of Sicily. Armed
+with these credentials, Cervantes embarked on the "Sol" to push his
+claim for promotion in Spain.
+
+On the 26th of September 1575, near Les Trois Maries off the coast of
+Marseilles, the "Sol" and its companion ships the "Mendoza" and the
+"Higuera" encountered a squadron of Barbary corsairs under Arnaut Mami;
+Cervantes, his brother Rodrigo and other Spaniards were captured, and
+were taken as prisoners to Algiers. Cervantes became the slave of a
+Greek renegade named Dali Mami, and, as the letters found on him were
+taken to prove that he was a man of importance in a position to pay a
+high ransom, he was put under special surveillance. With undaunted
+courage and persistence he organized plans of escape. In 1576 he induced
+a Moor to guide him and other Christian captives to Oran; the Moor
+deserted them on the road, the baffled fugitives returned to Algiers,
+and Cervantes was treated with additional severity. In the spring of
+1577 two priests of the Order of Mercy arrived in Algiers with a sum of
+three hundred crowns entrusted to them by Cervantes' parents; the amount
+was insufficient to free him, and was spent in ransoming his brother
+Rodrigo. Cervantes made another attempt to escape in September 1577, but
+was betrayed by the renegade whose services he had enlisted. On being
+brought before Hassan Pasha, the viceroy of Algiers, he took the blame
+on himself, and was threatened with death; struck, however, by the
+heroic bearing of the prisoner, Hassan remitted the sentence, and bought
+Cervantes from Dali Mami for five hundred crowns. In 1577 the captive
+addressed to the Spanish secretary of state, Mateo Vazquez, a versified
+letter suggesting that an expedition should be fitted out to seize
+Algiers; the project, though practicable, was not entertained. In 1578
+Cervantes was sentenced to two thousand strokes for sending a letter
+begging help from Martin de Cordoba, governor of Oran; the punishment
+was not, however, inflicted on him. Meanwhile his family were not idle.
+In March 1578 his father presented a petition to the king setting forth
+Cervantes' services; the duke de Sessa repeated his testimony to the
+captive's merits; in the spring of 1579 Cervantes' mother applied for
+leave to export two thousand ducats' worth of goods from Valencia to
+Algiers, and on the 31st of July 1579 she gave the Trinitarian monks,
+Juan Gil and Anton de la Bella, a sum of two hundred and fifty ducats to
+be applied to her son's ransom. On his side Cervantes was indefatigable,
+and towards the end of 1579 he arranged to secure a frigate; but the
+plot was revealed to Hassan by Juan Blanco de Paz, a Dominican monk, who
+appears to have conceived an unaccountable hatred of Cervantes. Once
+more the conspirator's life was spared by Hassan who, it is recorded,
+declared that "so long as he had the maimed Spaniard in safe keeping,
+his Christians, ships and city were secure." On the 29th of May 1580 the
+two Trinitarians arrived in Algiers: they were barely in time, for
+Hassan's term of office was drawing to a close, and the arrangement of
+any ransom was a slow process, involving much patient bargaining. Hassan
+refused to accept less than five hundred gold ducats for his slave; the
+available funds fell short of this amount, and the balance was collected
+from the Christian traders of Algiers. Cervantes was already embarked
+for Constantinople when the money was paid on the 19th of September
+1580. The first use that he made of his liberty was to cause affidavits
+of his proceedings at Algiers to be drawn up; he sailed for Spain
+towards the end of October, landed at Denia in November, and made his
+way to Madrid. He signed an information before a notary in that city on
+the 18th of December 1580.
+
+These dates prove that he cannot, as is often alleged, have served under
+Alva in the Portuguese campaign of 1580: that campaign ended with the
+battle of Alcantara on the 25th of August 1580. It seems certain,
+however, that he visited Portugal soon after his return from Algiers,
+and in May 1581 he was sent from Thomar on a mission to Oran. Construed
+literally, a formal statement of his services, signed by Cervantes on
+the 21st of May 1590, makes it appear that he served in the Azores
+campaigns of 1582-83; but the wording of the document is involved, the
+claims of Cervantes are confused with those of his brother Rodrigo (who
+was promoted ensign at the Azores), and on the whole it is doubtful if
+he took part in either of the expeditions under Santa Cruz. In any case,
+the stories of his residence in Portugal, and of his love affairs with a
+noble Portuguese lady who bore him a daughter, are simple inventions.
+From 1582-3 to 1587 Cervantes seems to have written copiously for the
+stage, and in the _Adjunta al Parnaso_ he mentions several of his plays
+as "worthy of praise"; these were _Los Tratos de Argel, La Numancia, La
+Gran Turquesa, La Batalla naval, La Jerusalem, La Amaranta o la de Mayo,
+El Bosque amoroso, La Unica y Bizarra Arsinda_--"and many others which I
+do not remember, but that which I most prize and pique myself on was,
+and is, one called _La Confusa_ which, with all respect to as many
+sword-and-cloak plays as have been staged up to the present, may take a
+prominent place as being good among the best." Of these only _Los Tratos
+de Argel_ (or _El Trato de Argel_) and _La Numancia_ have survived, and,
+though _La Numancia_ contains many fine rhetorical passages, both plays
+go to prove that the author's genius was not essentially dramatic. In
+February 1584 he obtained a licence to print a pastoral novel entitled
+_Primera parte de la Galatea_, the copyright of which he sold on the
+14th of June to Blas de Robles, a bookseller at Alcala de Henares, for
+1336 _reales_. On the 12th of December he married Catalina de Palacios
+Salazar y Vozmediano of Esquivias, eighteen years his junior. The
+_Galatea_ was published in the spring of 1585, and is frequently said to
+relate the story of Cervantes' courtship, and to introduce various
+distinguished writers under pastoral names. These assertions must be
+received with great reserve. The birth of an illegitimate daughter,
+borne to Cervantes by a certain Ana Francisca de Rojas, is referred to
+1584, and earlier in that same year the _Galatea_ had passed the censor;
+with few exceptions, the identifications of the characters in the book
+with personages in real life are purely conjectural. These
+circumstances, together with the internal evidence of the work, point to
+the conclusion that the _Galatea_ was begun and completed before 1583.
+It was only twice reprinted--once at Lisbon (1590), and once at Paris
+(1611)--during the author's lifetime; but it won him a measure of
+repute, it was his favourite among his books, and during the thirty
+years that remained to him he repeatedly announced the second part which
+is promised conditionally in the text. However, it is not greatly to be
+regretted that the continuation was never published; though the
+_Galatea_ is interesting as the first deliberate bid for fame on the
+part of a great genius, it is an exercise in the pseudo-classic
+literature introduced into Italy by Sannazaro, and transplanted to Spain
+by the Portuguese Montemor; and, ingenious or eloquent as the
+Renaissance prose-pastoral may be, its innate artificiality stifles
+Cervantes' rich and glowing realism. He himself recognized its defects;
+with all his weakness for the _Galatea_, he ruefully allows that "it
+proposes something and concludes nothing." Its comparative failure was
+a serious matter for Cervantes who had no other resource but his pen;
+his plays were probably less successful than his account of them would
+imply, and at any rate play-writing was not at this time a lucrative
+occupation in Spain. No doubt the death of his father on the 13th of
+June 1585 increased the burden of Cervantes' responsibilities; and the
+dowry of his wife, as appears from a document dated the 9th of August
+1586, consisted of nothing more valuable than five vines, an orchard,
+some household furniture, four beehives, forty-five hens and chickens,
+one cock and a crucible.
+
+It had become evident that Cervantes could not gain his bread by
+literature, and in 1587 he went to Seville to seek employment in
+connexion with the provisioning of the Invincible Armada. He was placed
+under the orders of Antonio de Guevara, and before the 24th of February
+was excommunicated for excessive zeal in collecting wheat at Ecija.
+During the next few months he was engaged in gathering stores at Seville
+and the adjacent district, and after the defeat of the Armada he was
+retained as commissary to the galleys. Tired of the drudgery, and
+without any prospect of advancement, on the 21st of May 1590 Cervantes
+drew up a petition to the king, recording his services and applying for
+one of four posts then vacant in the American colonies: a place in the
+department of public accounts in New Granada, the governorship of
+Soconusco in Guatemala, the position of auditor to the galleys at
+Cartagena, or that of _corregidor_ in the city of La Paz. The petition
+was referred to the Council of the Indies, and was annotated with the
+words:--"Let him look for something nearer home." Cervantes perforce
+remained at his post; the work was hard, uncongenial and ill-paid, and
+the salary was in constant arrears. In November 1590 he was in such
+straits that he borrowed money to buy himself a suit of clothes, and in
+August 1592 his sureties were called upon to make good a deficiency of
+795 _reales_ in his accounts. His thoughts turned to literature once
+more, and on the 5th of September 1592, he signed a contract with
+Rodrigo Osorio undertaking to write six plays at fifty ducats each, no
+payment to be made unless Osorio considered that each of these pieces
+was "one of the best ever produced in Spain." Nothing came of this
+agreement, and it appears that, between the date of signing it and the
+19th of September, Cervantes was imprisoned (for reasons unknown to us)
+at Castro del Rio. He was speedily released, and continued to
+perquisition as before in Andalusia; but his literary ambitions were not
+dead, and in May 1595 he won the first prize--three silver spoons--at a
+poetical tourney held in honour of St Hyacinth at Saragossa. Shortly
+afterwards Cervantes found himself in difficulties with the exchequer
+officials. He entrusted a sum of 7400 _reales_ to a merchant named Simon
+Freire de Lima with instructions to pay the amount into the treasury at
+Madrid; the agent became bankrupt and absconded, leaving Cervantes
+responsible for the deficit. By some means the money was raised, and the
+debt was liquidated on the 21st of January 1597. But Cervantes' position
+was shaken, and his unbusinesslike habits lent themselves to
+misinterpretation. On the 6th of September 1597 he was ordered to find
+sureties that he would present himself at Madrid within twenty days, and
+there submit to the exchequer vouchers for all official moneys collected
+by him in Granada and elsewhere. No such sureties being available, he
+was committed to Seville jail, but was released on the 1st of December
+on condition that he complied with the original order of the court
+within thirty days. He was apparently unable to find bail, was dismissed
+from the public service, and sank into extreme poverty. During a
+momentary absence from Seville in February 1590, he was again summoned
+to Madrid by the treasury, but does not appear to have obeyed: it is
+only too likely that he had not the money to pay for the journey. There
+is some reason to think that he was imprisoned at Seville in 1602, but
+nothing positive is known of his existence between 1600 and the 8th of
+February 1603: at the latter date he seems to have been at Valladolid,
+to which city Philip III. had removed the court in 1601.
+
+Since the publication of the _Galatea_ in 1585 Cervantes' contributions
+to literature had been limited to occasional poems. In 1591 he published
+a ballad in Andres de Villalta's _Flor de varios y nuevos romances_; in
+1595 he composed a poem, already mentioned, to celebrate the
+canonization of St Hyacinth; in 1596 he wrote a sonnet ridiculing Medina
+Sidonia's tardy entry into Cadiz after the English invaders had retired,
+and in the same year his sonnet lauding Santa Cruz was printed in
+Cristobal. Mosquera de Figueroa's _Comentario en breve compendio de
+disciplina militar_; to 1597 is assigned a sonnet (the authenticity of
+which is disputed) commemorative of the poet Herrera; in 1598 he wrote
+two sonnets and a copy of _quintillas_ on the death of Philip II.; and
+in 1602 a complimentary sonnet from his pen appeared in the second
+edition of Lope de Vega's _Dragontea_. Curiously enough, it is by Lope
+de Vega that _Don Quixote_ is first mentioned. Writing to an unknown
+correspondent (apparently a physician) on the 14th of August 1604, Lope
+de Vega says that "no poet is as bad as Cervantes, nor so foolish as to
+praise _Don Quixote_," and he goes on to speak of his own plays as being
+odious to Cervantes. It is obvious that the two men had quarrelled since
+1602, and that Lope de Vega smarted under the satire of himself and his
+works in Cervantes' forthcoming book; _Don Quixote_ may have been
+circulated in manuscript, or may even have been printed before the
+official licence was granted on the 26th of September 1604. It was
+published early in 1605, and was dedicated to the seventh duke de Bejar
+in phrases largely borrowed from the dedication in Herrera's edition
+(1580) of Garcilaso de la Vega, and from Francisco de Medina's preface
+to that work.
+
+The mention of Bernardo de la Vega's _Pastor de Iberia_ shows that the
+sixth chapter of _Don Quixote_ cannot have been written before 1591. In
+the prologue Cervantes describes his masterpiece as being "just what
+might be begotten in a jail"; on the strength of this passage, it has
+been thought that he conceived the story, and perhaps began writing it,
+during one of his terms of imprisonment at Seville between 1597 and
+1602. Within a few weeks of its publication at Madrid, three pirated
+editions of _Don Quixote_ were issued at Lisbon; a second authorized
+edition, imperfectly revised, was hurried out at Madrid; and another
+reprint appeared at Valencia with an _aprobacion_ dated 18th July 1605.
+With the exception of Aleman's _Guzman de Alfarache_, no Spanish book of
+the period was more successful. Modern criticism is prone to regard _Don
+Quixote_ as a symbolic, didactic or controversial work intended to bring
+about radical reforms in church and state. Such interpretations did not
+occur to Cervantes' contemporaries, nor to Cervantes himself. There is
+no reason for rejecting his plain statement that his main object was to
+ridicule the romances of chivalry, which in their latest developments
+had become a tissue of tiresome absurdities. It seems clear that his
+first intention was merely to parody these extravagances in a short
+story; but as he proceeded the immense possibilities of the subject
+became more evident to him, and he ended by expanding his work into a
+brilliant panorama of Spanish society as it existed during the 16th
+century. Nobles, knights, poets, courtly gentlemen, priests, traders,
+farmers, barbers, muleteers, scullions and convicts; accomplished
+ladies, impassioned damsels, Moorish beauties, simple-hearted
+country-girls and kindly kitchen-wenches of questionable morals--all
+these are presented with the genial fidelity which comes of sympathetic
+insight. The immediate vogue of _Don Quixote_ was due chiefly to its
+variety of incident, to its wealth of comedy bordering on farce, and
+perhaps also to its keen thrusts at eminent contemporaries; its reticent
+pathos, its large humanity, and its penetrating criticism of life were
+less speedily appreciated.
+
+Meanwhile, on the 12th of April 1605, Cervantes authorized his publisher
+to proceed against the Lisbon booksellers who threatened to introduce
+their piratical reprints into Castile. By June the citizens of
+Valladolid already regarded Don Quixote and Sancho Panza as proverbial
+types. Less gratifying experiences awaited the popular author. On the
+27th of June 1605 Gaspar de Ezpeleta, a Navarrese gentleman of dissolute
+life, was wounded outside the lodging-house in which Cervantes and his
+family lived; he was taken indoors, was nursed by Cervantes' sister
+Magdalena, and died on the 29th of June. That same day Cervantes, his
+natural daughter (Isabel de Saavedra), his sister Andrea and her
+daughter were lodged in jail on suspicion of being indirectly concerned
+in Ezpeleta's death; one of the witnesses made damaging charges against
+Cervantes' daughter, but no substantial evidence was produced, and the
+prisoners were released. Little is known of Cervantes' life between 1605
+and 1608. A _Relacion_ of the festivities held to celebrate the birth of
+Philip IV., and a certain _Carta a don Diego Astudillo Carrillo_ have
+been erroneously ascribed to him; during these three years he apparently
+wrote nothing beyond three sonnets, and one of these is of doubtful
+authenticity. The depositions of the Valladolid enquiry show that he was
+living in poverty five months after the appearance of _Don Quixote_, and
+the fact that he borrowed 450 _reales_ from his publisher before
+November 1607 would convey the idea that his position improved slowly,
+if at all. But it is difficult to reconcile this view of his
+circumstances with the details concerning his illegitimate daughter
+revealed in documents recently discovered. Isabel de Saavedra was stated
+to be a spinster when arrested at Valladolid in June 1605; the
+settlement of her marriage with Luis de Molina in 1608 describes her as
+the widow of Diego Sanz, as the mother of a daughter eight months old,
+and as owning house-property of some value. These particulars are
+perplexing, and the situation is further complicated by the publication
+of a deed in which Cervantes declares that he himself is the real owner
+of this house-property, and that his daughter has merely a life-interest
+in it. This claim may be regarded as a legal fiction; it cannot easily
+be reconciled with Cervantes' statement towards the end of his life,
+that he was dependent on the bounty of the count de Lemos and of
+Bernardo de Sandoval, cardinal-archbishop of Toledo. In 1609 he joined
+the newly founded confraternity of the Slaves of the Most Blessed
+Sacrament; in 1610 Lemos was appointed viceroy of Naples, and Cervantes
+was keenly disappointed at not being chosen to accompany his patron. In
+1611 he lost his sister Magdalena, who was buried by the charity of the
+Tertiaries of Saint Francis; in 1612 he joined the Academia Selvaje, and
+there appears to have renewed his former friendly relations with Lope de
+Vega; in 1613 he dedicated his _Novelas exemplares_ to the count de
+Lemos, and disposed of his rights for 1600 _reales_ and twenty-four
+copies of the book. The twelve tales in this volume, some of them
+written very much later than others, are of unequal merit, but they
+contain some of the writer's best work, and the two picaresque
+stories--_Rinconete y Cortadillo_ and the _Coloquio de los perros_--are
+superb examples of their kind, and would alone entitle Cervantes to take
+rank with the greatest masters of Spanish prose. In 1614 he published
+the _Viage del Parnaso_, a burlesque poem suggested by the _Viaggio in
+Parnaso_ (1582) of the Perugian poet Cesare Caporali. It contains some
+interesting autobiographical passages, much flattery of contemporary
+poetasters, and a few happy satirical touches; but, though it is
+Cervantes' most serious bid for fame as a poet, it has seldom been
+reprinted, and would probably have been forgotten but for an admirably
+humorous postscript in prose which is worthy of the author at his best.
+In the preface to his _Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos_ (1615) he
+good-humouredly admits that his dramatic works found no favour with
+managers, and, when this collection was first reprinted (1749), the
+editor advanced the fantastic theory that the _comedias_ were deliberate
+exercises in absurdity, intended to parody the popular dramas of the
+day. This view cannot be maintained, but a sharp distinction must be
+drawn between the eight set plays and the eight interludes; with one or
+two exceptions, the _comedias_ or set plays are unsuccessful experiments
+in Lope de Vega's manner, while the _entremeses_ or _interludes_,
+particularly those in prose, are models of spontaneous gaiety and
+ingenious wit.
+
+In the preface to the _Novelas exemplares_ Cervantes had announced the
+speedy appearance of the sequel to _Don Quixote_ which he had vaguely
+promised at the end of the first part. He was at work on the fifty-ninth
+chapter of his continuation when he learned that he had been anticipated
+by Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda of Tordesillas, whose _Segunde tamo
+del ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha_ was published at
+Tarragona in 1614. On the assumption that Fernandez de Avellaneda is a
+pseudonym, this spurious sequel has been ascribed to the king's
+confessor, Luis de Aliaga, to Cervantes' old enemy, Blanco de Paz, to
+his old friend, Bartolome Leonardo de Argensola, to the three great
+dramatists, Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina and Ruiz de Alarcon, to Alonso
+Fernandez, to Juan Jose Marti, to Alfonso Lamberto, to Luis de Granada,
+and probably to others. Some of these attributions are manifestly
+absurd--for example, Luis de Granada died seventeen years before the
+first part of _Don Quixote_ was published--and all of them are
+improbable conjectures; if Avellaneda be not the real name of the
+author, his identity is still undiscovered. His book is not devoid of
+literary talent and robust humour, and possibly he began it under the
+impression that Cervantes was no more likely to finish _Don Quixote_
+than to finish the _Galatea_. He should, however, have abandoned his
+project on reading the announcement in the preface to the _Novelas
+exemplares_; what he actually did was to disgrace himself by writing an
+insolent preface taunting Cervantes with his physical defects, his moral
+infirmities, his age, loneliness and experiences in jail. He was too
+intelligent to imagine that his continuation could hold its own against
+the authentic sequel, and malignantly avowed his intention of being
+first in the field and so spoiling Cervantes' market. It is quite
+possible that _Don Quixote_ might have been left incomplete but for this
+insulting intrusion; Cervantes was a leisurely writer and was, as he
+states, engaged on _El Engano a los ojos, Las Semanas del Jardin_ and
+_El Famoso Bernardo_, none of which have been preserved. Avellaneda
+forced him to concentrate his attention on his masterpiece, and the
+authentic second part of _Don Quixote_ appeared towards the end of 1615.
+No book more signally contradicts the maxim, quoted by the Bachelor
+Carrasco, that "no second part was ever good." It is true that the last
+fourteen chapters are damaged by undignified denunciations of
+Avellaneda; but, apart from this, the second part of _Don Quixote_ is an
+improvement on the first. The humour is more subtle and mature; the
+style is of more even excellence; and the characters of the bachelor and
+of the physician, Pedro Recio de Aguero, are presented with a more vivid
+effect than any of the secondary characters in the first part. Cervantes
+had clearly profited by the criticism of those who objected to "the
+countless cudgellings inflicted on Senor Don Quixote," and to the
+irrelevant interpolation of extraneous stories in the text. Don Quixote
+moves through the second part with unruffled dignity; Sancho Panza loses
+something of his rustic cunning, but he gains in wit, sense and manners.
+The original conception is unchanged in essentials, but it is more
+logically developed, and there is a notable progress in construction.
+Cervantes had grown to love his knight and squire, and he understood his
+own creations better than at the outset; more completely master of his
+craft, he wrote his sequel with the unfaltering confidence of a renowned
+artist bent on sustaining his reputation.
+
+The first part of _Don Quixote_ had been reprinted at Madrid in 1608; it
+had been produced at Brussels in 1607 and 1611, and at Milan in 1610; it
+had been translated into English in 1612 and into French in 1614.
+Cervantes was celebrated in and out of Spain, but his celebrity had not
+brought him wealth. The members of the French special embassy, sent to
+Madrid in February 1615, under the Commandeur de Sillery, heard with
+amazement that the author of the _Galatea_, the _Novelas exemplares_ and
+_Don Quixote_ was "old, a soldier, a gentleman and poor." But his trials
+were almost at an end. Though failing in health, he worked assiduously
+at _Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda_, which, as he had jocosely
+prophesied in the preface to the second part of _Don Quixote_, would be
+"either the worst or the best book ever written in our tongue." It is
+the most carefully written of his prose works, and the least animated or
+attractive of them; signs of fatigue and of waning powers are
+unmistakably visible. Cervantes was not destined to see it in print. He
+was attacked by dropsy, and, on the 18th of April 1616, received the
+sacrament of extreme unction; next day he wrote the dedication of
+_Persiles y Sigismunda_ to the count de Lemos--the most moving and
+gallant of farewells. He died at Madrid in the Calle del Leon on the
+23rd of April; he was borne from his house "with his face uncovered,"
+according to the rule of the Tertiaries of St Francis, and on the 24th
+of April was buried in the church attached to the convent of the
+Trinitarian nuns in the Calle de Cantarranas. There he rests--the story
+of his remains being removed in 1633 to the Calle del Humilladero has no
+foundation in fact--but the exact position of his grave is unknown.
+Early in 1617 _Persiles y Sigismunda_ was published, and passed through
+eight editions within two years; but the interest in it soon died away,
+and it was not reprinted between 1625 and 1719. Cervantes' wife died
+without issue on the 31st of October 1626; his natural daughter, who
+survived both the child of her first marriage and her second husband,
+died on the 20th of September 1652. Cervantes is represented solely by
+his works. The _Novelas exemplares_ alone would give him the foremost
+place among Spanish novelists; _Don Quixote_ entitles him to rank with
+the greatest writers of all time: "children turn its leaves, young
+people read it, grown men understand it, old folk praise it." It has
+outlived all changes of literary taste, and is even more popular to-day
+than it was three centuries ago.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Leopold Rius, _Bibliografia critica de las obras de
+  Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_ (Madrid, 1895-1905, 3 vols.); _Obras
+  completas_ (Madrid, 1863-1864, 12 vols.), edited by Juan Eugenio
+  Hartzenbusch; _Complete Works_ (Glasgow, 1901-1906, 8 vols. in
+  progress), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid,
+  1833-1839, 6 vols.), edited by Diego Clemenciu; _Don Quixote_ (London,
+  1899-1900, 2 vols.), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly and John
+  Ormsby; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid, 1905-1906, 2 vols. in progress), edited
+  by Clemente Cortejon; _Rinconete y Cortadillo_ (Sevilla, 1905), edited
+  by Francisco Rodriguez Marin; _Epistola a Mateo Vazquez_ (Madrid,
+  1905), edited by E[milio] C[otarelo]; Julian Apraiz, _Estudio
+  historico-critico sobre las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_ (Madrid,
+  1901); Francisco A. de Icaza, _Las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_
+  (Madrid, 1901); Francisco Rodriguez Marin, _El Loaysa de "El Celoso
+  Extremeno"_ (Sevilla, 1901); Narciso Diaz de Escovar, _Apuntes
+  escenicos cervantinos_ (Madrid, 1905); Manuel Jose Garcia, _Estudio
+  critico acerca del entremes "El Vizcaino fingido"_ (Madrid, 1905);
+  Alfred Morel-Fatio, _L'Espagne de Don Quichotte_ in _Etudes sur
+  l'Espagne_ (Paris, 1895, 2me serie); Julio Puyol y Alonso, _Estado
+  social que refleja "El Quijote"_ (Madrid, 1905); James
+  Fitzmaurice-Kelly, _Cervantes in England_ (London, 1905); Raymond
+  Foulche-Delbose, _Etude sur "La tia fingida,"_ in the _Revue
+  hispanique_ (Paris, 1899), vol. vi. pp. 256-306; Benedetto Croce, _Due
+  illustrazioni al "Viage del Parnaso,"_ in the _Homenaje a Menendez y
+  Pelayo_ (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 161-193; Paul Groussac, _Une
+  Enigme litteraire: le Don Quichotte d'Avellaneda_ (Paris, 1903);
+  Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda, _El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de
+  la Mancha_ (Barcelona, [1905]), edited by Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo;
+  Julio Cejador y Franca, _La Lengua de Cervantes_ (Madrid, 1905, &c.);
+  Martin Fernandez de Navarrete, _Vida de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_
+  (Madrid, 1819); Cristobal Perez Pastor, _Documentos Cervantinos hasta
+  ahora ineditos_ (Madrid, 1897-1902, 2 vols.); Emilio Cotardo y Mori,
+  _Efemerides Cervantinas_ (Madrid, 1905); Francisco Rodriguez Marin,
+  _Cervantes estudio en Sevilla, 1564-1565_ (Seville, 1905).
+       (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+
+
+CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE (1839-1909), Spanish admiral, was born
+at Medina Sidonia on the 18th of February 1839. He showed an early
+inclination for the sea, and his family sent him to the naval cadet
+school at the age of twelve. As a sub-lieutenant he took part in the
+naval operations on the coast of Morocco during the campaign of 1859-60.
+Then he was for some time engaged in operations in the Sulu Islands and
+the Philippines. Afterwards he was on the West Indian station during the
+early part of the first Cuban War (1868-78), returning to Spain in 1873
+to serve on the Basque coast against the Carlists. He distinguished
+himself in defending the Carraca arsenal near Cadiz against the Federals
+in 1873. He won each step in his promotion up to flag-rank through his
+steadiness and brilliant conduct in action, and was awarded the crosses
+of the Orders of Military and Naval Merit, Isabella the Catholic, and St
+Hermengilde, besides several medals. Cervera had a great reputation for
+decision, unbending temper and honesty, before he was placed at the head
+of the Bilbao building-yards. This post he resigned after a few months
+in order to become minister of marine in 1892, in a cabinet presided
+over by Sagasta. He withdrew from the cabinet when he found that his
+colleagues, from political motives, declined to support him in making
+reforms and, on the other hand, unwisely cut down the naval estimates.
+When in 1898 the Spanish-American War (q.v.) broke out, he was chosen to
+command a squadron composed of four first-class cruisers, the "Maria
+Theresa," his flagship, "Oquendo," "Vizcaya," and "Columbus," and
+several destroyers. This ill-fated squadron only started upon its
+reckless cruise across the ocean after its gallant commander had
+repeatedly warned both the minister of marine and the prime minister,
+Sagasta, in despatches from Cadiz and from the Canary and Cape Verde
+Islands, that the ships were insufficiently provided with coal and
+ammunition. Some of them, indeed, even lacked proper guns. In compliance
+with the instructions of the government, Admiral Cervera made for the
+landlocked harbour of Santiago de Cuba, where he co-operated in the
+defence, landing some guns and a naval brigade. In spite of his
+energetic representations, Cervera received an order from Madrid,
+dictated by political considerations, to sally forth. It meant certain
+destruction. The gallant squadron met forces trebly superior to it, and
+was totally destroyed. The admiral, three of his captains, and 1800
+sailors and marines were taken by the victors to Portsmouth, New
+Hampshire, U.S.A. After the war, Cervera and his captains were tried
+before the supreme naval and military court of the realm, which
+honourably acquitted them all. In 1901 he became vice-admiral, in 1902
+was appointed chief of staff of the Spanish navy, and in 1903 was made
+life senator. He died at Puerto Real on the 3rd of April 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CESAREVICH, or more properly TSESAREVICH, the title of the heir-apparent
+to the Russian throne. The full official title is _Nasliednik
+Tsesarevich_, i.e. "heir of Caesar," and in Russia the heir to the
+throne is commonly called simply _Nasliednik_, the word _Tsesarevich_
+never being used alone. _Tsarevich_, a form now much used in England,
+means simply any "king's son"; it is an antiquated term now out of use
+in Russia, and was last borne as heir to the throne by the unfortunate
+Alexius, son of Peter the Great. The style of the wife of the
+tsesarevich is _Tsesarevna_. The Cesarewitch handicap race at Newmarket,
+founded in 1839, was named after the prince who was afterwards Alexander
+II. of Russia, who paid a state visit to England that year.
+
+
+
+
+CESARI, GIUSEPPE, called Il Cavaliere d' Arpino (born in or about 1568
+and created a "Cavaliere di Cristo" by Pope Clement VIII.), also named
+Il Giuseppino, an Italian painter, much encouraged at Rome and
+munificently rewarded. His father had been a native of Arpino, but
+Giuseppe himself was born in Rome. Cesari is stigmatized by Lanzi as not
+less the corrupter of taste in painting than Marino was in poetry;
+indeed, another of the nicknames of Cesari is "Il Marino de' Pittori"
+(the pictorial Marino). There was spirit in Cesari's heads of men and
+horses, and his frescoes in the Capitol (story of Romulus and Remus,
+&c.), which occupied him at intervals during forty years, are well
+coloured; but he drew the human form ill. His perspective is faulty, his
+extremities monotonous, and his chiaroscuro defective. He died in 1640,
+at the age of seventy-two, or perhaps of eighty, at Rome. Cesari ranks
+as the head of the "Idealists" of his period, as opposed to the
+"Naturalists," of whom Michelangelo da Caravaggio was the leading
+champion,--the so-called "idealism" consisting more in reckless
+facility, and disregard of the common facts and common-sense of nature,
+than in anything to which so lofty a name could be properly accorded. He
+was a man of touchy and irascible character, and rose from penury to the
+height of opulence. His brother Bernardino assisted in many of his
+works.
+
+
+
+
+CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE (1730-1808), Italian poet, was born at Padua in
+1730, of a noble but impoverished family. At the university of his
+native place his literary progress procured for him at a very early age
+the chair of rhetoric, and in 1768 the professorship of Greek and
+Hebrew. On the invasion of Italy by the French, he gave his pen to their
+cause, received a pension, and was made knight of the iron crown by
+Napoleon I., to whom, in consequence, he addressed a bombastic and
+extravagantly flattering poem called _Pronea_. Cesarotti is best known
+as the translator of Homer and Ossian. Much praise cannot be given to
+his version of the _Iliad_, for he has not scrupled to add, omit and
+modernize. Ossian, which he held to be the finest of poems, he has, on
+the other hand, considerably improved in translation; and the appearance
+of his version attracted much attention in Italy and France, and raised
+up many imitators of the Ossianic style. Cesarotti also produced a
+number of works in prose, including a _Course of Greek Literature_, and
+essays _On the Origin and Progress of the Poetic Art_, _On the Sources
+of the Pleasure derived from Tragedy_, _On the Philosophy of Language_
+and _On the Philosophy of Taste_, the last being a defence of his own
+great eccentricities in criticism. His weakness was a straining after
+novelty. His style is forcible, but full of Gallicisms.
+
+  A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo. began to appear at
+  Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death. See
+  _Memoirs_, by Barbieri (Padua, 1810), and _Un Filosofo delle lettere_,
+  by Alemanni (Turin, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CESENA (anc. _Caesena_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in
+the province of Forli, 12 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Forli, on the
+line between Bologna and Rimini, 144 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1905)
+12,245 (town); 43,468 (commune). The town is picturesquely situated at
+the foot of the slopes of the Apennines, and is crowned by a medieval
+fortress (Rocca), begun by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa)
+probably, but altered and added to later. The cathedral has two fine
+marble altars by the Lombardi of Venice (or their school). The library,
+built for Domenico Malatesta in 1452 by Matteo Nuzio, is a fine early
+Renaissance building, and its internal arrangements, with the original
+desks to which the books are still chained, are especially well
+preserved (see J.W. Clark, _The Care of Books_, Cambridge, 1901, p.
+199). In it are valuable MSS., many of which were used by Aldus
+Manutius. It also contains a picture gallery with a good "Presentation
+in the Temple" by Francesco Francia. There are some fine palaces in the
+town. Three-quarters of a mile south-east on the hill stands the
+handsome church of S. Maria del Monte, after the style of Bramante, with
+carved stalls of the 16th century. Wine, hemp and silk are the main
+articles of trade. About the ancient Caesena little is said in classical
+authors: it is mentioned as a station on the Via Aemilia and as a
+fortress in the wars of Theodoric and Narses. During the middle ages it
+was at first independent. In 1357 it was unsuccessfully defended by the
+wife of Francesco Ordelaffi, lord of Forli, against the papal troops
+under Albornoz. In 1377 it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva
+(afterwards Clement VII., antipope). It was then held by the Malatesta
+of Rimini until 1465, when it came under the dominion of the church.
+Both Pius VI. (1717) and Pius VII. (1742) were born at Cesena.
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI (1832-1904), Italian-American soldier and
+archaeologist, was born near Turin on the 29th of July 1832. Having
+served in the Austrian and Crimean Wars, in 1860 he went to New York,
+where he taught Italian and French and founded a military school for
+officers. He took part in the American Civil War as colonel of a cavalry
+regiment, and at Aldie (June 1863) was wounded and taken prisoner. He
+was released from Libby prison early in 1864, served in the Wilderness
+and Petersburg campaigns (1864-65) as a brigadier of cavalry, and at the
+close of the war was breveted brigadier-general. He was then appointed
+United States consul at Larnaca in Cyprus (1865-1877). During his stay
+in the island he carried on excavations, which resulted in the discovery
+of a large number of antiquities. The collection was purchased by the
+Metropolitan Museum of New York, and Cesnola became director in 1879.
+Doubt having been thrown by Gaston L. Feuerdant, in an article in the
+New York _Herald_ (August 1880), upon the genuineness of his
+restorations, the matter was referred to a special committee, which
+pronounced in his favour.[1] He is the author of _Cyprus, its ancient
+Cities, Tombs and Temples_ (1877), an interesting book of travel and of
+considerable service to the practical antiquary; and of a _Descriptive
+Atlas of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities_ (3 vols.,
+1884-6). He died in New York on the 21st of November 1904. He was a
+member of several learned societies in Europe and America, and in 1897
+he received a Congressional medal of honour for conspicuous military
+services.
+
+His brother, ALESSANDRO PALMA DI CESNOLA, born in 1839, conducted
+excavations at Paphos (where he was U.S. vice-consul) and Salamis on
+behalf of the British government. The results of these are described in
+_Salaminia_ (1882).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the Cesnola controversy see C.D. Cobham's _Attempt at a
+    Bibliography of Cyprus_ (4th ed., 1900). See also article CYPRUS.
+
+
+
+
+CESPEDES (in Ital. CEDASPE), PABLO DE (1538-1608), Spanish poet,
+painter, sculptor and architect, was born at Cordova, and was educated
+at Alcala de Henares, where he studied theology and Oriental languages.
+On leaving the university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil
+and friend of Federigo Zuccaro, under whose direction he studied
+particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1560, while
+yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the Inquisition at
+Valladolid on account of a letter which, found among the papers of the
+archbishop of Toledo, had been written by Cespedes during the preceding
+year, and in which he had spoken with great freedom against the holy
+office and the inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdes. Cespedes remained
+in Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have treated
+the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he contrived to bring
+the proceedings to an end; he returned, however, to Spain a little
+before 1577, and in that year was installed in a prebend of the
+cathedral at Cordova, where he resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes
+has been called the most _savant_ of Spanish artists. According to his
+friend Francisco Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for the
+preservation of all of Cespedes's verse that is extant, the school of
+Seville owes to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He
+was a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master of
+colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the advantage of
+early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de Vera, Juan de Penalosa
+and Zambrano were among his pupils. His best picture is a Last Supper at
+Cordova, but there are good examples of his work at Seville and at
+Madrid. Cespedes was author of several opuscules in prose on subjects
+connected with his profession. Of his poem on _The Art of Painting_
+enough was preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the
+whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and it has
+been compared, not disadvantageously, with the _Georgics_. It is written
+in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic declamatory vein of
+Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether so dull and lifeless as is most
+didactic verse. It contains a glowing eulogy of Michelangelo, and some
+excellent advice to young painters, insisting particularly on hard work
+and on the study of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting
+in all to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his
+treatise _Del arte de la pintura_, in 1649.
+
+
+
+
+CESPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE (1585?-1638), Spanish novelist, was born
+at Madrid about 1585. Nothing positive is known of him before the
+publication of his celebrated romance, the _Poema tragico del Espanol
+Gerardo, y desengano del amor lascivo_ (1615-1617); there is evidence
+that he had been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the
+1st of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but the
+nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political
+questions in the _Historia apologetica en los sucesos del reyno de
+Aragon, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, anos de 91 y 92_ (1622), having led to
+the confiscation of the book, Cespedes took up his residence at
+Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection of short
+stories entitled _Historias peregrinas y exemplares_ (1623), the
+unfinished romance _Varia fortuna del soldado Pindaro_ (1626), and the
+first part of his _Historia de Felipe IV._ (1631), a fulsome eulogy
+which was rewarded by the author's appointment as official
+historiographer to the Spanish king. Cespedes died on the 27th of
+January 1638. His novels, though written in a ponderous, affected style,
+display considerable imagination and insight into character. The _Poema
+tragico_ has been utilized by Fletcher in _The Spanish Curate_ and in
+_The Maid of the Mill_.
+
+  The _Historias peregrinas_ has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable
+  introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori.
+
+
+
+
+CESS (a shortened form of "assess"; the spelling is due to a mistaken
+connexion with "census"), a tax; a term formerly more particularly
+applied to local taxation, in which sense it still is used in Ireland;
+otherwise it has been superseded by "rate." In India it is applied, with
+the qualifying word prefixed, to any taxation, such as "irrigation-cess"
+and the like, and in Scotland to the land-tax.
+
+
+
+
+CESSIO BONORUM (Latin for a "surrender of goods"), in Roman law, a
+voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his creditors. It did not
+amount to a discharge unless the property ceded was sufficient for the
+purpose, but it secured the debtor from personal arrest. The creditors
+sold the goods in satisfaction, _pro tanto_, of their claims. The
+procedure of _cessio bonorum_ avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his
+after-acquired property might be proceeded against, could not be
+deprived of the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman
+law of _cessio bonorum_ were adopted in Scots law, and also in the
+French legal system. (See further BANKRUPTCY.)
+
+
+
+
+CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO (1620?-1669?), Italian musical composer, was born
+at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil of Carissimi, and after holding a
+post somewhere in Florence as _maestro di cappella_ entered the papal
+chapel in 1660. In 1666 he became _Vice-Kapellmeister_ at Vienna, and
+died at Venice in 1669. Cesti is known principally as a composer of
+operas, the most celebrated of which were _La Dori_ (Venice, 1663) and
+_Il Pomo d' oro_ (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of
+chamber-cantatas, and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate
+style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the stage.
+
+
+
+
+CESTIUS, LUCIUS, surnamed Pius, Latin rhetorician, flourished during the
+reign of Augustus. He was a native of Smyrna, a Greek by birth.
+According to Jerome, he was teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 B.C.
+He must have been living after A.D. 9, since we are told that he taunted
+the son of Quintilius Varus with his father's defeat in the Teutoburgian
+forest (Seneca, _Controv._ i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of great
+ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he left Asia, he
+was invited to dinner by Cicero's son, then governor of the province.
+His host, being uncertain as to his identity, asked a slave who Cestius
+was; and on receiving the answer, "he is the man who said your father
+was illiterate," ordered him to be flogged (Seneca, _Suasoriae_, vii.
+13). As an orator in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and
+was worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him so
+slavishly that he was nicknamed "my monkey" by his teacher (Seneca,
+_Controv._ ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the other hand, he was a
+failure. Although a Greek, he always used Latin in his declamations,
+and, although he was sometimes at a loss for Latin words, he never
+suffered from lack of ideas. Numerous specimens of his declamations will
+be found in the works of Seneca the rhetorician.
+
+  See the monograph _De Lucio Cestio Pio_, by F.G. Lindner (1858); T.
+  Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 2 (1899);
+  Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Roman Lit._ (Eng. tr.), S 268, 6; M.
+  Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_, ii.
+
+
+
+
+CESTUI, CESTUY, an Anglo-French word, meaning "that person," which
+appears in the legal phrases _cestui que trust_, _use_, or _vie_. It is
+usually pronounced as "cetty." _Cestui que trust_ means literally "the
+person for whose benefit the trust" is created. The _cestui que trust_
+is the person entitled to the equitable, as opposed to the legal,
+estate. Thus, if land be granted unto, and to the use of A. in trust for
+B., B. is _cestui que trust_, and A. trustee. The term, principally
+owing to its cumbersomeness, is being gradually superseded in modern law
+by that of "beneficiary." _Cestui que use_ (sometimes _cestui a que
+use_) means "the person for whose benefit a use" is created (see TRUST).
+_Cestui que vie_ is "the person for whose life" lands are held by
+another (see REMAINDER).
+
+
+
+
+CETACEA (from the Gr. [Greek: ketos], a whale), the name of the
+mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &c. From
+their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adaptation to their
+purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded as fishes,
+although they are true mammals, with warm blood, and suckle their young.
+
+The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped body
+passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck, and
+posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the tail, which
+is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of skin supported
+by fibrous tissue, called "flukes," forming a horizontal triangular
+propelling organ, notched behind in the middle line. The head is
+generally large, in some cases attaining more than one-third the entire
+length; and the mouth is wide, and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The
+fore-limbs are reduced to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous
+skin, showing no external sign of division, and without trace of nails.
+There are no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the
+skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in many
+species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth which
+may persist through life or be present only in the young state.
+Immediately beneath the skin is a thick layer of fat, held together by a
+mesh of tissue, constituting the "blubber," which retains the heat of
+the body. In nearly all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The
+eye is small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The
+external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a short
+distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or by a single
+crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head.
+
+  The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being filled
+  with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short and
+  immobile, and the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in many
+  species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The odontoid
+  process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone is free, is
+  usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on the form and
+  function of the cervical vertebrae published in the _Jenaische
+  Zeitschrift_ for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the shortening and
+  soldering is most pronounced in species which, like the right-whales,
+  live entirely on minute organisms, to capture which there is no
+  necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly we find that in these
+  whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are fused into an immovable
+  solid mass, of which the compound elements, with the exception of the
+  first and second, are but little thicker than plates. On the other
+  hand, in the finner-whales, several of which live exclusively on fish,
+  and thus require a certain amount of mobility in the head and neck, we
+  find all the cervical vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate
+  from one another. Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white
+  whale, or beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the
+  great comparative length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are
+  completely free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure
+  is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk
+  with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in the
+  neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed to
+  feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require
+  mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On the
+  other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and mackerel,
+  which in their densely packed shoals must apparently fall an easy prey
+  with but little exertion on the part of their captor, and we
+  accordingly find all the neck-vertebrae very short, and at least six
+  out of the seven coalesced into a solid immovable mass. None of the
+  vertebrae are united to form a sacrum. The lumbar and caudal vertebrae
+  are numerous and large, and, as their arches are not connected by
+  articular processes (zygapophyses), they are capable of free motion in
+  all directions. The caps, or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral
+  bodies are flattened disks, not uniting until after the animal has
+  attained its full dimensions. There are largely developed
+  chevron-bones on the under side of the tail, the presence of which
+  indicates the distinction between caudal and lumbar vertebrae.
+
+  In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost
+  spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards
+  and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the
+  vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region; and
+  the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits.
+  The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or
+  less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae,
+  vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the upper
+  jaw or roof of the mouth.
+
+  There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the scapula
+  at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of the limb
+  are imperfect; the flattened ends of the bones coming in contact, with
+  fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any motion. The radius
+  and ulna are distinct, and about equally developed, and much
+  flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers. There are four, or
+  more commonly five, digits, and the number of the phalanges of the
+  second and third always exceeds the normal number in mammals,
+  sometimes considerably; they present the exceptional character of
+  having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis is represented by a pair of
+  small rod-like bones placed longitudinally, suspended below and at
+  some distance from the vertebral column at the commencement of the
+  tail. In some species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other
+  small bones or cartilages, the rudiments of the hind-limb.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--A Section of the Skull of a Black-Fish
+  (_Globicephalus melas_).
+
+    PMx, Premaxilla.
+    Mx, Maxilla.
+    ME, Ossified portion of the mesethmoid.
+    an, Nostrils.
+    Na, Nasal.
+    IP, Inter-parietal.
+    Fr, Frontal.
+    Pa, Parietal.
+    SO, Supra-occipital.
+    ExO, Ex-occipital.
+    BO, Basi-occipital.
+    Sq, Squamosal.
+    Per, Periotic.
+    AS, Alisphenoid.
+    PS, Presphenoid.
+    Pt, Pterygoid.
+    pn, Posterior nares.
+    Pl, Palatine.
+    Vo, Vomer.
+    s, Symphysis of lower jaw.
+    id, Inferior dental canal.
+    cp, Coronoid process of lower jaw.
+    cd, Condyle.
+    a, Angle.
+    sh, Stylo-hyal.
+    bh, Basi-hyal.
+    th, Thyro-hyal.]
+
+  Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. In
+  existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with conical
+  or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded by
+  milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent (except in the
+  foetal condition), and the palate is provided with numerous
+  transversely placed horny plates, forming the "whalebone." Salivary
+  glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach is complex, and the
+  intestine simple, and only in some species provided with a small
+  caecum. The liver is little fissured, and there is no gall-bladder.
+  The blood-vascular system is complicated by net-like expansions of
+  both arteries and veins, or _retia mirabilia_, The larynx is of
+  peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being
+  elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation, which projects into the
+  posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft palate forms a
+  continuous passage between the nostrils and the trachea, or wind-pipe,
+  in a more perfect manner. The brain is relatively large, round in
+  form, with its surface divided into numerous and complex convolutions.
+  The kidneys are deeply lobulated; the testes are abdominal; and there
+  are no vesiculae seminales nor an os penis. The uterus is bicornuate;
+  the placenta non-deciduate and diffuse. The two teats are placed in
+  depressions on each side of the genital aperture. The ducts of the
+  milk-glands are dilated during suckling into large reservoirs, into
+  which the milk collects, and from which it is injected by the action
+  of a muscle into the mouth of the young animal, so that sucking under
+  water is greatly facilitated.
+
+Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins and
+porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America and
+Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their life entirely
+in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. They have,
+however, to rise very frequently to the surface for the purpose of
+respiration; and, in relation to the upward and downward movement in the
+water thus necessitated, the principal instrument of motion, the tail,
+is expanded horizontally. The position of the nostril on the highest
+part of the head is important for this mode of life, as it is the only
+part of the body the exposure of which above the surface is absolutely
+necessary. Of numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history,
+few are so widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes
+water taken in at the mouth. But the "spouting," or "blowing," of whales
+is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration, which, taking place
+at longer intervals than land-animals, is performed with a greater
+emphasis. The moment the animal rises to the surface it forcibly expels
+from its lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration, which is
+charged with vapour in consequence of the respiratory changes. This
+rapidly condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is
+often observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken
+for water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the ocean
+is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its expiratory puff
+before the orifice has cleared the top of the water, some of which may
+thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending to complete the illusion.
+From photographs of spouting rorquals, it appears that the height and
+volume of the "spout" of all the species is much less than was supposed
+to be the case by the older observers; even that of the huge
+"sulphur-bottom" (_Balaenoptera sibbaldi_) averaging only about 14 ft.
+in height, although it may occasionally reach 20 ft.
+
+As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans for
+receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by the practice
+of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged in driving a shoal
+of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for the purpose of
+frightening their intended victims. As regards the possession of a voice
+by cetaceans, it is stated that one species, the "buckelwal" of the
+Germans, utters during the breeding-season a prolonged scream,
+comparable to the scream of a steam-siren, and embracing the whole
+musical scale, from base to treble. In respect of anatomical
+considerations, it is true that the external ear is much reduced, the
+"pinna" being absent, and the tube or "meatus" of very small calibre. On
+the other hand, the internal auditory organs are developed on the plan
+of those of ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications
+(notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone) for
+intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are received from
+the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident that whales must hear
+when in the water. This inference is confirmed by the comparatively
+small development of the other sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is
+very small, and can be of little use even at the comparatively small
+depths to which whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of
+smell, judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs,
+must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs comparable to the
+lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently, it would seem that when
+below the surface of the water they must depend chiefly upon the sense
+of hearing. Probably this sense is so highly developed as to enable the
+animals, in the midst of the vibrations made by the screw-like movements
+of the tail, or flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations)
+made by the impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in
+the case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water
+the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is
+difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the
+semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound coasts.
+
+  In the Christiania _Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, vol.
+  xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the
+  body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely
+  imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a
+  matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living
+  cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale
+  and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a pond
+  in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of procedure
+  is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have, accordingly,
+  to rely on _post-mortem_ observations. The layer of blubber by which
+  all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the _post-mortem_
+  refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than in most mammals,
+  so that such observations have a much higher value than might at first
+  be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the blood-temperature of a
+  specimen of Sibbald's rorqual three days after death still stood at 34
+  deg. C. The various observations that have been taken have afforded
+  the following results in individual cases: Sperm-whale, 40 deg. C.;
+  Greenland right-whale, 38.8 deg. C.; porpoise, 35.6 deg. C.; liver of
+  a second individual, 37.8 deg. C.; common rorqual, 35.4 deg. C.;
+  dolphin, 35.6 deg. C. The average blood-temperature of man is 37 deg.
+  C., and that of other mammals 39 deg. C.; while that of birds is 42 C.
+  The record of 40 deg. C. in the case of the sperm-whale seems to
+  indicate that at least some cetaceans have a relatively high
+  temperature.
+
+With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all the Cetacea
+are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of some kind. One kind
+alone (_Orca_) eats other warm-blooded animals, as seals, and even
+members of its own order, both large and small. Many feed on fish,
+others on small floating crustaceans, pteropods and jelly-fishes, while
+the principal staple of the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes
+and squids. In size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins
+scarcely exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal
+of all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are
+exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species exceed
+those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct dinosaurian
+reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are generally timid,
+inoffensive animals, active in their movements and affectionate in their
+disposition towards one another, especially the mother towards the
+young, of which there is usually but one, or at most two at a time. They
+are generally gregarious, swimming in herds or "schools," sometimes
+amounting to many thousands in number; though some species are met with
+either singly or in pairs.
+
+Commercially these animals are of importance on account of the oil
+yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone, spermaceti and
+ambergris are still more valuable products yielded by certain species.
+Within the last few years whalebone has been sold in America for L2900
+per ton, while it is also asserted that L3000 per ton has been paid for
+two and a quarter tons at Aberdeen, although there seems to be some
+degree of doubt attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the
+last century, the price of this commodity was as low as L150 per ton,
+but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to L620 with
+the introduction of "crinoline" into ladies' costume, and it has
+apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris, which is very largely
+used in perfumery, is solely a product of the sperm-whale, and appears
+to be a kind of biliary calculus. It generally contains a number of the
+horny beaks of the cuttle-fishes and squids upon which these whales
+chiefly feed. Its market-price is subject to considerable variation, but
+from L3 to L4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality.
+In 1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of ambergris
+weighing 270 lb., which was sold in Paris for about 85 s. per oz., or
+L18,360.
+
+  _Whalebone Whales_.--Existing Cetacea are divisible into two sections,
+  or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means clearly
+  apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales, or
+  Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although
+  there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished with
+  plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and the nasal
+  bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed upwards
+  and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not over, the
+  orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and distinct
+  from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic, which is
+  attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging processes.
+  The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two halves of the
+  lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends meeting at an
+  angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any symphysis. All the
+  ribs at their upper extremity articulate only with the transverse
+  processes of the vertebrae; their capitular processes when present not
+  articulating directly with the bodies of the vertebrae. The sternum is
+  composed of a single piece, and articulates only with a single pair of
+  ribs; and there are no ossified sternal ribs. External openings of
+  nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A short conical
+  caecum.
+
+  When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute teeth lying
+  in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws. They are best
+  developed about the middle of foetal life, after which they are
+  absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth. The
+  whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth; and consists
+  of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and four hundred
+  in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare interval along the
+  middle line. The plates are placed transversely to the long axis of
+  the palate, with short intervals between them. Each plate or blade is
+  somewhat triangular in form, with the base attached to the palate and
+  the apex hanging downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and
+  smooth, but the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres,
+  so that the roof of the whale's mouth looks as if covered with hair,
+  as described by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade
+  are two or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal
+  blades are longest near the middle of the series, and gradually
+  diminish towards the front and back of the mouth. The horny plates
+  grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix, which covers the palatal
+  surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-like processes, one of
+  which penetrates the base of each blade. Moreover, the free edges of
+  these processes are covered with long vascular thread-like papillae,
+  one of which forms the central axis of each of the hair-like fibres
+  mainly composing the blade. A transverse section of fresh whalebone
+  shows that it is made up of numbers of these soft vascular papillae,
+  circular in outline, and surrounded by concentrically arranged
+  epidermic cells, the whole bound together by other epidermic cells,
+  that constitute the smooth (so-called "enamel") surface of the blade,
+  which, disintegrating at the free edge, allows the individual fibres
+  to become loose and assume a hair-like appearance.
+
+  Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous membrane
+  of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial development. The
+  blades are supported and bound together for a certain distance from
+  their base, by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted by the
+  surface of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in the
+  intervals of the plate-like processes. This is the "gum" of the
+  whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in different species; in some
+  it is almost jet black, in others slate colour, horn colour, yellow,
+  or even creamy-white. In some descriptions the blades are variegated
+  with longitudinal stripes of different hues. It differs also greatly
+  in other respects, being short, thick, coarse, and stiff in some
+  cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in those species in
+  which it has attained its fullest development. Its function is to
+  strain the water from the small marine molluscs, crustaceans, or fish
+  upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales fill the immense
+  mouth with water containing shoals of these small creatures, and then,
+  on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so as to diminish the
+  cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through the narrow
+  intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone blades, and
+  escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be swallowed.
+
+  Although sometimes divided into two families, _Balaenidae_ and
+  _Balaenopteridae_, whalebone-whales are best included in a single
+  family group under the former name. The typical members of this family
+  are the so-called right-whales, forming the genus _Balaena_, in which
+  there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin; while the
+  cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers are
+  short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the
+  whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while the
+  scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process. This
+  genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (_B. mysticetus_)
+  of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so much valued
+  in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by having the head
+  somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with shorter whalebone and
+  a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit the temperate seas of both
+  northern and southern hemispheres, and have been divided into species
+  in accordance with their geographical distribution, such as _B.
+  biscayensis_ of the North Atlantic, _B. japonica_ of the North
+  Pacific, _B. australis_ of the South Atlantic, and _B. antipodarum_
+  and _novae-zelandiae_ of the South Pacific; but the differences
+  between them are so small that they may probably be regarded as races
+  of a single species, the black whale (_B. australis_). On the head
+  these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known to whalers as
+  the "bonnet." This is a large horny excrescence, worn into hollows
+  like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock, growing probably in the
+  neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More than one theory has been
+  suggested to account for its presence. One suggestion is that it
+  indicates the descent of whales from rhinoceros-like mammals; another
+  that this species of whale is in the habit of rubbing against rocks in
+  order to free itself from barnacles, and thus produces a kind of
+  corn--although why on the nose alone is not stated. Dr W.G. Ridewood,
+  however, considers that the structure is due to the fact that the
+  horny layers which are produced all over the skin are not shed on this
+  particular spot.
+
+  The pigmy whale (_Neobalaena marginata_) represents a genus agreeing
+  with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flutings, and with the
+  rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical vertebrae are
+  united, and there are only 43 vertebrae altogether. The flippers are
+  small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs remarkably expanded
+  and flattened; the scapula low and broad, with completely developed
+  acromion and coracoid processes. The whalebone is long, slender,
+  elastic and white. The species which inhabits the South American,
+  Australian and New Zealand seas is the smallest of the
+  whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in length.
+
+  In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (_Rachianectes
+  glaucus_) of the North Pacific, which combines the relatively small
+  head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin-whales, with the
+  smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the
+  right-whales. The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other
+  species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the
+  first two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony
+  shield. In the humpback-whale (_Megaptera longimana_ or _boops_) the
+  head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and wide, and
+  the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is fluted so as to
+  form an expansible pouch; there is a low back-fin; and the flippers,
+  which have four digits each, are extremely long, equalling about
+  one-fourth the total length of the animal. The acromion and coracoid
+  processes of the scapula are rudimentary. See HUMPBACK-WHALE.
+
+  The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of the
+  shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and are
+  consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and immovable
+  neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but with a smaller
+  head, and probably attains considerable speed owing to the length of
+  its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (_Balaenoptera_), which prey
+  largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the ocean
+  greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long and
+  attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are
+  furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They chiefly
+  differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and slender build,
+  small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing four digits, and
+  the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low and broad
+  scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among them are the
+  most gigantic of all animals, _B. sibbaldi_, which attains the length
+  of 80 ft., and the small _B. rostrata_, which does not exceed 30.
+  There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus,
+  represented by the two just mentioned, and by _B. musculus_ and _B.
+  borealis_, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether
+  almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific
+  Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct
+  awaits future researches, although some of these have already received
+  distinct names. See RORQUAL.
+
+  In the report on the zoology of the "Discovery" expedition, published
+  in 1907 by the British Museum, E.A. Wilson describes a whale
+  frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates a new
+  generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure about 20 or
+  30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a killer.
+
+  _Toothed Whales._--The second suborder is represented by the toothed
+  whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and teeth,
+  generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single pair, and
+  occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike that of the
+  whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more or less
+  unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or flattened
+  plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming any part of
+  the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards and
+  backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent. Hinder end of
+  the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of the orbital
+  plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either inseparable from the
+  jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the roof of the
+  orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic, which is usually
+  only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament. Two halves of the
+  lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height posteriorly, with a wide
+  funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal, and coming in contact in
+  front by a flat surface of variable length, but constituting a
+  symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with well-developed capitular
+  processes, which articulate with the bodies of the vertebrae. Sternum
+  almost always composed of several pieces, placed one behind the other,
+  with which several pairs of ribs are connected by well-developed
+  cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory aperture
+  single, the two nostrils uniting before they reach the surface,
+  usually in the form of a transverse sub-crescentic valvular aperture,
+  situated on the top of the head. Flippers with five digits, though the
+  first and fifth are usually little developed. No caecum, except in
+  _Platanista_.
+
+  The first family, _Physeteridae_, is typified by the sperm-whale, and
+  characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper jaw; the
+  lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in number. Bones of
+  the skull raised so as to form an elevated prominence or crest behind
+  the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced backwards, meeting in
+  the middle line, and not involuted to form the outer wall of the
+  post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed on their outer side.
+  Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal vertebrae, to which
+  the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing abruptly near the end
+  of the series, and replaced by processes on the body at a lower level,
+  and serially homologous anteriorly with the heads of the ribs, and
+  posteriorly with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae.
+  Costal cartilages not ossified.
+
+  The first group, or _Physeterinae_, includes the sperm-whale itself
+  and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth,
+  which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being
+  imperfectly divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by
+  the strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly
+  asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence of
+  the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size.
+
+  In the sperm-whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_) the upper teeth are
+  apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless, being
+  embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25 teeth on each side,
+  stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex until they are worn,
+  without enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave; its posterior and
+  lateral edges raised into a very high and greatly compressed
+  semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic processes of jugal
+  bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elongated, broad at the base,
+  and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower jaw exceedingly long and
+  narrow, the symphysis being more than half the length. Vertebrae: C 7,
+  D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas, or first vertebra, free; all the
+  other cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and spines into a
+  single mass. Eleventh pair of ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third
+  the length of the body; very massive, high and truncated, and rather
+  compressed in front; owing its huge size and form mainly to the
+  accumulation of a mass of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the
+  upper surface of the skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single
+  blow-hole is longitudinal, slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper
+  and anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle
+  line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the head,
+  considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers short, broad and
+  truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low protuberance. See
+  SPERM-WHALE.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Skull of Sperm-Whale (_Physeter
+  macrocephalus_).]
+
+  In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (_Cogia breviceps_) there may be a
+  pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw, while on each side of the
+  lower jaw there are from 9 to 12 rather long, slender, pointed and
+  curved teeth, with a coating of enamel. Upper surface of the skull
+  concave, with thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive
+  and rounded at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle
+  not longer than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base,
+  and rapidly tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal
+  rod-like. Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length.
+  Vertebrae: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the
+  cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and arches. The head is
+  about one-sixth of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in
+  front; the mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout; the
+  blow-hole crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in
+  advance of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the
+  flippers are bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This
+  species attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Bottle-nose (_Hyperoodon rostratus_). From a
+  specimen taken off the coast of Scotland, 1882.]
+
+  A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked
+  whales, and known as the _Ziphiinae_. In this group the lower teeth
+  are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely two,
+  pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male. There is
+  a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced into a
+  slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded eminence formed
+  by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front of the blow-hole
+  rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single, crescentic and
+  median, as in the _Delphinidae_. Flippers small, ovate, with five
+  digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal fin situated
+  considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on
+  each side of the skin of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly
+  meeting in front. In external characters and habits the whales of this
+  group closely resemble each other. They appear to be almost
+  exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and occur either singly, in
+  pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters
+  they are easily separated into four genera.
+
+  In the first of these, _Hyperoodon_, or bottle-nose, there is a small
+  conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw,
+  concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the
+  premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex and
+  expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their
+  anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils; the
+  right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow between
+  the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave in the
+  middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of the
+  right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla.
+  Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak,
+  extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other in
+  the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so massive
+  that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital notch
+  distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Vertebrae: C 7,
+  D 9, L 10, Ca 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae united. Upper
+  surface of the head in front of the blow-hole very prominent and
+  rounded, rising abruptly from above the small, distinct snout. Two
+  species are known. See BOTTLE-NOSE WHALE.
+
+  The typical representative of the beaked whales is _Ziphius cuvieri_,
+  in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side
+  close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards
+  and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and at
+  the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral
+  margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards,
+  the right being considerably more developed than the left. The
+  conjoint nasals form a pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of
+  the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above,
+  prominent and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a
+  notch on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not
+  distinct. Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base
+  to the apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum
+  raised into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely
+  ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of
+  the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The three
+  anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sowerby's Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon bidens_).]
+
+  In the numerous species of the allied genus _Mesoplodon_ there is a
+  much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw,
+  variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex;
+  its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasionally
+  developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the nostrils
+  is as in _Hyperoodon_, except that the nasals are narrow and more sunk
+  between the upper ends of the premaxillae; like those of _Hyperoodon_,
+  they are concave in the middle line in front and above. No maxillary
+  tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum long and
+  narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its entire length, and
+  coalescing with the surrounding bones. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10 or
+  11, Ca 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three anterior cervicals
+  united, the rest usually free.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Skull of a Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon
+  densirostris_).]
+
+  Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different members of
+  this genus agree in their essential structure, having a small and
+  pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of dentine, which, instead of
+  surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid
+  mass of osteo-dentine, the continuous growth of which greatly alters
+  the form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances, as in
+  the case of _M. layardi_, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like
+  teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over the rostrum,
+  and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one species (_M.
+  grayi_) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like those of
+  ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, is present even in the adults,
+  on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but embedded by
+  their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets. This, with the
+  frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species of this genus,
+  indicates that the beaked whales are derived from ancestral forms with
+  teeth of normal character in both jaws. The species are distributed in
+  both northern and southern hemispheres, but most frequent in the
+  latter. Among them are _M. bidens_, _M. europaeas_, _M. densirostris_,
+  _M. layardi_, _M. grayi_ and _M. hectori_; but there is still much to
+  be learned with regard to their characters and distribution. This
+  group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as attested by the frequency
+  with which the imperishable long, cylindrical rostrum of the skull, of
+  more than ivory denseness, is found among the rolled and waterworn
+  animal remains which compose the "bone-bed" at the base of the Red
+  Crag of Suffolk.
+
+  Finally, in Arnoux's beaked whale (_Berardius arnouxi_), of New
+  Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two
+  moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the
+  symphysis of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the
+  anterior being the larger of the two and close to the front of the
+  jaw. Upper ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately
+  elevated, slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils.
+  Nasals broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the
+  vertex of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle
+  line. Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid
+  partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the
+  upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D
+  10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals welded, the
+  rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale has the power of
+  thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to view when attacked.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Susu, or Ganges Dolphin (_Platanista
+  gangetica_).]
+
+  In a family by themselves--the _Platinistidae_--are placed three
+  cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the
+  following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the
+  vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at
+  the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in most
+  mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal bone is not
+  distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous
+  teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one exceeding half its
+  length. Externally the head is divided from the body by a slightly
+  constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated. Dorsal fin small
+  or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are fluviatile or estuarine. In
+  the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin (_Platanista gangetica_), the teeth
+  number about 30/30 on each side, are set near together, are rather
+  large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young, but in old animals
+  acquire a large laterally compressed base, which in the posterior part
+  of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots. As the conical
+  enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the young and old
+  animals have a totally different appearance. The beak and
+  tooth-bearing portion of the lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of
+  the two sides are almost in contact. Maxillae supporting large,
+  incurved, compressed bony crests, which overarch the nostrils and base
+  of the rostrum, and almost meet in the middle line above. Orbits very
+  small and eyes rudimentary, without crystalline lens. Blow-hole
+  longitudinal, linear. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 25; total 51. A
+  small caecum. No pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--River Plate Dolphin (_Stenodelphis
+  blainvillei_).]
+
+  The second genus is represented by _Inia geoffroyi_, of the Amazon, in
+  which the teeth vary from 26 to 33 pairs in each jaw; those at the
+  posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner side of the base
+  of the crown. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18; total 41. Transverse
+  processes of lumbar vertebrae very broad. Sternum short and broad, and
+  consisting of a single segment only. Dorsal fin a mere ridge. The long
+  cylindrical rostrum externally furnished with scattered, stout and
+  crisp hairs. The third type is _Stenodelphis blainvillei_, the River
+  Plate dolphin, a small brown species (fig. 7), with from 50 to 60
+  pairs of teeth in each jaw, furnished with a cingulum at the base of
+  the crown. Jaws very long and slender. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca
+  19; total 41. Transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae extremely
+  broad. Sternum elongated, composed of two segments, with four sternal
+  ribs attached. Dorsal fin rather small, triangular, pointed. Blow-hole
+  transverse. In several respects this species connects the two
+  preceding ones with the _Delphinidae_ (see DOLPHIN).
+
+  The last family of existing cetaceans is the above-mentioned
+  _Delphinidae_, which includes the true dolphins, porpoises, grampuses
+  and their relatives. As a rule there are numerous teeth in both jaws;
+  and the pterygoid bones of the skull are short, thin and involuted to
+  form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of the
+  post-palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of lower jaw short, or moderate,
+  never exceeding one-third the length of the jaw. Lacrymal bone not
+  distinct from the jugal. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae
+  gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the vertebrae
+  without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly continuous serially
+  with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Anterior ribs
+  attached to the transverse process by the tubercle, and to the body of
+  the vertebra by the head; the latter attachment lost in the posterior
+  ribs. Sternal ribs ossified. The blow-hole is transverse, crescentic,
+  with the horns of the crescent pointing forwards.
+
+  First on the long list is the narwhal, _Monodon monoceros_, in which,
+  apart from some irregular rudimentary teeth, the dentition is reduced
+  to a single pair of teeth which lie horizontally in the maxilla, and
+  in the female remain permanently concealed within the socket, so that
+  this sex is practically toothless, while in the male (fig. 8), the
+  right tooth usually remains similarly concealed while the left is
+  immensely developed, attaining a length equal to more than half that
+  of the entire animal, projecting horizontally from the head in the
+  form of a cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, without
+  enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and ridges,
+  running in a sinistral direction. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 6, Ca 26;
+  total 50. Cervical region comparatively long, and all the vertebrae
+  distinct, or with irregular unions towards the middle of the series,
+  the atlas and axis being usually free. Flipper small, short and broad,
+  with the second and third digits nearly equal, the fourth slightly
+  shorter. No dorsal fin. See NARWHAL.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Upper surface of the Skull of male Narwhal
+  (_Monodon monoceros_), with the whole of both teeth exposed by removal
+  of the upper wall of their alveolar cavities.]
+
+  Closely allied is the beluga or white-whale (_Delphinapterus leucas_),
+  of the Arctic seas, in which, however, there are from eight to ten
+  pairs of teeth in each jaw, occupying the anterior three-fourths of
+  the rostrum and corresponding portion of the lower jaw, rather small,
+  conical, and pointed when unworn, but usually become obliquely
+  truncated, separated by intervals considerably wider than the diameter
+  of the tooth, and implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining forwards
+  especially in the upper jaw. Skull rather narrow and elongated,
+  depressed. Premaxillae convex in front of the nostrils. Rostrum about
+  equal in length to the cranial portion of the skull, triangular, broad
+  at the base, and gradually contracting towards the apex, where it is
+  somewhat curved downwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 9, Ca 23; total 50.
+  Cervical vertebrae free. Flippers broad, short and rounded, all the
+  digits being tolerably well developed, except the first. Anterior part
+  of head rounded; no distinct snout. No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in
+  its place. See BELUGA.
+
+  In all the remaining genera of _Delphinidae_ the cervical region of
+  the vertebral column is very short, and the first two, and usually
+  more, of the vertebrae are firmly united. The common porpoise
+  (_Phocaena communis_, or _P. phocaena_) is the typical representative
+  of the first genus, in which the teeth vary from 18/18 to 25/25, are
+  small, and occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum, with
+  compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated from the root by a
+  constricted neck. Rostrum rather shorter than the cranium proper,
+  broad at the base and tapering towards the apex. Premaxillae raised
+  into tuberosities in front of the nostrils. The frontal bones form a
+  somewhat square elevated protuberance in the middle line of the skull
+  behind the nostrils, rising above the flattened nasals. Symphysis of
+  lower jaw very short. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 14, Ca 30; total 64.
+  First to sixth cervical vertebrae and sometimes the seventh also,
+  coalesced. Flippers of moderate size, oval, slightly sickle-shaped,
+  with the second and third digits nearly equal in length, and the
+  fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Head short, moderately
+  rounded in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin near the middle of the
+  back, triangular; its height considerably less than the length of the
+  base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with one or more rows of
+  conical horny tubercles.
+
+  The porpoise, which is so common in British waters and the Atlantic,
+  seldom enters the Mediterranean, and apparently never resides there.
+  There is, however, a porpoise in the Black Sea, which, according to Dr
+  O. Abel, is entitled to rank as a distinct species, with the name of
+  _Phocaena relicta_. This Black Sea porpoise is readily distinguished
+  from the Atlantic species by the contour of the profile of the head,
+  which, in place of forming a continuous curve from the muzzle to what
+  represents the neck, has a marked prominence above the angle of the
+  mouth, followed by an equally marked depression. The teeth are also
+  different in form and number. The absence of porpoises from the
+  Mediterranean is explained by Dr Abel on account of the greater
+  saltness of that sea as compared with the ocean in general; his idea
+  being that these cetaceans are near akin to fresh-water members of the
+  group, and therefore unsuited to withstand an excessively saline
+  medium. From the Taman Peninsula, on the north shore of the Black Sea,
+  the same writer has described an extinct type of ancestral porpoise,
+  under the name of _Palaeophocaena andrussowi_. Another species is the
+  wholly black _P. spinipennis_, typically from South America. Black is
+  also the hue of the Indian porpoise (_Neophocaena phocaenoides_),
+  which wants a dorsal fin, and has eighteen pairs of teeth rather
+  larger than those of the ordinary porpoise. (See PORPOISE.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Beluga or White-Whale (_Delphinapterus
+  leucas_). From a specimen taken in the river St Lawrence and exhibited
+  in London, 1877.]
+
+  Next comes the Indo-Malay genus _Orcella_, in which the 12/12 to
+  14/14, small, conical teeth are pointed, rather closely set, and
+  occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull sub-globular,
+  high. Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion of the
+  skull, tapering. Flippers of moderate size, not elongated, but
+  somewhat pointed, with all the bones of the digits broader than long,
+  except the first phalanges of the index and third fingers. Head
+  globular in front. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle
+  of the body. Two species, both of small size--_O. brevirostris_, from
+  the Bay of Bengal, and _O. fluminalis_, from the Irrawaddy river, from
+  300 to 900 m. from the sea.
+
+  In the grampus, or killer, _Orca gladiator_ (or _O. orca_) the teeth
+  form about twenty pairs, above and below, occupying nearly the whole
+  length of the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved
+  crowns and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather
+  hollowed, on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about equal
+  in length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened above,
+  rounded in front; premaxillae broad and rather concave in front of the
+  nostrils, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and expanding again
+  towards the apex. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 10, Ca 23; total 51 or
+  52; bodies of the first and second and sometimes the third cervical
+  vertebrae united; the rest free. Flippers very large, ovate, nearly as
+  broad as long, with all the phalanges and metacarpals broader than
+  long. General form of body robust. Face short and rounded. Dorsal fin
+  near the middle of the back, very high and pointed. See GRAMPUS.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--The Grampus or Killer (_Orca gladiator_).]
+
+  The lesser killer or black killer, _Pseudorca crassidens_, has its
+  8-12/8-12 teeth confined to the anterior half of the rostrum and
+  corresponding part of the lower jaw; they are small, conical, curved
+  and sharp-pointed when unworn, but sometimes deciduous in old age.
+  Skull broad and depressed; with the rostrum and cranial portions about
+  equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Premaxillae
+  concave in front of the nostrils, as wide at the middle of the rostrum
+  as at the base, and nearly or completely concealing the maxillae in
+  the anterior half of this region. Vertebrae: C 7, D II, L 12-14, Ca
+  28-29; total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or six cervical
+  vertebrae united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar and anterior
+  caudal vertebrae about equal to their width. Flippers very long and
+  narrow, with the second digit the longest, and having as many as 12 or
+  13 phalanges, the third shorter (with 9 phalanges), the first, fourth
+  and fifth very short. Fore part of the head round, in consequence of
+  the great development of a cushion of fat, placed on the rostrum of
+  the skull in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin low and triangular,
+  the length of its base considerably exceeding its vertical height.
+
+  Next comes the ca'ing whale, or black-fish (_Globicephalus melas_),
+  with about ten pairs of upper and lower teeth. Cranial and dental
+  characters generally like those of _Orca_, except that the roots of
+  the teeth are cylindrical. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 9, Ca 24; total 50;
+  first to sixth or seventh cervical vertebrae united; bodies of the
+  lumbar vertebrae distinguished from those of the preceding genera by
+  being more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2.
+  Flippers of moderate size, narrow and pointed. Dorsal fin situated
+  near the middle of the back, of moderate size, and sickle-shaped. Head
+  in front of the blow-hole high, and compressed anteriorly, the snout
+  truncated. See CA'ING WHALE.
+
+  Risso's dolphin, _Grampus griseus_, represents another genus,
+  characterized by the absence of teeth in the upper and the small
+  number of these in the lower jaw (3 to 7 on each side, and confined to
+  the region of the symphysis). Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, L 19, Ca 30; total
+  68. General external characters much as in _Globicephalus_, but the
+  fore part of the head less rounded, and the flippers less elongated.
+  _G. griseus_ is about 13 ft. long, and remarkable for its great
+  variability of colour. It has been found, though rarely, in the North
+  Atlantic and Mediterranean.
+
+  The common dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_) is the typical representative
+  of a large group of relatively small species, some of which are wholly
+  marine, while others are more or less completely fluviatile. They are
+  divided into a number of genera, such as _Prodelphinus_, _Steno_,
+  _Lagenorhynchus_, _Cephalorhynchus_, _Tursiops_, &c., best
+  distinguished from one another by the number and size of the teeth,
+  the form and relations of the bones on the hinder part of the palate,
+  the length of the beak and of the union of the two halves of the lower
+  jaw, and the number of vertebrae. For the distinctive characters of
+  these genera the reader may refer to one of the works mentioned below;
+  and it must suffice to state that, collectively, all these dolphins
+  are characterized by the following features. The teeth are numerous in
+  both jaws, and more than 20/20 in number, occupying nearly the whole
+  length of the rostrum, and small, close-set, conical, pointed and
+  slightly curved. Rostrum more or less elongated, and pointed in front,
+  usually considerably longer than the cranial portion of the skull.
+  Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-14, L and Ca variable; total 51 to 90. Flippers
+  of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat sickle-shaped, with the
+  first digit rudimentary, the second longest, third nearly equal, and
+  the fourth and fifth extremely short. Externally the head shows a
+  distinct beak or pointed snout, marked off from the antenasal fatty
+  elevation by a V-shaped groove. Dorsal fin rather large, triangular or
+  sickle-shaped, rarely wanting. A curiously marked brown and white
+  species, perhaps referable to _Lagenorhynchus_ is found on the fringe
+  of the Antarctic ice (see report on the zoology of the "Discovery,"
+  published in 1907 by the British Museum). See DOLPHIN.
+
+
+  _Extinct Cetacea._
+
+  At present we are totally in the dark as to the origin of the
+  whalebone-whales, not being even assured that they are derived from
+  the same stock as the toothed whales. It is noteworthy, however, that
+  some of the fossil representatives of the latter have nasal bones of a
+  type recalling those of the former. Such fossil whalebone-whales as
+  are known occur in Pliocene, and Miocene formations are either
+  referable to existing genera, or to more or less nearly related
+  extinct ones, such as _Plesiocetus_, _Herpetocetus_ and _Cetotherium_.
+
+  The toothed whales, on the other hand, are very largely represented in
+  a fossil state, reaching as low in the geological series as the upper
+  Cretaceous. Many of these present much more generalized characters
+  than their modern representatives, while others indicate apparently a
+  transition towards the still more primitive zeuglodonts, which, as
+  will be shown later, are themselves derived from the creodont
+  Carnivora. In the Pliocene deposits of Belgium and England are
+  preserved the teeth and other remains of a number of cetaceans, such
+  as _Physodon_, _Encetus_, _Dinoziphius_, _Hoplocetus_, _Balaenodon_
+  and _Scaldicetus_, more or less nearly related to the sperm-whale, but
+  presenting several primitive characters. A complete skull of a member
+  of this group from the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia, at first
+  referred to _Physodon_, but subsequently to _Scaldicetus_, has a full
+  series of enamelled teeth in the upper jaw; and it is probable that
+  the same was the case in other forms. This entails either a
+  modification of the definition of the _Physeteridae_ as given above,
+  or the creation of a separate family for these primitive sperm-whales.
+  In other cases, however, as in the Miocene _Prophyseter_ and
+  _Placoziphius_, the anterior portion or the whole of the upper jaw had
+  already become toothless; and these forms are regarded as indicating
+  the descent of the sperm-whales from the under-mentioned _Squalodon_.
+  The beaked whales, again, are believed to be independently descended
+  from the latter type, _Berardius_ being traced into the Miocene
+  _Mioziphius_, _Anoplonassa_ and _Palaeoziphius_, the last of which
+  shows signs in its dentition of approximating to the complicated
+  tooth-structure of the squalodonts.
+
+  Another line of descent from the latter, apparently culminating in the
+  modern _Platanistidae_, is represented by the family
+  _Eurhinodelphidae_, typified by the European Miocene
+  _Eurhinodelphis_, but also including the contemporary Patagonian
+  _Argyrocetus_ and the nearly allied European _Cyrtodelphis_. All these
+  were very long-beaked dolphins; and in _Argyrocetus_, at all events,
+  the occipital condyles, instead of being closely pressed to the skull,
+  are as prominent as in ordinary mammals, while the nasal bones,
+  instead of forming mere rudimentary nodules, were squared and roofed
+  over the hind part of the nasal chamber.
+
+  In the Miocene _Squalodon_, representing the family _Squalodontidae_,
+  the dentition is differentiated into incisors, canines and
+  cheek-teeth, the hinder ones of the latter series having double roots
+  and compressed crowns carrying serrations on the hinder edge;
+  generally the dental formula has been given as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4,
+  m. 7/7, the single-rooted cheek-teeth being regarded as premolars and
+  those with double roots as molars. Dr Abel is, however, of opinion
+  that the formula is better represented as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. (8 or
+  9)/9, m. 3/2; the teeth reckoned as molars corresponding to those of
+  the creodont Carnivora. The single-rooted cheek-teeth are regarded as
+  due, not to the division of double-rooted ones, but to the fusion of
+  the two roots of teeth of the latter type. In _Squalodon_ the nasal
+  bones were of the modern nodular type, but in the Miocene Patagonian
+  _Prosqualodon_ they partially covered the nasal chamber.
+
+  At present there is a gap between the most primitive squalodonts and
+  the Eocene zeuglodonts (_Zeuglodontidae_), which are regarded by
+  Messrs Max Weber, O. Abel and C.W. Andrews as the direct forerunners
+  of the modern-toothed whales, forming the suborder _Archaeoceti_. It
+  is, however, right to mention that some authorities refuse to admit
+  the relation of the Archaeoceti to the whales.
+
+  In the typical zeuglodonts the long and flat skull has large temporal
+  fossae, a strong sagittal crest, a long beak formed mainly by the
+  premaxillae (in place of the maxillae, as in modern whales), and long
+  nasal bones covering over the nasal chamber, so that the nostrils
+  opened about half-way down the beak. All the cervical vertebrae were
+  free. Normally the dentition in the typical genus _Zeuglodon_ (which
+  is common to the Eocene of North America and Egypt) is i. 3/3, c. 1/1,
+  p. 4/4, m. 3/3; the cheek-teeth being two-rooted, with compressed
+  pointed crowns, of which the fore-and-aft edges are coarsely serrated.
+  In the Egyptian _Zeuglodon osiris_ the number of the molars is,
+  however, reduced to 2/3, while some of the earlier cheek-teeth have
+  become single-rooted, as in the squalodonts. The probable transitional
+  form between the latter and the zeuglodonts is the small
+  _Microzeuglodon caucasicus_ described by the present writer, from the
+  Caucasus. As regards the origin of the zeuglodonts themselves, remains
+  discovered in the Eocene formations of Egypt indicate a practically
+  complete transition, so far at least as dental characters are
+  concerned, from these whale-like creatures to the creodont Carnivora.
+  In the earliest type, _Protocetus_, the skull is practically that of a
+  zeuglodont, the snout being in fact more elongated than in some of the
+  earliest representatives of the latter, although the nostrils are
+  placed nearer the tip. The incisors are unknown, but the cheek-teeth
+  are essentially those of a creodont, none of them having acquired the
+  serrated edges distinctive of the typical zeuglodonts; and the hinder
+  premolars and molars retaining the three roots of the creodonts. In
+  the somewhat later _Prozeuglodon_ the skull is likewise essentially of
+  the zeuglodont type, although the nostrils have shifted a little more
+  backwards; as regards the cheek-teeth, which have acquired serrated
+  crowns, the premolars at any rate retain the inner buttress supported
+  by a distinct third root, so that they are precisely intermediate
+  between _Protocetus_ and _Zeuglodon_. Yet another connecting form is
+  _Eocetus_, a very large animal from nearly the same horizon as
+  _Prozeuglodon_; its skull approaching that of _Zeuglodon_ as regards
+  the backward position of the nostrils, although the cheek-teeth are of
+  the creodont type, having inner, or third, roots. It is noteworthy
+  that _Zeuglodon_ apparently occurs in the same beds as these
+  intermediate types.
+
+  It follows from the foregoing that if zeuglodonts are the ancestors of
+  the true Cetacea--and the probability that they are so is very
+  great--the latter are derived from primitive Carnivora, and not, as
+  has been suggested, from herbivorous Ungulata. The idea that the
+  zeuglodonts were provided with a bony armour does not appear to be
+  supported by recent discoveries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. Flower in
+  the 9th edition of this work. See also W.H. Flower, "On the Characters
+  and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London,
+  1883); F.W. True, "Review of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. U.S.
+  Museum_, No. 36 (1889); R. Lydekker, "Cetacean Skulls from Patagonia,"
+  _Palaeontol. Argentina_, vol. ii: _An. Mus. La Plata_ (1893); W.
+  Dames, "Uber Zeuglodonten aus Agypten," _Palaontol. Abhandlungen_,
+  vol. i. (1894); F.E. Beddard, _A Book of Whales_ (London, 1900); O.
+  Abel, "Untersuchungen uber die fossilen Platanistiden des Wiener
+  Beckens," _Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien._, vol. lxviii. (1899); "Les
+  Dauphins longirostres du Bolerien," _Mem. musee d'hist. nat. belgique_
+  (1901 and 1902); "Die phylogenetische Entwickelung des
+  Cetaceengebisses und die systematische Stellung der Physeteriden,"
+  _Verhandl. deutsch. zool. Gesellschaft_ (1905); E. Fraas, "Neue
+  Zeuglodonten aus dem unteren Mittelocean vom Mokattam bei Cairo,"
+  _Geol. und palaontol. Abhandl._ ser. 2, vol. vi. (1904); C.W.
+  Andrews, "Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the
+  Fayum" (British Museum, 1906).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CETHEGUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of the Cornelian gens.
+Like the younger Cato its members kept up the old Roman fashion of
+dispensing with the tunic and leaving the arms bare (Horace, _Ars
+Poetica_, 50; Lucan, _Pharsalia_, ii. 543). Two individuals are of some
+importance:--
+
+(1) MARCUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, pontifex maximus and curule aedile, 213
+B.C. In 211, as praetor, he had charge of Apulia; later, he was sent to
+Sicily, where he proved a successful administrator. In 209 he was
+censor, and in 204 consul. In 203 he was proconsul in Upper Italy,
+where, in conjunction with the praetor P. Quintilius Varus, he gained a
+hard-won victory over Mago, Hannibal's brother, in Insubrian territory,
+and obliged him to leave Italy. He died in 196. He had a great
+reputation as an orator, and is characterized by Ennius as "the
+quintessence of persuasiveness" (_suadae medulla_). Horace (_Ars Poet._
+50; _Epistles_, ii. 2. 117) calls him an authority on the use of Latin
+words.
+
+  Livy xxv. 2, 41, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11, xxx. 18.
+
+(2) GAIUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, the boldest and most dangerous of
+Catiline's associates. Like many other youthful profligates, he joined
+the conspiracy in the hope of getting his debts cancelled. When Catiline
+left Rome in 63 B.C., after Cicero's first speech, Cethegus remained
+behind as leader of the conspirators with P. Lentulus Sura. He himself
+undertook to murder Cicero and other prominent men, but was hampered by
+the dilatoriness of Sura, whose age and rank entitled him to the chief
+consideration. The discovery of arms in Cethegus's house, and of the
+letter which he had given to the ambassadors of the Allobroges, who had
+been invited to co-operate, led to his arrest. He was condemned to
+death, and executed, with Sura and others, on the night of the 5th of
+December.
+
+  Sallust, _Catilina_, 46-55; Cicero, _In Cat._ iii. 5-7; Appian, _Bell.
+  Civ._ ii. 2-5; see CATILINE.
+
+
+
+
+CETINA, GUTIERRE DE (1518?-1572?), Spanish poet and soldier, was born at
+Seville shortly before 1520. He served under Charles V. in Italy and
+Germany, but retired from the army in 1545 to settle in Seville. Soon
+afterwards, however, he sailed for Mexico, where he resided for some ten
+years; he appears to have visited Seville in 1557, and to have returned
+to Mexico, where he died at some date previous to 1575. A follower of
+Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega, a friend of Jeronimo de Urrea and
+Baltavar del Alcazar, Cetina adopted the doctrines of the Italian school
+and, under the name of Vandalio, wrote an extensive series of poems in
+the newly introduced metres; his sonnets are remarkable for elegance of
+form and sincerity of sentiment, his other productions being in great
+part adaptations from Petrarch, Ariosto and Ludovico Dolce. His patrons
+were Antonio de Leyva, prince of Ascoli, Hurtado de Mendoza, and Alva's
+grandson, the duke de Sessa, but he seems to have profited little by
+their protection. His works have been well edited by Joaquin Hazanas y
+la Rua in two volumes published at Seville (1895).
+
+
+
+
+CETTE, a seaport of southern France in the department of Herault, 18 m.
+S.W. of Montpellier by the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 32,659. After
+Marseilles it is the principal commercial port on the south coast of
+France. The older part of Cette occupies the foot and slope of the Mont
+St Clair (the ancient _Mons Setius_), a hill 590 ft. in height, situated
+on a tongue of land that lies between the Mediterranean and the lagoon
+of Thau. This quarter with its wide streets and lofty stone buildings is
+bounded on the east by the Canal de Cette, which leads from the lagoon
+of Thau to the Old Basin and the outer harbour. Across the canal lie the
+newer quarters, which chiefly occupy two islands separated from each
+other by a wet dock and limited on the east by the Canal Maritime,
+parallel to the Canal de Cette. A lateral canal unites the northern ends
+of the two main canals. A breakwater running W.S.W. and E.N.E. protects
+the entrance to the harbour, which is one of the safest in France. The
+outer port and the Old Basin are enclosed by a mole to the south and by
+a jetty to the east. Behind the outer port lies an inner and more recent
+basin which communicates with the Canal Maritime. The entire area of the
+harbour, including the canals, is 111 acres with a quayage length of
+over 8000 yds. The public institutions of Cette include tribunals of
+commerce and of maritime commerce, councils of arbitration in commercial
+and fishing affairs, an exchange and chamber of commerce, a branch of
+the Bank of France and a large hospital. There are also a communal
+college, a naval school, and schools of music, commerce and industry,
+and navigation. Cette is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The town is
+connected with Lyons by the canal from the Rhone to Cette, and with
+Bordeaux by the Canal du Midi, and is a junction of the Southern and
+Paris-Lyon railways. The shipping trade is carried on with South
+America, the chief ports of the Mediterranean, and especially with
+Spain. The chief exports are wines and brandy, chemical products, skins
+and soap; the chief imports are wine, cereals, coal, timber, petroleum,
+sulphur, tar and chemical substances. In the five years 1901-1905 the
+average annual value of imports was L3,720,000 (L4,980,000 in years
+1896-1900), of exports L1,427,000 (L1,237,000 in 1896-1900). More than
+400 small craft are employed in the sardine, tunny, cod and other
+fisheries. Large quantities of shell-fish are obtained from the lagoon
+of Thau. There are factories for the pickling of sardines, for the
+manufacture of liqueurs and casks, and for the treatment of sulphur,
+phosphates, and nitrate of soda. The Schneider Company of Creusot also
+have metallurgical works at Cette, and the establishments for making
+wine give employment to thousands. The port of Cette was created in 1666
+by the agency of Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., and according to the
+plans of Vauban; toward the end of the 17th century its development was
+aided by the opening of the Canal du Midi.
+
+
+
+
+CETTIGNE (Servian, _Tsetinye_; also written _Cettinje_, _Tzetinje_, and
+_Tsettinye_), the capital of Montenegro; in a narrow plain deeply sunk
+in the heart of the limestone mountains, at a height of 2093 ft. above
+the sea. Pop. (1900) about 3200. The surrounding country is bare and
+stony, with carefully cultivated patches of rich red soil among the
+crevices of the rock. In winter it is often so deeply covered with snow
+as to be well-nigh inaccessible, while in spring and autumn it is
+frequently flooded by the waters of a small brook which becomes a
+torrent after rain or a thaw. Cettigne itself is little more than a
+walled village, consisting of a cluster of whitewashed cottages and some
+unadorned public buildings. These include a church; a fortified
+monastery which was founded in 1478, but so often burned and rebuilt as
+to seem quite modern, and which is visited by pilgrims to the tomb of
+Peter I. (1782-1830); residences for the archimandrite and the _vladika_
+or metropolitan of Cettigne; a palace built in 1863, which accommodates
+the ministries; the court of appeal, and a school modelled on the
+gymnasia of Germany and Austria; the newer palaces of the prince and his
+heir; foreign legations; barracks; a seminary for priests and teachers,
+established by the tsar Alexander II. (1855-1881), with a very
+successful girls' school founded and endowed by the tsaritsa Marie; a
+library and reading-room; a theatre, a museum and a hospital. In an open
+space near the old palace stood the celebrated plane tree, beneath which
+Prince Nicholas gave audience to his subjects, and administered justice
+until the closing years of the 19th century. A zigzag highway, regarded
+as a triumph of engineering, winds through the mountain passes between
+Cettigne and the Austrian seaport of Cattaro; and other good roads give
+access to the richest parts of the interior. There is, however, little
+trade, though mineral waters are manufactured.
+
+Cettigne owes its origin to Ivan the Black, who was forced, towards the
+end of the 15th century, to withdraw from Zhabliak, his former capital.
+It has often been taken and sacked by the Turks, but has seldom been
+occupied by them for long.
+
+
+
+
+CETUS ("The Whale"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern
+hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
+century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be the monster sent by
+Neptune to devour Andromeda, but which was slain by Perseus. Ptolemy
+catalogued 22 stars in this constellation; Tycho Brahe, 21; and
+Hevelius, 45. The most remarkable star of this constellation is
+_o-(Mira) Ceti_, a long-period variable, discovered by the German
+astronomer Fabricius; its magnitude varies between about 3 to 9, and its
+period is 331 days. _[tau]-Ceti_ is an irregular variable, its extreme
+magnitudes being 5 and 7; _[gamma]-Ceti_ is a beautiful double star,
+consisting of a yellow star of magnitude 3 and a blue of magnitude 6.8;
+_[nu]-Ceti_ is also a double star.
+
+
+
+
+CETYWAYO (  ?-1884), king of the Zulus, was the eldest son of King
+Umpande or Panda, and a nephew of the two previous kings, Dingaan and
+Chaka. Cetywayo was a young man when in 1840 his father was placed on
+the throne by the aid of the Natal Boers; and three years later Natal
+became a British colony. Cetywayo had inherited much of the military
+talent of his uncle Chaka, the organizer of the Zulu military system,
+and chafed under his father's peaceful policy towards his British and
+Boer neighbours. Suspecting Panda of favouring a younger son, Umbulazi,
+as his successor, Cetywayo made war on his brother, whom he defeated and
+slew at a great battle on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856. In
+the following year, at an assembly of the Zulus, it was resolved that
+Panda should retire from the management of the affairs of the nation,
+which were entrusted to Cetywayo, though the old chief kept the title of
+king. Cetywayo was, however, suspicious of the Natal government, which
+afforded protection to two of his brothers. The feeling of distrust was
+removed in 1861 by a visit from Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus
+Shepstone, secretary for native affairs in Natal, who induced Panda to
+proclaim Cetywayo publicly as the future king. Friendly relations were
+then maintained between the Zulus and Natal for many years. In 1872
+Panda died, and Cetywayo was declared king, August 1873, in the presence
+of Shepstone, to whom he made solemn promises to live at peace with his
+neighbours and to govern his people more humanely. These promises were
+not kept. Not only were numbers of his own people wantonly slain
+(Cetywayo returning defiant messages to the governor of Natal when
+remonstrated with), and the military system of Chaka and Dingaan
+strengthened, but he had a feud with the Transvaal Boers as to the
+possession of the territory between the Buffalo and Pongola rivers, and
+encouraged the chief Sikukuni (Secocoeni) in his struggle against the
+Boers. This feud with the Boers was inherited by the British government
+on the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877. Cetywayo's attitude became
+menacing; he allowed a minor chief to make raids into the Transvaal, and
+seized natives within the Natal border.
+
+Sir Bartle Frere, who became high commissioner of South Africa in March
+1877, found evidence which convinced him that the Kaffir revolt of that
+year on the eastern border of Cape Colony was part of a design or desire
+"for a general and simultaneous rising of Kaffirdom against white
+civilization"; and the Kaffirs undoubtedly looked to Cetywayo and the
+Zulus as the most redoubtable of their champions. In December 1878 Frere
+sent the Zulu king an ultimatum, which, while awarding him the territory
+he claimed from the Boers, required him to make reparation for the
+outrages committed within the British borders, to receive a British
+resident, to disband his regiments, and to allow his young men to marry
+without the necessity of having first "washed their spears." Cetywayo,
+who had found a defender in Bishop Colenso, vouchsafed no reply, and
+Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand, at the head of 13,000 troops, on the
+11th of January 1879 to enforce the British demands. The disaster of
+Isandhlwana and the defence of Rorke's Drift signalized the commencement
+of the campaign, but on the 4th of July the Zulus were utterly routed at
+Ulundi. Cetywayo became a fugitive, but was captured on the 28th of
+August. His kingdom was divided among thirteen chiefs and he himself
+taken to Cape Town, whence he was brought to London in August 1882. He
+remained in England less than a month, during which time the government
+(the second Gladstone administration) announced that they had decided
+upon his restoration. To his great disappointment, however, restoration
+proved to refer only to a portion of his old kingdom. Even there one of
+his kinsmen and chief enemies, Usibepu, was allowed to retain the
+territory allotted to him in 1879. Cetywayo was reinstalled on the 29th
+of January 1883 by Shepstone, but his enemies, headed by Usibepu,
+attacked him within a week, and after a struggle of nearly a year's
+duration he was defeated and his kraal destroyed. He then took refuge in
+the Native Reserve, where he died on the 8th of February 1884. For a
+quarter of a century he had been the most conspicuous native figure in
+South Africa, and had been the cause of long and bitter political
+controversy in Great Britain.
+
+His son DINIZULU afterwards attempted to become king, was exiled (1889)
+to St Helena, permitted to return (1898), and granted the position of a
+chief. In December 1907 Dinizulu was imprisoned at Maritzburg, being
+suspected of complicity in the revolt which had occurred in Zululand the
+previous year. He was kept many months waiting trial, there being
+considerable friction between the colonial government and the British
+government over the incident. He was eventually brought to trial in
+November 1908 before a special court, his defence (to the cost of which
+the British government contributed L2000) being undertaken by Mr W.P.
+Schreiner. The trial was not concluded until March 1909. The charge of
+high treason was not proved, but Dinizulu was convicted of harbouring
+rebels and was sentenced to four years' imprisonment.
+
+  _The Life of Sir Bartle Frere_, by John Martineau, vol. ii. chaps. 18
+  to 21, contains much information concerning Cetywayo.
+
+
+
+
+CEUTA (Arabic _Sebta_), a Spanish military and convict station and
+seaport on the north coast of Morocco, in 35 deg. 54' N., 5 deg. 18' W.
+Pop. about 13,000. It is situated on a promontory connected with the
+mainland by a narrow isthmus. This promontory marks the south-eastern
+end of the straits of Gibraltar, which between Ceuta and Gibraltar have
+a width of 14 m. The promontory terminates in a bold headland, the
+Montagne des Singes, with seven distinct peaks. Of these the highest is
+the Monte del Hacko, the ancient _Abyla_, one of the "Pillars of
+Hercules," which faces Gibraltar and rises 636 ft. above the sea. On the
+westernmost point--Almina, 476 ft. high--is a lighthouse with a light
+visible for 23 m. Ceuta consists of two quarters, the old town, covering
+the low ground of the isthmus, and the modern town, built on the hills
+forming the north and west faces of the peninsula. Between the old and
+new quarters and on the north side of the isthmus lies the port. The
+public buildings in the town, thoroughly Spanish in its character, are
+not striking: they include the cathedral (formerly a mosque), the
+governor's palace, the town hall, barracks, and the convict prison in
+the old convent of San Francisco. Ceuta has been fortified seaward, the
+works being furnished with modern artillery intended to command the
+entrance to the Mediterranean. Landward are three lines of defence, the
+inner line stretching completely across the isthmus. These
+fortifications, which date from the time of the Portuguese occupation,
+have been partly modernized. The citadel, El Hacho, built on the neck of
+the isthmus, dates from the 15th century. The garrison consists of
+between 3000 and 4000 men, inclusive of a disciplinary corps of military
+convicts. Of the rest of the population about 2000 are civilian
+convicts; and there are colonies of Jews, negroes and Moors, the last
+including descendants of Moors transferred to Ceuta from Oran when Spain
+abandoned that city in 1796.
+
+Ceuta occupies in part the site of a Carthaginian colony, which was
+succeeded by a Roman colony said to have been called _Ad Septem Fratres_
+and also _Exilissa_ or _Lissa Civitas_. From the Romans the town passed
+to the Vandals and afterwards to Byzantium, the emperor Justinian
+restoring its fortifications in 535. In 618 the town, then known as
+_Septon_, fell into the hands of the Visigoths. It was the last
+stronghold in North Africa which held out against the Arabs. At that
+date (A.D. 711) the governor of the town was the Count Julian who, in
+revenge for the betrayal of his daughter by King Roderick of Toledo,
+invited the Arabs to cross the straits under Tarik and conquer Spain for
+Islam. By the Arabs the town was called _Cibta_ or _Sebta_, hence the
+Spanish form _Ceuta_. From the date of its occupation by the Arabs the
+town had a stormy history, being repeatedly captured by rival Berber and
+Spanish-Moorish dynasties. It became nevertheless an important
+commercial and industrial city, being noted for its brass ware, its
+trade in ivory, gold and slaves. It is said to have been the first place
+in the West where a paper manufactory was established. In 1415 the town
+was captured by the Portuguese under John I., among those taking part in
+the attack being Prince Henry "the Navigator" and two of his brothers,
+who were knighted on the day following in the mosque (hastily dedicated
+as a Christian church). Ceuta passed to Spain in 1580 on the subjugation
+of Portugal by Philip II., and was definitely assigned to the Spanish
+crown by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688. The town has been several times
+unsuccessfully besieged by the Moors--one siege, under Mulai Ismail,
+lasting twenty-six years (1694-1720). In 1810, with the consent of
+Spain, it was occupied by British troops under General Sir J.F. Fraser.
+The town was restored to Spain by the British at the close of the
+Napoleonic Wars. As the result of the war between Spain and Morocco in
+1860 the area of Spanish territory around the town was increased. The
+military governor of the town also commands the troops in the other
+Spanish stations on the coast of Morocco. For civil purposes Ceuta is
+attached to the province of Cadiz. It is a free port, but does little
+trade.
+
+  See de Prado, _Recuerdos de Africa; historia de la plaza de Ceuta_
+  (Madrid, 1859-1860); Budgett Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_ (London,
+  1901), chap, xix., where many works dealing with Spanish Morocco are
+  cited.
+
+
+
+
+CEVA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 33 m. E. by
+rail from the town of Cuneo, 1270 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2703.
+In the middle ages it was a strong fortress defending the confines of
+Piedmont towards Liguria, but the fortifications on the rock above the
+town were demolished in 1800 by the French, to whom it had been ceded in
+1796. Its cheese (_caseus cebanus_) was famous in Roman times, but it
+does not seem ever to have been a Roman town. It lay on the road between
+Augusta Taurinorum and Vada Sabatia. A branch railway runs from Ceva
+through Garessio, with its marble quarries, to Ormea (2398 ft.), 22 m.
+to the south through the upper valley of the Tanaro, which in Roman
+times was under Albingaunum (Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v.
+(Berlin, 1877), p. 898). From Ormea a road runs south to (31 m.) Oneglia
+on the Ligurian coast.
+
+
+
+
+CEVENNES (Lat. _Cebenna_ or _Gebenna_), a mountain range of southern
+France, forming the southern and eastern fringe of the central plateau
+and part of the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins.
+It consists of a narrow ridge some 320 m. long, with numerous lofty
+plateaus and secondary ranges branching from it. The northern division
+of the range, which nowhere exceeds 3320 ft. in height, extends, under
+the name of the mountains of Charolais, Beaujolais and Lyonnais, from
+the Col de Longpendu (west of Chalon-sur-Saone) in a southerly direction
+to the Col de Gier. The central Cevennes, comprising the volcanic chain
+of Vivarais, incline south-east and extend as far as the Lozere group.
+The northern portion of this chain forms the Boutieres range. Farther
+south it includes the Gerbier des Joncs (5089 ft.), the Mont de Mezenc
+(5755 ft.), the culminating point of the entire range, and the Tanargue
+group. South of the Mont Lozere, where the Pic Finiels reaches 5584 ft.,
+lies that portion of the range to which the name Cevennes is most
+strictly applied. This region, now embraced in the departments of Lozere
+and Gard, stretches south to include the Aigoual and Esperou groups.
+Under various local names (the Garrigues, the mountains of Espinouse and
+Lacaune) and with numerous offshoots the range extends south-east and
+then east to the Montagne Noire, which runs parallel to the Canal du
+Midi and comes to an end some 25 m. east of Toulouse. In the south the
+Cevennes separate the cold and barren table-lands known as the Causses
+from the sunny region of Languedoc, where the olive, vine and mulberry
+flourish. Northwards the contrast between the two slopes is less
+striking.
+
+The Cevennes proper are formed by a folded belt of Palaeozoic rocks
+which lies along the south-east border of the central plateau of France.
+Concealed in part by later deposits, this ancient mountain chain extends
+from Castelnaudary to the neighbourhood of Valence, where it sinks
+suddenly beneath the Tertiary and recent deposits of the valley of the
+Rhone. It is in the Montagne Noire rather than in the Cevennes proper
+that the structure of the chain has been most fully investigated. All
+the geological systems from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous are
+included in the folded belt, and J. Bergeron has shown that the gneiss
+and schist which form so much of the chain consist, in part at least, of
+metamorphosed Cambrian beds. The direction of the folds is about N. 60
+deg. E., and the structure is complicated by overthrusting on an
+extensive scale. The overthrust came from the south-east, and the
+Palaeozoic beds were crushed and crumpled against the ancient massif of
+the central plateau. The principal folding took place at the close of
+the Carboniferous period, and was contemporaneous with that of the old
+Hercynian chain of Belgium, &c. The Permian and later beds lie
+unconformably upon the denuded folds, and in the space between the
+Montagne Noire and the Cevennes proper the folded belt is buried beneath
+the horizontal Jurassic strata of the Causses. Although the chain was
+completed in Palaeozoic times, a second folding took place along its
+south-east margin at the close of the Eocene period. The Secondary and
+Tertiary beds of the Languedoc were crushed against the central plateau
+and were frequently overfolded. But by this time the ancient Palaeozoic
+chain had become a part of the unyielding massif, and the folding did
+not extend beyond its foot.
+
+As the division between the basins of the Loire and the Garonne to the
+west and those of the Saone and Rhone to the east, the Cevennes send
+many affluents to those rivers. In the south the Orb, the Herault and
+the Vidourle are independent rivers flowing to the Golfe du Lion;
+farther north, the Gard--formed by the union of several streams named
+Gardon--the Ceze and the Ardeche flow to the Rhone. The Vivarais
+mountains and the northern Cevennes approach the right banks of the
+Rhone and Saone closely, and on that side send their waters by way of
+short torrents to those rivers; on the west side the streams are
+tributaries of the Loire, which rises at the foot of Mont Mezenc. A
+short distance to the south on the same side are the sources of the
+Allier and Lot. The waters of the north-western slope of the southern
+Cevennes drain into the Tarn either directly or by way of the Aveyron,
+which rises in the outlying chain of the Levezou, and, in the extreme
+south, the Agout. The Tarn itself rises on the southern slope of the
+Mont Lozere.
+
+In the Lozere group and the southern Cevennes generally, good pasturage
+is found, and huge flocks spend the summer there. Silkworm-rearing and
+the cultivation of peaches, chestnuts and other fruits are also carried
+on. In the Vivarais cattle are reared, while on the slopes of the
+Beaujolais excellent wines are grown.
+
+The chief historical event in the history of the Cevennes is the revolt
+of the Camisards in the early years of the 18th century (see CAMISARDS).
+
+
+
+
+CEYLON, a large island and British colony in the Indian Ocean, separated
+on the N.W. from India by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait. It lies
+between 5 deg. 55' and 9 deg. 51' N. and between 79 deg. 41' and 81 deg.
+54' E. Its extreme length from north to south is 271-1/2 m.; its
+greatest width is 137-1/2 m.; and its area amounts to 25,481 sq. m., or
+about five-sixths of that of Ireland. In its general outline the island
+resembles a pear, the apex of which points towards the north.
+
+
+  Coast.
+
+The coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks, rocks and
+shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with India by the island
+of Rameswaram and Adam's Bridge, a succession of bold rocks reaching
+almost across the gulf at its narrowest point. Between the island and
+the opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying depth and
+width, beset by rocks and shoals. One of these, the Manaar Passage, is
+only navigable by very small craft. The other, called the Paumben
+Passage, lying between Rameswaram and the mainland, has been deepened at
+considerable outlay, and is used by large vessels in passing from the
+Malabar to the Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing
+so to make the circuit of the island. The west and south coasts, which
+are uniformly low, are fringed their entire length by coco-nut trees,
+which grow to the water's edge in great luxuriance, and give the island
+a most picturesque appearance. Along these shores there are numerous
+inlets and backwaters of the sea, some of which are available as
+harbours for small native craft. The east coast from Point de Galle to
+Trincomalee is of an entirely opposite character, wanting the ample
+vegetation of the other, and being at the same time of a bold
+precipitous character. The largest ships may freely approach this side
+of the island, provided they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks,
+whose localities, however, are well known to navigators.
+
+Seen from a distance at sea this "utmost Indian isle" of the old
+geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance. The remarkable elevation
+known as "Adam's Peak," the most prominent, though not the loftiest, of
+the hilly ranges of the interior, towers like a mountain monarch amongst
+an assemblage of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the
+navigator when as yet the Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid
+the green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the waters of
+the ocean. The low coast-line encircles the mountain zone of the
+interior on the east, south and west, forming a belt which extends
+inland to a varying distance of from 30 to 80 m.; but on the north the
+whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya to Batticaloa is an almost
+unbroken plain, containing magnificent forests of great extent.
+
+
+  Mountains.
+
+The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and covers an area
+of about 4212 sq. m. The uplifting force seems to have been exerted from
+south-west to north-east, and although there is much confusion in many
+of the intersecting ridges, and spurs of great size and extent are sent
+off in many directions, the lower ranges manifest a remarkable tendency
+to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to north-west.
+Towards the north the offsets of the mountain system radiate to short
+distances and speedily sink to the level of the plain. Detached hills
+are rare; the most celebrated of these are Mihintale (anc. _Missiaka_),
+which overlooks the sacred city of Anuradhapura, and Sigiri. The latter
+is the only example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which form
+so remarkable a feature in the tableland of the Deccan--which, starting
+abruptly from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are
+frequently converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous
+pathways or by steps hewn in the solid rock.
+
+For a long period Adam's Peak was supposed to be the highest mountain in
+Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft. above sea-level. This
+elevation is chiefly remarkable as the resort of pilgrims from all parts
+of the East. The hollow in the lofty rock that crowns the summit is said
+by the Brahmans to be the footstep of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha,
+by the Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were
+divided between the conflicting claims of St Thomas and the eunuch of
+Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered by a handsome roof,
+and is guarded by the priests of a rich monastery half-way up the
+mountain, who maintain a shrine on the summit of the peak. The highest
+mountains in Ceylon are Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in altitude;
+Kirigalpota, 7836 ft.; and Totapelakanda, 7746 ft.
+
+The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure, and along
+their base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect them in every
+direction, the slopes were formerly covered with forests of gigantic and
+valuable trees, which, however, have disappeared under the axe of the
+planter, who felled and burnt the timber on all the finest slopes at an
+elevation of 2000 to 4500 ft., and converted the hillsides into highly
+cultivated coffee and afterwards tea estates.
+
+The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the sanatorium of the island, is at an
+elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of an alpine
+country. The climate of the Horton plains, at an elevation of 7000 ft.,
+is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but they are difficult of
+access, and are but little known to Europeans. The town of Kandy, in the
+Central Province, formerly the capital of the native sovereigns of the
+interior, is situated 1727 ft. above sea-level.
+
+
+  Rivers.
+
+The island, though completely within the influence of oceanic
+evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable
+extent, does not boast of any rivers of great volume. The rains which
+usher in each monsoon or change of season are indeed heavy, and during
+their fall swell the streams to torrents and impetuous rivers. But when
+these cease the water-courses fall back to their original state, and
+there are few of the rivers which cannot generally be passed on
+horseback. The largest river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m.,
+draining about one-sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the
+sea at Trincomalee on the east coast. There are twelve other
+considerable rivers, running to the west, east and south, but none of
+these exceeds 90 m. in length. The rivers are not favourable for
+navigation, except near the sea, where they expand into backwaters,
+which were used by the Dutch for the construction of their system of
+canals all round the western and southern coasts. Steamers ply between
+Colombo and Negombo along this narrow canal and lake. A similar service
+on the Kaluganga did not prove a success. There are no inland lakes
+except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north and east
+of the island, and the backwaters on the coast. The lakes which add to
+the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake Gregory, Nuwara Eliya and Kurunegala
+are artificial or partly so. Giant's Tank is said to have an area of
+6380 acres, and Minneri and Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres.
+
+The magnificent basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east coast of
+Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, security and beauty by any
+haven in the world. The admiralty had a dockyard here which was closed
+in 1905.
+
+_Geology._--Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly rising from
+the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in marine shells, which
+occur in situations far above high-water mark, and at some miles
+distance from the sea. A great portion of the north of the island may be
+regarded as the joint production of the coral polyps and the currents,
+which for the greater part of the year set impetuously towards the
+south; coming laden with alluvial matter collected along the coast of
+Coromandel, and meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they
+have deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro; and
+these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by sand drifts,
+have formed the peninsula of Jaffna, and the plains that trend westward
+till they unite with the narrow causeway of Adam's Bridge. Tertiary
+rocks are almost unknown. The great geological feature of the island is
+the profusion of gneiss, overlaid in many places in the interior by
+extensive beds of dolomitic limestone. This formation appears to be of
+great thickness; and when, as is not often the case, the under-surface
+of the gneiss series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on
+granite. Veins of pure quartz and felspar of considerable extent have
+been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the elevated lands of
+the interior in the Galle districts may be seen copious deposits of
+disintegrated felspar, or _kaolin_, commonly known as porcelain clay. At
+various elevations the gneiss may be found intersected by veins of trap
+rock, upheaved whilst in a state of fusion subsequent to the
+consolidation of the former. In some localities on the seashore these
+veins assume the character of pitch-stone porphyry highly impregnated
+with iron. Hornblende and primitive greenstone are found in the vicinity
+of Adam's Peak and in the Pussellava district. Laterite, known in Ceylon
+as _kabuk_, a product of disintegrated gneiss, exists in vast quantities
+in many parts, and is quarried for building purposes.
+
+_Climate._--The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from those
+prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The two
+distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds which
+accompany them, the south-west and the north-east. The former is very
+regular in its approach, and may be looked for along the south-west
+coast between the 10th and 20th of May; the latter reaches the
+north-east coast between the end of October and the middle of November.
+There is a striking contrast in the influence which the south-west
+monsoon exerts on the one side of the island and on the other. The
+clouds are driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western
+and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there in
+copious showers. But the rains do not reach the opposite side of the
+island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and north are
+sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently happens that
+different sides of the same mountain present at the same moment the
+opposite extreme of droughts and moisture. The influence of the
+north-east monsoon is more general. The mountains which face the
+north-east are lower and more remote from the sea than those on the
+south-west; the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains
+simultaneously on both sides of the island.
+
+The length of the day, owing to the proximity of the island to the
+equator, does not vary more than an hour at any season. The mean time of
+the rising of the sun's centre at Colombo on February 1st is 6^h 23^m
+A.M., and of its setting 6^h 5^m P.M. On August 15th its rising is at
+5^h 45^m A.M., and its setting at 6^h 7^m P.M. It is mid-day in Colombo
+when it is morning in England. Colombo is situated in 79 deg. 50' 45"
+E., and the day is further advanced there than at Greenwich by 5^h 19^m
+23^s.
+
+  _Flora_.--The characteristics of the low-growing plants of Ceylon
+  approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India. The
+  _Rhizophoreae_ are numerous along the low muddy shores of salt lakes
+  and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant. The list
+  comprises _Aegiceras fragrans_, _Epithinia malayana_, _Thespesia
+  populnea_, _Feronia elephantum_, _Salvadora persica_ (the true mustard
+  tree of Scripture), _Eugenia bracteata_, _Elaeodendron Roxburghii_,
+  _Cassia Fistula_, _Cassia Roxburghii_, &c. The herbaceous plants of
+  the low country belong mostly to the natural orders _Compositae_,
+  _Leguminosae_, _Rubiaceae_, _Scrophulariaceae_ and _Euphorbiaceae_.
+
+  Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a height of
+  4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and trees
+  assume an altered character. The foliage of the latter is larger and
+  deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the hot low
+  country. The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns,
+  _Cyrtandreae_, _Compositae_, _Scitamineae_ and _Urticaceae_. The dense
+  masses of lofty forest at that altitude are interspersed with large
+  open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives _patanas_, and
+  of value to them as affording pasturage for their cattle.
+
+  Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to be met
+  with partaking of European forms, yet blended with tropical
+  characteristics. The guelder rose, St John's wort, the _Nepenthes
+  distillatoria_ or pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups,
+  sundews, ladies' mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of
+  _Magnoliaceae_, _Ranunculaceae_, _Elaeocarpeae_, &c. The most
+  beautiful flowering shrub of this truly alpine region is the
+  rhododendron, which in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft. It
+  is met with in great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated
+  land above Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in June and July. There
+  are two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having
+  its leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty colour on the under side;
+  the other, peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the
+  loftiest elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the
+  under side, and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft.
+  round the stem. At these altitudes English flowers, herbs and
+  vegetables have been cultivated with perfect success, as also wheat,
+  oats and barley. English fruit-trees grow, but rarely bear. Grapes are
+  grown successfully in the north of the island. The vines were
+  introduced by the Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual
+  summer by exposing the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial
+  winter.
+
+  The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every altitude
+  from the sea-beach to the loftiest mountain peak. They vary much in
+  their hardiness and durability, from the common cashew-nut tree, which
+  when felled decays in a month, to the ebony and satinwood, which for
+  many years resist the attacks of insects and climate. Many of the
+  woods are valuable for furniture, and house and shipbuilding, and are
+  capable of standing long exposure to weather. The most beautiful woods
+  adapted to furniture work are the calamander, ebony, flowered
+  satinwood, tamarind, nedun, dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &c.;
+  the sack-yielding tree (_Antiaris saccidora_), for a long time
+  confounded with the far-famed upas tree of Java (_Antiaris
+  toxicaria_), grows in the Kurunegala district of the island. The
+  _Cocos nucifera_, or coco-nut palm, is a native of the island, and may
+  justly be considered the most valuable of its trees. It grows in vast
+  abundance alone the entire sea-coast of the west and south sides of
+  the island, and furnishes almost all that a Sinhalese villager
+  requires. Its fruit, when green, supplies food and drink; when ripe,
+  it yields oil. The juice of the unopened flower gives him toddy and
+  arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit when woven makes him ropes,
+  nets, matting. The nut-shells form drinking-vessels, spoons, &c. The
+  plaited leaves serve as plates and dishes, and as thatch for his
+  cottage. The dried leaves are used as torches, the large leaf-stalks
+  as garden fences. The trunk of the tree sawn up is employed for every
+  possible purpose, from knife-handles to door-posts; hollowed out it
+  forms a canoe or a coffin. There are four kinds of this palm--the
+  common, the king, the dwarf and the Maldive. The Palmyra and Areca
+  palms grow luxuriantly and abundantly, the former in the northern, the
+  latter in the western and central districts. The one is valuable
+  chiefly for its timber, of which large quantities are exported to the
+  Indian coasts; the other supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst
+  natives of the eastern tropics as a masticatory. The export trade in
+  the latter to India and eastern ports is very considerable. Next in
+  importance to the coco-nut palm among the indigenous products of
+  Ceylon is the cinnamon plant, yielding the well-known spice of that
+  name.
+
+  _Fauna_.--Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the elephant, which,
+  though far inferior to those of Africa and the Indian continent, is
+  nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on account of its
+  strength, sagacity and docility. They are to be met with in greater or
+  less numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior.
+  Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds
+  and plantations, committing great damage. In order to protect these
+  lands, and at the same time keep up the government stud of draught
+  elephants, "kraals" or traps on a large scale are erected in the
+  forests, into which the wild herds are driven; and once secured they
+  are soon tamed and fit for service. The oxen are of small size, but
+  hardy, and capable of drawing heavy loads. Buffaloes exist in great
+  numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed in a
+  half-tame state for ploughing rice-fields and treading out the corn.
+  They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be maintained on
+  the village pasture-lands where oxen would not find support. Of deer,
+  Ceylon possesses the spotted kind (_Axis maculata_), the muntjac
+  (_Stylocerus muntjac_), a red deer (the Sambur of India), popularly
+  called the Ceylon elk (_Musa Aristotelis_), and the small musk
+  (_Moschus minima_). There are five species of monkeys, one the small
+  rilawa (_Macacus pileatus_), and four known in Ceylon by the name of
+  "wandaru" (_Presbytes ursinus_, _P. Thersites_, _P. cephalopterus_,
+  _P. Priamus_), and the small quadrumanous animal, the loris (_Loris
+  gracilis_), known as the "Ceylon sloth." Of the Cheiroptera sixteen
+  species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette or flying
+  fox (_Pteropus Edwardsii_). Of the Carnivora the only one dangerous to
+  man is the small black bear (_Prochilus labiatus_). The tiger is not
+  known in Ceylon, but the true panther (_Felis pardus_) is common, as
+  is the jackal (_Canis aureus_) and the mongoose or ichneumon
+  (_Herpestes vitticollis_). Rats are numerous, as are the squirrel and
+  the porcupine, and the pig-rat or bandicoot (_Mus bandicota_), while
+  the scaly ant-eater (_Manis pentedactyla_), locally known by the Malay
+  name of pangolin, is occasionally found. The dugong (_Halicore
+  dugong_), is frequently seen on various points of the coast. A game
+  preservation society and the judicious action of government have done
+  much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer, elephants, &c.,
+  by establishing a close season. It is estimated that there must be
+  5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests. A licence to shoot or
+  capture and an export royalty are now levied by government.
+
+  Captain V. Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many of
+  them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed by
+  the birds of South America and Northern India. The eagles are small
+  and rare, but hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter is a
+  remarkable brown species, the cry of which has earned for it the name
+  of the "devil-bird." The esculent swift, which furnishes in its edible
+  nest the celebrated Chinese dainty, builds in caves in Ceylon. Crows
+  of various species are numerous, and in the wilder parts pea-fowl are
+  abundant. There are also to be mentioned king-fishers, sun-birds,
+  several beautiful fly-catchers and snatchers, the golden oriole,
+  parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are at least a dozen
+  species. The Ceylon jungle-fowl (_Gallus Lafayetti_) is distinct from
+  the Indian species. Ceylon is singularly rich in wading and water
+  birds--ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons being frequently
+  seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the beach in long files,
+  and on the deeper waters inland are found teal and a countless variety
+  of ducks and smaller fowl. Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen
+  there are partridge, quail and snipe in abundance, and the woodcock
+  has been seen.
+
+  The poisonous snakes of Ceylon are not numerous. Four species have
+  been enumerated--the ticpolonga (_Daboia elegans_), the cobra di
+  capello (_Naja tripudians_), the carawilla (_Trigonocephalus
+  hypnale_), and the _Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus_, which is so rare
+  that it has no popular name. The largest snake in Ceylon is the "boa,"
+  or "anaconda" of Eastern story (_Python reticulatus_); it is from 20
+  to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller animals.
+  Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large fresh-water
+  reservoirs which supply the rice-fields; there are two species (_C.
+  biporcatus_ and _C. palustris_). Of lizards the most noteworthy are
+  the iguana, several bloodsuckers, the chameleon and the familiar
+  geckoes, which are furnished with pads to each toe, by which they are
+  enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to glass and
+  ceilings.
+
+  Insects exist in great numbers. The leaf and stick insects are of
+  great variety and beauty. Ceylon has four species of the ant-lion,
+  renowned for the predaceous ingenuity of its larvae; and the white
+  ants or termites, the ravages of which are most destructive, are at
+  once ubiquitous and innumerable in every place where the climate is
+  not too chilly or the soil too sandy for them to construct their domed
+  dwellings. They make their way through walls and floors, and in a few
+  hours destroy every vegetable substance within their reach. Of all the
+  insect pests that beset an unseasoned European the most annoying are
+  the mosquitoes. Ticks are also an intolerable nuisance; they are
+  exceedingly minute, and burrow under the skin. In the lower ranges of
+  the hill country land leeches are found in tormenting profusion. But
+  insects and reptiles do not trouble European residents so much as in
+  early years--at any rate in the towns, while in the higher planting
+  districts there is almost complete exemption from their unwelcome
+  attentions. Bungalows are more carefully built to resist white ants,
+  drainage and cleanliness prevent mosquitoes and ticks from
+  multiplying, while snakes and leeches avoid cultivated, occupied
+  ground.
+
+  Of the fish in ordinary use for the table the finest is the seir, a
+  species of scomber (_Cybium guttatum_). Mackerel, dories, carp,
+  whitings, mullet (red and striped), soles and sardines are abundant.
+  Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and the huge saw fish
+  (_Pristis antiquorum_) infests the eastern coast of the island, where
+  it attains a length of 12 to 15 ft. There are also several fishes
+  remarkable for the brilliancy of their colouring; e.g. the Red Sea
+  perch (_Holocentrum rubrum_), of the deepest scarlet, and the great
+  fire fish (_Scorpaena miles_), of a brilliant red. Some are purple,
+  others yellow, and numbers with scales of a lustrous green are called
+  "parrots" by the natives; of these one (_Sparus Hardwickii_) is called
+  the "flower parrot," from its exquisite colouring--irregular bands of
+  blue, crimson and purple, green, yellow and grey, crossed by
+  perpendicular stripes of black. The pearl fishery, as indicated below,
+  is of great importance.
+
+  _Population_.--The total population of Ceylon in 1901, inclusive of
+  military, shipping and 4914 prisoners of war, was 3,578,333, showing
+  an increase of 18.8% in the decade. The population of Colombo was
+  158,228.
+
+  The population and area of the nine provinces was as follows:--
+
+    +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+
+    |  District.               | Population. | Area in sq. m. |
+    +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+
+    |                          |             |                |
+    | Western Province         |   925,342   |    1,432       |
+    | Central Province         |   623,011   |    2,299-1/2   |
+    | Northern Province        |   341,985   |    3,363-1/4   |
+    | Southern Province        |   566,925   |    2,146-1/4   |
+    | Eastern Province         |   174,288   |    4,036-1/2   |
+    | North-Western Province   |   353,845   |    2,996-7/8   |
+    | North Central Province   |    79,110   |    4,002-1/4   |
+    | Province of Uva          |   192,072   |    3,154-1/2   |
+    | Province of Sabaragamuwa |   321,755   |    1,901-1/8   |
+    |                          +-------------+----------------+
+    |                          | 3,578,333   |   25,332       |
+    +--------------------------+-------------+----------------+
+
+  The table of nationality gives the principal groups as follows:--
+
+    Europeans                     9,509
+    Burghers and Eurasians       23,539
+    Low-country Sinhalese     1,458,320
+    Kandyan Sinhalese           872,487
+    Tamils                      953,535
+    Moors (Mahommedan)          228,706
+    Malays                       11,963
+    Veddahs (Aborigines)          3,971
+
+  Altogether there are representatives of some seventy races in Ceylon.
+  The Veddahs, who run wild in the woods, are the aborigines of the
+  island.
+
+  _Language_.--The language of nearly 70% of the population is
+  Sinhalese, which is nearly allied to Pali (q.v.); of the remaining
+  30%, with the exception of Europeans, the language is Tamil. A corrupt
+  form of Portuguese is spoken by some natives of European descent. The
+  Veddahs, a small forest tribe, speak a distinct language, and the
+  Rodiyas, an outcast tribe, possess a large vocabulary of their own.
+  The Sinhalese possess several original poems of some merit, and an
+  extensive and most interesting series of native chronicles, but their
+  most valuable literature is written in Pali, though the greater
+  portion of it has been translated into Sinhalese, and is best known to
+  the people through these Sinhalese translations.
+
+  _Religion_.--The principal religions may be distributed as
+  follows:--Christians, 349,239; Buddhists, 2,141,404; Hindus, 826,826;
+  Mahommedans, 246,118. Of the Christians, 287,419 are Roman Catholics,
+  and 61,820 are Protestants of various denominations; and of these
+  Christians 319,001 are natives, and 30,238 Europeans. The Mahommedans
+  are the descendants of Arabs (locally termed Moormen) and the Malays.
+  The Tamils, both the inhabitants of the island and the immigrants from
+  India, are Hindus, with the exception of 93,000 Christians. The
+  Sinhalese, numbering 70% of the whole population, are, with the
+  exception of 180,000 Christians, Buddhists. Ceylon may properly be
+  called a Buddhist country, and it is here that Buddhism is found
+  almost in its pristine purity. Ceylon was converted to Buddhism in the
+  3rd century B.C. by the great Augustine of Buddhism, Mahinda, son of
+  the Indian king Asoka; and the extensive ruins throughout Ceylon,
+  especially in the ancient cities of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, bear
+  witness to the sacrifices which kings and people joined in making to
+  create lasting monuments of their faith. The Buddhist temples in the
+  Kandyan country possess valuable lands, the greater portion of which
+  is held by hereditary tenants on the tenure of service. These lands
+  were given out with much care to provide for all that was necessary to
+  maintain the temple and its connected monastery. Some tenants had to
+  do the blacksmiths' work, others the carpenters', while another set of
+  tenants had to cultivate the land reserved for supplying the
+  monastery; others again had to attend at the festivals, and prepare
+  decorations, and carry lamps and banners. In course of time
+  difficulties arose; the English courts were averse to a system under
+  which the rent of lands was paid by hereditary service, and a
+  commission was issued by Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards Lord
+  Rosmead) when governor, to deal with the whole question, to define the
+  services and to enable the tenants to commute these for a money
+  payment. The result of the inquiry was to show that the services,
+  except in a few instances, were not onerous, and that almost without
+  an exception the tenants were willing to continue the system. The
+  anomaly of an ecclesiastical establishment of Anglican and
+  Presbyterian chaplains with a bishop of Colombo paid out of the
+  general revenues has now been abolished in Ceylon, and only the bishop
+  and two or three incumbents remain on the list for life, or till they
+  retire on pension.
+
+  _Education_.--There has been a great advance in public instruction
+  since 1875, through the multiplication of vernacular, Anglo-vernacular
+  and English schools by government, by the different Christian missions
+  and by the Buddhists and Hindus who have come forward to claim the
+  government grant. The government has also started a technical college,
+  and an agricultural school has been reorganized. An agricultural
+  department, recommended by a commission, should profit by the services
+  of the entomologist, mycologist and chemical analyst added by the
+  governor to the staff of the royal botanic gardens at Peradeniya.
+  There are industrial and reformatory schools, which are partially
+  supported by government. In spite of the great advance that has been
+  made, however, at the census of 1901 no fewer than 2,790,235 of the
+  total population were entered as unable to read or write their own
+  tongue. Of this number 1,553,078 were females, showing a very
+  unsatisfactory state of things.
+
+
+    Soil.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The natural soils of Ceylon are composed of quartzose
+  gravel, felspathic clay and sand often of a pure white, blended with
+  or overlaid by brown and red loams, resulting; from the decay of
+  vegetable matter, or the disintegration of the gneiss and hornblende
+  formations. The whole of the great northern extremity of the island
+  consists of a sandy and calcareous admixture, made to yield productive
+  crops of grain, tobacco, cotton and vegetables by the careful industry
+  of the Tamil population, who spare no pains in irrigating and manuring
+  their lands. Between the northern districts and the elevated mountain
+  ranges which overlook the Bintenne and Uva countries are extensive
+  plains of alluvial soil washed down from the table-lands above, where
+  once a teeming population produced large quantities of grain. The
+  remains of ancient works of irrigation bear testimony to the bygone
+  agriculture of these extensive regions now covered by swamps or dense
+  jungle.
+
+  The general character of the soil in the maritime provinces to the
+  east, south and west is sandy. Large tracts of quartzose sand spread
+  along the whole line of sea-coast, some of which, of a pure white, and
+  very deficient in vegetable matter, is admirably adapted to the growth
+  of the cinnamon plant. In the light sandy districts where the soil is
+  perfectly free, and contains a portion of vegetable and mineral loam,
+  the coco-nut palm flourishes in great luxuriance. This is the case
+  along the entire coast line from Kalpitiya to Point de Galle, and
+  farther eastward and northward to Matara, stretching to a distance
+  inland varying from 100 yds. to 3 m. From this light sandy belt as far
+  as the mountain-zone of the Kandyan country the land is mainly
+  composed of low hilly undulations of sandstone and ferruginous clay,
+  incapable of almost any cultivation, but intersected in every
+  direction with extensive valleys and wide plains of a more generous
+  soil, not highly fertile, but still capable, with a little industry,
+  of yielding ample crops of rice.
+
+  The soil of the central province, although frequently containing great
+  quantities of quartzose sand and ferruginous clay, is in many of the
+  more elevated districts of a fine loamy character. Sand sufficiently
+  vegetable and light for rice culture may be seen at all elevations in
+  the hill districts; but the fine chocolate and brown loams overlying
+  gneiss or limestone formations, so admirably adapted for coffee
+  cultivation, are only to be found on the steep sides or along the base
+  of mountain ranges at an elevation varying from 2000 to 4000 ft. Such
+  land, well-timbered, contains in its elements the decomposed particles
+  of the rocks above, blended with the decayed vegetable matter of
+  forests that have for centuries scattered beneath them the germs of
+  fertility. The quantity of really rich coffee land in these districts
+  is but small as compared with the extent of country--vast tracts of
+  open valleys consisting of an indifferent yellow tenacious soil
+  interspersed with many low ranges of quartz rock, but tea is a much
+  hardier plant than coffee, and grows on poorer soil.
+
+  _Irrigation_.--The native rulers covered the whole face of the country
+  with a network of irrigation reservoirs, by which Ceylon was enabled
+  in ancient times to be the great granary of southern Asia. Wars, and
+  the want of a strong hand to guide the agriculture of the country, led
+  to the decay of these ancient works, and large tracts of land, which
+  were formerly highly productive, became swampy wastes or dense
+  forests. The remains of some of the larger irrigation works are
+  amongst the most interesting of the memorials of Ceylon's former
+  greatness. Some of the artificial lakes were of great size. Minneri,
+  formed by damming across the valleys between the low hills which
+  surround it with an embankment 60 ft. wide at the top, is at this day
+  20 m. in circumference. It has recently been restored by government,
+  and is capable of irrigating 15,000 acres; while the Giant's Tank,
+  which has also been restored, irrigates 20,000 acres. Another lake,
+  with an embankment several miles in length, the Kalawewa, was formed
+  by damming back the waters of the Kalaoya, but they have forced their
+  way through the embankment, and in the ancient bed of the lake, or
+  tank, are now many small villages. In connexion with these large tanks
+  were numerous canals and channels for supplying smaller tanks, or for
+  irrigating large tracts of fields. Throughout the district of
+  Nuwarakalawiya every village has its tank. The embankments have been
+  formed with great skill, and advantage has been taken to the utmost of
+  the slightest fall in the land; but they in common with the larger
+  works had been allowed to fall into decay, and were being brought to
+  destruction by the evil practice of cutting them every year to
+  irrigate the fields. The work of restoring these embankments was
+  undertaken by the government, and 100 village tanks were repaired
+  every year, besides eighteen larger works. In 1900 a sum of five
+  million rupees was set apart for these larger undertakings.
+
+  _Cultivation and Products._--The area of uncultivated land is little
+  over 3-1/2 million acres, whereas fully four times that amount is
+  capable of cultivation. A great deal is waste, besides lagoons, tanks,
+  backwaters, &c. Thick forest land does not cover more than 5000 sq. m.
+  Scrub, or chena, and patana grass cover a very great area. Tea, cacao,
+  cardamoms, cinchona, coffee and indiarubber are the products
+  cultivated by European and an increasing number of native planters in
+  the hill country and part of the low country of Ceylon. A great change
+  has been effected in the appearance of the country by the introduction
+  of the tea plant in place of the coffee plant, after the total failure
+  of the latter owing to disease. For some time coffee had been the most
+  important crop. In the old days it grew wild like cinnamon, and was
+  exported so far back as the time of the Portuguese, but was lightly
+  esteemed as an article of European commerce, as the berry was gathered
+  unripe, was imperfectly cured and had little flavour. In 1824 the
+  governor, Sir E. Barnes, introduced coffee cultivation on the West
+  Indian plan; in 1834 the falling off of other sources of supply drew
+  general attention to Ceylon, and by 1841 the Ceylon output had become
+  considerable, and grew steadily (with an interval in 1847 due to a
+  commercial crisis) till 1877 when 272,000 acres were under coffee
+  cultivation, the total export amounting to 103,000,000 lb. Then owing
+  to disease came a crisis, and a rapid decline, and now only a few
+  thousand acres are left. On the failure of the coffee crops planters
+  began extensively to grow the tea plant, which had already been known
+  in the island for several years. By 1882 over 20,000 acres had been
+  planted with tea, but the export that year was under 700,000 lb. Five
+  years later the area planted was 170,000 acres, while the export had
+  risen to nearly 14,000,000 lb. By 1892 there were 262,000 acres
+  covered with tea, and 71,000,000 lb. were that year exported. In 1897,
+  350,000 acres were planted, and the export was 116,000,000 lb. By the
+  beginning of the 20th century, the total area cultivated with tea was
+  not under 390,000 acres, while the estimate of shipments was put at
+  146,000,000 lb. annually. Nearly every plantation has its factory,
+  with the machinery necessary to prepare the leaf as brought in from
+  the bushes until it becomes the tea of commerce. The total amount of
+  capital now invested in the tea industry in Ceylon cannot be less than
+  L10,000,000. The tea-planting industry more than anything else has
+  raised Ceylon from the depressed state to which it fell in 1882.
+
+  Before tea was proved a success, however, _cinchona_ cultivation was
+  found a useful bridge from coffee to the Ceylon planter, who, however,
+  grew it so freely that in one year 15,000,000 lb. bark was shipped,
+  bringing the price of quinine down from 16s. to 1s. 6d. an ounce.
+
+  In a few places, where the rainfall is abundant, rice cultivation is
+  allowed to depend on the natural supply of water, but in most parts
+  the cultivation is not attempted unless there is secured beforehand a
+  certain and sufficient supply, by means of canals or reservoirs. In
+  the hill country every valley and open plain capable of tillage is
+  made to yield its crops of grain, and the steep sides of the hills are
+  cut into terraces, on which are seen waving patches of green rice
+  watered by mountain streams, which are conducted by means of channels
+  ingeniously carried round the spurs of the hills and along the face of
+  acclivities, by earthen water-courses and bamboo aqueducts, so as to
+  fertilize the fields below. These works bear witness to the patience,
+  industry and skill of the Kandyan villagers. In the low country to the
+  north and east and north-west of the hills, irrigation works of a
+  more expensive kind are necessary. In January 1892, the immemorial
+  rent or tax on fields of _paddy_ (rice in the husk) was removed, but
+  not the customs duty on imported rice. But even with the advantage of
+  protection to the extent of 10% in the local markets, there has been
+  no extension of paddy cultivation; on the contrary, the import of
+  grain from India has grown larger year by year. Through the
+  multiplication of irrigation works and the northern railway, rice
+  culture may be sufficiently extended to save some of the large imports
+  (8,000,000 to 9,000,000 bushels annually) now required from India.
+
+  Tobacco is extensively cultivated in various parts of the island, and
+  the growth of particular places, such as Dumbara and Uva, is much
+  prized for local consumption. The tobacco of export is grown in the
+  peninsula of Jaffna. The exports of this article in 1850 were 22,176
+  cwts., valued at L20,698. The cultivation of the plant has not greatly
+  increased of recent years, and is almost entirely in the hands of
+  natives in the northern and parts of the central Province.
+
+  Ceylon has been celebrated since the middle of the 14th century for
+  its cinnamon, and during the period of the Dutch occupation this spice
+  was the principal article of commerce; under their rule and up to 1832
+  its cultivation was a government monopoly. With the abolition of the
+  monopoly the quantity exported increased, but the value declined.
+
+  Unlike the coffee plant, the hardy tea plant grows from sea-level to
+  7000 ft. altitude; but crown forest-lands above 5000 ft. are no longer
+  sold, so that a very large area on the highest mountain ranges and
+  plateaus is still under forest. Moreover, on the tea plantations
+  arboriculture is attended to in a way unknown in 1875; the Australian
+  eucalypts, acacias and grevilleas, Indian and Japanese conifers, and
+  other trees of different lands, are now freely planted for ornament,
+  for protection from wind, for firewood or for timber. A great advance
+  has been made at Hakgalla and Nuwara Eliya, in Upper Uva, and other
+  high districts, in naturalizing English fruits and vegetables. The
+  calamander tree is nearly extinct, and ebony and other fine cabinet
+  woods are getting scarce; but the conservation of forests after the
+  Indian system has been taken in hand under a director and trained
+  officers, and much good has been done. The cinnamon tree (wild in the
+  jungles, cultivated as a shrub in plantations) is almost the only one
+  yielding a trade product which is indigenous to the island. The
+  coco-nut and nearly all other palms have been introduced.
+
+  Among other agricultural products mention must be made of _cacao_, the
+  growth and export of which have steadily extended since coffee failed.
+  Important also is the spice or aromatic product of cardamoms.
+
+  The culture of _indiarubber_ was begun on low-country plantations, and
+  Ceylon rubber is of the best quality in the market. The area of
+  cultivation of the coco-nut palm has been greatly extended since 1875
+  by natives as well as by Europeans. The products of this palm that are
+  exported, apart from those so extensively used in the island itself,
+  exceed in a good year L1,000,000 sterling in value. Viticulture and
+  cotton cultivation, as well as tobacco growing, are being developed
+  along the course of the new northern railway.
+
+  Taking the trade in the products mentioned as a whole, no country can
+  compete with the United Kingdom as a customer of Ceylon. But there is
+  a considerable trade in nearly all products with Germany and America;
+  in cardamoms with India; in cinnamon with Spain, Italy, Belgium,
+  Australia, Austria and France; and in one or other of the products of
+  the coco-nut palm (coco-nuts, coco-nut oil, copra, desiccated
+  coco-nut, poonac, coir) with Belgium, Russia, France, Austria,
+  Australia and Holland.
+
+  _Pearl Fishery._--Pearl oysters are found in the Tambalagam bay, near
+  Trincomalee, but the great banks on which these oysters are usually
+  found lie near Arippu, off the northern part of the west coast of
+  Ceylon, at a distance of from 16 to 20 m. from the shore. They extend
+  for many miles north and south, varying considerably in their size and
+  productiveness. It is generally believed that the oyster arrives at
+  maturity in its seventh year, that the pearl is then of full size and
+  perfect lustre, and that if the oyster be not then secured it will
+  shortly die, and the pearl be lost. It is certain that from some
+  unexplained cause the oysters disappear from their known beds for
+  years together. The Dutch had no fishery from 1732 to 1746, and it
+  failed them again for twenty-seven years from 1768 to 1796. The
+  fishery was again interrupted between 1820 and 1828, also from 1833 to
+  1854, from 1864 to 1873, and again from 1892 to 1900. The fishery of
+  1903 was the first since 1891, and produced a revenue of Rs.829,348,
+  being the third largest on record. In 1797 and 1798 the government
+  sold the privilege of fishing the oyster-beds for L123,982 and
+  L142,780 respectively. From that time the fishery was conducted by the
+  government itself until 1906, when it was leased to the Ceylon Pearl
+  Fisheries Company for twenty years at a rent of L20,000 a year.
+  Professor Herdman, F.R.S., was appointed to inquire and report on the
+  conservation and cultivation of the Ceylon pearl-oyster, and visited
+  Ceylon in January 1902. In consequence of his report, a marine
+  laboratory for the culture of the pearl oysters was established in
+  Galle harbour under the care of Mr Hornell.
+
+  _Mineral Industries._--Commercially there are two established mineral
+  industries:--(1) that of digging for precious stones; and (2) the much
+  more important industry of digging for plumbago or graphite, the one
+  mineral of commercial importance found. Further developments may
+  result in the shipment of the exceptionally pure iron ore found in
+  different parts of Ceylon, though still no coal has been found to be
+  utilized with it. Several places, too--Ruanwella, Rangalla, Rangbodde,
+  &c.--indicate where gold was found in the time of the Kandyan kings;
+  and geologists might possibly indicate a paying quartz reef, as in
+  Mysore. Owing to the greatly increased demand in Europe and America,
+  plumbago in 1899 more than doubled in price, rising from L40 to L80,
+  and even L100 a ton for the finest. Latterly there has been a
+  considerable fall, but the permanent demand is likely to continue keen
+  in consequence mainly of the Ceylon kind being the best for making
+  crucibles. The trade with Great Britain and the United States has
+  slightly decreased, but there has been a rapid expansion in the
+  exports to Belgium and Holland, Russia, Japan and Victoria; and the
+  industry seems to be established on a sound basis. One consequence of
+  its development has been to bring European and American capitalists
+  and Cornish and Italian miners into a field hitherto almost entirely
+  worked by Sinhalese. Though some of the mines were carried to a depth
+  of 1000 ft., the work was generally very primitive in character, and
+  Western methods of working are sure to lead to greater safety and
+  economy. Besides a royalty or customs duty of 5 rupees (about 6s. 8d.)
+  per ton on all plumbago exported, the government issue licenses at
+  moderate rates for the digging of plumbago on crown lands, a certain
+  share of the resulting mineral also going to government. The plumbago
+  industry, in all its departments of mining, carting, preparing,
+  packing and shipping, gives employment to fully 100,000 men and women,
+  still almost entirely Sinhalese. The wealthiest mine-owners, too, are
+  Sinhalese land-owners or merchants.
+
+  As regards _gems_, there are perhaps 500 gem pits or quarries worked
+  in the island during the dry season from November to June in the
+  Ratnapura, Rakwane and Matara districts. Some of these are on a small
+  scale; but altogether several thousands of Sinhalese find a precarious
+  existence in digging for gems. Rich finds of a valuable ruby,
+  sapphire, cat's-eye, amethyst, alexandrite or star stone, are
+  comparatively rare; it is only of the commoner gems, such as
+  moonstone, garnet, spinels, that a steady supply is obtained. The
+  cat's-eye in its finer qualities is peculiar to Ceylon, and is
+  occasionally in great demand, according to the fashion. The obstacle
+  to the investment of European capital in "gemming" has always been the
+  difficulty of preventing the native labourers in the pits---even if
+  practically naked--from concealing and stealing gems. A Chamber of
+  Mines, with a suitable library, was established in Colombo during
+  1899.
+
+  _Manufactures._--Little is done save in the preparation in factories
+  and stores, in Colombo or on the plantations, of the several products
+  exported. The manufacture of jewellery and preparation of precious
+  stones, and, among native women and children, of pillow lace, give
+  employment to several thousands. Iron and engineering works are
+  numerous in Colombo and in the planting districts. The Sinhalese are
+  skilful cabinetmakers and carpenters. The Moormen and Tamils furnish
+  good masons and builders.
+
+  _Commerce._--There has been rapid development since 1882, and the
+  returns for 1903 showed a total value of 22-1/2 millions sterling. The
+  principal imports were articles of food and drink (chiefly rice from
+  India) manufactured metals (with specie), coal, cotton yarns and piece
+  goods from Manchester, machinery and millwork and apparel. The Ceylon
+  customs tariff for imports is one of 6-1/2% _ad valorem_, save in the
+  case of intoxicating drinks, arms, ammunition, opium, &c. The chief
+  export is tea.
+
+  _Roads._--The policy of the Sinhalese rulers of the interior was to
+  exclude strangers from the hill country. Prior to the British
+  occupation of the Kandyan territory in 1815, the only means of access
+  from one district to another was by footpaths through the forests. The
+  Portuguese do not appear to have attempted to open up the country
+  below the hills, and the Dutch confined themselves to the improvement
+  of the inland water-communications. The British government saw from
+  the first the necessity of making roads into the interior for military
+  purposes, and, more recently, for developing the resources of the
+  country. The credit of opening up the country is due mainly to the
+  governor, Sir Edward Barnes, by whose direction the great military
+  road from Colombo to Kandy was made. Gradually all the military
+  stations were connected by broad tracks, which by degrees were bridged
+  and converted into good carriage roads. The governors Sir Henry Ward
+  and Sir Hercules Robinson recognized the importance of giving the
+  coffee planters every assistance in opening up the country, and the
+  result of their policy is that the whole of the hill country is now
+  intersected by a vast number of splendid roads, made at a cost of
+  upwards of L2000 per mile. In 1848 an ordinance was passed to levy
+  from every adult male in the colony (except Buddhist priests and
+  British soldiers) six days' labour on the roads, or an equivalent in
+  money. The labour and money obtained by this wise measure have enabled
+  the local authorities to connect the government highways by minor
+  roads, which bring every village of importance into communication with
+  the principal towns.
+
+  _Railways._--After repeated vain attempts by successive governors to
+  connect Colombo with the interior by railways, Sir Charles MacCarthy
+  successfully set on foot a railway of 75 m. in length from Colombo to
+  Kandy. The railway mileage had developed to 563 m. in 1908, including
+  one of the finest mountain lines in the world--over 160 m. long,
+  rising to 6200 ft. above sea-level, and falling at the terminus to
+  4000 ft. The towns of Kandy, Matale, Gampola, Nawalapitiya, Hatton and
+  Haputale (and practically Nuwara Eliya) in the hills, are thus
+  connected by rail, and in the low country the towns of Kurunegala,
+  Galle, Matara, Kalutara, &c. Most of the debt on the railways (all
+  government lines) is paid off, and the traffic receipts now make up
+  nearly one-third of the general revenue. An Indo-Ceylon railway to
+  connect the Indian and Ceylon systems has been the subject of separate
+  reports and estimates by engineers serving the Ceylon and Indian
+  governments, who have pronounced the work across the coral reef
+  between Manaar and Rameswaram quite feasible. A commission sat in 1903
+  to consider the gauge of an Indo-Ceylon railway. Such a line promised
+  to serve strategic as well as commercial purposes, and to make Colombo
+  more than ever the port for southern India. The headquarters of the
+  mail steamers have been removed from Galle to Colombo, where the
+  colonial government have constructed a magnificent breakwater, and
+  undertaken other harbour works which have greatly augmented both the
+  external trade and the coasting trade of the island.
+
+  _Government._--Ceylon is a crown colony, that is, a possession of the
+  British crown acquired by conquest or cession, the affairs of which
+  are administered by a governor, who receives his appointment from the
+  crown, generally for a term of six years. He is assisted by an
+  executive and a legislative council. The executive council acts as the
+  cabinet of the governor, and consists of the attorney-general, the
+  three principal officers of the colony (namely, the colonial
+  secretary, the treasurer and the auditor-general), and the general in
+  command of the forces. The legislative council includes, besides the
+  governor as president and nine official members, eight unofficial
+  members--one for the Kandyan Sinhalese (or Highlanders) and one for
+  the "Moormen" having been added in 1890. The term of office for the
+  unofficial members is limited to five years, though the governor may
+  reappoint if he choose. The king's advocate, the deputy-advocate, and
+  the surveyor-general are now respectively styled attorney-general,
+  solicitor-general, and director of public works. The civil service has
+  been reconstituted into five classes, not including the colonial
+  secretary as a staff appointment, nor ten cadets; these five classes
+  number seventy officers. The district judges can punish up to two
+  years' imprisonment, and impose fines up to Rs.1000. The police
+  magistrates can pass sentences up to six months' imprisonment, and
+  impose fines of Rs.150. The criminal law has since 1890 been codified
+  on the model of the Indian penal code; criminal and civil procedure
+  have also been the subject of codification. There are twenty-three
+  prisons in the island, mostly small; but convict establishments in and
+  near the capital take all long-sentence prisoners.
+
+  _Banks and Currency._--Ceylon has agencies of the National Bank of
+  India, Bank of Madras, Mercantile Bank of India, Chartered Bank of
+  India, Australia and China, and of the Hong-kong and Shanghai Bank,
+  besides mercantile agencies of other banks, also a government savings
+  bank at Colombo, and post-office savings banks all over the island. In
+  1884, on the failure of the Oriental Bank, the notes in currency were
+  guaranteed by government, and a government note currency was started
+  in supersession of bank notes. The coin currency of Ceylon is in
+  rupees and decimals of a rupee, the value of the standard following
+  that fixed for the Indian rupee, about 1s. 4d. per rupee.
+
+  _Finance._--With the disease of the coffee plant the general revenue
+  fell from Rs.1,70,00,000 in 1877 to Rs.1,20,00,000 in 1882, when
+  trade was in a very depressed state, and the general prosperity of the
+  island was seriously affected. Since then, however, the revenue has
+  steadily risen with the growing export of tea, cocoa-nut produce,
+  plumbago, &c., and in 1902 it reached a total of 28 millions of
+  rupees.     (J. F. D.; C. L.)
+
+_History._--The island of Ceylon was known to the Greeks and Romans
+under the name of _Taprobane_, and in later times Serendib, Sirinduil
+and Zeylan have been employed to designate it by writers of the Western
+and Eastern worlds. Serendib is a corruption of the Sanskrit
+_Sinhaladvipa_. Like most oriental countries, Ceylon possesses a great
+mass of ancient records, in which fact is so confused with fable that
+they are difficult to distinguish. The labours of George Turnour
+(1799-1843), however, helped to dissipate much of this obscurity, and
+his admirable edition (1836) of the _Mahavamsa_ first made it possible
+to trace the main lines of Sinhalese history.
+
+The Sinhalese inscriptional records, to which George Turnour first
+called attention, and which, through the activity of Sir William Gregory
+in 1874, began to be accurately transcribed and translated, extend from
+the 2nd century B.C. onwards. Among the oldest inscriptions discovered
+are those on the rock cells of the Vessagiri Vihara of Anuradhapura, cut
+in the old Brahma-lipi character. The inscriptions show how powerful was
+the Buddhist hierarchy which dominated the government and national life.
+The royal decrees of successive rulers are mainly concerned with the
+safeguarding of the rights of the hierarchy, but a few contain
+references to executive acts of the kings, as in a slab inscription of
+Kassapa V. (c. A.D. 929-939). In an edict ascribed to Mahinda IV. (c.
+A.D. 975-991) reference is made to the Sinhalese palladium, the famous
+tooth-relic of Buddha, now enshrined at Kandy, and the decree confirms
+tradition as to the identity of the fine stone temple, east of the
+Thuparama at Anuradhapura, with the shrine in which the tooth was first
+deposited when brought from Kalinga in the reign of Kirti Sri Meghavarna
+(A.D. 304-324).
+
+The earliest inhabitants of Ceylon were probably the ancestors of the
+modern Veddahs, a small tribe of primitive hunters who inhabit the
+eastern jungles; and the discovery of palaeolithic stone implements
+buried in some of their caves points to the fact that they represent a
+race which has been in the island for untold ages. As to subsequent
+immigrations, the great Hindu epic, the _Ramayana_, tells the story of
+the conquest of part of the island by the hero Rama and his followers,
+who took the capital of its king Rawana. Whatever element of truth there
+may be in this fable, it certainly represents no permanent occupation.
+The authentic history of Ceylon, so far as it can be traced, begins with
+the landing in 543 B.C. of Vijaya, the founder of the Sinhalese dynasty,
+with a small band of Aryan-speaking followers from the mainland of
+India. Vijaya married the daughter of a native chief, with whose aid he
+proceeded to master the whole island, which he parcelled out among his
+followers, some of whom formed petty kingdoms. The Sinhalese introduced
+from the mainland a comparatively high type of civilization, notably
+agriculture. The earliest of the great irrigation tanks, near
+Anuradhapura, was opened about 504 B.C. by the successor of Vijaya; and
+about this time was established that system of village communities which
+still obtains over a large part of Ceylon.
+
+The island was converted to Buddhism at the beginning of the 3rd century
+B.C. by the preaching of Mahinda, a son of the great Buddhist emperor
+Asoka; a conversion that was followed by an immense multiplication of
+_daghobas_, curious bell-shaped reliquaries of solid stone, and of
+Buddhist monasteries. For the rest, the history of ancient Ceylon is
+largely a monotonous record of Malabar or Tamil invasions, conquests and
+usurpations. Of these latter the first was in 237 B.C. when two officers
+in the cavalry and fleet revolted, overthrew the Sinhalese ruler with
+the aid of his own Tamil mercenaries, and reigned jointly, as Sena I.
+and Guptika, until 215. The Sinhalese Asela then ruled till 205, when he
+was overthrown by a Tamil from Tanjore, Elala, who held the reins of
+power for 44 years. In 161 B.C. Elala was defeated and slain by
+Dutegemunu, still remembered as one of the great Sinhalese heroes of
+Ceylon. The ruins of the great monastery, known as the Brazen Palace, at
+Anuradhapura, remain a memorial of King Dutegemunu's splendour and
+religious zeal. He died in 137 B.C., and thenceforth the history of
+Ceylon is mainly that of further Tamil invasions, of the construction of
+irrigation tanks, and of the immense development of the Buddhist
+monastic system. A tragic episode in the royal family in the 5th century
+A.D. is, however, worthy of notice as connected with one of Ceylon's
+most interesting remains, the Sigiri rock and tank (see SIGIRI). In A.D.
+477 King Datu Sen was murdered by his son, who mounted the throne as
+Kasyapa I., and when he was driven from the capital by the inhabitants,
+infuriated by his crime, built himself a stronghold on the inaccessible
+Sigiri rock, whence he ruled the country until in 495 he was overthrown
+and slain by his brother Mugallana (495-513), who at the time of his
+father's murder had escaped to India.
+
+Towards the close of the 10th century Ceylon was invaded by Rajaraja the
+Great, the Chola king, and after a series of protracted campaigns was
+annexed to his empire in 1005. The island, did not, however, remain long
+under Tamil domination. In 1071 Vijaya Bahu succeeded in re-establishing
+the Sinhalese dynasty, and for a while Ceylon was freed from foreign
+intervention. The most notable of the successors of Vijaya Bahu, and
+indeed of all the long line of Sinhalese rulers, was Parakrama Bahu I.
+(1155-1180), whose colossal statue still stands near Polonnaruwa. He not
+only took advantage of the unaccustomed tranquillity of the country to
+restore the irrigation tanks and the monasteries, but he availed himself
+of a disputed succession to the Pandya throne of Madura to turn the
+tables on his Tamil enemies by invading India. According to the
+_Mahavamsa_ his generals met with immediate and unbroken success;
+according to the more probable account preserved in a long Chola
+inscription at Arpakkam near Kanchi, they were, though at first
+successful, ultimately driven out by a coalition of the southern princes
+(V.A. Smith, _Early History of India_, ed. 1908, p. 411). In any case,
+within thirty years of Parakrama Bahu's death his work was undone; the
+Malabar invaders were once more able to effect a settlement in the
+island, and the Sinhalese capital was moved farther and farther south,
+till in 1410 it had become established at Kotta, now a suburb of
+Colombo. In 1408 a new misfortune had befallen the Sinhalese dynasty; in
+revenge for an insult offered to a Chinese envoy, a Chinese army invaded
+the island and carried away King Vijaya Bahu IV. into captivity. For
+thirty years from this date the Sinhalese kings of Ceylon were tributary
+to China.
+
+When, in 1505, the Portuguese Francisco de Almeida landed in Ceylon, he
+found the island divided into seven kingdoms. Twelve years later the
+viceroy of Goa ordered the erection of a fort at Colombo, for which
+permission was obtained from the king of Kotta; and from this time until
+the advent of the Dutch in the 17th century the Portuguese endeavoured,
+amid perpetual wars with the native kings, who were assisted by Arab and
+other traders jealous of European rivalry, to establish their control
+over the island. They ultimately succeeded so far as the coast was
+concerned, though their dominion scarcely penetrated inland. Materially
+their gain was but small, for the trade of Ceylon was quite
+insignificant; but they had the spiritual satisfaction of prosecuting a
+vigorous propaganda of Catholicism, St Francis Xavier being the most
+notable of the missionaries who at this time laboured in the island.
+
+The fanatical zeal and the masterful attitude of the Portuguese were a
+constant source of dissension with the native rulers, and when the
+Dutch, under Admiral Spilberg, landed on the east coast in 1602 and
+sought the alliance of the king of Kandy in the interior of the island,
+every inducement was held out to them to aid in expelling the
+Portuguese. Nothing seems to have come of this until 1638-1639, when a
+Dutch expedition attacked and razed the Portuguese forts on the east
+coast. In the following year they landed at Negombo, without however
+establishing themselves in any strong post. In 1644 Negombo was captured
+and fortified by the Dutch, while in 1656 they took Colombo, and in 1658
+they drove the Portuguese from Jaffna, their last stronghold in Ceylon.
+
+Pursuing a wiser policy than their predecessors, the Dutch lost no
+opportunity of improving that portion of the country which owned their
+supremacy, and of opening a trade with the interior. More tolerant and
+less disposed to stand upon their dignity than the Portuguese, they
+subordinated political to commercial ends, flattered the native rulers
+by a show of deference, and so far succeeded in their object as to
+render their trade between the island and Holland a source of great
+profit. Many new branches of industry were developed. Public works were
+undertaken on a large scale, and education, if not universally placed
+within the reach of the inhabitants of the maritime provinces, was at
+least well cared for on a broad plan of government supervision. That
+which they had so much improved by policy, they were, however, unable to
+defend by force when the British turned their arms against them. A
+century and a half had wrought great changes in the physical and mental
+status of the Dutch colonists. The territory which in 1658 they had
+slowly gained by undaunted and obstinate bravery, they as rapidly lost
+in 1796 by imbecility and cowardice.
+
+The first intercourse of the English with Ceylon was as far back as
+1763, when an embassy was despatched from Madras to the king of Kandy,
+without, however, leading to any result. On the rupture between Great
+Britain and Holland in 1795, a force was sent against the Dutch
+possessions in Ceylon, where the opposition offered was so slight that
+by the following year the whole of their forts were in the hands of the
+English commander.
+
+The abiding results of the occupation of Ceylon by the Portuguese and
+Dutch is described by Sir Emerson Tennent (_Ceylon_) as follows:
+
+  "The dominion of the Netherlands in Ceylon was nearly equal in
+  duration with that of Portugal, about 140 years; but the policies of
+  the two countries have left a very different impress on the character
+  and institutions of the people amongst whom they lived. The most
+  important bequest left by the utilitarian genius of Holland is the
+  code of Roman Dutch law, which still prevails in the supreme courts of
+  justice, whilst the fanatical propagandism of the Portuguese has
+  reared for itself a monument in the abiding and expanding influence of
+  the Roman Catholic faith. This flourishes in every hamlet and province
+  where it was implanted by the Franciscans, whilst the doctrines of the
+  reformed church of Holland, never preached beyond the walls of the
+  fortresses, are already almost forgotten throughout the island, with
+  the exception of an expiring community at Colombo. Already the
+  language of the Dutch, which they sought to extend by penal
+  enactments, has ceased to be spoken even by their direct descendants,
+  whilst a corrupted Portuguese is to the present day the vernacular of
+  the lower classes in every town of importance. As the practical and
+  sordid government of the Netherlands only recognized the interest of
+  the native population in so far as they were essential to uphold their
+  trading monopolies, their memory was recalled by no agreeable
+  associations: whilst the Portuguese, who, in spite of their cruelties,
+  were identified with the people by the bond of a common faith, excited
+  a feeling of admiration by the boldness of their conflicts with the
+  Kandyans, and the chivalrous though ineffectual defence of their
+  beleaguered fortresses. The Dutch and their proceedings have almost
+  ceased to be remembered by the lowland Sinhalese; but the chiefs of
+  the south and west perpetuate with pride the honorific title Don,
+  accorded to them by their first European conquerors, and still prefix
+  to their ancient patronymics the sonorous Christian names of the
+  Portuguese."
+
+The British forces by which the island had been conquered were those of
+the East India Company, and Ceylon was therefore at first placed under
+its jurisdiction and administered from Madras. The introduction of the
+Madras revenue system, however, together with a host of Malabar
+collectors, led to much discontent, which culminated in rebellion; and
+in 1798 the colony was placed directly under the crown. By the treaty of
+Amiens, in 1803, this situation was regularized, from the international
+point of view, by the formal cession to Great Britain of the former
+Dutch possessions in the island. For a while the British dominion was
+confined to the coast. The central tract of hilly country, hedged in by
+impenetrable forests and precipitous mountain ranges, remained in
+possession of Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha, the last of the Sinhalese dynasty,
+who showed no signs of encouraging communication with his European
+neighbours.
+
+Minor differences led in 1803 to an invasion of the Kandyan territory;
+but sickness, desertion and fatigue proved more formidable adversaries
+to the British forces than the troops of the Sinhalese monarch, and
+peace was eventually concluded upon terms by no means favourable to the
+English. The cruelty and oppression of the king now became so
+intolerable to his subjects that disaffection spread rapidly amongst
+them. Punishments of the most horrible kinds were inflicted, but failed
+to repress the popular indignation; and in 1815 the British, at the
+urgent request of many of the Adigars and other native chiefs, proceeded
+against the tyrant, who was captured near Kandy, and subsequently ended
+his days in exile. With him ended a long line of sovereigns, whose
+pedigree may be traced through upwards of two thousand years.
+
+By a convention entered into with the Kandyan chiefs on the 2nd of March
+1815, the entire sovereignty of the island passed into the hands of the
+British, who in return guaranteed to the inhabitants civil and religious
+liberty. The religion of Buddha was declared inviolable, and its rights,
+ministers and places of worship were to be maintained and protected; the
+laws of the country were to be preserved and administered according to
+established forms; and the royal dues and revenues were to be levied as
+before for the support of government.
+
+With the exception of a serious outbreak in some parts of the interior
+in 1817, which lasted for upwards of a year, and of two minor attempts
+at rebellion easily put down, in 1843 and 1848, the political
+atmosphere of Ceylon has remained undisturbed since the deportation of
+the last king of Kandy.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Major Thomas Skinner, _Fifty Years in Ceylon_, edited by
+  his son, A. Skinner (London, 1891); Constance F. Gordon Gumming, _Two
+  Happy Years in Ceylon_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892); H.W. Cave, _The
+  Ruined Cities of Ceylon_ (London, 1897), and _The Book of Ceylon_
+  (London, 1908); Sir Emerson Tennent, _Ceylon_ (2 vols. 4th ed., 1860);
+  J. Ferguson, _Ceylon in 1903_ (Colombo); J.C. Willis, _Ceylon_
+  (Colombo, 1907). See also E. Muller, _Ancient Inscriptions in Ceylon_,
+  published for the government (1883-1884), and the important
+  archaeological survey in _Epigraphia Zeylonica_, part i., 1904, ii.,
+  1907, iii., 1907, by Don Martino de Silva Wickremasinghe, who in 1899
+  was appointed epigraphist to the Ceylon government. Among other works
+  on special subjects may be mentioned H. Trimen, F.R.S., director of
+  Ceylon Botanic Gardens, _Ceylon Flora_, in 5 vols., completed by Sir
+  Joseph Hooker; Captain V. Legge, F.Z.S., _History of the Birds of
+  Ceylon_ (London, 1870); Dr Copleston, bishop of Colombo, _Buddhism,
+  Primitive and Present, in Magadha and in Ceylon_ (London, 1892);
+  review by Sir West Ridgeway, _Administration of Ceylon, 1896-1903_;
+  Professor W.A. Herdman, _Report on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries,
+  1903-1904_.
+
+
+
+
+CHABAZITE, a mineral species belonging to the group of zeolites. It
+occurs as white to flesh-red crystals which vary from transparent to
+translucent and have a vitreous lustre. The crystals are rhombohedral,
+and the predominating form is often a rhombohedron (r) with interfacial
+angles of 85 deg. 14'; they therefore closely resemble cubes in
+appearance, and the mineral was in fact early (in 1772) described as a
+cubic zeolite. A characteristic feature is the twinning, the crystals
+being frequently interpenetration twins with the principal axis as
+twin-axis (figs, 1, 2). The appearance shown in fig. 1, with the corners
+of small crystals in twinned position projecting from the faces r of the
+main crystal, is especially characteristic of chabazite. Such groups
+resemble the interpenetrating twinned cubes of fluorspar, but the two
+minerals are readily distinguished by their cleavage, fluorspar having a
+perfect octahedral cleavage truncating the corners of the cube, whilst
+in chabazite there are less distinct cleavages parallel to the
+rhombohedral (cube-like) faces. Another type of twinned crystal is
+represented in fig. 2, in which the predominating form is an obtuse
+hexagonal pyramid (t); the faces of these flatter crystals are often
+rounded, giving rise to lenticular shapes, hence the name phacolite
+(from [Greek: phakos], a lentil) for this variety of chabazite.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. Twinned Crystals of Chabazite.]
+
+The hardness of chabazite is 4-1/2, and the specific gravity 2.08-2.16.
+As first noticed by Sir David Brewster in 1830, the crystals often
+exhibit anomalous optical characters: instead of being uniaxial, a basal
+section may be divided into sharply-defined biaxial sectors. Heating of
+the crystals is attended by a loss of water and a change in their
+optical characters; it is probable therefore that the anomalous optical
+characters are dependent on the amount of water present.
+
+Besides phacolite, mentioned above, other varieties of chabazite are
+distinguished. Herschelite and seebachite are essentially the same as
+phacolite. Haydenite is the name given to small yellowish crystals,
+twinned on a rhombohedron plane r, from Jones's Falls near Baltimore in
+Maryland. Acadialite is a reddish chabazite from Nova Scotia (the old
+French name of which is Acadie).
+
+Chemically, chabazite is a complex hydrated calcium and sodium silicate,
+with a small proportion of the sodium replaced by potassium, and
+sometimes a small amount of the calcium replaced by barium and
+strontium. The composition is however variable, and is best expressed
+as an isomorphous mixture of the molecules (Ca, Na2) Al2(SiO4)2 + 4H2O
+and (Ca, Na2) Al2(Si3O8)2 + 8H2O, which are analogous to the felspars.
+Most analyses correspond with a formula midway between these extremes,
+namely, (Ca, Na2)Al2(SiO3)4 + 6H2O.
+
+Chabazite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of
+basaltic rocks; occasionally it has been found in gneisses and schists.
+Well-formed crystals are known from many localities; for example,
+Kilmalcolm in Renfrewshire, the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and
+Oberstein in Germany. Beautiful, clear glassy crystals of the phacolite
+("seebachite") variety occur with phillipsite and radiating bundles of
+brown calcite in cavities in compact basalt near Richmond, Melbourne,
+Victoria. Small crystals have been observed lining the cavities of
+fossil shells from Iceland, and in the recent deposits of the hot
+springs of Plombieres and Bourbonne-les-Bains in France.
+
+Gmelinite and levynite are other species of zeolites which may be
+mentioned here, since they are closely related to chabazite, and like it
+are rhombohedral and frequently twinned. Gmelinite forms large flesh-red
+crystals usually of hexagonal habit, and was early known as
+soda-chabazite, it having the composition of chabazite but with sodium
+predominating over calcium (Na2, Ca)Al2(SiO3)46H2O. The formula of
+levynite is CaAl2Si3O10 + 5H2O.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHABLIS, a town of north-central France, in the department of Yonne, on
+the left bank of the Serein, 14 m. E. by N. of Auxerre by road. Pop.
+(1906) 2227. Its church of St Martin belongs to the end of the 12th
+century. The town gives its name to a well-known white wine produced in
+the neighbouring vineyards, of which the most esteemed are Clos,
+Bouguerots, Moutonne, Grenouille, Montmaires, Lys and Vaux-Desirs. There
+are manufactures of biscuits.
+
+
+
+
+CHABOT, FRANCOIS (1757-1794), French revolutionist, had been a
+Franciscan friar before the Revolution, and after the civil constitution
+of the clergy continued to act as "constitutional" priest, becoming
+grand vicar of Henri Gregoire, bishop of Blois. Then he was elected to
+the Legislative Assembly, sitting at the extreme left, and forming with
+C. Bazire and Merlin de Thionville the "Cordelier trio." Re-elected to
+the Convention he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and opposed the
+proposal to prosecute the authors of the massacre of September, "because
+among them there are heroes of Jemmapes." Some of his sayings are well
+known, such as that Christ was the first "_sans-culotte_." Compromised
+in the falsification of a decree suppressing the India Company and in a
+plot to bribe certain members of the Convention, especially Fabre
+d'Eglantine and C. Bazire, he was arrested, brought before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal, and was condemned and executed at the same time
+as the Dantonists, who protested against being associated with such a
+"_fripon_."
+
+
+
+
+CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE, known as CHABOT DE L'ALLIER (1758-1819), French
+jurist and statesman, was president of the tribunal of Montlucon when he
+was elected as a deputy _suppleant_ to the National Convention. A member
+of the council of the Ancients, then of the Tribunate, he was president
+of the latter when the peace of Amiens was signed. He had a resolution
+adopted, tending to give Napoleon Bonaparte the consulship for life; and
+in 1804 supported the proposal to establish a hereditary monarchy.
+Napoleon named him inspector-general of the law schools, then judge of
+the court of cassation. He published various legal works, e.g. _Tableau
+de la legislation ancienne sur les successions et de la legislation
+nouvelle etablie par le code civil_ (Paris, 1804), and _Questions
+fransitoires sur le code Napoleon_ (Paris, 1809).
+
+
+
+
+CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE, SEIGNEUR DE BRION, COUNT OF CHARNY AND BUZANCAIS
+(c. 1492-1543), admiral of France. The Chabot family was one of the
+oldest and most powerful in Poitou. Philippe was a cadet of the Jarnac
+branch. He was a companion of Francis I. as a child, and on that king's
+accession was loaded with honours and estates. After the battle of Pavia
+he was made admiral of France and governor of Burgundy (1526), and
+shared with Anne de Montmorency the direction of affairs. He was at the
+height of his power in 1535, and commanded the army for the invasion of
+the states of the duke of Savoy; but in the campaigns of 1536 and 1537
+he was eclipsed by Montmorency, and from that moment his influence began
+to wane. He was accused by his enemies of peculation, and condemned on
+the 10th of February 1541 to a fine of 1,500,000 livres, to banishment,
+and to the confiscation of his estates. Through the good offices of
+Madam d'Etampes, however, he obtained the king's pardon almost
+immediately (March 1541), was reinstated in his posts, and regained his
+estates and even his influence, while Montmorency in his turn was
+disgraced. But his health was affected by these troubles, and he died
+soon afterwards on the 1st of June 1543. His tomb in the Louvre, by an
+unknown sculptor, is a fine example of French Renaissance work. It was
+his nephew, Guy Chabot, seigneur de Jarnac, who fought the famous duel
+with Francois de Vivonne, seigneur de la Chataigneraie, in 1547, at the
+beginning of the reign of Henry II.
+
+  The main authorities for Chabot's life are his MS. correspondence in
+  the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, and contemporary memoirs. See also
+  E de Barthelemy, "Chabot de Brion," in the _Revue des questions
+  historiques_ (vol. xx. 1876); Martineau, "L'Amiral Chabot," in the
+  _Positions des theses de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+CHABRIAS (4th century B.C.), a celebrated Athenian general. In 388 B.C.
+he defeated the Spartans at Aegina and commanded the fleet sent to
+assist Evagoras, king of Cyprus, against the Persians. In 378, when
+Athens entered into an alliance with, Thebes against Sparta, he defeated
+Agesilaus near Thebes. On this occasion he invented a manoeuvre, which
+consisted in receiving a charge on the left knee, with shields resting
+on the ground and spears pointed against the enemy. In 376 he gained a
+decisive victory over the Spartan fleet off Naxos, but, when he might
+have destroyed the Spartan fleet, remembering the fate of the generals
+at Arginusae, he delayed to pick up the bodies of his dead. Later, when
+the Athenians changed sides and joined the Spartans, he repulsed
+Epaminondas before the walls of Corinth. In 366, together with
+Callistratus, he was accused of treachery in advising the surrender of
+Oropus to the Thebans. He was acquitted, and soon after he accepted a
+command under Tachos, king of Egypt, who had revolted against Persia.
+But on the outbreak of the Social War (357) he joined Chares in the
+command of the Athenian fleet. He lost his life in an attack on the
+island of Chios.
+
+  See Cornelius Nepos, _Chabrias_; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, v. 1-4; Diod.
+  Sic. xv. 29-34; and C. Rehdantz, _Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae, et
+  Timothei_ (1845); art. DELIAN LEAGUE, section B, and authorities there
+  quoted.
+
+
+
+
+CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL (1841-1894), French composer, was born at
+Ambert, Puy de Dome, on the 18th of January 1841. At first he only
+cultivated music as an amateur, and it was not until 1879 that he threw
+up an administration appointment in order to devote himself entirely to
+the art. He had two years previously written an _opera bouffe_ entitled
+_L'Etoile_, which was performed at the Bouffes Parisiens. In 1881 he was
+appointed chorus-master of the concerts then recently established by
+Lamoureux. In 1883 he composed the brilliant orchestral rhapsody
+entitled _Espana_, the themes of which he had jotted down when
+travelling in Spain. His opera _Gwendoline_ was brought out with
+considerable success at Brussels on the 10th of April 1886, and was
+given later at the Paris Grand Opera. The following year 1887, _Le Roi
+malgre lui_, an opera of a lighter description, was produced in Paris at
+the Opera Comique, its run being interrupted by the terrible fire by
+which this theatre was destroyed. His last opera, _Briseis_, was left
+unfinished, and performed in a fragmentary condition at the Paris Opera,
+after the composer's death in Paris on the 13th of September 1894.
+Chabrier was also the author of a set of piano pieces entitled _Pieces
+pittoresques, Valses romantiques_, for two pianos, a fantasia for horn
+and piano, &c. His great admiration for Wagner asserted itself in
+_Gwendoline_, a work which, in spite of inequalities due to want of
+experience, is animated by a high artistic ideal, is poetically
+conceived, and shows considerable harmonic originality, besides a
+thorough mastery over the treatment of the orchestra. The
+characteristics of _Le Roi malgre lui_ have been well summed up by M.
+Joncieres when he alludes to "cette verve inepuisable, ces rythmes
+endiables, cette exuberance de gaiete et de vigueur, a laquelle venait
+se joindre la note melancolique et emue." Chabrier's premature death
+prevented him from giving the full measure of his worth.
+
+
+
+
+CHACMA, the Hottentot name of the Cape baboon, _Papio porcarius_, a
+species inhabiting the mountains of South Africa as far north as the
+Zambezi. Of the approximate size of an English mastiff, this powerful
+baboon is blackish grey in colour with a tinge of green due to the
+yellow rings on most of the hairs. Unlike most of its tribe, it is a
+good climber; and where wooded cliffs are not available, will take up
+its quarters in tall trees. Chacmas frequently strip orchards and
+fruit-gardens, break and devour ostrich eggs, and kill lambs and kids
+for the sake of the milk in their stomachs.
+
+
+
+
+CHACO, a territory of northern Argentina, part of a large district known
+as the Gran Chaco, bounded N. by the territory of Formosa, E. by
+Paraguay and Corrientes, S. by Santa Fe, and W. by Santiago del Estero
+and Salta. The Bermejo river forms its northern boundary, and the
+Paraguay and Parana rivers its eastern; these rivers are its only means
+of communication. Pop. (1895) 10,422; (1904, est.) 13,937; area, 52,741
+sq. m. The northern part consists of a vast plain filled with numberless
+lagoons; the southern part is slightly higher and is covered with dense
+forests, occasionally broken by open grassy spaces. Its forests contain
+many species of trees of great economic value; among them is the
+_quebracho_, which is exported for the tannin which it contains. The
+capital, Resistencia, with an estimated population of 3500 in 1904, is
+situated on the Parana river opposite the city of Corrientes. There is
+railway communication between Santa Fe and La Sabana, an insignificant
+timber-cutting village on the southern frontier. In the territory there
+are still several tribes of uncivilized Indians, who occasionally raid
+the neighbouring settlements of Santa Fe.
+
+
+
+
+CHACONNE (Span. _chacona_), a slow dance, introduced into Spain by the
+Moors, now obsolete. It resembles the Passacaglia. The word is used also
+of the music composed for this dance--a slow stately movement in 3/4
+time. Such a movement was often introduced into a sonata, and formed the
+conventional finale to an opera or ballet until the time of Gluck.
+
+
+
+
+CHAD [CEADDA], SAINT (d. 672), brother of Cedd, whom he succeeded as
+abbot at Lastingham, was consecrated bishop of the Northumbrians by
+Wine, the West Saxon bishop, at the request of Oswio in 664. On the
+return of Wilfrid from France, where he had been sent to be consecrated
+to the same see, a dispute of course arose, which was settled by
+Theodore in favour of Wilfrid after three years had passed. Chad
+thereupon retired to Lastingham, whence with the permission of Oswio he
+was summoned by Wulfhere of Mercia to succeed his bishop Jaruman, who
+died 667. Chad built a monastery at Barrow in Lincolnshire and fixed his
+see at Lichfield. He died after he had held his bishopric in Mercia two
+and a half years, and was succeeded by Wynfrith. Bede gives a beautiful
+character of Chad.
+
+  See Bede's _Hist. Eccl._ edited by C. Plummer, iii. 23, 24, 28; iv. 2,
+  3 (Oxford, 1896); Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_, xiv., xv. edited by J.
+  Raine, Rolls Series (London, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+CHAD, a lake of northern Central Africa lying between 12 deg. 50' and 14
+deg. 10' N. and 13 deg. and 15 deg. E. The lake is situated about 850
+ft. above the sea in the borderland between the fertile and wooded
+regions of the Sudan on the south and the arid steppes which merge into
+the Sahara on the north. The area of the lake is shrinking owing to the
+progressive desiccation of the country, Saharan climate and conditions
+replacing those of the Sudan. The drying-up process has been
+comparatively rapid since the middle of the 19th century, a town which
+in 1850 was on the southern margin of the lake being in 1905 over 20 m.
+from it. On the west the shore is perfectly flat, so that a slight rise
+in the water causes the inundation of a considerable area--a fact not
+without its influence on the estimates made at varying periods as to the
+size of the lake. Around the north-west and north shores is a continuous
+chain of gently sloping sand-hills covered with bush. This region
+abounds in big game and birds are plentiful. In the east, the country
+of Kanem, the desiccation has been most marked. Along this coast is a
+continuous chain of islands running from north-west to south-east. But
+what were islands when viewed by Overweg in 1851, formed in 1903 part of
+the mainland and new islands had arisen in the lake. They are generally
+low, being composed of sand and clay, and lie from 5 to 20 m. from the
+shore, which throughout its eastern side nowhere faces open water. The
+channels between the islands do not exceed 2 m. in width. Two principal
+groups are distinguished, the Kuri archipelago in the south, and the
+Buduma in the north. The inhabitants of the last-named islands were
+noted pirates until reduced to order by the French. The coast-line is,
+in general, undefined and marshy, and broken into numerous bays and
+peninsulas. It is also, especially on the east, lined by lagoons which
+communicate with the lake by intricate channels. The lake is nowhere of
+great depth, and about midway numerous mud-banks, marshes, islands and
+dense growths of aqueous plants stretch across its surface. Another
+stretch of marsh usually cuts off the northernmost part of the lake from
+the central sections. The open water varies in depth from 3 ft. in the
+north-west to over 20 in the south, where desiccation is less apparent.
+Fed by the Shari (q.v.) and other rivers, the lake has no outlet and its
+area varies according to the season. The flood water brought down by the
+Shari in December and January causes the lake to rise to a maximum of 24
+ft., the water spreading over low-lying ground, left dry again in May or
+June. But after several seasons of heavy rainfall the waters have
+remained for years beyond their low-water level. Nevertheless the
+secular shrinking goes on, the loss by evaporation and percolation
+exceeding the amount of water received; whilst, on the average, the
+rainfall is diminishing. In 1870 the lake rose to an exceptional height,
+but since then, save in 1897, there has been only the normal seasonal
+rise. The prevalent north-east wind causes at times a heavy swell on the
+lake. Fish abound in its waters, which are sweet, save at low-level,
+when they become brackish. The lagoons are believed to act as purifying
+pans in which the greater part of the salt in the water is precipitated.
+In the south-west end of the lake the water is yellow, caused by banks
+of clay; elsewhere it is clear.
+
+[Illustration: Lake Chad]
+
+The southern basin of Chad is described under the Shari, which empties
+its waters into the lake about the middle of the southern shore, forming
+a delta of considerable extent. Beyond the south-east corner of the lake
+is a depression known as the Bahr-el-Ghazal (not to be confounded with
+the Nile affluent of the same name). This depression is the termination
+of what is in all probability the bed of one of the dried-up Saharan
+rivers. Coming from the Tibesti highlands the Bahr-el-Ghazal has a
+south-westerly trend to Lake Chad. Near the lake the valley was formerly
+swampy, and at high-water the lake overflowed into it. There was also at
+one time communication between the Shari and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, so that
+the water of the first-named stream reached Chad by way of the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal. There is now neither inlet nor outlet to the lake in
+this direction, the mouth of the Ghazal having become a fertile millet
+field. There is still, however, a distinct current from the Shari delta
+to the east end of the lake--known to the natives, like the depression
+beyond, as the Bahr-el-Ghazal--indicative of the former overflow outlet.
+
+Besides the Shari, the only important stream entering Lake Chad is the
+Waube or Yo (otherwise the Komadugu Yobe), which rises near Kano, and
+flowing eastward enters the lake on its western side 40 m. north of
+Kuka. In the rains the Waube carries down a considerable body of water
+to the lake.
+
+Lake Chad is supposed to have been known by report to Ptolemy, and is
+identified by some writers with the Kura lake of the middle ages. It was
+first seen by white men in 1823 when it was reached by way of Tripoli by
+the British expedition under Dr Walter Oudney, R.N., the other members
+being Captain Hugh Clapperton and Major (afterwards Lieut.-Colonel)
+Dixon Denham. By them the lake was named Waterloo. In 1850 James
+Richardson, accompanied by Heinrich Barth and Adolf Overweg, reached the
+lake, also via Tripoli, and Overweg was the first European to navigate
+its waters (1851). The lake was visited by Eduard Vogel (1855) and by
+Gustav Nachtigal (1870), the last-named investigating its hydrography in
+some detail. In 1890-1893 its shores were divided by treaty between
+Great Britain, France and Germany. The first of these nations to make
+good its footing in the region was France. A small steamer, brought from
+the Congo by Emile Gentil, was in 1897 launched on the Shari, and
+reaching the Chad, navigated the southern part of the lake.
+Communication between Algeria and Lake Chad by way of the Sahara was
+opened, after repeated failures, by the French explorer F. Foureau in
+1899-1900. At the same time a French officer, Lieut. Joalland, reached
+the lake from the middle Niger, continuing his journey round the north
+end to Kanem. A British force under Colonel T.L.N. Morland visited the
+lake at the beginning of 1902, and in May of the same year the Germans
+first reached it from Cameroon. In 1902-1903 French officers under
+Colonel Destenave made detailed surveys of the south-eastern and eastern
+shores and the adjacent islands. In 1903 Captain E. Lenfant, also a
+French officer, succeeded in reaching the lake (which he
+circumnavigated) via the Benue, proving the existence of water
+communication between the Shari and the Niger. In 1905 Lieut. Boyd
+Alexander, a British officer, further explored the lake, which then
+contained few stretches of open water. The lake is bordered W. and S.W.
+by Bornu, which is partly in the British protectorate of Nigeria and
+partly in the German protectorate of Cameroon. Bagirmi to the S.E. of
+the lake and Kanem to the N.E. are both French possessions. The north
+and north-west shores also belong to France. One of the ancient trade
+routes across the Sahara--that from Tripoli to Kuka in Bornu--strikes
+the lake at its north-west corner, but this has lost much of its former
+importance.
+
+  See the works of Denham, Clapperton, Barth and Nachtigal cited in the
+  biographical notices; _Geog. Journal_, vol. xxiv. (1904); Capt. Tilho
+  in _La Geographie_ (March 1906); Boyd Alexander, _From the Niger to
+  the Nile_, vol. i. (London, 1907); A. Chevalier, _Mission Chari-Lac
+  Tchad 1902-1904_ (Paris 1908); E. Lenfant, _La Grande Route du Tchad_
+  (Paris, 1905); H. Freydenberg, _Etude sur le Tchad et le bassin du
+  Chari_ (Paris, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+CHADDERTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England, within the
+parliamentary borough of Oldham (q.v.). Pop. (1901) 24,892. Cotton and
+chemical works, and the coal-mines of the neighbourhood, employ the
+large industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+CHADERTON, LAURENCE (?1536-1640), Puritan divine, was born at Lees Hall,
+in the parish of Oldham, Lancashire, probably in September 1536, being
+the second son of Edmund Chaderton, a gentleman of an ancient and
+wealthy family, and a zealous Catholic. Under the tuition of Laurence
+Vaux, a priest, he became an able scholar. In 1564 he entered Christ's
+College, Cambridge, where, after a short time, he formally adopted the
+reformed doctrines and was in consequence disinherited by his father. In
+1567 he was elected a fellow of his college, and subsequently was chosen
+lecturer of St Clement's church, Cambridge, where he preached to
+admiring audiences for many years. He was a man of moderate views,
+though numbering among his friends extremists like Cartwright and
+Perkins. So great was his reputation that when Sir Walter Mildmay
+founded Emmanuel College in 1584 he chose Chaderton for the first
+master, and on his expressing some reluctance, declared that if he would
+not accept the office the foundation should not go on. In 1604 Chaderton
+was appointed one of the four divines for managing the cause of the
+Puritans at the Hampton Court conference; and he was also one of the
+translators of the Bible. In 1578 he had taken the degree of B.D., and
+in 1613 he was created D.D. At this period he made provision for twelve
+fellows and above forty scholars in Emmanuel College. Fearing that he
+might have a successor who held Arminian doctrines, he resigned the
+mastership in favour of John Preston, but survived him, and lived also
+to see the college presided over successively by William Sancroft (or
+Sandcroft) and Richard Holdsworth. He died on the 13th of November 1640
+at the age of about 103, preserving his bodily and mental faculties to
+the end.
+
+  Chaderton published a sermon preached at St Paul's Cross about 1580,
+  and a treatise of his _On Justification_ was printed by Anthony
+  Thysius, professor of divinity at Leiden. Some other works by him on
+  theological subjects remain in manuscript.
+
+
+
+
+CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN (1800-1890), English sanitary reformer, was born at
+Longsight, near Manchester, on the 24th of January 1800. Called to the
+bar without any independent means, he sought to support himself by
+literary work, and his essays in the _Westminster Review_ (mainly on
+different methods of applying scientific knowledge to the business of
+government) introduced him to the notice of Jeremy Bentham, who engaged
+him as a literary assistant and left him a handsome legacy. In 1832 he
+was employed by the royal commission appointed to inquire into the
+operation of the poor laws, and in 1833 he was made a full member of
+that body. In conjunction with Nassau W. Senior he drafted the
+celebrated report of 1834 which procured the reform of the old poor law.
+His special contribution was the institution of the union as the area of
+administration. He favoured, however, a much more centralized system of
+administration than was adopted, and he never ceased to complain that
+the reform of 1834 was fatally marred by the rejection of his views,
+which contemplated the management of poor-law relief by salaried
+officers controlled from a central board, the boards of guardians acting
+merely as inspectors. In 1834 he was appointed secretary to the poor law
+commissioners. Finding himself unable to administer in accordance with
+his own views an act of which he was largely the author, his relations
+with his official chiefs became much strained, and the disagreement led,
+among other causes, to the dissolution of the poor law commission in
+1846. Chadwick's chief contribution to political controversy was his
+constant advocacy of entrusting certain departments of local affairs to
+trained and selected experts, instead of to representatives elected on
+the principle of local self-government. While still officially connected
+with the poor law he had taken up the question of sanitation in
+conjunction with Dr Southwood Smith, and their joint labours produced a
+most salutary improvement in the public health. His report on "The
+Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population" (1842) is a valuable
+historical document. He was a commissioner of the Board of Health from
+its establishment in 1848 to its abolition in 1854, when he retired upon
+a pension, and occupied the remainder of his life in voluntary
+contributions to sanitary and economical questions. He died at East
+Sheen, Surrey, on the 6th of July 1890. He had been made K.C.B. in 1889.
+
+  See a volume on _The Evils of Disunity in Central and Local
+  Administration ... and the New Centralization for the People_, by
+  Edwin Chadwick (1885); also _The Health of Nations, a Review of the
+  Works of Edwin Chadwick, with a Biographical Introduction_, by Sir B.
+  W. Richardson (1887).
+
+
+
+
+CHAEREMON, Athenian dramatist of the first half of the 4th century B.C.
+He is generally considered a tragic poet. Aristotle (_Rhetoric_, iii.
+12) says his works were intended for reading, not for representation.
+According to Suidas, he was also a comic poet, and the title of at least
+one of his plays (_Achilles Slayer of Thersites_) seems to indicate that
+it was a satyric drama. His _Centaurus_ is described by Aristotle
+(_Poet._ i. 12) as a rhapsody in all kinds of metres. The fragments of
+Chaeremon are distinguished by correctness of form and facility of
+rhythm, but marred by a florid and affected style reminiscent of
+Agathon. He especially excelled in descriptions (irrelevantly
+introduced) dealing with such subjects as flowers and female beauty. It
+is not agreed whether he is the author of three epigrams in the Greek
+Anthology (Palatine vii. 469, 720, 721) which bear his name.
+
+  See H. Bartsch, _De Chaeremone Poeta tragico_ (1843); fragments in A.
+  Nauck, _Fragmenta Tragicorum Graecorum_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAEREMON, of Alexandria (1st century A.D.), Stoic philosopher and
+grammarian. He was superintendent of the portion of the Alexandrian
+library that was kept in the temple of Serapis, and as custodian and
+expounder of the sacred books ([Greek: ierogrammateus] sacred scribe)
+belonged to the higher ranks of the priesthood. In A.D. 49 he was
+summoned to Rome, with Alexander of Aegae, to become tutor to the
+youthful Nero. He was the author of a _History of Egypt_; of works on
+_Comets, Egyptian Astrology_, and _Hieroglyphics_; and of a grammatical
+treatise on _Expletive Conjunctions_ ([Greek: syndesmoi
+parapleropaeromatikoi]). Chaeremon was the chief of the party which
+explained the Egyptian religious system as a mere allegory of the
+worship of nature. His books were not intended to represent the ideas of
+his Egyptian contemporaries; their chief object was to give a
+description of the sanctity and symbolical secrets of ancient Egypt. He
+can hardly be identical with the Chaeremon who accompanied (c. 26 B.C.;
+Strabo xvii. p. 806) Aelius Gallus, praefect of Egypt, on a journey into
+the interior of the country.
+
+  Fragments in C. Muller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, iii.
+  495-499.
+
+
+
+
+CHAERONEIA, or CHAERONEA, an ancient town of Boeotia, said by some to be
+the Homeric Arne, situated about 7 m. W. of Orchomenus. Until the 4th
+century B.C. it was a dependency of Orchomenus, and at all times it
+played but a subordinate part in Boeotian politics. Its importance lay
+in its strategic position near the head of the defile which presents the
+last serious obstacle to an invader in central Greece. Two great battles
+were fought on this site in antiquity. In 338 B.C. Philip II. and
+Alexander of Macedon were confronted by a confederate host from central
+Greece and Peloponnese under the leadership of Thebes and Athens, which
+here made the last stand on behalf of Greek liberty. A hard-fought
+conflict, in which the Greek infantry displayed admirable firmness, was
+decided in favour of Philip through the superior organization of his
+army. In 86 B.C. the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla defeated the army
+of Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, near Chaeroneia. The latter's
+enormous numerical superiority was neutralized by Sulla's judicious
+choice of ground and the steadiness of his legionaries; the Asiatics
+after the failure of their attack were worn down and almost annihilated.
+Chaeroneia is also notable as the birthplace of Plutarch, who returned
+to his native town in old age, and was held in honour by its citizens
+for many successive generations. Pausanias (ix. 40) mentions the divine
+honours accorded at Chaeroneia to the sceptre of Agamemnon, the work of
+Hephaestus (cf. _Iliad_, ii. 101). The site of the town is partly
+occupied by the village of Kapraena; the ancient citadel was known as
+the Petrachus, and there is a theatre cut in the rock. A colossal seated
+lion a little to the S.E. of the site marks the grave of the Boeotians
+who fell fighting against Philip; this lion was found broken to pieces;
+the tradition that it was blown up by Odysseus Androutsos is incorrect
+(see Murray, _Handbook for Greece_, ed. 5, 1884, p. 409). It has now
+been restored and re-erected (1905).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Thucydides iv. 76; Diodorus xvi. 85-86; Plutarch,
+  _Alexander_, ch. 9; _Sulla_, chs. 16-19; Appian, _Mithradatica_, chs.
+  42-45; W.M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London, 1835), ii.
+  112-117, 192-201; B.V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p.
+  292; J. Kromayer, _Antike Schlachtfelder in Griechenland_ (Berlin,
+  1903), pp. 127-195; G. Sotiriades in _Athen. Mitteil._ 1903, pp. 301
+  ff.; 1905, p. 120; 1906, p. 396; [Greek: Ephem. Archaiol.], 1908, p.
+  65.
+
+
+
+
+CHAETOGNATHA, the name given by R. Leuckhart to a small group of
+transparent and for the most part pelagic organisms, whose position in
+the animal kingdom is a very isolated one. Only three genera, _Sagitta_,
+_Spadella_ and _Krohnia_, are recognised, and the number of species is
+small. Nevertheless these animals exist in extraordinary quantities, so
+that at certain seasons and under certain conditions the surface of the
+sea seems almost stiff with the incredible multitude of organisms which
+pervade it. Rough seas, &c., cause them to seek safety in dropping into
+deeper water. Deep-sea forms also occur, but in spite of this the group
+is essentially pelagic.
+
+[Illustration: _Spadella cephaloptera_ (Busch).
+
+  St, Septa dividing body-cavity transversely.
+  g^2, Cerebral ganglia.
+  n^1, Commissure uniting this with ventral ganglion (not shown in fig.).
+  n^2, Nerve uniting cerebral ganglia with small ganglia on head.
+  nr, Olfactory nerve.
+  d, Alimentary canal.
+  r, Olfactory organ.
+  te, Tentacle.
+  t, Tactile hairs springing from surface of body.
+  e, Ovary.
+  el, Oviduct.
+  ho, Testes.
+  sg, Vas deferens.
+  f^2, f^3, Lateral and caudal fins.
+  sb, Seminal pouch.
+
+  The eyes are indicated as black dots behind the cerebral ganglia.]
+
+  As a rule the body is some 1 to 2 or 3 cm. in length, though some
+  species are larger, by 4 or 5 mm. in breadth, and it is shaped
+  something like a torpedo with side flanges and a slightly swollen,
+  rounded head. It can be divided into three regions--(i.) head, (ii.)
+  trunk, and (iii.) tail, separated from one another by two transverse
+  septa. The almost spherical head is covered by a hood which can be
+  retracted; it bears upon its side a number of sickle-shaped, chitinous
+  hooks and one or more short rows of low spines--both of these features
+  are used in characterizing the various species. A pair of eyes lie
+  dorsally and behind them is a closed circlet, often pulled out into
+  various shapes, of modified epidermis, to which an olfactory function
+  has been attributed. The interior of the head is filled up with masses
+  of muscle fibres which are mainly occupied with moving the
+  sickle-shaped hooks. The trunk contains a spacious body-cavity filled
+  during the breeding season by the swollen ovaries, and the same is
+  true of the tail if we substitute testes for ovaries.
+
+  The skin consists of a transparent cuticle excreted by the underlying
+  ectoderm, the cells of which though usually one-layered may be heaped
+  up into several layers in the head; beneath this is a basement
+  membrane, and then a layer of longitudinal muscle fibres which are
+  limited inside by a layer of peritoneal cells. The muscles are
+  striated and arranged in four quadrants, two dorso-lateral and two
+  ventro-lateral, an arrangement which recalls that of the Nematoda,
+  whilst in their histology they somewhat resemble the muscles of the
+  Oligochaeta. Along each side of the body stretches a horizontal fin
+  and a similar flange surrounds the tail. Into these fins, which are
+  largely cuticular and strengthened by radiating bars, a single layer
+  of ectoderm cells projects.
+
+  The mouth, a longitudinal slit, opens on to the ventral surface of the
+  head. It leads into a straight alimentary canal whose walls consist of
+  a layer of ciliated cells ensheathed in a thin layer of peritoneal
+  cells. There is no armature, and no glands, and the whole tract can
+  only be divided into an oesophagus and an intestine. The latter runs
+  with no twists or coils straight to the anus, which is situated at the
+  junction of the trunk with the tail. A median mesentery running
+  dorso-ventrally supports the alimentary canal and is continued behind
+  it into the tail, thus dividing the body cavity into two lateral
+  halves.
+
+  There are no specialized circulatory, respiratory or excretory organs.
+
+  The nervous system consists of a cerebral ganglion in the head, a
+  conspicuous ventral ganglion in the trunk, and of lateral commissures
+  uniting these ganglia on each side. The whole of this system has
+  retained its primitive connexion with the ectoderm. The cerebral
+  ganglion also gives off a nerve on each side to a pair of
+  small-ganglia, united by a median commissure, which have sunk into and
+  control the muscles of the head. As in other animals there is a minute
+  but extensive nervous plexus, which permeates the whole body and takes
+  its origin from the chief ganglia. In addition to the eyes and the
+  olfactory circle on the head scattered tactile papillae are found on
+  the ectoderm.
+
+  Chaetognatha are hermaphrodite. The ovaries are attached to the side
+  walls of the trunk region; between them and the body wall lie the two
+  oviducts whose inner and anterior end is described as closed, their
+  outer ends opening one on each side of the anus, where the trunk joins
+  the tail. According to Miss N.M. Stevens the so-called oviduct acts
+  only as a "sperm-duct" or receptaculum seminis. The spermatozoa enter
+  it and pass through its walls and traverse a minute duct formed of two
+  accessory cells, and finally enter the ripe ovum. Temporary oviducts
+  are formed between the "sperm-duct" and the germinal epithelium at
+  each oviposition. A number of ova ripen simultaneously. The two testes
+  lie in the tail and are formed by lateral proliferations of the living
+  peritoneal cells. These break off and, lying in the coelomic fluid,
+  break up into spermatozoa. They pass out through short vasa deferentia
+  with internal ciliated funnels, sometimes an enlargement on their
+  course--the seminal vesicles--and a minute external pore situated on
+  the side of the tail.
+
+  With hardly an exception the transparent eggs are laid into the sea
+  and float on its surface. The development is direct and there is no
+  larval stage. The segmentation is complete; one side of the hollow
+  blastosphere invaginates and forms a gastrula. The blastopore closes,
+  a new mouth and a new anus subsequently arising. The archenteron gives
+  off two lateral pounchs and thus becomes trilobed. The middle lobe
+  forms the alimentary canal; it closes behind and opens to the exterior
+  anteriorly and so makes the mouth. The two lateral lobes contain the
+  coelom; each separates off in front a segment which forms the head and
+  presumably then divides again to form anteriorly the trunk, and
+  posteriorly the tail regions. An interesting feature of the
+  development of Chaetognaths is that, as in some insects, the cells
+  destined to form the reproductive organs are differentiated at a very
+  early period, being apparent even in the gastrula stage.
+
+  The great bulk of the group is pelagic, as the transparent nature of
+  all their tissues indicates. They move by flexing their bodies.
+  _Spadella cephaloptera_ is, however, littoral and oviposits on
+  seaweed, and the "Valdivia" brought home a deep-sea species.
+
+  The three genera are differentiated as follows:--
+
+  _Sagitta_ M. Slabber, with two pairs of lateral fins. This genus was
+  named as long ago as 1775.
+
+  _Krohnia_ P. Langerhans, with one lateral fin on each side, extending
+  on to the tail.
+
+  _Spadella_ P. Langerhans, with a pair of lateral fins on the tail and
+  a thickened ectodermic ridge running back on each side from the head
+  to the anterior end of the fin.
+
+  The group is an isolated one and should probably be regarded as a
+  separate phylum. It has certain histological resemblances with the
+  Nematoda and certain primitive Annelids, but little stress must be
+  laid on these. The most that can be said is that the Chaetognaths
+  begin life with three segments, a feature they share with such
+  widely-differing groups as the Brachiopoda, the Echinoderma and the
+  Enteropneusta, and probably Vertebrata generally.
+
+  See O. Hertwig, _Die Chaetognathen, eine Monographie_ (Jena, 1880);
+  B.J. Grassi, _Chetognathi: Flora u. Fauna d. Golfes von Neapel_
+  (1883); S. Strodtman, _Arch. Naturg._ lviii., 1892; N.M. Stevens,
+  _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xviii., 1903, and xxi., 1905.     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAETOPODA (Gr. [Greek: chaite], hair, [Greek: pous], foot), a
+zoological class, including the majority of the Annelida (q.v.), and
+indeed, save for the Echiuroidea (q.v.), co-extensive with that group as
+usually accepted. They are divisible into the Haplodrili (q.v.) or
+Archiannelida, the Polychaeta containing the marine worms, the
+Oligochaeta or terrestrial and fresh-water annelids (see EARTHWORM), the
+Hirudinea or leeches (see LEECH), and a small group of parasitic worms,
+the Myzostomida (q.v.).
+
+The distinctive characters of the class Chaetopoda as a whole are partly
+embodied in the name. They possess (save for certain Archiannelida, most
+Hirudinea, and other very rare exceptions) setae or chaetae implanted in
+epidermal pits. The setae are implanted metamerically in accordance with
+the metamerism of the body, which consists of a prostomium followed by a
+number of segments. The number of segments in an individual is
+frequently more or less definite. The anterior end of body always shows
+some "cephalization." The internal organs are largely repeated
+metamerically, in correspondence with the external metamerism. Thus the
+body cavity is divided into a sequence of chambers by transverse septa;
+and even among the Hirudinea, where this condition is usually not to be
+observed, there is embryological evidence that the existing state of
+affairs is derived from this. Commonly the nephridia are strictly paired
+a single pair to each segment, while the branches of the blood vascular
+system are similarly metameric. The alimentary canal is nearly always a
+straight tube running from the mouth, which is surrounded by the first
+segment of the body and overhung by the prostomium, to the anus, which
+is then either surrounded by the last segment of the body or opens
+dorsally a little way in front of this.
+
+THE CLASS AS A WHOLE.--The Chaetopoda are with but few exceptions
+(Myzostomida in part, _Sternaspis_) elongated worms, flattened or, more
+usually, cylindrical, and bilaterally symmetrical. The body consists of
+a number of exactly similar or closely similar segments, which are never
+fused and metamorphosed, as in the Arthropoda, to form specialized
+regions of the body. It is, however, always possible to recognize a
+head, which consists at least of the peristomial segment with a forward
+projection of the same, the prostomium. A thorax also is sometimes to be
+distinguished from an abdomen. Where locomotive appendages (the
+parapodia of the Polychaeta) exist, they are never jointed, as always in
+the Arthropoda; nor are they modified anteriorly to form jaws, as in
+that group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--A, side view of the head region of _Nereis
+cultrifera_; B, dorsal view of the same.
+
+  E,    Eye.
+  M,     Mouth.
+  d.c,   Dorcal cirrus.
+  per,   Peristomium, probably equal to two segments,
+  per.c, Peristomial cirri.
+  pl,   Prostomial palp.
+  pp,   Parapodium.
+  pr,   Prostomium.
+  pr.t, Prostomial tentacle.
+  t.s, Trunk segment.
+  v.c, Ventral cirrus.]
+
+  The prostomium overhangs the mouth, and is often of considerable size
+  and, as a rule, quite distinct from the segment following, being
+  separated by an external groove, and containing, at least temporarily,
+  the brain, which always arises there. Its cavity also is at first
+  independent of the coelom though later invaded by the latter. In any
+  case the cavity of the prostomium is single, and not formed, as is the
+  cavity of the segments of the body, by paired coelomic chambers. It
+  has, however, been alleged that this cavity is formed by a pair of
+  mesoblastic somites (N. Kleinenberg), in which case there is more
+  reason for favouring the view that would assign an equality between
+  the prostomium and the (in that case) other segments of the body. The
+  peculiar prostomium of _Tomopteris_ is described below. The body wall
+  of the Chaetopoda consists of a "dermo-muscular" tube which is
+  separated from the gut by the coelom and its peritoneal walls, except
+  in most leeches. A single layer of epidermic cells, some of which are
+  glandular, forms the outer layer. Rarely are these ciliated, and then
+  only in limited tracts. They secrete a cuticle which never approaches
+  in thickness the often calcified cuticle of Arthropods. Below this is
+  a circular, and below that again a longitudinal, layer of muscle
+  fibres. These muscles are not striated, as they are in the Arthropoda.
+
+  _Setae_.--These chitinous, rod-like, rarely squat and then hook-like
+  structures are found in the majority of the Chaetopoda, being absent
+  only in certain Archiannelida, most leeches, and a very few
+  Oligochaeta. They exist in the Brachiopoda (which are probably not
+  unrelated to the Chaetopoda), but otherwise are absolutely distinctive
+  of the Chaetopods. The setae are invariably formed each within an
+  epidermic cell, and they are sheathed in involutions of the epidermis.
+  Their shape and size varies greatly and is often of use in
+  classification. The setae are organs of locomotion, though their large
+  size and occasionally jagged edges in some of the Polychaeta suggest
+  an aggressive function. They are disposed in two groups on either
+  side, corresponding in the Polychaeta to the parapodia; the two
+  bundles are commonly reduced among the earthworms to two pairs of
+  setae or even to a single seta. On the other hand, in certain
+  Polychaeta the bundles of setae are so extensive that they nearly form
+  a complete circle surrounding the body; and in the Oligochaet genus
+  _Perichaeta_ (= _Pheretima_), and some allies, there is actually a
+  complete circle of setae in each segment broken only by minute gaps,
+  one dorsal, the other ventral.
+
+  _Coelom_.--The Chaetopoda are characterized by a spacious coelom,
+  which is divided into a series of chambers in accordance with the
+  general metamerism of the body. This is the typical arrangement, which
+  is exhibited in the majority of the Polychaeta and Oligochaeta; in
+  these the successive chambers of the coelom are separated by the
+  intersegmental septa, sheets of muscle fibres extending from the body
+  wall to the gut and thus forming partitions across the body. The
+  successive cavities are not, however, completely closed from each
+  other; there is some communication between adjoining segments, and the
+  septa are sometimes deficient here and there. Thus in the Chaetopoda
+  the perivisceral cavity is coelomic; in this respect the group
+  contrasts with the Arthropoda and Molluscs, where the perivisceral
+  cavity is, mainly at least, part of the vascular or haemal system, and
+  agrees with the Vertebrata. The coelom is lined throughout by cells,
+  which upon the intestine become large and loaded with excretory
+  granules, and are known as chloragogen cells. Several forms of cells
+  float freely in the fluid of the coelom. In another sense also the
+  coelom is not a closed cavity, for it communicates in several ways
+  with the external medium. Thus, among the Oligochaeta there are often
+  a series of dorsal pores, or a single head pore, present also among
+  the Polychaeta (in _Ammochares_). In these and other Chaetopods the
+  coelom is also put into indirect relations with the outside world by
+  the nephridia and by the gonad ducts. In these features, and in the
+  fact that the gonads are local proliferations of the coelomic
+  epithelium, which have undergone no further changes in the simpler
+  forms, the coelom of this group shows in a particularly clear fashion
+  the general characters of the coelom in the higher Metazoa. It has
+  been indeed largely upon the conditions characterizing the Chaetopoda
+  that the conception of the coelom in the Coelomocoela has been based.
+
+  Among the simpler Chaetopoda the coelom retains the character of a
+  series of paired chambers, showing the above relations to the exterior
+  and to the gonads. There are, however, further complications in some
+  forms. Especially are these to be seen in the more modified
+  Oligochaeta and in the much more modified Hirudinea. In the
+  Polychaeta, which are to be regarded as structurally simpler forms
+  than the two groups just referred to, there is but little subdivision
+  of the coelom of the segments, indeed a tendency in the reverse
+  direction, owing to the suppression of septa. Among the Oligochaeta
+  the dorsal vessel in _Dinodrilus_ and _Megascolides_ is enclosed in a
+  separate coelomic chamber which may or may not communicate with the
+  main coelomic cavity. To this pericardial coelom is frequently added a
+  gonocoel enclosing the gonads and the funnels of their ducts. This
+  condition is more fully dealt with below in the description of the
+  Oligochaeta. The division and, indeed, partial suppression of the
+  coelom culminates in the leeches, which in this, as in some other
+  respects, are the most modified of Annelids.
+
+  _Nervous System._--In all Chaetopods this system consists of cerebral
+  ganglia connected by a circumoesophageal commissure with a ventral
+  ganglionated cord. The plan of the central nervous system is therefore
+  that of the Arthropoda. Among the Archiannelida, in _Aeolosoma_ and
+  some Polychaetes, the whole central nervous system remains imbedded in
+  the epidermis. In others, it lies in the coelom, often surrounded by a
+  special and occasionally rather thick sheath. The cerebral ganglia
+  constitute an archicerebrum for the most part, there being no evidence
+  that, as in the Arthropoda, a movement forward of post-oral ganglia
+  has taken place. In the leeches, however, there seems to be the
+  commencement of the formation of a syncerebrum. In the latter, the
+  segmentally arranged ganglia are more sharply marked off from the
+  connectives than in other Chaetopods, where nerve cells exist along
+  the whole ventral chain, though more numerous in segmentally disposed
+  swellings.
+
+  _Vascular System._--In addition to the coelom, another system of
+  fluid-holding spaces lies between the body wall and the gut in the
+  Chaetopoda. This is the vascular or haemal system (formerly and
+  unnecessarily termed pseudhaemal). With a few exceptions among the
+  Polychaeta the vascular system is always present among the Chaetopoda,
+  and always consists of a system of vessels with definite walls, which
+  rarely communicate with the coelom. It is in fact typically a closed
+  system. The larger trunks open into each other either directly by
+  cross branches, or a capillary system is formed. There are no lacunar
+  blood spaces with ill-defined or absent walls except for a sinus
+  surrounding the intestine, which is at least frequently present. The
+  principal trunks consist of a dorsal vessel lying above the gut, and a
+  ventral vessel below the gut but above the nervous cord. These two
+  vessels in the Oligochaeta are united in the anterior region of the
+  body by a smaller or greater number of branches which surround the
+  oesophagus and are, some of them at least, contractile and in that
+  case wider than the rest. The dorsal vessel also communicates with the
+  ventral vessel indirectly by the intestinal sinus, which gives off
+  branches to both the longitudinal trunks, and by tegementary vessels
+  and capillaries which supply the skin and the nephridia. In the
+  smaller and simpler forms the capillary networks are much reduced, but
+  the dorsal and ventral vessels are usually present. The former,
+  however, is frequently developed only in the anterior region of the
+  body where it emerges from the peri-intestinal blood sinus. On the
+  other hand, additional longitudinal trunks are sometimes developed,
+  the chief one of which is a supra-intestinal vessel lying below the
+  dorsal vessel and closely adherent to the walls of the oesophagus in
+  which region it appears. The capillaries sometimes (in many leeches
+  and Oligochaeta) extend into the epidermis itself. Usually they do not
+  extend outwards of the muscular layers of the body wall. The main
+  trunks of the vascular system often possess valves at the origin of
+  branches which regulate the direction of the blood flow. Among many
+  Oligochaeta the dorsal blood-vessel is partly or entirely a double
+  tube, which is a retention of a character shown by F. Vezhdovsky to
+  exist in the embryo of certain forms. The blood in the Chaetopoda
+  consists of a plasma in which float a few corpuscles. The plasma is
+  coloured red by haemoglobin: it is sometimes (in _Sabella_ and a few
+  other Polychaeta) green, which tint is due to another respiratory
+  pigment. The plasma may be pink (_Magelona_) or yellow (_Aphrodite_)
+  in which cases the colour is owing to another pigment. In _Aeolosoma_
+  it is usually colourless. The vascular system is in the majority of
+  Chaetopods a closed system. It has been asserted (and denied) that the
+  cellular rod which is known as the "Heart-body" (_Herzkorper_), and is
+  to be found in the dorsal vessel of many Oligochaeta and Polychaeta,
+  is formed of cells which are continuous with the chloragogen cells,
+  thus implying the existence of apertures of communication with the
+  coelom. The statement has been often made and denied, but it now seems
+  to have been placed on a firm basis (E.S. Goodrich), that among the
+  Hirudinea the coelom, which is largely broken up into narrow tubes,
+  may be confluent with the tubes of the vascular system. This state of
+  affairs has no antecedent improbability about it, since in the
+  Vertebrata the coelom is unquestionably confluent with the haemal
+  system through the lymphatic vessels. Finally, there are certain
+  Polychaeta, _e g._ the _Capitellidae_, in which the vascular system
+  has vanished altogether, leaving a coelom containing
+  haemoglobin-impregnated corpuscles. It has been suggested (E. Ray
+  Lankester) that this condition has been arrived at through some such
+  intermediate stage as that offered by Polychaet _Magelona_. In this
+  worm the ventral blood-vessel is so swollen as to occupy nearly the
+  whole of the available coelom. Carry the process but a little farther
+  and the coelom disappears and its place is taken by a blood space or
+  haemocoel. It has been held that the condition shown in certain
+  leeches tend to prove that the coelom and haemocoel are primitively
+  one series of spaces which have been gradually differentiated. The
+  facts of development, however, prove their distinctness, though those
+  same facts do not speak clearly as to the true nature of the blood
+  system. One view of the origin of the latter (largely based upon
+  observations upon the development of _Polygordius_) sees in the blood
+  system a persistent blastocoel. F. Vezhdovsky has lately seen reasons
+  for regarding the blood system as originating entirely from the
+  hypoblast by the secretion of fluid, the blood, from particular
+  intestinal cells and the consequent formation of spaces through
+  pressure, which become lined with these cells.
+
+  _Nephridia and Coelomoducts_.--The name "Nephridium" was originally
+  given by Sir E. Ray Lankester to the members of a series of tubes,
+  proved in some cases to be excretory in nature, which exist typically
+  to the number of a single pair in most of the segments of the
+  Chaetopod body, and open each by a ciliated orifice into the coelom on
+  the one hand, and by a pore on to the exterior of the body on the
+  other. In its earlier conception, this view embraced as homologous
+  organs (so far as the present group is concerned) not only the
+  nephridia of Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, which are obviously closely
+  similar, but the wide tubes with an intercellular lumen and large
+  funnels of certain Polychaeta, and (though with less assurance) the
+  gonad ducts in Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. The function of nitrogenous
+  excretion was not therefore a necessary part of the view--though it
+  may be pointed out that there are grounds for believing that the gonad
+  ducts are to some extent also organs of excretion (see below). Later,
+  the investigations of E. Meyer and E.S. Goodrich, endorsed by
+  Lankester, led to the opinion that under the general morphological
+  conception of "nephridium" were included two distinct sets of organs,
+  viz. nephridia and coelomoducts. The former (represented by, e.g. the
+  "segmental organs" of _Lumbricus_) have been asserted to be
+  "ultimately, though not always, actually traceable to the ectoderm";
+  the latter (represented by, e.g. the oviduct of _Lumbricus_) are parts
+  of the coelomic wall itself, which have grown out to the exterior. The
+  nephridia, in fact, on this view, are _ectodermic ingrowths_, the
+  coelomoducts _coelomic outgrowths_. The cavity of the former has
+  nothing to do with coelom. The cavity of the latter is coelom.
+
+  The embryological facts upon which this view has been based, however,
+  have been differently interpreted. According to C.O. Whitman the
+  entire nephridial system (in the leech _Clepsine_) is formed by the
+  differentiation of a continuous epiblastic band on each side. The
+  exact opposite is maintained by R.S. Bergh (for _Lumbricus_ and
+  _Criodrilus_), whose figures show a derivation of the entire
+  nephridium from mesoblast, and an absence of any connexion between
+  successive nephridia by any continuous band, epiblastic or
+  mesoblastic. A midway position is taken up by Wilson, who asserts the
+  mesoblastic formation of the funnel, but also asserts the presence of
+  a continuous band of epiblast from which certainly the terminal
+  vesicle of the nephridium, and doubtfully the glandular part of the
+  tube is derived. Vezhdovsky's figures of _Rhynchelmis_ agree with
+  those of Bergh in showing the backward growth of the nephridium from
+  the funnel cell. There are thus substantial reasons for believing that
+  the nephridium grows backwards from a funnel as does the coelomoduct.
+  It is therefore by no means certain that so profound a difference
+  embryologically can be asserted to exist between the excretory
+  nephridia and the ducts leading from the coelom to the exterior, which
+  are usually associated with the extrusion of the genital products
+  among the Chaetopoda.
+
+  There are, however, anatomical and histological differences to be seen
+  at any rate at the extremes between the undoubted nephridia of
+  Goodrich, Meyer and Lankester, and the coelomoducts of the same
+  authors.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2. (from Goodrich).
+
+    A, Diagram of the nephridium of _Nereis diversicolor_.
+    B, Diagram of the nephridium of _Alciope_, into which opens the large
+      genital funnel (coelomostome).
+    C, Small portion of the nephridium of _Glycera siphonostoma_, showing
+      the canal cut through, and the solenocytes on the outer surface.
+    D, Optical section of a branch of the nephridium of _Nephthys
+      scolopendroides_.
+    c.s, Cut surface.
+    cst, Coelomostome.
+    f, Flagellum.
+    g.f, Genital funnel.
+    n, Neck of solenocyte.
+    n.c, Nephridial canal.
+    n.p, Nephridiopore.
+    nst, Nephridiostome.
+    nu, Nucleus of solenocyte.
+    s, Solenocytes.
+    t, Tube.]
+
+  I. _Nephridia_.--Excretory organs which are undisputed nephridia are
+  practically universal among the Oligochaeta, Hirudinea and
+  Archiannelida, and occur in many Polychaeta. Their total absence has
+  been asserted definitely only in _Paranais littoralis_. Usually these
+  organs are present to the number of a single pair per somite, and are
+  commonly present in the majority of the segments of the body, failing
+  often among the Oligochaeta in a varying number of the anterior
+  segments. They are considerably reduced in number in certain
+  Polychaeta. Essentially, a nephridium is a tube, generally very long
+  and much folded upon itself, composed of a string of cells placed end
+  to end in which the continuous lumen is excavated. Such cells are
+  termed "drain pipe" cells. Frequently the lumen is branched and may
+  form a complicated anastomosing network in these cells. Externally,
+  the nephridium opens by a straight part of the tube, which is often
+  very wide, and here the intracellular lumen becomes intercellular.
+  Rarely the nephridium does not communicate with the coelom; in such
+  cases the nephridium ends in a single cell, like the "flame cell" of a
+  Platyhelminth worm, in which there is a lumen blocked at the coelomic
+  end by a tuft of fine cilia projecting into the lumen. This is so with
+  _Aeolosoma_ (Vezhdovsky). The condition is interesting as a
+  persistence of the conditions obtaining in the provisional nephridia
+  of e.g. _Rhynchelmis_, which afterwards become by an enlargement and
+  opening up of the funnel the permanent nephridia of the adult worm. In
+  some Polychaets (e.g. _Glycera_, see fig. 2) there are many of these
+  flame cells to a single nephridium which are specialized in form, and
+  have been termed "solenocytes" (Goodrich). They are repeated in
+  _Polygordius_, and are exactly to be compared with similarly-placed
+  cells in the nephridia of _Amphioxus_.
+
+  More usually, and indeed in nearly every other case among the
+  Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, the coelomic aperture of the nephridium
+  consists of several cells, ciliated like the nephridium itself for a
+  greater or less extent, forming a funnel. The funnel varies greatly in
+  size and number of its component cells. There are so many differences
+  of detail that no line can be drawn between the one-celled funnel of
+  _Aeolosoma_ and the extraordinarily large and folded funnel of the
+  posterior nephridia in the Oligochaete _Thamnodrilus_. In the
+  last-mentioned worm the funnels of the anterior nephridia are small
+  and but few celled; it is only the nephridia in and behind the 17th
+  segment of the body which are particularly large and with a sinuous
+  margin, which recall the funnels of the gonad ducts (i.e.
+  coelomoducts).
+
+  Among the Polychaeta the nephridium of _Nereis_ (see fig. 2) is like
+  that of the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in that the coiled glandular
+  tube has an intracellular duct which is ciliated in the same way in
+  parts. The Polychaeta, however, present us with another form of
+  nephridium seen, for example, in _Arenicola_, where a large funnel
+  leads into a short and wide excretory tube whose lumen is
+  intercellular. In the young stages of this worm which have been
+  investigated by W.B. Benham, the tube, though smaller, and with a but
+  little pronounced funnel, has still an intercellular duct. That these
+  organs in Polychaeta serve for the removal of the generative products
+  to the exterior is proved not only by the correspondence in number to
+  them of the gonads, but by actual observation of the generative
+  products in transit. This form of nephridia leads to the shorter but
+  essentially similar organs in the Polychaete _Sternaspis_, and to
+  those of the Echiuroidea (q.v.) and of the Gephyrea (q.v.).
+
+  Though the paired arrangement of the nephridia is the prevalent one in
+  the Chaetopoda, there are many examples, among the Oligochaeta, of
+  species and genera in which there are several, even many, nephridia in
+  each segment of the body, which may or may not be connected among
+  themselves, but have in any case separate orifices on to the exterior.
+
+  2. _Coelomoducis._--In this category are included (by Goodrich and
+  Lankester) the gonad ducts of the Oligochaeta, certain funnels without
+  any aperture to the exterior that have been detected in _Nereis_, &c.,
+  funnels with wide and short ducts attached to nephridia in other
+  Polychaeta, gonad ducts in the _Capitellidae_, the gonad ducts of the
+  leeches. In all these cases we have a duct which has a usually wide,
+  always intercellular, lumen, generally, if not always, ciliated, which
+  opens directly into the coelom on the one hand and on to the exterior
+  of the body on the other. These characters are plain in all the cases
+  cited, excepting only the leeches which will be considered separately.
+
+  There is not a great deal of difference between most of these
+  structures and true nephridia. It is not clear, for example, to which
+  category it is necessary to refer the excretory organs of _Arenicola_,
+  or _Polynoe_. Both series of organs consist essentially of a ciliated
+  tube leading from the coelom to the exterior. Both series of organs
+  grow back centrifugally from the funnel. In both the cavity originally
+  or immediately continuous with the coelom appears first in the funnel
+  and grows backwards. In some cases, e.g. oviducts of Oligochaeta,
+  sperm ducts of _Phreoryctes_, the coelomoducts occupy, like the
+  nephridia, two segments, the funnel opening into that in front of the
+  segment which carries the external pore. It is by no means certain
+  that a hard and fast line can be drawn between intra- and
+  intercellular lumina. Finally, in function there are some points of
+  likeness. The gonad ducts of _Lumbricus_, &c., must perform one
+  function of nephridia; they must convey to the exterior some of the
+  coelomic fluid with its disintegrated products of waste. There is no
+  possibility that sperm and ova can escape by these tubes not in
+  company with coelomic fluid. In the case of many Oligochaeta where
+  there is no vascular network surrounding the nephridium, this function
+  must be the chief one of those glands, the more elaborate process of
+  excretion taking place in the case of nephridia surrounded by a rich
+  plexus of blood capillaries. A consideration of the mode of
+  development and appearance of the coelomoducts that have thus far been
+  enumerated (with the possible exception of those of the leeches) seems
+  to show that there is a distinct though varying relation between them
+  and the nephridia. It has been shown that in _Tubifex_, and some other
+  aquatic Oligochaeta, the genital segments are at first provided with
+  nephridia, and that these disappear on the appearance of the
+  generative ducts, which are coelomoducts. In _Lumbricus_ the connexion
+  is a little closer; the funnel of the nephridium, in the segments in
+  which the funnels of the gonad ducts are to be developed, persists and
+  is continuous with the gonad duct funnels on their first appearance.
+  In the development of the Acanthodrilid earthworm _Octochaetus_ (F.E.
+  Beddard) the funnels of the pronephridia disappear except in the
+  genital segments, where they seem to be actually converted into the
+  genital funnels. At the least there is no doubt that the genital
+  funnels are developed precisely where the nephridial funnels formerly
+  existed. If the genital funnels are not wholly or partly formed out of
+  the nephridial funnels they have replaced them. In the genital
+  segments of _Eudrilus_ the nephridia are present, but the funnels have
+  not been found though they are obvious in other segments. Here also
+  the genital funnels have either replaced or been formed out of
+  nephridial funnels. In _Haplotaxis heterogyne_ (W.B. Benham) the
+  sperm ducts are hardly to be distinguished from nephridia; they are
+  sinuous tubes with an intra-cellular duct. But the funnel is large and
+  thus differs from the funnels of the nephridia in adjoining segments.
+  Here again the nephridial funnel seems to have been converted into or
+  certainly replaced by a secondarily developed funnel. This example is
+  similar to cases among the Polychaeta where a true nephridium is
+  provided with a large funnel, coelomostome, according to the
+  nomenclature of Lankester. The whole organ, having, as is thought but
+  not known, this double origin, is termed a nephromixium. The various
+  facts, however, seem to be susceptible of another interpretation. It
+  may be pointed out that the several examples described recall a
+  phenomenon which is not uncommon and is well known to anatomists. That
+  is the replacement of an organ by, sometimes coupled with its partial
+  conversion into, a similar or slightly different organ performing the
+  same or an analogous function. Thus the postcaval vein of the higher
+  vertebrata is partly a new structure altogether, and is partly formed
+  out of the pre-existing posterior cardinals. The more complete
+  replacements, such as the nephridia of the genital segment of
+  _Tubifex_ by a subsequently formed genital duct, may be compared with
+  the succession of the nesonephros to the pronephros in vertebrates,
+  and of the metanephros to the mesonephros in the higher vertebrates.
+  It might be well to term these structures, mostly serving as gonad
+  ducts, which have an undoubted resemblance to nephridia, and for the
+  most part an undoubted connexion with nephridia, "Nephrodinia," to
+  distinguish them from another category of "ducts" which are
+  communications between the coelom and the exterior, and which have no
+  relation whatever to nephridia or to the organs just discussed. For
+  these latter, the term coelomoducts might well be reserved. To this
+  category belong certain sacs and pouches in many, perhaps most, genera
+  of the Oligochaeta family, _Eudrilidae_, and possibly the gonad ducts
+  in the Hirudinea. As an example of the former it has been shown
+  (Beddard) that a large median sac in _Lybiodrilus_ is at first freely
+  open to the coelom, that it later becomes shut off from the same, that
+  it then acquires an external orifice, and, finally, that it encloses
+  the ovary or ovaries, between which and the exterior a passage is thus
+  effected. To this category will belong the oviducts in Teleostean
+  fishes and probably the gonad ducts in several groups of
+  invertebrates.
+
+POLYCHAETA.--This group may be thus defined and the definition
+contrasted and compared with those of the other divisions of the
+Chaetopoda. Setae always present and often very large, much varied in
+form and very numerous, borne by the dorsal and ventral parapodia (when
+present). The prostomium and the segments generally often bear processes
+sensory and branchial. Eyes often present and comparatively complicated
+in structure. Clitellum not present as a definite organ, as in
+Oligochaeta. The anus is mostly terminal, and there are no anterior and
+posterior suckers. Nervous system often imbedded in the epidermis.
+Vascular system generally present forming a closed system of tubes.
+Alimentary canal rarely coiled, occasionally with glands which are
+simple caeca and sometimes serve as air reservoirs; jaws often present
+and an eversible pharynx. Nephridia sometimes of the type of those of
+the Oligochaeta; in other cases short, wide tubes with a large funnel
+serving also entirely or in part as gonad ducts. Frequently reduced in
+number of pairs; rarely (_Capitellidae_) more than one pair per segment.
+Gonads not so restricted in position as in Oligochaets, and often more
+abundant; the individuals usually unisexual. No specialized system of
+spermathecae, sperm reservoirs, and copulatory apparatus, as in
+Oligochaeta; development generally through a larval form; reproduction
+by budding also occurs. Marine (rarely fresh-water) in habit.
+
+The Polychaeta contrast with the Oligochaeta by the great variety of
+outward form and by the frequency of specialization of different regions
+of the body. The head is always recognizable and much more conspicuous
+than in other Chaetopoda. As in the Oligochaeta the peristomial segment
+is often without setae, but this character is not by any means so
+constant as in the Oligochaeta. The prostomium bears often processes,
+both dorsal and ventral, which in the Sabellids are split into the
+circle of branchial plumes, which surround or nearly surround the mouth
+in those tube-dwelling Annelids. _Tomopteris_ is remarkable for the fact
+that the hammer-shaped prostomium has paired ventral processes each with
+a single seta. It is held, however, that these are a pair of parapodia
+which have shifted forwards. The presence of parapodia distinguish this
+from other groups of Chaetopoda. Typically, the parapodium consists of
+two processes of the body on each side, each of which bears a bundle of
+setae; these two divisions of the "limb" are termed respectively
+notopodium and neuropodium. The notopodium may be rudimentary or absent
+and the entire parapodium reduced to the merest ridge or even completely
+unrepresented. Naturally, it is among the free living forms that the
+parapodium is best developed, and least developed among the tubicolous
+Polychaeta. To each division of the parapodium belongs typically a long
+tentacle, the cirrus, which may be defective upon one or other of the
+notopodium or neuropodium, and may be developed into an arborescent gill
+or into a flat scale-like process, the elytron (in _Polynoe_, &c.).
+There are other gills developed in addition to those which represent the
+cirri.
+
+  _Setae_.--The setae of the Polychaeta are disposed in two bundles in
+  many genera, but in only one bundle in such forms as have no
+  notopodium (e.g. _Syllis_). In some genera the setae are in vertical
+  rows, and in certain _Capitellidae_ these rows so nearly meet that an
+  arrangement occurs reminiscent of the continuous circle of setae in
+  the perichaetous Oligochaeta. The setae vary much in form and are
+  often longer and stronger than in the Oligochaetes. Jointed setae and
+  very short hooks or "uncini" (see fig. 3) are among the most
+  remarkable forms. Simple bifid setae, such as those of Oligochaetes,
+  are also present in certain forms.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.--a, Bristle of _Pionosyllis Malmgreni_; b, Hook
+  of _Terebella_.]
+
+  Among the burrowing and tubicolous forms it is not uncommon for the
+  body to be distinguishable into two or more regions; a "thorax," for
+  example, is sharply marked off from an "abdomen" in the Sabellids. In
+  these forms the bundles of setae are either capilliform or uncinate,
+  and the dorsal setae of the thorax are like the ventral setae of the
+  abdomen. It is a remarkable and newly-ascertained fact that in
+  regeneration (in _Potamilla_) the thorax is not replaced by the growth
+  of uninjured thoracic segments; but that the anterior segments of the
+  abdomen take on the same characters, the setae dropping out and being
+  replaced in accordance with the plan of the setae in the thorax of
+  uninjured worms. Among the Oligochaeta the sexually mature worm is
+  distinguished from the immature worm by the clitellum and by the
+  development of genital setae. Among the Polychaeta the sexual worm is
+  often more marked from the asexual form, so much so that these latter
+  have been placed in different species or even genera. The alteration
+  in form does not only affect structures used in generation; but the
+  form of the parapodia, &c., alter. There are even dimorphic forms
+  among the Syllids where the sexes are, as in many Polychaets,
+  separate.
+
+  _Nephridia_.--The nephridia of the Polychaeta have been generally
+  dealt with above in considering the nephridial system of the
+  Chaetopoda as a whole. They contrast with those of the Oligochaeta and
+  Hirudinea by reason of their frequently close association with the
+  gonads, the same organ sometimes serving the two functions of
+  excretion and conveyance of the ova and spermatozoa out of the body.
+  On the hypothesis that such a form as _Dinophilus_ (see Haplodrili)
+  has preserved the characters of the primitive Chaetopod more nearly
+  than any existing Polychaet or Oligochaet, it is clear that the
+  nephridia in the Oligochaeta have preserved the original features of
+  those organs more nearly than most Polychaeta. Thus _Nereis_ among the
+  latter worms, from the resemblance which its excretory system bears to
+  that of the Oligochaeta, may be made the starting-point of a series.
+  In this worm the paired nephridia exist in most of the segments of the
+  body, and their form (see fig. 2) is much like that of the nephridia
+  in the _Enchytraeidae_. The funnel, which is not large, appears to
+  open, as a rule at least, into the segment in front of that which
+  bears the external orifice. Quite independent of these are certain
+  large dorsally situate funnel-like folds of the coelomic epithelium,
+  ciliated, but of which no duct has been discovered leading to the
+  exterior. It is possible that we have here gonad ducts distinct from
+  nephridia which at the time of sexual maturity do open on to the
+  exterior.
+
+  In _Polynoe_ the nephridia are short tubes with a slightly folded
+  funnel whose lumen is intercellular, and this intercellular lumen is
+  characteristic of the Polychaetes as contrasted with leeches and
+  Oligochaetes. Among the Terebelloidea there is a remarkable
+  differentiation of the nephridia into two series. One set lies in
+  front of the diaphragm, which is the most anterior and complete
+  septum, the rest having disappeared or being much less developed. The
+  anterior nephridia, of which there are one to three pairs, contrast
+  with the posterior series by their small funnels and large size, the
+  posterior nephridia having a large funnel followed by a short tube. In
+  _Chaetozone setosa_ the anterior nephridia occupy five segments. There
+  is usually a gap between the two series, several segments being
+  without nephridia. It seems that the posterior nephridia are mainly
+  gonad ducts, and the gonads are developed in close association with
+  the funnels. The same arrangement is found in some other Polychaetes;
+  for instance, in _Sabellaria_ there is a single pair of large anterior
+  nephridia, which open by a common pore, followed after an interval by
+  large-funnelled and short nephridia. This differentiation is not,
+  however, peculiar to the Polychaetes; for in several Oligochaetes the
+  anterior nephridia are of large size, and opening as they do into the
+  buccal cavity clearly play a different function to those which follow.
+  In _Thamnodrilus_, as has been pointed out, there are two series of
+  nephridia which resemble those of the Terebelloidea in the different
+  sizes of their funnels. In _Lanice conchilega_ the posterior series of
+  nephridia are connected by a thick longitudinal duct, which seems to
+  be seen in its most reduced form in _Owenia_, where a duct on each
+  side runs in the epidermis, being in parts a groove, and receives one
+  short tubular nephridium only and occupies only one segment. This
+  connexion of successive nephridia (in _Lanice_) has its counterpart in
+  _Allolobophora, Lybiodrilus_, and apparently in the Lumbriculids
+  _Teleuscolex_ and _Styloscolex_, among the Oligochaeta. Among the
+  _Capitellidae_, which in several respects resemble the Oligochaeta,
+  wide and short gonad ducts coexist in the same segments with
+  nephridia, the latter being narrower and longer. It is noteworthy that
+  in this family only among the Polychaeta, the nephridia are not
+  restricted to a single pair in each segment; so that the older view
+  that the gonad ducts are metamorphosed nephridia is not at variance
+  with the anatomical facts which have been just stated.
+
+  _Alimentary Canal._--The alimentary canal of Polychaetes is usually a
+  straight tube running from the anterior mouth to the posterior anus.
+  But in some forms, e.g. _Sternaspis_, the gut is coiled. In others,
+  again, e.g. _Cobangia_, the anus is anterior and ventral. A gizzard is
+  present in a few forms. The buccal cavity is sometimes armed with
+  jaws. The oesophagus is provided often with caeca which in Syllids and
+  _Hesionidae_ have been found to contain air, and possibly therefore
+  perform the function of the fish's air-bladder. In other Polychaetes
+  one or more pairs of similar outgrowths are glandular. The intestine
+  is provided with numerous branched caeca in _Aphrodite_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Dasychone infracta_, Kr. (After Malmgren.)]
+
+  _Reproduction._--As is the case with the Oligochaeta, the Polychaeta
+  furnish examples of species which multiply asexually by budding. There
+  is a further resemblance between the two orders of Chaetopoda in that
+  this budding is not a general phenomenon, but confined to a few forms
+  only. Budding, in fact, among the Polychaetes is limited to the family
+  _Syllidae_. In the Oligochaetes it is only the families
+  _Aeolosomatidae_ and _Naididae_ that show the same phenomenon. It has
+  been mentioned that in the Nereids a sexual form occurs which differs
+  structurally from the asexual worms, and was originally placed in a
+  separate genus, _Heteronereis_; hence the name "Heteronereid" for the
+  sexual worm. In _Syllis_ there is also a "Heterosyllid" form in which
+  the gonads are limited to a posterior region of the body which is
+  further marked off from the anterior non-sexual segments by the
+  oak-like setae. In some Syllids this posterior region separates off
+  from the rest, producing a new head; thus a process of fission occurs
+  which has been termed schizogamy. A similar life history distinguishes
+  certain Sabellid worms, e.g. _Filigrana_. Among the Syllids this
+  simple state of affairs is further complicated. In _Autolytus_ there
+  is, to begin with, a conversion of the posterior half of the body to
+  form a sexual zooid. But before this separates off a number of other
+  zooids are formed from a zone of budding which appears between the two
+  first-formed individuals. Ultimately, a chain of sexual zooids is thus
+  formed. A given stock only produces zooids of one sex. In _Myrianida_
+  there is a further development of this process. The conversion of the
+  posterior end of the simple individual into a sexual region is
+  dispensed with; but from a preanal budding segment a series of sexual
+  buds are produced. The well-known Syllid, discovered during the voyage
+  of the "Challenger," shows a modification of this form of budding.
+  Here, however, the buds are lateral, though produced from a budding
+  zone, and they themselves produce other buds, so that a ramifying
+  colony is created.
+
+  Quite recently, another mode of budding has been described in
+  _Trypanosyllis gemmipara_, where a crowd of some fifty buds arising
+  symmetrically are produced at the tail end of the worm. In some
+  Syllids, such as _Pionosyllis gestans_, the ova are attached to the
+  body of the parent in a regular line, and develop in situ; this
+  process, which has been attributed to budding, is an "external
+  gestation," and occurs in a number of species.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--A, _Autolytus_ (after Mensch) with numerous
+  buds. B, Portion of a colony of _Syllis ramosa_ (from M'Intosh).
+  _b.z_, Budding zone; p, anterior region of the parent worm; 1-5,
+  buds.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--A, Side view of the larva of _Lopadorhynchus_
+  (from Kleinenberg), showing the developing trunk region. B, Side view
+  of the trochophore larva of _Eupomatus uncinatus_ (from Hatschek).
+
+    A, Anus.
+    E, Eye.
+    M, Mouth.
+    ap, Apical organ.
+    h, "Head Kidney."
+    i, Intestine.
+    me, Mesoblast.
+    ms, Larval muscle.
+    o, Otocyst.
+    pp, Parapodium.
+    pr, Praeoral ciliated ring, or prototroch.]
+
+  As is very frequently the case with marine forms, as compared with
+  their fresh-water and terrestrial allies, the Polychaeta differ from
+  the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in possessing a free living larval form
+  which is hatched at an early stage in development. This larva is
+  termed the Trochosphere larva, and typically (as it is held) is an
+  egg-shaped larva with two bands of cilia, one preoral and one
+  postoral, with an apical nervous plate surmounted by a tuft of longer
+  cilia, and with a simple bent alimentary canal, with lateral mouth and
+  posterior anus, between which and the ectoderm is a spacious cavity
+  (blastocoel) traversed by muscular strands and often containing a
+  larval kidney. The segmentation is of the mesoblast to begin with,
+  and appears later behind the mouth, the part anterior to this becoming
+  the prostomium of the adult. The chief modifications of this form are
+  seen in the _Mitraria_ larva of _Ammochares_ with only the preoral
+  band, which is much folded and which has provisional and long setae;
+  the atrochous larva, where the covering of cilia is uniform and not
+  split into bands; and the polytrochous larva where there are several
+  bands surrounding the body. There are also other modifications.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Nereis pelagica_, L. (After Oersted.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Sabella vesiculosa_, Mont. (After Montagu.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9. _Arenicola marina_, L.]
+
+  _Classification_.--The older arrangement of the Polychaeta into
+  Errantia or free living and Tubicola or tube-dwelling forms will
+  hardly fit the much increased knowledge of the group. W.B. Benham's
+  division into Phanerocephala in which the prostomium is plain, and
+  Crytocephala in which the prostomium is hidden by the peristomium
+  adopted by Sedgwick, can only be justified by the character used; for
+  the Terebellids, though phanerocephalous, have many of the features of
+  the Sabellids. It is perhaps safer to subdivide the Order into 6
+  Suborders (in the number of these following Benham, except in
+  combining the Sabelliformia and Hermelliformia). Of these 6, the two
+  first to be considered are very plainly separable and represent the
+  extremes of Polychaete organization, (1) _Nereidiformia_.--"Errant"
+  Polychaetes with well-marked prostomium possessing tentacles and palps
+  with evident and locomotor parapodia, supported (with few exceptions)
+  by strong spines, the aciculi; muscular pharynx usually armed with
+  jaws; septa and nephridia regularly metameric and similar throughout
+  body; free living and predaceous. (2) _Cryptocephala_.--Tube-dwelling
+  with body divided into thorax and abdomen marked by the setae, which
+  are reversed in position in the neuropodium and notopodium
+  respectively in the two regions. Parapodia hardly projecting; palps of
+  prosomium forming branched gills; no pharynx or eversible buccal
+  region; no septa in thorax, septa in abdomen regularly disposed.
+  Nephridia in two series; large, anterior nephridia followed by small,
+  short tubes in abdomen. The remaining groups are harder to define,
+  with the exception of the (3) _Capitelliformia_, which are mud-living
+  worms of an "oligochaetous" appearance, and with some affinities to
+  that order. The peristomium has no setae, and the setae generally are
+  hair-like or uncinate, often forming almost complete rings. The
+  genital ducts are limited to one segment (the 8th in _Capitella
+  capitata_), and there are genital setae on this and the next segment.
+  In other forms genital ducts and nephridia coexist in the same
+  segment. The nephridia are sometimes numerous in each segment. There
+  is no blood system, and the coelomic corpuscles contain haemoglobin.
+  (4) _Terebelliformia_. These worms are in some respects like the
+  Sabellids (Cryptocephala). The parapodia, as in the Capitellidae, are
+  hardly developed. The buccal region is unarmed and not eversible. The
+  prostomium has many long filaments which recall the gills of the
+  Sabellids, &c. The nephridia are specialized into two series, as in
+  the last-mentioned worms. (5) _Spioniformia_ (including
+  _Chaetopterus_, _Spio_, &c.) and (6) _Scoleciformia_ (_Arenicola_,
+  _Chloraema_, _Sternaspis_) are the remaining groups. In both, the
+  nephridia are all alike; there are no jaws; the prostomium rarely has
+  processes. The body is often divisible into regions.
+
+  LITERATURE.--W.B. Benham, "Polychaeta" in _Cambridge Natural History_;
+  E. Claparede, _Annelides chetopodes du golfe de Naples_ (1868 and
+  1870); E. Ehlers, _Die Borstenwurmer_ (1868); H. Eisig, _Die
+  Capitelliden_ (Naples Monographs), and development of do. in _Mitth.
+  d. zool. Stat. Neapel_ (1898); W.C. M'Intosh, _"Challenger" Reports_
+  (1885); E.R. Lankester, Introductory Chapter in _A Treatise on
+  Zoology_; E.S. Goodrich, _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ (1897-1900); E.
+  Meyer, _Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel_ (1887, 1888), as well as
+  numerous other memoirs by the above and by J.T. Cunningham, de St
+  Joseph, A. Malaquin, A. Agassiz, A.T. Watson, Malmgren, Bobretsky and
+  A.F. Marion, E.A. Andrews, L.C. Cosmovici, R. Horst, W. Michaelsen, G.
+  Gilson, F. Buchanan, H. Levinsen, Joyeux-Laffuie, F.W. Gamble, &c.
+
+OLIGOCHAETA.--As contrasted with the other subdivisions of the
+Chaetopoda, the Oligochaeta may be thus defined. Setae very rarely
+absent (genus _Achaeta_) and as a rule not so large or so numerous in
+each segment as in the Polychaeta, and different in shape. Eyes rarely
+present and then rudimentary. Prostomium generally small, sometimes
+prolonged, but never bearing tentacles or processes. Appendages of body
+reduced to branchiae, present only in four species, and to the ventral
+copulatory appendages of _Alma_ and _Criodrilus_. Clitellum always
+present, extending over two (many limicolous forms) to forty-five
+segments (_Alma_). Segments of body numerous and not distinctive of
+species, being irregular and not fixed in numbers. In terrestrial forms
+dorsal pores are usually present; in aquatic forms a head pore only.
+Anus nearly always terminal, rarely dorsal, at a little distance from
+end of body. Suckers absent. Nervous system rarely (_Aeolosoma_) in
+continuity with epidermis. Vascular system always present, forming a
+closed system, more complicated in the larger forms than in the aquatic
+genera. Several specially large contractile trunks in the anterior
+segments uniting the dorsal and ventral vessels. Nephridia generally
+paired, often very numerous in each segment, in the form of long,
+much-coiled tubes with intracellular lumen. Gonads limited in number of
+pairs, testes and ovaries always present in the same individual. Special
+sacs developed from the intersegmental septa lodge the developing ova
+and sperm. Special gonad ducts always present. Male ducts often open on
+to exterior through a terminal chamber which is variously specialized,
+and sometimes with a penis.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 10.--Diagrams of various Earthworms, to illustrate external
+characters. A, B, C, anterior segments from the ventral surface; D,
+hinder end of body of _Urochaeta_.
+
+  A, _Lumbricus_: 9, 10, segments containing spermathecae, the orifices
+  of which are indicated; 14, segment bearing oviducal pores; 15,
+  segment bearing male pores; 32, 37, first and last segments of
+  clitellum.
+
+  B, _Acanthodrilus_: cp, orifices of spermathecae; [Female], oviducal
+  pores; [Male], male pores; on 17th and 19th segments are the apertures
+  of the atria.
+
+  C, _Perichaeta_: the spermathecal pores are between segments 6 and 7,
+  7 and 8, 8 and 9, the oviducal pores upon the 14th and the male pores
+  upon the 18th segment.
+
+  In all the figures the nephridial pores are indicated by dots and the
+  setae by strokes.]
+
+Generative pores usually paired, sometimes single and median.
+Spermathecae nearly always present. Alimentary canal straight, often
+with appended glands of complicated or simpler structure; no jaws. Eggs
+deposited in a cocoon after copulation. Development direct. Reproduction
+by budding also occurs. Fresh-water (rarely marine) and terrestrial.
+
+The Oligochaeta show a greater variety of size than any other group of
+the Chaetopoda. They range from a millimetre or so (smaller species of
+_Aeolosoma_) to 6 ft. or even rather more (_Microchaeta rappi_, &c.) in
+length.
+
+  _Setae._--The setae, which are always absent from the peristomial
+  segment, are also sometimes absent from a greater number of the
+  anterior segments of the body, and have completely disappeared in
+  _Achaeta cameranoi._ When present they are either arranged in four
+  bundles of from one to ten or even more setae, or are disposed in
+  continuous lines completely encircling each segment of the body. This
+  latter arrangement characterizes many genera of the family
+  _Megascolicidae_ and one genus (_Periscolex_) of the
+  _Glossoscolicidae._ It has been shown (Bourne) that the "perichaetous"
+  condition is probably secondary, inasmuch as in worms which are, when
+  adult, "perichaetous" the setae develop in pairs so that the embryo
+  passes through a stage in which it has four bundles of setae, two to
+  each bundle, the prevalent condition in the group. Rarely there is an
+  irregular disposition of the setae which are not paired, though the
+  total number is eight to a segment (fig. 10), e.g. _Pontoscolex._ The
+  varying forms of the setae are illustrated in fig. 11.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Setae of _Oligochaeta_.
+
+    a, Penial seta of _Perichaeta ceylonica._
+    b, Extremity of penial seta of _Acanthodrilus_ (after Horst).
+    c, Seta of _Urochaeta_ (Perier).
+    d, Seta of _Lumbricus._
+    e, Seta of _Criodrilus._
+    f, g, Setae of _Bohemilla comata._
+    h, i, j, Setae of _Psammoryctes barbatus_ (f to j after Vezhdovsky).]
+
+  _Structure._--The body wall consists of an epidermis which secretes a
+  delicate cuticle and is only ciliated in _Aeolosoma_, and in that
+  genus only on the under surface of the prostomium. The epidermis
+  contains numerous groups of sense cells; beneath the epidermis there
+  is rarely (_Kynotus_) an extensive connective tissue dermis. Usually
+  the epidermis is immediately followed by the circular layer of
+  muscles, and this by the longitudinal coat. Beneath this again is a
+  distinct peritoneum lining the coelom, which appears to be wanting as
+  a special layer in some Polychaetes (Benham, Gilson). The muscular
+  layers are thinner in the aquatic forms, which possess only a single
+  row of longitudinal fibres, or (_Enchytracidae_) two layers. In the
+  earthworms, on the other hand, this coat is thick and composed of many
+  layers.
+
+  The clitellum consists of a thickening of the epidermis, and is of two
+  forms among the Oligochaeta. In the aquatic genera the epidermis comes
+  to consist entirely of glandular cells, which are, however, arranged
+  in a single layer. In the earthworms, on the other hand, the epidermis
+  becomes specialized into several layers of cells, all of which are
+  glandular. It is therefore obviously much thicker than the clitellum
+  in the limicolous forms. The position of the clitellum, which is
+  universal in occurrence, varies much as does the number of component
+  segments. As a rule--to which, however, there are exceptions--the
+  clitellum consists of two or three segments only in the small aquatic
+  Oligochaeta, while in the terrestrial forms it is as a general rule,
+  to which again there are exceptions, a more extensive, sometimes much
+  more extensive, region.
+
+  In the Oligochaeta there is a closer correspondence between external
+  metamerism and the divisions of the coelom than is apparent in some
+  Chaetopods. The external segments are usually definable by the setae;
+  and if the setae are absent, as in the anterior segments of several
+  _Geoscolicidae_, the nephridiopores indicate the segments; to each
+  segment corresponds internally a chamber of the coelom which is
+  separated from adjacent segments by transverse septa, which are only
+  unrecognizable in the genus _Aeolosoma_ and in the head region of
+  other Oligochaeta. In the latter case, the numerous bands of muscle
+  attaching the pharynx to the parietes have obliterated the regular
+  partition by means of septa.
+
+  _Nephridia_.--The nephridia in this group are invariably coiled tubes
+  with an intracellular lumen and nearly invariably open into the coelom
+  by a funnel. There are no renal organs with a wide intercellular
+  lumen, such as occur in the Polychaeta, nor is there ever any
+  permanent association between nephridia and ducts connected with the
+  evacuation of the generative products, such as occur in _Alciope_,
+  _Saccocirrus_, &c. In these points the Oligochaeta agree with the
+  Hirudinea. They also agree in the general structure of the nephridia.
+  It has been ascertained that the nephridia of Oligochaeta are preceded
+  in the embryo by a pair of delicate and sinuous tubes, also found in
+  the Hirudinea and Polychaeta, which are larval excretory organs. It is
+  not quite certain whether these are to be regarded as the remnant of
+  an earlier excretory system, replaced among the Oligochaeta by the
+  subsequently developed paired structures, or whether these "head
+  kidneys" are the first pair of nephridia precociously developed. The
+  former view has been extensively held, and it is supported by the fact
+  that in _Octochaetus_ the first segment of the body has a pair of
+  nephridia which is exactly like those which follow, and, like them,
+  persists. On the other hand, in most Oligochaeta the first segment has
+  in the adult no nephridium, and in the case of _Octochaetus_ the
+  existence of a "head kidney" antedating the subsequently developed
+  nephridia of the first and other segments has neither been seen nor
+  proved to be absent. In any case the nephridia which occupy the
+  segments of the body generally are first of all represented by paired
+  structures, the "pronephridia," in which the funnel is composed of but
+  one cell, which is flagellate. This stage has at any rate been
+  observed in _Rhynchelmis_ and _Lumbricus_ (in its widest sense) by
+  Vezhdovsky. It is further noticeable that in _Rhynchelmis_ the
+  covering of vesicular cells which clothes the drain-pipe cells of the
+  adult nephridium is cut off from the nephridial cells themselves and
+  is not a peritoneal layer surrounding the nephridium. Thus the
+  nephridia, in this case at least, are a part of the coelom and are not
+  shut off from it by a layer of peritoneum, as are other organs which
+  lie in it, e.g. the gut. A growth both of the funnel, which becomes
+  multicellular, and of the rest of the nephridium produces the adult
+  nephridia of the genera mentioned. The paired disposition of these
+  organs is the prevalent one among the Oligochaeta, and occurs in all
+  of twelve out of the thirteen families into which the group is
+  divided.
+
+  Among the _Megascolicidae_, however, which in number of genera and
+  species nearly equals the remaining families taken together, another
+  form of the excretory system occurs. In the genera _Pheretima,
+  Megascolex_, _Dichogaster_, &c., each segment contains a large number
+  of nephridia, which, on account of the fact that they are necessarily
+  smaller than the paired nephridia of e.g. _Lumbricus_, have been
+  termed micronephridia, as opposed to meganephridia; there is, however,
+  no essential difference in structure, though micronephridia are not
+  uncommonly (e.g. _Megascolides_, _Octochaetus_) unprovided with
+  funnels. It is disputed whether these micronephridia are or are not
+  connected together in each segment and from segment to segment. In any
+  case they have been shown in three genera to develop by the growth and
+  splitting into a series of original paired pronephridia. A complex
+  network, however, does occur in _Lybiodrilus_ and certain other
+  _Eudrilidae_, where the paired nephridia possess ducts leading to the
+  exterior which ramify and anastomose on the thickness of the body
+  wall. The network is, however, of the duct of the nephridium, possibly
+  ectodermic in origin, and does not affect the glandular tubes which
+  remain undivided and with one coelomic funnel each.
+
+  The Oligochaeta are the only Chaetopods in which undoubted nephridia
+  may possess a relationship with the alimentary canal. Thus, in
+  _Octochaetus multiporus_ a large nephridium opens anteriorly into the
+  buccal cavity, and numerous nephridia in the same worm evacuate their
+  contents into the rectum. The anteriorly-opening and usually very
+  large nephridia are not uncommon, and have been termed
+  "peptonephridia."
+
+  _Gonads and Gonad Ducts_.--The Oligochaeta agree with the leeches and
+  differ from most Polychaeta in that they are hermaphrodite. There is
+  no exception to this generalization. The gonads are, moreover, limited
+  and fixed in numbers, and are practically invariably attached to the
+  intersegmental septa, usually to the front septum of a segment, more
+  rarely to the posterior septum. The prevalent number of testes is one
+  pair in the aquatic genera and two pairs in earthworms. But there are
+  exceptions; thus a species of _Lamprodrilus_ has four pairs of testes.
+  The ovaries are more usually one pair, but two are sometimes present.
+  The segments occupied by the gonads are fixed, and are for earthworms
+  invariably X, XI, or one of them for the testes, and XIII for the
+  ovaries The position varies in the aquatic Oligochaeta. The
+  Oligochaeta contrast with the Polychaeta in the general presence of
+  outgrowths of the septa in the genital segments, which are either
+  close to, or actually involve, the gonads, and into which may also
+  open the funnels of the gonad ducts. These sacs contain the developing
+  sperm cells or eggs, and are with very few exceptions universal in
+  the group. The testes are more commonly thus involved than are the
+  ovaries. It is indeed only among the _Eudrilidae_ that the enclosure
+  of the ovaries in septal sacs is at all general. Recently the same
+  thing has been recorded in a few species of _Pheretima_ (=
+  _Perichaeta_), but details are as yet wanting. We can thus speak in
+  these worms of _gonocoels_, i.e. coelomic cavities connected only with
+  the generative system. These cavities communicate with the exterior
+  through the gonad ducts, which have nothing to do with them, but whose
+  coelomic funnels are taken up by them in the course of their growth.
+  There are, however, in the _Eudrilidae_, as already mentioned, sacs
+  envolving the ovaries which bore their own way to the exterior, and
+  thus may be termed coelomoducts. These sacs are dealt with later under
+  the description of the spermathecae, which function they appear to
+  perform. The gonad ducts are male and female, and open opposite to or,
+  rarely, alongside of the gonads, whose products they convey to the
+  exterior. The oviducts are always short trumpet-shaped tubes and are
+  sometimes reduced (_Enchytraeidae_) to merely the external orifices.
+  It is possible, however, that those oviducts belong to a separate
+  morphological category, more comparable to the dorsal pores and to
+  abdominal pores in some fishes. The sperm ducts are usually longer
+  than the oviducts; but in Limicolae both series of tubes opening by
+  the funnel into one segment and on to the exterior in the following
+  segment. While the oviducts always open directly on to the exterior,
+  it is the rule for the sperm ducts to open on to the exterior near to
+  or through certain terminal chambers, which have been variously termed
+  atrium and prostate, or spermiducal gland. The distal extremity of
+  this apparatus is sometimes eversible as a penis. Associated with
+  these glands are frequently to be found bundles or pairs of long and
+  variously modified setae which are termed penial setae, to distinguish
+  them from other setae sometimes but not always associated with rather
+  similar glands which are found anteriorly to these, and often in the
+  immediate neighbourhood of the spermathecae; the latter are spoken of
+  as genital setae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Female reproductive system of
+  _Heliodrilus_.--XI-XIV, eleventh to fourteenth segments, sperm,
+  spermatheca; sp.o, its external orifice; sp.sac, spermathecal sac; ov,
+  sac containing ovary; r.o, egg sac; od, oviduct.]
+
+  _Spermathecae._--These structures appear to be absolutely distinctive
+  of the Oligochaeta, unless the sacs which contain sperm and open in
+  common with the nephridia of _Saccocirrus_ (see HAPLODRILI) are
+  similar. Spermathecae are generally present in the Oligochaeta and are
+  absent only in comparatively few genera and species. Their position
+  varies, but is constant for the species, and they are rarely found
+  behind the gonads. They are essentially spherical, pear-shaped or oval
+  sacs opening on to the exterior but closed at the coelomic end. In a
+  few _Enchytraeidae_ and _Lumbriculidae_ the spermathecae open at the
+  distal extremity into the oesophagus, which is a fact difficult of
+  explanation. Among the aquatic Oligochaeta and many earthworms (the
+  families _Lunibricidae_, _Geoscolicidae_ and a few other genera) the
+  spermathecae are simple structures, as has been described. In the
+  majority of the _Megascolicidae_ each sac is provided with one or more
+  diverticula, tubular or oval in form, of a slightly different
+  histological character in the lining epithelium, and in them is
+  invariably lodged the sperm.
+
+  The spermathecae are usually paired structures, one pair to each of
+  the segments where they occur. In many _Geoscolicidae_, however, and
+  certain _Lumbricidae_ and _Perichaetidae_, there are several, even a
+  large number, of pairs of very small spermathecae to each of the
+  segments which contain them.
+
+  In the _Eudrilidae_ there are spermathecae of different morphological
+  value. In figs. 12 and 13 are shown the spermathecae of the genera
+  _Hyperiodrilus_ and _Heliodrilus_, which are simple sacs ending
+  blindly as in other earthworms, but of which there is only one median
+  opening in the thirteenth segment or in the eleventh. In _Heliodrilus_
+  the blind extremity of the spermatheca is enclosed in a coelomic sac
+  which is in connexion with the sacs envolving the ovaries and
+  oviducts. In _Hyperiodrilus_ the whole spermatheca is thus included in
+  a corresponding sac, which is of great extent. In such other genera of
+  the family as have been examined, the true spermatheca has entirely
+  disappeared, and the sac which contains it in _Hyperiodrilus_ alone
+  remains. This sac has been already referred to as a coelomoduct. Its
+  orifice on to the exterior is formed by an involution (as it appears)
+  of the epidermis, and that it performs the function of a spermatheca
+  is shown by its containing spermatozoa, or, in _Stuhlmannia_, a
+  spermatophore. In _Polytoreutus_, also, spermatophores have been found
+  in these spermathecal sacs. We have thus the replacement of a
+  spermatheca, corresponding to those of the remaining families of
+  Oligochaeta, and derived, as is believed, from the epidermis, by a
+  structure performing the same function, but derived from the
+  mesoblastic tissues, and with a cavity which is coelom.
+
+  _Alimentary Canal._--The alimentary canal is always a straight tube,
+  and the anus, save in the genera _Criodrilus_ and _Dero_, is
+  completely terminal. A buccal cavity, a pharynx, an oesophagus and an
+  intestine are always distinguishable. Commonly among the terrestrial
+  forms there is a gizzard, or two gizzards, or a larger number, in the
+  oesophageal region. There is no armed protrusible pharynx, such as
+  exists in some other Chaetopods. This may be associated with
+  mud-eating habits; but it is not wholly certain that this is the case;
+  for in _Chaetogaster_ and _Agriodrilus_, which are predaceous worms,
+  there is no protrusible pharynx, though in the latter the oesophagus
+  is thickened through its extent with muscular fibres. The oesophagus
+  is often furnished with glandular diverticula, the "glands of Morren,"
+  which are often of complex structure through the folding of their
+  walls. Among the purely aquatic families such structures are very
+  rare, and are represented by two caeca in the genus _Limnodriloides_.
+  It is a remarkable fact, not yet understood, that in certain
+  _Enchytraeidae_ and _Lumbriculidae_ the spermathecae open into the
+  oesophagus as well as on to the exterior. The only comparable fact
+  among other worms is the Laurer's canal or genito-intestinal canal in
+  the Trematoda. The intestine is usually in the higher forms provided
+  with a typhlosole, in which, in _Pontoscolex_, runs a ciliated canal
+  or canals communicating with the intestine. It is possible that this
+  represents the syphon or supplementary intestine of _Capitellidae_,
+  which has been shown to develop as a grooving of the intestine
+  ultimately cut off from it. The intestine has a pair of caeca or two
+  or three pairs (but all lie in one segment) in the genus _Pheretima_
+  and in one species of _Rhinodrilus_. In _Typhoeus_ and _Megascolex_
+  there are complex glands appended to the intestine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Female reproductive system of
+  _Hyperiodrilus_.--XIII, XIV, thirteenth and fourteenth segments.
+
+    sp, Spermatheca.
+    sp', Spermathecal sac involving the last.
+    ov, Ovary.
+    r.o, Egg sac.
+    od, Oviduct.]
+
+  In _Benhamia caecifera_ and at least one other earthworm there are
+  numerous caeca, one pair to each segment.
+
+  _Classification._--The classifications of Adolf Eduard, Grube and
+  Claparede separated into two subdivisions the aquatic and the
+  terrestrial forms. This scheme, opposed by many, has been reinstated
+  by Sedgwick. The chief difficulty in this scheme is offered by the
+  Moniligastridae, which in some degree combine the characters of both
+  the suborders, into neither of which will they fit accurately. The
+  following arrangement is a compromise:--
+
+  Group I. _Aphaneura._--This group is referred by A. Sedgwick to the
+  Archiannelida. It is, however, though doubtless near to the base of
+  the Oligochaetous series, most nearly allied in the reproductive
+  system to the Oligochaeta. It contains but one family,
+  _Aeolosomatidae_. There are three pairs of spermathecae situated in
+  segments III-V, a testis in V and an ovary in VI. There are a
+  clitellum and sperm ducts which though like nephridia have a larger
+  funnel and a less complexly wound duct. This family consists of only
+  one well-known genus, _Aeolosoma_, which contains several species.
+  They are minute worms with coloured oil drops (green, olive green or
+  orange) contained in the epidermis. The nervous system is embedded in
+  the epidermis, and the pairs of ganglia are separated as in _Serpula_,
+  &c.; each pair has a longish commissure between its two ganglia. The
+  intersegmental septa are absent save for the division of the first
+  segment. The large prostomium is ciliated ventrally. The setae are
+  either entirely capillary or there are in addition some sigmoid setae
+  even with bifid free extremities. This genus also propagates
+  asexually, like _Ctenodrilus_, which may possibly belong to the same
+  family. Asexual reproduction universal.
+
+  Group II. _Limicolae._--With a few exceptions the Limicolae are, as
+  the name denotes, aquatic in habit. They are small to moderate-sized
+  Oligochaeta, with a smaller number of segments than in the Terricolae.
+  The alimentary canal is simple and a gizzard or oesophageal
+  diverticula rarely developed. The vascular system is simple with as a
+  rule direct communication between dorsal and ventral vessels in each
+  segment. Nerve cord lies in coelom; brain in first segment or
+  prostomium in many forms. Clitellum generally only two or three
+  segments and more anterior in position than in Terricolae. Nephridia
+  always paired and without plexus of blood capillaries. Spermatheca
+  rarely with diverticula; sperm ducts as a rule occupying two segments
+  only, usually opening by means of an atrium. Sperm sacs generally
+  occupying a good many segments and with simple interior undivided by a
+  network of trabeculae. Ova large and with much yolk. Asexual
+  reproduction only in Naids. Egg sacs as large or nearly so as sperm
+  sacs. Testes and ovaries always free. The following families
+  constitute the group, viz. _Naididae_, _Enchytraeidae_, _Tubificidae_,
+  _Lumbriculidae_, _Phreoryctidae_, _Phreodrilidae_, _Alluroididae_, the
+  latter possibly not referable to this group.
+
+  Group III. _Moniligastres._--Moderate-sized to very large Oligochaeta,
+  terrestrial in habit, with the appearance of Terricolae. Generative
+  organs anterior in position as in Limicolae. Sperm ducts and atria as
+  in Limicolae; egg sacs large; body wall thick; vascular system and
+  nephridia as in Terricolae. Only one family, _Moniligastridae_.
+
+  Group IV. _Terricolae._--Earthworms, rarely aquatic in habit. Of small
+  to very large size. Clitellum commonly extensive and more posterior in
+  position than in other groups. Vascular system complicated without
+  regular connexion between dorsal and ventral vessels, except in
+  anterior segments. Nephridia as a rule with abundant vascular supply.
+  Testes, and occasionally ovaries, enclosed in sacs. Sperm sacs
+  generally limited to one or two segments with interior subdivided by
+  trabeculae. Sperm ducts traverse several segments on their way to
+  exterior. They open in common with, or near to, or, more rarely, into,
+  glands which are not certainly comparable to the atria of the
+  Limicolae. Egg sacs minute and functionless(?). Eggs minute with
+  little yolk. Nephridia sometimes very numerous in each segment.
+  Spermathecae often with diverticula.
+
+  Earthworms are divided into the following families, viz.
+  _Megascolicidae_, _Geoscolicidae_, _Eudrilidae_, _Lumbricidae_.
+
+  As an appendix to the Oligochaeta, and possibly referable to that
+  group, though their systematic position cannot at present be
+  determined with certainty, are to be placed the _Bdellodrilidae_
+  (_Discodrilidae_ auct.), which are small parasites upon crayfish.
+  These worms lay cocoons like the Oligochaeta and leeches, and where
+  they depart from the structure of the Oligochaeta agree with that of
+  leeches. The body is composed of a small and limited number of
+  segments (not more than fourteen), and there is a sucker at each end
+  of the body. There are no setae and apparently only two pairs of
+  nephridia, of which the anterior pair open commonly by a common pore
+  on the third segment after the head, whose segments have not been
+  accurately enumerated. The intervening segments contain the genitalia,
+  which are on the Oligochaeta plan in that the gonads are independent
+  of their ducts and that there are special spermathecae, one pair. The
+  male ducts are either one pair or two pairs, which open by a common
+  and complicated efferent terminal apparatus furnished with a
+  protrusible penis. The ganglia are crowded at the posterior end of the
+  body as in leeches, and there is much tendency to the obliteration of
+  the coelom as in that group. _Pterodrilus_ and _Cirrodrilus_ bear a
+  few, or circles of, external processes which may be branchiae;
+  _Bdellodrilus_ and _Astacobdella_ have none. The vascular system is as
+  in the lower Oligochaeta. There are two chitinous jaws in the buccal
+  cavity, a dorsal and a ventral, which are of specially complicated
+  structure in _Cirrodrilus_.
+
+  LITERATURE.--F.E. Beddard, _A Monograph of the Oligochaeta_ (Oxford,
+  1895), also _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1886-1895, and _Proc. Zool.
+  Soc._, 1885-1906; W.B. Benham, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1886-1905;
+  W. Michaelsen, "Oligochaeta" in _Das Tierreich_, 1900, and _Mitth.
+  Mus._ (Hamburg, 1890-1906); A.G. Bourne, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._,
+  1894; H.J. Moore, _Journ. Morph._, 1895; F. Vezhdovsky, _System d.
+  Oligochaeten_ (Prague, 1884), and _Entwicklungsgeschichtliche
+  Untersuchungen_; and numerous papers by the above and by G. Eisen, E.
+  Perrier, D. Rosa, R. Horst, L. Cognetti, U. Pierantoni, W. Baldwin
+  Spencer, H. Ude, &c., and embryological memoirs by R.S. Bergh, E.B.
+  Wilson, N. Kleinenberg, &c.
+
+HIRUDINEA.--The leeches are more particularly to be compared with the
+Oligochaeta, and the following definition embraces the main features in
+which they agree and disagree with that group. Setae are only present in
+the genus _Acanthobdella_. Eyes are present, but hardly so complex as in
+certain genera of Polychaetes. The appendages of the body are reduced to
+branchiae, present in certain forms. A clitellum is present. The
+segments of body are few (not more than thirty-four) and fixed in
+number. The anus is dorsal. One or two (anterior and posterior) suckers
+always present. Nervous system always in coelom. Coelom generally
+reduced to a system of tubes, sometimes communicating with vascular
+system; in _Acanthobdella_ and _Ozobranchus_ a series of metamerically
+arranged chambers as in Oligochaeta. Nephridia always paired, rarely
+(_Pontobdella_) forming a network communicating from segment to segment;
+lumen of nephridia always intracellular, funnels pervious or impervious.
+Alimentary canal sometimes with protrusible proboscis; never with
+gizzard or oesophageal glands; intestine with caeca as a rule. Jaws
+often present. Testes several pairs, rarely one pair, continuous with
+sperm ducts; ovaries, one pair, continuous with oviducts; generative
+pores single and median. No separate spermathecae or septal chambers for
+the development of the ova and sperm. Eggs deposited in a cocoon.
+Development direct. No asexual generation. Fresh-water, marine and
+terrestrial. Parasitic or carnivorous.
+
+  In external characters the Hirudinea are unmistakable and not to be
+  confused with other Annelids, except perhaps with the
+  _Bdellodrilidae_, which resemble them in certain particulars. The
+  absence of setae--save in _Acanthobdella_, where five of the anterior
+  segments possess each four pairs of setae with reserve setae placed
+  close behind them (fig. 14), and the presence of an anterior and
+  posterior sucker, produce a looping mode of progression similar to
+  that of a Geometrid larva. The absence of setae and the great
+  secondary annulation render the mapping of the segments a subject of
+  some difficulty. The most reliable test appears to be the nerve
+  ganglia, which are more distinct from the intervening connectives than
+  in other Annelids.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Acanthobdella_, from the ventral surface,
+  showing the five sets of setae (S1 to S5) and the replacing setae (Sr)
+  behind them. The three pairs of pigmented spots show the position of
+  the eyes on the dorsal surface. (After Kovalevsky.)]
+
+  In the middle of the body, where the limits of the somites can be
+  checked by a comparison with the arrangement of the nephridia and the
+  gonads, and where the ganglia are quite distinct and separated by long
+  connectives, each ganglion is seen to consist of six masses of cells
+  enclosed by capsules and to give off three nerves on each side. This
+  corresponds to the usual presence (in the _Rhynchobdellidae_) of three
+  annuli to each segment. Anteriorly and posteriorly separate ganglia
+  have fused. The brain consists not only of a group of six capsules
+  corresponding to the archicerebrum of the Oligochaeta, but of a
+  further mass of cells surrounding and existing below the alimentary
+  canal, which can be analysed into five or six more separate ganglia.
+  The whole mass lies in the seventh or eighth segment. At the posterior
+  end of the body there are likewise seven separate ganglia partially
+  fused to form a single ganglionic mass, which innervates the segments
+  lying behind the anus and corresponding to the posterior sucker. So
+  that a leech in which only twenty-seven segments are apparent by the
+  enumeration of the annuli, separate ganglia, nephridia, lines of
+  sensillae upon the body, really possesses an additional seven lying
+  behind that which is apparently the last of the series and crowded
+  together into a minute space. The annuli into which segments are
+  externally divided are so deeply incised as to render it impossible to
+  distinguish, as can be readily done in the Oligochaeta as a rule, the
+  limits of an annulus from that of a true segment. As remarked, the
+  prevalent number of annuli to a segment is three in the
+  _Rhynchobdellidae_. But in that group (_Cystobranchus_) there may be
+  as many as eight annuli. In the _Gnathobdellidae_ the prevailing
+  number of annuli to a segment is five; but here again the number is
+  often increased, and _Trocheta_ has no less than eleven. The reason
+  for this excessive annulation has been seen in the limited number of
+  segments (thirty-four) of which the body is composed, which are laid
+  down early and do not increase. In the Oligochaeta, on the other hand,
+  there is growth of new segments. It is important to notice that the
+  metameric plan of growth of Chaetopods is still preserved.
+
+  The nephridia are like those of the Oligochaeta in general structure;
+  that is to say, they consist of drain-pipe cells which are placed end
+  to end and are perforated by their duct. The internal funnel varies in
+  the same way as in the Oligochaeta in the number of cells which form
+  it. In _Clepsine_ (_Glossiphonia_) there are only three cells, and in
+  _Nephelis_ five to eight cells. In _Hirudo_ the funnel is not pervious
+  and is composed of a large number of cells. Externally, the nephridium
+  opens by a vesicle, as in many Oligochaetes whose lumen is
+  intercellular. In _Pontobdella_ and _Branchellion_ the nephridia form
+  a network extending from segment to segment, but there is only one
+  pair of funnels in each segment. Slight differences in form have been
+  noted between nephridia of different segments; but the Hirudinea do
+  not show the marked differentiation that is to be seen in some other
+  Chaetopods; nor do the nephridia ever acquire any relations to the
+  alimentary canal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Section of _Acanthobdella_ (after
+  Kovalevsky).
+
+    c, Coelom.
+    c.ch, Coelomic epithelium (yellow-cells).
+    cg, Glandular cells.
+    cl, Muscle cells of lateral line.
+    cp, Pigment cells.
+    ep, Ectoderm.
+    g, Nerve cord.
+    m, Intestine.
+    mc, Circular muscle.
+    ml, Longitudinal muscle.
+    vd, Dorsal vessel.
+    vv, Ventral vessel.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Section of _Acanthobdella_ (after
+  Kovalevsky). Identical letters as in fig. 2; in addition, cn, nerve
+  cord; in, intestine; nf, parts of nephridium; on, external opening of
+  nephridium; ov, ova; t, testis.]
+
+  _Coelom._--The coelom of the Hirudinea differs in most genera from
+  that of the Oligochaeta and Polychaeta. The difference is that it is
+  broken up into a complex sinus system. The least modified type is
+  shown by _Acanthobdella_, a leech, parasitic upon fishes, in which
+  transverse sections (see figs. 15 and 16) show the gut, the nervous
+  system, &c., lying in a spacious chamber which is the coelom. This
+  coelom is lined by peritoneal cells and is divided into a series of
+  metameres by septa which correspond to the segmentation of the body,
+  the arrangement being thus precisely like that of typical Chaetopoda.
+  Moreover, upon the intestine the coelomic cells are modified into
+  chloragogen cells. In _Acanthobdella_ the testes are, however, not
+  contained in the general coelom, and the nephridia lie in the septa.
+  It is remarkable, in view of the spaciousness of the coelom, that the
+  funnels of the latter have not been seen. _Ozobranchus_ possesses a
+  coelom which is less typically chaetopodous than that of
+  _Acanthobdella_, but more so than in other leeches. There is a
+  spacious cavity surrounding the gut and containing also blood-vessels,
+  and to some extent the generative organs, and the nervous cord.
+  Furthermore, in the mid region of the body this coelom is broken up by
+  metamerically arranged septa, as in _Acanthobdella_. These septa are,
+  however, rather incomplete and are not fastened to the gut; and, as in
+  _Acanthobdella_, the nephridia are embedded in them. In addition to
+  the median lacuna there are two lateral lacunae, one upon each side.
+  These regions of the coelom end at the ends of the body and
+  communicate with each other by means of a branched system of coelomic
+  sinuses, which are in places very fine tubes. Neither in this genus
+  nor in the last is there any communication between coelom and vascular
+  system. In _Clepsine_ (_Glossiphonia_) there is a further breaking up
+  of the coelom. The median lacuna no longer exists, but is represented
+  by a dorsal and ventral sinus. The former lodges the dorsal, the
+  latter the ventral, blood-vessel. The gut has no coelomic space
+  surrounding it. A complex network places these sinuses and the
+  lateral sinuses in communication. Here also the blood system has no
+  communication with the sinus system of the coelom. In _Hirudo_ and the
+  _Gnathobdellidae_ there is only one system of cavities which consist
+  of four principal longitudinal trunks, of which the two lateral are
+  contractile, which communicate with a network ramifying everywhere,
+  even among the cells of the epidermis. The network is partly formed
+  out of pigmented cells which are excavated and join to form tubes, the
+  so-called botryoidal tissue, not found among the _Rhynchobdellidae_ at
+  all. It seems clear from the recent investigations of A.G. Bourne and
+  E.S. Goodrich that the vascular system and the coelom are in
+  communication (as in vertebrates by means of the lymph system). On the
+  other hand, it has been held that in these leeches there is no
+  vascular system at all and that the entire system of spaces is coelom.
+  In favour of regarding the vascular system as totally absent, is the
+  fact that the median coelomic channels contain no dorsal and ventral
+  vessel. In favour of seeing in the lateral trunks and their branches a
+  vascular system, is the contractility of the former, and the fact of
+  the intrusion of the latter into the epidermis, matched among the
+  Oligochaeta, where undoubted blood capillaries perforate the
+  epidermis. A further fact must be considered in deciding this
+  question, which is the discovery of ramifying coelomic tubes,
+  approaching close to, but not entering, the epidermis in the
+  Polychaete _Arenicola_. These tubes are lined by flattened epithelium
+  and often contain blood capillaries; they communicate with the coelom
+  and are to be regarded as prolongation of it into the thickness of the
+  body wall.
+
+  _Gonads and Gonad Ducts._--The gonads and their ducts in the Hirudinea
+  invariably form a closed system of cavities entirely shut off from the
+  coelom in which they lie. There is thus a broad resemblance to the
+  _Eudrilidae_, to which group of Oligochaeta the Hirudinea are further
+  akin by reason of the invariably unpaired condition of the generative
+  apertures, and the existence of a copulatory apparatus (both of which
+  characters, however, are present occasionally in other Oligochaeta).
+
+  The testes are more numerous than the ovaries, of which latter there
+  are never more than one pair. The testes vary in numbers of pairs.
+  Four (_Ozobranchus_) to six (_Glossiphonia_) or ten (_Philaemon_) are
+  common numbers. In _Acanthobdella_, however, the testes of each side
+  of the body have grown together to form a continuous band, which
+  extends in front of external pore. Each testis communicates by means
+  of an efferent duct with a common collecting duct of its side of the
+  body, which opens on to the exterior by means of a protrusible penis,
+  and to which is sometimes appended a seminal vesicle. The efferent
+  ducts are ciliated, and there is a patch of cilia at the point where
+  they communicate with the cavity of each testis. The ovaries are more
+  extensive in some forms (e.g. _Ozobranchus_) than in others, where
+  they are small rounded bodies. The two ducts continuous with the
+  gonads open by a common vagina on to the exterior behind the male
+  pores. This "vagina" is sometimes of exaggerated size. Thus, in
+  _Philaemon pungens_ (Lambert) it has the form of a large sac, into
+  which open by a single orifice the conjoined oviducts. From this
+  vagina arises a narrow duct leading to the exterior. In _Ozobranchus_
+  the structures in question are still more complicated. The two long
+  ovarian sacs communicate with each other by a transverse bridge before
+  uniting to form the terminal canal. Into each ovarian sac behind the
+  transverse junction opens a slender tube, which is greatly coiled,
+  and, in its turn, opens into a spherical "spermathecal sac." From this
+  an equally slender tube proceeds, which joins its fellow of the
+  opposite side, and the two form a thick, walled tube, which opens on
+  to the exterior within the bursa copulatrix through which the penis
+  protrudes. These two last-mentioned types show features which can be,
+  as it seems, matched in the Eudrilidae.
+
+  The gonads develop (O. Burger) in coelomic spaces close to nephridial
+  funnels, which have, however, no relation to the gonad ducts. The
+  ovaries are solid bodies, of which the outer layer becomes separated
+  from the plug of cells lying within; thus a cavity is formed which is
+  clearly coelom. This cavity and its walls becomes prolonged to form
+  the oviducts. A stage exactly comparable to the stage in the leeches,
+  where the ovary is surrounded by a closed sac, has been observed in
+  _Eudrilus_. In this Annelid later the sac in question joins its
+  fellow, passing beneath the nerve cord exactly as in the leech, and
+  also grows out to reach the exterior. The sole difference is therefore
+  that in _Eudrilus_ the ovarian sac gives rise to a tube which
+  bifurcates, one branch meeting a corresponding branch of the other
+  ovary of the pair, while the second branch reaches the exterior. In
+  the leech the two branches are fused into one. We have here clearly a
+  case of a true coelomoduct performing the function of an oviduct in
+  both leeches and _Eudrilidae_. The facts just referred to suggest
+  further comparisons between the Hirudinea and _Eudrilidae_. The large
+  sacs which have been termed vagina are suggestive of the large
+  coelomic spermathecae in Eudrilids, a comparison which needs, however,
+  embryological data, not at present forthcoming, for its justification.
+  It is at least clear that in _Ozobranchus_ this comparison is
+  justifiable; but only probable, or perhaps possible, in the case of
+  _Philaemon_. In the former, the duct, leading from the ovarian sac,
+  and swelling along its course into the spherical sac, the
+  "spermatheca," is highly suggestive of the oviduct and receptaculum of
+  the _Eudrilidae_.
+
+  The testes during development become hollowed out and are prolonged
+  into the vasa efferentia. These ducts therefore have not their exact
+  counterparts in the Oligochaeta, unless we are to assume that they
+  collectively are represented by the seminal vesicles of earthworms and
+  the vasa deferentia. It is to be noted that the Hirudinea differ from
+  the Oligochaeta in that the male pore is in advance of the gonads
+  (except in _Acanthobdella_, which here, as in so many points,
+  approximates to the Oligochaeta), whereas in Oligochaeta that pore is
+  behind the gonads (again with an exception, _Allurus_).
+
+  _Classification_.--The Hirudinea may be divided into three families:--
+
+  (i.) _Rhynchobdellidae_.--A protrusible proboscis exists, but there
+  are no jaws. The blood is colourless. _Pontobdella_, _Glossiphonia_,
+  &c.
+
+  (ii.) _Gnathobdellidae_.--A proboscis absent, but jaws usually
+  present. Blood coloured red with haemoglobin. _Hirudo_, _Nephelis_,
+  &c.
+
+  (iii.) _Acanthobdellidae_.--Proboscis present, but short. Paired setae
+  of Oligochaetous pattern present in anterior segments. Blood red.
+  _Acanthobdella_.
+
+  LITERATURE.--A.O. Kovalevsky, _Bull. Imp. Sci._ (St Petersburg,
+  November 1896) (_Acanthobdella_); A.G. Bourne, _Quart. Journ. Micr.
+  Sci._, 1884; A. Oka, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._, 1894; E.S. Goodrich,
+  _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1899; W.E. Castle, _Bull. Mus. Comp.
+  Zool._, 1900; A.M. Lambert, _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (Victoria, 1897); C.O.
+  Whitman, _Journ. Morph._, 1889 and 1891; O. Burger, _Zeitschr. wiss.
+  Zool._, 1902, and other memoirs by the above, and by St V. Apathy, R.
+  Blanchard, H. Bolsius, A. Dendy, R.S. Bergh, &c.     (F. E. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAETOSOMATIDA, a small group of minute, free-living, aquatic organisms
+which are usually placed as an annex to the Nematoda. Indeed Mechnikov,
+to whom we owe much of our knowledge of these forms, calls them
+"creeping Nematoda." They are usually found amongst seaweed in temperate
+seas, but they are probably widely distributed; some are fresh-water.
+The genus _Chaetosoma_, with the two species _Ch. claparedii_ and _Ch.
+ophicephalum_ and the genus _Tristicochaeta_, have swollen heads. The
+third genus _Rhabdogaster_ has no such distinct head, though the body
+may be swollen anteriorly. The mouth is terminal and anterior and
+surrounded by a ring of spicules or a half-ring of hooks. Scattered
+hairs cover the body. Just in front of the anus there is in _Chaetosoma_
+a double, and in _Tristicochaeta_ a triple row of about fifteen stout
+cylindrical projections upon which the animals creep. The females are a
+little larger than the males; in _Ch. claparedii_ the former attain a
+length of 1.5 mm., the latter of 1.12 mm. The mouth opens into an
+oesophagus which passes into an intestine; this opens by a ventral anus
+situated a little in front of the posterior end. The testis is single,
+and its duct opens with the anus, and is provided with a couple of
+spicules. The ovary is double, and the oviducts open by a median ventral
+pore about the middle of the body; in this region there is a second
+swelling both in _Chaetosoma_ and in _Rhabdogaster_. The last-named form
+is in the female 0.36 mm. in length. In it the hairs are confined to the
+dorsal middle line and the creeping setae are hooked, of a finer
+structure than in _Chaetosoma_, and situated so far forward that the
+vagina opens amongst them. _Ch. ophicephalum_ has been taken in the
+English Channel.
+
+[Illustration: From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. ii. "Worms." by
+permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+Mature female of _Chaetosoma daparedii_, (From Mechnikov.) a,
+Oesophagus; b, intestine; c, anus; d, ovary; e, generative pore; f,
+ventral bristles.]
+
+  See E. Mechnikov, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._ xvii., 1867, p. 537;
+  Panceri, _Atti Acc. Napoli_, vii., 1878, p. 7.     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAFER, a word used in modern speech to distinguish the beetles of the
+family _Scarabaeidae_, and more especially those species which feed on
+leaves in the adult state. The word is derived from the O. Eng.
+_ceafor_, and it is interesting to note that the cognate Ger. _Kafer_ is
+applied to beetles of all kinds. For the characters of the
+_Scarabaeidae_ see COLEOPTERA. This family includes a large number of
+beetles, some of which feed on dung and others on vegetable tissues.
+The cockchafers and their near allies belong to the subfamily
+_Melolonthinae_, and the rose-chafers to the _Cetoniinae_; in both the
+beetles eat leaves, and their grubs spend a long life underground
+devouring roots. In Britain the Melolonthines that are usually noted as
+injurious are the two species of cockchafer (_Melolontha vulgaris_ and
+_M. hippocastani_), large heavy beetles with black pubescent pro-thorax,
+brown elytra and an elongated pointed tail-process; the summer-chafer
+(_Rhizotrogus solstitialis_), a smaller pale brown chafer; and the still
+smaller garden-chafer or "cocker-bundy" (_Phyllopertha horticola_),
+which has a dark green pro-thorax and brown elytra. Of the Cetoniines,
+the beautiful metallic green rose-chafer, _Cetonia aurata_, sometimes
+causes damage, especially in gardens. The larvae of the chafers are
+heavy, soft-skinned grubs, with hard brown heads provided with powerful
+mandibles, three pairs of well-developed legs, and a swollen abdomen. As
+they grow, the larvae become strongly flexed towards the ventral
+surface, and lie curled up in their earthen cells, feeding on roots. The
+larval life lasts several years, and in hard frosts the grubs go deep
+down away from the surface. Pupation takes place in the autumn, and
+though the perfect insect emerges from the cuticle very soon afterwards,
+it remains in its underground cell for several months, not making its
+way to the upper air until the ensuing summer. After pairing, the female
+crawls down into the soil to lay her eggs. The grubs of chafers, when
+turned up by the plough, are greedily devoured by poultry, pigs and
+various wild birds. When the beetles become so numerous as to call for
+destruction, they are usually shaken off the trees where they rest on to
+sheets or tarred boards. On the continent of Europe chafers are far more
+numerous than in the United Kingdom, and the rural governments in France
+give rewards for their destruction. D. Sharp states that in the
+department of Seine-inferieure 867,173,000 cockchafers and 647,000,000
+larvae were killed in the four years preceding 1870.
+
+  The anatomy of _Melolontha_ is very fully described in a classical
+  memoir by H.E. Strauss-Durckheim (Paris, 1828).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAFF (from the A.S. _ceaf_, allied to the O. High Ger. _cheva_, a husk
+or pod), the husks left after threshing grain, and also hay and straw
+chopped fine as food for cattle; hence, figuratively, the refuse or
+worthless part of anything. The colloquial use of the word, to chaff, in
+the sense of to banter or to make fun of a person, may be derived from
+this figurative sense, or from "to chafe," meaning to vex or irritate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAFFARINAS, or ZAITARINES, a group of islands belonging to Spain off
+the north coast of Morocco, near the Algerian frontier, 2-1/2 m. to the
+north of Cape del Agna. The largest of these isles, Del Congreso, is
+rocky and hilly. It has a watch-house on the coast nearest to Morocco.
+Isabella II., the central island, contains several batteries, barracks
+and a penal convict settlement. The Spanish government has undertaken
+the construction of breakwaters to unite this island with the
+neighbouring islet of El Rey, with a view to enclose a deep and already
+sheltered anchorage. This roadstead affords a safe refuge for many large
+vessels. The Chaffarinas, which are the _Tres Insulae_ of the Romans and
+the _Zafran_ of the Arabs, were occupied by Spain in 1848. The Spanish
+occupation anticipated by a few days a French expedition sent from Oran
+to annex the islands to Algeria. The population of the islands is under
+1000.
+
+
+
+
+CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA (1842-   ), American general, was born at Orwell,
+Ohio, on the 14th of April 1842. At the outbreak of the Civil War he
+entered the United States cavalry as a private, and he rose to
+commissioned rank in 1863, becoming brevet captain in 1865. He remained
+in the army after the war and took part with distinction in many Indian
+campaigns. His promotion was, however, slow, and he was at the age of
+fifty-six still a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. But in 1898, at the
+outbreak of the Spanish-American War, he was made brigadier-general and
+soon afterwards major-general of volunteers. In the Cuban campaign he won
+particular distinction, and the victory of the Americans in the action of
+El Caney was in large measure due to his careful personal reconnaissances
+of the ground to be attacked and to the endurance of his own brigade.
+After reverting for a time to the rank of brigadier-general, he was made
+a major-general U.S.V. again in 1900 and was appointed to command the
+United States contingent in China. He took a brilliant and successful
+part in the advance on Peking and the relief of the Legations. In 1901 he
+became a major-general in the regular army, and in 1901-1902 commanded
+the Division of the Philippines. In 1902-1903 he commanded the Department
+of the East, and from 1904 to 1906 was chief of the general staff of the
+army. In 1904 he received the rank of lieutenant-general in the United
+States army, being the first enlisted man of the regular army to attain
+this, the highest rank in the service. He was retired at his own request
+on the 1st of February 1906, after more than forty years' service.
+
+
+
+
+CHAFFINCH (_Fringilla coelebs_), the common English name of a bird
+belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), and distinguished,
+in the male sex, by the deep greyish blue of its crown feathers, the
+yellowish green of its rump, the white of the wing coverts, so disposed
+as to form two conspicuous bars, and the reddish brown passing into
+vinous red of the throat and breast. The female is drab, but shows the
+same white markings as the male, and the young males resemble the
+females until after the first autumn moult, when they gradually assume
+the plumage of their sex. The chaffinch breeds early in the season, and
+its song may often be heard in February. Its nest, which is a model of
+neatness and symmetry, it builds on trees and bushes, preferring such as
+are overgrown with moss and lichens. It is chiefly composed of moss and
+wool, lined internally with grass, wool, feathers, and whatever soft
+material the locality affords. The outside consists of moss and lichens,
+and according to Selby, "is always accordant with the particular colour
+of its situation." When built in the neighbourhood of towns the nest is
+somewhat slovenly and untidy, being often composed of bits of dirty
+straw, pieces of paper and blackened moss; in one instance, near
+Glasgow, the author of the _Birds of the West of Scotland_ found several
+postage-stamps thus employed. It lays four or five eggs of a pale
+purplish buff, streaked and spotted with purplish red. In spring the
+chaffinch is destructive to early flowers, and to young radishes and
+turnips just as they appear above the surface; in summer, however, it
+feeds principally on insects and their larvae, while in autumn and
+winter its food consists of grain and other seeds. On the continent of
+Europe the chaffinch is a favourite song-bird, especially in Germany,
+where great attention is paid to its training.
+
+
+
+
+CHAFING-DISH (from the O. Fr. _chaufer_, to make warm), a kind of
+portable grate heated with charcoal, and used for cooking or keeping
+food warm. In a light form, and heated over a spirit lamp, it is also
+used for cooking various dainty dishes at table. The employment of the
+chafing-dish for the latter purpose has been largely restored in modern
+cookery.
+
+
+
+
+CHAGOS, a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, belonging to Britain,
+disposed in circular form round the Chagos bank, in 4 deg. 44' to 7 deg.
+39' S., and 70 deg. 55' to 72 deg. 52' E. The atolls on the south and
+east side of the bank, which has a circumference of about 270 m., have
+disappeared through subsidence; a few--Egmont, Danger, Eagle, and Three
+Brothers--still remain on the east side, but most of the population
+(about 700) is centred on Diego Garcia, which lies on the south-east
+side, and is nearly 13 m. long by 6 m. wide. The lagoon, which is
+enclosed by two coral barriers and accessible to the largest vessels on
+the north side, forms one of the finest natural harbours in the world.
+The group, which has a total land area of 76 sq. m., is dependent for
+administrative purposes on Mauritius, and is regularly visited by
+vessels from that colony. The only product is cocoa-nut oil, of which
+about 106,000 gallons are annually exported. The French occupied the
+islands in 1791 from Mauritius, and the oil industry (from which the
+group is sometimes called the Oil Islands) came into the hands of French
+Creoles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAGRES, a village of the Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast of
+the Isthmus, at the mouth of the Chagres river, and about 8 m. W. of
+Colon. It has a harbour from 10 to 12 ft. deep, which is difficult to
+enter, however, on account of bars at its mouth. The port was discovered
+by Columbus in 1502, and was opened for traffic with Panama, on the
+Pacific coast, by way of the Chagres river, in the 16th century. With
+the decline of Porto Bello in the 18th century Chagres became the chief
+Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and was at the height of its importance
+during the great rush of gold-hunters across the Isthmus to California
+in 1849 and the years immediately following. With the completion of the
+Panama railway in 1855, however, travel was diverted to Colon, and
+Chagres soon became a village of miserable huts, with no evidence of its
+former importance. On a high rock at the mouth of the river stands the
+castle of Lorenzo, which was destroyed by Sir Henry Morgan when he
+captured the town in 1671, but was rebuilt soon afterwards by the
+Spaniards. Chagres was again captured in 1740 by British forces under
+Admiral Edward Vernon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAIN (through the O. Fr. _choeine_, _choene_, &c., from Lat. _catena_),
+a series of links of metal or other material so connected together that
+the whole forms a flexible band or cord. Chains are used for a variety
+of purposes, such as fastening, securing, or connecting together two or
+more objects, supporting or lifting weights, transmitting mechanical
+power, &c.; or as an ornament to serve as a collar, as a symbol of
+office or state, or as part of the insignia of an order of knighthood;
+or as a device from which to hang a jewelled or other pendant, a watch,
+&c. (see COLLAR). Ornamental chains are made with a great variety of
+links, but those intended for utilitarian purposes are mostly of two
+types. In stud chains a stud or brace is inserted across each link to
+prevent its sides from collapsing inwards under strain, whereas in open
+link chains the links have no studs. The addition of studs is reckoned
+to increase the load which the chain can safely bear by 50%. Small
+chains of the open-link type are to a great extent made by machinery.
+For larger sizes the smith cuts off a length of iron rod of suitable
+diameter, forms it while hot to the shape of the link by repeated blows
+of his hammer, and welds together the two ends of the link, previously
+slipped inside its fellow, by the aid of the same tool; in some cases
+the bending is done in a mechanical press and the welding under a power
+hammer (see also CABLE). Weldless chains are also made; in A.G.
+Strathern's process, for instance, cruciform steel bars are pressed,
+while hot, into links, each without join and engaging with its
+neighbours. Chains used for transmitting power are known as
+pitch-chains; the chain of a bicycle (q.v.) is an example.
+
+From the use of the chain as employed to bind or fetter a prisoner or
+slave, comes the figurative application to anything which serves as a
+constraining or restraining force; and from its series of connected
+links, to any series of objects, events, arguments, &c., connected by
+succession, logical sequence or reasoning. Specific uses are for a
+measuring line in land-surveying, consisting of 100 links, i.e. iron
+rods, 7.92 in. in length, making 22 yds. in all, hence a lineal measure
+of that length; and, as a nautical term, for the contrivance by which
+the lower shrouds of a mast are extended and secured to the ship's
+sides, consisting of dead-eyes, chain-plates, and chain-wale or
+"channel."
+
+
+
+
+CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. _choere_, through O. Fr. _chaere_ or _chaiere_,
+from Lat. _cathedra_, later _caledra_, Gr. [Greek: kathedra], seat, cf.
+"cathedral"; the modern Fr. form _chaise_, a chair, has been adopted in
+English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; _chaire_ in
+French is still used of a professorial or ecclesiastical "chair," or
+_cathedra_), a movable seat, usually with four legs, for a single
+person, the most varied and familiar article of domestic furniture. The
+chair is of extreme antiquity, although for many centuries and indeed
+for thousands of years it was an appanage of state and dignity rather
+than an article of ordinary use. "The chair" is still extensively used
+as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons and in public
+meetings. It was not, in fact, until the 16th century that it became
+common anywhere. The chest, the bench and the stool were until then the
+ordinary seats of everyday life, and the number of chairs which have
+survived from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most of such
+examples are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Our knowledge of
+the chairs of remote antiquity is derived almost entirely from
+monuments, sculpture and paintings. A few actual examples exist in the
+British Museum, in the Egyptian museum at Cairo, and elsewhere. In
+ancient Egypt they appear to have been of great richness and splendour.
+Fashioned of ebony and ivory, or of carved and gilded wood, they were
+covered with costly stuffs and supported upon representations of the
+legs of beasts of the chase or the figures of captives. An arm-chair in
+fine preservation found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is
+astonishingly similar, even in small details, to that "Empire" style
+which followed Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. The earliest monuments of
+Nineveh represent a chair without a back but with tastefully carved legs
+ending in lions' claws or bulls' hoofs; others are supported by figures
+in the nature of caryatides or by animals. The earliest known form of
+Greek chair, going back to five or six centuries before Christ, had a
+back but stood straight up, front and back. On the frieze of the
+Parthenon Zeus occupies a square seat with a bar-back and thick turned
+legs; it is ornamented with winged sphinxes and the feet of beasts. The
+characteristic Roman chairs were of marble, also adorned with sphinxes;
+the curule chair was originally very similar in form to the modern
+folding chair, but eventually received a good deal of ornament.
+
+The most famous of the very few chairs which have come down from a
+remote antiquity is the reputed chair of St Peter in St Peter's at Rome.
+The wooden portions are much decayed, but it would appear to be
+Byzantine work of the 6th century, and to be really an ancient _sedia
+gestatoria_. It has ivory carvings representing the labours of Hercules.
+A few pieces of an earlier oaken chair have been let in; the existing
+one, Gregorovius says, is of acacia wood. The legend that this was the
+curule chair of the senator Pudens is necessarily apocryphal. It is not,
+as is popularly supposed, enclosed in Bernini's bronze chair, but is
+kept under triple lock and exhibited only once in a century. Byzantium,
+like Greece and Rome, affected the curule form of chair, and in addition
+to lions' heads and winged figures of Victory and dolphin-shaped arms
+used also the lyre-back which has been made familiar by the
+pseudo-classical revival of the end of the 18th century. The chair of
+Maximian in the cathedral of Ravenna is believed to date from the middle
+of the 6th century. It is of marble, round, with a high back, and is
+carved in high relief with figures of saints and scenes from the
+Gospels--the Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, the flight into
+Egypt and the baptism of Christ. The smaller spaces are filled with
+carvings of animals, birds, flowers and foliated ornament. Another very
+ancient seat is the so-called "Chair of Dagobert" in the Louvre. It is
+of cast bronze, sharpened with the chisel and partially gilt; it is of
+the curule or faldstool type and supported upon legs terminating in the
+heads and feet of animals. The seat, which was probably of leather, has
+disappeared. Its attribution depends entirely upon the statement of
+Suger, abbot of St Denis in the 12th century, who added a back and arms.
+Its age has been much discussed, but Viollet-le-Duc dated it to early
+Merovingian times, and it may in any case be taken as the oldest
+faldstool in existence. To the same generic type belongs the famous
+abbots' chair of Glastonbury; such chairs might readily be taken to
+pieces when their owners travelled. The _faldisterium_ in time acquired
+arms and a back, while retaining its folding shape. The most famous, as
+well as the most ancient, English chair is that made at the end of the
+13th century for Edward I., in which most subsequent monarchs have been
+crowned. It is of an architectural type and of oak, and was covered with
+gilded _gesso_ which long since disappeared.
+
+Passing from these historic examples we find the chair monopolized by
+the ruler, lay or ecclesiastical, to a comparatively late date. As the
+seat of authority it stood at the head of the lord's table, on his dais,
+by the side of his bed. The seigneurial chair, commoner in France and
+the Netherlands than in England, is a very interesting type,
+approximating in many respects to the episcopal or abbatial throne or
+stall. It early acquired a very high back and sometimes had a canopy.
+Arms were invariable, and the lower part was closed in with panelled or
+carved front and sides--the seat, indeed, was often hinged and
+sometimes closed with a key. That we are still said to sit "in" an
+arm-chair and "on" other kinds of chairs is a reminiscence of the time
+when the lord or seigneur sat "in his chair." These throne-like seats
+were always architectural in character, and as Gothic feeling waned took
+the distinctive characteristics of Renaissance work. It was owing in
+great measure to the Renaissance that the chair ceased to be an appanage
+of state, and became the customary companion of whomsoever could afford
+to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily came into
+general use, and almost at once began to reflect the fashions of the
+hour. No piece of furniture has ever been so close an index to sumptuary
+changes. It has varied in size, shape and sturdiness with the fashion
+not only of women's dress but of men's also. Thus the chair which was
+not, even with its arms purposely suppressed, too ample during the
+several reigns of some form or other of hoops and farthingale, became
+monstrous when these protuberances disappeared. Again, the costly laced
+coats of the dandy of the 18th and early 19th centuries were so
+threatened by the ordinary form of seat that a "conversation chair" was
+devised, which enabled the buck and the ruffler to sit with his face to
+the back, his valuable tails hanging unimpeded over the front. The early
+chair almost invariably had arms, and it was not until towards the close
+of the 16th century that the smaller form grew common.
+
+The majority of the chairs of all countries until the middle of the 17th
+century were of oak without upholstery, and when it became customary to
+cushion them, leather was sometimes employed; subsequently velvet and
+silk were extensively used, and at a later period cheaper and often more
+durable materials. Leather was not infrequently used even for the costly
+and elaborate chairs of the faldstool form--occasionally sheathed in
+thin plates of silver--which Venice sent all over Europe. To this day,
+indeed, leather is one of the most frequently employed materials for
+chair covering. The outstanding characteristic of most chairs until the
+middle of the 17th century was massiveness and solidity. Being usually
+made of oak, they were of considerable weight, and it was not until the
+introduction of the handsome Louis XIII. chairs with cane backs and
+seats that either weight or solidity was reduced. Although English
+furniture derives so extensively from foreign and especially French and
+Italian models, the earlier forms of English chairs owed but little to
+exotic influences. This was especially the case down to the end of the
+Tudor period, after which France began to set her mark upon the British
+chair. The squat variety, with heavy and sombre back, carved like a
+piece of panelling, gave place to a taller, more slender, and more
+elegant form, in which the framework only was carved, and attempts were
+made at ornament in new directions. The stretcher especially offered
+opportunities which were not lost upon the cabinet-makers of the
+Restoration. From a mere uncompromising cross-bar intended to strengthen
+the construction it blossomed, almost suddenly, into an elaborate
+scroll-work or an exceedingly graceful semicircular ornament connecting
+all four legs, with a vase-shaped knob in the centre. The arms and legs
+of chairs of this period were scrolled, the splats of the back often
+showing a rich arrangement of spirals and scrolls. This most decorative
+of all types appears to have been popularized in England by the
+cavaliers who had been in exile with Charles II. and had become familiar
+with it in the north-western parts of the European continent. During he
+reign of William and Mary these charming forms degenerated into
+something much stiffer and more rectangular, with a solid, more or less
+fiddle-shaped splat and a cabriole leg with pad feet. The more
+ornamental examples had cane seats and ill-proportioned cane backs. From
+these forms was gradually developed the Chippendale chair, with its
+elaborately interlaced back, its graceful arms and square or cabriole
+legs, the latter terminating in the claw and ball or the pad foot.
+Hepplewhite, Sheraton and Adam all aimed at lightening the chair, which,
+even in the master hands of Chippendale, remained comparatively heavy.
+The endeavour succeeded, and the modern chair is everywhere
+comparatively slight. Chippendale and Hepplewhite between them
+determined what appears to be the final form of the chair, for since
+their time practically no new type has lasted, and in its main
+characteristics the chair of the 20th century is the direct derivative
+of that of the later 18th.
+
+The 18th century was, indeed, the golden age of the chair, especially in
+France and England, between which there was considerable give and take
+of ideas. Even Diderot could not refrain from writing of them in his
+_Encyclopedie_. The typical Louis Seize chair, oval-backed and ample of
+seat, with descending arms and round-reeded legs, covered in Beauvais or
+some such gay tapestry woven with Boucher or Watteau-like scenes, is a
+very gracious object, in which the period reached its high-water mark.
+The Empire brought in squat and squabby shapes, comfortable enough no
+doubt, but entirely destitute of inspiration. English Empire chairs were
+often heavier and more sombre than those of French design. Thenceforward
+the chair in all countries ceased to attract the artist. The _art
+nouveau_ school has occasionally produced something of not unpleasing
+simplicity; but more often its efforts have been frankly ugly or even
+grotesque. There have been practically no novelties, with the exception
+perhaps of the basket-chair and such like, which have been made possible
+by modern command over material. So much, indeed, is the present
+indebted to the past in this matter that even the revolving chair, now
+so familiar in offices, has a pedigree of something like four centuries
+(see also SEDAN-CHAIR).     (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAISE (the French for "chair," through a transference from a
+"sedan-chair" to a wheeled vehicle), a light two- or four-wheeled
+carriage with a movable hood or "calash"; the "post-chaise" was the
+fast-travelling carriage of the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was
+closed and four-wheeled for two or four horses and with the driver
+riding postillion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAKRATA, a mountain cantonment in the Dehra Dun district of the United
+Provinces of India, on the range of hills overlooking the valleys of the
+Jumna and the Tons, at an elevation of 7000 ft. It was founded in 1866
+and first occupied in April 1869.
+
+
+
+
+CHALCEDON, more correctly CALCHEDON (mod. _Kadikeui_), an ancient
+maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost directly opposite
+Byzantium, south of Scutari. It was a Megarian colony founded on a site
+so obviously inferior to that which was within view on the opposite
+shore, that it received from the oracle the name of "the City of the
+Blind." In its early history it shared the fortunes of Byzantium, was
+taken by the satrap Otanes, vacillated long between the Lacedaemonian
+and the Athenian interests, and was at last bequeathed to the Romans by
+Attalus III. of Pergamum (133 B.C.). It was partly destroyed by
+Mithradates, but recovered during the Empire, and in A.D. 451 was the
+seat of the Fourth General Council. It fell under the repeated attacks
+of the barbarian hordes who crossed over after having ravaged Byzantium,
+and furnished an encampment to the Persians under Chosroes, c. 616-626.
+The Turks used it as a quarry for building materials for Constantinople.
+The site is now occupied by the village of Kadikeui ("Village of the
+Judge"), which forms the tenth "cercle" of the municipality of
+Constantinople. Pop. about 33,000, of whom 8000 are Moslems. There is a
+large British colony with a church, and also Greek and Armenian churches
+and schools, and a training college for Roman Catholic Armenians. To the
+S. are the ruins of Panteichion (mod. _Pendik_), where Belisarius is
+said to have lived in retirement.
+
+  See J. von Hammer, _Constantinopolis_ (Pesth, 1822); Murray's
+  _Handbook for Constantinople_ (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF, the fourth ecumenical council of the Catholic
+Church, was held in 451, its occasion being the Eutychian heresy and the
+notorious "Robber Synod" (see EUTYCHES and EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF), which
+called forth vigorous protests both in the East and in the West, and a
+loud demand for a new general council, a demand that was ignored by the
+Eutychian Theodosius II., but speedily granted by his successor,
+Marcian, a "Flavianist." In response to the imperial summons, five to
+six hundred bishops, all Eastern, except the Roman legates and two
+Africans, assembled in Chalcedon on the 8th of October 451. The bishop
+of Rome claimed for his legates the right to preside, and insisted that
+any act that failed to receive their approval would be invalid. The
+first session was tumultuous; party feeling ran high, and scurrilous and
+vulgar epithets were bandied to and fro. The acts of the Robber Synod
+were examined; fraud, violence and coercion were charged against it; its
+entire proceedings were annulled, and, at the third session, its leader,
+Dioscurus, was deposed and degraded. The emperor requested a declaration
+of the true faith; but the sentiment of the council was opposed to a new
+symbol. It contented itself with reaffirming the Nicene and
+Constantinopolitan creeds and the Ephesine formula of 431, and
+accepting, only after examination, the Christological statement
+contained in the _Epistola Dogmatica_ of Leo I. (q.v.) to Flavianus.
+Thus the council rejected both Nestorianism and Eutychianism, and stood
+upon the doctrine that Christ had two natures, each perfect in itself
+and each distinct from the other, yet perfectly united in one person,
+who was at once both God and man. With this statement, which was
+formally subscribed in the presence of the emperor, the development of
+the Christological doctrine was completed, but not in a manner to
+obviate further controversy (see MONOPHYSITES and MONOTHELITES).
+
+The remaining sessions, vii.-xvi., were occupied with matters of
+discipline, complaints, claims, controversies and the like. Canons were
+adopted, thirty according to the generally received tradition, although
+the most ancient texts contain but twenty-eight, and, as Hefele points
+out, the so-called twenty-ninth and thirtieth are properly not canons,
+but repetitions of proposals made in a previous session.
+
+The most important enactments of the council of Chalcedon were the
+following: (1) the approval of the canons of the first three ecumenical
+councils and of the synods of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Changra, Antioch and
+Laodicea; (2) forbidding trade, secular pursuits and war to the clergy,
+bishops not even being allowed to administer the property of their
+dioceses; (3) forbidding monks and nuns to marry or to return to the
+world; likewise forbidding the establishment of a monastery in any
+diocese without the consent of the bishop, or the disestablishment of a
+monastery once consecrated; (4) punishing with deposition an ordination
+or clerical appointment made for money; forbidding "absolute ordination"
+(i.e. without assignment to a particular charge), the translation of
+clerics except for good cause, the enrolment of a cleric in two churches
+at once, and the performance of sacerdotal functions outside of one's
+diocese without letters of commendation from one's bishop; (5)
+confirming the jurisdiction of bishops over all clerics, regular and
+secular alike, and punishing with deposition any conspiracy against
+episcopal authority; (6) establishing a gradation of ecclesiastical
+tribunals, viz. bishop, provincial synod, exarch of the diocese,
+patriarch of Constantinople (obviously the council could not here have
+been legislating for the entire church); forbidding clerics to be
+running to Constantinople with complaints, without the consent of their
+respective bishops; (7) confirming the possession of rural parishes to
+those who had actually administered them for thirty years, providing for
+the adjudication of conflicting claims, and guaranteeing the integrity
+of metropolitan provinces; (8) confirming the third canon of the second
+ecumenical council, which accorded to Constantinople equal privileges
+([Greek: isa presbeia]) with Rome, and the second rank among the
+patriarchates, and, in addition, granting to Constantinople patriarchal
+jurisdiction over Pontus, Asia and Thrace.
+
+The Roman legates, who were absent (designedly?) when this famous
+twenty-eighth canon was adopted, protested against it, but in vain, the
+imperial commissioners deciding in favour of its regularity and
+validity. Leo I., although he recognized the council as ecumenical and
+confirmed its doctrinal decrees, rejected canon xxviii. on the ground
+that it contravened the sixth canon of Nicaea and infringed the rights
+of Alexandria and Antioch. In what proportion zeal for the ancient
+canons and the rights of others, and jealous fear of encroachment upon
+his own jurisdiction, were mixed in the motives of Leo, it would be
+interesting to know. The canon was universally received in the East,
+and was expressly confirmed by the Quinisext Council, 692 (see
+CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF).
+
+The emperor Marcian approved the doctrinal decrees of the council and
+enjoined silence in regard to theological questions. Eutyches and
+Dioscurus and their followers were deposed and banished. But harmony was
+not thus to be restored; hardly had the council dissolved when the
+church was plunged into the Monophysite controversy.
+
+  See Mansi vi. pp. 529-1102, vii. pp. 1-868; Hardouin ii. pp. 1-772;
+  Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 394-578 (English translation, iii. pp.
+  268-464); also extended bibliographies in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed., s.v. "Eutyches" (by Loofs) and s.v.
+  "Nestorianer" (by Kessler).     (T. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALCEDONY, or CALCEDONY (sometimes called by old writers cassidoine), a
+variety of native silica, often used as an ornamental stone. The present
+application of the term is comparatively modern. The "chalcedonius" of
+Pliny was quite a different mineral, being a green stone from the
+copper-mines of Chalcedon, in Asia Minor, whence the name. There has
+been some confusion between chalcedony and the ancient "carcedonia," a
+stone which seems to have been a carbuncle from Africa, brought by way
+of Carthage ([Greek: Karchedon]). Our chalcedony was probably included
+by the ancients among the various kinds of jasper and agate, especially
+the varieties termed "leucachates" and "cerachates."
+
+By modern mineralogists the name chalcedony is restricted to those kinds
+of silica which occur not in distinct crystals like ordinary quartz, but
+in concretionary, mammillated or stalactitic forms, which break with a
+fine splintery fracture, and display a delicate fibrous structure.
+Chalcedony may be regarded as a micro-crystalline form of quartz. It is
+rather softer and less dense than crystallized quartz, its hardness
+being about 6.5 and its specific gravity 2.6, the difference being
+probably due to the presence of a small amount of opaline silica between
+the fibres. Chalcedony is a translucent substance of rather waxy lustre,
+presenting great variety of colours, though usually white, grey, yellow
+or brown. A rare blue chalcedony is sometimes polished under the name of
+"sapphirine"--a term applied also to a distinct mineral (an
+aluminium-magnesium silicate) from Greenland.
+
+Chalcedony occurs as a secondary mineral in volcanic rocks, representing
+usually the silica set free by the decomposition of various silicates,
+and deposited in cracks, forming veins, or in vesicular hollows, forming
+amygdales. Its occurrence gives the name to Chalcedony Park, Arizona. It
+is found in the basalts of N. Ireland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland: it
+is common in the traps of the Deccan in India, and in volcanic rocks in
+Uruguay and Brazil. Certain flat oval nodules from a decomposed lava
+(augite-andesite) in Uruguay present a cavity lined with quartz crystals
+and enclosing liquid (a weak saline solution), with a movable
+air-bubble, whence they are called "enhydros" or water-stones. Very fine
+examples of stalactitic chalcedony, in whimsical forms, have been
+yielded by some of the Cornish copper-mines. The surface of chalcedony
+is occasionally coated with a delicate bluish bloom. A chalcedonic
+deposit in the form of concentric rings, on fossils and fragments of
+limestone in S. Devon, is known as "orbicular silica" or "beekite,"
+having been named after Dr Henry Beeke, dean of Bristol, who first
+directed attention to such deposits. Certain pseudomorphs of chalcedony
+after datolite, from Haytor in Devonshire, have received the name of
+"haytorite." Optical examination of many chalcedonic minerals by French
+mineralogists has shown that they are aggregates of various fibrous
+crystalline bodies differing from each other in certain optical
+characters, whence they are distinguished as separate minerals under
+such names as calcedonite, pseudocalcedonite, quartzine, lutecite and
+lussatite. Many coloured and variegated chalcedonies are cut and
+polished as ornamental stones, and are described under special headings.
+Chalcedony has been in all ages the commonest of the stones used by the
+gem-engraver.
+
+  See AGATE, BLOODSTONE, CARNELIAN, CHRYSOPRASE, HELIOTROPE, MOCHA
+  STONE, ONYX, SARD and SARDONYX.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHALCIDICUM, in Roman architecture, the vestibule or portico of a public
+building opening on to the forum; as in the basilica of Eumactria at
+Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine at Rome, where it was placed at
+one end.
+
+
+
+
+CHALCIS, the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, situated on
+the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point. The name is preserved
+from antiquity and is derived from the Greek [Greek: chalkos] (copper,
+bronze), though there is no trace of any mines in the neighbourhood.
+Chalcis was peopled by an Ionic stock which early developed great
+industrial and colonizing activity. In the 8th and 7th centuries it
+founded thirty town-ships on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and several
+important cities in Sicily (q.v.). Its mineral produce, metal-work,
+purple and pottery not only found markets among these settlements, but
+were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth and
+Samos. With the help of these allies Chalcis engaged the rival league of
+its neighbour Eretria (q.v.) in the so-called Lelantine War, by which it
+acquired the best agricultural district of Euboea and became the chief
+city of the island. Early in the 6th century its prosperity was broken
+by a disastrous war with the Athenians, who expelled the ruling
+aristocracy and settled a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently
+became a member of both the Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period it
+gained importance as a fortress by which the Macedonian rulers
+controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus III. of Syria
+(192) and Mithradates VI. of Pontus (88) as a base for invading Greece.
+Under Roman rule Chalcis retained a measure of commercial prosperity;
+since the 6th century A.D. it again served as a fortress for the
+protection of central Greece against northern invaders. From 1209 it
+stood under Venetian control; in 1470 it passed to the Ottomans, who
+made it the seat of a pasha. In 1688 it was successfully held against a
+strong Venetian attack. The modern town has about 10,000 inhabitants,
+and maintains a considerable export trade which received an impetus from
+the establishment of railway connexion with Athens and Peiraeus (1904).
+It is composed of two parts--the old walled town towards the Euripus,
+called the Castro, where the Jewish and Turkish families who have
+remained there mostly dwell; and the more modern suburb that lies
+outside it, which is chiefly occupied by the Greeks. A part of the walls
+of the Castro and many of the houses within it were shaken down by the
+earthquake of 1894; part has been demolished in the widening of the
+Euripus. The most interesting object is the church of St Paraskeve,
+which was once the chief church of the Venetians; it dates from the
+Byzantine period, though many of its architectural features are Western.
+There is also a Turkish mosque, which is now used as a guard-house.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Strabo vii. fr. 11, x. p. 447; Herodotus v. 77;
+  Thucydides i. 15; _Corpus Inscr. Atticarum_, iv. (1) 27a, iv. (2) 10,
+  iv. (2) p. 22; W.M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London,
+  1835), ii. 254-270; E. Curtius in _Hermes_, x. (1876), p. 220 sqq.; A.
+  Holm, _Lange Fehde_ (Berlin, 1884); H. Dondorff, _De Rebus
+  Chalcidensium_ (Gottingen, 1869); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia
+  Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 303-5; and art. NUMISMATICS: _Greek_ S
+  Euboea.
+
+
+
+
+CHALCONDYLES[1] (or CHALCOCONDYLAS), LAONICUS, the only Athenian
+Byzantine writer. Hardly anything is known of his life. He wrote a
+history, in ten books, of the period from 1298-1463, describing the fall
+of the Greek empire and the rise of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the
+centre of the narrative, down to the conquest of the Venetians and
+Mathias, king of Hungary, by Mahommed II. The capture of Constantinople
+he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching importance,
+although the comparison of it to the fall of Troy is hardly appropriate.
+The work incidentally gives a quaint and interesting sketch of the
+manners and civilization of England, France and Germany, whose
+assistance the Greeks sought to obtain against the Turks. Like that of
+other Byzantine writers, Chalcondyles' chronology is defective, and his
+adherence to the old Greek geographical nomenclature is a source of
+confusion. For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain
+information from his father, who was one of the most prominent men in
+Athens during the struggles between the Greek and Frankish nobles. His
+model is Thucydides (according to Bekker, Herodotus); his language is
+tolerably pure and correct, his style simple and clear. The text,
+however, is in a very corrupt state.
+
+  _Editio princeps_, ed. J.B. Baumbach (1615); in Bonn _Corpus
+  Scriptorum Hist. Byz._ ed. I. Bekker (1843); Migne, _Patrologia
+  Graeca_, clix. There is a French translation by Blaise de Vigenere
+  (1577, later ed. by Artus Thomas with valuable illustrations on
+  Turkish matters); see also F. Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Athen
+  im Mittelalter_, ii. (1889); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. 66; C.
+  Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). There
+  is a biographical sketch of Laonicus and his brother in Greek by
+  Antonius Calosynas, a physician of Toledo, who lived in the latter
+  part of the 16th century (see C. Hopf, _Chroniques greco-romanes_,
+  1873).
+
+His brother, DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES (1424-1511), was born in Athens. In
+1447 he migrated to Italy, where Cardinal Bessarion gave him his
+patronage. He became famous as a teacher of Greek letters and the
+Platonic philosophy; in 1463 he was made professor at Padua, and in 1479
+he was summoned by Lorenzo de' Medici to Florence to fill the
+professorship vacated by John Argyropoulos. In 1492 he removed to Milan,
+where he died in 1511. He was associated with Marsilius Ficinus, Angelus
+Politianus, and Theodorus Gaza, in the revival of letters in the western
+world. One of his pupils at Florence was the famous John Reuchlin.
+Demetrius Chalcondyles published the editio princeps of Homer,
+Isocrates, and Suidas, and a Greek grammar (_Erotemata_) in the form of
+question and answer.
+
+  See H. Hody, _De Graecis illustribus_ (1742); C. Hopf, _Chroniques
+  greco-romanes_ (1873); E. Legrand, _Bibliographic hellenique_, i.
+  (1885).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A shortened form of Chalcocondyles, from [Greek: chalkos],
+    copper, and [Greek: kondylos], knuckle.
+
+
+
+
+CHALDAEA. The expressions "Chaldaea" and "Chaldaeans" are frequently
+used in the Old Testament as equivalents for "Babylonia" and
+"Babylonians." Chaldaea was really the name of a country, used in two
+senses. It was first applied to the extreme southern district, whose
+ancient capital was the city of _Bit Yakin_, the chief seat of the
+renowned Chaldaean rebel Merodach-baladan, who harassed the Assyrian
+kings Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not as yet possible to fix the exact
+boundaries of the original home of the Chaldaeans, but it may be
+regarded as having been the long stretch of alluvial land situated at
+the then separate mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, which rivers now
+combine to flow into the Persian Gulf in the waters of the majestic
+_Shatt el 'Arab_.
+
+The name "Chaldaea," however, soon came to have a more extensive
+application. In the days of the Assyrian king Ramman-nirari III.
+(812-783 B.C.), the term _mat Kaldu_ covered practically all Babylonia.
+Furthermore, Merodach-baladan was called by Sargon II. (722-705 B.C.)
+"king of the land of the Chaldaeans" and "king of the land of Bit Yakin"
+after the old capital city, but there is no satisfactory evidence that
+Merodach-baladan had the right to the title "Babylonian." The racial
+distinction between the Chaldaeans and the Babylonians proper seems to
+have existed until a much later date, although it is almost certain that
+the former were originally a Semitic people. That they differed from the
+Arabs and Aramaeans is also seen from the distinction made by
+Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.) between the Chaldaeans and these races.
+Later, during the period covering the fall of Assyria and the rise of
+the Neo-Babylonian empire, the term _mat Kaldu_ was not only applied to
+all Babylonia, but also embraced the territory of certain foreign
+nations who were later included by Ezekiel (xxiii. 23) under the
+expression "Chaldaeans."
+
+As already indicated, the Chaldaeans were most probably a Semitic
+people. It is likely that they first came from Arabia, the supposed
+original home of the Semitic races, at a very early date along the coast
+of the Persian Gulf and settled in the neighbourhood of Ur ("Ur of the
+Chaldees," Gen. xi. 28), whence they began a series of encroachments,
+partly by warfare and partly by immigration, against the other Semitic
+Babylonians. These aggressions after many centuries ended in the
+Chaldaean supremacy of Nabopolassar and his successors (c. 626 ff.),
+although there is no positive proof that Nabopolassar was purely
+Chaldaean in blood. The sudden rise of the later Babylonian empire under
+Nebuchadrezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, must have tended to produce so
+thorough an amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, who had
+theretofore been considered as two kindred branches of the same original
+Semite stock, that in the course of time no perceptible differences
+existed between them. A similar amalgamation, although in this case of
+two peoples originally racially distinct, has taken place in modern
+times between the Manchu Tatars and the Chinese. It is quite evident,
+for example, from the Semitic character of the Chaldaean king-names,
+that the language of these Chaldaeans differed in no way from the
+ordinary Semitic Babylonian idiom which was practically identical with
+that of Assyria. Consequently, the term "Chaldaean" came quite naturally
+to be used in later days as synonymous with "Babylonian." When
+subsequently the Babylonian language went out of use and Aramaic took
+its place, the latter tongue was wrongly termed "Chaldee" by Jerome,
+because it was the only language known to him used in Babylonia. This
+error was followed until a very recent date by many scholars.
+
+The derivation of the name "Chaldaean" is extremely uncertain. Peter
+Jensen has conjectured with slight probability that the Chaldaeans were
+Semitized Sumerians, i.e. a non-Semitic tribe which by contact with
+Semitic influences had lost its original character. There seems to be
+little or no evidence to support such a view. Friedrich Delitzsch
+derived the name "Chaldaean" =_Kasdim_ from the non-Semitic Kassites who
+held the supremacy over practically all Babylonia during an extended
+period (c. 1783-1200 B.C.). This theory seems also to be extremely
+improbable. It is much more likely that the name "Chaldaean" is
+connected with the Semitic stem _kasadu_ (conquer), in which case
+_Kaldi-Kasdi_, with the well-known interchange of l and _s_, would mean
+"conquerors." It is also possible that _Kasdu-Kaldu_ is connected with
+the proper name Chesed, who is represented as having been the nephew of
+Abraham (Gen. xxii. 22). There is no connexion whatever between the
+Black Sea peoples called "Chaldaeans" by Xenophon (_Anab_. vii. 25) and
+the Chaldaeans of Babylonia.
+
+In Daniel, the term "Chaldaeans" is very commonly employed with the
+meaning "astrologers, astronomers," which sense also appears in the
+classical authors, notably in Herodotus, Strabo and Diodorus. In Daniel
+i. 4, by the expression "tongue of the Chaldaeans," the writer evidently
+meant the language in which the celebrated Babylonian works on astrology
+and divination were composed. It is now known that the literary idiom of
+the Babylonian wise men was the non-Semitic Sumerian; but it is not
+probable that the late author of Daniel (c. 168 B.C.) was aware of this
+fact.
+
+The word "Chaldaean" is used in Daniel in two senses. It is applied as
+elsewhere in the Old Testament as a race-name to the Babylonians (Dan.
+iii. 8, v. 30, ix. 1); but the expression is used oftener, either as a
+name for some special class of magicians, or as a term for magicians in
+general (ix. 1). The transfer of the name of the people to a special
+class is perhaps to be explained in the following manner. As just shown,
+"Chaldaean" and "Babylonian" had become in later times practically
+synonymous, but the term "Chaldaean" had lived on in the secondary
+restricted sense of "wise men." The early _Kaldi_ had seized and held
+from very ancient times the region of old Sumer, which was the centre of
+the primitive non-Semitic culture. It seems extremely probable that
+these Chaldaean Semites were so strongly influenced by the foreign
+civilization as to adopt it eventually as their own. Then, as the
+Chaldaeans soon became the dominant people, the priestly caste of that
+region developed into a Chaldaean institution. It is reasonable to
+conjecture that southern Babylonia, the home of the old culture,
+supplied Babylon and other important cities with priests, who from their
+descent were correctly called "Chaldaeans." This name in later times,
+owing to the racial amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, lost
+its former national force, and became, as it occurs in Daniel, a
+distinctive appellation of the Babylonian priestly class. It is
+possible, though not certain, that the occurrence of the word _kalu_
+(priest) in Babylonian, which has no etymological connexion with
+_Kaldu_, may have contributed paronomastically towards the popular use
+of the term "Chaldaeans" for the Babylonian Magi. (See also ASTROLOGY.)
+
+  LITERATURE.--Delattre, _Les Chaldeens jusqu'a la fond. de l'emp. de
+  Nebuch._ (1889); Winckler, _Untersuchungen zur altor. Gesch._ (1889),
+  pp. 49 ff.; _Gesch. Bab. u. Assyr._ (1892), pp. 111 ff.; Prince,
+  _Commentary on Daniel_ (1899), pp. 59-61; see also BABYLONIA AND
+  ASSYRIA and SUMER AND SUMERIAN.     (J. D. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALDEE, a term sometimes applied to the Aramaic portions of the
+biblical books of Ezra and Daniel or to the vernacular paraphrases of
+the Old Testament (see TARGUM). The explanation formerly adopted and
+embodied in the name Chaldee is that the change took place in Babylon.
+That the so-called Biblical Chaldee, in which considerable portions of
+the books of Ezra and Daniel are written, was really the language of
+Babylon was supposed to be clear from Dan. ii. 4, where the Chaldaeans
+are said to have spoken to the king in Aramaic. But the cuneiform
+inscriptions show that the language of the Chaldaeans was Assyrian; and
+an examination of the very large part of the Hebrew Old Testament
+written later than the exile proves conclusively that the substitution
+of Aramaic for Hebrew as the vernacular of Palestine took place very
+gradually. Hence scholars are now agreed that the term "Chaldee" is a
+misnomer, and that the dialect so called is really the language of the
+South-Western Arameans, who were the immediate neighbours of the Jews
+(W. Wright, _Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages_, p. 16). (See
+SEMITIC LANGUAGES.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALICE (through a central O. Fr. form of the Lat. _calix_, _calicis_,
+cup), a drinking-vessel of the cup or goblet form, now only used of the
+cup used in the celebration of the Eucharist (q.v.). For the various
+forms which the "chalice" so used has taken, see DRINKING-VESSELS and
+PLATE. When, in the eucharistic service, water is mixed with the wine,
+the "chalice" is known as the "mixed chalice." This has been customary
+both in the Eastern and Western Churches from early times. The Armenian
+Church does not use the "mixed chalice." It was used in the English
+Church before the Reformation. According to the present law of the
+English Church, the mixing of the water with wine is lawful, if this is
+not done as part of or during the services, i.e. if it is not done
+ceremonially (_Martin_ v. _Mackonochie_, 1868, L.R. 2 P.C. 365; _Read_
+v. _Bp. of Lincoln_, 1892, A.C. 664).
+
+
+
+
+CHALIER, JOSEPH (1747-1793), French Revolutionist. He was destined by
+his family for the church, but entered business, and became a partner in
+a firm at Lyons for which he travelled in the Levant, in Italy, Spain
+and Portugal. He was in Paris in 1789, and entered into relations with
+Marat, Camille Desmoulins and Robespierre. On his return to Lyons,
+Chalier was the first to be named member of the municipal bureau. He
+organized the national guard, applied the civil constitution of the
+clergy, and regulated the finances of the city so as to tax the rich
+heavily and spare the poor. Denounced to the Legislative Assembly by the
+directory of the department of Rhone-et-Loire for having made a
+nocturnal domiciliary perquisition, he was sent to the bar of the
+Assembly, which approved of his conduct. In the election for mayor of
+Lyons, in November 1792, he was defeated by a Royalist. Then Chalier
+became the orator and leader of the Jacobins of Lyons, and induced the
+other revolutionary clubs and the commune of his city to arrest a great
+number of Royalists in the night of the 5th and 6th of February 1793.
+The mayor, supported by the national guard, opposed this project.
+Chalier demanded of the Convention the establishment of a revolutionary
+tribunal and the levy of a revolutionary army at Lyons. The Convention
+refused, and the anti-revolutionary party, encouraged by this refusal,
+took action. On the 29th and 30th of May 1793 the sections rose; the
+Jacobins were dispossessed of the municipality and Chalier arrested. On
+the 15th of July, in spite of the order of the Convention, he was
+brought before the criminal tribunal of the Rhone-et-Loire, condemned to
+death, and guillotined the next day. The Terrorists paid a veritable
+worship to his memory, as to a martyr of Liberty.
+
+  See N. Wahl, "Etude sur Chalier," in _Revue historique_, t. xxxiv.;
+  and _Les Premieres Annees de la Revolution a Lyon_ (Paris, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CHALK, the name given to any soft, pulverulent, pure white limestone.
+The word is an old one, having its origin in the Saxon _cealc_, and the
+hard form "kalk" is still in use amongst the country folk of
+Lincolnshire. The German _Kalk_ comprehends all forms of limestone;
+therefore a special term, _Kreide_, is employed for chalk--French
+_craie_. From being used as a common name, denoting a particular
+material, the word was subsequently utilized by geologists as an
+appellation for the _Chalk formation_; and so prominent was this
+formation in the eyes of the earlier workers that it imposed its name
+upon a whole system of rocks, the Cretaceous (Lat. _creta_, chalk),
+although this rock itself is by no means generally characteristic of the
+system as a whole.
+
+The Chalk formation, in addition to the typical chalk material--_creta
+scriptoria_--comprises several variations; argillaceous kinds--_creta
+marga_ of Linnaeus--known locally as malm, marl, clunch, &c.; and
+harder, more stony kinds, called rag, freestone, rock, hurlock or
+harrock in different districts. In certain parts of the formation layers
+of nodular flints (q.v.) abound; in parts, it is inclined to be sandy,
+or to contain grains of glauconite which was originally confounded with
+another green mineral, chlorite, hence the name "chloritic marl" applied
+to one of the subdivisions of the chalk. In its purest form chalk
+consists of from 95 to 99% of calcium carbonate (carbonate of lime); in
+this condition it is composed of a mass of fine granular particles held
+together by a somewhat feeble calcareous cement. The particles are
+mostly the broken tests of foraminifera, along with the debris of
+echinoderm and molluscan shells, and many minute bodies, like
+coccoliths, of somewhat obscure nature.
+
+  The earliest attempts at subdivision of the Chalk formation initiated
+  by Wm. Phillips were based upon lithological characters, and such a
+  classification as "Upper Chalk with Flints," "Lower Chalk without
+  Flints," "Chalk marl or Grey chalk," was generally in use in England
+  until W. Whitaker established the following order in 1865:--
+
+    Upper Chalk, with flints
+
+                 / chalk rock
+    Lower Chalk <  chalk with few flints
+                 \ chalk without flints
+
+    Chalk Marl   / Totternhoe stone
+                 \     "      marl
+
+  In France, a similar system of classification was in vogue, the
+  subdivisions being _craie blanche_, _craie tufan_, _craie chloritee_,
+  until 1843 when d'Orbigny proposed the term _Senonien_ for the Upper
+  Chalk and _Turonien_ for the Lower; later he divided the _Turonien_,
+  giving the name _Cenomanien_ to the lower portion. The subdivisions of
+  d'Orbigny were based upon the fossil contents and not upon the
+  lithological characters of the rocks. In 1876 Prof. Ch. Barrois showed
+  how d'Orbigny's classification might be applied to the British chalk
+  rocks; and this scheme has been generally adopted by geologists,
+  although there is some divergence of opinion as to the exact position
+  of the base line of the Cenomanian.
+
+  The accompanying table shows the classification now adopted in
+  England, with the zonal fossils and the continental names of the  substages:--
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+
+    |                                               |                     |N. France |  S.E. and |
+    |        Zonal fossils used in Britain.         |       Stages.       |   and    | S. France.|
+    |                                               |                     | Belgium.*|           |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+
+    |   / _Ostrea lunata_ (Norfolk)                 | Danian?             |          |           |
+    |   |                                           | (Trimingham)        |          |           |
+    |   | _Belemnitella mucronata_                  |                     |          |           |
+    |A.<  _Actinocamax quadratus_                   | Upper Chalk         |          |           |
+    |   | = _Inoceramus lingua_ in Yorkshire        | Senonian            | Flint-   |           |
+    |   |                            / _Marsupites_,| _Craie blanche_     | bearing  |           |
+    |   \ _Marsupites testudinarium_ \ _Uintacrinus_|                     | chalk.   |           |
+    |                                               |                     |          | Marls,    |
+    |   / _Micraster cor-anguinum_                  |                     |          | sandstones|
+    |B.<      "     _cor-testudinarium_             |                     |          | and       |
+    |   \ _Holaster planus_, Chalk rock             |                     |          | limestones|
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+          | (not      |
+    | _Terebratulina gracilis_                      | Middle Chalk        |          | chalky)   |
+    |                                               | Turonian            |          | with      |
+    | _Rhynchonella Cuvieri_, Melbourne rock        | _Craie marneuse_    |          | _Hippur-  |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+          |   ites_.  |
+    |                                               | Lower Chalk,        |          |           |
+    |                                               | Chalk Marl and      |          |           |
+    |                                               | Cambridge Greensand | Marly    |           |
+    | _Actinocamax plenus_                          | Cenomanian          | chalk.   |           |
+    | _Holaster subglobosus_, Totternhoe stone.     |                     |          |           |
+    | _Schloenbachia varians_.                      | _Craie glauconieuse_|          |           |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+
+  * (See table in article CRETACEOUS SYSTEM,)
+
+Since Prof. Barrois introduced the zonal system of subdivision (C. Evans
+had used a similar scheme six years earlier), our knowledge of the
+English chalk has been greatly increased by the work of Jukes-Browne and
+William Hill, and particularly by the laborious studies of Dr A.W. Rowe.
+Instead of employing the mixed assemblage of animals indicated as zone
+fossils in the table, A. de Grossouvre proposed a scheme for the north
+of France based upon ammonite faunas alone, which he contended would be
+of more general applicability (_Recherches sur la Craie Superieure_,
+Paris, 1901).
+
+The Upper Chalk has a maximum thickness in England of about 1000 ft.,
+but post-cretaceous erosion has removed much of it in many districts. It
+is more constant in character, and more typically chalky than the lower
+stages; flints are abundant, and harder nodular beds are limited to the
+lower portions, where some of the compact limestones are known as "chalk
+rock." The thickness of the Middle Chalk varies from about 100 to 240
+ft.; flints become scarcer in descending from the upper to the lower
+portions. The whole is more compact than the upper stage, and nodular
+layers are more frequent--the "chalk rock" of Dorset and the Isle of
+Wight belong to this stage. At the base is the hard "Melbourne rock."
+The thickness of the Lower Chalk in England varies from 60 to 240 ft.
+This stage includes part of the "white chalk without flints," the "chalk
+marl," and the "grey chalk." The Totternhoe stone is a hard freestone
+found locally in this stage. The basement bed in Norfolk is a pure
+limestone, but very frequently it is marly with grains of sand and
+glauconite, and often contains phosphatic nodules; this facies is
+equivalent to the "Cambridge Greensand" of some districts and the
+"chloritic marl" of others. In Devonshire the Lower Chalk has become
+thin sandy calcareous series.
+
+The chalk can be traced in England from Flamborough Head in Yorkshire,
+in a south-westerly direction, to the coast of Dorset; and it not only
+underlies the whole of the S.E. corner, where it is often obscured by
+Tertiary deposits, but it can be followed across the Channel into
+northern France. Rocks of the same age as the chalk are widespread (see
+CRETACEOUS SYSTEM); but the variety of limestone properly called by this
+name is almost confined to the Anglo-Parisian basin. Some chalk occurs
+in the great Cretaceous deposits of Russia, and in Kansas, Iowa,
+Nebraska and S. Dakota in the United States. Hard white chalk occurs in
+Ireland in Antrim, and on the opposite shore of Scotland in Mull and
+Morven.
+
+_Economic Products of the Chalk._--Common chalk has been frequently used
+for rough building purposes, but the more important building stones are
+"Beer stone," from Beer Head in Devonshire, "Sutton stone" from a little
+north of Beer, and the "Totternhoe stone." It is burned for lime, and
+when mixed with some form of clay is used for the manufacture of cement;
+chalk marl has been used alone for this purpose. As a manure, it has
+been much used as a dressing for clayey land. Flints from the chalk are
+used for road metal and concrete, and have been employed in building as
+a facing for walls. Phosphatic nodules for manure have been worked from
+the chloritic marl and Cambridge Greensand, and to some extent from the
+Middle Chalk. The same material is worked at Ciply in Belgium and
+Picardy in France. Chalk is employed in the manufacture of carbonate of
+soda, in the preparation of carbon dioxide, and in many other chemical
+processes; also for making paints, crayons and tooth-powder. _Whiting_
+or _Spanish white_, used to polish glass and metal, is purified chalk
+prepared by triturating common chalk with a large quantity of water,
+which is then decanted and allowed to deposit the finely-divided
+particles it holds in suspension.
+
+_Chalk Scenery._--Where exposed at the surface, chalk produces rounded,
+smooth, grass-covered hills as in the Downs of southern England and the
+Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The hills are often intersected by
+clean-cut dry valleys. It forms fine cliffs on the coast of Kent,
+Yorkshire and Devonshire.
+
+Chalk is employed medicinally as a very mild astringent either alone or
+more usually with other astringents. It is more often used, however, for
+a purely mechanical action, as in the preparation hydrargyrum cum creta.
+As an antacid its use has been replaced by other drugs.
+
+_Black chalk_ or _drawing slate_ is a soft carbonaceous schist, which
+gives a black streak, so that it can be used for drawing or writing.
+_Brown chalk_ is a kind of umber. _Red chalk_ or _reddle_ is an impure
+earthy variety of haematite. _French chalk_ is a soft variety of
+steatite, a hydrated magnesium silicate.
+
+  The most comprehensive account of the British chalk is contained in
+  the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom_, "The
+  Cretaceous Rocks of Britain," vol. ii. 1903, vol. iii. 1904 (with
+  bibliography), by Jukes-Browne and Hill. See also "The White Chalk of
+  the English Coast," several papers in the _Proceedings of the
+  Geologists' Association_, London, (1) Kent and Sussex, xvi. 1900, (2)
+  Dorset, xvii., 1901, (3) Devon, xviii., 1903, (4) Yorkshire, xviii.,
+  1904.     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALKHILL, JOHN (fl. 1600?), English poet. Two songs by him are included
+in Izaak Walton's _Compleat Angler_, and in 1683 appeared "Thealma and
+Clearchus. A Pastoral History in smooth and easie Verse. Written long
+since by John Chalkhill, Esq., an Acquaintant and Friend of Edmund
+Spencer" (1683), with a preface written five years earlier by Walton.
+Another poem, "Alcilia, Philoparthens Loving Follie" (1595, reprinted in
+vol. x. of the _Jahrbuch des deutschen Shakespeare-Vereins_), was at one
+time attributed to him. Nothing further is known of the poet, but a
+person of his name occurs as one of the coroners for Middlesex in the
+later years of Queen Elizabeth's reign. Professor Saintsbury, who
+included _Thealma and Clearchus_ in vol. ii. of his _Minor Poets of the
+Caroline Period_ (Oxford, 1906), points out a marked resemblance between
+his work and that of William Chamberlayne.
+
+
+
+
+CHALKING THE DOOR, a Scottish custom of landlord and tenant law. In
+former days the law was that "a burgh officer, in presence of witnesses,
+chalks the most patent door forty days before Whit Sunday, having made
+out an execution of 'chalking,' in which his name must be inserted, and
+which must be subscribed by himself and two witnesses." This ceremony
+now proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The execution
+of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal will be
+pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the tenant may be
+ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days.
+
+
+
+
+CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN (1818-1894), French historian,
+was born in Paris on the 18th of March 1818. His writings consist
+chiefly of popular works, which enjoyed great success. The value of some
+of his books is enhanced by numerous illustrations, e.g. _Histoire-musee
+de la Revolution francaise_, which appeared in 50 numbers in 1841-1842
+(3rd ed., in 72 numbers, 1857-1858); _Histoire de la mode en France; la
+toilette des femmes depuis l'epoque gallo-romaine jusqu'a nos jours_
+(1874, with 12 plates; new ed., 1880, with 21 coloured plates). His
+_Memoires du peuple francaise_ (1865-1873) and _La France et les
+Francais a travers les siecles_ (1882) at least have the merit of being
+among the first books written on the social history of France. In this
+sense Challamel was a pioneer, of no great originality, it is true, but
+at any rate of fairly wide information. He died on the 20th of October
+1894.
+
+
+
+
+CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND (1827-1896), French statesman, was born at
+Avranches on the 19th of May 1827. After passing through the Ecole
+Normale Superieure he became professor of philosophy successively at Pau
+and at Limoges. The _coup d'etat_ of 1851 caused his expulsion from
+France for his republican opinions. He travelled on the continent, and
+in 1856 settled down as professor of French literature at the
+Polytechnic of Zurich. The amnesty of 1859 enabled him to return to
+France, but a projected course of lectures on history and art was
+immediately suppressed. He now supported himself by his pen, and became
+a regular contributor to the reviews. On the fall of the Second Empire
+in September 1870 the government of national defence appointed him
+prefect of the department of the Rhone, in which capacity he had to
+suppress the Communist rising at Lyons. Resigning his post on the 5th of
+February 1871, he was in January 1872 elected to the National Assembly,
+and in 1876 to the Senate. He sat at first on the Extreme Left; but his
+philosophic and critical temperament was not in harmony with the
+recklessness of French radicalism, and his attitude towards political
+questions underwent a steady modification, till the close of his life
+saw him the foremost representative of moderate republicanism. During
+Gambetta's lifetime, however, Challemel-Lacour was one of his warmest
+supporters, and he was for a time editor of Gambetta's organ, the
+_Republique francaise_. In 1879 he was appointed French ambassador at
+Bern, and in 1880 was transferred to London; but he lacked the
+suppleness and command of temper necessary to a successful diplomatist.
+He resigned in 1882, and in February 1883 became minister of foreign
+affairs in the Jules Ferry cabinet, but retired in November of the same
+year. In 1890 he was elected vice-president of the Senate, and in 1893
+succeeded Jules Ferry as its president. His influence over that body was
+largely due to his clear and reasoned eloquence, which placed him at the
+head of contemporary French orators. In 1893 he also became a member of
+the French Academy. He distinguished himself by the vigour with which he
+upheld the Senate against the encroachments of the chamber, but in 1895
+failing health forced him to resign, and he died in Paris on the 26th of
+October 1896. He published a translation of A. Heinrich Ritter's
+_Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1861); _La Philosophie individualiste:
+etude sur Guillaume de Humboldt_ (1864); and an edition of the works of
+Madame d'Epinay (1869).
+
+  In 1897 appeared Joseph Reinach's edition of the _OEuvres oratoires
+  de Challemel-Lacour_.
+
+
+
+
+CHALLENGE (O. Fr. _chalonge, calenge_, &c., from Lat. _calumnia_,
+originally meaning trickery, from _calvi_, to deceive, hence a false
+accusation, a "calumny"), originally a charge against a person or a
+claim to anything, a defiance. The term is now particularly used of an
+invitation to a trial of skill in any contest, or to a trial by combat
+as a vindication of personal honour (see DUEL), and, in law, of the
+objection to the members of a jury allowed in a civil action or in a
+criminal trial (see JURY).
+
+
+
+
+"CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION. The scientific results of several short
+expeditions between 1860 and 1870 encouraged the council of the Royal
+Society to approach the British government, on the suggestion of Sir
+George Richards, hydrographer to the admiralty, with a view to
+commissioning a vessel for a prolonged cruise for oceanic exploration.
+The government detailed H.M.S. "Challenger," a wooden corvette of 2306
+tons, for the purpose. Captain (afterwards Sir) George Nares was placed
+in command, with a naval crew; and a scientific staff was selected by
+the society with Professor (afterwards Sir) C. Wyville Thomson as
+director. The staff included Mr (afterwards Sir) John Murray and Mr H.N.
+Moseley, biologists; Dr von Willemoes-Suhm, Commander Tizard, and Mr
+J.Y. Buchanan, chemist and geologist. A complete scheme of instructions
+was drawn up by the society. The "Challenger" sailed from Portsmouth in
+December 1872. For nearly a year the work of the expedition lay in the
+Atlantic, which was crossed several times. Teneriffe, the Bermudas, the
+Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd Islands, Bahia and Tristan da Cunha were
+successively visited, and in October 1873 the ship reached Cape Town.
+Steering then south-east and east she visited the various islands
+between 45 deg. and 50 deg. S., and reached Kerguelen Island in January
+1874. She next proceeded southward about the meridian of 80 deg. E. She
+was the first steamship to cross the Antarctic circle, but the
+attainment of a high southerly latitude was not an object of the voyage,
+and early in March the ship left the south polar regions and made for
+Melbourne. Extensive researches were now made in the Pacific. The route
+led by New Zealand, the Fiji Islands, Torres Strait, the Banda Sea, and
+the China Sea to Hong Kong. The western Pacific was then explored
+northward to Yokohama, after which the "Challenger" struck across the
+ocean by Honolulu and Tahiti to Valparaiso. She then coasted southward,
+penetrated the Straits of Magellan, touched at Montevideo, recrossed the
+Atlantic by Ascension and the Azores, and reached Sheerness in May 1876.
+This voyage is without parallel in the history of scientific research.
+The _"Challenger" Report_ was issued in fifty volumes (London,
+1880-1895), mainly under the direction of Sir John Murray, who succeeded
+Wyville Thomson in this work in 1882. Specialists in every branch of
+science assisted in its production. The zoological collections alone
+formed the basis for the majority of the volumes; the deep-sea soundings
+and samples of the deposits, the chemical analysis of water samples, the
+meteorological, water-temperature, magnetic, geological, and botanical
+observations were fully worked out, and a summary of the scientific
+results, narrative of the cruise and indices were also provided.
+
+  See also Lord G. Campbell, _Log Letters from the "Challenger"_,
+  (1876); W.J.J. Spry, _Cruise of H.M.S. "Challenger"_ (1876); Sir C.
+  Wyville Thomson, _Voyage of the "Challenger," The Atlantic,
+  Preliminary Account of General Results_ (1877); J.J. Wild, _At Anchor;
+  Narrative of Experiences afloat and ashore during the Voyage of H.M.S.
+  "Challenger"_ (1878); H.N. Moseley, _Notes by a Naturalist on the
+  "Challenger"_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+CHALLONER, RICHARD (1691-1781), English Roman Catholic prelate, was born
+at Lewes, Sussex, on the 29th of September 1691. After the death of his
+father, who was a rigid Dissenter, his mother, left in poverty, lived
+with some Roman Catholic families. Thus it came about that he was
+brought up as a Roman Catholic, chiefly at the seat of Mr Holman at
+Warkworth, Northamptonshire, where the Rev. John Gother, a celebrated
+controversialist, officiated as chaplain. In 1704 he was sent to the
+English College at Douai, where he was ordained a priest in 1716, took
+his degrees in divinity, and was appointed professor in that faculty. In
+1730 he was sent on the English mission and stationed in London. The
+controversial treatises which he published in rapid succession attracted
+much attention, particularly his _Catholic Christian Instructed_ (1737),
+which was prefaced by a witty reply to Dr Conyers Middleton's _Letters
+from Rome, showing an Exact Conformity between Popery and Paganism_.
+Middleton is said to have been so irritated that he endeavoured to put
+the penal laws in force against his antagonist, who prudently withdrew
+from London. In 1741 Challoner was raised to the episcopal dignity at
+Hammersmith, and nominated co-adjutor with right of succession to Bishop
+Benjamin Petre, vicar-apostolic of the London district, whom he
+succeeded in 1758. He resided principally in London, but was obliged to
+retire into the country during the "No Popery" riots of 1780. He died on
+the 12th of January 1781, and was buried at Milton, Berkshire. Bishop
+Challoner was the author of numerous controversial and devotional works,
+which have been frequently reprinted and translated into various
+languages. He compiled the _Garden of the Soul_ (1740 ?), which
+continues to be the most popular manual of devotion among
+English-speaking Roman Catholics, and he revised an edition of the Douai
+version of the Scriptures (1749-1750), correcting the language and
+orthography, which in many places had become obsolete. Of his historical
+works the most valuable is one which was intended to be a Roman Catholic
+antidote to Foxe's well-known martyrology. It is entitled _Memoirs of
+Missionary Priests and other Catholicks of both Sexes who suffered Death
+or Imprisonment in England on account of their Religion, from the year
+1577 till the end of the reign of Charles II._ (2 vols. 1741, frequently
+reprinted). He also published anonymously, in 1745, the lives of
+English, Scotch and Irish saints, under the title of _Britannia Sancta_,
+an interesting work which has, however, been superseded by that of Alban
+Butler.
+
+  For a complete list of his writings see J. Gillow's _Bibl. Dict. of
+  Eng. Cath._ i. 452-458; Barnard, _Life of R. Challoner_ (1784);
+  Flanagan, _History of the Catholic Church in England_ (1857); there is
+  also a critical history of Challoner by Rev. E. Burton.
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1750-1834), Scottish writer, was born in Aberdeen
+on the 29th of March 1759. He was educated as a doctor, but gave up this
+profession for journalism, and he was for some time editor of the
+_Morning Herald_. Besides editions of the works of Shakespeare, Beattie,
+Fielding, Johnson, Warton, Pope, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, he published _A
+General Biographical Dictionary_ in 32 vols.(1812-1817); a _Glossary to
+Shakspeare_ (1797); an edition of Steevens's Shakespeare (1809); and the
+_British Essayists_, beginning with the _Tatler_ and ending with the
+_Observer_, with biographical and historical prefaces and a general
+index. He died in London on the 19th of December 1834.
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825), Scottish antiquarian and political writer,
+was born at Fochabers, a village in the county of Moray, in 1742. His
+father, James Chalmers, was a grandson of George Chalmers of Pittensear,
+a small estate in the parish of Lhanbryde, now St Andrews-Lhanbryde, in
+the same county, possessed by the main line of the family from about the
+beginning of the 17th to the middle of the 18th century. After
+completing the usual course at King's College, Aberdeen, young Chalmers
+studied law in Edinburgh for several years. Two uncles on the father's
+side having settled in America, he visited Maryland in 1763, with the
+view, it is said, of assisting to recover a tract of land of some extent
+about which a dispute had arisen, and was in this way induced to
+commence practice as a lawyer at Baltimore, where for a time he met with
+much success. Having, however, espoused the cause of the Royalist party
+on the breaking out of the American War of Independence, he found it
+expedient to abandon his professional prospects in the New World, and
+return to his native country. For the losses he had sustained as a
+colonist he received no compensation, and several years elapsed before
+he obtained an appointment that placed him in a state of comfort and
+independence.
+
+In the meantime Chalmers applied himself with great diligence and
+assiduity to the investigation of the history and establishment of the
+English colonies in North America; and enjoying free access to the state
+papers and other documents preserved among what were then termed the
+plantation records, he became possessed of much important information.
+His work entitled _Political Annals of the present United Colonies from
+their Settlement to the Peace of 1763_, 4to, London, 1780, was to have
+formed two volumes; but the second, which should have contained the
+period between 1688 and 1763, never appeared. The first volume, however,
+is complete in itself, and traces the original settlement of the
+different American colonies, and the progressive changes in their
+constitutions and forms of government as affected by the state of public
+affairs in the parent kingdom. Independently of its value as being
+compiled from original documents, it bears evidence of great research,
+and has been of essential benefit to later writers. Continuing his
+researches, he next gave to the world _An Estimate of the Comparative
+Strength of Britain during the Present and Four Preceding Reigns_,
+London, 1782, which passed through several editions. At length, in
+August 1786, Chalmers, whose sufferings as a Royalist must have strongly
+recommended him to the government of the day, was appointed chief clerk
+to the committee of privy council on matters relating to trade, a
+situation which he retained till his death in 1825, a period of nearly
+forty years. As his official duties made no great demands on his time,
+he had abundant leisure to devote to his favourite studies,--the
+antiquities and topography of Scotland having thenceforth special
+attractions for his busy pen.
+
+Besides biographical sketches of Defoe, Sir John Davies, Allan Ramsay,
+Sir David Lyndsay, Churchyard and others, prefixed to editions of their
+respective works, Chalmers wrote a life of Thomas Paine, the author of
+the _Rights of Man_, which he published under the assumed name of
+Francis Oldys, A.M., of the University of Pennsylvania; and a life of
+Ruddiman, in which considerable light is thrown on the state of
+literature in Scotland during the earlier part of the last century. His
+life of Mary, Queen of Scots, in two 4to vols., was first published in
+1818. It is founded on a MS. left by John Whitaker, the historian of
+Manchester; but Chalmers informs us that he found it necessary to
+rewrite the whole. The history of that ill-fated queen occupied much of
+his attention, and his last work, _A Detection of the Love-Letters
+lately attributed in Hugh Campbell's work to Mary Queen of Scots_, is an
+exposure of an attempt to represent as genuine some fictitious letters
+said to have passed between Mary and Bothwell which had fallen into
+deserved oblivion. In 1797 appeared his _Apology for the Believers in
+the Shakespeare Papers which were exhibited in Norfolk Street_, followed
+by other tracts on the same subject. These contributions to the
+literature of Shakespeare are full of curious matter, but on the whole
+display a great waste of erudition, in seeking to show that papers which
+had been proved forgeries might nevertheless have been genuine. Chalmers
+also took part in the Junius controversy, and in _The Author of Junius
+Ascertained, from a Concatenation of Circumstances amounting to Moral
+Demonstration_, Lond. 1817, 8vo, sought to fix the authorship of the
+celebrated letters on Hugh Boyd. In 1824 he published _The Poetical
+Remains of some of the Scottish Kings, now first collected_; and in the
+same year he edited and presented as a contribution to the Bannatyne
+Club _Robene and Makyne and the Testament of Cresseid, by Robert
+Henryson_. His political writings are equally numerous. Among them may
+be mentioned _Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other
+Powers_, Lond. 1790, 2 vols. 8vo; _Vindication of the Privileges of the
+People in respect to the Constitutional Right of Free Discussion_, &c.,
+Lond. 1796, 8vo, published anonymously; _A Chronological Account of
+Commerce and Coinage in Great Britain from the Restoration till 1810_,
+Lond. 1810, 8vo; _Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on various points of
+English Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies, Fisheries, and
+Commerce of Great Britain_, Lond. 1814, 2 vols. 8vo; _Comparative Views
+of the State of Great Britain before and since the War_, Lond. 1817,
+8vo.
+
+But Chalmers's greatest work is his _Caledonia_, which, however, he did
+not live to complete. The first volume appeared in 1807, and is
+introductory to the others. It is divided into four books, treating
+successively of the Roman, the Pictish, the Scottish and the Scoto-Saxon
+periods, from 80 to 1306 A.D. In these we are presented, in a condensed
+form, with an account of the people, the language and the civil and
+ecclesiastical history, as well as the agricultural and commercial state
+of Scotland during the first thirteen centuries of our era.
+Unfortunately the chapters on the Roman period are entirely marred by
+the author's having accepted as genuine Bertram's forgery _De Situ
+Britanniae_; but otherwise his opinions on controverted topics are
+worthy of much respect, being founded on a laborious investigation of
+all the original authorities that were accessible to him. The second
+volume, published in 1810, gives an account of the seven south-eastern
+counties of Scotland--Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh,
+Linlithgow, Peebles and Selkirk--each of them being treated of as
+regards name, situation and extent, natural objects, antiquities,
+establishment as shires, civil history, agriculture, manufactures and
+trade, and ecclesiastical history. In 1824, after an interval of
+fourteen years, the third volume appeared, giving, under the same
+headings, a description of the seven south-western counties--Dumfries,
+Kirkcudbright, Wigtown, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew and Dumbarton. In the
+preface to this volume the author states that the materials for the
+history of the central and northern counties were collected, and that he
+expected the work would be completed in two years, but this expectation
+was not destined to be realized. He had also been engaged on a history
+of Scottish poetry and a history of printing in Scotland. Each of them
+he thought likely to extend to two large quarto volumes, and on both he
+expended an unusual amount of enthusiasm and energy. He had also
+prepared for the press an elaborate history of the life and reign of
+David I. In his later researches he was assisted by his nephew James,
+son of Alexander Chalmers, writer in Elgin.
+
+George Chalmers died in London on the 31st of May 1825. His valuable and
+extensive library he bequeathed to his nephew, at whose death in 1841 it
+was sold and dispersed. Chalmers was a member of the Royal and
+Antiquarian Societies of London, an honorary member of the Antiquarian
+Society of Scotland, and a member of other learned societies. In private
+life he was undoubtedly an amiable man, although the dogmatic tone that
+disfigures portions of his writings procured him many opponents. Among
+his avowed antagonists in literary warfare the most distinguished were
+Malone and Steevens, the Shakespeare editors; Mathias, the author of the
+_Pursuits of Literature_; Dr Jamieson, the Scottish lexicographer;
+Pinkerton, the historian; Dr Irving, the biographer of the Scottish
+poets; and Dr Currie of Liverpool, But with all his failings in judgment
+Chalmers was a valuable writer. He uniformly had recourse to original
+sources of information; and he is entitled to great praise for his
+patriotic and self-sacrificing endeavours to illustrate the history,
+literature and antiquities of his native country.     (J. M'D.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878), Scottish painter, was born at
+Montrose, and studied at Edinburgh. His landscapes are now more valued
+than the portraits which formed his earlier work. The best of these are
+"The End of the Harvest" (1873), "Running Water" (1875), and "The
+Legend" (in the National Gallery, Edinburgh). He became an associate
+(1867) and a full member (1871) of the Scottish Academy.
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901), Scottish missionary to New Guinea, was born
+at Ardrishaig in Argyll. After serving in the Glasgow City Mission he
+passed through Cheshunt College, and, being accepted by the London
+Missionary Society, was appointed to Rarotonga in the South Pacific in
+1866. Here the natives gave him the well-known name "Tamate." After ten
+years' service, especially in training native evangelists, he was
+transferred to New Guinea. In addition to his enthusiastic but sane
+missionary work, Chalmers did much to open up the island, and, with his
+colleague W.G. Lawes, gave valuable aid in the British annexation of the
+south-east coast of the island. On the 8th of April 1901, in company
+with a brother missionary, Oliver Tomkins, he was killed by cannibals at
+Goaribari Island. R.L. Stevenson has left on record his high
+appreciation of Chalmers's character and work.
+
+  Chalmers's _Autobiography and Letters_ were edited by Richard Lovett
+  in 1902, who also wrote a popular life called _Tamate_.
+
+
+
+
+CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847), Scottish divine, was born at Anstruther in
+Fifeshire, on the 17th of March 1780. At the age of eleven he was
+entered as a student at St Andrews, where he devoted himself almost
+exclusively to mathematics. In January 1799 he was licensed as a
+preacher of the Gospel by the St Andrews presbytery. In May 1803, after
+attending further courses of lectures in Edinburgh, and acting as
+assistant to the professor of mathematics at St Andrews, he was ordained
+as minister of Kilmany in Fifeshire, about 9 m. from the university
+town, where he continued to lecture. His mathematical lectures roused so
+much enthusiasm that they were discontinued by order of the authorities,
+who disliked the disturbance of the university routine which they
+involved. Chalmers then opened mathematical classes on his own account
+which attracted many students; at the same time he delivered a course of
+lectures on chemistry, and ministered to his parish at Kilmany. In 1805
+he became a candidate for the vacant professorship of mathematics at
+Edinburgh, but was unsuccessful. In 1808 he published an _Inquiry into
+the Extent and Stability of National Resources_, a contribution to the
+discussion created by Bonaparte's commercial policy. Domestic
+bereavements and a severe illness then turned his thoughts in another
+direction. At his own request the article on Christianity was assigned
+to him in Dr Brewster's _Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_, and in studying the
+credentials of Christianity he received a new impression of its
+contents. His journal and letters show how he was led from a sustained
+effort to attain the morality of the Gospel to a profound spiritual
+revolution. After this his ministry was marked by a zeal which made it
+famous. The separate publication of his article in the _Edinburgh
+Encyclopaedia_, and contributions to the _Edinburgh Christian
+Instructor_ and the _Eclectic Review_, enhanced his reputation as an
+author. In 1815 he became minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow, in spite
+of determined opposition to him in the town council on the ground of his
+evangelical teaching. From Glasgow his repute as a preacher spread
+throughout the United Kingdom. A series of sermons on the relation
+between the discoveries of astronomy and the Christian revelation was
+published in January 1817, and within a year nine editions and 20,000
+copies were in circulation. When he visited London Wilberforce wrote,
+"all the world is wild about Dr Chalmers."
+
+In Glasgow Chalmers made one of his greatest contributions to the life
+of his own time by his experiments in parochial organization. His parish
+contained about 11,000 persons, and of these about one-third were
+unconnected with any church. He diagnosed this evil as being due to the
+absence of personal influence, spiritual oversight, and the want of
+parochial organizations which had not kept pace in the city, as they had
+done in rural parishes, with the growing population. He declared that
+twenty new churches, with parishes, should be erected in Glasgow, and he
+set to work to revivify, remodel and extend the old parochial economy of
+Scotland. The town council consented to build one new church, attaching
+to it a parish of 10,000 persons, mostly weavers, labourers and factory
+workers, and this church was offered to Dr Chalmers that he might have a
+fair opportunity of testing his system.
+
+In September 1819 he became minister of the church and parish of St
+John, where of 2000 families more than 800 had no connexion with any
+Christian church. He first addressed himself to providing schools for
+the children. Two school-houses with four endowed teachers were
+established, where 700 children were taught at the moderate fees of 2s.
+and 3s. per quarter. Between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools were
+opened, where more than 1000 children were taught the elements of
+secular and religious education. The parish was divided into 25
+districts embracing from 60 to 100 families, over each of which an elder
+and a deacon were placed, the former taking oversight of their
+spiritual, the latter of their physical needs. Chalmers was the
+mainspring of the whole system, not merely superintending the
+visitation, but personally visiting all the families, and holding
+evening meetings, when he addressed those whom he had visited. This
+parochial machinery enabled him to make a singularly successful
+experiment in dealing with the problem of poverty. At this time there
+were not more than 20 parishes north of the Forth and Clyde where there
+was a compulsory assessment for the poor, but the English method of
+assessment was rapidly spreading. Chalmers believed that compulsory
+assessment ended by swelling the evil it was intended to mitigate, and
+that relief should be raised and administered by voluntary means. His
+critics replied that this was impossible in large cities. When he
+undertook the management of the parish of St John's, the poor of the
+parish cost the city L1400 per annum, and in four years, by the adoption
+of his method, the pauper expenditure was reduced to L280 per annum. The
+investigation of all new applications for relief was committed to the
+deacon of the district, and every effort was made to enable the poor to
+help themselves. When once the system was in operation it was found that
+a deacon, by spending an hour a week among the families committed to his
+charge, could keep himself acquainted with their character and
+condition.
+
+In 1823, after eight years of work at high pressure, he was glad to
+accept the chair of moral philosophy at St Andrews, the seventh academic
+offer made to him during his eight years in Glasgow. In his lectures he
+excluded mental philosophy and included the whole sphere of moral
+obligation, dealing with man's duty to God and to his fellow-men in the
+light of Christian teaching. Many of his lectures are printed in the
+first and second volumes of his published works. In ethics he made
+contributions to the science in regard to the place and functions of
+volition and attention, the separate and underived character of the
+moral sentiments, and the distinction between the virtues of perfect and
+imperfect obligation. His lectures kindled the religious spirit among
+his students, and led some of them to devote themselves to missionary
+effort. In November 1828 he was transferred to the chair of theology in
+Edinburgh. He then introduced the practice of following the lecture with
+a viva voce examination on what had been delivered. He also introduced
+text-books, and came into stimulating contact with his people; perhaps
+no one has ever succeeded as he did by the use of these methods in
+communicating intellectual, moral and religious impulse to so many
+students.
+
+These academic years were prolific also in a literature of various
+kinds. In 1826 he published a third volume of the _Christian and Civic
+Economy of Large Towns_, a continuation of work begun at St John's,
+Glasgow. In 1832 he published a _Political Economy_, the chief purpose
+of which was to enforce the truth that the right economic condition of
+the masses is dependent on their right moral condition, that character
+is the parent of comfort, not vice versa. In 1833 appeared a treatise on
+_The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual
+Constitution of Man_. In 1834 Dr Chalmers was elected fellow of the
+Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in the same year he became corresponding
+member of the Institute of France; in 1835 Oxford conferred on him the
+degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he became leader of the evangelical section of
+the Scottish Church in the General Assembly. He was appointed chairman
+of a committee for church extension, and in that capacity made a tour
+through a large part of Scotland, addressing presbyteries and holding
+public meetings. He also issued numerous appeals, with the result that
+in 1841, when he resigned his office as convener of the church extension
+committee, he was able to announce that in seven years upwards of
+L300,000 had been contributed, and 220 new churches had been built. His
+efforts to induce the Whig government to assist in this effort were
+unsuccessful.
+
+In 1841 the movement which ended in the Disruption was rapidly
+culminating, and Dr Chalmers found himself at the head of the party
+which stood for the principle that "no minister shall be intruded into
+any parish contrary to the will of the congregation" (see FREE CHURCH OF
+SCOTLAND). Cases of conflict between the church and the civil power
+arose in Auchterarder, Dunkeld and Marnoch; and when the courts made it
+clear that the church, in their opinion, held its temporalities on
+condition of rendering such obedience as the courts required, the church
+appealed to the government for relief. In January 1843 the government
+put a final and peremptory negative on the church's claims for spiritual
+independence. On the 18th of May 1843 470 clergymen withdrew from the
+general assembly and constituted themselves the Free Church of Scotland,
+with Dr Chalmers as moderator. He had prepared a sustentation fund
+scheme for the support of the seceding ministers, and this was at once
+put into successful operation. On the 30th of May 1847, immediately
+after his return from the House of Commons, where he had given evidence
+as to the refusal of sites for Free Churches by Scottish landowners, he
+was found dead in bed.
+
+Dr Chalmers' action throughout the Free Church controversy was so
+consistent in its application of Christian principle and so free from
+personal or party animus, that his writings are a valuable source for
+argument and illustration on the question of Establishment. "I have no
+veneration," he said to the royal commissioners in St Andrews, before
+either the voluntary or the non-intrusive controversies had arisen, "for
+the Church of Scotland _qua_ an establishment, but I have the utmost
+veneration for it _qua_ an instrument of Christian good." He was
+transparent in character, chivalrous, kindly, firm, eloquent and
+sagacious; his purity of motive and unselfishness commanded absolute
+confidence; he had originality and initiative in dealing with new and
+difficult circumstances, and great aptitude for business details.
+
+During a life of incessant activity Chalmers scarcely ever allowed a day
+to pass without its modicum of composition; at the most unseasonable
+times, and in the most unlikely places, he would occupy himself with
+literary work. His writings occupy more than 30 volumes. He would have
+stood higher as an author had he written less, or had he indulged less
+in that practice of reiteration into which he was constantly betrayed by
+his anxiety to impress his ideas upon others. As a political economist
+he was the first to unfold the connexion that subsists between the
+degree of the fertility of the soil and the social condition of a
+community, the rapid manner in which capital is reproduced (see Mill's
+_Political Economy_, i. 94), and the general doctrine of a limit to all
+the modes by which national wealth may accumulate. He was the first also
+to advance that argument in favour of religious establishments which
+meets upon its own ground the doctrine of Adam Smith, that religion like
+other things should be left to the operation of the natural law of
+supply and demand. In the department of natural theology and the
+Christian evidences he ably advocated that method of reconciling the
+Mosaic narrative with the indefinite antiquity of the globe which
+William Buckland (1784-1856) advanced in his Bridgewater Treatise, and
+which Dr Chalmers had previously communicated to him. His refutation of
+Hume's objection to the truth of miracles is perhaps his intellectual
+_chef-d'oeuvre_. The distinction between the laws and dispositions of
+matter, as between the ethics and objects of theology, he was the first
+to indicate and enforce, and he laid great emphasis on the superior
+authority as witnesses for the truth of Revelation of the Scriptural as
+compared with the Extra-Scriptural writers, and of the Christian as
+compared with the non-Christian testimonies. In his _Institutes of
+Theology_, no material modification is attempted on the doctrines of
+Calvinism, which he received with all simplicity of faith as revealed in
+the Divine word, and defended as in harmony with the most profound
+philosophy of human nature and of the Divine providence.
+
+  For biographical details see Dr W. Hanna's _Memoirs_ (Edinburgh, 4
+  vols., 1849-1852); there is a good short _Life_ by Mrs Oliphant
+  (1893).     (W. Ha.; D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+CHALONER, SIR THOMAS (1521-1565), English statesman and poet, was the
+son of Roger Chaloner, mercer of London, a descendant of the
+Denbighshire Chaloners. No details are known of his youth except that he
+was educated at both Oxford and Cambridge. In 1540 he went, as secretary
+to Sir Henry Knyvett, to the court of Charles V., whom he accompanied in
+his expedition against Algiers in 1541, and was wrecked on the Barbary
+coast. In 1547 he joined in the expedition to Scotland, and was
+knighted, after the battle of Musselburgh, by the protector Somerset,
+whose patronage he enjoyed. In 1549 he was a witness against Dr Bonner,
+bishop of London; in 1551 against Stephen Gardiner, bishop of
+Winchester; in the spring of the latter year he was sent as a
+commissioner to Scotland, and again in March 1552. In 1553 he went with
+Sir Nicholas Wotton and Sir William Pickering on an embassy to France,
+but was recalled by Queen Mary on her accession. In spite of his
+Protestant views, Chaloner was still employed by the government, going
+to Scotland in 1555-1556, and providing carriages for troops in the war
+with France, 1557-1558. In 1558 he went as Elizabeth's ambassador to the
+emperor Ferdinand at Cambrai, from July 1559 to February 1559/60 he was
+ambassador to King Philip at Brussels, and in 1561 he went in the same
+capacity to Spain. His letters are full of complaints of his treatment
+there, but it was not till 1564, when in failing health, that he was
+allowed to return home. He died at his house in Clerkenwell on the 14th
+of October 1565. He acquired during his years of service three estates,
+Guisborough in Yorkshire, Steeple Claydon in Buckinghamshire, and St
+Bees in Cumberland. He married (1) Joan, widow of Sir Thomas Leigh; and
+(2) Etheldreda, daughter of Edward Frodsham, of Elton, Cheshire, by whom
+he had one son, Sir Thomas Chaloner (1561-1615), the naturalist.
+Chaloner was the intimate of most of the learned men of his day, and
+with Lord Burghley he had a life-long friendship. Throughout his busy
+official life he occupied himself with literature, his Latin verses and
+his pastoral poems being much admired by his contemporaries. Chaloner's
+"Howe the Lorde Mowbray ... was ... banyshed the Realme," printed in the
+1559 edition of William Baldwin's _Mirror for Magistrates_ (repr. in
+vol. ii. pt. 1 of Joseph Haslewood's edition of 1815), has sometimes
+been attributed to Thomas Churchyard. His most important work, _De Rep.
+Anglorum instauranda libri decem_, written while he was in Spain, was
+first published by William Malim (1579, 3 pts.), with complimentary
+Latin verses in praise of the author by Burghley and others. Chaloner's
+epigrams and epitaphs were also added to the volume, as well as _In
+laudem Henrici octavi ... carmen Panegericum_, first printed in 1560.
+Amongst his other works are _The praise of folie, Moriae encomium_ ...
+by Erasmus ... Englished by Sir Thomas Chaloner, Knight (1549, ed. Janet
+E. Ashbee, 1901); _A book of the Office of Servantes_ (1543), translated
+from Gilbert Cognatus; and _An homilie of Saint John Chrysostome_....
+Englished by T.C. (1544).
+
+  See "The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St Bees," by William
+  Jackson, in _Transactions of the Cumberland Assoc. for the Advancement
+  of Literature and Science_, pt. vi. pp. 47-74, 1880-1881.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHALONS-SUR-MARNE, a town of north-eastern France, capital of the
+department of Marne, 107 m. E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern
+railway to Nancy, and 25 m. S.S.E. of Reims. Pop. (1906) 22,424. Chalons
+is situated in a wide level plain principally on the right bank of the
+Marne, its suburb of Marne, which contains the railwaystations of the
+Eastern and Est-Etat railways, lying on the left bank. The town proper
+is bordered on the west by the lateral canal of the Marne, across which
+lies a strip of ground separating it from the river itself. Chalons is
+traversed by branches of the canal and by small streams, and its streets
+are for the most part narrow and irregular, but it is surrounded by
+ample avenues and promenades, the park known as the Jard, in the
+south-western quarter, being especially attractive. Huge barracks lie to
+the north and east. There are several interesting churches in the town.
+The cathedral of St Etienne dates chiefly from the 13th century, but its
+west facade is in the classical style and belongs to the 17th century.
+There are stained-glass windows of the 13th century in the north
+transept. Notre-Dame, of the 12th and 13th centuries, is conspicuous for
+its four Romanesque towers, two flanking the apse; the other two,
+surmounted by tall lead spires, flanking the principal facade. The
+churches of St. Alpin, St Jean and St Loup date from various periods
+between the 11th and the 17th centuries. The hotel-de-ville (1771),
+facing which stands a monument to President Carnot; the prefecture
+(1750-1764), once the residence of the intendants of Champagne; the
+college, once a Jesuit establishment; and a training college which
+occupies the Augustinian abbey of Toussaints (16th and 17th centuries),
+are noteworthy civil buildings. The houses of Chalons are generally
+ill-built of timber and plaster, or rough-cast, but some old mansions,
+dating from the 15th to the 16th centuries, remain. The church of Ste
+Pudentienne, on the left bank of the river, is a well-known place of
+pilgrimage. The town is the seat of a bishop and a prefect, and
+headquarters of the VI. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a
+museum, a library, training colleges, a higher ecclesiastical seminary,
+a communal college and an important technical school. The principal
+industry is brewing, which is carried on in the suburb of Marne.
+Galleries of immense length, hewn in a limestone hill and served by
+lines of railway, are used as store-houses for beer. The preparation of
+champagne, the manufacture of boots and shoes, brushes, wire-goods and
+wall-paper also occupy many hands. There is trade in cereals.
+
+Chalons-sur-Marne occupies the site of the chief town of the Catalauni,
+and some portion of the plains which lie between it and Troyes was the
+scene of the defeat of Attila in the conflict of 451. In the 10th and
+following centuries it attained great prosperity as a kind of
+independent state under the supremacy of its bishops, who were
+ecclesiastical peers of France. In 1214 the militia of Chalons served at
+the battle of Bouvines; and in the 15th century the citizens maintained
+their honour by twice (1430 and 1434) repulsing the English from their
+walls. In the 16th century the town sided with Henry IV., king of
+France, who in 1589 transferred thither the parlement of Paris, which
+shortly afterwards burnt the bulls of Gregory XIV. and Clement VIII. In
+1856 Napoleon III. established a large camp, known as the Camp of
+Chalons, about 16 m. north of the town by the railway to Reims. It was
+situated in the immediate neighbourhood of Grand Mourmelon and Petit
+Mourmelon, and occupied an area of nearly 30,000 acres. The "Army of
+Chalons," formed by Marshal MacMahon in the camp after the first
+reverses of the French in 1870, marched thence to the Meuse, was
+surrounded by the Germans at Sedan, and forced to capitulate. The camp
+is still a training-centre for troops.
+
+About 5 m. E. of Chalons is L'Epine, where there is a beautiful
+pilgrimage church (15th and 16th centuries, with modern restoration)
+with a richly-sculptured portal. In the interior there is a fine
+choir-screen, an organ of the 16th century, and an ancient and
+much-venerated statue of the Virgin.
+
+
+
+
+CHALON-SUR-SAONE, a town of east-central France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Saone-et-Loire, 81 m. N. of Lyons
+by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 26,538. It is a well-built town,
+with fine quays, situated in an extensive plain on the right bank of the
+Saone at its junction with the Canal du Centre. A handsome stone bridge
+of the 15th century, decorated in the 18th century with obelisks,
+connects it with the suburb of St Laurent on an island in the river. The
+principal building is the church of St Vincent, once the cathedral. It
+dates mainly from the 12th to the 15th centuries, but the facade is
+modern and unpleasing. The old bishop's palace is a building of the 15th
+century. The church of St Pierre, with two lofty steeples, dates from
+the late 17th century. Chalon preserves remains of its ancient ramparts
+and a number of old houses. The administrative buildings are modern. An
+obelisk was erected in 1730 to commemorate the opening of the canal.
+There is a statue of J.N. Niepce, a native of the town. Chalon is the
+seat of a sub-prefect and a court of assizes, and there are tribunals of
+first instance and commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber
+of commerce, communal colleges for boys and girls, a school of drawing,
+a public library and a museum. Chalon ranks next to Le Creusot among the
+manufacturing towns of Burgundy; its position at the junction of the
+Canal du Centre and the Saone, and as a railway centre for Lyons, Paris,
+Dole, Lons-le-Saunier and Roanne, brings it a large transit trade. The
+founding and working of copper and iron is its main industry; the large
+engineering works of Petit-Creusot, a branch of those of Le Creusot,
+construct bridges, tug-boats and torpedo-boats; distilleries,
+glass-works, chemical works, straw-hat manufactories, oil-works,
+tile-works and sugar refineries also occupy many hands. Wine, grain,
+iron, leather and timber are among the many products for which the town
+is an entrepot. About 2 m. east of Chalon is St Marcel (named after the
+saint who in the 2nd century preached Christianity at Chalon), which has
+a church of the 12th century, once belonging to a famous abbey.
+
+Chalon-sur-Saone is identified with the ancient _Cabillonum_, originally
+an important town of the Aedui. It was chosen in the 6th century by
+Gontram, king of Burgundy, as his capital; and it continued till the
+10th to pay for its importance by being frequently sacked. The
+bishopric, founded in the 4th century, was suppressed at the Revolution.
+In feudal times Chalon was the capital of a countship. In 1237 it was
+given in exchange for other fiefs in the Jura by Jean le Sage, whose
+descendants nevertheless retained the title. Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy,
+the other party to the exchange, gave the citizens a communal charter in
+1256. In its modern history the most important event was the resistance
+offered to a division of the Austrian army in 1814.
+
+
+
+
+CHALUKYA, the name of an Indian dynasty which ruled in the Deccan from
+A.D. 550 to 750, and again from 973 to 1190. The Chalukyas themselves
+claimed to be Rajputs from the north who imposed their rule on the
+Dravidian inhabitants of the Deccan tableland, and there is some
+evidence for connecting them with the Chapas, a branch of the foreign
+Gurjaras. The dynasty was founded by a chief named Pulakesin I., who
+mastered the town of Vatapi (now Badami, in the Bijapur district) about
+550. His sons extended their principality east and west; but the founder
+of the Chalukya greatness was his grandson Pulakesin II., who succeeded
+in 608 and proceeded to extend his rule at the expense of his
+neighbours. In 609 he established as his viceroy in Vengi his brother
+Kubja Vishnuvardhana, who in 615 declared his independence and
+established the dynasty of Eastern Chalukyas, which lasted till 1070. In
+620 Pulakesin defeated Harsha (q.v.), the powerful overlord of northern
+India, and established the Nerbudda as the boundary between the South
+and North. He also defeated in turn the Chola, Pandya and Kerala kings,
+and by 630 was beyond dispute the most powerful sovereign in the Deccan.
+In 642, however, his capital was taken and he himself killed by the
+Pallava king Narasimhavarman. In 655 the Chalukya power was restored by
+Pulakesin's son Vikramaditya I.; but the struggle with the Pallavas
+continued until, in 740, Vikramaditya II. destroyed the Pallava capital.
+In 750 Vikramaditya's son, Kirtivarman Chalukya, was overthrown by the
+Rashtrakutas.
+
+In 973, Taila or Tailapa II. (d. 995), a scion of the royal Chalukya
+race, succeeded in overthrowing the Rashtrakuta king Kakka II., and in
+recovering all the ancient territory of the Chalukyas with the exception
+of Gujarat. He was the founder of the dynasty known as the Chalukyas of
+Kalyani. About A.D. 1000 a formidable invasion by the Chola king
+Rajaraja the Great was defeated, and in 1052 Somesvara I., or Ahamavalla
+(d. 1068), the founder of Kalyani, defeated and slew the Chola
+Rajadhiraja. The reign of Vikramaditya VI., or Vikramanka, which lasted
+from 1076 to 1126, formed another period of Chalukya greatness.
+Vikramanka's exploits against the Hoysala kings and others, celebrated
+by the poet Bilhana, were held to justify him in establishing a new era
+dating from his accession. With his death, however, the Chalukya power
+began to decline. In 1156 the commander-in-chief Bijjala (or Vijjana)
+Kalachurya revolted, and he and his sons held the kingdom till 1183. In
+this year Somesvara IV. Chalukya recovered part of his patrimony, only
+to succumb, about 1190, to the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Hoysalas of
+Dorasamudra. Henceforth the Chalukya rajas ranked only as petty chiefs.
+
+  See J.F. Fleet, _Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts_; Prof. R.G.
+  Bhandarker, "Early History of the Deccan," in the _Bombay Gazetteer_
+  (1896), vol. i. part ii.; Vincent A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_
+  (Oxford, 1908), pp. 382 ff.
+
+
+
+
+CHALYBAUS, HEINRICH MORITZ (1796-1862), German philosopher, was born at
+Pfaffroda in Saxony. For some years he taught at Dresden, and won a high
+reputation by his lectures on the history of philosophy in Germany. In
+1839 he became professor in Kiel University, where, with the exception of
+one brief interval, when he was expelled with several colleagues because
+of his German sympathies, he remained till his death. His first published
+work, _Historische Entwickelung der spekulativen Philosophic von Kant bis
+Hegel_ (1837, 5th ed. 1860), which still ranks among the best expositions
+of modern German thought, has been twice translated into English, by A.
+Tulk (London, 1854), and by A. Edersheim (Edinburgh, 1854). His chief
+works are _Entwurf eines Systems der Wissenschaftslehre_ (Kiel, 1846) and
+_System der spekulativen Ethik_ (2 vols., 1850). He opposed both the
+extreme realism of Herbart and what he regarded as the one-sided idealism
+of Hegel, and endeavoured to find a mean between them, to discover the
+ideal or formal principle which unfolds itself in the real or material
+world presented to it. His _Wissenschaftslehre_, accordingly, divides
+itself into (1) _Principlehre_, or theory of the one principle; (2)
+_Vermittelungslehre_, or theory of the means by which this principle
+realizes itself; and (3) _Teleologie_. The most noticeable point is the
+position assigned by Chalybaus to the "World Ether," which is defined as
+the infinite in time and space, and which, he thinks, must be posited as
+necessarily coexisting with the Infinite Spirit or God. The fundamental
+principle of the _System der Ethik_ is carried out with great strength of
+thought, and with an unusually complete command of ethical material.
+
+  See J.E. Erdmann, _Grundriss der Gesch. d. Philos._ ii. 781-786; K.
+  Prantl, in _Allgem. deutsch. Biog._
+
+
+
+
+CHALYBITE, a mineral species consisting of iron carbonate (FeCO3) and
+forming an important ore of iron. It was early known as spathose iron,
+spathic iron or steel ore. F.S. Beudant in 1832 gave the name siderose
+(from [Greek: sideros], iron), which was modified by W. Haidinger in
+1845 to siderite. Chalybite (from [Greek: chalyps], [Greek: chalybos],
+Lat. _chalybs_, steel) is of slightly later date, having been given by
+E.F. Glocker in 1847. The name siderite is in common use, but it is open
+to objection since it had earlier been applied to several other species,
+and is also now used as a group name for meteoric irons. Chalybite
+crystallizes in the rhombohedral system and is isomorphous with calcite;
+like this it possesses perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the
+primitive rhombohedron, the angles between which are 73 deg. 0'.
+Crystals are usually rhombohedral in habit, and the primitive
+rhombohedron r {100} is a common form, the faces being often curved as
+represented in the figure. Acute rhombohedra in combination with the
+basal pinacoid are also frequent, giving crystals of octahedral aspect.
+The mineral often occurs in cleavable masses with a coarse or fine
+granular texture; also in botryoidal or globular (sphaerosiderite) and
+oolitic forms. When compact and mixed with much clay and sand it
+constitutes the well-known clay ironstone. Chalybite is usually
+yellowish-grey or brown in colour; it is translucent and has a vitreous
+lustre. Hardness 3-1/2; sp. gr. 3.8. The double refraction ([omega] -
+[epsilon] = 0.241) is stronger than that of calcite. When pure it
+contains 48.2% of iron, but this is often partly replaced isomorphously
+by manganese, magnesium or calcium: the varieties known as oligon-spar
+or oligonite, sideroplesite and siderodote contain these elements
+respectively in large amount. These varieties form a passage to ankerite
+(q.v.) and mesitite, and all are referred to loosely as brown-spar.
+
+[Illustration: Crystal of Chalybite.]
+
+Chalybite is a common gangue mineral in metalliferous veins, and
+well-crystallized specimens are found with ores of copper, lead, tin,
+&c., in Cornwall, the Harz, Saxony and many other places. It also occurs
+alone as large masses in veins and beds in rocks of various kinds. The
+clay ironstone so extensively worked as an ore of iron occurs as nodules
+and beds in the Coal Measures of England and the United States, and the
+oolitic iron ore of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire forms beds in
+the Lias. The mineral is occasionally found as concretionary masses
+(sphaerosiderite) in cavities in basic igneous rocks such as dolerite.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBA, a native state of India, within the Punjab, amid the Himalayas,
+and lying on the southern border of Kashmir. It has an area of 3216 sq.
+m. Pop. (1901) 127,834. The sanatorium of Dalhousie, though within the
+state, is attached to the district of Gurdaspur. Chamba is entirely
+mountainous; in the east and north, and in the centre, are snowy ranges.
+The valleys in the west and south are fertile. The chief rivers are the
+Chandra and Ravi. The country is much in favour with sportsmen. The
+principal crops are rice, maize and millet. Mineral ores of various
+kinds are known, but unworked. Trade is chiefly in forest produce. The
+capital of the state is Chamba (pop. 6000), situated above the gorge of
+the Ravi. External communications are entirely by road. The state was
+founded in the 6th century, and, though sometimes nominally subject to
+Kashmir and afterwards tributary to the Mogul empire, always practically
+maintained its independence. Its chronicles are preserved in a series of
+inscriptions, mostly engraved on copper. It first came under British
+influence in 1846, when it was declared independent of Kashmir. The line
+of the rajas of Chamba was founded in the 6th century A.D. by Marut, of
+an ancient family of Rajputs. In 1904 Bhuri Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., an
+enlightened and capable ruler, succeeded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBAL, a river of India, one of the principal tributaries of the
+Jumna. Rising amid the summits of the Vindhya mountains in Malwa, it
+flows north, and after being joined by the Chambla and Sipra, passes
+through the gorges of the Mokandarra hills. After receiving the waters
+of the Kali-Sind, Parbati and Banas, its principal confluents, the
+Chambal becomes a great river, enters the British district of Etawah,
+and joins the Jumna 40 m. below Etawah town, its total length being 650
+m.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH (1836-   ), British statesman, third son of Joseph
+Chamberlain, master of the Cordwainers' Company, was born at Camberwell
+Grove, London, on the 8th of July 1836. His father was a well-to-do man
+of business, a Unitarian in religion and a Liberal in politics. Young
+Chamberlain was educated at Canonbury from 1845 to 1850, and at
+University College school, London, from 1850 to 1852. After two years in
+his father's office in London, he was sent to Birmingham to join his
+cousin Joseph Nettlefold in a screw business in which his father had an
+interest; and by degrees, largely owing to his own intelligent
+management, this business became very successful. Nettlefold &
+Chamberlain employed new methods of attracting customers, and
+judiciously amalgamated rival firms with their own so as to reduce
+competition, with the result that in 1874, after twenty-two years of
+commercial life, Mr Chamberlain was able to retire with an ample
+fortune. Meanwhile he had in 1861 married his first wife, Miss Harriet
+Kenrick (she died in 1863), and had gradually come to take an
+increasingly important part in the municipal and political life of
+Birmingham. He was a constant speaker at the Birmingham and Edgbaston
+Debating Society; and when in 1868 the Birmingham Liberal Association
+was reorganized, he became one of its leading members. In 1869 he was
+elected chairman of the executive council of the new National Education
+League, the outcome of Mr George Dixon's movement for promoting the
+education of the children of the lower classes by paying their school
+fees, and agitating for more accommodation and a better national system.
+In the same year he was elected a member of the town council, and
+married his second wife--a cousin of his first--Miss Florence Kenrick
+(d. 1875).
+
+In 1870 he was elected a member of the first school board for
+Birmingham; and for the next six years, and especially after 1873, when
+he became leader of a majority and chairman, he actively championed the
+Nonconformist opposition to denominationalism. He was then regarded as a
+Republican--the term signifying rather that he held advanced Radical
+opinions, which were construed by average men in the light of the
+current political developments in France, than that he really favoured
+Republican institutions. His programme was "free Church, free land, free
+schools, free labour." At the general election of 1874 he stood as a
+parliamentary candidate for Sheffield, but without success. Between 1869
+and 1873 he was a prominent advocate in the Birmingham town council of
+the gospel of municipal reform preached by Mr Dawson, Dr Dale and Mr
+Bunce (of the _Birmingham. Post_); and in 1873 his party obtained a
+majority, and he was elected mayor, an office he retained until June
+1876. As mayor he had to receive the prince and princess of Wales on
+their visit in June 1874, an occasion which excited some curiosity
+because of his reputation as a Republican; but those who looked for an
+exhibition of bad taste were disappointed, and the behaviour of the
+Radical mayor satisfied the requirements alike of _The Times_ and of
+_Punch_.
+
+The period of his mayoralty was one of historic importance in the growth
+of modern Birmingham. New municipal buildings were erected, Highgate
+Park was opened as a place of recreation, the free library and art
+gallery were developed. But the great work carried through by Mr
+Chamberlain for Birmingham was the municipalization of the supply of gas
+and water, and the improvement scheme by which slums were cleared away
+and forty acres laid out in new streets and open spaces. The prosperity
+of modern Birmingham dates from 1875 and 1876, when these admirably
+administered reforms were initiated, and by his share in them Mr
+Chamberlain became not only one of its most popular citizens but also a
+man of mark outside. An orator of a business-like, straightforward type,
+cool and hard-hitting, his spare figure, incisive features and single
+eye-glass soon made him a favourite subject for the caricaturist; and in
+later life his aggressive personality, and the peculiarly irritating
+effect it had on his opponents, made his actions and speeches the object
+of more controversy than was the lot of any other politician of his
+time. His hobby for orchid-growing at his house "Highbury" near
+Birmingham also became famous. In private life his loyalty to his
+friends, and his "genius for friendship" (as John Morley said) made a
+curious contrast to his capacity for arousing the bitterest political
+hostility. It may be added here that the interest taken by him in
+Birmingham remained undiminished during his life, and he was largely
+instrumental in starting the Birmingham University (1900), of which he
+became chancellor. His connexion with Birmingham University was indeed
+peculiarly appropriate to his character as a man of business; but in
+spite of his representing a departure among men of the front rank in
+politics from the "Eton and Oxford" type, his general culture sometimes
+surprised those who did not know him. In later life Oxford and Cambridge
+gave him their doctors' degrees; and in 1897 he was made lord rector of
+Glasgow University (delivering an address on "Patriotism" at his
+installation).
+
+In 1876 Mr Dixon resigned his seat in parliament, and Mr Chamberlain was
+returned for Birmingham in his place unopposed, as John Bright's
+colleague. He made his maiden speech in the House of Commons on the 4th
+of August 1876, on Lord Sandon's Education Bill. At this period, too, he
+paid much attention to the question of licensing reform, and in 1876 he
+examined the Gothenburg system in Sweden, and advocated a solution of
+the problem in England on similar lines. During 1877 the new federation
+of Liberal Associations which became known as the "Caucus" was started
+under Mr Chamberlain's influence in Birmingham--its secretary, Mr
+Schnadhorst, quickly making himself felt as a wire-puller of exceptional
+ability; and the new organization had a remarkable effect in putting
+life into the Liberal party, which since Mr Gladstone's retirement in
+1874 had been much in need of a stimulus. When the general election came
+in 1880, Mr Schnadhorst's powers were demonstrated in the successes won
+under his auspices. The Liberal party numbered 349, against 243
+Conservatives and 60 Irish Nationalists; and the Radical section of the
+Liberal party, led by Mr Chamberlain and Sir Charles Dilke, was
+recognized by Mr Gladstone by his inclusion of the former in his cabinet
+as president of the Board of Trade, and the appointment of the latter as
+under secretary for foreign affairs. In his new capacity Mr Chamberlain
+was responsible for carrying such important measures as the Bankruptcy
+Act 1883, and the Patents Act. Another bill which he had much at heart,
+on merchant shipping, had to be abandoned, and a royal commission
+substituted, but the subsequent legislation in 1888-1894 owed much to
+his efforts. The Franchise Act of 1884 was also one in which he took a
+leading part as a champion of the opinions of the labouring class. At
+this time he took the current advanced Radical views of both Irish and
+foreign policy, hating "coercion," disliking the occupation of Egypt,
+and prominently defending the Transvaal settlement after Majuba. Both
+before and after the defeat of Mr Gladstone's government on the Budget
+in June 1885, he associated himself with what was known as the
+"Unauthorized Programme," i.e. free education, small holdings, graduated
+taxation and local government. In June 1885 he made a speech at
+Birmingham, treating the reforms just mentioned as the "ransom" that
+property must pay to society for the security it enjoys--for which Lord
+Iddesleigh called him "Jack Cade"; and he continually urged the Liberal
+party to take up these Radical measures. At the general election of
+November 1885 Mr Chamberlain was returned for West Birmingham. The
+Liberal strength generally was, however, reduced to 335 members, though
+the Radical section held their own; and the Irish vote became necessary
+to Mr Gladstone if he was to command a majority. In December it was
+stated that Mr Gladstone intended to propose Home Rule for Ireland, and
+in January Lord Salisbury's ministry was defeated on the Address, on an
+amendment moved by Mr Chamberlain's Birmingham henchman, Mr Jesse
+Collings (b. 1831), embodying the "three acres and a cow" of the Radical
+programme. Unlike Lord Hartington (afterwards duke of Devonshire) and
+other Liberals, who declined to join Mr Gladstone in view of the altered
+attitude he was adopting towards Ireland, Mr Chamberlain entered the
+cabinet as president of the Local Government Board (with Mr Jesse
+Collings as parliamentary secretary), but on the 15th of March 1886 he
+resigned, explaining in the House of Commons (8th April) that, while he
+had always been in favour of the largest possible extension of local
+government to Ireland consistently with the integrity of the empire and
+the supremacy of parliament, and had therefore joined Mr Gladstone when
+he believed that this was what was intended, he was unable to consider
+that the scheme communicated by Mr Gladstone to his colleagues
+maintained those limitations. At the same time he was not
+irreconcilable, and he invited Mr Gladstone even then to modify his bill
+so as to remove the objections made to it. This indecisive attitude did
+not last long, and the split in the party rapidly widened. At Birmingham
+Mr Chamberlain was supported by the "Two Thousand," but deserted by the
+"Caucus" and Mr Schnadhorst. In May the Radicals who followed Mr Bright
+and Mr Chamberlain, and the Whigs who took their cue from Lord
+Hartington, decided to vote against the second reading of the Home Rule
+Bill, instead of allowing it to be taken and then pressing for
+modifications in committee, and on 7th June the bill was defeated by 343
+to 313, 94 Liberal Unionists--as they were generally called--voting
+against the government. Mr Chamberlain was the object of the bitterest
+attacks from the Gladstonians for his share in this result; he was
+stigmatized as "Judas," and open war was proclaimed by the Home Rulers
+against the "dissentient Liberals"--the description used by Mr
+Gladstone. The general election, however, returned to parliament 316
+Conservatives, 78 Liberal Unionists, and only 276 Gladstonians and
+Nationalists, Birmingham returning seven Unionist members. When the
+House met in August, it was decided by the Liberal Unionists, under Lord
+Hartington's leadership, that their policy henceforth was essentially to
+combine with the Tories to keep Mr Gladstone out. The old Liberal
+feeling still prevailing among them was too strong, however, for their
+leaders to take office in a coalition ministry. It was enough for them
+to be able to tie down the Conservative government to such measures as
+were not offensive to Liberal Unionist principles. It still seemed
+possible, moreover, that the Gladstonians might be brought to modify
+their Home Rule proposals, and in January 1887 a Round Table conference
+(suggested by Mr Chamberlain) was held between Mr Chamberlain, Sir G.
+Trevelyan, Sir William Harcourt, Mr Morley and Lord Herschell. But no
+_rapprochement_ was effected, and reconciliation became daily more and
+more difficult. The influence of Liberal Unionist views upon the
+domestic legislation of the government was steadily bringing about a
+more complete union in the Unionist party, and destroying the old lines
+of political cleavage. Before 1892 Mr Chamberlain had the satisfaction
+of seeing Lord Salisbury's ministry pass such important acts, from a
+progressive point of view, as those dealing with Coal Mines Regulation,
+Allotments, County Councils, Housing of the Working Classes, Free
+Education and Agricultural Holdings, besides Irish legislation like the
+Ashbourne Act, the Land Act of 1891, and the Light Railways and
+Congested Districts Acts. In October 1887 Mr Chamberlain, Sir L.
+Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper were selected by the government as
+British plenipotentiaries to discuss with the United States the Canadian
+fisheries dispute, and a treaty was arranged by them at Washington on
+the 15th of February 1888. The Senate refused to ratify it; but a
+protocol provided for a _modus vivendi_ pending ratification, giving
+American fishing vessels similar advantages to those contemplated in the
+treaty; and on the whole Mr Chamberlain's mission to America was
+accepted as a successful one in maintaining satisfactory relations with
+the United States. He returned to England in March 1888, and was
+presented with the freedom of the borough of Birmingham. The visit also
+resulted, in November 1888, in his marriage with his third wife, Miss
+Endicott, daughter of the United States secretary of war in President
+Cleveland's first administration.
+
+At the general election of 1892 Mr Chamberlain was again returned, with
+an increased majority, for West Birmingham; but the Unionist party as a
+whole came back with only 315 members against 355 Home Rulers. In August
+Lord Salisbury's ministry was defeated; and on the 13th of February 1893
+Mr Gladstone introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which was eventually
+read a third time on the 1st of September. During the eighty-two days'
+discussion in the House of Commons Mr Chamberlain was the life and soul
+of the opposition, and his criticisms had a vital influence upon the
+attitude of the country when the House of Lords summarily threw out the
+bill. His chief contribution to the discussions during the later stages
+of the Gladstone and Rosebery ministries was in connexion with Mr
+Asquith's abortive Employers' Liability Bill, when he foreshadowed the
+method of dealing with this question afterwards carried out in the
+Compensation Act of 1897. Outside parliament he was busy formulating
+proposals for old age pensions, which had a prominent place in the
+Unionist programme of 1895. In that year, on the defeat of Lord
+Rosebery, the union of the Unionists was sealed by the inclusion of the
+Liberal Unionist leaders in Lord Salisbury's ministry; and Mr
+Chamberlain became secretary of state for the colonies. There had been
+much speculation as to what his post would be, and his nomination to the
+colonial office, then considered one of secondary rank, excited some
+surprise; but Mr Chamberlain himself realized how important that
+department had become. He carried with him into the ministry his close
+Birmingham municipal associates, Mr Jesse Collings (as under secretary
+of the home office), and Mr J. Powell-Williams (1840-1904) as financial
+secretary to the war office. Mr Chamberlain's influence in the Unionist
+cabinet was soon visible in the Workmen's Compensation Act and other
+measures. This act, though in Sir Matthew White Ridley's charge as home
+secretary, was universally and rightly associated with Mr Chamberlain;
+and its passage, in the face of much interested opposition from
+highly-placed, old-fashioned conservatives and capitalists on both
+sides, was principally due to his determined advocacy. Another "social"
+measure of less importance, which formed part of the Chamberlain
+programme, was the Small Houses Acquisition Act of 1899; but the problem
+of old age pensions was less easily solved. This subject had been handed
+over in 1893 to a royal commission, and further discussed by a select
+committee in 1899 and a departmental committee in 1900, but both of
+these threw cold water on the schemes laid before them--a result which,
+galling enough to one who had made so much play with the question in the
+country, offered welcome material to his opponents for electioneering
+recrimination, as year by year went by between 1895 and 1900 and nothing
+resulted from all the confident talk on the subject in which Mr
+Chamberlain had indulged when out of office. Eventually it was the
+Liberal and not the Unionist party that carried an Old Age Pensions
+scheme through parliament, during the 1908 session, when Mr Chamberlain
+was _hors de combat_.
+
+From January 1896 (the date of the Jameson Raid) onwards South Africa
+demanded the chief attention of the colonial secretary (see SOUTH
+AFRICA, and for details TRANSVAAL). In his negotiations with President
+Kruger one masterful temperament was pitted against another. Mr
+Chamberlain had a very difficult part to play, in a situation dominated
+by suspicion on both sides, and while he firmly insisted on the rights
+of Great Britain and of British subjects in the Transvaal, he was the
+continual object of Radical criticism at home. Never has a statesman's
+personality been more bitterly associated by his political opponents
+with the developments they deplored. Attempts were even made to ascribe
+financial motives to Mr Chamberlain's actions, and the political
+atmosphere was thick with suspicion and scandal. The report of the
+Commons committee (July 1897) definitely acquitted both Mr Chamberlain
+and the colonial office of any privity in the Jameson Raid, but Mr
+Chamberlain's detractors continued to assert the contrary. Opposition
+hostility reached such a pitch that in 1899 there was hardly an act of
+the cabinet during the negotiations with President Kruger which was not
+attributed to the personal malignity and unscrupulousness of the
+colonial secretary. The elections of 1900 (when he was again returned,
+unopposed, for West Birmingham) turned upon the individuality of a
+single minister more than any since the days of Mr Gladstone's
+ascendancy, and Mr Chamberlain, never conspicuous for inclination to
+turn his other cheek to the smiter, was not slow to return the blows
+with interest.
+
+Apart from South Africa, his most important work at this time was the
+successful passing of the Australian Commonwealth Act (1900), in which
+both tact and firmness were needed to settle certain differences between
+the imperial government and the colonial delegates.
+
+Mr Chamberlain's tenure of the office of colonial secretary between 1895
+and 1900 must always be regarded as a turning-point in the history of
+the relations between the British colonies and the mother country. His
+accession to office was marked by speeches breathing a new spirit of
+imperial consolidation, embodied either in suggestions for commercial
+union or in more immediately practicable proposals for improving the
+"imperial estate"; and at the Diamond Jubilee of 1897 the visits of the
+colonial premiers to London emphasized and confirmed the new policy, the
+fruits of which were afterwards seen in the cordial support given by the
+colonies in the Boer War. Even in what Mr Chamberlain called his
+"Radical days" he had never supported the "Manchester" view of the value
+of a colonial empire; and during the Gladstone ministry of 1882-1885 Mr
+Bright had remarked that the junior member for Birmingham was the only
+Jingo in the cabinet--meaning, no doubt, that he objected to the policy
+of _laissez-faire_ and the timidity of what was afterwards known as
+"Little Englandism." While he was still under Mr Gladstone's influence
+these opinions were kept in subordination; but Mr Chamberlain was always
+an imperial federationist, and from 1887 onwards he constantly gave
+expression to his views on the desirability of drawing the different
+parts of the empire closer together for purposes of defence and
+commerce. In 1895 the time for the realization of these views had come;
+and Mr Chamberlain's speeches, previously remarkable chiefly for
+debating power and directness of argument, were now dominated by a new
+note of constructive statesmanship, basing itself on the economic
+necessities of a world-wide empire. Not the least of the anxieties of
+the colonial office during this period was the situation in the West
+Indies, where the cane-sugar industry was being steadily undermined by
+the European bounties given to exports of continental beet; and though
+the government restricted themselves to attempts at removing the
+bounties by negotiation and to measures for palliating the worst effects
+in the West Indies, Mr Chamberlain made no secret of his repudiation of
+the Cobden Club view that retaliation would be contrary to the doctrines
+of free trade, and he did his utmost to educate public opinion at home
+into understanding that the responsibilities of the mother country are
+not merely to be construed according to the selfish interests of a
+nation of consumers. As regards foreign affairs, Mr Chamberlain more
+than once (and particularly at Leicester on 30th November 1899)
+indicated his leanings towards a closer understanding between the
+British empire, the United States and Germany,--a suggestion which did
+not save him from an extravagant outburst of German hostility during the
+Boer War. The unusually outspoken and pointed expression, however, of
+his disinclination to submit to Muscovite duplicity or to "pin-pricks"
+or "unmannerliness" from France was criticized on the score of
+discretion by a wider circle than that of his political adversaries.
+
+During the progress of the Boer War from 1899 to 1902, Mr Chamberlain,
+as the statesman who had represented the cabinet in the negotiations
+which led to it, remained the object of constant attacks from his
+Radical opponents--the "little Englanders" and "Pro-Boers," as he called
+them--and he was supported by the Imperialist and Unionist party with at
+least equal ardour. But as colonial secretary, except in so far as his
+consistent support of Lord Milner and his enthusiastic encouragement of
+colonial assistance were concerned, he naturally played only a
+subordinate part during the carrying out of the military operations.
+Among domestic statesmen he was felt, however, to be the backbone of the
+party in power. He was the hero of the one side, just as he was the
+bugbear of the other. On the 13th of February 1902 he was presented with
+an address in a gold casket by the city corporation, and entertained at
+luncheon at the Mansion House, an honour not unconnected with the strong
+feeling recently aroused by his firm reply (at Birmingham, January 11)
+to some remarks made by Count von Bullow, the German chancellor, in the
+Reichstag (January 8), reflecting the offensive allegations current in
+Germany against the conduct of the army in South Africa. Mr
+Chamberlain's speech, in answer to what had been intended as a
+contemptuous rebuke, was universally applauded. His own imperialism was
+intensified by the way in which England's difficulties resulted in
+calling forth colonial assistance and so cementing the bonds of empire.
+The domestic crisis, and the sharp cleavage between parties at home, had
+driven the bent of his mind and policy further and further away from the
+purely municipal and national ideals which he had followed so keenly
+before he became colonial minister. The problems of empire engrossed
+him, and a new enthusiasm for imperial projects arose in the Unionist
+party under his inspiration. No English statesman probably has ever
+been, at different times in his career, so able an advocate of
+absolutely contradictory policies, and his opponents were not slow to
+taunt him with quotations from his earlier speeches. As the war drew to
+its end, new plans for imperial consolidation were maturing in his
+brain. Subsidiary points of utility, such as the formation of the London
+and Liverpool schools of tropical medicine from 1899 onwards, were taken
+up by him with characteristic vigour. But the next step was to prove a
+critical one indeed for the loyalty of the party which had so far been
+unanimous in his favour.
+
+The settlement after the war was full of difficulties, financial and
+others, in South Africa. When Mr Arthur Balfour succeeded Lord Salisbury
+as prime minister in July 1902, Mr Chamberlain agreed to serve loyally
+under him, and the friendship between the two leaders was indeed one of
+the most marked features of the political situation. In November 1902 it
+was arranged that Mr Chamberlain should go out to South Africa, and it
+was hoped, not without reason, that his personality would effect more
+good than any ordinary official negotiations. At the time the best
+results appeared to be secured. He went from place to place in South
+Africa (December 26-February 25); arranged with the leading Transvaal
+financiers that in return for support from the British government in
+raising a Transvaal loan they would guarantee a large proportion of a
+Transvaal debt of L30,000,000, which should repay the British treasury
+so much of the cost of the war; and when he returned in March 1903,
+satisfaction was general in the country over the success of his mission.
+But meantime two things had happened. He had looked at the empire from
+the colonial point of view, in a way only possible in a colonial
+atmosphere; and at home some of his colleagues had gone a long way,
+behind the scenes, to destroy one of the very factors on which the
+question of a practical scheme for imperial commercial federation seemed
+to hinge. In the budget of 1902 a duty of a shilling a quarter on
+imported corn had been reintroduced. This small tax was regarded as only
+a registration duty. Even by free-trade ministers like Gladstone it had
+been left up to 1869 untouched, and its removal by Robert Lowe (Lord
+Sherbrooke) had since then been widely regarded as a piece of economic
+pedantry. Its reimposition, officially supported for the sake of
+necessary revenue in war-time, and cordially welcomed by the Unionist
+party, had justified itself, as they contended, in spite of the
+criticisms of the Opposition (who raised the cry of the "dear loaf"), by
+proving during the year to have had no general or direct effect on the
+price of bread. And the more advanced Imperialists, as well as the more
+old-fashioned protectionists (like Mr Chaplin) who formed an integral
+body of the Conservative party, had looked forward to this tax being
+converted into a differential one between foreign and colonial corn, so
+as to introduce a scheme of colonial preference and commercial
+consolidation between the colonies and the mother country. In South
+Africa--as in any other British colony, since all of them were
+accustomed to tariffs of a protectionist nature, and the idea of a
+preference (already started by Canada) was fairly popular--Mr
+Chamberlain had found this view well established. The agitation in
+England against the tax had now blown over. The Unionist rank and file
+were committed to its support,--many even advocating its increase to two
+shillings at least. But Mr Ritchie, the chancellor of the exchequer,
+having a surplus in prospect and taxation to take off, carried the
+cabinet in favour of again remitting this tax on corn. Mr Chamberlain
+himself had proposed only to take it off as regards colonial, and not
+foreign corn,--thus inaugurating a preferential system. But a majority
+of the cabinet supported Mr Ritchie. The remission of this tax, after
+all the conviction with which its restoration had been supported a year
+before, was very difficult for the party itself to stomach, and on any
+ground it was a distasteful act, loyally as the party followed their
+leaders. But to those who had looked to it as providing a lever for a
+gradual change in the established fiscal system, the _volte-face_ was a
+bitter blow, and at once there began, though not at first openly, a
+split between the more rigid free-traders--advocates of cheap food and
+free imports--and those who desired to use the opportunities of a
+tariff, of however moderate a kind, for attaining national and imperial
+and not merely revenue advantages. This idea, which had for some time
+been floating in Mr Chamberlain's mind (see especially his speech at
+Birmingham of May 16, 1902), now took full possession of it. For the
+moment he remained in the cabinet, but the seed of dissension was sown.
+The first public intimation of his views was given in a speech to his
+constituents at Birmingham (May 15, 1903), when he outlined a plan for
+raising more money by a rearranged tariff, partly to obtain a
+preferential system for the empire and partly to produce funds for
+social reform at home. On May 28th in the House of Commons he spoke on
+the same subject, and declared "if you are to give a preference to the
+colonies, you must put a tax on food." Considered in the light of after
+events, this putting the necessity of food-taxes in the forefront was
+decidedly injudicious; but imperialist conviction and enthusiasm were
+more conspicuous than electioneering tact in the launching of Mr
+Chamberlain's new scheme.
+
+The movement grew quickly, its supporters including a number of the
+cleverest younger politicians and journalists in the Unionist party. The
+idea of tariff reform--to broaden the basis of taxation, to introduce a
+preference, and to stimulate home industries and increase
+employment--took firm root; and the political economists of the
+party--Prof. W. Cunningham, Prof. W. Ashley and Prof. W.A.S. Hewins, in
+particular--brought effective criticism to bear on the one-sided "free
+trade" in vogue. The first demand was for inquiry. The country was still
+bearing an income-tax of elevenpence in the pound; it appeared that the
+old sources of revenue were inadequate; and meanwhile the statistics of
+trade, it was argued, showed that the English free-import system
+hampered English trade while providing the foreigner with a free market.
+Mr Chamberlain and his supporters argued that since 1870 certain other
+countries (Germany and the United States), with protective tariffs, had
+increased their trade in much larger proportion, while English trade had
+only been maintained by the increased business done with British
+colonies. A scientific inquiry into the facts was needed. By the
+Opposition, who now found themselves the defenders of conservatism in
+the established fiscal policy of the country, this whole argument was
+scouted; but for a time the demand merely for inquiry, and the
+production of figures, gave no sufficient occasion for dissension among
+Unionists, even when, like Sir M. Hicks Beach, they were convinced
+free-importers on purely economic grounds; and Mr Balfour (q.v.), as
+premier, managed to hold his colleagues and party together by taking the
+line that particular opinions on economic subjects should not be made a
+test of party loyalty. The Board of Trade was set to work to produce
+fiscal Blue-books, and hum-drum politicians who had never shown any
+genius for figures suddenly blossomed out into arithmeticians of the
+deepest dye. The Tariff Reform League was founded in order to further Mr
+Chamberlain's policy, holding its inaugural meeting on July 21st; and it
+began to take an active part in issuing leaflets and in work at
+by-elections. Discussion proceeded hotly on the merits of a preferential
+tariff, and on August 15th a manifesto appeared against it signed by
+fourteen professors or lecturers on political economy, including Mr
+Leonard Courtney, Professor Edgeworth, Professor Marshall, Professor
+Bastable, Professor Smart, Professor J.S. Nicholson, Professor Conner,
+Mr Bowley, Mr E. Cannan and Mr L.R. Phelps,--men of admitted competence,
+yet, after all, of no higher authority than the economists supporting Mr
+Chamberlain, such as Dr Cunningham and Professor Ashley.
+
+Meanwhile, the death of Lord Salisbury (August 22) removed a weighty
+figure from the councils of the Unionist party. The cabinet met several
+times at the beginning of September, and the question of their attitude
+towards the fiscal problem became acute. The public had its first
+intimation of impending events in the appearance on September 16th of Mr
+Balfour's _Economic Notes on Insular Free Trade_, which had been
+previously circulated as a cabinet memorandum. The next day appeared the
+Board of Trade Fiscal Blue-book. And on the 18th the resignations were
+announced, not only of the more rigid free-traders in the cabinet, Mr
+Ritchie and Lord George Hamilton, but also of Mr Chamberlain. Letters in
+cordial terms were published, which had passed between Mr Chamberlain
+(September 9) and Mr Balfour (September 16). Mr Chamberlain pointed out
+that he was committed to a preferential scheme involving new duties on
+food, and could not remain in the government without prejudice while it
+was excluded from the party programme; remaining loyal to Mr Balfour and
+his general objects, he could best promote this course from outside, and
+he suggested that the government might confine its policy to the
+"assertion of our freedom in the case of all commercial relations with
+foreign countries." Mr Balfour, while reluctantly admitting the
+necessity of Mr Chamberlain's taking a freer hand, expressed his
+agreement in the desirability of a closer fiscal union with the
+colonies, but questioned the immediate practicability of any scheme; he
+was willing to adopt fiscal reform so far as it covered retaliatory
+duties, but thought that the exclusion of taxation of food from the
+party programme was in existing circumstances necessary, so long as
+public opinion was not ripe. At the same time he welcomed the fact that
+Mr Chamberlain's son, Mr Austen Chamberlain, was ready to remain a
+member of the government. Mr Austen Chamberlain (b. 1863) accordingly
+became the new chancellor of the exchequer; he was already in the
+cabinet as postmaster-general, having previously made his mark as civil
+lord of the admiralty (1895-1900), and financial secretary to the
+treasury (1900-1902).
+
+From the turning-point of Mr Chamberlain's resignation, it is not
+necessary here to follow in detail the discussions and dissensions in
+the party as a whole in its relations with the prime minister (see
+BALFOUR, A.J.). It is sufficient to say that while Mr Balfour's
+sympathetic "send off" appeared to indicate his inclination towards Mr
+Chamberlain's programme, if only further support could be gained for it,
+his endeavour to keep the party together, and the violent opposition
+which gathered against Mr Chamberlain's scheme, combined to make his
+real attitude during the next two years decidedly obscure, both sections
+of the party--free-traders and tariff reformers--being induced from time
+to time to regard him as on their side. The tariff reform movement
+itself was now, however, outside the purely official programme, and Mr
+Chamberlain (backed by a majority of the Unionist members) threw himself
+with impetuous ardour into a crusade on its behalf, while at the same
+time supporting Mr Balfour in parliament, and leaving it to him to
+decide as to the policy of going to the country when the time should be
+ripe. In his own words, he went in front of the Unionist army as a
+pioneer, and if his army was attacked he would go back to it; in no
+conceivable circumstances would he allow himself to be put in any sort
+of competition, direct or indirect, with Mr Balfour, his friend and
+leader, whom he meant to follow (October 6).
+
+On October 6th he opened his campaign with a speech at Glasgow.
+Analysing the trade statistics as between 1872 and 1902, he insisted
+that British progress involved a relative decline compared with that of
+protectionist foreign countries like Germany and the United States;
+Great Britain exported less and less of manufactured goods, and imported
+more and more; the exports to foreign countries had decreased, and it
+was only the increased exports to the colonies that maintained the
+British position. This was the outcome of the working of a one-sided
+free-trade system. Now was the time, and it might soon be lost, for
+consolidating British trade relations with the colonies. If the mother
+country and her daughter states did not draw closer, they would
+inevitably drift apart. A further increase of L26,000,000 a year in the
+trade with the colonies might be obtained by a preferential tariff, and
+this meant additional employment at home for 166,000 workmen, or
+subsistence for a population of a far larger number. His positive
+proposals were: (1) no tax on raw materials; (2) a small tax on food
+other than colonial, e.g. two shillings a quarter on foreign corn but
+excepting maize, and 5% on meat and dairy produce excluding bacon; (3)
+a 10% general tariff on imported manufactured goods. To meet any
+increased cost of living, he proposed to reduce the duties on tea, sugar
+and other articles of general consumption, and he estimated that his
+scheme would in no case increase a working-man's expenditure, and in
+most cases would reduce it. "The colonies," he said, "are prepared to
+meet us; in return for a very moderate preference, they will give us a
+substantial advantage in their markets." This speech, delivered with
+characteristic vigour and Imperialistic enthusiasm, was the type of
+others which followed in quick succession during the year. At Greenock
+next day he emphasized the necessity of retaliating against foreign
+tariffs--"I never like being hit without striking back." The practice of
+"dumping" must be fairly met; if foreign goods were brought into England
+to undersell British manufacturers, either the Fair Wages Clause and the
+Factory Acts and the Compensation Act would have to be repealed, or the
+workmen would have to take lower wages, or lose their work. "Agriculture
+has been practically destroyed, sugar has gone, silk has gone, iron is
+threatened, wool is threatened, cotton will go! How long are you going
+to stand it?" On October 20th he spoke at Newcastle, on the 21st at
+Tynemouth, on the 27th at Liverpool, insisting that free-trade had never
+been a working-class measure and that it could not be reconciled with
+trade-unionism; on November 4th at Birmingham, on the 20th at Cardiff,
+on the 21st at Newport, and on December 16th at Leeds. In all these
+speeches he managed to point his argument by application to local
+industries. In the Leeds speech he announced that, with a view to
+drawing up a scientific model tariff, a non-political commission of
+representative experts would be appointed under the auspices of the
+Tariff Reform League to take evidence from every trade; it included many
+heads of businesses, and Mr Charles Booth, the eminent student of social
+and industrial London, with Sir Robert Herbert as chairman, and
+Professor W.A.S. Hewins as secretary. The name of "Tariff Commission,"
+given to this voluntary and unofficial body, was a good deal criticized,
+but though flouted by the political free-traders it set to work in
+earnest, and accumulated a mass of evidence as to the real facts of
+trade, which promised to be invaluable to economic inquirers. On January
+18th, 1904, Mr Chamberlain ended his series of speeches by a great
+meeting at the Guildhall, in the city of London, the key-note being his
+exhortation to his audience to "think imperially."
+
+All this activity on Mr Chamberlain's part represented a great physical
+and intellectual feat on the part of a man now sixty-seven years of age;
+but his bodily vigour and comparatively youthful appearance were
+essential features of his personality. Nothing like this campaign had
+been known in the political world since Mr Gladstone's Midlothian days;
+and it produced a great public impression, stirring up both supporters
+and opponents. Free-trade unionists like Lord Goschen and Lord Hugh
+Cecil, and the Liberal leaders--for whom Mr Asquith became the principal
+spokesman, though Lord Rosebery's criticisms also had considerable
+weight--found new matter in Mr Chamberlain's speeches for their
+contention that any radical change in the traditional English fiscal
+policy, established now for sixty years, would only result in evil. The
+broad fact remained that while Mr Chamberlain's activity gathered round
+him the bulk of the Unionist members and an enthusiastic band of
+economic sympathizers, the country as a whole remained apathetic and
+unconvinced. One reason was the intellectual difficulty of the subject
+and the double-faced character of all arguments from statistics, which
+were either incomprehensible or disputable; another was the fact that
+substantially this was a political movement, and that tariff reform was,
+after all, only one in a complexity of political issues, most of which
+during this period were being interpreted by the electorate in a sense
+hostile to the Unionist party. Mr Chamberlain had relied on his personal
+influence, which from 1895 to 1902 had been supreme; but his own
+resignation, and the course of events, had since 1903 made his
+personality less authoritative, and new interests--such as the
+opposition to the Education Act, to the heavy taxation, and to Chinese
+labour in the Transvaal, and indignation over the revelations concerned
+with the war--were monopolizing attention, to the weakening of his hold
+on the public. The revival in trade, and the production of new
+statistics which appeared to stultify Mr Chamberlain's prophecies of
+progressive decline, enabled the free-trade champions to reassure their
+audiences as to the very foundation of his case, and to represent the
+whole tariff reform movement as no less unnecessary than risky.
+Moreover, the split in the Unionist party brought the united Liberal
+party in full force into the field, and at last the country began to
+think that the danger of Irish Home Rule was practically over, and that
+a Liberal majority might be returned to power in safety, with the
+prospect of providing an alternative government which would assure
+commercial repose (Lord Rosebery's phrase), relief from extravagant
+expenditure, and--as the working-classes were led to believe--a certain
+amount of labour legislation which the Tory leaders would never propose.
+On the other hand the colonies took a great interest in the new
+movement, though without putting any such pressure on the home public as
+Mr Chamberlain might have expected. At the opening of 1904 he was
+officially invited by Mr Deakin, the prime minister of the Commonwealth,
+to pay a visit to Australia, in order to expound his scheme, being
+promised an enthusiastic welcome "as the harbinger of commercial
+reciprocity between the mother country and her colonies." Mr
+Chamberlain, however, declined; his work at home was too pressing.
+
+From the end of Mr Chamberlain's series of expository speeches on his
+scheme of tariff reform, onwards during the various fiscal debates and
+discussions of 1904, it is unnecessary to follow events in detail. The
+scheme was now before the country, and Mr Chamberlain was anxious to
+take its verdict. Time was not on his side at his age, and if he had to
+be beaten at one election he was anxious to get rid of the other issues
+which would encumber the popular vote, and to press on to a second when
+he would be on the attacking side. But he would make no move which would
+embarrass Mr Balfour in parliament, and adhered to his promise of
+loyalty. The result was a long drawn out interval, while the government
+held on and its supporters became more embittered over their
+differences. Mr Chamberlain needed a rest, and was away in Italy and
+Egypt from March to May, and again in November. He made three important
+speeches at Welbeck (August 4), at Luton (October 5), and at Limehouse
+(December 15), but he had nothing substantial to add to his case, and
+the party situation continued in all its embarrassments. Mr Balfour's
+introduction of his promise (at Edinburgh on October 3) to convene an
+imperial conference after the general election if the Unionists came
+back to power, in order to discuss a scheme for fiscal union,
+represented an academic rather than a practical advance, since the
+by-elections showed that the Unionists were certain to be defeated. The
+one important new development concerned the Liberal-Unionist
+organization. In January some correspondence was published between Mr
+Chamberlain and the duke of Devonshire, dating from the previous
+October, as to difficulties arising from the central Liberal-Unionist
+organization subsidizing local associations which had adopted the
+programme of tariff reform. The duke objected to this departure from
+neutrality, and suggested that it was becoming "impossible with any
+advantage to maintain under existing circumstances the existence of the
+Liberal-Unionist organization." Mr Chamberlain retorted that this was a
+matter for a general meeting of delegates to decide; if the duke was
+outvoted he might resign his presidency; for his own part he was
+prepared to allow the local associations to be subsidized impartially,
+so long as they supported the government, but he was not prepared for
+the violent disruption, which the duke apparently contemplated, of an
+association so necessary to the success of the Unionist cause. The duke
+was in a difficult position as president of the organization, since most
+of the local associations supported Mr Chamberlain, and he replied that
+the differences between them were vital, and he would not be responsible
+for dividing the association into sections, but would rather resign. Mr
+Chamberlain then called a general meeting on his own responsibility in
+February, when a new constitution was proposed; and in May, at the
+annual meeting of the Liberal-Unionist council, the free-food Unionists,
+being in a minority, retired, and the association was reorganized under
+Mr Chamberlain's auspices, Lord Lansdowne and Lord Selborne (both of
+them cabinet ministers) becoming vice-presidents. On July 14th the
+reconstituted Liberal-Unionist organization held a great demonstration
+in the Albert Hall, and Mr Chamberlain's success in ousting the duke of
+Devonshire and the other free-trade members of the old Liberal-Unionist
+party, and imposing his own fiscal policy upon the Liberal-Unionist
+caucus, was now complete.
+
+During the spring and summer of 1905 Mr Chamberlain's more active
+supporters were in favour of forcing a dissolution by leaving the
+government in a minority, but he himself preferred to leave matters to
+take their course, so long as the prime minister was content to be
+publicly identified with the policy of eventually fighting on tariff
+reform lines. Speaking at the Albert Hall in July Mr Chamberlain pushed
+somewhat further than before his "embrace" of Mr Balfour; and in the
+autumn, when foreign affairs no longer dominated the attention of the
+government, the crisis rapidly came to a head. In reply to Mr Balfour's
+appeal for the sinking of differences (Newcastle, November 14), Mr
+Chamberlain insisted at Bristol (November 21) on the adoption of his
+fiscal policy; and Mr Balfour resigned on December 4. on the ground that
+he no longer retained the confidence of the party. At the crushing
+Unionist defeat in the general election which followed in January 1906,
+Mr Chamberlain was triumphantly returned for West Birmingham, and all
+the divisions of Birmingham returned Chamberlainite members. Amid the
+wreck of the party--Mr Balfour and several of his colleagues themselves
+losing their seats--he had the consolation of knowing that the tariff
+reformers won the only conspicuous successes of the election. But he had
+no desire to set himself up as leader in Mr Balfour's place, and after
+private negotiations with the ex-prime minister, a common platform was
+arranged between them, on which Mr Balfour, for whom a seat was found in
+the City of London, should continue to lead the remnant of the party.
+The formula was given in a letter from Mr Balfour of February 14th (see
+BALFOUR, A.J.) which admitted the necessity of making fiscal reform the
+first plank in the Unionist platform, and accepted a general tariff on
+manufactured goods and a small duty on foreign corn as "not in principle
+objectionable."
+
+It may be left to future historians to attempt a considered judgment on
+the English tariff reform movement, and on Mr Chamberlain's
+responsibility for the Unionist _debacle_ of 1906. But while his enemies
+taunted him with having twice wrecked his party--first the Radical party
+under Mr Gladstone, and secondly the Unionist party under Mr Balfour--no
+well-informed critic doubted his sincerity, or failed to recognize that
+in leaving the cabinet and embarking on his fiscal campaign he showed
+real devotion to an idea. In championing the cause of imperial fiscal
+union, by means involving the abandonment of a system of taxation which
+had become part of British orthodoxy, he followed the guidance of a
+profound conviction that the stability of the empire and the very
+existence of the hegemony of the United Kingdom depended upon the
+conversion of public opinion to a revision of the current economic
+doctrine. There were doubtless miscalculations at the outset as to the
+resistance to be encountered. But from the purely party point of view he
+was entitled to say that he followed the path of loyalty to Mr Balfour
+which he had marked out from the moment of his resignation, and that he
+persistently, refused to be put in competition with him as leader. Even
+in the absence of the new issue, defeat was foredoomed for Mr Balfour's
+administration by the ordinary course of political events; and it might
+fairly be claimed that "Chinese slavery," "passive resistance," and
+labour irritation at the Taff Vale judgment (see TRADE UNIONS) were
+mainly responsible for the Unionist collapse. Time alone would show
+whether the system of free imports could be permanently reconciled with
+British imperial policy or commercial prosperity. It remained the fact
+that Mr Chamberlain staked an already established position on his
+refusal to compromise with his convictions on a question which appeared
+to him of vital and immediate importance.
+
+Mr Chamberlain's own activity in the political field was cut short in
+the middle of the session of 1906 by a serious attack of gout, which was
+at first minimized by his friends, but which, it was gradually
+discovered, had completely crippled him. Though encouragement was given
+to the idea that he might return to the House of Commons, where he
+continued to retain his seat for Birmingham, he was quite incapacitated
+for any public work; and this invalid condition was protracted
+throughout 1907, 1908 and 1909. But he remained in the background as the
+inspirer and adviser of the Tariff Reformers. The cause made continuous
+headway at by-elections, and though the general election of January 1910
+gave the Unionists no majority it saw them returned in much increased
+strength, which was chiefly due to the support obtained for tariff
+reform principles. Mr Chamberlain himself was returned unopposed for
+West Birmingham again.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE (1828-   ), American soldier and
+educationalist, was born at Brewer, Maine, on the 8th of September 1828.
+He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1852, and at the Bangor Theological
+Seminary in 1855, and was successively tutor in logic and natural
+theology (1855-1856), professor of rhetoric and oratory (1856-1861), and
+professor of modern languages (1861-1865), at Bowdoin. In 1862 he
+entered the Federal army as lieutenant-colonel of the 20th Maine
+Infantry. His military career was marked by great personal bravery and
+energy and intrepidity as a leader. He was six times wounded, and
+participated in all the important battles in the East from Antietam
+onwards, including Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, the
+Wilderness, Cold Harbor, Petersburg and Five Forks. For his conduct at
+Petersburg, where he was severely wounded, he was promoted to be
+brigadier-general of volunteers. He was breveted major-general of
+volunteers on the 29th of March 1865, and led the Federal advance in the
+final operations against General R.E. Lee. In 1893 he received a
+Congressional medal of honour "for daring heroism and great tenacity in
+holding his position on the Little Round Top and carrying the advance
+position on the Great Round Top at the Battle of Gettysburg." After the
+war he was again professor of rhetoric and oratory at Bowdoin in
+1865-1866, and in 1867-1870 was governor of Maine, having been elected
+as a Republican. From 1871 to 1883 he was president of Bowdoin College,
+and during 1874-1879 was professor of mental and moral philosophy also.
+Appointed in 1880 by Alonzo Garcelon, the retiring governor, to protect
+the property and institutions of the state until a new governor should
+be duly qualified, and acting as major-general of the state militia,
+Chamberlain did much to avert possible civil war, at a time of great
+political excitement and bitter partisan feeling. (See MAINE:
+_History_.) In 1883-1885 he was a lecturer on political science and
+public law at Bowdoin, and in 1900 became surveyor of customs for the
+district of Portland, Maine. He published _Maine, Her Place in History_
+(1877), and edited _Universities and Their Sons_ (6 vols., 1898).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES (1820-1902), British field marshal, was
+the third son of Sir Henry Chamberlain, first baronet, consul-general
+and charge d'affaires in Brazil, and was born at Rio on the 10th of
+January 1820. He entered the Indian army in 1837, served as a subaltern
+in the first Afghan War (1839-42), and was wounded on six occasions. He
+was attached to the Governor-General's Bodyguard at the battle of
+Maharajpur, in the Gwalior campaign of 1843, was appointed military
+secretary to the governor of Bombay in 1846, and honorary aide-de-camp
+to the governor-general of India in 1847. He served on the staff
+throughout the Punjab campaign of 1848-49, and was given a brevet
+majority. In 1850 he was appointed commandant of the Punjab military
+police, and in 1852 military secretary to the Punjab government.
+Promoted lieut.-colonel in 1854, he was given the command of the Punjab
+Frontier Force with rank of brigadier-general, and commanded in several
+expeditions against the frontier tribes. In the Indian Mutiny he
+succeeded Colonel Chester as adjutant-general of the Indian army, and
+distinguished himself at the siege of Delhi, where he was severely
+wounded. He was rewarded with a brevet-colonelcy, the appointment of
+A.D.C. to the queen, and the C.B. He was reappointed to the command of
+the Punjab Frontier Force in 1858, and commanded in the Umbeyla campaign
+(1863), in which he was severely wounded. He was now made major-general
+for distinguished service and a K.C.B. He was made K.C.S.I. in 1866,
+lieut.-general in 1872, G.C.S.I. in 1873, G.C.B in 1875, and general in
+1877. From 1876 to 1881 he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army,
+and in 1878 was sent on a mission to the amir of Afghanistan, whose
+refusal to allow him to enter the country precipitated the second Afghan
+War. He was for some time acting military member of the council of the
+governor-general of India. He retired in 1886, was made a field marshal
+in 1900, and died on the 18th of February 1902.
+
+  An excellent biography by G.W. Forrest appeared in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAIN (O. Fr. _chamberlain, chamberlenc_, Mod. Fr. _chambellan_,
+from O.H. Ger. _Chamarling, Chamarlinc_, whence also the Med. Lat.
+_cambellanus, camerlingus, camerlengus_; Ital. _camerlingo_; Span,
+_camerlengo_, compounded of O.H. Ger. _Chamara, Kamara_ [Lat. _camera_,
+"chamber"], and the Ger. suffix _-ling_), etymologically, and also to a
+large extent historically, an officer charged with the superintendence
+of domestic affairs. Such were the chamberlains of monasteries or
+cathedrals, who had charge of the finances, gave notice of chapter
+meetings, and provided the materials necessary for the various services.
+In these cases, as in that of the apostolic chamberlain of the Roman
+see, the title was borrowed from the usage of the courts of the western
+secular princes. A royal chamberlain is now a court official whose
+function is in general to attend on the person of the sovereign and to
+regulate the etiquette of the palace. He is the representative of the
+medieval _camberlanus, cambellanus_, or _cubicularius_, whose office was
+modelled on that of the _praefectus sacri cubiculi_ or _cubicularius_ of
+the Roman emperors. But at the outset there was another class of
+chamberlains, the _camerarii_, i.e. high officials charged with the
+administration of the royal treasury (_camera_). The _camerarius_ of the
+Carolingian emperors was the equivalent of the _hordere_ or
+_thesaurarius_ (treasurer) of the Anglo-Saxon kings; he develops into
+the _Erzkammerer_ (_archicamerarius_) of the Holy Roman Empire, an
+office held by the margraves of Brandenburg, and the _grand chambrier_
+of France, who held his _chamberie_ as a fief. Similarly in England
+after the Norman conquest the _hordere_ becomes the chamberlain. This
+office was of great importance. Before the Conquest he had been, with
+the marshal, the principal officer of the king's court; and under the
+Norman sovereigns his functions were manifold. As he had charge of the
+administration of the royal household, his office was of financial
+importance, for a portion of the royal revenue was paid, not into the
+exchequer, but in _camera regis_. In course of time the office became
+hereditary and titular, but the complexities of the duties necessitated
+a division of the work, and the office was split up into three: the
+hereditary and sinecure office of _magister camerarius_ or lord great
+chamberlain (see LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN), the more important domestic
+office of _camerarius regis_, king's chamberlain or lord chamberlain
+(see LORD CHAMBERLAIN), and the chamberlains (_camerarii_) of the
+exchequer, two in number, who were originally representatives of the
+chamberlain at the exchequer, and afterwards in conjunction with the
+treasurer presided over that department. In 1826 the last of these
+officials died, when by an act passed forty-four years earlier they
+disappeared.
+
+In France the office of _grand chambrier_ was early overshadowed by the
+_chamberlains (cubicularii, cambellani_, but sometimes also
+_camerarii_), officials in close personal attendance on the king, men at
+first of low rank, but of great and ever-increasing influence. As the
+office of _grand chambrier_, held by great feudal nobles seldom at
+court, became more and more honorary, the chamberlains grew in power, in
+numbers and in rank, until, in the 13th century, one of them emerges as
+a great officer of state, the _chambellan de France_ or _grand
+chambellan_ (also _magister cambellanorum, mestre chamberlenc_), who at
+times shares with the _grand chambrier_ the revenues derived from
+certain trades in the city of Paris (see _Regestum Memoralium Camerae
+computorum_, quoted in du Cange, s. _Cameranus_). The honorary office of
+_grand chambrier_ survived till the time of Henry II., who was himself
+the last to hold it before his accession; that of _grand chambellan_,
+which in its turn soon became purely honorary, survived till the
+Revolution. Among the prerogatives of the _grand chambellan_ which
+survived to the last not the least valued was the right to hand the king
+his shirt at the ceremonial levee. The offices of _grand chambellan,
+premier chambellan_, and _chambellan_ were revived by Napoleon,
+continued under the Restoration, abolished by Louis Philippe, and again
+restored by Napoleon III.
+
+In the papal Curia the apostolic chamberlain (Lat. _camerarius_, Ital.
+_camerlingo_) occupies a very important position. He is at the head of
+the treasury (_camera thesauraria_) and, in the days of the temporal
+power, not only administered the papal finances but possessed an
+extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction. During a vacancy of the Holy
+See he is at the head of the administration of the Roman Church. The
+office dates from the 11th century, when it superseded that of
+archdeacon of the Roman Church, and the close personal relations of the
+_camerarius_ with the pope, together with the fact that he is the
+official guardian of the ceremonial vestments and treasures, point to
+the fact that he is also the representative of the former _vestararius_
+and _vice-dominus_, whose functions were merged in the new office, of
+which the idea and title were probably borrowed from the usage of the
+secular courts of the West (Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. 405, &c.).
+There are also attached to the papal household (_famiglia pontificia_) a
+large number of chamberlains whose functions are more or less
+ornamental. These are divided into several categories: privy
+chamberlains (_camerieri segreti_), chamberlains, assistant and honorary
+chamberlains. These are gentlemen of rank and belong to the highest
+class of the household (_famiglia nobile_).
+
+In England the modern representatives of the _cubicularii_ are the
+gentlemen and grooms of the bed-chamber, in Germany the _Kammerherr_
+(_Kammerer_, from _camerarius_, in Bavaria and Austria) and
+_Kammerjunker_. The insignia of their office is a gold key attached to
+their coats behind.
+
+Many corporations appoint a chamberlain. The most important in England
+is the chamberlain of the corporation of the city of London, who is
+treasurer of the corporation, admits persons entitled to the freedom of
+the city, and, in the chamberlain's court, of which he and the
+vice-chamberlain are judges, exercises concurrent jurisdiction with the
+police court in determining disputes between masters and apprentices.
+Formerly nominated by the crown, since 1688 he has been elected annually
+by the liverymen. He has a salary of L2000 a year. Similarly in Germany
+the administration of the finances of a city is called the _Kammerei_
+and the official in charge of it the _Kammerer_.
+
+  See also STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF; HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL; Du Cange,
+  _Glossarium_, s. "Camerarius" and "Cambellanus"; Pere Anselme (Pierre
+  de Guibours), _Hist. genealogique et chronologique de la maison royale
+  de France, &c_. (9 vols., 3rd ed., 1726-1733); A. Luchaire, _Manuel
+  des institutions francaises_ (Paris, 1892); W.R. Anson, _Law and
+  Custom of the Constitution_ (Oxford, 1896); Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_,
+  i. 405 (Berlin, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM (1619-1679), English poet, was born in 1619.
+Nothing is known of his history except that he practised as a physician
+at Shaftesbury in Dorsetshire, and fought on the Royalist side at the
+second battle of Newbury. He died on the 11th of July 1679. His works
+are: _Pharonnida_ (1659), a verse romance in five books; _Love's
+Victory_ (1658), a tragi-comedy, acted under another title in 1678 at
+the Theatre Royal; _England's Jubilee_ (1660), a poem in honour of the
+Restoration. A prose version of _Pharonnida_, entitled _Eromena_, or the
+_Noble Stranger_, appeared in 1683. Southey speaks of him as "a poet to
+whom I am indebted for many hours of delight." _Pharonnida_ was
+reprinted by S.W. Singer in 1820, and again in 1905 by Prof. G.
+Saintsbury in _Minor Poets of the Caroline Period_ (vol. i.). The poem
+is loose in construction, but contains some passages of great beauty.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740), English encyclopaedist, was born at Kendal,
+Westmorland, in the latter part of the 17th century. He was apprenticed
+to a globe-maker in London, but having conceived the plan of his
+Cyclopaedia, or _Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences_, he devoted
+himself entirely to it. The first edition appeared by subscription in
+1728, in two vols. fol., and dedicated to the king (see ENCYCLOPAEDIA).
+The _Encyclopedie_ of Diderot and d'Alembert owed its inception to a
+French translation of Chambers's work. In addition to the _Cyclopaedia_,
+Chambers wrote for the _Literary Magazine_ (1735-1736), and translated
+the _History and Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris_
+(1742), and the _Practice of Perspective_ from the French of Jean
+Dubreuil. He died on the 15th of May 1740.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840), English marine painter, born at Whitby,
+Yorkshire, was the son of a seaman, and for several years he pursued his
+father's calling. While at sea he was in the habit of sketching the
+different classes of vessels. His master, observing this, gratified him
+by cancelling his indentures, and thus set him free to follow his
+natural bent. Chambers then apprenticed himself to an old woman who kept
+a painter's shop in Whitby, and began by house-painting. He also took
+lessons of a drawing-master, and found a ready sale for small and cheap
+pictures of shipping. Coming afterwards to London, he was employed by
+Thomas Horner to assist in painting the great panorama of London for the
+Colosseum (the exhibition building in Regent's Park, demolished towards
+1860), and he next became scene-painter at the Pavilion theatre. In 1834
+he was elected an associate, and in 1836 a full member, of the
+Water-colour Society. His best works represent naval battles. Two of
+these--the "Bombardment of Algiers in 1816," and the "Capture of Porto
+Bello"--are in Greenwich hospital. Not long before his death he was
+introduced to William IV., and his professional prospects brightened;
+but his constitution, always frail, gave way, and he died on the 28th of
+October 1840.
+
+  A _Life_, by John Watkins, was published in 1841.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS, ROBERT (1802-1871), Scottish author and publisher, was born at
+Peebles on the 10th of July 1802. He was sent to the local schools, and
+gave evidence of unusual literary taste and ability. A small circulating
+library in the town, and a copy of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ which
+his father had purchased, furnished him with stores of reading of which
+he eagerly availed himself. Long afterwards he wrote of his early
+years--"Books, not playthings, filled my hands in childhood. At twelve I
+was deep, not only in poetry and fiction, but in encyclopaedias." Robert
+had been destined for the church, but this design had to be abandoned
+for lack of means. The family removed to Edinburgh in 1813, and in 1818
+Robert began business as a bookstall-keeper in Leith Walk. He was then
+only sixteen, and his whole stock consisted of a few old books belonging
+to his father. In 1819 his elder brother William had begun a similar
+business, and the two eventually united as partners in the publishing
+firm of W. & R. Chambers. Robert Chambers showed an enthusiastic
+interest in the history and antiquities of Edinburgh, and found a most
+congenial task in his _Traditions of Edinburgh_ (2 vols., 1824), which
+secured for him the approval and the personal friendship of Sir Walter
+Scott. A _History of the Rebellions in Scotland from 1638 to 1745_ (5
+vols., 1828) and numerous other works followed.
+
+In the beginning of 1832 William Chambers started a weekly publication
+under the title of _Chambers's Edinburgh Journal_ (known since 1854 as
+_Chambers's Journal of Literature, Science and Arts_), which speedily
+attained a large circulation. Robert was at first only a contributor.
+After fourteen numbers had appeared, however, he was associated with his
+brother as joint-editor, and his collaboration contributed more perhaps
+than anything else to the success of the _Journal_.
+
+Among the other numerous works of which Robert was in whole or in part
+the author, the _Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen_ (4 vols.,
+Glasgow, 1832-1835), the _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_ (1844), the
+_Life and Works of Robert Burns_ (4 vols., 1851), _Ancient Sea Margins_
+(1848), the _Domestic Annals of Scotland_ (3 vols., 1859-1861) and the
+_Book of Days_ (2 vols., 1862-1864) were the most important.
+_Chambers's Encyclopaedia_ (1859-1868), with Dr Andrew Findlater as
+editor, was carried out under the superintendence of the brothers (see
+ENCYCLOPAEDIA). The _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_[1] contains a
+series of admirably selected extracts from the best authors of every
+period, "set in a biographical and critical history of the literature
+itself." For the _Life of Burns_ he made diligent and laborious original
+investigations, gathering many hitherto unrecorded facts from the poet's
+sister, Mrs Begg, to whose benefit the whole profits of the work were
+generously devoted. Robert Chambers was a scientific geologist, and
+availed himself of tours in Scandinavia and Canada for the purpose of
+geological exploration. The results of his travels were embodied in
+_Tracings of the North of Europe_ (1851) and _Tracings in Iceland and
+the Faroe Islands_ (1856). His knowledge of geology was one of the
+principal grounds on which the authorship of the _Vestiges of the
+Natural History of Creation_ (2 vols., 1843-1846) was eventually
+assigned to him. The book was published anonymously. Robert Chambers was
+aware of the storm that would probably be raised at the time by a
+rational treatment of the subject, and did not wish to involve his firm
+in the discredit that a charge of heterodoxy would bring with it. The
+arrangements for publication were made through Alexander Ireland of
+Manchester, and the secret was so well kept that such different names as
+those of Prince Albert and Sir Charles Lyell were coupled with the book.
+Ireland in 1884 issued a 12th edition, with a preface giving an account
+of its authorship, which there was no longer any reason for concealing.
+The _Book of Days_ was Chambers's last publication, and perhaps his most
+elaborate. It was a miscellany of popular antiquities in connexion with
+the calendar, and it is supposed that his excessive labour in connexion
+with this book hastened his death, which took place at St Andrews on the
+17th of March 1871. Two years before, the university of St Andrews had
+conferred upon him the degree of doctor of laws, and he was elected a
+member of the Athenaeum club in London. It is his highest claim to
+distinction that he did so much to give a healthy tone to the cheap
+popular literature which has become so important a factor in modern
+civilization.
+
+His brother, WILLIAM CHAMBERS (1800-1883) was born at Peebles, on the
+16th of April 1800. He was the financial genius of the publishing firm.
+He laid the city of Edinburgh under the greatest obligations by his
+public spirit and munificence. As lord provost he procured the passing
+in 1867 of the Improvement Act, which led to the reconstruction of a
+great part of the Old Town, and at a later date he proposed and carried
+out, largely at his own expense, the restoration of the noble and then
+neglected church of St Giles, making it in a sense "the Westminster
+Abbey of Scotland." This service was fitly acknowledged by the offer of
+a baronetcy, which he did not live to receive, dying on the 20th of May
+1883, three days before the reopening of the church. He was the author
+of a history of St Giles's, of a memoir of himself and his brother
+(1872), and of many other useful publications. On his death in 1883
+Robert Chambers (1832-1888), son of Robert Chambers, succeeded as head
+of the firm, and edited the _Journal_ until his death. His eldest son,
+Charles Edward Stuart Chambers (b. 1859), became editor of the _Journal_
+and chairman of W. & R. Chambers, Limited.
+
+  See also _Memoir of Robert Chambers, with Autobiographic Reminiscences
+  of William Chambers_ (1872), the 13th ed. of which (1884) has a
+  supplementary chapter; Alexander Ireland's preface to the 12th ed.
+  (1884) of the _Vestiges of Creation_; the _Story of a Long and Busy
+  Life_ (1884), by William Chambers; and some discriminating
+  appreciation in James Payn's _Some Literary Recollections_ (1884),
+  chapter v. The _Select Writings of Robert Chambers_ were published in
+  7 vols. in 1847, and a complete list of the works of the brothers is
+  added to _A Catalogue of Some of the Rarer Books ... in the Collection
+  of C.E.S. Chambers_ (Edinburgh, 1891).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A new and enlarged edition of this work, edited by David Patrick,
+    LL. D., appeared in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796), British architect, was the grandson
+of a rich merchant who had financed the armies of Charles XII., but was
+paid in base money, and whose son remained in Sweden many years
+endeavouring to obtain redress. In 1728 the latter returned to England
+and settled at Ripon, where William, who was born in Stockholm, was
+educated. At the age of sixteen he became supercargo to the Swedish East
+India Company, and voyaging to Canton made drawings of Chinese
+architecture, furniture and costume which served as basis for his
+_Designs for Chinese Buildings_, &c. (1757). Two years later he quitted
+the sea to study architecture seriously, and spent a long time in Italy,
+devoting special attention to the buildings of classical and Renaissance
+architects. He also studied under Clerisseau in Paris, with whom and
+with the sculptor Wilton he lived at Rome. In 1755 he returned to
+England with Cipriani and Wilton, and married the beautiful daughter of
+the latter. His first important commission was a villa for Lord
+Bessborough at Roehampton, but he made his reputation by the grounds he
+laid out and the buildings he erected at Kew between 1757 and 1762 for
+Augusta, princess dowager of Wales. Some of them have since been
+demolished, but the most important, the pagoda, still survives. The
+publication in a handsome volume of the designs for these buildings
+assured his position in the profession. He was employed to teach
+architectural drawing to the prince of Wales (George III.), and gained
+further professional distinction in 1759 by the publication of his
+_Treatise of Civil Architecture_. He began to exhibit with the Society
+of Artists in 1761 at Spring Gardens, and was one of the original
+members and treasurer of the Royal Academy when it was established in
+1768. In 1772 he published his _Dissertation on Oriental Gardening_,
+which attempted to prove the inferiority of European to Chinese
+landscape gardening. As a furniture designer and internal decorator he
+is credited with the creation of that "Chinese Style" which was for a
+time furiously popular, although Thomas Chippendale (q.v.) had published
+designs in that manner at a somewhat earlier date. It is not
+unreasonable to count the honours as divided, since Chippendale
+unquestionably adapted and altered the Chinese shapes in a manner better
+to fit them for European use. To the rage for every possible form of
+_chinoiserie_, for which he is chiefly responsible, Sir William Chambers
+owed much of his success in life. He became architect to the king and
+queen, comptroller of his majesty's works, and afterwards
+surveyor-general. In 1775 he was appointed architect of Somerset House,
+his greatest monument, at a salary of L2000 a year. He also designed
+town mansions for Earl Gower at Whitehall and Lord Melbourne in
+Piccadilly, built Charlemont House, Dublin, and Duddingston House near
+Edinburgh. He designed the market house at Worcester, was employed by
+the earl of Pembroke at Wilton, by the duke of Marlborough at Blenheim,
+and by the duke of Bedford in Bloomsbury. The state coach of George
+III., his constant patron, was his work; it is now in the Victoria and
+Albert Museum. Although his practice was mainly Classic, he made Gothic
+additions to Milton Abbey in Dorset. Sir William Chambers achieved
+considerable distinction as a designer of furniture. In addition to his
+work in the Chinese style and in the contemporary fashions, he was the
+author of what is probably the most ambitious and monumental piece of
+furniture ever produced in England. This was a combined bureau,
+dressing-case, jewel-cabinet and organ, made for Charles IV., king of
+Spain, in 1793. These combination pieces were in the taste of the time,
+and the effort displays astonishing ingenuity and resource. The panels
+were painted by W. Hamilton, R.A., with representations of the four
+seasons, night and morning, fire and water, Juno and Ceres, together
+with representations of the Golden Fleece and the Immaculate Conception.
+The organ, in the domed top, is in a case decorated with ormolu and
+Wedgwood. This remarkable achievement, which possesses much sober
+elegance, formed part of the loan collection of English furniture at the
+Franco-British Exhibition in London in 1908. Sir William Chambers
+numbered among his friends Dr Johnson, Goldsmith, Sir Joshua Reynolds,
+David Garrick and Dr Burney.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERS (the Fr. _chambre_, from Lat. _camera_, a room), a term used
+generally of rooms or apartments, but especially in law of the offices
+of a lawyer or the semi-private rooms in which judges or judicial
+officers deal with questions of practice and other matters not of
+sufficient importance to be dealt with in court. It is a matter of doubt
+at what period the practice of exercising jurisdiction "in chambers"
+commenced in England; there is no statutory sanction before 1821, though
+the custom can be traced back to the 17th century. An act of 1821
+provided for sittings in chambers between terms, and an act of 1822
+empowered the sovereign to call upon the judges by warrant to sit in
+chambers on as many days in vacation as should seem fit, while the Law
+Terms Act 1830 defined the jurisdiction to be exercised at chambers. The
+Judges' Chambers Act 1867 was the first act, however, to lay down proper
+regulations for chamber work, and the Judicature Act 1873 preserved that
+jurisdiction and gave power to increase it as might be directed or
+authorized by rules of court to be thereafter made. (See CHANCERY;
+KING'S BENCH, COURT OF.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Franklin county,
+Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of Conoco-cheague Creek and
+Falling Spring, 52 m. S.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) 7863; (1900) 8864,
+of whom 769 were negroes; (1910) 11,800. It is served by the Cumberland
+Valley and the Western Maryland railways, and is connected by electric
+lines with Greencastle, Waynesboro, Caledonia, a beautiful park in the
+Pennsylvania timber reservation, on South Mountain, 12 m. east of
+Chambersburg, and Pen Mar, a summer resort, on South Mountain, near the
+boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland. Chambersburg is built
+on an elevated site in the broad and fertile Cumberland Valley, and
+commands a fine view of the distant hills and dales. The borough is the
+seat of Chambersburg Academy, a preparatory school; Penn Hall, a school
+for girls; and Wilson College, a Presbyterian institution for women,
+opened in 1870. The Wilson College campus, the former estate of Col. A.
+K. McClure (1828-1909), a well-known journalist, was laid out by Donald
+G. Mitchell ("Ik Marvel"), who was an enthusiastic landscape gardener.
+The shops of the Cumberland Valley railway are at Chambersburg, and
+among the borough's manufactures are milling machinery, boilers,
+engines, hydraulic presses, steam-hammers, engineering and bridge
+supplies, hosiery, shoes, gloves, furniture, flour, paper, leather,
+carriages and agricultural implements; the total value of its factory
+product in 1905 was $1,085,185. The waterworks and the electric-lighting
+plant are owned and operated by the municipality. A settlement was
+founded here in 1730 by Benjamin Chambers, in whose honour the borough
+was named, and who, immediately after General Edward Braddock's defeat
+in 1755, built a stone fort and surrounded it with a stockade for the
+protection of the community from the Indians. Chambersburg was laid out
+in 1764 and was incorporated as a borough in 1803. On the 30th of July
+1864 Chambersburg was occupied by a Confederate cavalry force under
+General McCausland (acting under General Jubal A. Early's orders), who,
+upon the refusal of the citizens to pay $100,000 for immunity, burned a
+large part of the borough.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBERY, a city of France, capital of the department of Savoie,
+pleasantly situated in a fertile district, between two hills, on the
+rivers Leysse and Albane, 79 m. by rail S.S.W. of Geneva. Pop. (1906)
+town, 16,852; commune, 23,027. The town is irregularly built, and has
+only two good streets--the Place Saint-Leger and the Rue de Boigne, the
+latter being named after General Benoit Boigne (1741-1830), who left a
+fortune of 3,400,000 francs (accumulated in India) to the town. The
+principal buildings are the cathedral, dating from the 14th and 15th
+centuries; the Hotel-Dieu, founded in 1647; the castle, a modern
+building serving as the prefecture, and preserving only a great square
+tower belonging to the original structure; the palace of justice, the
+theatre, the barracks, and the covered market, which dates from 1863.
+Several of the squares are adorned with fountains; the old ramparts of
+the city, destroyed during the French Revolution, have been converted
+into public walks; and various promenades and gardens have been
+constructed. Chambery is the seat of an archbishop (raised to that
+dignity from a bishopric in 1817) and of a superior tribunal. It has
+also a Jesuit college, a royal academical society, a society of
+agriculture and commerce, a public library with 60,000 volumes, a museum
+(antiquities and paintings), a botanic garden, and many charitable
+institutions. It manufactures silk-gauze, lace, leather and hats, and
+has a considerable trade in liqueurs, wine, lead, copper and other
+articles. Overlooking the town on the north is the Rocher de Lemenc,
+which derives its name from the _Lemincum_ of the Romans; and in the
+vicinity is Les Charmettes, for some time (1736-1740) the residence of
+Rousseau.
+
+The origin of Chambery is unknown, but its lords are mentioned for the
+first time in 1029. In 1232 it was sold to the count of Savoy, Thomas
+I., who bestowed several important privileges on the inhabitants. As
+capital of the duchy of Savoy, it has passed through numerous political
+vicissitudes. Between 1536 and 1713 it was several times occupied by the
+French; in 1742 it was captured by a Franco-Spanish army; and in 1792 it
+was occupied by the Republican forces, and became the capital of the
+department of Mont Blanc. Restored to the house of Savoy by the treaties
+of Vienna and Paris, it was again surrendered to France in 1860. Among
+the famous men whom it has given to France, the most important are
+Vaugelas (1585-1650), Saint-Real (1639-1692), and the brothers Joseph
+(1754-1821) and Xavier (1763-1852) de Maistre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE DIEUDONNE COMTE DE (1820-1883),
+the "King Henry V." of the French legitimists, was born in Paris on the
+29th of September 1820. His father was the duc de Berry, the elder son
+of the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.); his mother was the
+princess Caroline Ferdinande Louise of Naples. Born seven months after
+the assassination of his father, he was hailed as the "enfant du
+miracle," and was made the subject of one of Lamartine's most famous
+poems. He was created duc de Bordeaux, and in 1821, as the result of a
+subscription organized by the government, received the chateau of
+Chambord. He was educated by tutors inspired by detestation of the
+French Revolution and its principles, and from the duc de Damas in
+particular imbibed those ideas of divine right and of devotion to the
+Church to which he always remained true. After the revolution of July,
+Charles X. vainly endeavoured to save the Bourbon cause by abdicating in
+his favour and proclaiming him king under the title of Henry V. (August
+2, 1830). The comte de Chambord accompanied his grandfather into exile,
+and resided successively at Holyrood, Prague, and Gorz. In 1841, during
+an extensive tour through Europe, he broke his leg--an accident that
+resulted in permanent lameness. The death of his grandfather, Charles
+X., in 1836, and of his uncle, the duc d'Angouleme, in 1844, left him
+the last male representative of the elder branch of the Bourbon family;
+and his marriage with the archduchess Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of
+the duke of Modena (November 7, 1846), remained without issue. The title
+to the throne thus passed to the comte de Paris, as representative of
+the Orleans branch of the house of Bourbon, and the history of the comte
+de Chambord's life is largely an account of the efforts made to unite
+the Royalist party by effecting a reconciliation between the two
+princes. Though he continued to hold an informal court, both on his
+travels and at his castle of Frohsdorf, near Vienna, yet he allowed the
+revolution of 1848 and the _coup d'etat_ of 1851 to pass without any
+decisive assertion of his claims. It was the Italian war of 1859, with
+its menace to the pope's independence, that roused him at last to
+activity. He declared himself ready "to pay with his blood for the
+triumph of a cause which was that of France, the Church, and God
+himself." Making common cause with the Church, the Royalists now began
+an active campaign against the Empire. On the 9th of December 1866 he
+addressed a manifesto to General Saint-Priest, in which he declared the
+cause of the pope to be that of society and liberty, and held out
+promises of retrenchment, civil and religious liberty, "and above all
+honesty." Again, on the 4th of September 1870, after the fall of the
+Empire, he invited Frenchmen to accept a government "whose basis was
+right and whose principle was honesty," and promised to drive the enemy
+from French soil. These vague phrases, offered as a panacea to a nation
+fighting for its life, showed conclusively his want of all political
+genius; they had as little effect on the French as his protest against
+the bombardment of Paris had on the Germans. Yet fortune favoured him.
+The elections placed the Republican party in a minority in the National
+Assembly; the abrogation of the law of exile against the royal family
+permitted him to return to his castle of Chambord; and it was thence
+that on the 5th of July 1871 he issued a proclamation, in which for the
+first time he publicly posed as king, and declared that he would never
+abandon the white standard of the Bourbons, "the flag of Henry IV.,
+Francis I., and Joan of Arc," for the tricolour of the Revolution. He
+again quitted France, and answered the attempts to make him renounce his
+claims in favour of the comte de Paris by the declaration (January 25,
+1872) that he would never abdicate. In the following month he held a
+great gathering of his adherents at Antwerp, which was the cause of
+serious disturbances. A constitutional programme, signed by some 280
+members of the National Assembly, was presented for his acceptance, but
+without result. The fall of Thiers in May 1873, however, offered an
+opportunity to the Royalists by which they hastened to profit. The comte
+de Paris and the prince de Joinville journeyed to Frohsdorf, and were
+formally reconciled with the head of the family (August 5). The
+Royalists were united, the premier (the duc de Broglie) an open
+adherent, the president (MacMahon) a benevolent neutral. MM. Lucien Brun
+and Chesnelong were sent to interview the comte de Chambord at Salzburg,
+and obtain the definite assurances that alone were wanting. They
+returned with the news that he accepted the principles of the French
+Revolution and the tricolour flag. But a letter to Chesnelong, dated
+Salzburg, 27th of October, declared that he had been misunderstood: he
+would give no guarantees; he would not inaugurate his reign by an act of
+weakness, nor become "le roi legitime de la Revolution." "Je suis le
+pilote necessaire," he added, "le seul capable de conduire le navire au
+port, parce que j'ai mission et autorite pour cela." This outspoken
+adherence to the principle of divine right did credit to his honesty,
+but it cost him the crown. The duc de Broglie carried the septennate,
+and the Republic steadily established itself in popular favour. A last
+effort was made in the National Assembly in June 1874 by the duc de la
+Rochefoucauld-Bisaccia, who formally moved the restoration of the
+monarchy. The comte de Chambord on the 2nd of July issued a fresh
+manifesto, which added nothing to his former declarations. The motion
+was rejected by 272 to 79, and on the 25th of February 1875 the Assembly
+definitely adopted the Republic as the national form of government. From
+this time the comte de Chambord, though continuing to publish letters on
+political affairs, made no further effort to regain the throne. He died
+at Frohsdorf on the 24th of August 1883.
+
+  See _Manifestes et programmes politiques de M. le comte de Chambord,
+  1848-1873_ (1873), and _Correspondance de la famille royale et
+  principalement de Mgr. le comte de Chambord avec le comte de Bouille_
+  (1884). Of the enormous literature relating to him, mention may be
+  made of _Henri V et la monarchie traditionnelle_ (1871), _Le Comte de
+  Chambord etudie dans ses voyages et sa correspondance_ (1880), and
+  _Henri de France_, by H. de Pene (1885).     (H. Sy.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBORD, a village of central France, in the department of
+Loir-et-Cher, on the left bank of the Cosson, 10 m. E. by N. of Blois by
+road. The village stands in the park of Chambord, which is enclosed by a
+wall 21 m. in circumference. The celebrated chateau (see ARCHITECTURE:
+_Renaissance Architecture in France_) forms a parallelogram flanked at
+the angles by round towers and enclosing a square block of buildings,
+the facade of which forms the centre of the main front. The profusion of
+turrets, pinnacles, and dormer windows which decorates the roof of this,
+the chief portion of the chateau, constitutes the main feature of the
+exterior, while in the interior are a well-preserved chapel of the 16th
+century and a famous double staircase, the construction of which permits
+two people to ascend and descend respectively without seeing one
+another. There are 440 apartments, containing pictures of the 17th
+century and souvenirs of the comte de Chambord. The chateau was
+originally a hunting-box of the counts of Blois, the rebuilding of which
+was begun by Francis I. in 1526, and completed under Henry II. It was
+the residence of several succeeding monarchs, and under Louis XIV.
+considerable alterations were made. In the same reign Moliere performed
+_Monsieur de Pourceaugnac_ and _Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_ for the first
+time in the theatre. Stanislaus, king of Poland, lived at Chambord,
+which was bestowed by his son-in-law, Louis XV., upon Marshal Saxe. It
+was given by Napoleon to Marshal Berthier, from whose widow it was
+purchased by subscription in 1821, and presented to the duc de Bordeaux,
+the representative of the older branch of the Bourbons, who assumed from
+it the title of comte de Chambord. On his death in 1883 it came by
+bequest into the possession of the family of Parma.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMBRE ARDENTE (Fr. "burning chamber"), the term for an extraordinary
+court of justice in France, mainly held for the trials of heretics. The
+name is perhaps an allusion to the fact that the proceedings took place
+in a room from which all daylight was excluded, the only illumination
+being from torches, or there may be a reference to the severity of the
+sentences in _ardente_, suggesting the burning of the prisoners at the
+stake. These courts were originated by the Cardinal of Lorraine, the
+first of them meeting in 1535 under Francis I. The _Chambre Ardente_
+co-operated with an inquisitorial tribunal also established by Francis
+I., the duty of which was to discover cases of heresy and hand them over
+for final judgment to the _Chambre Ardente_. The reign of Henry II. of
+France was particularly infamous for the cruelties perpetrated by this
+court on the Huguenots. The marquise de Brinvilliers (q.v.) and her
+associates were tried in the _Chambre Ardente_ in 1680. The court was
+abolished in 1682.
+
+  See N. Weiss, _La Chambre Ardente_ (Paris, 1889), and F. Ravaisson,
+  _Archives de la Bastille_ (Paris, 1866-1884, 16 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMELEON, the common name of one of the three suborders of Lacertilia
+or lizards. The chief genus is _Chamaeleon_, containing most of the
+fifty to sixty species of the whole group, and with the most extensive
+range, all through Africa and Madagascar into Arabia, southern India and
+Ceylon. The Indian species is _Ch. calcaratus_; the dwarf chameleon of
+South Africa is _Ch. pumilus_; the giant of the whole tribe, reaching a
+total length of 2 ft., is _Ch. parsoni_ of Madagascar. The commonest
+species in the trade is _Ch. vulgaris_ of North Africa, introduced into
+southern Andalusia. A few queer genera, with much stunted tail, e.g.
+_Rhampholeon_, in tropical Africa and _Brookesia_ in Madagascar are the
+most aberrant. The common chameleon is the most typical. The head is
+raised into a pyramidal crest far beyond the occiput, there is no outer
+ear, nor a drum-cavity. The limbs are very long and slender, and the
+digits form stout grasping bundles; on the hand the first three form an
+inner bundle, opposed to the remaining two; on the foot the inner bundle
+is formed by the first and second toe, the outer by the other three
+toes. The tail is prehensile, by being rolled downwards; it is not
+brittle and cannot be renewed. The eyeballs are large, but the lids are
+united into one concentric fold, leaving only the small pupil visible.
+The right and left eyes are incessantly moved separately from each other
+and literally in every direction, up and down, forwards and straight
+backwards, producing the most terrible squinting. Chameleons alone of
+all reptiles can focus their eyes upon one spot, and conformably they
+alone possess a retinal _macula centralis_, or spot of acutest,
+binocular vision. The tongue has attained an extraordinary development.
+It is club-shaped, covered with a sticky secretion, and based upon a
+very narrow root, which is composed of extremely elastic fibres and
+telescoped over the much elongated, style-shaped, copular piece of the
+hyoid. The whole apparatus is kept in a contracted state like a spring
+in a tube. When the spring is released, so to speak, by filling the
+apparatus with blood and by the play of the hyoid muscles, the heavy
+thick end shoots out upon the insect prey and is withdrawn by its own
+elasticity. The whole act is like a flash. An ordinary chameleon can
+shoot a fly at the distance of fully 6 in., and it can manage even a big
+sphinx moth.
+
+[Illustration: Left Forefoot of _Chamaeleon o'shaughenesii_, outer
+view.]
+
+Another remarkable feature is their changing of colour. This proverbial
+power is greatly exaggerated. They cannot assume in succession all the
+colours of the rainbow, nor are the changes quick. The common chameleon
+may be said to be greenish grey, changing to grass-green or to dull
+black, with or without maroon red, or brown, lateral series of patches.
+At night the same specimen assumes as a rule a more or less uniform pale
+straw-colour. After it has been watched for several months, when all its
+possibilities seem exhausted, it will probably surprise us by a totally
+new combination, for instance, a black garb with many small yellow
+specks, or green with many black specks. Pure red and blue are not in
+the register of this species, but they are rather the rule upon the dark
+green ground colour of the South African dwarf chameleon. The changes
+are partly under control of the will, partly complicated reflex actions,
+intentionally adaptive to the physical and psychical surroundings. The
+mechanism is as follows. The cutis contains several kinds of specialized
+cells in many layers, each filled with minute granules of guanine. The
+upper cells are the smallest, most densely filled with crystals, and
+cause the white colour by diffusion of direct light; near the Malpighian
+layer the cells are charged with yellow oil drops; the deeper cells are
+the largest, tinged light brown, and acting as a turbid medium they
+cause a blue colour, which, owing to the superimposed yellow drops,
+reaches our eye as green; provided always that there is an effective
+screen at the back, and this is formed by large chromatophores which lie
+at the bottom and send their black pigment half-way up, or on to the top
+of the layers of guanine and oil containing cells. When all the pigment
+is shifted towards the surface, as near the epidermis as possible, the
+creature looks black; when the black pigment is withdrawn into the basal
+portions of the chromatophores the skin appears yellow.
+
+The lungs are very capacious, and end in several narrow blind sacs which
+extend far down into the body cavity, so that not only the chest but the
+whole body can be blown up. This happens when the animals hiss and
+fight, as they often do. But when they know themselves discovered, they
+make themselves as thin as possible by compressing the chest and belly
+vertically by means of their peculiarly elongated ribs. The whole body
+is then put into such a position that it presents only its narrow edge
+to the enemy, and with the branch of the tree or shrub interposed. They
+are absolutely arboreal, but they hibernate in the ground.
+
+The usual mode of propagation is by eggs, which are oval, numerous,
+provided with a calcareous shell, and buried in humus, whence they are
+hatched about four months later. But a few species, e.g. the dwarf
+chameleon, are viviparous.
+
+Chameleons are insectivorous. They prefer locusts, grass-hoppers and
+lepidoptera, but are also fond of flies and mealworms. They are
+notoriously difficult to keep in good health. They want not only warmth,
+but sunshine, and they must have water, which they lick up in drops from
+the edges of wet leaves whenever they have a chance. The silliness of
+the fable that they live on air is shown by the fact that they usually
+die in an absolutely emaciated and parched condition after three or four
+months' starvation.     (H. F. G.)
+
+  In astronomy, "Chamaeleon" is a constellation situated near the south
+  pole and surrounded by the constellations of Octans, Mensa, Piscis
+  volans, Carina (Nauta), Musca and Apus. In chemistry, "chameleon
+  mineral" is a name applied to the green mass which is obtained when
+  pyrolusite (manganese dioxide) is fused with nitre, since a solution
+  in water assumes a purple tint on exposure to the air; this change is
+  due to the oxidation of the manganate, which is first formed, to a
+  permanganate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMFER, CHAMPFER or CHAUMFER (Fr. _chanfrein_; possibly from Lat.
+_cantus_, corner, and _frangere_, to break), an architectural term; when
+the edge or arris of any work is cut off at an angle of 45 deg. in a
+small degree, it is said to be "chamfered," while it would be "canted"
+if on a large scale. The chamfer is much used in medieval work, and is
+sometimes plain, sometimes hollowed out and sometimes moulded. Chamfers
+are sometimes "stopped" by a bead or some moulding, but when cut short
+by a slope they are generally known as "stop chamfer."
+
+
+
+
+CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS (1741-1794), French man of letters, was
+born at a little village near Clermont in Auvergne in 1741. He was,
+according to a baptismal certificate found among his papers, the son of
+a grocer named Nicolas. A journey to Paris resulted in the boy's
+obtaining a bursary at the College des Grassins. He worked hard,
+although he wrote later in one of his most contemptuous epigrams--_"Ce
+que j'ai appris je ne le sais plus; le peu que je sais je l'ai divine."_
+His college career ended, Chamfort assumed the dress of a _petit abbe.
+"C'est un costume, et non point un etat,"_ he said; and to the principal
+of his college who promised him a benefice, he replied that he would
+never be a priest, inasmuch as he preferred honour to honours--_"j'aime
+l'honneur et non les honneurs."_ About this time he assumed the name of
+Chamfort.
+
+For some time he contrived to exist by teaching and as a booksellers'
+hack. His good looks and ready wit, however, soon brought him into
+notice; but though endowed with immense strength--"Hercule sous la
+figure d'Adonis," Madame de Craon called him--he lived so hard that he
+was glad of the chance of doing a "cure" at Spa when the Belgian
+minister in Paris, M. van Eyck, took him with him to Germany in 1761. On
+his return to Paris he produced a comedy, _La Jeune Indienne_ (1764),
+which was performed with some success, and this was followed by a series
+of "epistles" in verse, essays and odes. It was not, however, until
+1769, when he won the prize of the French Academy for his _Eloge_ on
+Moliere, that his literary reputation was established.
+
+Meanwhile he had lived from hand to mouth, mainly on the hospitality of
+people who were only too glad to give him board and lodging in exchange
+for the pleasure of the conversation for which he was famous. Thus
+Madame Helvetius entertained him at Sevres for some years. In 1770
+another comedy, _Le Marchand de Smyrne_, brought him still further into
+notice, and he seemed on the road to fortune, when he was suddenly
+smitten with a horrible disease. His distress was relieved by the
+generosity of a friend, who made over to him a pension of 1200 livres
+charged on the _Mercure de France_. With this assistance he was able to
+go to the baths of Contrexeville and to spend some time in the country,
+where he wrote an _Eloge_ on La Fontaine which won the prize of the
+Academy of Marseilles (1774). In 1775, while taking the waters at
+Bareges, he met the duchesse de Grammont, sister of Choiseul, through
+whose influence he was introduced at court. In 1776 his poor tragedy,
+_Mustapha et Zeangir_, was played at Fontainebleau before Louis XVI. and
+Marie Antoinette; the king gave him a further pension of 1200 livres,
+and the prince de Conde made him his secretary. But he was a Bohemian
+naturally and by habit, the restraints of the court irked him, and with
+increasing years he was growing misanthropical. After a year he resigned
+his post in the prince's household and retired into solitude at Auteuil.
+There, comparing the authors of old with the men of his own time, he
+uttered the famous _mot_ that proclaims the superiority of the dead over
+the living as companions; and there too he presently fell in love. The
+lady, attached to the household of the duchesse du Maine, was
+forty-eight years old, but clever, amusing, a woman of the world; and
+Chamfort married her. They left Auteuil, and went to Vaucouleurs, where
+in six months Madame Chamfort died. Chamfort lived in Holland for a time
+with M. de Narbonne, and returning to Paris received in 1781 the place
+at the Academy left vacant by the death of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye,
+the author of the _Dictionnaire des antiquites francaises_. In 1784,
+through the influence of Calonne, he became secretary to the king's
+sister, Madame Elizabeth, and in 1786 he received a pension of 2000
+livres from the royal treasury. He was thus once more attached to the
+court, and made himself friends in spite of the reach and tendency of
+his unalterable irony; but he quitted it for ever after an unfortunate
+and mysterious love affair, and was received into the house of M. de
+Vaudreuil. Here in 1783 he had met Mirabeau, with whom he remained to
+the last on terms of intimate friendship. whom he assisted with money
+and influence, and one at least of whose speeches--that on the
+Academies--he wrote.
+
+The outbreak of the Revolution made a profound change in the relations
+of Chamfort's life. Theoretically he had long been a republican, and he
+now threw himself into the new movement with almost fanatical ardour,
+devoting all his small fortune to the revolutionary propaganda. His old
+friends of the court he forgot. "Those who pass the river of
+revolutions," he said, "have passed the river of oblivion." Until the
+31st of August 1791 he was secretary of the Jacobin club; he became a
+street orator and entered the Bastille among the first of the storming
+party. He worked for the _Mercure de France_, collaborated with Ginguene
+in the _Feuille villageoise_, and drew up for Talleyrand his _Adresse au
+peuple francais_.
+
+With the reign of Marat and Robespierre, however, his uncompromising
+Jacobinism grew critical, and with the fall of the Girondins his
+political life came to an end. But he could not restrain the tongue that
+had made him famous; he no more spared the Convention than he had spared
+the court. His notorious republicanism failed to excuse the sarcasms he
+lavished on the new order of things, and denounced by an assistant in
+the Bibliotheque Nationale, to a share in the direction of which he had
+been appointed by Roland, he was taken to the Madelonnettes. Released
+for a moment, he was threatened again with arrest; but he had determined
+to prefer death to a repetition of the moral and physical restraint to
+which he had been subjected. He attempted suicide with pistol and with
+poniard; and, horribly hacked and shattered, dictated to those who came
+to arrest him the well-known declaration--_"Moi, Sebastien-Roch-Nicolas
+Chamfort, declare avoir voulu mourir en homme libre plutot que d'etre
+reconduit en esclave dans une maison d'arret"_--which he signed in a
+firm hand and in his own blood. He did not die at once, but lingered on
+until the 13th of April 1794 in charge of a gendarme, for whose wardship
+he paid a crown a day. To the Abbe Sieyes Chamfort had given fortune in
+the title of a pamphlet ("_Qu'est-ce que le Tiers-Etat? Tout. Qu'a-t-il?
+Rien_"), and to Sieyes did Chamfort retail his supreme sarcasm, the
+famous "_Je m'en vais enfin de ce monde ou il faut que le coeur se brise
+ou se bronze._" The maker of constitutions followed the dead wit to the
+grave.
+
+The writings of Chamfort, which include comedies, political articles,
+literary criticisms, portraits, letters, and verses, are colourless and
+uninteresting in the extreme. As a talker, however, he was of
+extraordinary force. His _Maximes et Pensees_, highly praised by John
+Stuart Mill, are, after those of La Rochefoucauld, the most brilliant
+and suggestive sayings that have been given to the modern world. The
+aphorisms of Chamfort, less systematic and psychologically less
+important than those of La Rochefoucauld, are as significant in their
+violence and iconoclastic spirit of the period of storm and preparation
+that gave them birth as the _Reflexions_ in their exquisite restraint
+and elaborate subtlety are characteristic of the tranquil elegance of
+their epoch; and they have the advantage in richness of colour, in
+picturesqueness of phrase, in passion, in audacity. Sainte-Beuve
+compares them to "well-minted coins that retain their value," and to
+keen arrows that "_arrivent brusquement et sifflent encore._"
+
+  An edition of his works--_OEuvres completes de Nicolas Chamfort_--Was
+  published at Paris in five volumes in 1824-1825. Selections--_OEuvres
+  de Chamfort_--in one volume, appeared in 1852, with a biographical and
+  critical preface by Arsene Houssaye, reprinted from the _Revue des
+  deux mondes_; and _Oeuvres choisies_ (2 vols.), with a preface and
+  notes by M. de Lescure (1879). See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du
+  Lundi_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMIER, FREDERICK (1796-1870), English novelist, was the son of an
+Anglo-Indian official. In 1809 he entered the navy, and was in active
+service until 1827. He retired in 1833, and was promoted to be captain
+in 1856. On his retirement he settled near Waltham Abbey, and wrote
+several nautical novels on the lines popularized by Marryat, that had
+considerable success. These were _The Life of a Sailor_ (1832), _Ben
+Brace_ (1836), _The Arethusa_ (1837), _Jack Adams_ (1838), _Tom Bowling_
+(1841) and _Jack Malcolm's Log_ (1846). He wrote a number of other
+books, and edited and brought down to 1827 James's _Naval History_
+(1837).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMILLART, MICHEL (1652-1721), French statesman, minister of Louis
+XIV., was born at Paris of a family of the noblesse of recent elevation.
+Following the usual career of a statesman of his time he became in turn
+councillor of the parlement of Paris (1676), master of requests (1686),
+and intendant of the generality of Rouen (January 1689). Affable, of
+polished manners, modest and honest, Chamillart won the confidence of
+Madame de Maintenon and pleased the king. In 1690 he was made intendant
+of finances, and on the 5th of September 1699 the king appointed him
+controller-general of finances, to which he added on the following 7th
+of January the ministry of war. From the first Chamillart's position was
+a difficult one. The deficit amounted to more than 53 million livres,
+and the credit of the state was almost exhausted. He lacked the great
+intelligence and energy necessary for the situation, and was unable to
+moderate the king's warlike tastes, or to inaugurate economic reforms.
+He could only employ the usual expedients of the time--the immoderate
+sale of offices, the debasement of the coinage (five times in six
+years), reduction of the rate of interest on state debts, and increased
+taxation. He attempted to force into circulation a kind of paper money,
+_billets de monnaie_, but with disastrous results owing to the state of
+credit. He studied Vauban's project for the royal tithe and
+Boisguillebert's proposition for the _taille_, but did not adopt them.
+In October 1706 he showed the king that the debts immediately due
+amounted to 288 millions, and that the deficit already foreseen for 1707
+was 160 millions. In October 1707 he saw with consternation that the
+revenue for 1708 was already entirely eaten up by anticipation, so that
+neither money nor credit remained for 1708. In these conditions
+Chamillart, who had often complained of the overwhelming burden he was
+carrying, and who had already wished to retire in 1706, resigned his
+office of controller-general. Public opinion attributed to him the ruin
+of the country, though he had tried in 1700 to improve the condition of
+commerce by the creation of a council of commerce. As secretary of state
+for war he had to place in the field the army for the War of the Spanish
+Succession, and to reorganize it three times, after the great defeats of
+1704, 1706 and 1708. With an empty treasury he succeeded only in part,
+and he frankly warned the king that the enemy would soon be able to
+dictate the terms of peace. He was reproached with having secured the
+command of the army which besieged Turin (1706) for his son-in-law, the
+incapable duc de la Feuillade. Madame de Maintenon even became hostile
+to him, and he abandoned his position on the 10th of June 1709, retiring
+to his estates. He died on the 14th of April 1721.
+
+  Chamillart's papers have been published by G. Esnault, _Michel
+  Chamillart, controleur general et secretaire d'etat de la guerre,
+  correspondance et papiers inedits_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885); and by A.
+  de Boislisle in vol. 2 of his _Correspondance des controleurs
+  generaux_ (1883). See D'Auvigny, _Vies des hommes illustres_ (1739),
+  tome vi. pp. 288-402; E. Moret, _Quinze annees du regne de Louis XIV_
+  (Paris, 1851); and the new edition of the _Memoires de St-Simon_, by
+  A. de Boislisle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMINADE, CECILE (1861-   ), French musical composer, was born at Paris
+on the 8th of August 1861. She studied in Paris, her musical talent
+being shown at the age of eight by the writing of some church music
+which attracted Bizet's attention; and at eighteen she came out in
+public as a pianist. Her own compositions, both songs (in large numbers)
+and instrumental pieces, were soon produced in profusion: melodious and
+interesting, and often charming, they became very popular, without being
+entitled to rank with the greater style of music. Both in Paris and in
+England Mlle Chaminade and her works became well known at the principal
+concerts. In 1908 she visited America and was warmly welcomed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON [LOUIS CHARLES ADELAIDE DE] (1781-1838), German
+poet and botanist, was born at the chateau of Boncourt in Champagne,
+France, the ancestral seat of his family, on the 30th of January 1781.
+Driven from France by the Revolution, his parents settled in Berlin,
+where in 1796 young Chamisso obtained the post of page-in-waiting to the
+queen, and in 1798 entered a Prussian infantry regiment as ensign. His
+family were shortly afterwards permitted to return to France; he,
+however, remained behind and continued his career in the army. He had
+but little education, but now sought distraction from the soulless
+routine of the Prussian military service in assiduous study. In
+collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense, he founded in 1803 the _Berliner
+Musenalmanach_, in which his first verses appeared. The enterprise was a
+failure, and, interrupted by the war, it came to an end in 1806. It
+brought him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities
+of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet. He had
+become lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 accompanied his regiment to
+Hameln, where he shared in the humiliations following the treasonable
+capitulation of that fortress in the ensuing year. Placed on parole he
+went to France, where he found that both his parents were dead; and,
+returning to Berlin in the autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from
+the service early in the following year. Homeless and without a
+profession, disillusioned and despondent, he lived in Berlin until 1810,
+when, through the services of an old friend of the family, he was
+offered a professorship at the _lycee_ at Napoleonville in La Vendee. He
+set out to take up the post, but drawn into the charmed circle of Madame
+de Stael, followed her in her exile to Coppet in Switzerland, where,
+devoting himself to botanical research, he remained nearly two years. In
+1812 he returned to Berlin, where he continued his scientific studies.
+In the summer of the eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative
+_Peter Schlemihl_, the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of
+all his works, has been translated into most European languages (English
+by W. Howitt). It was written partly to divert his own thoughts and
+partly to amuse the children of his friend Hitzig. In 1815 Chamisso was
+appointed botanist to the Russian ship "Rurik," which Otto von Kotzebue
+(son of August von Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the
+world. His diary of the expedition (_Tagebuch_, 1821) affords some
+interesting glimpses of England and English life. On his return in 1818
+he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and was
+elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1820 he married.
+Chamisso's travels and scientific researches restrained for a while the
+full development of his poetical talent, and it was not until his
+forty-eighth year that he turned again to literature. In 1829, in
+collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and from 1832 in conjunction with
+Franz von Gaudy, he brought out the _Deutsche Musenalmanach_, in which
+his later poems were mainly published. He died on the 21st of August
+1838.
+
+As a scientist Chamisso has not left much mark, although his
+_Bemerkungen und Ansichten_, published in an incomplete form in O. von
+Kotzebue's _Entdeckungsreise_ (Weimar, 1821) and more completely in
+Chamisso's _Gesammelte Werke_ (1836), and the botanical work, _Ubersicht
+der nutzbarsten und schadlichsten Gewachse in Norddeutschland_ (1829)
+are esteemed for their careful treatment of the subjects with which they
+deal. As a poet Chamisso's reputation stands high, _Frauen Liebe und
+Leben_ (1830), a cycle of lyrical poems, which was set to music by
+Schumann, being particularly famous. Noteworthy are also _Schloss
+Boncourt_ and _Salas y Gomez_. In estimating his success as a writer, it
+should not be forgotten that he was cut off from his native speech and
+from his natural current of thought and feeling. He often deals with
+gloomy and sometimes with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in
+his lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or of
+satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions he displays a
+fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with true feeling a tale of love
+or vengeance. _Die Lowenbraut_ may be taken as a sample of his weird and
+powerful simplicity; and _Vergeltung_ is remarkable for a pitiless
+precision of treatment.
+
+  The first collected edition of Chamisso's works was edited by J.E.
+  Hitzig, 6 vols. (1836); 6th edition (1874); there are also excellent
+  editions by M. Koch (1883) and O.F. Walzel (1892). On Chamisso's life
+  see J.E. Hitzig, "Leben und Briefe von Adelbert yon Chamisso" (in the
+  _Gesammelte Werke_); K. Fulda, _Chamisso und seine Zeit_ (1881); G.
+  Hofmeister, _Adelbert von Chamisso_ (1884); and, for the scientific
+  side of Chamisso's life, E. du Bois-Raymond, _Adelbert von Chamisso
+  als Naturforscher_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAMKANNI, a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of the North-West
+Province of India. They inhabit the western part of the Kurmana Valley
+in the Orakzai portion of Tirah, but are supposed to be a distinct race.
+They took part in the frontier risings of 1897, and during the Tirah
+expedition of that year a brigade under General Gaselee was sent to
+punish them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMOIS, the Franco-Swiss name of an Alpine ruminant known in the German
+cantons as _Gemse_, and to naturalists as _Rupicapra tragus_ or _R.
+rupicapra tragus_. It is the only species of its genus, and typifies a
+subfamily, _Rupicaprinae_, of hollow-horned ruminants in some degree
+intermediate between antelopes and goats (see ANTELOPE). About equal in
+height to a roebuck, and with a short black tail, the chamois is readily
+distinguishable from all other ruminants by its vertical,
+backwardly-hooked, black horns, which are common to males and females,
+although smaller in the latter. Apart from black and white
+face-markings, and the black tail and dorsal stripe, the prevailing
+colour of the Alpine chamois is chestnut brown in summer, but lighter
+and greyer in winter. In the Pyrenees the species is represented by a
+small race locally known as the izard; a very brightly-coloured form,
+_R.t. picta_, inhabits the Apennines; the Carpathian chamois is very
+dark-coloured, and the one from the Caucasus is the representative of
+yet another race. A thick under-fur is developed in the winter-coat, as
+in all other ruminants dwelling at high altitudes. Chamois are
+gregarious, living in herds of 15 or 20, and feeding generally in the
+morning or evening. The old males, however, live alone except in the
+rutting season, which occurs in October, when they join the herds,
+driving off the younger bucks, and engaging in fierce contests with each
+other, that often end fatally for one at least of the combatants. The
+period of gestation is twenty weeks, when the female, beneath the
+shelter generally of a projecting rock, produces one and sometimes two
+young. In summer they ascend to the limits of perpetual snow, being only
+exceeded in the loftiness of their haunts by the ibex; and during that
+season they show their intolerance of heat by choosing such
+browsing-grounds as have a northern exposure. In winter they descend to
+the wooded districts that immediately succeed the region of glaciers,
+and it is there only they can be successfully hunted. Chamois are
+exceedingly shy; and their senses, especially those of sight and smell,
+very acute. The herd never feeds without having a sentinel posted on
+some prominence to give notice of the approach of danger; which is done
+by stamping on the ground with the forefeet, and uttering a shrill
+whistling note, thus putting the entire herd on the alert. No sooner is
+the object of alarm scented or seen than each one seeks safety in the
+most inaccessible situations, which are often reached by a series of
+astounding leaps over crevasses, up the faces of seemingly perpendicular
+rocks, or down the sides of equally precipitous chasms. The chamois will
+not hesitate, it is said, thus to leap down 20 or even 30 ft., and this
+it effects with apparent ease by throwing itself forward diagonally and
+striking its feet several times in its descent against the face of the
+rock. Chamois-shooting is most successfully pursued when a number of
+hunters form a circle round a favourite feeding ground, which they
+gradually narrow; the animals, scenting the hunters to windward, fly in
+the opposite direction, only to encounter those coming from leeward.
+Chamois-hunting, in spite of, or perhaps owing to the great danger
+attending it, has always been a favourite pursuit among the hardy
+mountaineers of Switzerland and Tirol, as well as of the amateur
+sportsmen of all countries, with the result that the animal is now
+comparatively rare in many districts where it was formerly common.
+Chamois feed in summer on mountain-herbs and flowers, and in winter
+chiefly on the young shoots and buds of fir and pine trees. They are
+particularly fond of salt, and in the Alps sandstone rocks containing a
+saline impregnation are often met with hollowed by the constant licking
+of these creatures. The skin of the chamois is very soft; made into
+leather it was the original _shammy_, which is now made, however, from
+the skins of many other animals. The flesh is prized as venison.
+     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMOMILE, or Camomile Flowers, the _flores anthemidis_ of the British
+Pharmacopoeia, the flower-heads of _Anthemis nobilis_ (Nat. Ord.
+_Compositae_), a herb indigenous to England and western Europe. It is
+cultivated for medicinal purposes in Surrey, at several places in
+Saxony, and in France and Belgium,--that grown in England being much
+more valuable than any of the foreign chamomiles brought into the
+market. In the wild plant the florets of the ray are ligulate and white,
+and contain pistils only, those of the disk being tubular and yellow;
+but under cultivation the whole of the florets tend to become ligulate
+and white, in which state the flower-heads are said to be double. The
+flower-heads have a warm aromatic odour, which is characteristic of the
+entire plant, and a very bitter taste. In addition to a bitter
+extractive principle, they yield about 2% of a volatile liquid, which on
+its first extraction is of a pale blue colour, but becomes a yellowish
+brown on exposure to light. It has the characteristic odour of the
+flowers, and consists of a mixture of butyl and amyl angelates and
+valerates. Angelate of potassium has been obtained by treatment of the
+oil with caustic potash, and angelic acid may be isolated from this by
+treatment with dilute sulphuric acid. Chamomile is used in medicine in
+the form of its volatile oil, of which the dose is 1/2-3 minims. There
+is an official extract which is never used. Like all volatile oils the
+drug is a stomachic and carminative. In large doses the infusion is a
+simple emetic.
+
+Wild chamomile is _Matricaria Chamomilla_, a weed common in waste and
+cultivated ground especially in the southern counties of England. It has
+somewhat the appearance of true chamomile, but a fainter scent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMONIX, a mountain valley in south-east France, its chief village, of
+the same name, being the capital of a canton of the arrondissement of
+Bonneville in the department of Haute-Savoie. The valley runs from N.E.
+to S.W., and is watered by the Arve, which rises in the Mer de Glace. On
+the S.E. towers the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, and on the N.W. the
+less lofty, but rugged chain of the Brevent and of the Aiguilles Rouges.
+Near the head of the valley is the village of Argentiere (4101 ft.),
+which is connected with Switzerland by "char" (light carriage) roads
+over the Tete Noire and past Salvan, and by a mule path over the Col de
+Balme, which joins the Tete Noire route near Trient and then crosses by
+a "char" road the Col de la Forclaz to Martigny in the Rhone valley. The
+principal village, Chamonix (3416 ft.), is 6 m. below Argentiere by
+electric railway (which continues via Finhaut to Martigny) and is
+visited annually by a host of tourists, as it is the best starting-point
+for the exploration of the glaciers of the Mont Blanc chain, as well as
+for the ascent of Mont Blanc itself. It is connected with Geneva by a
+railway (55 m.). In 1906 the population of the village was 806, of the
+commune 3482.
+
+The valley is first heard of about 1091, when it was granted by the
+count of the Genevois to the great Benedictine house of St Michel de la
+Cluse, near Turin, which by the early 13th century established a priory
+therein. But in 1786 the inhabitants bought their freedom from the
+canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory had been transferred in 1519.
+In 1530 the inhabitants obtained from the count of the Genevois the
+privilege of holding two fairs a year, while the valley was often
+visited by the civil officials and by the bishops of Geneva (first
+recorded visit in 1411, while St Francis de Sales came thither in 1606).
+But travellers for pleasure were long rare. The first party to publish
+(1744) an account of their visit was that of Dr R. Pococke, Mr W.
+Windham and other Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741. In
+1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760 H.B. de
+Saussure, and rather later Bourrit.
+
+  See J.A. Bonnefoy and A. Perrin, _Le Prieure de Chamonix_ (2 vols.,
+  Chambery, 1879 and 1883); A. Perrin, _Histoire de la vallee et du
+  prieure de Chamonix_ (Chambery, 1887); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, _Carte
+  de la chaine du Mont Blanc_ (1896; new ed., 1905); L. Kurz, _Climbers'
+  Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc_ (London, 1892); also works referred
+  to under BLANC, MONT.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province of the kingdom of France, bounded N. by
+Liege and Luxemburg; E. by Lorraine; S. by Burgundy; and W. by Picardy
+and Isle de France. It now forms the departments of Ardennes, Marne,
+Aube and Haute Marne, with part of Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne and
+Meuse. Its name--in Latin Campania, "country of plains"--is derived from
+the immense plains near Reims, Chalons and Troyes. It was constituted
+towards the end of the middle ages by joining to the countship of
+Champagne the ecclesiastical duchies of Reims and Langres, together with
+the ecclesiastical countship of Chalons. Documents of the 12th and 13th
+centuries make it possible to determine the territorial configuration of
+the countship of Champagne with greater accuracy than in the case of any
+other fief of the crown of France. Formed at random by the acquisitions
+of the counts of the houses of Vermandois and Blois, Champagne reckoned
+among its dependencies, from 1152 to 1234, the countship of Blois and
+Chartres, of which Touraine was a fief, the countship of Sancerre, and
+various scattered fiefs in the Bourbonnais and in Burgundy. Officially
+called the "countship of Champagne and Brie" since 1217, this state was
+formed by the union of the countships of Troyes and Meaux, to which the
+greater part of the districts embraced in the country known, since the
+beginning of the middle ages, by the name of Champagne and Brie came in
+course of time to be attached. Placed under the authority of a single
+count in 960, the countships of Troyes and Meaux were not again
+separated after 1125. For the counts of Troyes before the 11th century
+see TROYES. We confine ourselves here to the counts of Champagne of the
+house of Blois.
+
+About 1020 Eudes or Odo I. (Odo II., count of Blois) became count of
+Champagne. He disputed the kingdom of Burgundy with the emperor Conrad,
+and died in 1037, in a battle near Bar-le-Duc. In 1037 he was succeeded
+by his younger son, Stephen II. About 1050 Odo II., son of Stephen II.,
+became count. This prince, guilty of murder, found refuge in Normandy,
+where he received the castle of Aumale. He took part in 1066 in the
+conquest of England, and became earl of Holderness. About 1063 Theobald
+(Thibaud) I., count of Blois and Meaux, eldest son of Odo I., became
+count of Champagne. In 1077 he seized the countships of Vitry and
+Bar-sur-Aube, left vacant by Simon of Valois, who had retired to a
+monastery. In 1089 Odo III., second son of Theobald II., became count,
+and was succeeded about 1093 by his younger brother, Hugh, who became a
+templar in 1125, and gave up the countship to his suzerain, the count of
+Blois. In 1125 the countship of Champagne passed to Theobald II. the
+Great, already count of Blois and Meaux, and one of the most powerful
+French barons of his time. He was related to the royal house of England,
+and incurred the displeasure of the king of France, who in 1142 invaded
+Champagne and burnt the town of Vitry. After Theobald the Great the
+countship of Blois ceased to be the dominant fief of his house and
+became the appanage of a younger branch. In 1152 Henry the Liberal,
+eldest son of Theobald II., became count of Champagne; he married Mary,
+daughter of Louis VII. of France, and went to the crusade in 1178. He
+was taken prisoner by the Turks, recovered his liberty through the good
+offices of the emperor of the East, and died a few days after his return
+to Champagne. In 1181 his eldest son, Henry II., succeeded him under the
+tutelage of Mary of France. In 1190 he went to the Holy Land, and became
+king of Jerusalem in 1192 by his marriage with Isabelle, widow of the
+marquis of Montferrat. He died in 1197 in his town of Acre from the
+results of an accident. In 1197 Theobald III., younger son of Henry I.,
+became count, and was succeeded in 1201 by Theobald IV., "le
+Chansonnier" (the singer), who was the son of Theobald III. and Blanche
+of Navarre, and was born some days after the death of his father. From
+1201 to 1222 he remained under the tutelage of his mother, who governed
+Champagne with great sagacity. The reign of this prince was singularly
+eventful. The two daughters of count Henry II. successively claimed the
+countship, so that Theobald had to combat the claims of Philippa, wife
+of Erard of Brienne, seigneur of Rameru, from 1216 to 1222, and those of
+Alix, queen dowager of Cyprus, in 1233 and 1234. In 1226 he followed
+king Louis VII. to the siege of Avignon, and after the death of that
+monarch played a prominent part during the reign of St Louis. At first
+leagued with the malcontent barons, he allowed himself to be gained over
+by the queen-mother, and thus came into collision with his old allies.
+He became king of Navarre in 1234 by the death of his maternal uncle,
+Sancho VII. but by the onerous treaty which he concluded in that year
+with the queen of Cyprus he was compelled to cede to the king, in return
+for a large sum of money, the overlordship of the countships of Blois,
+Chartres and Sancerre, and the viscounty of Chateaudun. In 1239 and 1240
+he took part in an expedition to the Holy Land, probably accompanied St
+Louis in 1242 in the campaign of Saintonge against the English, and died
+on the 14th of July 1254 at Pampeluna. If the author of the _Grandes
+chroniques de France_ can be believed, Theobald IV. conceived a passion
+for Queen Blanche, the mother of St Louis,--a passion which she
+returned, and which explains the changes in his policy; but this opinion
+apparently must be relegated to the category of historical fables. The
+witty and courtly songs he composed place him in the front rank of the
+poets of that class, in which he showed somewhat more originality than
+his rivals. In 1254 Theobald V. the Young, eldest son of Theobald IV.
+and, like his father, king of Navarre, became count of Champagne. He
+married Isabelle of France, daughter of St Louis, and followed his
+father-in-law to Tunis to the crusade, dying on his return. In 1270 he
+was succeeded by Henry III. the Fat, king of Navarre. Henry was
+succeeded in 1274 by his only daughter, Joan of Navarre, under the
+tutelage of her mother, Blanche of Artois, and afterwards of Edmund,
+earl of Lancaster, her mother's second husband. In 1284 she married the
+heir-presumptive to the throne of France, Philip the Fair, to whom she
+brought the countship of Champagne as well as the kingdom of Navarre.
+She became queen of France in 1285, and died on the 4th of April 1305,
+when her eldest son by King Philip, Louis Hutin, became count of
+Champagne. He was the last independent count of the province, which
+became attached to the French crown on his accession to the throne of
+France in 1314.
+
+The celebrated fairs of Champagne, which flourished in the 12th and 13th
+centuries, were attended by merchants from all parts of civilized
+Europe. They were six in number: two at Troyes, two at Provins, one at
+Lagny-sur-Marne, and one at Bar-sur-Aube. They formed a kind of
+continuous market, divided into six periods, and passed in turn from
+Lagny to Bar, from Bar to Provins, from Provins to Troyes, from Troyes
+to Provins and from Provins to Troyes, to complete the year. It was, in
+fact, a perpetual fair, which had at once unity and variety, offering to
+the different parts of the countship the means of selling successively
+the special productions of their soil or their industry, and of
+procuring in exchange riches and comforts. These fairs had special
+legislation; and special magistrates, called "masters of the fairs," had
+control of the police.
+
+  For the wine "champagne" see WINE.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Histoire des ducs et des
+  comtes de Champagne_ (1859-1866); A. Longnon, _Documents relatifs au
+  comte de Champagne et de Brie_ (1901 seq.; vol. i. with map); F.
+  Bourquelot, _Etudes sur les foires de Champagne_ (1865).     (A. Lo.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPERE DE (1756-1834), French politician, was
+born at Roanne, and entered the navy in 1774. He fought through the war
+in America and resigned in 1787. Elected deputy by the _noblesse_ of
+Forex to the states-general in 1789, he went over to the third estate on
+the 21st of June and collaborated in the work of the Constituent
+Assembly, especially occupying himself with the reorganization of the
+navy. A political career seems to have attracted him little; he remained
+in private life from 1791 to 1799, when Napoleon named him member of the
+council of state. From July 1801 to August 1804 he was ambassador of
+France at Vienna, and directed with great intelligence the incessant
+negotiations between the two courts. In August 1804 Napoleon made him
+minister of the interior, and in this position, which he held for three
+years, he proved an administrator of the first order. In addition to the
+ordinary charges of his office, he had to direct the recruitment of the
+army, organize the industrial exhibition of 1808, and to complete the
+public works undertaken in Paris and throughout France. He was devoted
+to Napoleon, on whom he lavished adulation in his speeches. In August
+1807 the emperor chose him to succeed Talleyrand as minister for
+foreign affairs. He directed the annexation of the Papal States in April
+1808, worked to secure the abdication of Charles IV. of Spain in May
+1808, negotiated the peace of Vienna (1809) and the marriage of
+Napoleon. In April 1811 a quarrel with the emperor led to his
+retirement, and he obtained the sinecure office of intendant general of
+the crown. In 1814, after the abdication, the empress sent him on a
+fruitless mission to the emperor of Austria. Then he went over to the
+Bourbons. During the Hundred Days he again joined Napoleon. This led to
+his exclusion by Louis XVIII., but in 1819 he recovered his dignity of
+peer. He died in Paris in 1834. He had three sons who became men of
+distinction. Francois (1804-1882) was a well-known author, who was made
+a member of the French Academy in 1869. His great work was a history of
+the Roman empire, in three parts, (1) _Les Cesars_ (1841-1843, 4 vols.),
+(2) _Les Antonins_ (1863, 3 vols.), (3) _Les Cesars du IIIe siecle_
+(1870, 3 vols.). Napoleon (1806-1872) published a _Traite de la police
+municipale_ in 4 volumes (1844-1861), and was a deputy in the Corps
+Legislatif from 1852 to 1870. Jerome Paul (1809-1886) was also deputy in
+the Corps Legislatif from 1853 to 1870, and was made honorary
+chamberlain in 1859. He worked at the official publication of the
+correspondence of Napoleon I.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPAIGN, a city of Champaign county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 125 m. S.
+by W. of Chicago, on the head-waters of the Vermilion river. Pop. (1890)
+5839; (1900) 9098, of whom 973 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,421.
+It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the
+Wabash, and the Illinois Central railways (the last having repair shops
+here), and by the Illinois (electric) Traction System from Danville,
+Illinois, to St Louis, Missouri. In 1906 the city covered 3.5 sq. m.; it
+is situated in a rich agricultural region, and has small manufacturing
+interests. Immediately east of Champaign is the city of Urbana, the
+county-seat of Champaign county, served by the Wabash and the Cleveland,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, with repair shops of the
+latter. In 1890 the population of Urbana was 3511; in 1900, 5728 (300
+foreign-born); in 1910, 8245. Partly in Urbana and partly in Champaign
+is the University of Illinois (see ILLINOIS); immediately south of its
+campus is the 400-acre farm of the university. Each city has a public
+library, and in Champaign are the Burnham Athenaeum, the Burnham
+hospital, the Garwood home for old ladies, and several parks, all gifts
+of former citizens. Champaign was founded in 1855, incorporated as a
+city in 1860, and re-chartered in 1883. Urbana secured a city charter in
+1855.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE (1602-1674), Belgian painter of the French
+school, was born at Brussels of a poor family. He was a pupil of J.
+Fouquieres; and, going to Paris in 1621, was employed by N. Du Chesne to
+paint along with Nicholas Poussin in the palace of the Luxembourg. His
+best works are to be found at Vincennes, and in the church of the
+Carmelites at Paris, where is his celebrated Crucifix, a signal
+perspective success, on one of the vaultings. After the death of Du
+Chesne, Philippe became first painter to the queen of France, and
+ultimately rector of the Academy of Paris. As his age advanced and his
+health failed, he retired to Port Royal, where he had a daughter
+cloistered as a nun, of whom (along with Catherine Agnes Arnauld) he
+painted a celebrated picture, now in the Louvre, highly remarkable for
+its solid unaffected truth. This, indeed, is the general character of
+his work,--grave reality, without special elevation or depth of
+character, or charm of warm or stately colour. He produced an immense
+number of paintings, religious and other subjects as well as portraits,
+dispersed over various parts of France, and now over the galleries of
+Europe. Philippe was a good man, indefatigable, earnest and scrupulously
+religious. He died on the 12th of August 1674.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPARAN, or CHUMPARUN, a district of British India, in the Patna
+division of Bengal, occupying the north-west corner of Behar, between
+the two rivers Gandak and Baghmati and the Nepal hills. It has an area
+of 3531 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 1,790,463, showing a decrease
+of 4% in the decade. A broad grass-covered road or embankment defines
+the Nepal frontier, except where rivers or streams form a natural
+boundary. The district is a vast level except in the N. and N.W., where
+it undulates, and gradually assumes a rugged appearance as it approaches
+the mountains and forests of Nepal. Wide uncultivated tracts cover its
+north-western corner; the southern and western parts are carefully
+cultivated, and teem with an active agricultural population. The
+principal rivers are the Gandak, navigable all the year round, the Buri
+Gandak, Panch Nadi, Lalbagia, Koja and Teur. Old beds of rivers
+intersect Champaran in every direction, and one of these forms a chain
+of lakes which occupy an area of 139 sq. m. in the centre of the
+district. Champaran, with the rest of Bengal and Behar, was acquired by
+the British in 1765. Up to 1866 it remained a subdivision of Saran. In
+that year it was separated and formed into a separate district. The
+administrative headquarters are at Motihari (population, 13,730); Bettia
+is the centre of a very large estate; Segauli, still a small military
+station, was the scene of a massacre during the Mutiny. Champaran was
+the chief seat of indigo planting in Behar before the decline of that
+industry. There are about 40 saltpetre refineries. The district suffered
+severely from drought in 1866 and 1874, and again in 1897. In the last
+year a small government canal was opened, and a canal from the Gandak
+has also been constructed. The district is traversed almost throughout
+its length to Bettia by the Tirhoot state railway. A considerable trade
+is conducted with Nepal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF [GULIELMUS CAMPELLENSIS] (c. 1070-1121), French
+philosopher and theologian was born at Champeaux near Melun. After
+studying under Anselm of Laon and Roscellinus, he taught in the school
+of the cathedral of Notre Dame, of which he was made canon in 1103.
+Among his pupils was Abelard. In 1108 he retired into the abbey of St
+Victor, where he resumed his lectures. He afterwards became bishop of
+Chalons-sur-Marne, and took part in the dispute concerning investitures
+as a supporter of Calixtus II., whom he represented at the conference of
+Mousson. His only printed works are a fragment on the Eucharist
+(inserted by Jean Mabillon in his edition of the works of St Bernard),
+and the _Moralia Abbreviata_ and _De Origine Animae_ (in E. Martene's
+_Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum_, 1717, vol. 5). In the last of these he
+maintains that children who die unbaptized must be lost, the pure soul
+being denied by the grossness of the body, and declares that God's will
+is not to be questioned. He upholds the theory of Creatianism (that a
+soul is specially created for each human being). Ravaisson-Mollien has
+discovered a number of fragments by him, among which the most important
+is the _De Essentia Dei et de Substantia Dei_; a _Liber Sententiarum_,
+consisting of discussions on ethics and Scriptural interpretation, is
+also ascribed to Champeaux. He is reputed the founder of Realism. For
+his views and his controversy with Abelard, see SCHOLASTICISM and
+ABELARD.
+
+  See Victor Cousin, introduction to his _Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard_
+  (1836), and _Fragments pour servir a l'histoire de la philosophie_
+  (1865); G.A. Patru, _Wilhelmi Campellensis de natura et de origine
+  rerum placita_ (1847); E. Michaud, _Guillaume de Champeaux et les
+  ecoles de Paris au XIIe siecle_ (2nd ed., 1868); "William of Champeaux
+  and his Times" in _Christian Observer_, lxxii. 843; B. Haureau, _De la
+  philosophie scolastique_ (Paris, 1850); Opuscula in J.P. Migne's
+  _Patrologia_, clxiii.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPERTY, or CHAMPARTY (Lat. _campi partitio_, O. Fr. _champ parti_),
+in English law, a bargain between a plaintiff or defendant in a cause
+and another person, to divide the land (_campum partiri_) or other
+matter sued for, if they prevail, in consideration of that person
+carrying on or defending the suit at his own expense. It is a
+misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment. It differs only from
+maintenance (q.v.), in that the recompense for the service which has
+been given is always part of the matter in suit, or some profit growing
+out of it. So an agreement by a solicitor not to charge costs on
+condition of retaining for himself a share of the sums recovered would
+be illegal and void. It is not, however, champerty to charge the
+subject-matter of a suit in order to obtain the means of prosecuting it.
+
+  See _Fifth Report of the Criminal Law Commissioners_, pp. 34-9.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPION (Fr. _champion_, Late Lat. _campio_ from _campus_, a field or
+open space, i.e. one "who takes the field" or fights; cf. Ger. _Kampf_,
+battle, and _Kampfer_, fighter), in the judicial combats of the middle
+ages the substitute for a party to the suit disabled from bearing arms
+or specially exempt from the duty to do so (see WAGER). Hence the word
+has come to be applied to any one who "champions," or contends on behalf
+of, any person or cause. In the laws of the Lombards (lib. ii. tit. 56
+SS 38, 39), those who by reason of youth, age or infirmity could not
+bear arms were allowed to nominate champions, and the same provision was
+made in the case of women (lib. i. tit. 3 S 6, tit. 16, S2). This was
+practically the rule laid down in all subsequent legislation on the
+subject. Thus the _Assize of Jerusalem_ (cap. 39) says: "These are the
+people who may defend themselves through champions; a woman, a sick man,
+a man who has passed the age of sixty, &c." The clergy, too, whether as
+individuals or corporations, were represented by champions; in the case
+of bishops and abbots this function was part of the duties of the
+_advocatus_ (see ADVOCATE). Du Cange gives instances of mercenary
+champions (_campiones conductitii_), who were regarded as "infamous
+persons" and sometimes, in case of defeat, were condemned to lose hand
+or foot. Sometimes championships were "serjeanties," i.e. rendered
+service to lords, churches or cities in consideration of the grant of
+certain fiefs, or for annual money payments, the champion doing homage
+to the person or corporation represented by him (_campiones homagii_).
+
+The office of "king's champion" (_campio regis_) is peculiar to England.
+The function of the king's champion, when the ceremonial of the
+coronation was carried out in its completeness, was to ride, clad in
+complete armour, on his right the high constable, on his left the earl
+marshal, into Westminster Hall during the coronation banquet, and
+challenge to single combat any who should dispute the king's right to
+reign. The challenge was thrice repeated by the herald, at the entrance
+to the hall, in the centre, and at the foot of the dais. On picking up
+his gauntlet for the third time the champion was pledged by the king in
+a gilt-covered cup, which was then presented to him as his fee by the
+king. If he had had occasion to fight, and was victorious, his fee would
+have been the armour he wore and the horse he rode, the second best in
+the royal stables; but no such occasion has ever arisen. This
+picturesque ceremonial was last performed at the coronation of George
+IV. The office of king's champion is of great antiquity, and its origins
+are involved in great obscurity. It is said to have been held under
+William the Conqueror by Robert or Roger Marmion, whose ancestors had
+been hereditary champions in Normandy. The first authentic record,
+however is a charter of Henry I., signed by Robert Marmion (_Robertus de
+Bajucis campio regis_). Of the actual exercise of the office the
+earliest record dates from the coronation of Richard II. On this
+occasion the champion, Sir John Dymoke, appeared at the door of the
+Abbey immediately after the coronation mass, but was peremptorily told
+to go away and return later; moreover, in his bill presented to the
+court of claims, he stated that the champion was to ride in the
+procession before the service, and make his challenge to all the world.
+This seems to show that the ceremony, as might be expected, was
+originally performed _before_ the king's coronation, when it would have
+had some significance. The office of king's champion is hereditary, and
+is now held by the family of Dymoke (q.v.).
+
+  See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Campio"; L.G. Wickham Legg,
+  _English Coronation Records_ (Westminster, 1901); J.H.T. Perkins,
+  _The Coronation Book_ (London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ETIENNE (1762-1800), French general, enlisted in the
+army at an early age and served in the great siege of Gibraltar. When
+the Revolution broke out he took a prominent part in the movement, and
+was elected by the men of a battalion to command them. In May 1793 he
+was charged with the suppression of the disturbances in the Jura, which
+he quelled without bloodshed. Under Pichegru he took part in the Rhine
+campaign of that year as a brigade commander, and at Weissenburg and in
+the Palatinate won the warm commendation of Lazare Hoche. At Fleurus his
+stubborn fighting in the centre of the field contributed greatly to
+Jourdan's victory. In the subsequent campaigns he commanded the left
+wing of the French armies on the Rhine between Neuwied and Dusseldorf,
+and took a great part in all the successful and unsuccessful expeditions
+to the Lahn and the Main. In 1798 Championnet was named
+commander-in-chief of the "army of Rome" which was protecting the infant
+Roman republic against the Neapolitan court and the British fleet.
+Nominally 32,000 strong, the army scarcely numbered 8000 effectives,
+with a bare fifteen cartridges per man. The Austrian general Mack had a
+tenfold superiority in numbers, but Championnet so well held his own
+that he ended by capturing Naples itself and there setting up the
+Parthenopean Republic. But his intense earnestness and intolerance of
+opposition soon embroiled him with the civilians, and the general was
+recalled in disgrace. The following year, however, saw him again in the
+field as commander-in-chief of the "army of the Alps." This, too, was at
+first a mere paper force, but after three months' hard work it was able
+to take the field. The campaign which followed was uniformly
+unsuccessful, and, worn out by the unequal struggle, Championnet died at
+Antibes on the 9th of January 1800. In 1848 a statue was erected in his
+honour at Valence.
+
+  See A.R.C. de St Albin, _Championnet, ou les Campagnes de Hollande, de
+  Rome et de Naples_ (Paris, 1860).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567-1635), French explorer, colonial pioneer and
+first governor of French Canada, was born at Brouage, a small French
+port on the Bay of Biscay, in 1567. His father was a sea captain, and
+the boy was early skilled in seamanship and navigation. He entered the
+army of Henry IV., and served in Brittany under Jean d'Aumont, Francois
+de St Luc and Charles de Brissac. When the army of the League was
+disbanded he accompanied his uncle, who had charge of the ships in which
+the Spanish allies were conveyed home, and on reaching Cadiz secured
+(1599) the command of one of the vessels about to make an expedition to
+the West Indies. He was gone over two years, visiting all the principal
+ports and pushing inland from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. The MS.
+account of his adventures, _Bref Discours des Choses plus remarquables
+que Samuel Champlain de Brouage a recognues aux Indes Occidentales_, is
+in the library at Dieppe. It was not published in French until 1870,
+although an English translation was printed by the Hakluyt Society in
+1859. It contains a suggestion of a Panama Canal, "by which the voyage
+to the South Sea would be shortened by more than 1500 leagues." In 1603
+Champlain made his first voyage to Canada, being sent out by Aymar de
+Clermont, seigneur de Chastes, on whom the king had bestowed a patent.
+Champlain at once established friendly relations with the Indians and
+explored the St Lawrence to the rapids above Montreal. On his return he
+published an interesting and historically valuable little book, _Des
+sauvages, ou voyage de Samuel Champlain de Brouage fait en la France
+Nouvelle_. During his absence de Chastes had died, and his privileges
+and fur trade monopolies were conferred upon Pierre de Guast, sieur de
+Monts (1560-1611). With him, in 1604, Champlain was engaged in exploring
+the coast as far south as Cape Cod, in seeking a site for a new
+settlement, and in making surveys and charts. They first settled on an
+island near the mouth of the St Croix river, and then at Port Royal--now
+Annapolis, N.S.
+
+Meanwhile the Basques and Bretons, asserting that they were being ruined
+by de Monts' privileges, got his patent revoked, and Champlain returned
+with the discouraged colonists to Europe. When, however, in modified
+form, the patent was re-granted to his patron Champlain induced him to
+abandon Acadia and establish a settlement on the St Lawrence, of the
+commercial advantages of which, perhaps even as a western route to China
+and Japan, he soon convinced him. Champlain was placed in command of one
+of the two vessels sent out. He was to explore and colonize, while the
+other vessel traded, to pay for the expedition. Champlain fixed on the
+site of Quebec and founded the first white settlement there in July
+1608, giving it its present name. In the spring he joined a war party of
+Algonquins and Hurons, discovered the great lake that bears his name,
+and, near the present Ticonderoga, took with his arquebus an important
+part in the victory which his savage friends obtained over the Iroquois.
+The Iroquois naturally turned first to the Dutch and then to the English
+for allies. "Thus did new France rush into collision with the redoubted
+warriors of the Five Nations. Here was the beginning, and in some
+measure doubtless the cause, of a long suite of murderous conflicts,
+bearing havoc and flame to generations yet unborn" (Parkman). Champlain
+returned to France and again related to Henry IV.--who had previously
+learned his worth and had pensioned him--his exciting adventures. De
+Monts failed to secure a renewal of his patent, but resolved to proceed
+without it. Champlain was again (1611) in Canada, fighting for and
+against the Indians and establishing a trading post at Mont Royal (see
+MONTREAL). He was the third white man to descend, and the second to
+descend successfully, the Lachine Rapids. De Monts, now governor of
+Paris, was too busy to occupy himself in the waning fortunes of the
+colony, and left them entirely to his associate. An influential
+protector was needed; and Champlain prevailed upon Charles de Bourbon,
+comte de Soissons, to interest himself to obtain from the king the
+appointment of lieutenant-general in New France. The comte de Soissons
+died almost immediately, and was succeeded in the office by Henri de
+Bourbon, prince de Conde, and he, like his predecessors and successors,
+retained Champlain as lieutenant-governor. "In Champlain alone was the
+life of New France. By instinct and temperament he was more impelled to
+the adventurous toils of exploration than to the duller task of building
+colonies. The profits of trade had value in his eyes only as means to
+these ends, and settlements were important chiefly as a base of
+discovery. Two great objects eclipsed all others,--to find a route to
+the Indies, and to bring the heathen tribes into the embraces of the
+Church, since, while he cared little for their bodies, his solicitude
+for their souls knew no bounds" (Parkman).
+
+In 1613 Champlain again crossed the Atlantic and endeavoured to confirm
+Nicolas de Vignau's alleged discovery of a short route to the ocean by
+the Ottawa river, a great lake at its source, and another river flowing
+north therefrom. That year he got as far as Allumette Island in the
+Ottawa, but two years later, with a "Great War Party" of Indians, he
+crossed Lake Nipissing and the eastern ends of Lakes Huron and Ontario,
+and made a fierce but unsuccessful attack on an Onondaga fortified town
+a few miles south of Lake Oneida. This was the end of his wanderings. He
+now devoted himself to the growth and strengthening of Quebec. Every
+year he went to France with this end in view. He was one of the hundred
+associates of the Company of New France, created by Richelieu to reform
+abuses and take over all his country's interests in the new world. These
+ill-defended possessions England now prepared to seize. Three ships were
+sent out under letters of marque commanded by David, Lewis and Thomas
+Kirke, and Quebec, already on the verge of starvation, was compelled to
+surrender (1629). Champlain was taken to England a prisoner, but when
+Canada was restored to the French he returned (1633) to his post, where
+he died on the 25th of December 1635. He had married in 1610, Helene
+Boulle, then but twelve years old. She did not leave France for Canada,
+however, until ten years later. After his death she became a nun.
+
+  Champlain's complete works in 6 vols. were published under the
+  patronage of the university of Laval in 1870. There is a careful
+  translation of _Champlain's Voyages_, by Professor and Mrs E.G. Bourne
+  in the "Trailmaker" series edited by Prof. J.B. McMaster. See F.
+  Parkman, _Pioneers of France in the New World_ (1865); J. Winsor,
+  _Cartier to Frontenac_ (1894); N.E. Dionne, _Champlain_ (1905).
+       (N. E. D.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPLAIN, a lake lying between the states of New York and Vermont,
+U.S.A., and penetrating for a few miles into Canada. It extends about
+130 m. from N. to S., varies from 1/4 m. to 1 m. in width for 40 m. from
+its S. terminus, and then widens until it reaches a maximum width of
+about 11 m. near Ausable Point. Its area is about 500 sq. m. Its surface
+is 96 ft. above the sea. In the north part it is generally from 200 to
+300 ft. deep; opposite Essex, N.Y., near its middle, the depth
+increases to 400 ft.; but farther south it is much less; throughout the
+greater part of the lake there is a depth of water of more than 100 ft.
+Since the lake is caused by the ponding of water in a broad irregular
+valley, the shore line is nearly everywhere much broken, and in the
+northern portion are several islands, both large and small, most of
+which belong to Vermont. These islands divide the lake's northern end
+into two large arms which extend into Canada. From the western arm the
+Richelieu river flows out, carrying the water of Champlain to the St
+Lawrence. The waters abound in salmon, salmon-trout, sturgeon and other
+fish, and are navigated from end to end by large steamboats and vessels
+of considerable tonnage. The lake was formerly the seat of extensive
+traffic, especially in lumber, but navigation has greatly decreased; the
+tonnage entering and clearing at the lake was twice as great in the
+early '70's as it was thirty years later. The principal ports are
+Burlington, Vt., and Plattsburg, N.Y. Lake Champlain lies in a valley
+from 1 to 30 m. wide, between the Green Mountains on the east and the
+Adirondack Mountains on the west, and the scenery is most picturesque.
+On the east side is a rather gradual ascent for 20 m. or more from shore
+to summit, while on the west side the ascent is by a succession of
+hills, in some places from the water's edge. North of Crown Point low
+mountains rise 1000 to 1600 ft. above the lake, and behind these are the
+higher peaks of the Adirondacks, reaching an elevation of more than 5000
+ft. Lake George is a tributary on the south, several small streams flow
+in from each side; the Champlain Canal, 63 m. in length, connects the
+lake with the Hudson river; and through the Richelieu it has a natural
+outlet to the north into the St Lawrence.
+
+Lake Champlain was named from Samuel de Champlain, who discovered it in
+July 1609. The valley is a natural pathway between the United States and
+Canada, and during the various wars which the English have waged in
+America it had great strategic importance. In 1731 the French built a
+fort at Crown Point; in 1756, another at Ticonderoga; and both were
+important strategic points in the French and Indian War as well as in
+the American War of Independence. On the 11th of October 1776, the first
+battle between an American and a British fleet, the battle of Valcour
+Island, was fought on the lake. Benedict Arnold, the American commander,
+with a decidedly inferior force, withstood the British under Thomas
+Pringle for about seven hours, and then during the night escaped through
+the enemy's line. Although overtaken the next day he again, after a
+fight of a few hours, made a successful retreat.
+
+At the beginning of the War of 1812 the American naval force on the
+lake, though very small, was superior to that of the British, but on the
+3rd of June 1813 the British captured two American sloops in the narrow
+channel at the northern end and gained supremacy. Both sides now began
+to build and equip vessels for a decisive contest; by May 1814 the
+Americans had regained supremacy, and four months later a British land
+force of 11,000 men under Sir George Prevost (1767-1816) and a naval
+force of 16 vessels of about 2402 tons with 937 men and 92 guns under
+Captain George Downie (d. 1814) confronted an American land force of
+1500 men under Brigadier-General Alexander Macomb (1782-1841), strongly
+entrenched at Plattsburg, and an American naval force (anchored in
+Plattsburg Bay) of 14 vessels of about 2244 tons with 882 men and 86
+guns under Commodore Thomas Macdonough (1783-1825). In the open lake the
+British naval force should have been the superior, but at anchor in the
+bay the Americans had a decided advantage. Expecting the British land
+force to drive the American fleet from its anchorage, Captain Downie, on
+the 11th of September 1814, began the battle of Lake Champlain. It had
+continued only fifteen minutes when he was killed; the land force failed
+to co-operate, and after a severe fight at close range for 2-1/2 hours,
+during which the British lost about 300 men, the Americans 200 and the
+vessels of both sides were greatly shattered, the British retreated both
+by land and by water, abandoning their plan of invading New York.
+
+  See C.E. Peet, "Glacial and Post-Glacial History of the Hudson and
+  Champlain Valleys," in vol. xii. of the _Journal of Geology_
+  (Chicago, 1904); P.S. Palmer, _History of Lake Champlain_ (Albany.
+  1866); and Capt. A.T. Mahan, _Sea Power in its Relations to the War of
+  1812_ (2 vols., Boston, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPMESLE, MARIE (1642-1698), French actress, was born in Rouen of a
+good family. Her father's name was Desmares. She made her first
+appearance on the stage at Rouen with Charles Chevillet (1645-1701), who
+called himself sieur de Champmesle, and they were married in 1666. By
+1669 they were playing in Paris at the Theatre du Marais, her first
+appearance there being as Venus in Boyer's _Fete de Venus_. The next
+year, as Hermione in Racine's _Andromaque_, she had a great success at
+the Hotel de Bourgogne. Her intimacy with Racine dates from then. Some
+of his finest tragedies were written for her, but her repertoire was not
+confined to them, and many an indifferent play--like Thomas Corneille's
+_Ariane_ and _Comte d'Essex_--owed its success to "her natural manner of
+acting, and her pathetic rendering of the hapless heroine." _Phedre_ was
+the climax of her triumphs, and when she and her husband deserted the
+Hotel de Bourgogne (see BEJART _ad fin._), it was selected to open the
+Comedie Francaise on the 26th of August 1680. Here, with Mme Guerin as
+the leading comedy actress, she played the great tragic love parts for
+more than thirty years, dying on the 15th of May 1698. La Fontaine
+dedicated to her his novel _Belphegor_, and Boileau immortalized her in
+verse. Her husband distinguished himself both as actor and playwright,
+and his _Parisien_ (1682) gave Mme Guerin one of her greatest successes.
+
+Her brother, the actor NICOLAS DESMARES (c. 1650-1714), began as a
+member of a subsidized company at Copenhagen, but by her influence he
+came to Paris and was received in 1685 _sans debut_--the first time such
+an honour had been accorded--at the Comedie Francaise, where he became
+famous for peasant parts. His daughter, to whom Christian V. and his
+queen stood sponsors, CHRISTINE ANTOINETTE CHARLOTTE DESMARES
+(1682-1753), was a fine actress in both tragedy and soubrette parts. She
+made her debut at the Comedie Francaise in 1699, in La Grange Chancel's
+_Oreste et Pylade_, and was at once received as _societaire_. She
+retired in 1721.
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANCOIS (1790-1832), French Egyptologist, called LE
+JEUNE to distinguish him from Champollion-Figeac (q.v.), his elder
+brother, was born at Figeac, in the department of Lot, on the 23rd of
+December 1790. He was educated by his brother, and was then appointed
+government pupil at the Lyceum, which had recently been founded. His
+first work (1804) was an attempt to show by means of their names that
+the giants of the Bible and of Greek mythology were personifications of
+natural phenomena. At the age of sixteen (1807) he read before the
+academy of Grenoble a paper in which he maintained that the Coptic was
+the ancient language of Egypt. He soon after removed to Paris, where he
+enjoyed the friendship of Langles, De Sacy and Millin. In 1809 he was
+made professor of history in the Lyceum of Grenoble, and there published
+his earlier works. Champollion's first decipherment of hieroglyphics
+dates from 1821. In 1824 he was sent by Charles X. to visit the
+collections of Egyptian antiquities in the museums of Turin, Leghorn,
+Rome and Naples; and on his return he was appointed director of the
+Egyptian museum at the Louvre. In 1828 he was commissioned to undertake
+the conduct of a scientific expedition to Egypt in company with
+Rosellini, who had received a similar appointment from Leopold II.,
+grand duke of Tuscany. He remained there about a year. In March 1831 he
+received the chair of Egyptian antiquities, which had been created
+specially for him, in the College de France. He was engaged with
+Rosellini in publishing the results of Egyptian researches at the
+expense of the Tuscan and French governments, when he was seized with a
+paralytic disorder, and died at Paris in 1832. Champollion, whose claims
+were hotly disputed for many years after his death, is now universally
+acknowledged to have been the founder of Egyptology.
+
+  He wrote _L'Egypte sous les Phraons_ (2 vols. 8vo, 1814); _Sur
+  l'ecriture hieratique_ (1821); _Sur l'ecriture demotique_; _Precis du
+  systeme hieroglyphique_, &c. (1824); _Pantheon egyptien, ou collection
+  des personnages mythologiques de l'ancienne Egypte_ (incomplete);
+  _Monumens de l'Egypte et de la Nubie consideres par rapport a
+  l'histoire, la religion, &c._; _Grammaire egyptienne_ (1836), and
+  _Dictionnaire egyptienne_(1841), edited by his brother; _Analyse
+  methodique du texte demotique de Rosette_; _Apercu des resultats
+  historiques de la decouverte de l'alphabet hieroglyphique_ (1827);
+  _Memoires sur les signes employes par les Egyptiens dans leurs trois
+  systemes graphiques a la notation des principales divisions du temps_;
+  _Lettres ecrites d'Egypte et de Nubie_ (1833); and also seveial
+  letters on Egyptian subjects, addressed at different periods to the
+  duc de Blacas and others.
+
+  See H. Hartleben, _Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk_ (2 vols.,
+  1906); also EGYPT: _Language and Writing_ (_ad init._).
+
+
+
+
+CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH (1778-1867), French archaeologist,
+elder brother of Jean Francois Champollion, was born at Figeac in the
+department of Lot, on the 5th of October 1778. He became professor of
+Greek and librarian at Grenoble, but was compelled to retire in 1816 on
+account of the part he had taken during the Hundred Days. He afterwards
+became keeper of manuscripts at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and
+professor of palaeography at the Ecole des Chartes. In 1849 he became
+librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau. He edited several of his
+brother's works, and was also author of original works on philological
+and historical subjects, among which may be mentioned _Nouvelles
+recherches sur les patois ou idiomes vulgaires de la France_ (1809),
+_Annales de Lagides_ (1819) and _Chartes latines sur papyrus du VIe
+siecle de l'ere chretienne_. His son AIME (1812-1894) became his
+father's assistant at the Bibliotheque Nationale, and besides a number
+of works on historical subjects wrote a biographical and bibliographical
+study of his family in _Les Deux Champollion_ (Grenoble, 1887).
+
+
+
+
+CHANCE (through the O. Fr. _cheance_, from the Late Lat. _cadentia_,
+things happening, from _cadere_, to fall out, happen; cf. "case"), an
+accident or event, a phenomenon which has no apparent or discoverable
+cause; hence an event which has not been expected, a piece of good or
+bad fortune. From the popular idea that anything of which no assignable
+cause is known has therefore no cause, chance (Gr. [Greek: tuche]) was
+regarded as having a substantial objective existence, being itself the
+source of such uncaused phenomena. For the philosophic theories relating
+to this subject see ACCIDENTALISM.
+
+"Chance," in the theory of probability, is used in two ways. In the
+stricter, or mathematical usage, it is synonymous with probability; i.e.
+if a particular event may occur in n ways in an aggregate of p events,
+then the "chance" of the particular event occurring is given by the
+fraction _n/p_. In the second usage, the "chance" is regarded as the
+ratio of the number of ways which a particular event may occur to the
+number of ways in which it may not occur; mathematically expressed, this
+chance is _n/(p-n)_ (see PROBABILITY). In the English law relating to
+gaming and wagering a distinction is drawn between games of chance and
+games of skill (see GAMING AND WAGERING).
+
+
+
+
+CHANCEL (through O. Fr. from Lat. plur. _cancelli_, dim. of _cancer_,
+grating, lattice, probably connected with an Indo-European root _Kar_-,
+to bend; cf. circus, curve, &c.), in the earliest and strictest sense
+that part of a church near the altar occupied by the deacons and
+sub-deacons assisting the officiating priest, this space having
+originally been separated from the rest of the church by _cancelli_ or
+lattice work. The word _cancelli_ is used in classical Latin of a
+screen, bar or the like, set to mark off an enclosed space in a building
+or in an open place. It is thus used of the bar in a court of justice
+(Cicero, _Verres_, ii. 3 seq.). It is particularly used of the lattice
+or screen in the ancient basilica, which separated the _bema_, or raised
+tribunal, from the rest of the building. The use of the name in
+ecclesiastical buildings is thus natural, for the altar stood in the
+place occupied by the _bema_ in the apse of the basilica. From the
+screen the term was early transferred to the space _inter cancellos_,
+i.e. the _locus altaris cancellis septus_. This railed-off space is now
+generally known among Roman Catholics as the "sanctuary," the word
+chancel being little used. In the Church of England, however, the word
+chancel survived the Reformation, and is applied, both in the
+ecclesiastical and the architectural sense, to that part of the church
+occupied by the principal altar or communion table and by the clergy and
+singers officiating at the chief services; it thus includes presbytery,
+chancel proper and choir (q.v.), and in this sense, in the case of
+cathedrals and other large churches, is often used synonymously with
+choir. In this more inclusive sense the early basilican churches had no
+chancels, which were a comparatively late development; the _cancelli_,
+e.g. of such a church as San Clemente at Rome are equivalent not to the
+"chancel screen" of a medieval church but to the "altar rails" that
+divide off the sanctuary. In churches of the type that grew to its
+perfection in the middle ages the chancels are clearly differentiated
+from the nave by structural features: by the raising of the floor level,
+by the presence of a "chancel arch," and by a chancel or rood screen
+(see ROOD). The chancel screen might be no more than a low barrier, some
+4 ft. high, or a light structure of wood or wrought iron; sometimes,
+however, they were massive stone screens, which in certain cases were
+continued on either side between the piers of the choir and (on the
+European continent) round the east end of the sanctuary, as in the
+cathedrals of Paris, Bourges, Limoges, Amiens and Chartres. These
+screens served the purpose, in collegiate and conventual churches, of
+cutting off the space reserved for the services conducted for and by the
+members of the chapter or community. For popular services a second high
+altar was usually set up to the west of the screen, as formerly at
+Westminster Abbey. In parish churches the screen was set, partly to
+differentiate the space occupied by the clergy from that reserved for
+the laity, partly to support the representation of the crucifixion known
+as the Rood. In these churches, too, the chancel is very usually
+structurally differentiated by being narrower and, sometimes, less high
+than the nave.
+
+In the Church of England, the duty of repairing the chancel falls upon
+the parson by custom, while the repair of the body of the church falls
+on the parishioners. In particular cases, as in certain London churches,
+the parishioners also have to repair the chancel. Where there are both a
+rector and a vicar the repairs are shared between them, and this is also
+the case where the rector is a lay impropriator. By the rubric of the
+English Prayer Book "the chancels shall remain as they have done in
+times past," i.e. distinguished from the body of the church by some
+partition sufficient to separate the two without interfering with the
+view of the congregation. At the Reformation, and for some time after,
+this distinction was regarded by the dominant Puritan party as a mark of
+sacerdotalism, and services were commonly said in other parts of the
+church, the chancels being closed and disused. The rubric, however,
+directs that "'Morning and Evening Prayer' shall be used in the
+accustomed place in the church, chapel or chancel, except it shall be
+otherwise determined by the Ordinary." Chancel screens, with or without
+gates, are lawful, but chancellors of dioceses have refused to grant a
+faculty to erect gates, as unnecessary or inexpedient.
+
+
+
+
+CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. _canceler_, _chanceler_, Fr.
+_chancelier_, Lat. _cancellarius_), an official title used by most of
+the peoples whose civilization has arisen directly or indirectly out of
+the Roman empire. At different times and in different countries it has
+stood and stands for very various duties, and has been, and is, borne by
+officers of various degrees of dignity. The original chancellors were
+the _cancelarii_ of Roman courts of justice, ushers who sat at the
+_cancelli_ or lattice work screens of a "basilica" or law court, which
+separated the judge and counsel from the audience (see CHANCEL). In the
+later Eastern empire the _cancellarii_ were promoted at first to
+notarial duties. The barbarian kingdoms which arose on the ruin of the
+empire in the West copied more or less intelligently the Roman model in
+all their judicial and financial administration. Under the Frankish
+kings of the Merovingian dynasty the _cancellarii_ were subordinates of
+the great officer of state called the _referendarius_, who was the
+predecessor of the more modern chancellor. The office became established
+under the form _archi-cancellarius_, or chief of the _cancellarii_.
+Stubbs says that the Carolingian chancellor was the royal notary and the
+arch-chancellor keeper of the royal seal. His functions would naturally
+be discharged by a cleric in times when book learning was mainly
+confined to the clergy. From the reign of Louis the Pious the post was
+held by a bishop. By an equally natural process he became the chief
+secretary of the king and of the queen, who also had her chancellor.
+Such an office possessed an obvious capacity for developing on the
+judicial as well as the administrative side. Appeals and petitions of
+aggrieved persons would pass through the chancellor's hands, as well as
+the political correspondence of the king. Nor was the king the only man
+who had need of a chancellor. Great officers and corporations also had
+occasion to employ an agent to do secretarial, notarial and judicial
+work for them, and called him by the convenient name of chancellor. The
+history of the office in its many adaptations to public and private
+service is the history of its development on judicial, administrative,
+political, secretarial and notarial lines.
+
+
+  The chancellor in England.
+
+The model of the Carolingian court was followed by the medieval states
+of Western Europe. In England the office of chancellor dates back to the
+reign of Edward the Confessor, the first English king to use the Norman
+practice of sealing instead of signing documents; and from the Norman
+Conquest onwards the succession of chancellors is continuous. The
+chancellor was originally, and long continued to be, an ecclesiastic,
+who combined the functions of the most dignified of the royal chaplains,
+the king's secretary in secular matters, and keeper of the royal seal.
+From the first, then, though at the outset overshadowed by that of the
+justiciar, the office of chancellor was one of great influence and
+importance. As chaplain the chancellor was keeper of the king's
+conscience; as secretary he enjoyed the royal confidence in secular
+affairs; as keeper of the seal he was necessary to all formal
+expressions of the royal will. By him and his staff of chaplains the
+whole secretarial work of the royal household was conducted, the
+accounts were kept under the justiciar and treasurer, writs were drawn
+up and sealed, and the royal correspondence was carried on. He was, in
+fact, as Stubbs puts it, a sort of secretary of state for all
+departments. "This is he," wrote John of Salisbury (d. 1180), "who
+cancels (_cancellat_) the evil laws of the realm, and makes equitable
+(_aequa_) the commands of a pious prince," a curious anticipation of the
+chancellor's later equitable jurisdiction. Under Henry II., indeed, the
+chancellor was already largely employed in judicial work, either in
+attendance on the king or in provincial visitations; though the peculiar
+jurisdiction of the chancery was of later growth. By this time, however,
+the chancellor was "great alike in Curia and Exchequer"; he was
+_secundus a rege_, i.e. took precedence immediately after the justiciar,
+and nothing was done either in the Curia or the exchequer without his
+consent. So great was his office that William FitzStephen, the
+biographer of Becket, tells us that it was not purchasable (_emenda non
+est_), a statement which requires modification, since it was in fact
+more than once sold under Henry I., Stephen, Richard and John (Stubbs,
+_Const. Hist._ i. pp. 384-497; Gneist, _Const. Hist. of England_, p.
+219), an evil precedent which was, however, not long followed.
+
+The judicial duties of the chancellor grew out of the fact that all
+petitions addressed to the king passed through his hands. The number and
+variety of these became so great that in 1280, under Edward I., an
+ordinance was issued directing the chancellor and the justices to deal
+with the greater number of them; those which involved the use of the
+great seal being specially referred to the chancellor. The chancellor
+and justices were to determine which of them were "so great, and of
+grace, that the chancellor and others would not despatch them without
+the king," and these the chancellor and other chief ministers were to
+carry in person to the king (Stubbs ii. 263, note, and p. 268). At this
+period the chancellor, though employed in equity, had ministerial
+functions only; but when, in the reign of Edward III., the chancellor
+ceased to follow the court, his tribunal acquired a more definite
+character, and petitions for grace and favour began to be addressed
+primarily to him, instead of being merely examined and passed on by him
+to the king; and in the twenty-second year of this reign matters which
+were of grace were definitely committed to the chancellor for decision.
+This is the starting-point of the equitable jurisdiction of the
+chancellor, whence developed that immense body of rules, supplementing
+the deficiencies or modifying the harshness of the common law, which is
+known as Equity (q.v.).
+
+
+  The chancellor in parliament.
+
+The position of the chancellor as speaker or prolocutor of the House of
+Lords dates from the time when the ministers of the royal Curia formed
+_ex officio_ a part of the _commune concilium_ and parliament. The
+chancellor originally attended with the other officials, and he
+continued to attend _ex officio_ after they had ceased to do so. If he
+chanced to be a bishop, he was summoned regularly _qua_ bishop;
+otherwise he attended without summons. When not a peer the chancellor
+had no place in parliament except as chancellor, and the act of 31 Henry
+VIII. cap. 10 (1539) laid down that, if not a peer, he had "no interest
+to give any assent or dissent in the House." Yet Sir Robert Bourchier
+(d. 1349), the first lay chancellor, had protested in 1341 against the
+first statute of 15 Edward III. (on trial by peers, &c.), on the ground
+that it had not received his assent and was contrary to the laws of the
+realm. From the time, however, of William, Lord Cowper (first lord high
+chancellor of Great Britain in 1705, created Baron Cowper in 1706), all
+chancellors have been made peers on their elevation to the woolsack.
+Sometimes the custody of the great seal has been transferred from the
+chancellor to a special official, the lord keeper of the great seal (see
+LORD KEEPER); this was notably the case under Queen Elizabeth (cf. the
+French _garde des sceaux_, below). Sometimes it is put into commission,
+being affixed by lords commissioners of the great seal. By the Catholic
+Emancipation Act of 1829 it was enacted that none of these offices could
+be held by a Roman Catholic (see further under LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR).
+The office of lord chancellor of Ireland, and that of chancellor of
+Scotland (who ceased to be appointed after the Act of Union of 1707)
+followed the same lines of development.
+
+
+  Chancellor of the exchequer.
+
+The title of chancellor, without the predicates "high" or "lord," is
+also applied in the United Kingdom to a number of other officials and
+functionaries of varying rank and importance. Of these the most
+important is the chancellor of the exchequer, an office which originated
+in the separation of the chancery from the exchequer in the reign of
+Henry III. (1216-1272). His duties consisted originally in the custody
+and employment of the seal of the exchequer, in the keeping of a
+counter-roll to check the roll kept by the treasurer, and in the
+discharge of certain judicial functions in the exchequer of account. So
+long as the treasury board was in active working, the chancellorship of
+the exchequer was an office of small importance, and even during a great
+part of the 19th century was not necessarily a cabinet office, unless
+held in conjunction with that of first lord of the treasury. At the
+present time the chancellor of the exchequer is minister of finance, and
+therefore always of cabinet rank (see EXCHEQUER).
+
+
+  Chancellor of the duchy.
+
+The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster is the representative of the
+crown in the management of its lands and the control of its courts in
+the duchy of Lancaster, the property of which is scattered over several
+counties. These lands and privileges, though their inheritance has
+always been vested in the king and his heirs, have always been kept
+distinct from the hereditary revenues of the sovereign, whose palatine
+rights as duke of Lancaster were distinct from his rights as king. The
+Judicature Act of 1873 left only the chancery court of the duchy, but
+the chancellor can appoint and dismiss the county court judges within
+the limits of the duchy; he is responsible also for the land revenues of
+the duchy, which are the private property of the sovereign, and keeps
+the seal of the duchy. His appointment is by letters patent, and his
+salary is derived from the revenue of the duchy. As the judicial and
+estate work is done by subordinate officials, the office is practically
+a sinecure and is usually given to a minister whose assistance is
+necessary to a government, but who for one reason or another cannot
+undertake the duties of an important department. John Bright described
+him as the maid-of-all-work of the cabinet.
+
+
+  Ecclesiastical chancellors.
+
+The chancellor of a diocese is the official who presides over the
+bishop's court and exercises jurisdiction in his name. This use of the
+word is comparatively modern, and, though employed in acts of
+parliament, is not mentioned in the commission, having apparently been
+adopted on the analogy of the like title in the state. The chancellor
+was originally the keeper of the archbishop or bishop's seals; but the
+office, as now understood, includes two other offices distinguished in
+the commission by the titles of vicar-general and official principal
+(see ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). The chancellor of a diocese must be
+distinguished from the chancellor of a cathedral, whose office is the
+same as that of the ancient _scholasticus_ (see CATHEDRAL).
+
+
+  Academic, &c.
+
+The chancellor of an order of knighthood discharges notarial duties and
+keeps the seal. The chancellor of a university is an official of
+medieval origin. The appointment was originally made by the popes, and
+the office from the first was one of great dignity and originally of
+great power. The chancellor was, as he remains, the head of the
+university; he had the general superintendence of its studies and of its
+discipline, could make and unmake laws, try and punish offences, appoint
+to professorial chairs and admit students to the various degrees (see Du
+Cange, s. "_Cancellarii Academiarum_"). In England the chancellorship of
+the universities is now a more or less ornamental office and is
+conferred on noblemen or statesmen of distinction, whose principal
+function is to look after the general interests of the university,
+especially in its relations with the government. The chancellor is
+represented in the university by a vice-chancellor, who performs the
+administrative and judicial functions of the office. In the United
+States the heads of certain educational establishments have the title of
+chancellor. In Scotland the foreman of a jury is called its chancellor.
+In the United States the chancellors are judges of the chancery courts
+of the states, e.g. Delaware and New Jersey, where these courts are
+still maintained as distinct from the courts of common law. In other
+states, e.g. New York since 1847, the title has been abolished, and
+there is no federal chancellor.
+
+In diplomacy generally the chancellor of an embassy or legation is an
+official attached to the suite of an ambassador or minister. He performs
+the functions of a secretary, archivist, notary and the like, and is at
+the head of the chancery, or chancellery (Fr. _chancellerie_), of the
+mission. The functions of this office are the transcribing and
+registering of official despatches and other documents, and generally
+the transaction of all the minor business, e.g. marriages, passports and
+the like, connected with the duties of a diplomatic agent towards his
+nationals in a foreign country. The dignified connotation of the title
+chancellor has given to this office a prestige which in itself it does
+not deserve; and "chancery" or "chancellery" is commonly used as though
+it were synonymous with embassy, while diplomatic style is sometimes
+called _style de chancellerie_, though as a matter of fact the
+chanceries have nothing to do with it.
+
+_France._--The country in which the office of chancellor followed most
+closely the same lines as in England is France. He had become a great
+officer under the Carolingians, and he grew still greater under the
+Capetian sovereigns. The great chancellor, _summus cancellarius_ or
+_archi-cancellarius_, was a dignitary who had indeed little real power.
+The post was commonly filled by the archbishop of Reims, or the bishop
+of Paris. The _cancellarius_, who formed part of the royal court and
+administration, was officially known as the _sub-cancellarius_ in
+relation to the _summus cancellarius_, but as _proto-cancellarius_ in
+regard to his subordinate _cancellarii_. He was a very great officer, an
+ecclesiastic who was the chief of the king's chaplains or king's clerks,
+who administered all ecclesiastical affairs; he had judicial powers, and
+from the 12th century had the general control of foreign affairs. The
+chancellor in fact became so great that the Capetian kings, who did not
+forget the mayor of the palace, grew afraid of him. Few of the early
+ecclesiastical chancellors failed to come into collision with the king,
+or parted with him on good terms. Philip Augustus suspended the
+chancellorship throughout the whole of his reign, and appointed a keeper
+of the seals (_garde des sceaux_). The office was revived under Louis
+VIII., but the ecclesiastical chancellorship was finally suppressed in
+1227. The king of the 13th century employed only keepers of the seal.
+Under the reign of Philip IV. le Bel lay chancellors were first
+appointed. From the reign of Charles V. to that of Louis XI. the French
+_chancelier_ was elected by the royal council. In the 16th century he
+became irremovable, a distinction more honourable than effective, for
+though the king could not dismiss him from office he could, and on some
+occasions did, deprive him of the right to exercise his functions, and
+entrusted them to a keeper of the seal. The _chancelier_ from the 13th
+century downwards was the head of the law, and performed the duties
+which are now entrusted to the minister of justice. His office was
+abolished when in 1790 the whole judicial system of France was swept
+away by the Revolution. The smaller _chanceliers_ of the provincial
+parlements and royal courts disappeared at the same time. But when
+Napoleon was organizing the empire he created an arch-chancellor, an
+office which was imitated rather from the _Erz-Kanzler_ of the Holy
+Roman Empire than from the old French _chancelier_. At the Restoration
+the office of chancellor of France was restored, the chancellor being
+president of the House of Peers, but it was finally abolished at the
+revolution of 1848. The administration of the Legion of Honour is
+presided over by a _grand chancelier_, who is a grand cross of the
+order, and who advises the head of the state in matters concerning the
+affairs of the order. The title of _chancelier_ continues also to be
+used in France for the large class of officials who discharge notarial
+duties in some public offices, in embassies and consulates. They draw up
+diplomas and prepare all formal documents, and have charge of the
+registration and preservation of the archives.
+
+_Spain._--In Spain the office of chancellor, _canciller_, was introduced
+by Alphonso VII. (1126-1157), who adopted it from the court of his
+cousins of the Capetian dynasty of France. The _canciller_ did not in
+Spain go beyond being the king's notary. The chancellor of the privy
+seal, _canciller del sello de la puridad_ (literally the secret seal),
+was the king's secretary, and sealed all papers other than diplomas and
+charters. The office was abolished in 1496, and its functions were
+transferred to the royal secretaries. The _cancelario_ was the
+chancellor of a university. The _canciller_ succeeded the _maesescuela_
+or _scholasticus_ of a church or monastery. _Canciller mayor de
+Castilla_ is an honorary title of the archbishops of Toledo. The _gran
+canciller de las Indias_, high chancellor of the Indies, held the seal
+used for the American dominions of Spain, and presided at the council in
+the absence of the president. The office disappeared with the loss of
+Spain's empire in America.
+
+_Italy, Germany, &c._--In central and northern Europe, and in Italy, the
+office had different fortunes. In southern Italy, where Naples and
+Sicily were feudally organized, the chancellors of the Norman kings, who
+followed Anglo-Norman precedents very closely, and, at least in Sicily,
+employed Englishmen, were such officers as were known in the West. The
+similarity is somewhat concealed by the fact that these sovereigns also
+adopted names and offices from the imperial court at Constantinople.
+Their chancellor was officially known as Protonotary and Logothete, and
+their example was followed by the German princes of the Hohenstaufen
+family, who acquired the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. The papal or
+apostolic chancery is dealt with in the article on the Curia Romana
+(q.v.). It may be pointed out here, however, that the close connexion of
+the papacy with the Holy Roman Empire is illustrated by the fact that
+the archbishop of Cologne, who by right of his see was the emperor's
+arch-chancellor (_Erz-Kanzler_) for Italy, was confirmed as papal
+arch-chancellor by a bull of Leo IX. in 1052. The origin and duration of
+this connexion are, however, obscure; it appears to have ceased before
+1187. The last record of a papal chancellor in the middle ages dates
+from 1212, from which time onward, for reasons much disputed, the head
+of the papal chancery bore the title vice-chancellor (Hinschius i. 439),
+until the office of chancellor was restored by the constitution
+_Sapientius_ of Pius X. in 1908.
+
+The title of arch-chancellor (_Erz-Kanzler_) was borne by three great
+ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Holy Roman Empire. The archbishop of
+Mainz was arch-chancellor for Germany. The archbishop of Cologne held
+the dignity for Italy, and the archbishop of Trier for Gaul and the
+kingdom of Arles. The second and third of these dignities became purely
+formal with the decline of the Empire in the 13th century. But the
+arch-chancellorship of Germany remained to some extent a reality till
+the Empire was finally dissolved in 1806. The office continued to be
+attached to the archbishopric of Mainz, which was an electorate. Karl
+von Dalberg, the last holder of the office, and the first prince primate
+of the Confederation of the Rhine, continued to act in show at least as
+chancellor of that body, and was after a fashion the predecessor of the
+_Bundes Kanzler_, or chancellor of the North German Confederation. The
+duties imposed on the imperial chancery by the very complicated
+constitution of the Empire were, however, discharged by a
+vice-chancellor who was attached to the court of the emperor. The abbot
+of Fulda was chancellor to the empress.
+
+The house of Austria in their hereditary dominions, and in those of
+their possessions which they treated as hereditary, even where the
+sovereignty was in theory elective, made a large and peculiar use of the
+title chancellor. The officers so called were of course distinct from
+the arch-chancellor and vice-chancellor of the Empire, although the
+imperial crown became in practice hereditary in the house of Habsburg.
+In the family states their administration was, to use a phrase familiar
+to the French, "polysynodic." As it was when fully developed, and as it
+remained until the March revolution of 1848, it was conducted through
+boards presided over by a chancellor. There were three aulic
+chancellorships for the internal affairs of their dominions, "a united
+aulic chancellorship for all parts of the empire (i.e. of Austria, not
+the Holy Roman) not belonging to Hungary or Transylvania, and a separate
+chancellorship for each of those last-mentioned provinces" (Hartig,
+_Genesis of the Revolution in Austria_). There were also a house, a
+court, and a state chancellor for the business of the imperial household
+and foreign affairs, who were not, however, the presidents of a board.
+These "aulic" (i.e. court) officers were in fact secretaries of the
+sovereign, and administrative or political rather than judicial in
+character, though the boards over which they presided controlled
+judicial as well as administrative affairs. In the case of such
+statesmen as Kaunitz and Metternich, who were house, court, and state
+chancellors as well as "united aulic" chancellors, the combination of
+offices made them in practice prime ministers, or rather
+lieutenants-general, of the sovereign. The system was subject to
+modifications, and in the end it broke down under its own complications.
+We are not dealing here with the confusing history of the Austrian
+administration, and these details are only quoted to show how it
+happened that in Austria the title chancellor came to mean a political
+officer and minister. There is obviously a vast difference between such
+an official as Kaunitz, who as house, court, and state chancellor was
+minister of foreign affairs, and as "united aulic" chancellor had a
+general superiority over the whole machinery of government, and the lord
+high chancellor in England, the _chancelier_ in France, or the
+_canciller mayor_ in Castile, though the title was the same. The
+development of the office in Austria must be understood in order to
+explain the position and functions of the imperial chancellor (_Reichs
+Kanzler_) of the modern German empire. Although the present empire is
+sometimes rhetorically and absurdly spoken of as a revival of the
+medieval Empire, it is in reality an adaptation of the Austrian empire,
+which was a continuation under a new name of the hereditary Habsburg
+monarchy. The _Reichs Kanzler_ is the immediate successor of the _Bundes
+Kanzler_, or chancellor of the North German Confederation (_Bund_). But
+the _Bundes Kanzler_, who bore no sort of resemblance except in mere
+name to the _Erz-Kanzler_ of the old Empire, was in a position not
+perhaps actually like that of Prince Kaunitz, but capable of becoming
+much the same thing. When the German empire was established in 1871
+Prince Bismarck, who was _Bundes Kanzler_ and became _Reichs Kanzler_,
+took care that his position should be as like as possible to that of
+Prince Kaunitz or Prince Metternich. The constitution of the German
+empire is separately dealt with, but it may be pointed out here that
+the _Reichs Kanzler_ is the federal minister of the empire, the chief of
+the federal officials, and a great political officer, who directs the
+foreign affairs, and superintends the internal affairs, of the empire.
+
+In these German states the title of chancellor is also given as in
+France to government and diplomatic officials who do notarial duties and
+have charge of archives. The title of chancellor has naturally been
+widely used in the German and Scandinavian states, and in Russia since
+the reign of Peter the Great. It has there as elsewhere wavered between
+being a political and a judicial office. Frederick the Great of Prussia
+created a _Gross Kanzler_ for judicial duties in 1746. But there was in
+Prussia a state chancellorship on the Austrian model. It was allowed to
+lapse on the death of Hardenberg in 1822. The Prussian chancellor after
+his time was one of the four court ministries (_Hofamter_) of the
+Prussian monarchy.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Cancellarius"; W. Stubbs,
+  _Const. Hist. of England_ (1874-1878); Rudolph Gneist, _Hist. of the
+  English Constitution_ (Eng. trans., London, 1891); L.O. Pike, _Const.
+  Hist. of the House of Lords_ (London, 1894); Sir William R. Anson,
+  _The Law and Custom of the Constitution_, vol. ii. part i. (Oxford,
+  1907); A. Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions francaises_ (Paris,
+  1892); K.F. Stumpf, _Die Reichs Kanzler_ (3 vols., Innsbruck,
+  1865-1873); G. Sceliger, _Erzkanzler und Reichskanzleien_ (ib. 1889);
+  P. Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_ (Berlin, 1869); Sir R.J. Phillimore,
+  _Eccles. Law_ (London, 1895); P. Pradier-Fodere, _Cours de droit
+  diplomatique_, ii. 542 (Paris, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CHANCELLORSVILLE, a village of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A.,
+situated almost midway between Washington and Richmond. It was the
+central point of one of the greatest battles of the Civil War, fought on
+the 2nd and 3rd of May 1863, between the Union Army of the Potomac under
+Major-General Hooker, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia
+under General Lee. (See AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, and WILDERNESS.) General
+"Stonewall" Jackson was mortally wounded in this battle.
+
+
+
+
+CHANCE-MEDLEY (from the A.-Fr. _chance-medlee_, a mixed chance, and not
+from _chaude-medlee_, a hot affray), an accident of a mixed character,
+an old term in English law for a form of homicide arising out of a
+sudden affray or quarrel. The homicide has not the characteristic of
+"malice prepense" which would raise the death to murder, nor the
+completely accidental nature which would reduce it to homicide by
+misadventure. It was practically identical, therefore, with
+manslaughter.
+
+
+
+
+CHANCERY, in English law, the court of the lord chancellor of England,
+consolidated in 1873 along with the other superior courts in the Supreme
+Court of Judicature. Its origin is noticed under the head of Chancellor.
+
+It has been customary to say that the court of chancery consists of two
+distinct tribunals--one a court of common law, the other a court of
+equity. From the former have issued all the original writs passing under
+the great seal, all commissions of sewers, lunacy, and the like--some of
+these writs being originally kept in a _hanaper_ or hamper (whence the
+"hanaper office"), and others in a little sack or bag (whence the
+"petty-bag office"). The court had likewise power to hold pleas upon
+_scire facias_ (q.v.) for repeal of letters patent, &c. "So little,"
+says Blackstone, "is commonly done on the common law side of the court
+that I have met with no traces of any writ of error being actually
+brought since the fourteenth year of Queen Elizabeth."
+
+The equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was founded on the
+supposed superiority of conscience and equity over the strict law. The
+appearance of equity in England is in harmony with the general course of
+legal history in progressive societies. What is remarkable is that,
+instead of being incorporated with or superseding the common law, it
+gave rise to a wholly independent set of tribunals. The English dislike
+of the civil law, and the tendency to follow precedent which has never
+ceased to characterize English lawyers, account for this unfortunate
+separation. The claims of equity in its earlier stages are well
+expressed in the little treatise called _Doctor and Student_, published
+in the reign of Henry VIII.:--"Conscience never resisteth the law nor
+addeth to it, but only when the law is directly in itself against the
+_law of God_, or _law of reason_." So also King James, speaking in the
+Star Chamber, says: "Where the rigour of the law in many cases will undo
+a subject, then the chancery tempers the law with equity, and so mixes
+mercy with justice, as it preserves a man from destruction." This theory
+of the essential opposition between law and equity, and of the natural
+superiority of the latter, remained long after equity had ceased to
+found itself on natural justice, and had become as fixed and rigid as
+the common law itself. The jealousy of the common lawyers came to a head
+in the time of Lord Ellesmere, when Coke disputed the right of the
+chancery to give relief against a judgment of the court of queen's bench
+obtained by gross fraud and imposition. James I., after consultation,
+decided in favour of the court of equity. The substitution of lay for
+clerical chancellors is regarded by G. Spence (_Equitable Jurisdiction
+of the Court of Chancery_, 2 vols., 1846-1849) as having at first been
+unfortunate, inasmuch as the laymen were ignorant of the principles on
+which their predecessors had acted. Lord Nottingham (1621-1682) is
+usually credited with the first attempt to reduce the decisions of the
+court to order, and his work was continued by Lord Hardwicke
+(1690-1764). By the time of Lord Eldon equity had become fixed, and the
+judges, like their brethren in the common law courts, strictly followed
+the precedents. Henceforward chancery and common law courts have
+exhibited the anomaly of two co-ordinate sets of tribunals, empowered to
+deal with the same matters, and compelled to proceed in many cases on
+wholly different principles. The court of chancery could in most cases
+prevent a person from taking advantage of a common law right, not
+approved of by its own system. But if a suitor chose to go to a court of
+common law, he might claim such unjust rights, and it required the
+special intervention of the court of equity to prevent his enforcing
+them. In many cases also a special application had to be made to
+chancery for facilities which were absolutely necessary to the
+successful conduct of a case at common law. Another source of difficulty
+and annoyance was the uncertainty in many cases whether the chancery or
+common law courts were the proper tribunal, so that a suitor often found
+at the close of an expensive and protracted suit that he had mistaken
+his court and must go elsewhere for relief. Attempts more or less
+successful were made to lessen those evils by giving the powers to both
+sets of courts; but down to the consolidation effected by the Judicature
+Act, the English judicial system justified the sarcasm of Lord Westbury,
+that one tribunal was set up to do injustice and another to stop it.
+
+The equitable jurisdiction of chancery was commonly divided into
+_exclusive_, _concurrent_ and _auxiliary_. Chancery had exclusive
+jurisdiction when there were no forms of action by which relief could be
+obtained at law, in respect of rights which ought to be enforced. Trusts
+were the most conspicuous example of this class. It also included the
+rights of married women, infants and lunatics. Chancery had concurrent
+jurisdiction when the common law did not give _adequate_ relief, e.g. in
+cases of fraud, accident, mistake, specific performance of contracts,
+&c. It had auxiliary jurisdiction when the administrative machinery of
+the law courts was unable to procure the necessary evidence.
+
+The Judicature Act 1873 enacted (S 24) that in every civil cause or
+matter commenced in the High Court of Justice, law and equity should be
+administered by the High Court of Justice and the court of appeal
+respectively, according to the rules therein contained, which provide
+for giving effect in all cases to "equitable rights and other matters of
+equity." The 25th section declared the law hereafter to be administered
+in England on certain points, and ordained that "generally in all
+matters not hereinbefore particularly mentioned in which there is any
+conflict or variance between the rules of equity and the rules of the
+common law with reference to the same matter, the rules of equity shall
+prevail." The 34th section specifically assigned to the chancery
+division the following causes and matters:--The administration of the
+estates of deceased persons; the dissolution of partnerships, or the
+taking of partnership, or other accounts; the redemption or foreclosure
+of mortgages; the raising of portions, or other charges on land; the
+sale and distribution of the proceeds of property subject to any lien
+or charge; the execution of trusts, charitable or private; the
+rectification, or setting aside, or cancellation of deeds or other
+written instruments; the specific performance of contracts between
+vendors and purchasers of real estates, including contracts for leases;
+the partition or sale of real estates; the wardship of infants and the
+care of infants' estates.
+
+The chancery division originally consisted of the lord chancellor as
+president and the master of the rolls, and the three vice-chancellors.
+The master of the rolls was also a member of the court of appeal, but
+Sir George Jessel, who held that office when the new system came into
+force, regularly sat as a judge of first instance until 1881, when, by
+the act of that year (sec. 2), the master of the rolls became a member
+of the court of appeal only, and provision was made for the appointment
+of a judge to supply the vacancy thus occasioned (sec. 3). Sir James
+Bacon (1798-1895) was the last survivor of the vice-chancellors. He
+retained his seat on the bench until the year 1886, when he retired
+after more than seventeen years' judicial service. For some reason the
+solicitors, when they had the choice, preferred to bring their actions
+in the chancery division. The practice introduced by the Judicature Act
+of trying actions with oral evidence instead of affidavits, and the
+comparative inexperience of the chancery judges and counsel in that mode
+of trial, tended to lengthen the time required for the disposal of the
+business. Demand was consequently made for more judges in the chancery
+division. By an act of 1877 the appointment of an additional judge in
+that division was authorized, and Sir Edward Fry (afterwards better
+known as a lord justice) was appointed. In August 1899 the crown
+consented to the appointment of a new judge of the High Court in the
+chancery division on an address from both Houses of Parliament, pursuant
+to the 87th section of the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The chancery
+division, therefore, consists of the lord chancellor and six puisne
+judges. The latter are styled and addressed in the same manner as was
+customary in the old common law courts.[1] Formerly there were only four
+judges of this division (being the successors of the master of the rolls
+and the three vice-chancellors) to whom chambers were attached. The
+fifth judge heard only causes with witnesses transferred to him from the
+overflowing of the lists of his four brethren. In each set of chambers
+there were three chief clerks, with a staff of assistant clerks under
+them. The chief clerks had no original jurisdiction, but heard
+applications only on behalf of the judge to whose chambers they
+belonged, and theoretically every suitor had the right to have his
+application heard by the judge himself in chambers. But the appointment
+of a sixth judge enabled the lord chancellor to carry out a reform
+recommended by a departmental committee which reported in 1885. The
+great difficulty in the chancery division always was to secure the
+continuous hearing of actions with witnesses, as nearly one-half of the
+judge's time was taken up with cases adjourned to him from chambers and
+other administrative business and non-witness actions and motions. The
+interruption of a witness action for two or three days, particularly in
+a country case, occasioned great expense, and had other inconveniences.
+It was a simple remedy to link the judges in pairs with one list of
+causes and one set of chambers assigned to each pair. This reform was
+effected by the alteration of a few words in certain rules of court.
+There are therefore, only three sets of chambers, each containing four
+chief clerks, or, as they are now styled, masters of the Supreme Court,
+and one of the linked judges, by arrangement between themselves,
+continuously tries the witness actions in their common list, while the
+other attends in chambers, and also hears the motions, petitions,
+adjourned summonses and non-witness cases.
+
+Although styled masters it does not appear that the chief clerks have
+any larger or different jurisdiction than they had before. They are
+still the representatives of and responsible to the judges to whom the
+chambers are attached. The judge may either hear an application in
+chambers, or may direct any matter which he thinks of sufficient
+importance to be argued before him in court, or a party may move in
+court to discharge an order made in chambers with a view to an appeal,
+but this is not required if the judge certifies that the matter was
+sufficiently discussed before him in chambers.
+
+Under the existing rules of court many orders can now be made on summons
+in chambers which used formerly to require a suit or petition in court
+(see Order LV. as to foreclosure, administration, payment out of money
+in court and generally). The judge is also enabled to decide any
+particular question arising in the administration of the estate of a
+deceased person or execution of the trusts of a settlement without
+directing administration of the whole estate or execution of the trusts
+generally by the court (Order LV. rule 10), and where an application for
+accounts is made by a dissatisfied beneficiary or creditor to order the
+accounts to be delivered out of court, and the application to stand over
+till it can be seen what questions (if any) arise upon the accounts
+requiring the intervention of the court (Order LV. 2, 10a). Delay and
+consequent worry and expense are thus saved to the parties, and, at the
+same time, a great deal of routine administration is got rid of and a
+larger portion of the judicial term can be devoted to hearing actions
+and deciding any question of importance in court. The work of the
+chambers staff of the judges has probably been increased; but, on the
+other hand, it has been lightened by the removal of the winding-up
+business. The chancery division has also inherited from the court of
+chancery a staff of registrars and taxing masters.
+
+In the United States "chancery" is generally used as the synonym of
+"equity." Chancery practice is practice in cases of equity. Chancery
+courts are equity courts (see EQUITY). For the diplomatic sense of
+chancery (chancellery) see CHANCELLOR.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The comte de Franqueville comments on the misuse of the title
+    "Lord" in addressing judges as another anomaly which only adds to the
+    confusion, but perhaps unnecessarily. According to Foss (vol. viii.
+    p. 200) it was only in the 18th century that the judges began to be
+    addressed by the title of "Your Lordship." In the Year Books (he
+    adds) they are constantly addressed by the title of "Sir." "Sir, vous
+    voyez bien," &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur division of
+the Central Provinces. In 1901 the town had a population of 17,803. It
+is situated at the junction of the Virai and Jharpat rivers. It was the
+capital of the Gond kingdom of Chanda, which was established on the
+ruins of a Hindu state in the 11th or 12th century, and survived until
+1751 (see GONDWANA). The town is still surrounded by a stone wall
+5-1/2m. in circuit. It has several old temples and tombs, and the
+district at large is rich in remains of antiquity. There are
+manufactures of cotton, silk, brass-ware and leather slippers, and a
+considerable local trade.
+
+The DISTRICT OF CHANDA has an area of 10,156 sq. m. Excepting in the
+extreme west, hills are thickly dotted over the country, sometimes in
+detached ranges, occasionally in isolated peaks rising sheer out from
+the plain. Towards the east they increase in height, and form a broad
+tableland, at places 2000 ft. above sea-level. The Wainganga river flows
+through the district from north to south, meeting the Wardha river at
+Seoni, where their streams unite to form the Pranhita. Chanda is thickly
+studded with fine tanks, or rather artificial lakes, formed by closing
+the outlets of small valleys, or by throwing a dam across tracts
+intersected by streams. The broad clear sheets of water thus created are
+often very picturesque in their surroundings of wood and rock. The chief
+architectural objects of interest are the cave temples at Bhandak,
+Winjbasani, Dewala and Ghugus; a rock temple in the bed of the Wardha
+river below Ballalpur; the ancient temples at Markandi, Ambgaon and
+elsewhere; the forts of Wairagarh and Ballalpur; and the old walls of
+the city of Chanda, its system of waterworks, and the tombs of the Gond
+kings. In 1901 the population was 601,533, showing a decrease of 15% in
+the decade. The principal crops are rice, millet, pulse, wheat,
+oil-seeds and cotton. The district contains the coalfield of Warora,
+which was worked by government till 1906, when it was closed. Other
+fields are known, and iron ores also occur. The district suffered
+severely from famine in 1900, when in April the number of persons
+relieved rose to 90,000.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDAUSI, a town of British India, in the Moradabad district of the
+United Provinces, 28 m. south of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 25,711. It is an
+important station on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, with a junction for
+Aligarh. Its chief exports are of cotton, hemp, sugar and stone. There
+is a factory for pressing cotton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAND BARDAI (fl. c. 1200), Hindu poet, was a native of Lahore, but
+lived at the court of Prithwi Raja (Prithiraj), the last Hindu sovereign
+of Delhi. His _Prithiraj Rasau_, a poem of some 100,000 stanzas,
+chronicling his master's deeds and the contemporary history of his part
+of India, is valuable not only as historical material but as the
+earliest monument of the Western Hindi language, and the first of the
+long series of bardic chronicles for which Rajputana is celebrated. It
+is written in ballad form, and portions of it are still sung by
+itinerant bards throughout north-western India and Rajputana.
+
+  See Lieut.-Col. James Tod, _Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han_ (2
+  vols., London, 1829-1832; repub. by Lalit Mohan Auddy, 2 vols. ib.,
+  1894-1895), where good translations are given.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDELIER, a frame of metal, wood, crystal, glass or china, pendent
+from roof or ceiling for the purpose of holding lights. The word is
+French, but the appliance has lost its original significance of a
+candle-holder, the chandelier being now chiefly used for gas and
+electric lighting. Clusters of hanging lights were in use as early as
+the 14th century, and appear originally to have been almost invariably
+of wood. They were, however, so speedily ruined by grease that metal was
+gradually subsituted, and fine and comparatively early examples in
+beaten iron, brass, copper and even silver are still extant. Throughout
+the 17th century the hanging candle-holder of brass or bronze was common
+throughout northern Europe, as innumerable pictures and engravings
+testify. In the great periods of the art of decoration in France many
+magnificent chandeliers were made by Boulle, and at a later date by
+Gouthiere and Thomire and others among the extraordinarily clever
+_fondeurs-ciseleurs_ of the second half of the 18th century. The
+chandelier in rock crystal and its imitations had come in at least a
+hundred years before their day, and continued in favour to the middle of
+the 19th century, or even somewhat later. It reached at last the most
+extreme elaboration of banality, with ropes of pendants and hanging
+faceted drops often called lustres. When many lights were burning in one
+of these chandeliers an effect of splendour was produced that was not
+out of place in a ballroom, but the ordinary household varieties were
+extremely ugly and inartistic. The more purely domestic chandelier
+usually carries from two to six lights. The rapidly growing use of
+electricity as an illuminating medium and the preference for smaller
+clusters of lights have, however, pushed into the background an
+appliance which had grown extremely commonplace in design, and had
+become out of character with modern ideas of household decoration.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDERNAGORE, or CHANDARNAGAR, a French settlement in India, with a
+small adjoining territory, situated on the right bank of the river
+Hugli, 20 m. above Calcutta, in 22 deg. 51' 40" N, and 88 deg. 24' 50"
+E. Area 3 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 25,000. Chandernagore has played an
+important part in the European history of Bengal. It became a permanent
+French settlement, in 1688, but did not rise to any importance till the
+time of Dupleix, during whose administration more than two thousand
+brick houses were erected in the town and a considerable maritime trade
+was carried on. In 1757 Chandernagore was bombarded by an English fleet
+under Admiral Watson and captured; the fortifications and houses were
+afterwards demolished. On peace being established the town was restored
+to the French in 1763. When hostilities afterwards broke out in 1794, it
+was again taken possession of by the English, and was held by them till
+1816, when it was a second time given up to the French; it has ever
+since remained in their possession. All the former commercial grandeur
+of Chandernagore has now passed away, and at present it is little more
+than a quiet suburb of Calcutta, without any external trade. The
+European town is situated at the bottom of a beautiful reach of the
+Hugli, with clean wide thoroughfares, and many elegant residences along
+the river-bank. The authorities of Chandernagore are subject to the
+jurisdiction of the governor-general of Pondicherry, to whom is confided
+the general government of all the French possessions in India.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM (1828-1889), English scholar, was born in London
+on the 31st of January 1828. In 1848 he entered Pembroke College,
+Oxford, where he was elected fellow in 1853. In 1867 he succeeded H.L.
+Mansel as Waynflete professor of moral and metaphysical philosophy, and
+in 1884 was appointed curator of the Bodleian library. He died by his
+own hand in Oxford on the 16th of May 1889. He was chiefly known as an
+Aristotelian scholar, and his knowledge of the Greek commentators on
+Aristotle was profound. He collected a vast amount of material for an
+edition of the fragments of his favourite author, but on the appearance
+of Valentine Rose's work in 1886 he abandoned the idea. Two works on the
+bibliography of Aristotle, _A Catalogue of Editions of Aristotle's
+Nicomachean Ethics and of Works illustrative of them printed in the 15th
+century_ (1868), and _A Chronological Index to Editions of Aristotle's
+Nicomachean Ethics, and of Works illustrative of them from the Origin of
+Printing to 1799_ (1878), are of great value. Chandler's collection of
+works on Aristotelian literature is now in the library of Pembroke
+College. His _Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation_ (1862, ed.
+min. 1877) is the standard work in English.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDLER, RICHARD (1738-1810), British antiquary, was born in 1738 at
+Elson in Hampshire, and educated at Winchester and at Queen's and
+Magdalen Colleges, Oxford. His first work consisted of fragments from
+the minor Greek poets, with notes (_Elegiaca Graeca_, 1759); and in 1763
+he published a fine edition of the Arundelian marbles, _Marmora
+Oxoniensia_, with a Latin translation, and a number of suggestions for
+supplying the lacunae. He was sent by the Dilettanti Society with
+Nicholas Revett, an architect, and Pars, a painter, to explore the
+antiquities of Ionia and Greece (1763-1766); and the result of their
+work was the two magnificent folios of Ionian antiquities published in
+1769. He subsequently held several church preferments, including the
+rectory of Tylehurst, in Berkshire, where he died on the 9th of February
+1810. Other works by Chandler were _Inscriptiones Antiquae pleraeque
+nondum editae_ (Oxford, 1774); _Travels in Asia Minor_ (1775); _Travels
+in Greece_ (1776); _History of Ilium_ (1803), in which he asserted the
+accuracy of Homer's geography. His _Life of Bishop Waynflete_, lord high
+chancellor to Henry VI., appeared in 1811.
+
+  A complete edition (with notes by Revett) of the _Travels in Asia
+  Minor and Greece_ was published by R. Churton (Oxford, 1825), with an
+  "Account of the Author."
+
+
+
+
+CHANDLER, SAMUEL (1693-1766), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
+1693 at Hungerford, in Berkshire, where his father was a minister. He
+was sent to school at Gloucester, where he began a lifelong friendship
+with Bishop Butler and Archbishop Secker; and he afterwards studied at
+Leiden. His talents and learning were such that he was elected fellow of
+the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and was made D.D. of Edinburgh and
+Glasgow. He also received offers of high preferment in the Church of
+England. These he refused, remaining to the end of his life in the
+position of a Presbyterian minister. He was moderately Calvinistic in
+his views and leaned towards Arianism. He took a leading part in the
+deist controversies of the time, and discussed with some of the bishops
+the possibility of an act of comprehension. From 1716 to 1726 he
+preached at Peckham, and for forty years he was pastor of a
+meeting-house in Old Jewry. During two or three years, having fallen
+into pecuniary distress through the failure of the South Sea scheme, he
+kept a book-shop in the Poultry. On the death of George II. in 1760
+Chandler published a sermon in which he compared that king to King
+David. This view was attacked in a pamphlet entitled _The History of the
+Man after God's own Heart_, in which the author complained of the
+parallel as an insult to the late king, and, following Pierre Bayle,
+exhibited King David as an example of perfidy, lust and cruelty.
+Chandler condescended to reply first in a review of the tract (1762) and
+then in _A Critical History of the Life of David_, which is perhaps the
+best of his productions. This work was just completed when he died, on
+the 8th of May 1766. He left 4 vols. of sermons (1768), and a paraphrase
+of the Epistles to the Galatians and Ephesians (1777), several works on
+the evidences of Christianity, and various pamphlets against Roman
+Catholicism.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH (1813-1879), American politician, was born at
+Bedford, New Hampshire, on the 10th of December 1813. In 1833 he removed
+to Detroit, Michigan, where he became a prosperous dry-goods merchant.
+He took a prominent part as a Whig in politics (serving as mayor in
+1851), and, impelled by his strong anti-slavery views, actively
+furthered the work of the "Underground Railroad," of which Detroit was
+one of the principal "transfer" points. He was one of the organizers in
+Michigan of the Republican party, and in 1857 succeeded Lewis Cass in
+the United States Senate, serving until 1875, and at once taking his
+stand with the most radical opponents of slavery extension. When the
+Civil War became inevitable he endeavoured to impress upon the North the
+necessity of taking extraordinary measures for the preservation of the
+Union. After the fall of Fort Sumter he advocated the enlistment of
+500,000 instead of 75,000 men for a long instead of a short term, and
+the vigorous enforcement of confiscation measures. In July 1862 he made
+a bitter attack in the Senate on General George B. McClellan, charging
+him with incompetency and lack of "nerve." Throughout the war he allied
+himself with the most radical of the Republican faction in opposition to
+President Lincoln's policy, and subsequently became one of the bitterest
+opponents of President Johnson's plan of reconstruction. From October
+1875 to March 1877 he was secretary of the interior in the cabinet of
+President Grant, succeeding Columbus Delano (1809-1896). In 1876, as
+chairman of the national republican committee, he managed the campaign
+of Hayes against Tilden. In February 1879 he was re-elected to the
+Senate to succeed Isaac P. Christiancy (1812-1890), and soon afterwards,
+in a speech concerning Mexican War pensions, bitterly denounced
+Jefferson Davis. He died at Chicago, Illinois, on the 1st of November
+1879. By his extraordinary force of character he exercised a wide
+personal influence during his lifetime, but failed to stamp his
+personality upon any measure or policy of lasting importance.
+
+
+
+
+CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF. The English title of Chandos began as a
+barony in 1554, and was continued in the family of Brydges (becoming a
+dukedom in 1719) till 1789. In 1822 the dukedom was revived in connexion
+with that of Buckingham.
+
+JOHN BRYDGES, 1st Baron Chandos (c. 1490-1557), a son of Sir Giles
+Brydges, or Bruges (d. 1511), was a prominent figure at the English
+court during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Mary. He took
+part in suppressing the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyat in 1554, and as
+lieutenant of the Tower of London during the earlier part of Mary's
+reign, had the custody, not only of Lady Jane Grey and of Wyat, but for
+a short time of the princess Elizabeth. He was created Baron Chandos of
+Sudeley in 1554, one of his ancestors, Alice, being a grand-daughter of
+Sir Thomas Chandos (d. 1375), and he died in March 1557. The three
+succeeding barons, direct descendants of the 1st baron, were all members
+of parliament and persons of some importance. Grey, 5th Baron Chandos
+(c. 1580-1621), lord-lieutenant of Gloucestershire, was called the "king
+of the Cotswolds," owing to his generosity and his magnificent style of
+living at his residence, Sudeley Castle. He has been regarded by Horace
+Walpole and others as the author of some essays, _Horae Subsecivae_. His
+elder son George, 6th Baron Chandos (1620-1655), was a supporter of
+Charles I. during his struggle with Parliament, and distinguished
+himself at the first battle of Newbury in 1643. He had six daughters but
+no sons, and after the death of his brother William in 1676 the barony
+came to a kinsman, Sir James Brydges, Bart. (1642-1714), who was English
+ambassador to Constantinople from 1680 to 1685.
+
+JAMES BRYDGES, 1st duke of Chandos (1673-1744), son and heir of the
+last-named, had been member of parliament for Hereford from 1698 to
+1714, and, three days after his father's death, was created Viscount
+Wilton and earl of Carnarvon. For eight years, from 1705 to 1713, during
+the War of the Spanish Succession, he was paymaster-general of the
+forces abroad, and in this capacity he amassed great wealth. In 1719 he
+was created marquess of Carnarvon and duke of Chandos. The duke is
+chiefly remembered on account of his connexion with Handel and with
+Pope. He built a magnificent house at Canons near Edgware in Middlesex,
+and is said to have contemplated the construction of a private road
+between this place and his unfinished house in Cavendish Square, London.
+For over two years Handel, employed by Chandos, lived at Canons, where
+he composed his oratorio _Esther_. Pope, who in his _Moral Essays_
+(_Epistle to the Earl of Burlington_) doubtless described Canons under
+the guise of "Timon's Villa," referred to the duke in the line, "Thus
+gracious Chandos is belov'd at sight"; but Swift, less complimentary,
+called him "a great complier with every court." The poet was caricatured
+by Hogarth for his supposed servility to the duke. Chandos, who was
+lord-lieutenant of the counties of Hereford and Radnor, and chancellor
+of the university of St Andrews, became involved in financial
+difficulties, and after his death on the 9th of August 1744 Canons was
+pulled down. He was succeeded by his son Henry, 2nd duke (1708-1771),
+and grandson James, 3rd duke (1731-1789). On the death of the latter
+without sons in September 1789 all his titles, except that of Baron
+Kinloss, became extinct, although a claimant arose for the barony of
+Chandos of Sudeley. The 3rd duke's only daughter, Anna Elizabeth, who
+became Baroness Kinloss on her father's death, was married in 1796 to
+Richard Grenville, afterwards marquess of Buckingham; and in 1822 this
+nobleman was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos (see BUCKINGHAM,
+DUKES OF).
+
+  See G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); and J.R. Robinson,
+  _The Princely Chandos_, i.e. the 1st duke (1893).
+
+
+
+
+CHANDOS, SIR JOHN (?-1370), one of the most celebrated English
+commanders of the 14th century. He is found at the siege of Cambrai in
+1337, and at the battle of Crecy in 1346. At the battle of Poitiers, in
+1356, it was he who decided the day and saved the life of the Black
+Prince. For these services Edward III. made him a knight of the Garter,
+gave him the lands of the viscount of Saint Sauveur in Cotentin, and
+appointed him his lieutenant in France and vice-chamberlain of the royal
+household. In 1362 he was made constable of Aquitaine, and won the
+victories of Auray (1364) and Navaret in Spain (1367) over Duguesclin.
+He was seneschal of Poitou in 1369, and was mortally wounded at the
+bridge of Lussac near Poitiers on the 31st of December. He died on the
+following day, the 1st of January 1370.
+
+  See Benjamin Fillon, "John Chandos, Connetable d'Aquitaine et Senechal
+  de Poitou," in the _Revue des provinces de l'ouest_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (reigned 321-296 B.C.), known to the Greeks as
+Sandracottus, founder of the Maurya empire and first paramount ruler of
+India, was the son of a king of Magadha by a woman of humble origin,
+whose caste he took, and whose name, Mura, is said to have been the
+origin of that of Maurya assumed by his dynasty. As a youth he was
+driven into exile by his kinsman, the reigning king of Magadha. In the
+course of his wanderings he met Alexander the Great, and, according to
+Plutarch (_Alexander_, cap. 62), encouraged him to invade the Ganges
+kingdom by enlarging on the extreme unpopularity of the reigning
+monarch. During his exile he collected a large force of the warlike
+clans of the north-west frontier, and on the death of Alexander attacked
+the Macedonian garrisons and conquered the Punjab. He next attacked
+Magadha, dethroned and slew the king, his enemy, with every member of
+his family, and established himself on the throne (321). The great army
+acquired from his predecessor he increased until it reached the total of
+30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, and 600,000 infantry; and with this huge
+force he overran all northern India, establishing his empire from the
+Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. In 305 Seleucus Nicator crossed the
+Indus, but was defeated by Chandragupta and forced to a humiliating
+peace (303), by which the empire of the latter was still farther
+extended in the north. About six years later Chandragupta died, leaving
+his empire to his son Bindusura.
+
+An excellent account of the court and administrative system of
+Chandragupta has been preserved in the fragments of Megasthenes, who
+came to Pataliputra as the envoy of Seleucus shortly after 303. The
+government was, of course, autocratic and even tyrannous, but it was
+organized on an elaborate system, army and civil service being
+administered by a series of boards, while the cities were governed by
+municipal commissioners responsible for public order and the upkeep of
+public works. Chandragupta himself is described as living in barbaric
+splendour, appearing in public only to hear causes, offer sacrifice, or
+to go on military and hunting expeditions, and withal so fearful of
+assassination that he never slept two nights running in the same room.
+
+  See J.W. MacCrindle, _Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and
+  Arrian_ (Calcutta, 1877); V.A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_ (Oxford,
+  1908); also the articles INDIA: _History_, and INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_.
+
+
+
+
+CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THEODULE (1793-1877), French general, was born
+at Autun on the 26th of April 1793. Educated at St Cyr, he served for a
+short time in the bodyguard of Louis XVIII., and entered the line as a
+lieutenant in January 1815. He achieved distinction in the Spanish
+campaign of 1823, and became captain in 1825. In 1830 he entered the
+Royal Guard and was sent to Africa, where he took part in the Mascara
+expedition. Promoted commandant in 1835, he distinguished himself under
+Marshal Clausel in the campaign against Ahmed Pasha, bey of Constantine,
+and became lieutenant-colonel in 1837. The part he took in the
+expedition of Portes-de-Fer gained him a colonelcy, and his success
+against the Hajutas and Kabyles, the cross of the Legion of Honour.
+Three more years of brilliant service in Africa won for him the rank of
+_marechal de camp_ in 1840, and of lieutenant-general in 1843. In 1847
+he held the Algiers divisional command. He visited France early in 1848,
+assisted the provisional government to establish order, and returned to
+Africa in May to succeed General Cavaignac in the government of Algeria.
+He was speedily recalled on his election to the general assembly for the
+department of the Seine, and received the command of the National Guard
+of Paris, to which was added soon afterwards that of the troops in
+Paris, altogether nearly 100,000 men. He held a high place and exercised
+great influence in the complicated politics of the next two years. In
+1849 he received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. An avowed
+enemy of republican institutions, he held a unique position in upholding
+the power of the president; but in January 1851 he opposed Louis
+Napoleon's policy, was in consequence deprived of his double command,
+and at the _coup d'etat_ in December was arrested and sent to Mazas,
+until his banishment from France by the decree of the 9th of January
+1852. He returned to France after the general amnesty, and resided in
+his estate in the department of Saone-et-Loire. In 1870 he held no
+command, but was present with the headquarters, and afterwards with
+Bazaine in Metz. He was employed on an unsuccessful mission to Prince
+Frederick Charles, commanding the German army which besieged Metz, and
+on the capitulation became a prisoner of war. At the armistice he
+returned to Paris, and in 1871 was elected to the National Assembly by
+four departments, and sat for the Somme. He took an active part in
+politics, defended the conduct of Marshal Bazaine, and served on the
+committee which elaborated the monarchical constitution. When the comte
+de Chambord refused the compromise, he moved the resolution to extend
+the executive power for ten years to Marshal MacMahon. He was elected a
+life senator in 1875. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1877.
+
+
+
+
+CHANG-CHOW, a town of China, in the province of Fu-kien, on a branch of
+the Lung Kiang, 35 m. W. of Amoy. It is surrounded by a wall 4-1/2 m. in
+circumference, which, however, includes a good deal of open ground. The
+streets are paved with granite, but are very dirty. The river is crossed
+by a curious bridge, 800 ft. long, constructed of wooden planks
+supported on twenty-five piles of stones about 30 ft. apart. The city is
+a centre of the silk-trade, and carries on an extensive commerce in
+different directions. Brick-works and sugar-factories are among its
+chief industrial establishments. Its population is estimated at about
+1,000,000.
+
+
+
+
+CHANG CHUN, KIU (1148-1227), Chinese Taoist sage and traveller, was born
+in 1148. In 1219 he was invited by Jenghiz Khan, founder of the Mongol
+empire and greatest of Asiatic conquerors, to visit him. Jenghiz' letter
+of invitation, dated the 15th of May 1219 (by present reckoning), has
+been preserved, and is among the curiosities of history; here the
+terrible warrior appears as a meek disciple of wisdom, modest and
+simple, almost Socratic in his self-examination, alive to many of the
+deepest truths of life and government. Chang Chun obeyed this summons;
+and leaving his home in Shantung (February 1220) journeyed first to
+Peking. Learning that Jenghiz had gone far west upon fresh conquests,
+the sage stayed the winter in Peking. In February 1221 he started again
+and crossed eastern Mongolia to the camp of Jenghiz' brother Ujughen,
+near Lake Bor or Buyur in the upper basin of the Kerulun-Amur. Thence he
+travelled south-westward up the Kerulun, crossed the Karakorum region in
+north-central Mongolia, and so came to the Chinese Altai, probably
+passing near the present Uliassutai. After traversing the Altai he
+visited Bishbalig, answering to the modern Urumtsi, and moved along the
+north side of the Tian Shan range to lake Sairam, Almalig (or Kulja),
+and the rich valley of the Ili. We then trace him to the Chu, over this
+river to Talas and the Tashkent region, and over the Jaxartes (or Syr
+Daria) to Samarkand, where he halted for some months. Finally, through
+the "Iron Gates" of Termit, over the Oxus, and by way of Balkh and
+northern Afghanistan, Chang Chun reached Jenghiz' camp near the Hindu
+Kush. Returning home he followed much the same course as on his outward
+route: certain deviations, however, occur, such as a visit to
+Kuku-khoto. He was back in Peking by the end of January 1224. From the
+narrative of his expedition (the _Si yu ki_, written by his pupil and
+companion Li Chi Chang) we derive some of the most faithful and vivid
+pictures ever drawn of nature and man between the Great Wall of China
+and Kabul, between the Aral and the Yellow Sea: we may particularly
+notice the sketches of the Mongols, and of the people of Samarkand and
+its neighbourhood; the account of the fertility and products of the
+latter region, as of the Ili valley, at or near Almalig-Kulja; and the
+description of various great mountain ranges, peaks and defiles, such as
+the Chinese Altai, the Tian Shan, Mt Bogdo-ola (?), and the Iron Gates
+of Termit. There is, moreover, a noteworthy reference to a land
+apparently identical with the uppermost valley of the Yenisei. After his
+return Chang Chun lived at Peking till his death on the 23rd of July
+1227. By order of Jenghiz some of the former imperial garden grounds
+were made over to him, for the foundation of a Taoist monastery.
+
+  See E. Bretschneider, _Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic
+  Sources_, vol. i. pp. 35-108, where a complete translation of the
+  narrative is given, with a valuable commentary; C.R. Beazley _Dawn of
+  Modern Geography_, iii. 539.     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _cambium, cambiare_,
+to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which
+appears in the Gr. [Greek: kamptein], to bend), properly the
+substitution of one thing for another, hence any alteration or
+variation, so applied to the moon's passing from one phase to another.
+The use of the word for a place of commercial business has usually been
+taken to be a shortened form of Exchange (q.v.) and so is often written
+'Change. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that "change" appears
+earlier than "exchange" in this sense. "Change" is particularly used of
+coins of lower denomination given in substitution for those of larger
+denomination or for a note, cheque, &c., and also for the balance of a
+sum paid larger than that which is due. A further application is that in
+bell-ringing, of the variations in order in which a peal of bells may be
+rung. The term usually excludes the ringing of the bells according to
+the diatonic scale in which they are hung (see BELL). It is from a
+combination of these two meanings that the thieves' slang phrase
+"ringing the changes" arises; it denotes the various methods by which
+wrong change may be given or extracted, or counterfeit coin passed.
+
+
+
+
+CHANGELING, the term used of a child substituted or changed for another,
+especially in the case of substitutions popularly supposed to be through
+fairy agency. There was formerly a widespread superstition that infants
+were sometimes stolen from their cradles by the fairies. Any specially
+peevish or weakly baby was regarded as a changeling, the word coming at
+last to be almost synonymous with imbecility. It was thought that the
+elves could only effect the exchange before christening, and in the
+highlands of Scotland babies were strictly watched till then. Strype
+states that in his time midwives had to take an oath binding themselves
+to be no party to the theft or exchange of babies. The belief is
+referred to by Shakespeare, Spenser and other authors. Pennant, writing
+in 1796, says: "In this very century a poor cottager, who lived near the
+spot, had a child who grew uncommonly peevish; the parents attributed
+this to the fairies and imagined it was a changeling. They took the
+child, put it in a cradle, and left it all night beneath the "Fairy Oak"
+in hopes that the _tylwydd teg_ or fairy family would restore their own
+before morning. When morning came they found the child perfectly quiet,
+so went away with it, quite confirmed in their belief" (_Tour in
+Scotland_, 1796, p. 257).
+
+  See W. Wirt Sikes, _British Goblins_ (1880).
+
+
+
+
+CHANGOS, a tribe of South American Indians who appear to have originally
+inhabited the Peruvian coast. A few of them still live on the coast of
+Atacama, northern Chile. They are a dwarfish race, never exceeding 5 ft.
+in height. Their sole occupation is fishing, and in former times they
+used boats of inflated sealskins, lived in sealskin huts, and slept on
+heaps of dried seaweed. They are a hospitable and friendly people, and
+never resisted the whites.
+
+
+
+
+CHANGRA, or KANGHARI (anc. _Gangra_; called also till the time of
+Caracalla, _Germanicopolis_, after the emperor Claudius), the chief town
+of a sanjak of the same name in the Kastamuni vilayet, Asia Minor,
+situated in a rich, well-watered valley; altitude 2500 ft. The ground is
+impregnated with salt, and the town is unhealthy. Pop. (1894) 15,632, of
+whom 1086 are Christians (Cuinet). Gangra, the capital of the
+Paphlagonian kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus, son of Castor, was taken
+into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 6-5 B.C. The earlier
+town, the name of which signified "she-goat," was built on the hill
+behind the modern city, on which are the ruins of a late fortress; while
+the Roman city occupied the site of the modern. In Christian times
+Gangra was the metropolitan see of Paphlagonia. In the 4th century the
+town was the scene of an important ecclesiastical synod.
+
+_Synod of Gangra._--Conjectures as to the date of this synod vary from
+341 to 376. All that can be affirmed with certainty is that it was held
+about the middle of the 4th century. The synodal letter states that
+twenty-one bishops assembled to take action concerning Eustathius (of
+Sebaste?) and his followers, who contemned marriage, disparaged the
+offices of the church, held conventicles of their own, wore a peculiar
+dress, denounced riches, and affected especial sanctity. The synod
+condemned the Eustathian practices, declaring however, with remarkable
+moderation, that it was not virginity that was condemned, but the
+dishonouring of marriage; not poverty, but the disparagement of honest
+and benevolent wealth; not asceticism, but spiritual pride; not
+individual piety, but dishonouring the house of God. The twenty canons
+of Gangra were declared ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451.
+
+  See Mansi ii. pp. 1095-1122; Hardouin i. pp. 530-540; Hefele 2nd ed.,
+  i. pp. 777 sqq. (English trans. ii. pp. 325 sqq.).
+
+
+
+
+CHANNEL ISLANDS (French _Iles Normandes_), a group of islands in the
+English Channel, belonging (except the Iles Chausey) to Great Britain.
+(For map, see ENGLAND, Section VI.) They lie between 48 deg. 50' and 49
+deg. 45' N., and 1 deg. 50' and 2 deg. 45' W., along the French coast of
+Cotentin (department of Manche), at a distance of 4 to 40 m. from it,
+within the great rectangular bay of which the northward horn is Cape La
+Hague. The greater part of this bay is shallow, and the currents among
+the numerous groups of islands and rocks are often dangerous to
+navigation. The nearest point of the English coast to the Channel
+Islands is Portland Bill, a little over 50 m. north of the northernmost
+outlier of the islands. The total land area of the islands is about 75
+sq. m. (48,083 acres), and the population in 1901 was 95,618. The
+principal individual islands are four:--JERSEY (area 45 sq. m., pop.
+52,576), GUERNSEY (area 24.5 sq. m., pop. 40,446), ALDERNEY (area 3.06
+sq. m., pop. 2062), and SARK (area nearly 2 sq. m., pop. 504). Each of
+these islands is treated in a separate article. The chief town and port
+of Jersey is St Helier, and of Guernsey St Peter Port; a small town on
+Alderney is called St Anne. Regular communication by steamer with
+Guernsey and Jersey is provided on alternate days from Southampton and
+Weymouth, by steamers of the London & South-Western and Great Western
+railway companies of England. Railway communications within the islands
+are confined to Jersey. Regular steamship communications are kept up
+from certain French ports, and locally between the larger islands. In
+summer the islands, especially Jersey, Guernsey and Sark, are visited by
+numerous tourists, both from England and from France.
+
+The islands fall physically into four divisions. The northernmost, lying
+due west of Cape La Hague, and separated therefrom by the narrow Race of
+Alderney, includes that island, Burhou and Ortach, and numerous other
+islets west of it, and west again the notorious Casquets, an angry group
+of jagged rocks, on the largest of which is a powerful lighthouse.
+Doubtful tradition places here the wreck of the "White Ship," in which
+William, son of Henry I., perished in 1120; in 1744 the "Victory," a
+British man-of-war, struck on one of the rocks, and among calamities of
+modern times the wreck of the "Stella," a passenger vessel, in 1899, may
+be recalled. The second division of islands is also the most westerly;
+it includes Guernsey with a few islets to the west, and to the east,
+Sark, Herm, Jethou (inhabited islands) and others. The strait between
+Guernsey and Herm is called Little Russel, and that between Herm and
+Sark Great Russel. Sark is famous for its splendid cliffs and caves,
+while Herm possesses the remarkable phenomenon of a shell-beach, or
+shore, half-a-mile in length, formed wholly of small shells, which
+accumulate in a tidal eddy formed at the north of the island. To the
+south-east of these, across the channel called La Deroute, lies Jersey,
+forming, with a few attendant islets, of which the Ecrehou to the
+north-east are the chief, the third division. The fourth and
+southernmost division falls into two main subdivisions. The Minquiers,
+the more western, are a collection of abrupt rocks, the largest of
+which, Maitresse Ile, affords a landing and shelter for fishermen. Then
+eastern subdivision, the Iles Chausey, lies about 9 m. west by north of
+Granville (to which commune they belong) on the French coast, and
+belongs to France. These rocks are close set, low and curiously regular
+in form. On Grande Ile, the only permanently inhabited island (pop.
+100), some farming is carried on, and several of the islets are
+temporarily inhabited by fishermen. There is also a little
+granite-quarrying, and seaweed-burning employs many.
+
+None of the islands is mountainous, and the fine scenery for which they
+are famous is almost wholly coastal. In this respect each main island
+has certain distinctive characteristics. Bold cliffs are found on the
+south of Alderney; in Guernsey they alternate with lovely bays; Sark is
+specially noted for its magnificent sea-caves, while the coast scenery
+of Jersey is on the whole more gentle than the rest.
+
+  _Geology_.--Geologically, the Channel Islands are closely related to
+  the neighbouring mainland of Normandy. With a few exceptions, to be
+  noted later, all the rocks are of pre-Cambrian, perhaps in part of
+  Archean age. They consist of massive granites, gneisses, diorites,
+  porphyrites, schists and phyllites, all of which are traversed by
+  dykes and veins. In Jersey we find in the north-west corner a granitic
+  tract extending from Grosnez to St Mary and St John, beyond which it
+  passes into a small granulitic patch. South of the granites is a
+  schistose area, by St Ouen and St Lawrence, and reaching to St Aubin's
+  Bay. Granitic masses again appear round St Brelade's Bay. The eastern
+  half of the island is largely occupied by porphyrites and similar
+  rocks (hornstone porphyry) with rhyolites and denitrified obsidians;
+  some of the latter contain large spherulites with a diameter of as
+  much as 24 in.; these are well exposed in Bouley Bay; a complex
+  igneous and intrusive series of rocks lies around St Helier. In the
+  north-east corner of the island a conglomerate, possibly of Cambrian
+  age, occurs between Bouley Bay and St Catherine's Bay. Tracts of
+  blown-sand cover the ground for some distance north of St Clement's
+  Bay and again east of St Ouen's Bay. In the sea off the latter bay a
+  submerged forest occurs. The northern half of Guernsey is mainly
+  dioritic, the southern half, below St Peter, is occupied by gneisses.
+  Several patches of granite and granulite fringe the western coast, the
+  largest of these is a hornblende granite round Rocquaine Bay.
+  Hornblende gneiss from St Sampson and quartz diorite from Capelles,
+  Corvee and elsewhere are transported to England for road metal. Sark
+  is composed almost wholly of hornblende-schists and gneisses with
+  hornblendic granite at the north end of the island, in Little Sark and
+  in the middle of Brechou. Dykes of diabase and diorite are abundant.
+  Alderney consists mainly of hornblende granite and granulite, which
+  are covered on the east by two areas of sandstone which may be of
+  Cambrian age. An enstatite-augite-diorite is sent from Alderney for
+  road-making. Besides the submerged forest on the coast of Jersey
+  already mentioned, there are similar occurrences near St Peter Port
+  and St Sampson's harbour, and in Vazon Bay in Guernsey. Raised beaches
+  are to be seen at several points in the islands.
+
+_Climate_.--The climate is mild and very pleasant. In Jersey the mean
+temperature for twenty years is found to be--in January (the coldest
+month) 42.1 deg. F., in August (the hottest) 63 deg., mean annual 51.7
+deg. In Guernsey the figures are, for January 42.5 deg., for August 59.7
+deg., mean annual 49.5 deg. The mean annual rainfall for twenty-five
+years in Jersey is 34.21 in., and in Guernsey 38.64 in. The average
+amount of sunshine in Jersey is considerably greater than in the most
+favoured spots on the south coast of England; and in Guernsey it is only
+a little less than in Jersey. Snow and frost are rare, and the seasons
+of spring and autumn are protracted. Thick sea-fogs are not uncommon,
+especially in May and June.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--The flora of the islands is remarkably rich,
+considering their extent, nearly 2000 different species of plants having
+been counted throughout the group. Of timber properly speaking there is
+little, but the evergreen oak, the elm and the beech are abundant. Wheat
+is the principal grain in cultivation; but far more ground is taken up
+with turnips and potatoes, mangold, parsnip and carrot. The tomato
+ripens as in France, and the Chinese yam has been successfully grown.
+There is a curious cabbage, chiefly cultivated in Jersey, which shoots
+up into a long woody stalk from 10 to 15 ft. in height, fit for
+walking-sticks or palisades. Grapes and peaches come to perfection in
+greenhouses without artificial heat; and not only apples and pears but
+oranges and figs can be reared in the open air. The arbutus ripens its
+fruit, and the camellia clothes itself with blossom, as in more southern
+climates; the fuchsia reaches a height of 15 or 20 ft., and the magnolia
+attains the dimensions of a tree. Of the flowers, both indigenous and
+exotic, that abound throughout the islands, it is sufficient to mention
+the Guernsey lily with its rich red petals, which is supposed to have
+been brought from Japan.
+
+The number of the species of the mammalia is little over twenty, and
+several of these have been introduced by man. There is a special breed
+of horned cattle, and each island has its own variety, which is
+carefully kept from all intermixture. The animals are small and
+delicate, and marked by a peculiar yellow colour round the eyes and
+within the ears. The red deer was once indigenous, and the black rat is
+still common in Alderney, Sark and Herm. The list of birds includes
+nearly 200 species, nearly 100 of which are permanent inhabitants of the
+islands. There are few localities in the northern seas which are visited
+by a greater variety of fish, and the coasts abound in crustacea,
+shell-fish and zoophytes.
+
+_Government_.--For the purposes of government the Channel Islands
+(excluding the French Chauseys) are divided into two divisions:--(1)
+Jersey, and (2) the bailiwick of Guernsey, which includes Alderney,
+Sark, Herm and Jethou with the island of Guernsey. The constitutions of
+each division are peculiar and broadly similar, but differing in certain
+important details; they may therefore be considered together for the
+sake of comparison. Until 1854 governors were appointed by the crown;
+now a separate military lieutenant-governor is appointed for each
+division on the recommendation of the war office after consultation with
+the home office. The other crown officials are the bailiff (_bailli_)
+or chief magistrate, the _procureur du roi_, representing the
+attorney-general, and the _avocat du roi_, or in Guernsey the
+_controle_, representing the solicitor-general. In Jersey the _vicomte_
+is also appointed by the crown, in the position of a high sheriff (and
+coroner); but his counterpart in Guernsey, the _prevot_, is not so
+appointed. The bailiff in each island is president of the royal court,
+which is composed of twelve jurats, elected for life, in Jersey by the
+ratepayers of each parish, in Guernsey by the Elective States, a body
+which also elects the _prevot_, who, with the jurats, serves upon it.
+The rest of the body is made up of the rectors of the parishes, the
+_douzaines_, or elected parish councils ("dozens," from the original
+number of their members) of the town parish of St Peter Port, the four
+cantons, and the county parishes, and certain other officials. The royal
+court administers justice (but in Jersey there is a trial by jury for
+criminal cases), and in Guernsey can pass temporary ordinances subject
+to no higher body. It also puts forward _projets de loi_ for the
+approval of the Deliberative States. Alderney and Sark have a separate
+legal existence with courts dependent on the royal court of Guernsey. In
+both Jersey and Guernsey the chief administrative body is the
+Deliberative States. The Jersey States is composed of the
+lieutenant-governor (who has a veto on the deliberation of any question,
+but no vote), the bailiff, jurats, parish rectors, parish constables and
+deputies, the _procureur_ and _avocat_, with right to speak but no vote,
+and the _vicomte_, with right of attendance only. Besides the veto of
+the lieutenant-governor, the bailiff has the power to dissent from any
+measure, in which case it is referred to the privy council. In Guernsey
+the States consists of the bailiff, jurats, eight out of ten rectors,
+the _procureur_ and deputies; while the lieutenant-governor is always
+invited and may speak if he attends. By both States local administration
+is carried on (largely through committees); and relations with the
+British parliament are maintained through the privy council. Acts of
+parliament are transmitted to the islands by an order in council to be
+registered in the rolls of the royal court, and are not considered to be
+binding until this is done; moreover, registration may be held over
+pending discussion by the States if any act is considered to menace the
+privileges of the islands. The right of the crown to legislate by order
+in council is held to be similarly limited. In cases of encroachment on
+property, a remarkable form of appeal of very ancient origin called
+_Clameur de Haro_ survives (see HARO, CLAMEUR DE). The islands are in
+the diocese of Winchester, and there is a dean in both Jersey and
+Guernsey, who is also rector of a parish.
+
+These peculiar constitutions are of local development, the history of
+which is obscure. The bailiff was originally assisted in his judicial
+work by itinerant justices; their place was later taken by the elected
+jurats; later still the practice of summoning the States to assist in
+the passing of Ordinances was established by the bailiff and jurats, and
+at last the States claimed the absolute right of being consulted. This
+was confirmed to them in 1771.
+
+It is characteristic of these islands that there should be compulsory
+service in the militia. In Jersey and Alderney every man between the
+ages of sixteen and forty-five is liable, but in Jersey after ten years'
+service militiamen are transferred to the reserve. In Guernsey the age
+limit is from sixteen to thirty-three, and the obligation is extended to
+all who are British subjects, and draw income from a profession
+practised in the island. Garrisons of regular troops are maintained in
+all three islands. Taxation is light in the islands, and pauperism is
+practically unknown.
+
+  In 1904 the revenue of Jersey was L70,191, and its expenditure
+  L69,658; the revenue of Guernsey was L79,334, and the expenditure
+  L43,385. The public debt in the respective islands was L322,070 and
+  L195,794. In Jersey the annual revenues from crown rights (principally
+  seigneurial dues, houses and lands and tithes) amount to about L2700,
+  and about L360 is remitted to the paymaster-general. In Guernsey these
+  revenues, in which the principal item is fines on transference of
+  property (_treiziemes_ or fees), amount to about L4500, and about
+  L1000 is remitted. In Alderney the revenues (chiefly from harbour
+  dues) amount to about L1400.
+
+  In Jersey the English gold and silver coinage are current, but there
+  is a local copper coinage and local one-pound notes are issued.
+  Guernsey has also such notes, and its copper coinage consists of
+  pence, halfpence, two-double and one-double (one-eighth of a penny)
+  pieces. A Guernsey pound is taken as equal to 24 francs, and English
+  and French currency pass equally throughout the islands.
+
+_Industry_.--The old Norman system of land-tenure has survived, and the
+land is parcelled out among a great number of small proprietors;
+holdings ranging from 5 to 25 acres as a rule. The results of this
+arrangement seem to be favourable in the extreme. Every corner of the
+ground is carefully and intelligently cultivated, and a considerable
+proportion is allotted to market-gardening. The cottages are neat and
+comfortable, the hedges well-trimmed, and the roads kept in excellent
+repair. There is a considerable export trade in agricultural produce and
+stock, including vegetables and fruit, in fish (the fisheries forming an
+important industry) and in stone. There is no manufacture of importance.
+The inhabitants share in common the right of collecting and burning
+seaweed (called _vraic_) for manure. The cutting of the weed (vraicking)
+became a ceremonial occasion, taking place at times fixed by the
+government, and connected with popular festivities.
+
+_Language_.--The language spoken in ordinary life by the inhabitants of
+the islands is in great measure the same as the old Norman French. The
+use of the _patois_ has decreased naturally in modern times. Modern
+French is the official language, used in the courts and states, and
+English is taught in the parochial schools, and is familiar practically
+to all. The several islands have each its own dialect, differing from
+that of the others in vocabulary and idiom; differences are also
+observable in different localities within the same island, as between
+the north and the south of Guernsey. None of the dialects has received
+much literary cultivation, though Jersey is proud of being the
+birthplace of one of the principal Norman poets, Wace, who flourished in
+the 12th century.
+
+_History_.--The original ethnology and pre-Christian history of the
+Channel Islands are largely matters of conjecture and debate. Of early
+inhabitants abundant proof is afforded by the numerous megalithic
+monuments--cromlechs, kistvaens and maenhirs--still extant. But little
+trace has been left of Roman occupation, and such remains as have been
+discovered are mainly of the portable description that affords little
+proof of actual settlement, though there may have been an unimportant
+garrison here. The constant recurrence of the names of saints in the
+place-names of the islands, and the fact that pre-Christian names do not
+occur, leads to the inference that before Christianity was introduced
+the population was very scanty. It may be considered to have consisted
+originally of Bretons (Celts), and to have received successively a
+slight admixture of Romans and Legionaries, Saxons and perhaps Jutes and
+Vandals. Christianity may have been introduced in the 5th century.
+Guernsey is said to have been visited in the 6th century by St Sampson
+of Dol (whose name is given to a small town and harbour in the island),
+St Marcou or Marculfus and St Magloire, a friend and fellow-evangelist
+of St Sampson, who founded monasteries at Sark and at Jersey, and died
+in Jersey in 575. Another evangelist of this period was St Helerius,
+whose name is borne by the chief town of Jersey, St Helier. In his life
+it is stated that the population of the island when he reached it was
+only 30. In 933 the islands were made over to William, duke of Normandy
+(d. 943), and after the Norman conquest of England their allegiance
+shifted between the English crown and the Norman coronet according to
+the vicissitudes of war and policy. During the purely Norman period they
+had been enriched with numerous ecclesiastical buildings, some of which
+are still extant, as the chapel of Rozel in Jersey.
+
+In the reign of John of England the future of the islands was decided by
+their attachment to the English crown, in spite of the separation of the
+duchy of Normandy. To John it has been usual to ascribe a document, at
+one time regarded by the islanders as their Magna Carta; but modern
+criticism leaves little doubt that it is not genuine. An unauthenticated
+"copy" of uncertain origin alone has been discovered, and there is
+little proof of there ever having been an original. The reign of Edward
+I. was full of disturbance; and in 1279 Jersey and Guernsey received
+from the king, by letters patent, a public seal as a remedy for the
+dangers and losses which they had incurred by lack of such a
+certificate. Edward II. found it necessary to instruct his collectors
+not to treat the islanders as foreigners: his successor, Edward III.,
+fully confirmed their privileges, immunities and customs in 1341; and
+his charter was recognized by Richard II. in 1378. In 1343 there was a
+descent of the French on Guernsey; the governor was defeated, and Castle
+Cornet besieged. In 1372 there was another attack on Guernsey, and in
+1374 and 1404 the French descended on Jersey. None of these attempts,
+however, resulted in permanent settlement. Henry V. confiscated the
+alien priories which had kept up the same connexion with Normandy as
+before the conquest, and conferred them along with the regalities of the
+islands on his brother, the duke of Bedford. During the Wars of the
+Roses, Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., made an agreement with
+Pierre de Breze, comte de Maulevrier, the seneschal of Normandy, that if
+he afforded assistance to the king he should hold the islands
+independently of the crown. A force was accordingly sent to take
+possession of Mont Orgueil. It was captured and a small part of the
+island subjugated, and here Maulevrier remained as governor from 1460 to
+1465; but the rest held out under Sir Philip de Carteret, seigneur of St
+Ouen, and in 1467 the vice-admiral of England, Sir Richard Harliston,
+recaptured the castle and brought the foreign occupation to an end. In
+1482-1483 Pope Sixtus IV., at the instance of King Edward IV., issued a
+bull of anathema against all who molested the islands; it was formally
+registered in Brittany in 1484, and in France in 1486; and in this way
+the islands acquired the right of neutrality, which they retained till
+1689. In the same reign (Edward IV.) Sark was taken by the French, and
+only recovered in the reign of Mary, by the strategy (according to
+tradition) of landing from a vessel a coffin nominally containing a body
+for burial, but in reality filled with arms. By a charter of 1494, the
+duties of the governors of Jersey were defined and their power
+restricted; and the educational interests of the island were furthered
+at the same time by the foundation of two grammar schools. The religious
+establishments in the islands were dissolved, as in England, in the
+reign of Henry VIII. The Reformation was heartily welcomed in the
+islands. The English liturgy was translated into French for their use.
+In the reign of Mary there was much religious persecution; and in that
+of Elizabeth Roman Catholics were maltreated in their turn. In 1568 the
+islands were attached to the see of Winchester, being finally separated
+from that of Coutances, with which they had long been connected, with
+short intervals in the reign of John, when they had belonged to the see
+of Exeter, and that of Henry VI., when they had belonged to Salisbury.
+
+The Presbyterian form of church government was adopted under the
+influence of refugees from the persecution of Protestantism on the
+continent. It was formally sanctioned in St Helier and St Peter Port by
+Queen Elizabeth; and in 1603 King James enacted that the whole of the
+islands "should quietly enjoy their said liberty." During his reign,
+however, disputes arose. An Episcopal party had been formed in Jersey,
+and in 1619 David Bandinel was declared dean of the island. A body of
+canons which he drew up agreeable to the discipline of the Church of
+England was accepted after considerable modification by the people of
+his charge; but the inhabitants of Guernsey maintained their
+Presbyterian practices. Of the hold which this form of Protestantism had
+got on the minds of the people even in Jersey abundant proof is afforded
+by the general character of the worship at the present day.
+
+In the great struggle between king and parliament, Presbyterian Guernsey
+supported the parliament; in Jersey, however, there were at first
+parliamentarian and royalist factions. Sir Philip de Carteret,
+lieutenant-governor, declared for the king, but Dean Bandinel and
+Michael Lempriere, a leader of the people, headed the parliamentary
+party. They received a commission for the apprehension of Carteret, who
+established himself in Elizabeth Castle; but after some fighting had
+taken place he died in the castle in August 1643. Meanwhile in Guernsey
+Sir Peter Osborne, the governor, was defying the whole island and
+maintaining himself in Castle Cornet. A parliamentarian governor,
+Leonard Lydcott, arrived in Jersey immediately after Sir Philip de
+Carteret's death. But the dowager Lady Carteret was holding Mont
+Orgueil; George Carteret, Sir Philip's nephew, arrived from St Malo to
+support the royalist cause, and Lydcott and Lempriere presently fled to
+England. George Carteret established himself as lieutenant-governor and
+bailiff. Bandinel was imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and killed himself in
+trying to escape. Jersey was now completely royalist. In 1646 the prince
+of Wales, afterwards Charles II., arrived secretly at Jersey, and
+remained over two months at Elizabeth Castle. He went on to France, but
+returned in 1649, having been proclaimed king by George Carteret, and at
+Elizabeth Castle he signed the declaration of his claims to the throne
+on the 29th of October. In 1651, when Charles had fled to France again
+after the battle of Worcester, parliamentarian vessels of war appeared
+at Jersey. The islanders, weary of the tyrannical methods of their
+governor, now Sir George Carteret, offered little resistance. On the
+15th of December the royalist remnant yielded up Elizabeth Castle; and
+at the same time Castle Cornet, Guernsey, which had been steadily held
+by Osborne, capitulated. In each case honourable terms of surrender were
+granted. Both islands had suffered severely from the struggle, and the
+people of Guernsey, appealing to Cromwell on the ground of their support
+of his cause, complained that two-thirds of the land was out of
+cultivation, and that they had lost "their ships, their traffic and
+their trading." After the Restoration there was considerable
+improvement, and in the reign of James II. the islanders got a grant of
+wool for the manufacture of stockings--4000 tods[1] of wool being
+annually allowed to Jersey, 2000 to Guernsey, 400 to Alderney and 200 to
+Sark. Alderney, which had been parliamentarian, was granted after the
+Restoration to the Carteret family; and it continued to be governed
+independently till 1825.
+
+By William of Orange the neutrality of the islands was abolished in
+1689, and during the war between England and France (1778-1783) there
+were two unsuccessful attacks on Jersey, in 1779 and 1781, the second,
+under Baron de Rullecourt, being famous for the victory over the
+invaders due to the bravery of the young Major Peirson, who fell when
+the French were on the point of surrender. During the revolutionary
+period in France the islands were the home of many refugees. In the 18th
+century various attempts were made to introduce the English custom-house
+system; but proved practically a failure, and the islands throve on
+smuggling and privateering down to 1800.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Heylin, _Relation of two Journeys_ (1656); P. Falle,
+  _Account of the Island of Jersey_ (1694; notes, &c., by E. Durell,
+  Jersey, 1837); J. Duncan, _History of Guernsey_ (London, 1841); P. le
+  Geyt, _Sur les constitutions, les lois et les usages de cette ile_
+  [Jersey], ed. R.P. Marett (Jersey, 1846-1847); F.B. Tupper,
+  _Chronicles of Castle Cornet, Guernsey_ (2nd ed. London, 1851), and
+  _History of Guernsey and its Bailiwick_ (Guernsey, 1854); S.E.
+  Hoskins, _Charles II. in the Channel Islands_ (London, 1854), and
+  other works; Delacroix, _Jersey, ses antiquites, &c._ (Jersey, 1859);
+  T. le Cerf, _L'archipel des Iles Normandes_ (Paris, 1863); G. Dupont,
+  _Le Cotentin et ses iles_ (Caen, 1870-1885); J.P.E. Havet, _Les Cours
+  royales des Iles Normandes_ (Paris, 1878); E. Pegot-Ogier, _Histoire
+  des Iles de la Manche_ (Paris, 1881); C. Noury, _Geologie de Jersey_
+  (Paris and Jersey, 1886); D.T. Ansted and R.G. Latham, _Channel
+  Islands_ (1865; 3rd ed., rev. by E.T. Nicolle, London, 1893), the
+  principal general work of reference; Sir E. MacCulloch, _Guernsey
+  Folklore_, ed. Edith F. Carey (London, 1903); E.F. Carey, _Channel
+  Islands_ (London, 1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A tod generally equalled 28 lb.
+
+
+
+
+CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780-1842), American divine and
+philanthropist, was born in Newport, Rhode Island, on the 7th of April
+1780. His maternal grandfather was William Ellery, a signer of the
+Declaration of Independence; his mother, Lucy Ellery, was a remarkable
+woman; and his father, William Channing, was a prominent lawyer in
+Newport. Channing had as a child a refined delicacy of feature and
+temperament, and seemed to have inherited from his father simple and
+elegant tastes, sweetness of temper, and warmth of affection, and from
+his mother that strong moral discernment and straightforward rectitude
+of purpose and action which formed so striking a feature of his
+character. From his earliest years he delighted in the beauty of the
+scenery of Newport, and always highly estimated its influence upon his
+spiritual character. His father was a strict Calvinist, and Dr Samuel
+Hopkins, one of the leaders of the old school Calvinists, was a frequent
+guest in his father's house. He was, even as a child, he himself says,
+"quite a theologian, and would chop logic with his elders according to
+the fashion of that controversial time." He prepared for college in New
+London under the care of his uncle, the Rev. Henry Channing, and in
+1794, about a year after the death of his father, entered Harvard
+College. Before leaving New London he came under religious influences to
+which he traced the beginning of his spiritual life. In his college
+vacations he taught at Lancaster, Massachusetts, and in term time he
+stinted himself in food that he might need less exercise and so save
+time for study,--an experiment which undermined his health, producing
+acute dyspepsia. From his college course he thought that he got little
+good, and said "when I was in college, only three books that I read were
+of any moment to me: ... Ferguson on _Civil Society_, ... Hutcheson's
+_Moral Philosophy_, and Price's _Dissertations_. Price saved me from
+Locke's philosophy."
+
+After graduating in 1798, he lived at Richmond, Virginia, as tutor in
+the family of David Meade Randolph, United States marshal for Virginia.
+Here he renewed his ascetic habits and spent much time in theological
+study, his mind being greatly disturbed in regard to Trinitarian
+teachings in general and especially prayer to Jesus. He returned to
+Newport in 1800 "a thin and pallid invalid," spent a year and a half
+there, and in 1802 went to Cambridge as regent (or general proctor) in
+Harvard; in the autumn of 1802 he began to preach, having been approved
+by the Cambridge Association. On the 1st of June 1803, having refused
+the more advantageous pastorate of Brattle Street church, he was
+ordained pastor of the Federal Street Congregational church in Boston.
+At this time it seems certain that his theological views were not fixed,
+and in 1808, when he preached a sermon at the ordination of the Rev.
+John Codman (1782-1847), he still applied the title "Divine Master" to
+Jesus Christ, and used such expressions as "shed for souls" of the blood
+of Jesus, and "the Son of God himself left the abodes of glory and
+expired a victim of the cross." But his sermon preached in 1819 at
+Baltimore at the ordination of the Rev. Jared Sparks was in effect a
+powerful attack on Trinitarianism, and was followed in 1819 by an
+article in _The Christian Disciple_, "Objections to Unitarian
+Christianity Considered," and in 1820 by another, "The Moral Argument
+against Calvinism"--an excellent evidence of the moral (rather than the
+intellectual) character of Unitarian protest. In 1814 he had married a
+rich cousin, Ruth Gibbs, but refused to make use of the income from her
+property on the ground that clergymen were so commonly accused of
+marrying for money.
+
+He was now entering on his public career. Even in 1810, in a Fast Day
+sermon, he warned his congregation of Bonaparte's ambition; two years
+later he deplored "this country taking part with the oppressor against
+that nation which has alone arrested his proud career of victory"; in
+1814 he preached a thanksgiving sermon for the overthrow of Napoleon;
+and in 1816 he preached a sermon on war which led to the organization of
+the Massachusetts Peace Society. His sermon on "Religion, a Social
+Principle," helped to procure the omission from the state constitution
+of the third article of Part I., which made compulsory a tax for the
+support of religious worship. In 1821 he delivered the Dudleian lecture
+on the "Evidences of Revealed Religion" at Harvard, of whose corporation
+he had been a member since 1813; he had received its degree of S.T.D. in
+1820. In August 1821 he undertook a journey to Europe, in the course of
+which he met in England many distinguished men of letters, especially
+Wordsworth and Coleridge. Both of these poets greatly influenced him
+personally and by their writings, and he prophesied that the Lake poets
+would be one of the greatest forces in a forming spiritual reform.
+Coleridge wrote of him, "He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of
+love."
+
+On his return to America in August 1823, Dr Channing resumed his duties
+as pastor, but with a more decided attention than before to literature
+and public affairs, especially after receiving as colleague, in 1824,
+the Rev. Ezra Stiles Gannett. In 1830, because of his wife's bad health,
+Channing went to the West Indies. Negro slavery, as he saw it there, and
+as he had seen it in Richmond, more than thirty years before, so
+strongly impressed him that he began to write his book _Slavery_ (1835).
+In this he insists that "not what is profitable, but what is right" is
+"the first question to be proposed by a rational being"; that slavery
+ought to be discussed "with a deep feeling of responsibility, and so
+done as not to put in jeopardy the peace of the slave-holding states";
+that "man cannot be justly held and used as property"; that the tendency
+of slavery is morally, intellectually, and domestically, bad; that
+emancipation, however, should not be forced on slave-holders by
+governmental interference, but by an enlightened public conscience in
+the South (and in the North), if for no other reason, because "slavery
+should be succeeded by a friendly relation between master and slave; and
+to produce this the latter must see in the former his benefactor and
+deliverer." He declined to identify himself with the Abolitionists,
+whose motto was "Immediate Emancipation" and whose passionate agitation
+he thought unsuited to the work they were attempting. The moderation and
+temperance of his presentation of the anti-slavery cause naturally
+resulted in some misunderstanding and misstatement of his position, such
+as is to be found in Mrs Chapman's _Appendix_ to the _Autobiography of
+Harriet Martineau_, where Channing is represented as actually using his
+influence on behalf of slavery. In 1837 he published _Thoughts on the
+Evils of a Spirit of Conquest, and on Slavery: A Letter on the
+Annexation of Texas to the United States_, addressed to Henry Clay, and
+arguing that the Texan revolt from Mexican rule was largely the work of
+land-speculators, and of those who resolved "to throw Texas open to
+slave-holders and slaves"; that the results of annexation must be war
+with Mexico, embroiling the United States with England and other
+European powers, and at home the extension and perpetuation of slavery,
+not alone in Texas but in other territories which the United States,
+once started at conquest, would force into the Union. But he still
+objected to political agitation by the Abolitionists, preferring
+"unremitting appeals to the reason and conscience," and, even after the
+prominent part he took in the meeting in Faneuil Hall, called to protest
+against the murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, he wrote to _The Liberator_,
+counselling the Abolitionists to "disavow this resort to force by Mr
+Lovejoy." Channing's pamphlet _Emancipation_ (1840) dealt with the
+success of emancipation in the West Indies, as related in Joseph John
+Gurney's _Familiar Letters to Henry Clay of Kentucky, describing a
+Winter in the West Indies_ (1840), and added his own advice "that we
+should each of us bear our conscientious testimony against slavery," and
+that the Free States "abstain as rigidly from the use of political power
+against Slavery in the States where it is established, as from
+exercising it against Slavery in foreign communities," and should free
+themselves "from any obligation to use the powers of the national or
+state governments in any manner whatever for the support of slavery." In
+1842 he published _The Duty of the Free States_, or _Remarks Suggested
+by the Case of the Creole_, a careful analysis of the letter of
+complaint from the American to the British government, and a defence of
+the position taken by the British government. On the 1st of August 1842
+he delivered at Lenox, Massachusetts, an address celebrating the
+anniversary of emancipation in the British West Indies. Two months
+later, on the 2nd of October 1842, he died at Bennington, Vermont.
+
+Physically Channing was short and slight; his eyes were unnaturally
+large; his voice wonderfully clear, and like his face, filled with
+devotional spirit. He was not a great pastor, and lacked social tact, so
+that there were not many people who became his near friends; but by the
+few who knew him well, he was almost worshipped. As a preacher Channing
+was often criticised for his failure to deal with the practical everyday
+duties of life. But his sermons are remarkable for their rare simplicity
+and gracefulness of style as well as for the thought that they express.
+The first open defence of Unitarians was not based on doctrinal
+differences but on the peculiar nature of the attack on them made in
+June 1815 by the conservatives in the columns of _The Panoplist_, where
+it was stated that Unitarians were "operating only in secret, ... guilty
+of hypocritical concealment of their sentiments." His chief objection to
+the doctrine of the Trinity (as stated in his sermon at the ordination
+of the Rev. Jared Sparks) was that it was no longer used
+philosophically, as showing God's relation to the triple nature of man,
+but that it had lapsed into mere Tritheism. To the name "Unitarian"
+Channing objected strongly, thinking "unity" as abstract a word as
+"trinity" and as little expressing the close fatherly relation of God to
+man. It is to be noted that he strongly objected to the growth of
+"Unitarian orthodoxy" and its increasing narrowness. His views as to the
+divinity of Jesus were based on phrases in the Gospels which to his mind
+established Christ's admission of inferiority to God the Father,--for
+example, "Knoweth no man, neither the Son, but the Father"; at the same
+time he regarded Christ as "the sinless and spotless son of God,
+distinguished from all men by that infinite peculiarity--freedom from
+moral evil." He believed in the pre-existence of Jesus, and that it
+differed from the pre-existence of other souls in that Jesus was
+actually conscious of such pre-existence, and he reckoned him one with
+God the Father in the sense of spiritual union (and not metaphysical
+mystery) in the same way that Jesus bade his disciples "Be ye one, even
+as I am one." Bunsen called him "the prophet in the United States for
+the presence of God in mankind." Channing believed in historic
+Christianity and in the story of the resurrection, "a fact which comes
+to me with a certainty I find in few ancient histories." He also
+believed in the miracles of the Gospels, but held that the Scriptures
+were not inspired, but merely records of inspiration, and so saw the
+possibility of error in the construction put upon miracles by the
+ignorant disciples. But in only a few instances did he refuse full
+credence of the plain gospel narrative of miracles. He held, however,
+that the miracles were facts and not "evidences" of Christianity, and he
+considered that belief in them followed and did not lead up to belief in
+Christianity. His character was absolutely averse from controversy of
+any sort, and in controversies into which he was forced he was free from
+any theological odium and continually displayed the greatest breadth and
+catholicity of view. The differences in New England churches he
+considered were largely verbal, and he said that "would Trinitarians
+tell us what they mean, their system would generally be found little
+else than a mystical form of the Unitarian doctrine."
+
+His opposition to Calvinism was so great that even in 1812 he declared
+"existence a curse" if Calvinism be true. Possibly his boldest and most
+elaborate defence of Unitarianism was his sermon on _Unitarianism most
+favourable to Piety_, preached in 1826, criticizing as it did the
+doctrine of atonement by the sacrifice of an "infinite substitute"; and
+the Election Sermon of 1830 was his greatest plea for spiritual and
+intellectual freedom.
+
+Channing's reputation as an author was probably based largely on his
+publication in _The Christian Examiner_ of _Remarks on the Character and
+Writings of John Milton_ (1826), _Remarks on the Life and Character of
+Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1827-1828), and an _Essay on the Character and
+Writings of Fenelon_ (1829). An _Essay on Self-Culture_ (1838) was an
+address introducing the Franklin Lectures delivered in Boston September
+1838. Channing was an intimate friend of Horace Mann, and his views on
+the education of children are stated, by no less an authority than
+Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, to have anticipated those of Froebel. His
+_Complete Works_ have appeared in various editions (5 vols., Boston,
+1841; 2 vols., London, 1865; 1 vol., New York, 1875).
+
+Among members of his family may be mentioned his two nephews William
+Henry (1810-1884), son of his brother Francis Dana, and William Ellery,
+commonly known as Ellery (1818-1901), son of his brother Walter, a
+Boston physician (1786-1876). The former, whose daughter married Sir
+Edwin Arnold, the English poet, became a Unitarian pastor, for some
+time in America, and also in England, where he died; he was deeply
+interested in Christian Socialism, and was a constant writer,
+translating Jouffroy's _Ethics_ (1840), and assisting in editing the
+_Memoirs of Margaret Fuller_ (1852); and he wrote the biography of his
+uncle (see O.B. Frothingham's _Memoir_, 1886). Ellery Channing married
+Margaret Fuller's sister (1842), and besides critical essays and poems
+published an intimate sketch of Thoreau in 1873.
+
+  See the _Memoir_ by William Henry Channing (3 vols., London, 1848;
+  republished in one volume, New York, 1880); Elizabeth Palmer Peabody,
+  _Reminiscences of the Rev. William Ellery Channing, D.D_. (Boston,
+  1880), intimate but inexact; John White Chadwick, _William Ellery
+  Channing, Minister of Religion_ (Boston, 1903); and William M. Salter,
+  "Channing as a Social Reformer" (_Unitarian Review_, March 1888).
+       (R. We.)
+
+
+
+
+CHANSONS DE GESTE, the name given to the epic chronicles which take so
+prominent a place in the literature of France from the 11th to the 15th
+century. Gaston Paris defined a chanson de geste as a song the subject
+of which is a series of historical facts or _gesta_. These facts form
+the centre around which are grouped sets of poems, called cycles, and
+hence the two terms have in modern criticism become synonymous for the
+epic family to which the hero of the particular group or cycle belongs.
+The earliest chansons de geste were founded on the fusion of the
+Teutonic spirit, under a Roman form, into the new Christian and French
+civilization. It seems probable that as early as the 9th century epic
+poems began to be chanted by the itinerant minstrels who are known as
+jongleurs. It is conjectured that in a base Latin fragment of the 10th
+century we possess a translation of a poem on the siege of Girona.
+Gaston Paris dates from this lost epic the open expression of what he
+calls "the epic fermentation" of France. But the earliest existing
+chanson de geste is also by far the noblest and most famous, the
+_Chanson de Roland_; the conjectural date of the composition of this
+poem has been placed between the years 1066 and 1095. That the author,
+as has been supposed, was one of the conquerors of England, it is
+perhaps rash to assert, but undoubtedly the poem was composed before the
+First Crusade, and the writer lived at or near the sanctuary of Mont
+Saint-Michel. The _Chanson de Roland_ stands at the head of modern
+French literature, and its solidity and grandeur give a dignity to the
+whole class of poetry of which it is the earliest and by far the noblest
+example. But it is in the crowd of looser and later poems, less fully
+characterized, less steeped in the individuality of their authors, that
+we can best study the form of the typical chanson de geste. These epics
+sprang from the soil of France; they were national and historical; their
+anonymous writers composed them spontaneously, to a common model, with
+little regard to the artificial niceties of style. The earlier examples,
+which succeed the _Roland_, are unlike that great work in having no
+plan, no system of composition. They are improvisations which wander on
+at their own pace, whither accident may carry them. This mass of
+medieval literature is monotonous, primitive and superficial. As Leon
+Gautier has said, in the rudimentary psychology of the chansons de
+geste, man is either entirely good or entirely bad. There are no fine
+shades, no observation of character. The language in which these poems
+are composed is extremely simple, without elaboration, without ornament.
+Everything is sacrificed to the telling of a story by a narrator of
+little skill, who helps himself along by means of a picturesque, but
+almost childish fancy, and a primitive sentiment of rhythm. Two great
+merits, however, all the best of these poems possess, force and
+lucidity; and they celebrate, what they did much to create, that
+unselfish elevation of temper which we call the spirit of chivalry.
+
+Perhaps the most important cycle of chansons de geste was that which was
+collected around the name of Charlemagne, and was known as the _Geste du
+roi_. A group of this cycle dealt with the history of the mother of the
+emperor, and with Charlemagne himself down to the coming of Roland. To
+this group belong _Bertha Greatfoot_ and _Aspremont_, both of the 12th
+century, and a variety of chansons dealing with the childhood of
+Charlemagne and of Ogier the Dane. A second group deals with the
+struggle of Charlemagne with his rebellious vassals. This is what has
+been defined as the Feudal Epic; it includes _Girars de Viane_ and
+_Ogier the Dane_, both of the 13th century, or the end of the 12th. A
+third group follows Charlemagne and his peers to the East. It is in the
+principal of these poems, _The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem_, that
+Alexandrine verse first makes its appearance in French literature. This
+must belong to the beginning of the 12th century. A fourth group,
+antecedent to the Spanish war, is of the end of the 12th century and the
+beginning of the 13th; it includes _Aiquin_, _Fierabras_ and _Otinel_.
+The fifth class discusses the war in Spain, and it is to this that
+_Roland_ belongs; there are different minor epics dealing with the
+events of Roncevaux, and independent chansons of _Gui de Bourgogne_,
+_Gaidon_ and _Anseis de Carthage_. The _Geste du Roi_ comprises a sixth
+and last group, proceeding with events up to the death of Charlemagne;
+this contains _Huon de Bordeaux_ and a vast number of poems of minor
+originality and importance.
+
+Another cycle is that of Duke William Shortnose, _La Geste de
+Guillaume_. This includes the very early and interesting _Departure of
+the Aimeri Children_, _Aliscans_ and _Rainoart_. It is thought that this
+cycle, which used to be called the _Geste de Garin de Monglane_, is less
+artificial than the others; it deals with the heroes of the South who
+remained faithful in their vassalage to the throne. The poems belonging
+to this cycle are extremely numerous, and some of them are among the
+earliest which survive. These chansons find their direct opposites in
+those which form the great cycle of _La Geste de Doon de Mayence_,
+sometimes called "la faulse geste," because it deals with the feats of
+the traitors, of the rebellious family of Ganelon. This is the geste of
+the Northmen, always hostile to the Carlovingian dynasty. It comprises
+some of the most famous of the chansons, in particular _Parise la
+duchesse_ and _The Four Sons of Aymon_. Several of its sections are the
+production of a known poet, Raimbert of Paris. From this triple division
+of the main body of the chansons de geste into _La Geste du Roi_, _La
+Geste de Guillaume_ and _La Geste de Doon_, are excluded certain poems
+of minor importance,--some provincial, such as _Amis and Amiles_ and
+_Garin_, some dealing with the Crusades, such as _Antioche_, and some
+which are not connected with any existing cycle, such as _Ciperis de
+Vignevaux_; most of this last category, however, are works of the
+decadence.
+
+The analysis which is here sketched is founded on the latest theories of
+Leon Gautier, who has given the labour of a lifetime to the
+investigation of this subject. The wealth of material is baffling to the
+ordinary student; of the medieval chansons de geste many hundreds of
+thousands of lines have been preserved. The habit of composing became in
+the 14th century, as has been said, no longer an art but a monomania.
+Needless to add that a very large proportion of the surviving poems have
+never yet been published. All the best of the early chansons de geste
+are written in ten-syllable verse, divided into stanzas or _laisses_ of
+different length, united by a single assonance. Rhyme came in with the
+13th century, and had the effect in languid bards of weakening the
+narrative; the sing-song of it led at last to the abandonment of verse
+in favour of plain historical prose. The general character of the
+chansons de geste, especially of those of the 12th century, is hard,
+coarse, inflexible, like the march of rough men stiffened by coats of
+mail. There is no art and little grace, but a magnificent display of
+force. These poems enshrine the self-sufficiency of a young and powerful
+people; they are full of Gallic pride, they breathe the spirit of an
+indomitable warlike energy. All their figures belong to the same social
+order of things, and all illustrate the same fighting aristocracy. The
+moving principle is that of chivalry, and what is presented is,
+invariably, the spectacle of the processional life of a medieval
+soldier. The age described is a disturbed one; the feudal anarchy of
+Europe is united, for a moment, in defending western civilization
+against the inroads of Asia, against "the yellow peril." But it is a
+time of transition in Europe also, and Charlemagne, the immortal but
+enfeebled emperor, whose beard is whiter than lilies, represents an old
+order of things against which the rude barons of the North are
+perpetually in successful revolt. The loud cry of the dying Ronald, as
+E. Quinet said, rings through the whole poetical literature of medieval
+France; it is the voice of the individuality of the great vassal, who,
+in the decay of the empire, stands alone with himself and with his
+sword.
+
+  AUTHORITIES,--Leon Gautier, _Les Epopees francaises_ (4 vols.,
+  1878-1894); Gaston Paris, _La Litterature francaise au moyen age_
+  (1890); Paul Meyer, _Recherches sur l'epopee francaise_ (1867); G.
+  Paris, _Histoire poetique de Charlemagne_ (1865); A. Longnon, _Les
+  Quatre Fits Aimon_, &c. (1879).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. _cantare_, to sing; an old
+form is "chaunt"), a song or melody, particularly one sung according to
+the rules of church service-books. For an account of the chant or
+_cantus firmus_ of the Roman Church see PLAIN-SONG. In the English
+church "chants" are the tunes set to the unmetrical verses of the psalms
+and canticles. The chant consisted of an "intonation" followed by a
+reciting note of indefinite length; a "mediation" closed the first part
+of the verse, leading to a second reciting note; a "termination" closed
+the second part of the verse. In the English chant the "intonation"
+disappeared. Chants are "single," if written for one verse only,
+"double," if for two. "Quadruple" chants for four verses have also been
+written.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTABUN, or CHANTABURI, the principal town of the Siamese province of
+the same name, on the E. side of the Gulf of Siam, in 102 deg. 6' E., 12
+deg. 38' N. Pop. about 5000. The town lies about 12 m. from the sea on a
+river which is navigable for boats and inside the bar of which there is
+good anchorage for light-draft vessels. The trade is chiefly in rubies
+and sapphires from the mines of the Krat and Pailin districts, and in
+pepper, of which about 500 tons are exported annually. Cardamoms and
+rosewood are also exported. In 1905 Chantabun was made the headquarters
+of a high commissioner with jurisdiction extending over the coast
+districts from the Nam Wen on the East to Cape Liant on the West, which
+were thus united to form a provincial division (_Monton_). In 1893
+Chantabun was occupied by a French force of four hundred men, a step
+taken by France as a guarantee for the execution by Siam of undertakings
+entered into by the treaty of that year. The occupation, which was
+merely military and did not affect the civil government, lasted until
+January 1905, when, in accordance with the provisions of the
+Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904, the garrison of occupation was withdrawn.
+Chantabun has been since the 17th century, and still is, a stronghold of
+the Roman Catholic missionaries, and the Christian element amongst the
+population is greater here than anywhere else in Siam.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo, on the
+left bank of the Rio de Chantada, a small right-hand tributary of the
+river Mino, and on the main road from Orerse, 18 m. S. by W., to Lugo,
+28 m. N. by E. Pop. (1900) 15,003. Chantada is the chief town of the
+fertile region between the Mino and the heights of El Faro, which mark
+the western border of the province. Despite the lack of railway
+communication, it has a thriving trade in grain, flax, hemp, and dairy
+produce.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTAGE (a Fr. word from _chanter_, to sing, slang for a criminal
+making an avowal under examination), a demand for money backed by the
+threat of scandalous revelations, the French equivalent of "blackmail."
+
+
+
+
+CHANTARELLE, an edible fungus, known botanically as _Cantharellus
+cibarius_, found in woods in summer. It is golden yellow, somewhat
+inversely conical in shape and about 2 in. broad and high. The cap is
+flattened above with a central depression and a thick lobed irregular
+margin. Running down into the stem from the cap are a number of shallow
+thick gills. The substance of the fungus is dry and opaque with a
+peculiar smell suggesting ripe apricots or plums. The flesh is whitish
+tinged with yellow. The chantarelle is sold in the markets on the
+continent of Europe, where it forms a regular article of food, but seems
+little known in Britain though often plentiful in the New Forest and
+elsewhere. Before being cooked they should be allowed to dry, and then
+thrown into boiling water. They may then be stewed in butter or oil, or
+cut up small and stewed with meat. No fungus requires more careful
+preparation.
+
+  See M.C. Cooke, _British Edible Fungi_, (1891), pp. 104-105.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTAVOINE, HENRI (1850- ), French man of letters, was born at
+Montpellier on the 6th of August 1850, and was educated at the Ecole
+Normale Superieure. After teaching in the provinces he moved, in 1876,
+to the Lycee Charlemagne in Paris, and subsequently became professor of
+rhetoric at the Lycee Henri IV. and _maitre de conferences_ at the Ecole
+Normale at Sevres. He was associated with the _Nouvelle Revue_ from its
+foundation in 1879, and he joined the _Journal des debats_ in 1884. His
+poems include _Poemes sinceres_ (1877), _Satires contemporaines_ (1881),
+_Ad memoriam_ (1884), _Au fil des jours_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+CHANTILLY, a town of northern France, in the department of Oise, 25 m.
+N. of Paris on the Northern railway to St Quentin. Pop. (1906) 4632. It
+is finely situated to the north of the forest of Chantilly and on the
+left bank of the river Nonette, and is one of the favourite Parisian
+resorts. Its name was long associated with the manufacture, which has
+now to a great extent decayed, of lace and blonde; it is still more
+celebrated for its chateau and its park (laid out originally by A. Le
+Notre in the second half of the 17th century), and as the scene of the
+great annual races of the French Jockey Club. The chateau consists of
+the palace built from 1876 to 1885 and of an older portion adjoining it
+known as the chatelet. The old castle must have been in existence in the
+13th century, and in the reign of Charles VI. the lordship belonged to
+Pierre d'Orgemont, chancellor of France. In 1484 it passed to the house
+of Montmorency, and in 1632 from that family to the house of Conde.
+Louis II., prince de Conde, surnamed the Great, was specially attached
+to the place, and did a great deal to enhance its beauty and splendour.
+Here he enjoyed the society of La Bruyere, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine,
+Boileau, and other great men of his time; and here his steward Vatel
+killed himself in despair, because of a hitch in the preparations for
+the reception of Louis XIV. The stables close to the racecourse were
+built from 1719 to 1735 by Louis-Henri, duke of Bourbon. Of the two
+splendid mansions existing at that period known as the grand chateau and
+the chatelet, the former was destroyed about the time of the Revolution,
+but the latter, built for Anne de Montmorency by Jean Bullant, still
+remains as one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in
+France. The chateau d'Enghien, facing the entrance to the grand chateau,
+was built in 1770 as a guest-house. On the death in 1830 of the duke of
+Bourbon, the last representative of the house of Conde, the estate
+passed into the hands of Henri, duc d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis
+Philippe. In 1852 the house of Orleans was declared incapable of
+possessing property in France, and Chantilly was accordingly sold by
+auction. Purchased by the English bankers, Coutts & Co., it passed back
+into the hands of the duc d'Aumale, in 1872. By him a magnificent
+palace, including a fine chapel in the Renaissance style, was erected on
+the foundations of the ancient grand chateau and in the style of the
+chatelet. It is quadrilateral in shape, consisting of four unequal sides
+flanked by towers and built round a courtyard. The whole group of
+buildings as well as the pleasure-ground behind them, known as the
+Parterre de la Voliere, is surrounded by fosses supplied with water from
+the Nonette. On the terrace in front of the chateau there is a bronze
+statue of the constable Anne de Montmorency. The duc d'Aumale installed
+in the chatelet a valuable library, specially rich in incunabula and
+16th century editions of classic authors, and a collection of the
+paintings of the great masters, besides many other objects of art. By a
+public act in 1886 he gave the park and chateau with its superb
+collections to the Institute of France in trust for the nation,
+reserving to himself only a life interest; and when he died in 1897 the
+Institute acquired full possession.
+
+
+
+
+CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT (1782-1841), English sculptor, was born on
+the 7th of April 1782 at Norton near Sheffield, where his father, a
+carpenter, cultivated a small farm. His father died when he was eight
+years of age; and his mother having married again, his profession was
+left to be chosen by his friends. In his sixteenth year he was on the
+point of being apprenticed to a grocer in Sheffield, when, having seen
+some wood-carving in a shop-window, he requested to be made a carver
+instead, and was accordingly placed with a Mr Ramsey, wood-carver in
+Sheffield. In this situation he became acquainted with Raphael Smith, a
+distinguished draftsman in crayon, who gave him lessons in painting; and
+Chantrey, eager to commence his course as an artist, procured the
+cancelling of his indentures, and went to try his fortune in Dublin and
+Edinburgh, and finally (1802) in London. Here he first obtained
+employment as an assistant wood-carver, but at the same time devoted
+himself to portrait-painting, bust-sculpture, and modelling in clay. He
+exhibited pictures at the Academy for some years from 1804, but from
+1807 onwards devoted himself mainly to sculpture. The sculptor Nollekens
+showed particular zeal in recognizing his merits. In 1807 he married his
+cousin, Miss Wale, who had some property of her own. His first
+imaginative work in sculpture was the model of the head of Satan, which
+was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1808. He afterwards executed for
+Greenwich hospital four colossal busts of the admirals Duncan, Howe,
+Vincent and Nelson; and so rapidly did his reputation spread that the
+next bust which he executed, that of Horne Tooke, procured him
+commissions to the extent of L12,000. From this period he was almost
+uninterruptedly engaged in professional labour. In 1819 he visited
+Italy, and became acquainted with the most distinguished sculptors of
+Florence and Rome. He was chosen an associate (1815) and afterwards a
+member (1818) of the Royal Academy, received the degree of M.A. from
+Cambridge, and that of D.C.L. from Oxford, and in 1835 was knighted. He
+died after an illness of only two hours' duration on the 25th of
+November 1841, having for some years suffered from disease of the heart,
+and was buried in a tomb constructed by himself in the church of his
+native village.
+
+The works of Chantrey are extremely numerous. The principal are the
+statues of Washington in the State-house at Boston, U.S.A.; of George
+III. in the Guildhall, London; of George IV. at Brighton; of Pitt in
+Hanover Square, London; of James Watt in Westminster Abbey and in
+Glasgow; of Roscoe and Canning in Liverpool; of Dalton in Manchester; of
+Lord President Blair and Lord Melville in Edinburgh, &c. Of his
+equestrian statues the most famous are those of Sir Thomas Munro in
+Calcutta, and the duke of Wellington in front of the London Exchange.
+But the finest of Chantrey's works are his busts, and his delineations
+of children. The figures of two children asleep in each other's arms,
+which form a monumental design in Lichfield cathedral, have always been
+lauded for beauty, simplicity and grace. So is also the statue of the
+girlish Lady Louisa Russell, represented as standing on tiptoe and
+fondling a dove in her bosom. Both these works appear, in design, to
+have owed something to Stothard; for Chantrey knew his own scantiness of
+ideal invention or composition, and on system sought aid from others for
+such attempts. In busts, his leading excellence is facility--a ready
+unconstrained air of life, a prompt vivacity of ordinary expression.
+Allan Cunningham and Weekes were his chief assistants, and were indeed
+the active executants of many works that pass under Chantrey's name.
+Chantrey was a man of warm and genial temperament, and is said to have
+borne noticeable though commonplace resemblance to the usual portraits
+of Shakespeare.
+
+_Chantrey Bequest._--By the will dated the 31st of December 1840,
+Chantrey (who had no children) left his whole residuary personal estate
+after the decease or on the second marriage of his widow (less certain
+specified annuities and bequests) in trust for the president and
+trustees of the Royal Academy (or in the event of the dissolution of the
+Royal Academy, to such society as might take its place), the income to
+be devoted to the encouragement of British fine art in painting and
+sculpture only, by "the purchase of works of fine art of the highest
+merit ... that can be obtained." The funds might be allowed to
+accumulate for not more than five years; works by British or foreign
+artists, dead or living, might be acquired, so long as such works were
+entirely executed within the shores of Great Britain, the artists having
+been in residence there during such execution and completion. The prices
+to be paid were to be "liberal," and no sympathy for an artist or his
+family was to influence the selection or the purchase of works, which
+were to be acquired solely on the ground of intrinsic merit. No
+commission or orders might be given: the works must be finished before
+purchase. Conditions were made as to the exhibition of the works, in the
+confident expectation that as the intention of the testator was to form
+and establish a "public collection of British Fine Art in Painting and
+Sculpture," the government or the country would provide a suitable
+gallery for their display; and an annual sum of L300 and L50 was to be
+paid to the president of the Royal Academy and the secretary
+respectively, for the discharge of their duties in carrying out the
+provisions of the will.
+
+Lady Chantrey died in 1875, and two years later the fund became
+available for the purchase of paintings and sculptures. The capital sum
+available amounted to L105,000 in 3% Consols, which (since reduced to
+2-1/2%) produces an available annual income varying from L2500 to L2100.
+Galleries in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington were at
+first adopted as the depository of the works acquired, until in 1898 the
+Royal Academy arranged with the treasury, on behalf of the government,
+for the transference of the collection to the National Gallery of
+British Art, which had been erected by Sir Henry Tate at Millbank. It
+was agreed that the "Tate Gallery" should be its future home, and that
+"no power of selection or elimination is claimed on behalf of the
+trustees and director of the National Gallery" (Treasury Letter,
+18054-98, 7th December 1898) in respect of the pictures and sculptures
+which were then to be handed over and which should, from time to time,
+be sent to augment the collection. Inasmuch as it was felt that the
+provision that all works must be complete to be eligible for purchase
+militated against the most advantageous disposition of the fund in
+respect of sculpture, in the case of wax models or plaster casts before
+being converted into marble or bronze, it was sought in the action of
+_Sir F. Leighton_ v. _Hughes_ (tried by Mr Justice North, judgment May
+7th, 1888, and in the court of appeal, before the master of the rolls,
+Lord Justice Cotton, and Lord Justice Fry, judgment June 4th, 1889--the
+master of the rolls dissenting) to allow of sculptors being commissioned
+to complete in bronze or marble a work executed in wax or plaster, such
+"completion" being more or less a mechanical process. The attempt,
+however, was abortive.
+
+A growing discontent with the interpretation put by the Royal Academy
+upon the terms of the will as shown in the works acquired began to find
+expression more than usually forcible and lively in the press during the
+year 1903, and a debate raised in the House of Lords by the earl of
+Lytton led to the appointment of a select committee of the House of
+Lords, which sat from June to August 1904. The committee consisted of
+the earls of Carlisle, Lytton, and Crewe, and Lords Windsor,
+Ribblesdale, Newton, and Killanin, and the witnesses represented the
+Royal Academy and representative art institutions and art critics. The
+report (ordered to be printed on the 8th of August 1904) made certain
+recommendations with a view to the prevention of certain former errors
+of administration held to have been sustained, but dismissed other
+charges against the Academy. In reply thereto a memorandum was issued by
+the Royal Academy (February 1905, ordered to be printed on the 7th of
+August 1905--Paper 166) disagreeing with certain recommendations, but
+allowing others, either intact or in a modified form.
+
+Up to 1905 inclusive 203 works had been bought--all except two from
+living painters--at a cost of nearly L68,000. Of these, 175 were in
+oil-colours, 12 in water-colours, and 16 sculptures (10 in bronze and 6
+marble).
+
+  See _The Administration of the Chantrey Bequest_, by D.S. MacColl
+  (l6mo, London, 1904), a highly controversial publication by the
+  leading assailant of the Royal Academy: _Chantrey and His Bequest_, by
+  Arthur Fish, a complete illustrated record of the purchases, &c.
+  (London, 1904); _The Royal Academy, its Uses and Abuses_, by H.J.
+  Laidlay (London, 1898), controversial; _Report from the Select
+  Committee of the House of Lords on the Chantrey Trust; together with
+  the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix_
+  (Wyman & Sons, 1904), and _Index_ (separate publication, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+
+CHANT ROYAL, one of the fixed forms of verse invented by the ingenuity
+of the poets of medieval France. It is composed of five strophes,
+identical in arrangement, of eleven verses each, and of an envoi of five
+verses. All the strophes are written on the five rhymes exhibited in the
+first strophe, the entire poem, therefore, consisting of sixty lines in
+the course of which five rhymes are repeated. It has been conjectured
+that the chant royal is an extended ballade, or rather a ballade
+conceived upon a larger scale; but which form preceded the other appears
+to be uncertain. On this point Henri de Croi, who wrote about these
+forms of verse in his _Art et science de rhetorique_ (1493), throws no
+light. He dwells, however, on the great dignity of what he calls the
+"Champt Royal," and says that those who defy with success the ardour of
+its rules deserve crowns and garlands for their pains. Etienne Pasquier
+(1529-1615) points out the fact that the Chant Royal, by its length and
+the rigidity of its structure, is better fitted than the ballade for
+solemn and pompous themes. In Old French, the most admired chants royal
+are those of Clement Marot; his _Chant royal chrestien_, with its
+refrain
+
+  "Sante au corps, et Paradis a l'ame,"
+
+was celebrated. Theodore de Banville defines the chant royal as
+essentially belonging to ages of faith, when its subjects could be
+either the exploits of a hero of royal race or the processional
+splendours of religion. La Fontaine was the latest of the French poets
+to attempt the chant royal, until it was resuscitated in modern times.
+
+This species of poem was unknown in English medieval literature and was
+only introduced into Great Britain in the last quarter of the 19th
+century. The earliest chant royal in English was that published by
+Edmund Gosse in 1877; it is here given to exemplify the structure and
+rhyme-arrangement of the form:--
+
+  THE PRAISE OF DIONYSUS
+
+ "Behold, above the mountains there is light,
+  A streak of gold, a line of gathering fire,
+  And the dim East hath suddenly grown bright
+  With pale aerial flame, that drives up higher
+  The lurid mists which all the night long were
+  Breasting the dark ravines and coverts bare;
+  Behold, behold! the granite gates unclose,
+  And down the vales a lyric people flows,
+  Who dance to music, and in dancing fling
+  Their frantic robes to every wind that blows,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  Nearer they press, and nearer still in sight,
+  Still dancing blithely in a seemly choir;
+  Tossing on high the symbol of their rite,
+  The cone-tipp'd thyrsus of a god's desire;
+  Nearer they come, tall damsels flushed and fair,
+  With ivy circling their abundant hair,
+  Onward, with even pace, in stately rows,
+  With eye that flashes, and with cheek that glows,
+  And all the while their tribute-songs they bring,
+  And newer glories of the past disclose
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  The pure luxuriance of their limbs is white,
+  And flashes clearer as they draw the nigher,
+  Bathed in an air of infinite delight,
+  Smooth without wound of thorn, or fleck of mire,
+  Borne up by song as by a trumpet's blare,
+  Leading the van to conquest, on they fare,
+  Fearless and bold, whoever comes or goes,
+  These shining cohorts of Bacchantes close,
+  Shouting and shouting till the mountains ring,
+  And forests grim forget their ancient woes,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  And youths there are for whom full many a night
+  Brought dreams of bliss, vague dreams that haunt and tire
+  Who rose in their own ecstasy bedight,
+  And wandered forth through many a scourging briar,
+  And waited shivering in the icy air,
+  And wrapped the leopard-skin about them there,
+  Knowing for all the bitter air that froze,
+  The time must come, that every poet knows,
+  When he shall rise and feel himself a king,
+  And follow, follow where the ivy grows,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  But oh! within the heart of this great flight,
+  Whose ivory arms hold up the golden lyre?
+  What form is this of more than mortal height?
+  What matchless beauty, what inspired ire?
+  The brindled panthers know the prize they bear,
+  And harmonize their steps with tender care;
+  Bent to the morning, like a living rose,
+  The immortal splendour of his face he shows;
+  And, where he glances, leaf and flower and wing
+  Tremble with rapture, stirred in their repose,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._
+
+  _Envoi_.
+
+  Prince of the flute and ivy, all thy foes
+  Record the bounty that thy grace bestows,
+  But we, thy servants, to thy glory cling,
+  And with no frigid lips our songs compose,
+  _And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._"
+
+In the middle ages the chant royal was largely used for the praise of
+the Virgin Mary. Eustache Deschamps (1340-1410) distinguishes these
+Marian chants royaux, which were called "serventois," by the absence of
+an envoi. These poems are first mentioned by Rutebeuf, a _trouvere_ of
+the 13th century. The chant royal is practically unknown outside French
+and English literature.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CHANTRY (Fr. _chanterie_, from _chanter_, to sing; Med. Lat.
+_cantuaria_), a small chapel built out from a church, endowed in
+pre-Reformation times for the express purpose of maintaining priests for
+the chanting of masses for the soul of the founder or of some one named
+by him. It generally contained the tomb of the founder, and, as the
+officiator or mass-priest was often unconnected with the parochial
+clergy, had an entrance from the outside. The word passed through
+graduations of meaning. Its first sense was singing or chanting. Then it
+meant the endowment funds, next the priests, and then the church or
+chapel itself.
+
+
+
+
+CHANUTE, a city of Neosho county, Kansas, U.S.A., 1 m. from the Neosho
+river, and about 120 m. S.S.W. of Kansas city. Pop. (1890) 2826; (1900)
+4208, of whom 210 were foreign-born and 171 were negroes; (1910 census)
+9272. Chanute is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the
+Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, the former having large repair shops.
+The city is in the Kansas-Oklahoma oil and gas field, and is surrounded
+by a fine farming and dairying region, in which special attention is
+given to the raising of small fruit; oil, gas, cement rock and brick
+shale are found in the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures are
+refined oil, Portland cement, vitrified brick and tile, glass, asphalt,
+ice, cigars, drilling machinery, and flour. The municipality owns and
+operates the waterworks, a natural gas plant, and an electric lighting
+plant. Four towns--New Chicago, Tioga, Chicago Junction and
+Alliance--were started here about the same time (1870). In 1872 they
+were consolidated, and the present name was adopted in honour of Octave
+Chanute (b. 1832), the civil engineer and aeronautist (see FLIGHT AND
+FLYING), then the engineer of the Lawrence, Leavenworth & Galveston
+railway (now part of the Atchison system). Chanute was incorporated as a
+city of the third class in 1873, and its charter was revised in 1888.
+Natural gas and oil were found here in 1899, and Chanute became one of
+the leaders of the Kansas independent refineries in their contest with
+the Standard Oil Company.
+
+
+
+
+CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGENE ALFRED (1823-1883), French general, was born at
+Nouart (Ardennes) on the 18th of March 1823. The son of a cavalry
+officer, he was educated at the naval school at Brest, but enlisted in
+the artillery, and, subsequently passing through St Cyr, was
+commissioned in the Zouaves in 1843. He saw a good deal of fighting in
+Algeria, and was promoted lieutenant in 1848, and captain in 1851. He
+became _chef de bataillon_ in 1856, and served in the Lombardy campaign
+of 1859, being present at Magenta and Solferino. He took part in the
+Syrian campaign of 1860-61 as a lieutenant-colonel; and as colonel
+commanded the 48th regiment at Rome in 1864. He returned to Algeria as
+general of brigade, assisted to quell the Arab insurrection, and
+commanded the subdivisions of Bel Abbes and Tlemcen in 1868. Although he
+had acquired a good professional reputation, he was in bad odour at the
+war office on account of suspected contributions to the press, and at
+the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was curtly refused a brigade
+command. After the revolution, however, the government of national
+defence called him from Algeria, made him a general of division, and
+gave him command of the XVI. corps of the army of the Loire. (For the
+operations of the Orleans campaign which followed, see FRANCO-GERMAN
+WAR.) The Loire army won the greatest success of the French during the
+whole war at Coulmiers, and followed this up with another victorious
+action at Patay; in both engagements General Chanzy's corps took the
+most brilliant part. After the second battle of Orleans and the
+separation of the two wings of the French army, Chanzy was appointed to
+command that in the west, designated the second army of the Loire. His
+enemies, the grand duke of Mecklenburg, Prince Frederick Charles, and
+General von der Tann, all regarded Chanzy as their most formidable
+opponent. He displayed conspicuous moral courage and constancy, not less
+than technical skill, in the fighting from Beaugency to the Loire, in
+his retreat to Le Mans, and in retiring to Laval behind the Mayenne. As
+Gambetta was the soul, Chanzy was the strong right arm of French
+resistance to the invader. He was made a grand officer of the Legion of
+Honour, and was elected to the National Assembly. At the outbreak of the
+Commune, Chanzy, then at Paris, fell into the hands of the insurgents,
+by whom he was forced to give his parole not to serve against them. It
+was said that he would otherwise have been appointed instead of MacMahon
+to command the army of Versailles. A ransom of L40,000 was also paid by
+the government for him. In 1872 he became a member of the committee of
+defence and commander of the VII. army corps, and in 1873 was appointed
+governor of Algeria, where he remained for six years. In 1875 he was
+elected a life senator, in 1878 received the grand cross of the Legion
+of Honour, and in 1879, without his consent, was nominated for the
+presidency of the republic, receiving a third of the total votes. For
+two years he was ambassador at St Petersburg, during which time he
+received many tokens of respect, not only from the Russians, but also
+from the German emperor, William I., and Prince Bismarck. He died
+suddenly, while commanding the VI. army corps (stationed nearest to the
+German frontier), at Chalons-sur-Marne, on the 4th of January 1883, only
+a few days after Gambetta, and his remains received a state funeral. He
+was the author of _La Deuxieme Armee de la Loire_ (1872). Statues of
+General Chanzy have been erected at Nouart and Le Mans.
+
+
+
+
+CHAOS, in the Hesiodic theogony, the infinite empty space, which existed
+before all things (_Theog._ 116, 123). It is not, however, a mere
+abstraction, being filled with clouds and darkness; from it proceed
+Erebus and Nyx (Night), whose children are Aether (upper air) and Hemera
+(Day). In the Orphic cosmogony the origin of all goes back to Chronos,
+the personification of time, who produces Aether and Chaos. In the
+Aristophanic parody (_Birds_, 691) the winged Eros in conjunction with
+gloomy Chaos brings forth the race of birds. The later Roman conception
+(Ovid, _Metam._ i. 7) makes Chaos the original undigested, amorphous
+mass, into which the architect of the world introduces order and
+harmony, and from which individual forms are created. In the created
+world (cosmos, order of the universe) the word has various
+meanings:--the universe; the space between heaven and earth; the
+under-world and its ruler. Metaphorically it is used for the
+immeasurable darkness, eternity, and the infinite generally. In modern
+usage "chaos" denotes a state of disorder and confusion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPBOOK (from the O. Eng. _chap_, to buy and sell), the comparatively
+modern name applied by booksellers and bibliophiles to the little
+stitched tracts written for the common people and formerly circulated in
+England, Scotland and the American colonies by itinerant dealers or
+chapmen, consisting chiefly of vulgarized versions of popular stories,
+such as _Tom Thumb_, _Jack the Giant Killer_, _Mother Shipton_, and
+_Reynard the Fox_--travels, biographies and religious treatises. Few of
+the older chapbooks exist. Samuel Pepys collected some of the best and
+had them bound into small quarto volumes, which he called Vulgaria;
+also four volumes of a smaller size, which he lettered _Penny
+Witticisms, Penny Merriments, Penny Compliments_ and _Penny
+Godlinesses_. The early chapbooks were the direct descendants of the
+black-letter tracts of Wynkyn de Worde. It was in France that the
+printing-press first began to supply reading for the common people. At
+the end of the 15th century there was a large popular literature of
+farces, tales in verse and prose, satires, almanacs, &c., stitched
+together so as to contain a few leaves, and circulated by itinerant
+booksellers, known as colporteurs. Most early English chapbooks are
+adaptations or translations of these French originals, and were
+introduced into England early in the 16th century. The chapbooks of the
+17th century present us with valuable illustrations of the manners of
+the time; one of the best known is that containing the story of Dick
+Whittington. Others which had a great vogue are _Jack the Giant Killer,
+Little Red Riding Hood_, and _Mother Shipton_. Those of the 18th century
+are far inferior in every way, both as regards the literature and the
+printing; and unfortunately it is these which form the bulk of what is
+now known to us in collections as chapbooks. They have never exercised
+any great influence in England nor received much attention, owing no
+doubt to their poor literary character. In France, on the other hand,
+their French equivalents have been the object of close and systematic
+study, and _L'Histoire des livres populaires ou de la litterature du
+colportage_ by Charles Nisard (1854) goes deeply into the subject.
+Amongst English books may be mentioned _Notices of Fugitive Tracts and
+Chapbooks_, by J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps (1849); _Chapbooks of the 18th
+Century_, by John Ashton (1882), and some reprints by the Villon Society
+in 1885. The word "chapbook" has not been noticed earlier than 1824,
+when Dibdin, the celebrated bibliographer, described a work as being "a
+chapbook, printed in rather a neat black-letter."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPE (from the Fr. _chape_, a hood, cope or sheath), a cover or metal
+plate, such as the cap upon the needle in the compass, also the
+transverse guard of a sword which protects the hand. From the original
+meaning comes the use of the word as a support or catch to attach one
+thing to another, as the hook on a belt to which the sword is fastened.
+The word is also used for the tip of a fox's brush.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPEL, a place of religious worship,[1] a name properly applied to that
+of a Christian religious body, but sometimes to any small temple of
+pagan worship (Lat. _sacellum_). The word is derived through the O. Fr.
+_chapele_, modern _chapelle_, from the Late Lat. _capelle_ or
+_cappella_, diminutive of _cappa_, a cape, particularly that of a monk.
+This word was transferred to any sanctuary containing relics, in the
+early history of the Frankish Church, because the cloak of St Martin,
+_cappa brevior Sancti Martini_, one of the most sacred relics of the
+Frankish kings, was carried in a sanctuary or shrine wherever the king
+went; and oaths were taken on it (see Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v.
+_Capella_). Such a sanctuary was served by a priest, who was hence
+called _capellanus_, from which is derived the English "chaplain"
+(q.v.). The strict application of the word to a sanctuary containing
+relics was extended to embrace any place of worship other than a church,
+and it was synonymous, therefore, with "oratory" (_oratorium_),
+especially one attached to a palace or to a private dwelling-house. The
+celebrated Sainte Chapelle in Paris, attached to what is now the Palais
+de Justice, well illustrates the early and proper meaning of the word.
+It was built (consecration, 1248) by St Louis of France to contain the
+relic of the Crown of Thorns, ransomed by the king from the Venetians,
+who held it in pawn from the Latin emperor of the East, John of Brienne,
+lately dead. The chapel served as the sanctuary of the relic lodged in
+the upper chapel, and the whole building was attached as the place of
+worship to the king's palace. This, the primary meaning, survives in the
+chapels usually placed in the aisles of cathedrals and large churches.
+They were originally built either to contain relics of a particular
+saint to whom they were dedicated, or the tomb of a particular family.
+
+In the Church of England the word is applied to a private place of
+worship, attached either to the palaces of the sovereign, "chapels
+royal," or to the residence of a private person, to a college, school,
+prison, workhouse, &c. Further, the word has particular legal
+applications, though in each case the building might be and often is
+styled a church. These are places of worship supplementary to a parish
+church, and may be either "chapels of ease," to ease or relieve the
+mother-church and serve those parishioners who may live far away,
+"parochial chapels," the "churches" of ancient divisions of a very large
+and widely scattered parish, or "district chapels," those of a district
+of a parish divided under the various church building acts. A "free
+chapel" is one founded by the king and by his authority, and visited by
+him and not by the bishop. A "proprietary chapel" is one that belongs to
+a private person. They are anomalies to the English ecclesiastical law,
+have no parish rights, and can be converted to other than religious
+purposes, but a clergyman may be licensed to perform duty in such a
+place of worship. In the early and middle part of the 19th century such
+proprietary chapels were common, but they have practically ceased to
+exist. "Chapel" was early and still is in England the general name of
+places of worship other than those of the established Church, but the
+application of "church" to all places of worship without distinction of
+sect is becoming more and more common. The word "chapel" was in this
+restricted sense first applied to places of worship belonging to the
+Roman Church in England, and was thus restricted to those attached to
+foreign embassies, or to those of the consorts of Charles I. and II. and
+James II., who were members of that church. The word is still frequently
+the general term for Roman Catholic churches in Great Britain and always
+so in Ireland. The use of "chapel" as a common term for all
+Nonconformist places of worship was general through most of the 19th
+century, so that "church and chapel" was the usual phrase to mark the
+distinction between members of the established Church and those of
+Nonconformist bodies. Here the widened use of "church" noticed above has
+been especially marked. Most of the recent buildings for worship erected
+by Nonconformist bodies will be found to be styled Wesleyan,
+Congregational, &c., churches. It would appear that while the word
+"chapel" was not infrequent in the early history of Nonconformity,
+"meeting-house" was the more usual term.
+
+From the architectural point of view the addition of chapels to a
+cathedral or large church assumes some historical importance in
+consequence of the changes it involved in the plan. It was the
+introduction of the apsidal chapels in the churches of France which
+eventually led to the _chevet_ or cluster of eastern chapels in many of
+the great cathedrals, and also sometimes to the extension of the
+transept so as to include additional apsidal chapels on the east side.
+In France, and to a certain extent in Italy, the multiplication of
+chapels led to their being placed on the north and south side of the
+aisles, and in some cases, as at Albi in France, to the suppression of
+the aisles and the instalment of the chapels in their place. The chapels
+of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes of large
+dimensions and architecturally of great importance, that of Christ
+Church being actually the cathedral of Oxford; among others may be
+mentioned the chapel of Merton College, and the new chapel of Exeter
+College, both in Oxford, and the chapel of King's College, Cambridge,
+which is roofed over with perhaps the finest fan-vault in England. (See
+VAULT, Plate II., fig. 19.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The only other English sense is that of a printer's workshop, or
+    the body of compositors in it, who are presided over by a "father of
+    the chapel."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPELAIN, JEAN (1595-1674), French poet and man of letters, the son of
+a notary, was born in Paris on the 4th of December 1595. His father
+destined him for his own profession; but his mother, who had known
+Ronsard, had determined otherwise. At an early age Chapelain began to
+qualify himself for literature, learning, under Nicolas Bourbon, Greek
+and Latin, and teaching himself Italian and Spanish. Having finished his
+studies, he was engaged for a while in teaching Spanish to a young
+nobleman. He was then appointed tutor to the two sons of a M. de la
+Trousse, grand provost of France. Attached for the next seventeen years
+to the family of this gentleman, the administration of whose fortune was
+wholly in his hands, he seems to have published nothing during this
+period, yet to have acquired a great reputation as a probability. His
+first work given to the public was a preface for the _Adone_ of Marini,
+who printed and published that notorious poem at Paris. This was
+followed by an excellent translation of Mateo Aleman's novel, _Guzman de
+Alfarache_, and by four extremely indifferent odes, one of them
+addressed to Richelieu. The credit of introducing the law of the
+dramatic unities into French literature has been claimed for many
+writers, and especially for the Abbe d'Aubignac, whose _Pratique du
+theatre_ appeared in 1657. The theory had of course been enunciated in
+the _Art poetique_ of J.C. Scaliger in 1561, and subsequently by other
+writers, but there is no doubt that it was the action of Chapelain that
+transferred it from the region of theory to that of actual practice. In
+a conversation with Richelieu in about 1632, reported by the abbe
+d'Olivet, Chapelain maintained that it was indispensable to maintain the
+unities of time, place and action, and it is explicitly stated that the
+doctrine was new to the cardinal and to the poets who were in his pay.
+French classical drama thus owes the riveting of its fetters to
+Chapelain. Rewarded with a pension of a thousand crowns, and from the
+first an active member of the newly-constituted Academy, Chapelain drew
+up the plan of the grammar and dictionary the compilation of which was
+to be a principal function of the young institution, and at Richelieu's
+command drew up the _Sentiments de l'Academie sur le Cid_. In 1656 he
+published, in a magnificent form, the first twelve cantos of his
+celebrated epic _La Pucelle_,[1] on which he had been engaged during
+twenty years. Six editions of the poem were disposed of in eighteen
+months. But this was the end of the poetic reputation of Chapelain, "the
+legist of Parnassus". Later the slashing satire of Boileau (in this case
+fairly master of his subject) did its work, and Chapelain ("_Le plus
+grand poete Francais qu' ait jamais ete et du plus solide jugement_," as
+he is called in Colbert's list) took his place among the failures of
+modern art.
+
+Chapelain's reputation as a critic survived this catastrophe, and in
+1663 he was employed by Colbert to draw up an account of contemporary
+men of letters, destined to guide the king in his distribution of
+pensions. In this pamphlet, as in his letters, he shows to far greater
+advantage than in his unfortunate epic. His prose is incomparably better
+than his verse; his criticisms are remarkable for their justice and
+generosity; his erudition and kindliness of heart are everywhere
+apparent; the royal attention is directed alike towards the author's
+firmest friends and bitterest enemies. To him young Racine was indebted
+not only for kindly and seasonable counsel, but also for that pension of
+six hundred livres which was so useful to him. The catholicity of his
+taste is shown by his _De la lecture des vieux romans_ (pr. 1870), in
+which he praises the _chansons de geste_, forgotten by his generation.
+Chapelain refused many honours, and his disinterestedness in this and
+other cases makes it necessary to receive with caution the stories of
+Menage and Tallemant des Reaux, who assert that he was in his old age a
+miser, and that a considerable fortune was found hoarded in his
+apartments when he died on the 22nd of February 1674.
+
+  There is a very favourable estimate of Chapelain's merits as a critic
+  in George Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, ii. 256-261. An
+  analysis of _La Pucelle_ is given in pp. 23-79 of Robert Southey's
+  _Joan of Arc_. See also _Les Lettres de Jean Chapelain_ (ed. P.
+  Tanuzey de Larroque, 1880-1882); _Lettres inedites ... a P.D. Huet_
+  (1658-1673, ed. by L.G. Pellissier, 1894); Julien Duchesne, _Les
+  Poemes epiques du XVIIe siecle_ (1870); the abbe A. Fabre, _Les
+  Ennemis de Chapelain_ (1888), _Chapelain et nos deux premieres
+  Academies_ (1890); and A. Muehlan,_ Jean Chapelain_ (1893).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The last twelve cantos of _La Pucelle_ were edited (1882) from
+    the MS. with corrections and a preface in the author's autograph, in
+    the _Bibliotheque Nationale_, by H. Herluison. Another edition, by E.
+    de Molenes (2 vols.), was published in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH, a market town in the High Peak parliamentary
+division of Derbyshire, England, 20 m. S.E. of Manchester, on the London
+& North-Western and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 4626. It lies in an
+upland valley of the Peak district, the hills of which rise above 1200
+ft. in its immediate vicinity. There are paper-works and ironworks, and
+brewing is carried on. The foundation of the church of St Thomas of
+Canterbury is attributed to the foresters of the royal forest or frith
+of the Peak early in the 13th century; and from this the town took name.
+After the defeat of the Scottish forces at Preston by Cromwell in 1648,
+it is said that 1500 prisoners were confined in the church at
+Chapel-en-le-Frith.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPEL HILL, a town of Orange county, North Carolina, U.S.A., about 28
+m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1900) 1099; (1910) 1149. It is served by a
+branch of the Southern railway, connecting at University, 10 m. distant,
+with the Greensboro & Goldsboro division. The town is best known as the
+seat of the University of North Carolina (see NORTH CAROLINA), whose
+campus contains 48 acres. There are cotton and knitting mills and lumber
+interests of some importance. Chapel Hill was settled late in the 18th
+century, and was first incorporated in 1851.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPELLE ARDENTE (Fr. "burning chapel"), the chapel or room in which the
+corpse of a sovereign or other exalted personage lies in state pending
+the funeral service. The name is in allusion to the many candles which
+arc lighted round the catafalque. This custom is first chronicled as
+occurring at the obsequies of Dagobert I. (602-638).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPERON, originally a cap or hood (Fr. _chape_) worn by nobles and
+knights of the Garter in full dress, and after the 16th century by
+middle-aged ladies. The modern use of the word is of a married or
+elderly lady (cf. "duenna") escorting or protecting a young and
+unmarried girl in public places and in society.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPLAIN, strictly one who conducts service in a chapel (q.v.), i.e. a
+priest or minister without parochial charge who is attached for special
+duties to a sovereign or his representatives (ambassadors, judges, &c.),
+to bishops, to the establishments of nobles, &c., to institutions (e.g.
+parliament, congress, colleges, schools, workhouses, cemeteries), or to
+the army and the navy. In some cases a parish priest is also appointed
+to a chaplaincy, but in so far as he is a chaplain he has no parochial
+duties. Thus a bishop of the English Church appoints examining chaplains
+who conduct the examination of candidates for holy orders; such
+officials generally hold ordinary benefices also. The British sovereign
+has 36 "Chaplains in Ordinary," who perform service at St James's in
+rotation, as well as "Honorary Chaplains" and "Chaplains of the
+Household." There are also royal chaplains in Scotland and Ireland. The
+Scottish chaplains in ordinary are on the same basis as those in
+England, but the Irish chaplains are attached to the household of the
+lord-lieutenant. The Indian civil service appoints a number of clergymen
+of the Church of England and the Church of Scotland. These clergymen are
+known as Chaplains, and are subject to the same conditions as other
+civil servants, being eligible for a retiring pension after 23 years of
+service. Chaplains are also appointed under the foreign office to
+embassies, legations, consulates, &c.
+
+Workhouse chaplains are appointed by overseers and guardians on the
+direction of the Local Government Board, to which alone such chaplains
+are responsible. Prison chaplains are appointed by the home secretary.
+
+In the British army there are two kinds of chaplains, permanent and
+occasional. The former, described as Chaplains to the Forces, hold
+commissions, serving throughout the empire except in India: they include
+a Chaplain-General who ranks as a major-general, and four classes of
+subordinate chaplains who rank respectively as colonels,
+lieutenant-colonels, majors and captains. There are about 100 in all.
+Special chaplains (Acting Chaplains for Temporary Service) may be
+appointed by a secretary of state under the Army Chaplains Act of 1868
+to perform religious service for the army in particular districts. The
+permanent chaplains may be Church of England, Roman Catholic, or
+Presbyterian; Wesleyans (if they prefer not to accept commissions) may
+be appointed Acting Chaplains. The Church of England chaplains report to
+the chaplain-general, while other chaplains report to the War Office
+direct. In the navy, chaplains are likewise appointed but do not hold
+official rank. They must have a special ecclesiastical licence from the
+archbishop of Canterbury. In 1900 a Chaplains' Department of the
+Territorial Force was formed; there is no denominational restriction.
+
+In the armies and navies of all Christian countries chaplains are
+officially appointed, with the single exception of France, where the
+office was abolished on the separation of Church and State. In the army
+of the United States of America chaplains are originally appointed by
+the president, and subsequently are under the authority of the secretary
+of war, who receives recommendations as regards transfer from department
+commanders. By act of Congress, approved in April 1904, the
+establishment of chaplains was fixed at 57 (15 with the rank of major),
+12 for the artillery corps and 1 each for the cavalry and infantry
+regiments. There is no distinction of sect. In the U.S. navy the
+chaplains are 24 in number, of whom 13 rank as lieutenants, 7 as
+commanders, 4 as captains.
+
+In the armies of Roman Catholic countries there are elaborate
+regulations. Where the chaplains are numerous a chaplain-major is
+generally appointed, but in the absence of special sanction from the
+pope such officer has no spiritual jurisdiction. Moreover, chaplains
+must be approved by the ordinary of the locality. In Austria there are
+Roman Catholic, Greek Church, Jewish and Mahommedan chaplains. The Roman
+Catholic chaplains are classed as parish priests, curates and
+assistants, and are subject to an army Vicar Apostolic. In war, at an
+army headquarters there are a "field-rabbi," a "military imam," an
+evangelical minister, as well as the Roman Catholic hierarchy. By a
+decree of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda (May 15, 1906), the
+archbishop of Westminster is the ecclesiastical superior of all
+commissioned Roman Catholic chaplains in the British army and navy, and
+he is empowered to negotiate with the civil authorities concerning
+appointments.
+
+In Germany, owing to the fact that there are different religions in the
+different states, there is no uniform system. In Prussia there are two
+_Feldprobste_ (who are directly under the war minister), one Lutheran,
+one Roman Catholic. The latter is a titular bishop, and has sole
+spiritual authority over soldiers. There are also army corps and
+divisional chaplains of both faiths. Bavaria and Saxony, both Roman
+Catholic states, have no special spiritual hierarchy; in Bavaria, the
+archbishop of Munich and Freysing is _ex officio_ bishop of the army.
+
+The origin of the office of _capellanus_ or _cappellanus_ in the
+medieval church is generally traced (see Du Cange, _Gloss, med. et
+infim. Latin_.) to the appointment of persons to watch over the sacred
+cloak (_cappa_ or _capella_) of St Martin of Tours, which was preserved
+as a relic by the French monarchs. In time of war this cloak was carried
+with the army in the field, and was kept in a tent which itself came to
+be known as a _cappella_ or _capella_. It is also suggested that the
+_capella_ was simply the tent or canopy which the French kings erected
+over the altar in the field for the worship of the soldiers. However
+this may be, the name _capellanus_ was generally applied to those who
+were in charge of sacred relics: such officials were also known as
+_custodes, martyrarii, cubicularii_. Thus we hear of a _custos palatinae
+capellae_ who was in charge of the palace chapel relics, and guarded
+them in the field; the chief of these _custodes_ was sometimes called
+the _archicapellanus_. From the care of sacred relics preserved in royal
+chapels, &c. (_sacella_ or _capellae_), the office of _capellanus_
+naturally extended its scope until it covered practically that of the
+modern court chaplain, and was officially recognized by the Church.
+These clerics became the confessors in royal and noble houses, and were
+generally chosen from among bishops and other high dignitaries. The
+arch-chaplain not only received jurisdiction within the royal household,
+but represented the authority of the monarch in religious matters, and
+also acquired more general powers. In France the arch-chaplain was
+grand-almoner, and both in France and in the Holy Roman Empire was also
+high chancellor of the realm. The office was abolished in France at the
+Revolution in 1789, revived by Pius IX. in 1857, and again abolished on
+the fall of the Second Empire.
+
+The Roman Catholic Church also recognizes a class of beneficed
+chaplains, supported out of "pious foundations" for the specific duty of
+saying, or arranging for, certain masses, or taking part in certain
+services. These chaplains are classified as follows:--_Ecclesiastical_,
+if the foundation has been recognized officially as a benefice; _Lay_,
+if this recognition has not been obtained; _Mercenary_, if the person
+who has been entrusted with the duty of performing or procuring the
+desired celebration is a layman (such persons also are sometimes called
+"Lay Chaplains"); _Collative_, if it is provided that a bishop shall
+collate or confer the right to act upon the accepted candidate, who
+otherwise could not be recognized as an ecclesiastical chaplain. There
+are elaborate regulations governing the appointment and conduct of these
+chaplains.
+
+Other classes of chaplains are:--(1) _Parochial_ or _Auxiliary
+Chaplains_, appointed either by a parish priest (under a provision
+authorized by the Council of Trent) or by a bishop to take over certain
+specified duties which he is unable to perform; (2) _Chaplains of
+Convents_, appointed by a bishop: these must be men of mature age,
+should not be regulars unless secular priests cannot be obtained, and
+are not generally to be appointed for life; (3) _Pontifical Chaplains_,
+some of whom (known as Private Chaplains) assist the pontiff in the
+celebration of Mass; others attached directly to the pope are honorary
+private chaplains who occasionally assist the private chaplains, private
+clerics of the chapel, common chaplains and supernumerary chaplains. The
+common chaplains were instituted by Alexander VII., and in 1907 were
+definitely allowed the title "Monsignore" by Pius X.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPLIN, HENRY (1841-   ), English statesman, second son of the Rev.
+Henry Chaplin, of Blankney, Lincolnshire, was educated at Harrow and
+Christ Church, Oxford, and first entered parliament in 1868 as
+Conservative member for Mid-Lincolnshire. He represented this
+constituency (which under the Redistribution Act of 1885 became the
+Sleaford division) till 1906, when he was defeated, but in 1907 returned
+to the House of Commons as member for Wimbledon at a by-election. In
+1876 he married a daughter of the 3rd duke of Sutherland, but lost his
+wife in 1881. Outside the House of Commons he was a familiar figure on
+the Turf, winning the Derby with Hermit in 1867; and in politics from
+the first the "Squire of Blankney" took an active interest in
+agricultural questions, as a popular and typical representative of the
+English "country gentleman" class. Having filled the office of
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in Lord Salisbury's short ministry
+of 1885-1886, he became president of the new Board of Agriculture in
+1889, with a seat in the cabinet, and retained this post till 1892. In
+the Conservative cabinet of 1895-1900 he was president of the Local
+Government Board, and was responsible for the Agricultural Rates Act of
+1896; but he was not included in the ministry after its reconstruction
+in 1900. Mr Chaplin had always been an advocate of protectionism, being
+in this respect the most prominent inheritor of the views of Lord George
+Bentinck; and when in 1903 the Tariff Reform movement began under Mr
+Chamberlain's leadership, he gave it his enthusiastic support, becoming
+a member of the Tariff Commission and one of the most strenuous
+advocates in the country of the new doctrines in opposition to free
+trade.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPMAN, GEORGE (? 1559-1634), English poet and dramatist, was born near
+Hitchin. The inscription on the portrait which forms the frontispiece of
+_The Whole Works of Homer_ states that he was then (1616) fifty-seven
+years of age. Anthony a Wood (_Athen. Oxon._ ii. 575) says that about
+1574 he was sent to the university, "but whether first to this of Oxon,
+or that of Cambridge, is to me unknown; sure I am that he spent some
+time in Oxon, where he was observed to be most excellent in the Latin
+and Greek tongues, but not in logic or philosophy." Chapman's first
+extant play, _The Blind Beggar of Alexandria_, was produced in 1596, and
+two years later Francis Meres mentions him in _Palladis Tamia_ among the
+"best for tragedie" and the "best for comedie." Of his life between
+leaving the university and settling in London there is no account. It
+has been suggested, from the detailed knowledge displayed in _The Shadow
+of Night_ of an incident in Sir Francis Vere's campaign, that he saw
+service in the Netherlands. There are frequent entries with regard to
+Chapman in Henslowe's diary for the years 1598-1599, but his dramatic
+activity slackened during the following years, when his attention was
+chiefly occupied by his _Homer_. In 1604 he was imprisoned with John
+Marston for his share in _Eastward Ho_, in which offence was given to
+the Scottish party at court. Ben Jonson voluntarily joined the two, who
+were soon released. Chapman seems to have enjoyed favour at court, where
+he had a patron in Prince Henry, but in 1605 Jonson and he were for a
+short time in prison again for "a play." Beaumont, the French ambassador
+in London, in a despatch of the 5th of April 1608, writes that he had
+obtained the prohibition of a performance of _Biron_ in which the queen
+of France was represented as giving Mademoiselle de Verneuil a box on
+the ears. He adds that three of the actors were imprisoned, but that the
+chief culprit, the author, had escaped (Raumer, _Briefe aus Paris_,
+1831, ii. 276). Among Chapman's patrons was Robert Carr, earl of
+Somerset, to whom he remained faithful after his disgrace. Chapman
+enjoyed the friendship and admiration of his great contemporaries. John
+Webster in the preface to _The White Devil_ praised "his full and
+heightened style," and Ben Jonson told Drummond of Hawthornden that
+Fletcher and Chapman "were loved of him." These friendly relations
+appear to have been interrupted later, for there is extant in the
+Ashmole MSS. an "Invective written by Mr George Chapman against Mr Ben
+Jonson." Chapman died in the parish of St Giles in the Fields, and was
+buried on the 12th of May 1634 in the churchyard. A monument to his
+memory was erected by Inigo Jones.     (M. Br.)
+
+Chapman, his first biographer is careful to let us know, "was a person
+of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate, qualities rarely
+meeting in a poet"; he had also certain other merits at least as
+necessary to the exercise of that profession. He had a singular force
+and solidity of thought, an admirable ardour of ambitious devotion to
+the service of poetry, a deep and burning sense at once of the duty
+implied and of the dignity inherent in his office; a vigour, opulence,
+and loftiness of phrase, remarkable even in that age of spiritual
+strength, wealth and exaltation of thought and style; a robust
+eloquence, touched not unfrequently with flashes of fancy, and kindled
+at times into heat of imagination. The main fault of his style is one
+more commonly found in the prose than in the verse of his time,--a
+quaint and florid obscurity, rigid with elaborate rhetoric and tortuous
+with labyrinthine illustration; not dark only to the rapid reader
+through closeness and subtlety of thought, like Donne, whose miscalled
+obscurity is so often "all glorious within," but thick and slab as a
+witch's gruel with forced and barbarous eccentricities of articulation.
+As his language in the higher forms of comedy is always pure and clear,
+and sometimes exquisite in the simplicity of its earnest and natural
+grace, the stiffness and density of his more ambitious style may perhaps
+be attributed to some pernicious theory or conceit of the dignity proper
+to a moral and philosophic poet. Nevertheless, many of the gnomic
+passages in his tragedies and allegoric poems are of singular weight and
+beauty; the best of these, indeed, would not discredit the fame of the
+very greatest poets for sublimity of equal thought and expression:
+witness the lines chosen by Shelley as the motto for a poem, and fit to
+have been chosen as the motto for his life.
+
+The romantic and sometimes barbaric grandeur of Chapman's _Homer_
+remains attested by the praise of Keats, of Coleridge and of Lamb; it is
+written at a pitch of strenuous and laborious exaltation, which never
+flags or breaks down, but never flies with the ease and smoothness of an
+eagle native to Homeric air. From his occasional poems an expert and
+careful hand might easily gather a noble anthology of excerpts, chiefly
+gnomic or meditative, allegoric or descriptive. The most notable
+examples of his tragic work are comprised in the series of plays taken,
+and adapted sometimes with singular licence, from the records of such
+part of French history as lies between the reign of Francis I. and the
+reign of Henry IV., ranging in date of subject from the trial and death
+of Admiral Chabot to the treason and execution of Marshal Biron. The two
+plays bearing as epigraph the name of that famous soldier and
+conspirator are a storehouse of lofty thought and splendid verse, with
+scarcely a flash or sparkle of dramatic action. The one play of
+Chapman's whose popularity on the stage survived the Restoration is
+_Bussy d'Ambois_ (d'Amboise),--a tragedy not lacking in violence of
+action or emotion, and abounding even more in sweet and sublime
+interludes than in crabbed and bombastic passages. His rarest jewels of
+thought and verse detachable from the context lie embedded in the
+tragedy of _Caesar and Pompey_, whence the finest of them were first
+extracted by the unerring and unequalled critical genius of Charles
+Lamb. In most of his tragedies the lofty and labouring spirit of Chapman
+may be said rather to shine fitfully through parts than steadily to
+pervade the whole; they show nobly altogether as they stand, but even
+better by help of excerpts and selections. But the excellence of his
+best comedies can only be appreciated by a student who reads them fairly
+and fearlessly through, and, having made some small deductions on the
+score of occasional pedantry and occasional indecency, finds in _All
+Fools_, _Monsieur d'Olive_, _The Gentleman Usher_, and _The Widow's
+Tears_ a wealth and vigour of humorous invention, a tender and earnest
+grace of romantic poetry, which may atone alike for these passing
+blemishes and for the lack of such clear-cut perfection of character and
+such dramatic progression of interest as we find only in the yet higher
+poets of the English heroic age.
+
+So much it may suffice to say of Chapman as an original poet, one who
+held of no man and acknowledged no master, but from the birth of Marlowe
+well-nigh to the death of Jonson held on his own hard and haughty way of
+austere and sublime ambition, not without kindly and graceful
+inclination of his high grey head to salute such younger and still
+nobler compeers as Jonson and Fletcher. With Shakespeare we should never
+have guessed that he had come at all in contact, had not the keen
+intelligence of William Minto divined or rather discerned him to be the
+rival poet referred to in Shakespeare's sonnets with a grave note of
+passionate satire, hitherto as enigmatic as almost all questions
+connected with those divine and dangerous poems. This conjecture
+Professor Minto fortified by such apt collocation and confrontation of
+passages that we may now reasonably accept it as an ascertained and
+memorable fact.
+
+The objections which a just and adequate judgment may bring against
+Chapman's master-work, his translation of Homer, may be summed up in
+three epithets: it is romantic, laborious, Elizabethan. The qualities
+implied by these epithets are the reverse of those which should
+distinguish a translator of Homer; but setting this apart, and
+considering the poems as in the main original works, the superstructure
+of a romantic poet on the submerged foundations of Greek verse, no
+praise can be too warm or high for the power, the freshness, the
+indefatigable strength and inextinguishable fire which animate this
+exalted work, and secure for all time that shall take cognizance of
+English poetry an honoured place in its highest annals for the memory of
+Chapman.     (A. C. S.)
+
+  Chapman's works include:--[Greek: Skia nyktos]: _The Shadow of Night:
+  Containing two Poeticall Hymnes_ ... (1594), the second of which deals
+  with Sir Francis Vere's campaign in the Netherlands; _Ovid's Banquet
+  of Sence. A Coronet for his Mistresse Philosophie; and His Amorous
+  Zodiacke with a translation of a Latine coppie, written by a Fryer,
+  Anno Dom. 1400_ (1595, 2nd ed. 1639), a collection of poems frequently
+  quoted from in _England's Parnassus_ (1600); "De Guiana, carmen
+  epicum," a poem prefixed to Lawrence Keymis's _A Relation of the
+  second voyage to Guiana_ (1596); _Hero and Leander. Begun by
+  Christopher Marloe; and finished by George Chapman_ (1598); _The
+  Blinde begger of Alexandria, most pleasantly discoursing his variable
+  humours_ ... (acted 1596, printed 1598), a popular comedy; _A Pleasant
+  Comedy entituled An Humerous dayes Myrth_ (identified by Mr Fleay with
+  the "Comodey of Umero" noted by Henslowe on the 11th of May 1597;
+  printed 1599); _Al Fooles, A Comedy_ (paid for by Henslowe on the 2nd
+  of July 1599, its original name being "The World runs on wheels";
+  printed 1605); _The Gentleman Usher_ (c. 1601, pr. 1606), a comedy;
+  _Monsieur d'Olive_ (1604, pr. 1606), one of his most amusing and
+  successful comedies; _Eastward Hoe_ (1605), written in conjunction
+  with Ben Jonson and John Marston, an excellent comedy of city life;
+  _Bussy d'Ambois,[1] A Tragedie_ (1604, pr. 1607, 1608, 1616, 1641,
+  &c.), the scene of which is laid in the court of Henry III.; _The
+  Revenge of Bussy d'Ambois. A Tragedie_ (pr. 1613, but probably written
+  much earlier); _The Conspiracie, And Tragedie of Charles Duke of
+  Byron. Marshall of France, ... in two plays_ (1607 and 1608; pr. 1608
+  and 1625); _May-Day, A witty Comedie_ (pr. 1611; but probably acted as
+  early as 1601); _The widdowes Teares. A Comedie_ (pr. 1612; produced
+  perhaps as early as 1605); _Caesar and Pompey: A Roman Tragedy,
+  declaring their warres. Out of whose events is evicted this
+  Proposition. Only a just man is a freeman_ (pr. 1631), written, says
+  Chapman in the dedication, "long since," but never staged.
+
+  _The Tragedy of Alphonsus Emperour of Germany_ (see the edition by Dr
+  Karl Elye; Leipzig, 1867) and _Revenge for Honour_ (1654)[2] both bear
+  Chapman's name on the title-page, but his authorship has been
+  disputed. In _The Ball_ (lic. 1632; pr. 1639), a comedy, and _The
+  Tragedie of Chabot Admirall of France_ (lic. 1635; pr. 1639) he
+  collaborated with James Shirley. _The memorable Masque of the two
+  Honourable Houses or Inns of Court; the Middle Temple and Lyncoln's
+  Inne_, was performed at court in 1613 in honour of the marriage of the
+  Princess Elizabeth.
+
+  _The Whole Works of Homer: Prince of Poets. In his Iliads and
+  Odysseys_ ... appeared in 1616, and about 1624 he added _The Crowne
+  of all Homers works Batrachomyomachia or the Battaile of Frogs and
+  Mise. His Hymns and Epigrams._ But the whole works had been already
+  published by instalments. _Seaven Bookes of the Iliades of Homer_ had
+  appeared in 1598, _Achilles Shield_ in the same year, books i.-xii.
+  about 1609; in 1611 _The Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets_ ...; and
+  in 1614 _Twenty-four Bookes of Homer's Odisses_ were entered at
+  Stationers' Hall. In 1609 he addressed to Prince Henry _Enthymiae
+  Raptus; or the Teares of Peace_, and on the death of his patron he
+  contributed _An Epicede, or Funerall Song_ (1612). A paraphrase of
+  _Petrarchs Seven Penitentiall Psalms_ (1612), a poem in honour of the
+  marriage of Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, and Frances, the divorced
+  countess of Essex, indiscreetly entitled _Andromeda Liberata_ ...
+  (1614), a translation of _The Georgicks of Hesiod_ (1618), _Pro Vere
+  Autumni Lachrymae_ (1622), in honour of Sir Horatio Vere, _A
+  justification of a Strange Action of Nero ... also ... the fifth
+  Satyre of Juvenall_ (1629), and _Eugenia_ ... (1614), an elegy on Sir
+  William Russell, complete the list of his separately published works.
+
+  Chapman's _Homer_ was edited in 1857 by the Rev. Richard Hooper; and a
+  reprint of his dramatic works appeared in 1873. The standard edition
+  of Chapman is the _Works_, edited by R.H. Shepherd (1874-1875), the
+  third volume of which contains an "Essay on the Poetical and Dramatic
+  works of George Chapman," by Mr Swinburne, printed separately in 1875.
+  The selection of his plays (1895) for the Mermaid Series is edited by
+  Mr W.L. Phelps. For the sources of the plays see Emil Koeppel,
+  "Anellen Studien zu den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip Massinger's
+  und John Ford's" in _Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach und
+  Kulturgeschichte_ (vol. 82, Strassburg, 1897). The suggestion of W.
+  Minto (see _Characteristics of the English Poets_, 1885) that Chapman
+  was the "rival poet" of Shakespeare's sonnets is amplified in Mr A.
+  Acheson's _Shakespeare and the Rival Poet_ (1903). Much satire in
+  Chapman's introduction is there applied to Shakespeare. For other
+  criticisms of his translation of Homer see Matthew Arnold, _Lectures
+  on translating Homer_ (1861), and Dr A. Lohff, _George Chapman's
+  Ilias-Ubersetzung_ (Berlin, 1903).     (M. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Chapman's source in this piece remains undetermined. It cannot be
+    the _Historia sui temporis_ of Jacques de Thorn, for the 4th volume
+    of his work, which relates the story, was not published until 1609
+    (see Koeppel, p. 14).
+
+  [2] This play appears to have been issued in 1653 with the title _The
+    Parracide, or Revenge for Honour_ as the work of Henry Glathorne.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPMAN (from O. Eng. _ceap_, and Mid. Eng. _cheap_, to barter, cf.
+"Cheapside" in London, and Ger. _Kaufmann_), one who buys or sells, a
+trader or dealer, especially an itinerant pedlar. The word "chap," now a
+slang term, meant originally a customer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPONE, HESTER (1727-1801), English essayist, daughter of Thomas Mulso,
+a country gentleman, was born at Twywell, Northamptonshire, on the 27th
+of October 1727. She was a precocious child, and at the age of nine
+wrote a romance entitled _The Loves of Amoret and Melissa_. Hecky Mulso,
+as she was familiarly called, developed a beautiful voice, which earned
+her the name of "the linnet." While on a visit to Canterbury she made
+the acquaintance of the learned Mrs Elizabeth Carter, and soon became
+one of the admirers of the novelist Samuel Richardson. She was one of
+the little court of women who gathered at North End, Fulham; and in Miss
+Susannah Highmore's sketch of the novelist reading _Sir Charles
+Grandison_ to his friends Miss Mulso is the central figure. She
+corresponded with Richardson on "filial obedience" in letters as long as
+his own, signing herself his "ever obliged and affectionate child." She
+admired, however, with discrimination, and in the words of her
+biographer (_Posthumous Works_, 1807, p. 9) "her letters show with what
+dignity, tempered with proper humility, she could maintain her own
+well-grounded opinion." In 1760 Miss Mulso, with her father's reluctant
+consent, married the attorney, John Chapone, who had been befriended by
+Richardson. Her husband died within a year of her marriage. Mrs Chapone
+remained in London visiting various friends. She had already made small
+contributions to various periodicals when she published, in 1772, her
+best known work, _Letters on the Improvement of the Mind._ This book
+brought her numerous requests from distinguished persons to undertake
+the education of their children. She died on the 25th of December 1801.
+
+  See _The Posthumous Works of Mrs Chapone, containing her
+  correspondence with Mr Richardson; a series of letters to Mrs
+  Elizabeth Carter ... together with an account of her life and
+  character drawn up by her own family_ (1807).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPPE, CLAUDE (1763-1805), French engineer, was born at Brulon (Sarthe)
+in 1763. He was the inventor of an optical telegraph which was widely
+used in France until it was superseded by the electric telegraph. His
+device consisted of an upright post, on the top of which was fastened a
+transverse bar, while at the ends of the latter two smaller arms moved
+on pivots. The position of these bars represented words or letters; and
+by means of machines placed at intervals such that each was distinctly
+visible from the next, messages could be conveyed through 50 leagues in
+a quarter of an hour. The machine was adopted by the Legislative
+Assembly in 1792, and in the following year Chappe was appointed
+_ingenieur-telegraphe_; but the originality of his invention was so much
+questioned that he was seized with melancholia and (it is said)
+committed suicide at Paris in 1805.
+
+His elder brother, Ignace Urbain Jean Chappe (1760-1829), took part in
+the invention of the telegraph, and with a younger brother, Pierre
+Francois, from 1805 to 1823 was administrator of the telegraphs, a post
+which was also held by two other brothers, Rene and Abraham, from 1823
+to 1830. Ignace was the author of a _Histoire de la telegraphie_ (1824).
+An uncle, Jean Chappe d'Auteroche (1728-1769), was an astronomer who
+observed two transits of Venus, one in Siberia in 1761, and the other in
+1769 in California, where he died.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPPELL, WILLIAM (1809-1888), English writer on music, a member of the
+London musical firm of Chappell & Co., was born on the 20th of November
+1809, eldest son of Samuel Chappell (d. 1834), who founded the business.
+William Chappell is particularly noteworthy for his starting the Musical
+Antiquarian Society in 1840, and his publication of the standard work
+_Popular Music of the Olden Time_ (1855-1859)--an expansion of a
+collection of "national English airs" made by him in 1838-1840. The
+modern revival of interest in English folk-songs owes much to this work,
+which has since been re-edited by Professor H.E. Wooldridge (1893). W.
+Chappell died on the 20th of August 1888. His brother, Thomas Patey
+Chappell (d. 1902), meanwhile had largely extended the publishing
+business, and had started (1859) the Monday and Saturday Popular
+Concerts at St James's Hall, which were successfully managed by a
+younger brother, S. Arthur Chappell, till they came to an end towards
+the close of the century.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPRA, or CHUPRA, a town of British India, the administrative
+headquarters of Saran district in Bengal, near the left bank of the
+river Gogra, just above its confluence with the Ganges; with a railway
+station on the Bengal & North-Western line towards Oudh. Pop. (1901)
+45,901, showing a decrease of 21% in the decade. There are a government
+high school, a German Lutheran mission, and a public library endowed by
+a former maharaja of Hatwa. Chapra is the centre of trade in indigo and
+saltpetre, and conducts a large business by water as well as by rail.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE, COMTE DE CHANTE-LOUP (1756-1832), French
+chemist and statesman, was born at Nogaret, Lozere, on the 4th of June
+1756. The son of an apothecary, he studied chemistry at Montpellier,
+obtaining his doctor's diploma in 1777, when he repaired to Paris. In
+1781 the States of Languedoc founded a chair of chemistry for him at the
+school of medicine in Montpellier, where he taught the doctrines of
+Lavoisier. The capital he acquired by the death of a wealthy uncle he
+employed in the establishment of chemical works for the manufacture of
+the mineral acids, alum, white-lead, soda and other substances. His
+labours in the cause of applied science were at length recognized by the
+French government, which presented him with letters of nobility, and the
+cordon of the order of Saint Michel. During the Revolution a publication
+by Chaptal, entitled _Dialogue entre un Montagnard et un Girondin_,
+caused him to be arrested; but being speedily set at liberty through the
+intermission of his friends, he undertook, in 1793, the management of
+the saltpetre works at Grenelle. In the following year he went to
+Montpellier, where he remained till 1797, when he returned to Paris.
+After the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th of Brumaire (November 9, 1799) he
+was made a councillor of state by the First Consul, and succeeded Lucien
+Bonaparte as minister of the interior, in which capacity he established
+a chemical manufactory near Paris, a school of arts, and a society of
+industries; he also reorganized the hospitals, introduced the metrical
+system of weights and measures, and otherwise greatly encouraged the
+arts and sciences. A misunderstanding between him and Napoleon (who
+conferred upon him the title of comte de Chanteloup) occasioned
+Chaptal's retirement from office in 1804; but before the end of that
+year he was again received into favour by the emperor, who bestowed on
+him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and made him treasurer to
+the conservative senate. On Napoleon's return from Elba, Chaptal was
+made director-general of commerce and manufactures and a minister of
+state. He was obliged after the downfall of the emperor to withdraw into
+private life; and his name was removed from the list of the peers of
+France until 1819. In 1816, however, he was nominated a member of the
+Academy of Sciences by Louis XVIII. Chaptal was especially a popularizer
+of science, attempting to apply to industry and agriculture the
+discoveries of chemistry. In this way he contributed largely to the
+development of modern industry. He died at Paris on the 30th of July
+1832.
+
+  His literary works exhibit both vigour and perspicuity of style; he
+  wrote, in addition to various articles, especially in the _Annales de
+  chimie, Elemens de chimie_ (3 vols., 1790; new ed., 1796-1803);
+  _Traite du salpetre et des goudrons_ (1796); _Tableau des principaux
+  sels terreux_ (1798); _Essai sur le perfectionnement des arts
+  chimiques en France_ (1800); _Art de faire, de gouverner, et de
+  perfectionner les vins_ (1 vol., 1801; new ed., 1819); _Traite
+  theorique et pratique sur la culture de la vigne, &c._, (2 vols.,
+  1801; new ed., 1811); _Essai sur le blanchiment_ (1801); _La Chimie
+  appliquee aux arts_ (4 vols., 1806); _Art de la teinture du coton en
+  rouge_ (1807); _Art du teinturier et du degraisseur_ (1800); _De
+  l'industrie francaise_ (2 vols., 1819); _Chimie appliquee a
+  l'agriculture_ (2 vols., 1823; new ed., 1829).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER (a shortened form of _chapiter_, a word still used in
+architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. _chapitre_, Lat.
+_capitellum_, diminutive of _caput_, head), a principal division or
+section of a book, and so applied to acts of parliament, as forming
+"chapters" or divisions of the legislation of a session of parliament.
+The name "chapter" is given to the permanent body of the canons of a
+cathedral or collegiate church, presided over, in the English Church, by
+the dean, and in the Roman communion by the provost or the dean, and
+also to the body of the members of a religious order. This may be a
+"conventual" chapter of the monks of a particular monastery,
+"provincial" of the members of the order in a province, or "general" of
+the whole order. This ecclesiastical use of the word arose from the
+custom of reading a chapter of Scripture, or a head (_capitulum_) of the
+_regula_, to the assembled canons or monks. The transference from the
+reading to the assembly itself, and to the members constituting it, was
+easy, through such phrases as _convenire ad capitulum_. The title
+"chapter" is similarly used of the assembled body of knights of a
+military or other order. (See also CANON; CATHEDRAL; DEAN).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER-HOUSE (Lat. _capitolium_, Ital. _capitolo_, Fr. _chapitre_, Ger.
+_Kapitelhaus_), the chamber in which the chapter or heads of the
+monastic bodies (see ABBEY and CATHEDRAL) assembled to transact
+business. They are of various forms; some are oblong apartments, as
+Canterbury, Exeter, Chester, Gloucester, &c.; some octagonal, as
+Salisbury, Westminster, Wells, Lincoln, York, &c. That at Lincoln has
+ten sides, and that at Worcester is circular; most are vaulted
+internally and polygonal externally, and some, as Salisbury, Wells,
+Lincoln, Worcester, &c., depend on a single slight vaulting shaft for
+the support of the massive vaulting. They are often provided with a
+vestibule, as at Westminster, Lincoln, Salisbury and are almost
+exclusively English.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPU, formerly an important maritime town of China, in the province of
+Cheh-kiang, 50 m. N.W. of Chen-hai, situated in one of the richest and
+best cultivated districts in the country. It is the port of Hang-chow,
+with which it has good canal communication, and it was formerly the only
+Chinese port trading with Japan. The town has a circuit of about 5 m.
+exclusive of the suburbs that lie along the beach; and the Tatar quarter
+is separated from the rest by a wall. It was captured and much injured
+by the British force in 1842, but was abandoned immediately after the
+engagement. The sea around it has now silted up, though in the middle of
+the 19th century it was accessible to the light-draught ships of the
+British fleet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAR (_Salvelinus_), a fish of the family Salmonidae, represented in
+Europe, Asia and North America. The best known and most widely
+distributed species, the one represented in British and Irish lakes, is
+_S. alpinus_, a graceful and delicious fish, covered with very minute
+scales and usually dark olive, bluish or purplish black above, with or
+without round orange or red spots, pinkish white or yellowish pink to
+scarlet or claret red below. When the char go to sea, they assume a more
+silvery coloration, similar to that of the salmon and sea trout; the red
+spots become very indistinct and the lower parts are almost white. The
+very young are also silvery on the sides and white below, and bear 11 to
+15 bars, or parr-marks, on the side. This fish varies much according to
+localities; and the difference in colour, together with a few points of
+doubtful constancy, have given rise to the establishment of a great
+number of untenable so-called species, as many as seven having been
+ascribed to the British and Irish fauna, viz. _S. alpinus, nivalis,
+killinensis, willoughbyi, perisii, colii_ and _grayi_, the last from
+Lough Melvin, Ireland, being the most distinct. _S. alpinus_ varies much
+in size according to the waters it inhabits, remaining dwarfed in some
+English lakes, and growing to 2 ft. or more in other localities. In
+other parts of Europe, also, various local forms have been
+distinguished, such as the "omble chevalier" of the lakes of Switzerland
+and Savoy (_S. umbla_), the "Sabling" of the lakes of South Germany and
+Austria (_S. salvelinus_), the "kullmund" of Norway (_S. carbonarius_),
+&c., while the North American _S. parkei, alipes, stagnalis, arcturus,
+areolus, oquassa_ and _marstoni_ may also be regarded as varieties.
+Taken in this wide sense, _S. alpinus_ has a very extensive
+distribution. In central Europe, in the British islands and in the
+greater part of Scandinavia it is confined to mountain lakes, but
+farther to the north, in both the Old World and the New, it lives in the
+sea and ascends rivers to spawn. In Lapland, Iceland, Greenland and
+other parts of the arctic regions, it ranks among the commonest fishes.
+The extreme northern point at which char have been obtained is 82 deg.
+34' N. (Victoria lake and Floeberg Beach, Arctic America). It reaches an
+altitude of 2600 ft. in the Alps and 6000 ft. in the Carpathians.
+
+The American brook char, _S. fontinalis_, is a close ally of _S.
+alpinus_, differing from it in having fewer and shorter gill-rakers, a
+rather stouter body, the back more or less barred or marbled with dark
+olive or black, and the dorsal and caudal fins mottled or barred with
+black. Many local varieties of colour have been distinguished. Sea-run
+individuals are often nearly plain bright silvery. It is a small
+species, growing to about 18 in. abundant in all clear, cold streams of
+North America, east of the Mississippi, northward to Labrador. The fish
+has been introduced into other parts of the United States, and also into
+Europe.
+
+Another member of the same section of Salmonidae is the Great Lake char
+of North America, _S. namaycush_, one of the largest salmonids, said to
+attain a weight of 100 lb. The body is very elongate and covered with
+extremely small scales. The colour varies from grey to black, with
+numerous round pale spots, which may be tinged with reddish; the dorsal
+and caudal fins reticulate with darker. This fish inhabits the Great
+Lakes regions and neighbouring parts of North America.
+
+
+
+
+CHAR-A-BANC (Fr. for "benched carriage"), a large form of wagonette-like
+vehicle for passengers, but with benched seats arranged in rows,
+looking forward, commonly used for large parties, whether as public
+conveyances or for excursions.
+
+
+
+
+CHARACTER (Gr. [Greek: charakter] from [Greek: charattein], to scratch),
+a distinctive mark (spelt "caracter" up to the 16th century, with other
+variants); so applied to symbols of notation or letters of the alphabet;
+more figuratively, the distinguishing traits of anything, and
+particularly the moral and mental qualities of an individual human
+being, the sum of those qualities which distinguish him as a
+personality. From the latter usage "a character" becomes almost
+identical with "reputation"; and in the sense of "giving a servant a
+character," the word involves a written testimonial. For the law
+relating to servants' characters see MASTER AND SERVANT. A further
+development is the use of "character" to mean an "odd or eccentric
+person"; or of a "character actor," to mean an actor who plays a
+highly-coloured strange part. The word is also used as the name of a
+form of literature, consisting of short descriptions of types of
+character. Well-known examples of such "characters" are those of
+Theophrastus and La Bruyere, and in English, of Joseph Hall (1574-1656)
+and Sir Thomas Overbury.
+
+
+
+
+CHARADE, a kind of riddle, probably invented in France during the 18th
+century, in which a word of two or more syllables is divined by guessing
+and combining into one word (the answer) the different syllables, each
+of which is described, as an independent word, by the giver of the
+charade. Charades may be either in prose or verse. Of poetic charades
+those by W. Mackworth Praed are well known and excellent examples, while
+the following specimens in prose may suffice as illustrations. "My
+_first_, with the most rooted antipathy to a Frenchman, prides himself,
+whenever they meet, upon sticking close to his jacket; my _second_ has
+many virtues, nor is its least that it gives its name to my first; my
+_whole_ may I never catch!" "My _first_ is company; my _second_ shuns
+company; my _third_ collects company; and my _whole_ amuses company."
+The solutions are _Tar-tar_ and _Co-nun-drum_. The most popular form of
+this amusement is the acted charade, in which the meaning of the
+different syllables is acted out on the stage, the audience being left
+to guess each syllable and thus, combining the meaning of all the
+syllables, the whole word. A brilliant example of the acted charade is
+described in Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_.
+
+
+
+
+CHARCOAL, the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by
+removing the volatile constituents of animal and vegetable substances;
+wood gives origin to wood-charcoal; sugar to sugar-charcoal; bone to
+bone-charcoal (which, however, mainly consists of calcium phosphate);
+while coal gives "coke" and "gas-carbon." The first part of the word
+charcoal is of obscure origin. The independent use of "char," meaning to
+scorch, to reduce to carbon, is comparatively recent, and must have been
+taken from "charcoal," which is quite early. The _New English
+Dictionary_ gives as the earliest instance of "char" a quotation dated
+1679. Similarly the word "chark" or "chak," meaning the same as "char,"
+is also late, and is probably due to a wrong division of the word
+"charcoal," or, as it was often spelled in the 16th and 17th centuries,
+"charkole" and "charke-coal." No suggestions for an origin of "char" are
+satisfactory. It may be a use of the word "chare," which appears in
+"char-woman," the American "chore"; in all these words it means "turn,"
+a turn of work, a job, and "charcoal" would have to mean "turned coal,"
+i.e. wood changed or turned to coal, a somewhat forced derivation, for
+which there is no authority. Another suggestion is that it is connected
+with "chirk" or "chark," an old word meaning "to make a grating noise."
+
+_Wood-charcoal._--In districts where there is an abundance of wood, as
+in the forests of France, Austria and Sweden, the operation of
+charcoal-burning is of the crudest description. The method, which dates
+back to a very remote period, generally consists in piling billets of
+wood on their ends so as to form a conical pile, openings being left at
+the bottom to admit air, with a central shaft to serve as a flue. The
+whole is covered with turf of moistened soil. The firing is begun at the
+bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outwards and upwards. The
+success of the operation--both as to the intrinsic value of the product
+and its amount--depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under average
+conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts by volume, or 25
+parts by weight, of charcoal. The modern process of carbonizing
+wood--either in small pieces or as sawdust--in cast iron retorts is
+extensively practised where wood is scarce, and also by reason of the
+recovery of valuable by-products (wood spirit, pyroligneous acid,
+wood-tar), which the process permits. The question of the temperature of
+the carbonization is important; according to J. Percy, wood becomes
+brown at 220 deg. C., a deep brown-black after some time at 280 deg.,
+and an easily powdered mass at 310 deg. Charcoal made at 300 deg. is
+brown, soft and friable, and readily inflames at 380 deg.; made at
+higher temperatures it is hard and brittle, and does not fire until
+heated to about 700 deg. One of the most important applications of
+wood-charcoal is as a constituent of gunpowder (q.v.). It is also used
+in metallurgical operations as a reducing agent, but its application has
+been diminished by the introduction of coke, anthracite smalls, &c. A
+limited quantity is made up into the form of drawing crayons; but the
+greatest amount is used as a fuel.
+
+The porosity of wood-charcoal explains why it floats on the surface of
+water, although it is actually denser, its specific gravity being about
+1.5. The porosity also explains the property of absorbing gases and
+vapours; at ordinary temperatures ammonia and cyanogen are most readily
+taken up; and Sir James Dewar has utilized this property for the
+preparation of high vacua at low temperatures. This character is
+commercially applied in the use of wood-charcoal as a disinfectant. The
+fetid gases produced by the putrefaction and waste of organic matter
+enter into the pores of the charcoal, and there meet with the oxygen
+previously absorbed from the atmosphere; oxidation ensues, and the
+noxious effluvia are decomposed. Generally, however, the action is a
+purely mechanical one, the gases being only absorbed. Its
+pharmacological action depends on the same property; it absorbs the
+gases of the stomach and intestines (hence its use in cases of
+flatulence), and also liquids and solids. Wood-charcoal has also the
+power of removing colouring matters from solutions, but this property is
+possessed in a much higher degree by animal-charcoal.
+
+_Animal-charcoal_ or _bone black_ is the carbonaceous residue obtained
+by the dry distillation of bones; it contains only about 10% of carbon,
+the remainder being calcium and magnesium phosphates (80%) and other
+inorganic material originally present in the bones. It is generally
+manufactured from the residues obtained in the glue (q.v.) and gelatin
+(q.v.) industries. Its decolorizing power was applied in 1812 by Derosne
+to the clarification of the syrups obtained in sugar-refining; but its
+use in this direction has now greatly diminished, owing to the
+introduction of more active and easily managed reagents. It is still
+used to some extent in laboratory practice. The decolorizing power is
+not permanent, becoming lost after using for some time; it may be
+revived, however, by washing and reheating.
+
+_Lampblack_ or _soot_ is the familiar product of the incomplete
+combustion of oils, pitch, resins, tallow, &c. It is generally prepared
+by burning pitch residues (see COAL-TAR) and condensing the product.
+Thus obtained it is always oily, and, before using as a pigment, it must
+be purified by ignition in closed crucibles (see CARBON).
+
+
+
+
+CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN (1825-1893), French physician, was born in Paris on
+the 29th of November 1825. In 1853 he graduated as M.D. of Paris
+University, and three years later was appointed physician of the Central
+Hospital Bureau. In 1860 he became professor of pathological anatomy in
+the medical faculty of Paris, and in 1862 began that famous connexion
+with the Salpetriere which lasted to the end of his life. He was elected
+to the Academy of Medicine in 1873, and ten years afterwards became a
+member of the Institute. His death occurred suddenly on the 16th of
+August 1893 at Morvan, where he had gone for a holiday. Charcot, who was
+a good linguist and well acquainted with the literature of his own as
+well as of other countries, excelled as a clinical observer and a
+pathologist. His work at the Salpetriere exerted a great influence on
+the development of the science of neurology, and his classical _Lecons
+sur les maladies du systeme nerveux_, the first series of which was
+published in 1873, represents an enormous advance in the knowledge and
+discrimination of nervous diseases. He also devoted much attention to
+the study of obscure morbid conditions like hysteria, especially in
+relation to hypnotism (q.v.); indeed, it is in connexion with his
+investigation into the phenomena and results of the latter that his name
+is popularly known. In addition to his labours on neurological and even
+physiological problems he made many contributions to other branches of
+medicine, his published works dealing, among other topics, with liver
+and kidney diseases, gout and pulmonary phthisis. As a teacher he was
+remarkably successful, and always commanded an enthusiastic band of
+followers.
+
+
+
+
+CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT (1847-1897), British soldier, was born at
+Boxhill, near Plymouth, on the 21st of December 1847, and in 1868
+entered the Royal Engineers. In 1878 Lieutenant Chard was ordered to
+South Africa to take part in the Zulu War, and was stationed at the
+small post of Rorke's Drift to protect the bridges across the Buffalo
+river, and some sick men and stores. Here, with Lieutenant Gonville
+Bromhead (1856-1891) and eighty men of the 2nd 24th Foot, he heard, on
+the 22nd of January 1879, of the disaster of Isandhlwana from some
+fugitives who had escaped the slaughter. Believing that the victorious
+Zulus would attempt to cross into Natal, they prepared, hastily, to hold
+the Drift until help should come. They barricaded and loopholed the old
+church and hospital, and improvised defences from wagons, mealie sacks
+and bags of Indian corn. Early in the afternoon they were attacked by
+more than 3000 Zulus, who, after hours of desperate hand-to-hand
+fighting, carried the outer defences, an inner low wall of biscuit
+boxes, and the hospital, room by room. The garrison then retired to the
+stone kraal, and repulsed attack after attack through the night. The
+next morning relieving forces appeared, and the enemy retired. The
+spirited defence of Rorke's Drift saved Natal from a Zulu invasion, and
+Chard's and Bromhead's gallantry was rewarded with the V.C. and
+immediate promotion to the rank of captain and brevet-major. On Chard's
+return to England he became a popular hero. From 1893-1896 he commanded
+the Royal Engineers at Singapore, and was made a colonel in 1897. He
+died the same year at Hatch-Beauchamp, near Taunton, on the 1st of
+November.
+
+
+
+
+CHARD, a market town and municipal borough in the Southern parliamentary
+division of Somersetshire, England, 142-1/2 m. W. by S. of London by the
+London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4437. It stands on high
+ground within 1 m. of the Devonshire border. Its cruciform parish church
+of St Mary the Virgin is Perpendicular of the 15th century. A fine east
+window is preserved. The manufactures include linen, lace, woollens,
+brassware and ironware. Chard is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 444 acres.
+
+Chard (_Cerdre_, _Cherdre_, _Cherde_) was commercial in origin, being a
+trade centre near the Roman road to the west. There are two Roman villas
+in the parish. There was a British camp at Neroche in the neighbourhood.
+The bishop of Bath held Chard in 1086, and his successor granted in 1234
+the first charter which made Chard a free borough, each burgage paying a
+rent of 12d. Trade in hides was forbidden to non-burgesses. This charter
+was confirmed in 1253, 1280 and 1285. Chard is said to have been
+incorporated by Elizabeth, as the corporation seal dates from 1570, but
+no Elizabethan charter can be found. It was incorporated by grant of
+Charles I. in 1642, and Charles II. gave a charter in 1683. Chard was a
+mesne borough, the first overlord being Bishop Joceline, whose
+successors held it (with a brief interval from 1545 to 1552) until 1801,
+when it was sold to Earl Poulett. Parliamentary representation began in
+1312, and was lost in 1328. A market on Monday and fair on the 25th of
+July were granted in 1253, and confirmed in 1642 and 1683, when two more
+fair days were added (November 2 and May 3), the market being changed to
+Tuesday. The market day is now Monday, fairs being held on the first
+Wednesday in May, August and November, for corn and cattle only, their
+medieval importance as centres of the cloth trade having departed.
+
+
+
+
+CHARDIN, JEAN SIMEON (1699-1779), French _genre_ painter, was born in
+Paris, and studied under Pierre Jacques Cazes (1676-1754), the
+historical painter, and Noel Nicolas Coypel. He became famous for his
+still-life pictures and domestic interiors, which are well represented
+at the Louvre, and for figure-painting, as in his _Le Benedicite_
+(1740).
+
+
+
+
+CHARDIN, SIR JOHN (1643-1713), French traveller, was born at Paris in
+1643. His father, a wealthy jeweller, gave him an excellent education,
+and trained him in his own art; but instead of settling down in the
+ordinary routine of the craft, he set out in company with a Lyons
+merchant named Raisin in 1665 for Persia and India, partly on business
+and partly to gratify his own inclination. After a highly successful
+journey, during which he had received the patronage of Shah Abbas II. of
+Persia, he returned to France in 1670, and there published in the
+following year _Recit du Couronnement du roi de Perse Soliman III_.
+Finding, however, that his Protestant profession cut him off from all
+hope of honours or advancement in his native country, he set out again
+for Persia in August 1671. This second journey was much more adventurous
+than the first, as instead of going directly to his destination, he
+passed by Smyrna, Constantinople, the Crimea, Caucasia, Mingrelia and
+Georgia, and did not reach Ispahan till June 1673. After four years
+spent in researches throughout Persia, he again visited India, and
+returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope in 1677. The persecution of
+Protestants in France led him, in 1681, to settle in London, where he
+was appointed jeweller to the court, and received from Charles II. the
+honour of knighthood. In 1683 he was sent to Holland as representative
+of the English East India Company; and in 1686 he published the first
+part of his great narrative--_The Travels of Sir John Chardin into
+Persia and the East Indies, &c._ (London). Sir John died in London in
+1713, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his monument bears the
+inscription _Nomen sibi fecit eundo_.
+
+  It was not till 1711 that the complete account of Chardin's travels
+  appeared, under the title of _Journal du voyage du chevalier Chardin_,
+  at Amsterdam. The Persian portion is to be found in vol. ii. of
+  Harris's _Collection_, and extracts are reprinted by Pinkerton in vol.
+  ix. The best complete reprint is by Langles (Paris, 1811). Sir John
+  Chardin's narrative has received the highest praise from the most
+  competent authorities for its fulness, comprehensiveness and fidelity;
+  and it furnished Montesquieu, Rousseau, Gibbon and Helvetius with most
+  important material.
+
+
+
+
+CHARENTE, an inland department of south-western France, comprehending
+the ancient province of Angoumois, and inconsiderable portions of
+Saintonge, Poitou, Marche, Limousin and Perigord. It is bounded N. by
+the departments of Deux-Sevres and Vienne, E. by those of Vienne and
+Dordogne, S. by Dordogne and W. by Charente-Inferieure. Area 2305 sq. m.
+Pop. (1906) 351,733. The department, though it contains no high
+altitudes, is for the most part of a hilly nature. The highest points,
+many of which exceed 1000 ft., are found in the Confolentais, the
+granite region of the extreme north-east, known also as the Terres
+Froides. In the Terres Chaudes, under which name the remainder of the
+department is included, the levels vary in general between 300 and 650
+ft., except in the western plains--the Pays-Bas and Champagne--where
+they range from 40 to 300 ft. A large part of Charente is thickly
+wooded, the principal forests lying in its northern districts. The
+department, as its name indicates, belongs mainly to the basin of the
+river Charente (area of basin 3860 sq. m.; length of river 225 m.), the
+chief affluents of which, within its borders, are the Tardoire, the
+Touvre and the Ne. The Confolentais is watered by the Vienne, a
+tributary of the Loire, while the arrondissement of Barbexieux in the
+south-west belongs almost wholly to the basin of the Gironde.
+
+The climate is temperate but moist, the rainfall being highest in the
+north-east. Agriculturally, Charente is prosperous. More than half its
+surface is arable land, on the greater part of which cereals are grown.
+The potato is an important crop. The vine is predominant in the region
+of Champagne, the wine produced being chiefly distilled into the famous
+brandy to which the town of Cognac gives its name. The best pasture is
+found in the Confolentais, where horned cattle are largely reared. The
+chief fruits are chestnuts, walnuts and cider-apples. The poultry raised
+in the neighbourhood of Barbezieux is highly esteemed. Charente has
+numerous stone quarries, and there are peat workings and beds of clay
+which supply brick and tile-works and earthenware manufactories. Among
+the other industries, paper-making, which has its chief centre at
+Angouleme, is foremost. The most important metallurgical establishment
+is the large foundry of naval guns at Ruelle. Flour-mills and
+leather-works are numerous. There are also many minor industries
+subsidiary to paper-making and brandy-distilling, and Angouleme
+manufactures gunpowder and confectionery. Coal, salt and timber are
+prominent imports. Exports include paper, brandy, stone and agricultural
+products. The department is served chiefly by the Orleans and Ouest-Etat
+railways, and the Charente is navigable below Angouleme. Charente is
+divided into the five arrondissements of Angouleme, Cognac, Ruffec,
+Barbezieux and Confolens (29 cantons, 426 communes). It belongs to the
+region of the XII. army corps, to the province of the archbishop of
+Bordeaux, and to the academie (educational division) of Poitiers. Its
+court of appeal is at Bordeaux.
+
+Angouleme (the capital), Cognac, Confolens, Jarnac and La Rochefoucauld
+(q.v.) are the more noteworthy places in the department. Barbezieux and
+Ruffec, capitals of arrondissements and agricultural centres, are
+otherwise of little importance. The department abounds in churches of
+Romanesque architecture, of which those of Bassac, St Amant-de-Boixe
+(portions of which are Gothic in style), Plassac and Gensac-la-Pallue
+may be mentioned. There are remains of a Gothic abbey church at La
+Couronne, and Roman remains at St Cybardeaux, Brossac and Chassenon
+(where there are ruins of the Gallo-Roman town of Cassinomagus).
+
+
+
+
+CHARENTE-INFERIEURE, a maritime department of south-western France,
+comprehending the old provinces of Saintonge and Aunis, and a small
+portion of Poitou, and including the islands of Re, Oleron, Aix and
+Madame. Area, 2791 sq.m. Pop. (1906) 453,793. It is bounded N. by
+Vendee, N.E. by Deux-Sevres, E. by Charente, S.E. by Dordogne, S.W. by
+Gironde and the estuary of the Gironde, and W. by the Bay of Biscay.
+Plains and low hills occupy the interior; the coast is flat and marshy,
+as are the islands (Re, Aix, Oleron) which lie opposite to it. The
+department takes its name from the river Charente, which traverses it
+during the last 61 m. of its course and drains the central region. Its
+chief tributaries are on the right the Boutonne, on the left the Seugne.
+The climate is temperate and, except along the coast, healthy. There are
+several sheltered bays on the coast, and several good harbours, the
+chief of which are La Rochelle, Rochefort and Tonnay-Charente, the two
+latter some distance up the Charente. Royan on the north shore of the
+Gironde is an important watering-place much frequented for its bathing.
+
+The majority of the inhabitants of Charente-Inferieure live by
+agriculture. The chief products of the arable land are wheat, oats,
+maize, barley and the potato. Horse and cattle-raising is carried on and
+dairying is prosperous. A considerable quantity of wine, most of which
+is distilled into brandy, is produced. The department has a few
+peat-workings, and produces freestone, lime and cement; the salt-marshes
+of the coast are important sources of mineral wealth. Glass, pottery,
+bricks and earthenware are prominent industrial products. Ship-building,
+brandy-distilling, iron-founding and machine construction are also
+carried on. Oysters and mussels are bred in the neighbourhood of La
+Rochelle and Marennes, and there are numerous fishing ports along the
+coast.
+
+The railways traversing the department belong to the Ouest-Etat system,
+except one section of the Paris-Bordeaux line belonging to the Orleans
+Company. The facilities of the department for internal communication are
+greatly increased by the number of navigable streams which water it. The
+Charente, the Sevre Niortaise, the Boutonne, the Seudre and the Gironde
+furnish 142 m. of navigable waterway, to which must be added the 56 m.
+covered by the canals of the coast. There are 6 arrondissements (40
+cantons, 481 communes), cognominal with the towns of La Rochelle,
+Rochefort, Marennes, Saintes, Jonzac and St Jean d'Angely--La Rochelle
+being the chief town of the department. The department forms the diocese
+of La Rochelle, and is attached to the 18th military region, and in
+educational matters to the academie of Poitiers. Its court of appeal is
+at Poitiers.
+
+La Rochelle, St Jean d'Angely, Rochefort and Saintes (q.v.) are the
+principal towns. Surgeres and Aulnay possess fine specimens of the
+numerous Romanesque churches. Pons has a graceful chateau of the 15th
+and 16th centuries, beside which there rises a fine keep of the 12th
+century.
+
+
+
+
+CHARENTON-LE-PONT, a town of northern France in the department of Seine,
+situated on the right bank of the Marne, at its confluence with the
+Seine, 1 m. S.E. of the fortifications of Paris, of which it is a
+suburb. Pop. (1906) 18,034. It derives the distinctive part of its name
+from the stone bridge of ten arches which crosses the Marne and unites
+the town with Alfortville, well known for its veterinary school founded
+in 1766. It has always been regarded as a point of great importance for
+the defence of the capital, and has frequently been the scene of
+sanguinary conflicts. The fort of Charenton on the left bank of the
+Marne is one of the older forts of the Paris defence. In the 16th and
+17th centuries Charenton was the scene of the ecclesiastical councils of
+the Protestant party, which had its principal church in the town. At St
+Maurice adjoining Charenton is the famous Hospice de Charenton, a
+lunatic asylum, the foundation of which dates from 1641. Till the time
+of the Revolution it was used as a general hospital, and even as a
+prison, but from 1802 onwards it was specially appropriated to the
+treatment of lunacy. St Maurice has two other national establishments,
+one for the victims of accidents in Paris (_asile national Vacassy_),
+the other for convalescent working-men (_asile national de Vincennes_).
+Charenton has a port on the Canal de St Maurice, beside the Marne, and
+carries on boat-building and the manufacture of tiles and porcelain.
+
+
+
+
+CHARES, Athenian general, is first heard of in 366 B.C. as assisting the
+Phliasians, who had been attacked by Argos and Sicyon. In 361 he visited
+Corcyra, where he helped the oligarchs to expel the democrats, a policy
+which led to the subsequent defection of the island from Athens. In 357,
+Chares was appointed to the command in the Social War, together with
+Chabrias, after whose death before Chios he was associated with
+Iphicrates and Timotheus (for the naval battle in the Hellespont, see
+TIMOTHEUS). Chares, having successfully thrown the blame for the defeat
+on his colleagues, was left sole commander, but receiving no supplies
+from Athens, took upon himself to join the revolted satrap Artabazus. A
+complaint from the Persian king, who threatened to send three hundred
+ships to the assistance of the confederates, led to the conclusion of
+peace (355) between Athens and her revolted allies, and the recall of
+Chares. In 349, he was sent to the assistance of Olynthus (q.v.) against
+Philip II. of Macedon, but returned without having effected anything; in
+the following year, when he reached Olynthus, he found it already in the
+hands of Philip. In 340 he was appointed to the command of a force sent
+to aid Byzantium against Philip, but the inhabitants, remembering his
+former plunderings and extortions, refused to receive him. In 338 he was
+defeated by Philip at Amphissa, and was one of the commanders at the
+disastrous battle of Chaeroneia. Lysicles, one of his colleagues, was
+condemned to death, while Chares does not seem to have been even
+accused. After the conquest of Thebes by Alexander (335), Chares is said
+to have been one of the Athenian orators and generals whose surrender
+was demanded. Two years later he was living at Sigeum, for Arrian
+(_Anabasis_ i. 12) states that he went from there to pay his respects to
+Alexander. In 332 he entered the service of Darius and took over the
+command of a Persian force in Mytilene, but capitulated on the approach
+of a Macedonian fleet on condition of being allowed to retire
+unmolested. He is last heard of at Taenarum, and is supposed to have
+died at Sigeum. Although boastful and vain-glorious, Chares was not
+lacking in personal courage, and was among the best Athenian generals
+of his time. At the best, however, he was "hardly more than an ordinary
+leader of mercenaries" (A. Holm). He openly boasted of his profligacy,
+was exceedingly avaricious, and his bad faith became proverbial.
+
+  Diod. Sic. xv. 75, 95, xvi. 7, 21, 22, 85-88; Plutarch, _Phocion_, 14;
+  Theopompus, _ap._ Athenaeum, xii. p. 532; A. Schafer, _Demosthenes und
+  seine Zeit_ (1885); A. Holm, _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., 1896),
+  vol. iii.
+
+
+
+
+CHARES, of Lindus in Rhodes, a noted sculptor, who fashioned for the
+Rhodians a colossal bronze statue of the sun-god, the cost of which was
+defrayed by selling the warlike engines left behind by Demetrius
+Poliorcetes, when he abandoned the siege of the city in 303 B.C. (Pliny,
+_Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 41). The colossus was seventy cubits (105 ft.) in
+height; and its fingers were larger than many statues. The notion that
+the legs were planted apart, so that ships could sail between them, is
+absurd. The statue was thrown down by an earthquake after 56 years; but
+the remains lay for ages on the spot.
+
+
+
+
+CHARES, of Mytilene, a Greek belonging to the suite of Alexander the
+Great. He was appointed court-marshal or introducer of strangers to the
+king, an office borrowed from the Persian court. He wrote a history of
+Alexander in ten books, dealing mainly with the private life of the
+king. The fragments are chiefly preserved in Athenaeus.
+
+  See _Scriptores Rerum Alexandri_ (pp. 114-120) in the Didot edition of
+  Arrian.
+
+
+
+
+CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _carricare_, to load in a
+_carrus_ or wagon; cf. "cargo"), a load; from this, its primary meaning,
+also seen in the word "charger," a large dish, come the uses of the word
+for the powder and shot to load a firearm, the accumulation of
+electricity in a battery, the necessary quantity of dynamite or other
+explosive in blasting, and a device borne on an escutcheon in heraldry.
+"Charge" can thus mean a burden, and so a care or duty laid upon one, as
+in "to be in charge" of another. With a transference to that which lays
+such a duty on another, "charge" is used of the instructions given by a
+judge to a jury, or by a bishop to the clergy of his diocese. In the
+special sense of a pecuniary burden the word is used of the price of
+goods, of an encumbrance on property, and of the expenses of running a
+business. Further uses of the word are of the violent, rushing attack of
+cavalry, or of a bull or elephant, or football player; hence "charger"
+is a horse ridden in a charge, or more loosely a horse ridden by an
+officer, whether of infantry or cavalry.
+
+
+
+
+CHARGE D'AFFAIRES (Fr. for "in charge of business"), the title of two
+classes of diplomatic agents, (1) _Charges d'affaires_ (_ministres
+charges d'affaires_), who were placed by the _reglement_ of the congress
+of Vienna in the 4th class of diplomatic agents, are heads of permanent
+missions accredited to countries to which, for some reason, it is not
+possible or not desirable to send agents of a higher rank. They are
+distinguished from these latter by the fact that their credentials are
+addressed by the minister for foreign affairs of the state which they
+are to represent to the minister for foreign affairs of the receiving
+state. Though still occasionally accredited, ministers of this class are
+now rare. They have precedence over the other class of _charges
+d'affaires_. (2) _Charges d'affaires per interim_, or _charges des
+affaires_, are those who are presented as such, either verbally or in
+writing, by heads of missions of the first, second or third rank to the
+minister for foreign affairs of the state to which they are accredited,
+when they leave their post temporarily, or pending the arrival of their
+successor. It is usual to appoint a counsellor or secretary of legation
+_charge d'affaires_. Some governments are accustomed to give the title
+of minister to such _charges d'affaires_, which ranks them with the
+other heads of legation. Essentially _charges d'affaires_ do not differ
+from ambassadors, envoys or ministers resident. They represent their
+nation, and enjoy the same privileges and immunities as other diplomatic
+agents (see DIPLOMACY).
+
+
+
+
+CHARGING ORDER, in English law, an order obtained from a court or judge
+by a judgment creditor under the Judgment Acts 1838 and 1840, by which
+the property of the judgment debtor in any stocks or funds stands
+charged with the payment of the amount for which judgment shall have
+been recovered, with interest. A charging order can only be obtained in
+respect of an ascertained sum, but this would include a sum ordered to
+be paid at a future date. An order can be made on stock standing in the
+name of a trustee in trust for the judgment debtor, or on cash in court
+to the credit of the judgment debtor, but not on stock held by a debtor
+as a trustee. The application for a charging order is usually made by
+motion to a divisional court, though it may be made to a judge. The
+effect of the order is not that of a contract to pay the debt, but
+merely of an instrument of charge on the shares, signed by the debtor.
+An interval of six months must elapse before any proceedings are taken
+to enforce the charge, but, it necessary, a stop order on the fund and
+the dividends payable by the debtor can be obtained by the creditor to
+protect his interest A solicitor employed to prosecute any suit, matter
+or proceeding in any court, is entitled, on declaration of the court, to
+a charge for his costs upon the property recovered or preserved in such
+suit or proceeding. (See _Rules of the Supreme Court_, o. XLIX.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARIBERT (d. 567), king of the Franks, was the son of Clotaire I. On
+Clotaire's death in 561 his estates were divided between his sons,
+Charibert receiving Paris as his capital, together with Rouen, Tours,
+Poitiers, Limoges, Bordeaux and Toulouse. Besides his wife, Ingoberga,
+he had unions with Merofleda, a wool-carder's daughter, and Theodogilda,
+the daughter of a neatherd. He was one of the most dissolute of the
+Merovingian kings, his early death in 567 being brought on by his
+excesses.     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARIDEMUS, of Oreus in Euboea, Greek mercenary leader. About 367 B.C.
+he fought under the Athenian general Iphicrates against Amphipolis.
+Being ordered by Iphicrates to take the Amphipolitan hostages to Athens,
+he allowed them to return to their own people, and joined Cotys, king of
+Thrace, against Athens. Soon afterwards he fell into the hands of the
+Athenians and accepted the offer of Timotheus to re-enter their service.
+Having been dismissed by Timotheus (362) he joined the revolted satraps
+Memnon and Mentor in Asia, but soon lost their confidence, and was
+obliged to seek the protection of the Athenians. Finding, however, that
+he had nothing to fear from the Persians, he again joined Cotys, on
+whose murder he was appointed guardian to his youthful son Cersobleptes.
+In 357, on the arrival of Chares with considerable forces, the
+Chersonese was restored to Athens. The supporters of Charidemus
+represented this as due to his efforts, and, in spite of the opposition
+of Demosthenes, he was honoured with a golden crown and the franchise of
+the city. It was further resolved that his person should be inviolable.
+In 351 he commanded the Athenian forces in the Chersonese against Philip
+II. of Macedon, and in 349 he superseded Chares as commander in the
+Olynthian War. He achieved little success, but made himself detested by
+his insolence and profligacy, and was in turn replaced by Chares. After
+Chaeroneia the war party would have entrusted Charidemus[1] with the
+command against Philip, but the peace party secured the appointment of
+Phocion. He was one of those whose surrender was demanded by Alexander
+after the destruction of Thebes, but escaped with banishment. He fled to
+Darius III., who received him with distinction. But, having expressed
+his dissatisfaction with the preparations made by the king just before
+the battle of Issus (333), he was put to death.
+
+  See Diod. Sic. xvii. 30; Plutarch, _Phocion_, 16, 17; Arrian,
+  _Anabasis_, i. 10; Quintus Curtius iii. 2; Demosthenes, _Contra
+  Aristocratem_; A. Schafer, _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (1885).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to some authorities, this is a second Charidemus, the
+    first disappearing from history after being superseded by Chares in
+    the Olynthian war.
+
+
+
+
+CHARING CROSS, the locality about the west end of the Strand and the
+north end of Whitehall, on the south-east side of Trafalgar Square,
+London, England. It falls within the bounds of the city of Westminster.
+Here Edward I. erected the last of the series of crosses to the memory
+of his queen, Eleanor (d. 1290). It stood near the present entrance to
+Charing Cross station of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway, in the
+courtyard of which a fine modern cross has been erected within a few
+feet of the exact site. A popular derivation of the name connected it
+with Edward's "dear queen" (_chere reine_), and a village of Cherringe
+or Charing grew up here later, but the true origin of the name is not
+known. There is a village of Charing in Kent, and the name is connected
+by some with that of a Saxon family, Cerring.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 7, by Various
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
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