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diff --git a/3335-h/3335-h.htm b/3335-h/3335-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ce566c --- /dev/null +++ b/3335-h/3335-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,21159 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Theodore Roosevelt, by Theodore Roosevelt + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Theodore Roosevelt, by Theodore Roosevelt + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Theodore Roosevelt + An Autobiography by Theodore Roosevelt + +Author: Theodore Roosevelt + +Release Date: April 5, 2006 [EBook #3335] +Last Updated: December 17, 2012 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THEODORE ROOSEVELT *** + + + + +Produced by Dagny; John Bickers; David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THEODORE ROOSEVELT + </h1> + <h2> + AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY BY THEODORE ROOSEVELT <br /> <br /> By Theodore Roosevelt + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + PREPARER'S NOTE + + This Etext was prepared from a 1920 edition, + published by Charles Scribner's Sons. + The book was first published in 1913. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_FORE"> FOREWORD </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> <big><b>THEODORE ROOSEVELT</b></big> </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> + CHAPTER III </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0006"> + CHAPTER VI </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII </a><br /> <a + href="#link2H_APPE"> <i>APPENDIX A</i> </a><br /> <a + href="#link2H_APPE2"> <i>APPENDIX B</i> </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_APPE3"> + <i>APPENDIX A</i> </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_APPE4"> + <i>APPENDIX B</i> </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0009"> + CHAPTER IX </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0012"> + CHAPTER XII </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII </a><br /> <a + href="#link2H_APPE5"> <i>APPENDIX</i> </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV </a> <br /> <a + href="#link2H_APPE6"> <i>APPENDIX</i> </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_APPE7"> + <i>APPENDIX A</i> </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_APPE8"> + <i>APPENDIX B</i> </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_APPE9"> + <i>APPENDIX C</i> </a><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_FORE" id="link2H_FORE"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + FOREWORD + </h2> + <p> + Naturally, there are chapters of my autobiography which cannot now be + written. + </p> + <p> + It seems to me that, for the nation as for the individual, what is most + important is to insist on the vital need of combining certain sets of + qualities, which separately are common enough, and, alas, useless enough. + Practical efficiency is common, and lofty idealism not uncommon; it is the + combination which is necessary, and the combination is rare. Love of peace + is common among weak, short-sighted, timid, and lazy persons; and on the + other hand courage is found among many men of evil temper and bad + character. Neither quality shall by itself avail. Justice among the + nations of mankind, and the uplifting of humanity, can be brought about + only by those strong and daring men who with wisdom love peace, but who + love righteousness more than peace. Facing the immense complexity of + modern social and industrial conditions, there is need to use freely and + unhesitatingly the collective power of all of us; and yet no exercise of + collective power will ever avail if the average individual does not keep + his or her sense of personal duty, initiative, and responsibility. There + is need to develop all the virtues that have the state for their sphere of + action; but these virtues are as dust in a windy street unless back of + them lie the strong and tender virtues of a family life based on the love + of the one man for the one woman and on their joyous and fearless + acceptance of their common obligation to the children that are theirs. + There must be the keenest sense of duty, and with it must go the joy of + living; there must be shame at the thought of shirking the hard work of + the world, and at the same time delight in the many-sided beauty of life. + With soul of flame and temper of steel we must act as our coolest judgment + bids us. We must exercise the largest charity towards the wrong-doer that + is compatible with relentless war against the wrong-doing. We must be just + to others, generous to others, and yet we must realize that it is a + shameful and a wicked thing not to withstand oppression with high heart + and ready hand. With gentleness and tenderness there must go dauntless + bravery and grim acceptance of labor and hardship and peril. All for each, + and each for all, is a good motto; but only on condition that each works + with might and main to so maintain himself as not to be a burden to + others. + </p> + <p> + We of the great modern democracies must strive unceasingly to make our + several countries lands in which a poor man who works hard can live + comfortably and honestly, and in which a rich man cannot live dishonestly + nor in slothful avoidance of duty; and yet we must judge rich man and poor + man alike by a standard which rests on conduct and not on caste, and we + must frown with the same stern severity on the mean and vicious envy which + hates and would plunder a man because he is well off and on the brutal and + selfish arrogance which looks down on and exploits the man with whom life + has gone hard. + </p> + <p> + THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + SAGAMORE HILL, October 1, 1913. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + THEODORE ROOSEVELT + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <h3> + BOYHOOD AND YOUTH + </h3> + <p> + My grandfather on my father's side was of almost purely Dutch blood. When + he was young he still spoke some Dutch, and Dutch was last used in the + services of the Dutch Reformed Church in New York while he was a small + boy. + </p> + <p> + About 1644 his ancestor Klaes Martensen van Roosevelt came to New + Amsterdam as a "settler"—the euphemistic name for an immigrant who + came over in the steerage of a sailing ship in the seventeenth century + instead of the steerage of a steamer in the nineteenth century. From that + time for the next seven generations from father to son every one of us was + born on Manhattan Island. + </p> + <p> + My father's paternal ancestors were of Holland stock; except that there + was one named Waldron, a wheelwright, who was one of the Pilgrims who + remained in Holland when the others came over to found Massachusetts, and + who then accompanied the Dutch adventurers to New Amsterdam. My father's + mother was a Pennsylvanian. Her forebears had come to Pennsylvania with + William Penn, some in the same ship with him; they were of the usual type + of the immigration of that particular place and time. They included Welsh + and English Quakers, an Irishman,—with a Celtic name, and apparently + not a Quaker,—and peace-loving Germans, who were among the founders + of Germantown, having been driven from their Rhineland homes when the + armies of Louis the Fourteenth ravaged the Palatinate; and, in addition, + representatives of a by-no-means altogether peaceful people, the Scotch + Irish, who came to Pennsylvania a little later, early in the eighteenth + century. My grandmother was a woman of singular sweetness and strength, + the keystone of the arch in her relations with her husband and sons. + Although she was not herself Dutch, it was she who taught me the only + Dutch I ever knew, a baby song of which the first line ran, "Trippe troppa + tronjes." I always remembered this, and when I was in East Africa it + proved a bond of union between me and the Boer settlers, not a few of whom + knew it, although at first they always had difficulty in understanding my + pronunciation—at which I do not wonder. It was interesting to meet + these men whose ancestors had gone to the Cape about the time that mine + went to America two centuries and a half previously, and to find that the + descendants of the two streams of emigrants still crooned to their + children some at least of the same nursery songs. + </p> + <p> + Of my great-grandfather Roosevelt and his family life a century and over + ago I know little beyond what is implied in some of his books that have + come down to me—the Letters of Junius, a biography of John Paul + Jones, Chief Justice Marshall's "Life of Washington." They seem to + indicate that his library was less interesting than that of my wife's + great-grandfather at the same time, which certainly included such volumes + as the original <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, for we have them now on our own + book-shelves. Of my grandfather Roosevelt my most vivid childish + reminiscence is not something I saw, but a tale that was told me + concerning him. In <i>his</i> boyhood Sunday was as dismal a day for small + Calvinistic children of Dutch descent as if they had been of Puritan or + Scotch Covenanting or French Huguenot descent—and I speak as one + proud of his Holland, Huguenot, and Covenanting ancestors, and proud that + the blood of that stark Puritan divine Jonathan Edwards flows in the veins + of his children. One summer afternoon, after listening to an unusually + long Dutch Reformed sermon for the second time that day, my grandfather, a + small boy, running home before the congregation had dispersed, ran into a + party of pigs, which then wandered free in New York's streets. He promptly + mounted a big boar, which no less promptly bolted and carried him at full + speed through the midst of the outraged congregation. + </p> + <p> + By the way, one of the Roosevelt documents which came down to me + illustrates the change that has come over certain aspects of public life + since the time which pessimists term "the earlier and better days of the + Republic." Old Isaac Roosevelt was a member of an Auditing Committee which + shortly after the close of the Revolution approved the following bill: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The State of New York, to John Cape Dr. + + To a Dinner Given by His Excellency the Governor + and Council to their Excellencies the Minnister of + France and General Washington & Co. + + 1783 + December + To 120 dinners at 48: 0:0 + To 135 Bottles Madira 54: 0:0 + " 36 ditto Port 10:16:0 + " 60 ditto English Beer 9: 0:0 + " 30 Bouls Punch 9: 0:0 + " 8 dinners for Musick 1:12:0 + " 10 ditto for Sarvts 2: 0:0 + " 60 Wine Glasses Broken 4:10:0 + " 8 Cutt decanters Broken 3: 0:0 + " Coffee for 8 Gentlemen 1:12:0 + " Music fees &ca 8: 0:0 + " Fruit & Nuts 5: 0:0 + 156:10:0 + By Cash . . . 100:16:0 + 55:14:0 + WE a Committee of Council having examined + the above account do certify it (amounting to + one hundred and fifty-six Pounds ten Shillings) + to be just. + December 17th 1783. + ISAAC ROOSEVELT + JAS. DUANE + EGBT. BENSON + FRED. JAY + Received the above Contents in full + New York 17th December 1783 + JOHN CAPE +</pre> + <p> + Think of the Governor of New York now submitting such a bill for such an + entertainment of the French Ambassador and the President of the United + States! Falstaff's views of the proper proportion between sack and bread + are borne out by the proportion between the number of bowls of punch and + bottles of port, Madeira, and beer consumed, and the "coffee for eight + gentlemen"—apparently the only ones who lasted through to that stage + of the dinner. Especially admirable is the nonchalant manner in which, + obviously as a result of the drinking of said bottles of wine and bowls of + punch, it is recorded that eight cut-glass decanters and sixty + wine-glasses were broken. + </p> + <p> + During the Revolution some of my forefathers, North and South, served + respectably, but without distinction, in the army, and others rendered + similar service in the Continental Congress or in various local + legislatures. By that time those who dwelt in the North were for the most + part merchants, and those who dwelt in the South, planters. + </p> + <p> + My mother's people were predominantly of Scotch, but also of Huguenot and + English, descent. She was a Georgian, her people having come to Georgia + from South Carolina before the Revolution. The original Bulloch was a lad + from near Glasgow, who came hither a couple of centuries ago, just as + hundreds of thousands of needy, enterprising Scotchmen have gone to the + four quarters of the globe in the intervening two hundred years. My + mother's great-grandfather, Archibald Bulloch, was the first Revolutionary + "President" of Georgia. My grandfather, her father, spent the winters in + Savannah and the summers at Roswell, in the Georgia uplands near Atlanta, + finally making Roswell his permanent home. He used to travel thither with + his family and their belongings in his own carriage, followed by a baggage + wagon. I never saw Roswell until I was President, but my mother told me so + much about the place that when I did see it I felt as if I already knew + every nook and corner of it, and as if it were haunted by the ghosts of + all the men and women who had lived there. I do not mean merely my own + family, I mean the slaves. My mother and her sister, my aunt, used to tell + us children all kinds of stories about the slaves. One of the most + fascinating referred to a very old darky called Bear Bob, because in the + early days of settlement he had been partially scalped by a black bear. + Then there was Mom' Grace, who was for a time my mother's nurse, and whom + I had supposed to be dead, but who greeted me when I did come to Roswell, + very respectable, and apparently with years of life before her. The two + chief personages of the drama that used to be repeated to us were Daddy + Luke, the Negro overseer, and his wife, Mom' Charlotte. I never saw either + Daddy Luke or Mom' Charlotte, but I inherited the care of them when my + mother died. After the close of the war they resolutely refused to be + emancipated or leave the place. The only demand they made upon us was + enough money annually to get a new "critter," that is, a mule. With a + certain lack of ingenuity the mule was reported each Christmas as having + passed away, or at least as having become so infirm as to necessitate a + successor—a solemn fiction which neither deceived nor was intended + to deceive, but which furnished a gauge for the size of the Christmas + gift. + </p> + <p> + My maternal grandfather's house was on the line of Sherman's march to the + sea, and pretty much everything in it that was portable was taken by the + boys in blue, including most of the books in the library. When I was + President the facts about my ancestry were published, and a former soldier + in Sherman's army sent me back one of the books with my grandfather's name + in it. It was a little copy of the poems of "Mr. Gray"—an + eighteenth-century edition printed in Glasgow. + </p> + <p> + On October 27, 1858, I was born at No. 28 East Twentieth Street, New York + City, in the house in which we lived during the time that my two sisters + and my brother and I were small children. It was furnished in the + canonical taste of the New York which George William Curtis described in + the <i>Potiphar Papers</i>. The black haircloth furniture in the + dining-room scratched the bare legs of the children when they sat on it. + The middle room was a library, with tables, chairs, and bookcases of + gloomy respectability. It was without windows, and so was available only + at night. The front room, the parlor, seemed to us children to be a room + of much splendor, but was open for general use only on Sunday evening or + on rare occasions when there were parties. The Sunday evening family + gathering was the redeeming feature in a day which otherwise we children + did not enjoy—chiefly because we were all of us made to wear clean + clothes and keep neat. The ornaments of that parlor I remember now, + including the gas chandelier decorated with a great quantity of cut-glass + prisms. These prisms struck me as possessing peculiar magnificence. One of + them fell off one day, and I hastily grabbed it and stowed it away, + passing several days of furtive delight in the treasure, a delight always + alloyed with fear that I would be found out and convicted of larceny. + There was a Swiss wood-carving representing a very big hunter on one side + of an exceedingly small mountain, and a herd of chamois, + disproportionately small for the hunter and large for the mountain, just + across the ridge. This always fascinated us; but there was a small chamois + kid for which we felt agonies lest the hunter might come on it and kill + it. There was also a Russian moujik drawing a gilt sledge on a piece of + malachite. Some one mentioned in my hearing that malachite was a valuable + marble. This fixed in my mind that it was valuable exactly as diamonds are + valuable. I accepted that moujik as a priceless work of art, and it was + not until I was well in middle age that it occurred to me that I was + mistaken. + </p> + <p> + Now and then we children were taken round to our grandfather's house; a + big house for the New York of those days, on the corner of Fourteenth + Street and Broadway, fronting Union Square. Inside there was a large hall + running up to the roof; there was a tessellated black-and-white marble + floor, and a circular staircase round the sides of the hall, from the top + floor down. We children much admired both the tessellated floor and the + circular staircase. I think we were right about the latter, but I am not + so sure as to the tessellated floor. + </p> + <p> + The summers we spent in the country, now at one place, now at another. We + children, of course, loved the country beyond anything. We disliked the + city. We were always wildly eager to get to the country when spring came, + and very sad when in the late fall the family moved back to town. In the + country we of course had all kinds of pets—cats, dogs, rabbits, a + coon, and a sorrel Shetland pony named General Grant. When my younger + sister first heard of the real General Grant, by the way, she was much + struck by the coincidence that some one should have given him the same + name as the pony. (Thirty years later my own children had <i>their</i> + pony Grant.) In the country we children ran barefoot much of the time, and + the seasons went by in a round of uninterrupted and enthralling pleasures—supervising + the haying and harvesting, picking apples, hunting frogs successfully and + woodchucks unsuccessfully, gathering hickory-nuts and chestnuts for sale + to patient parents, building wigwams in the woods, and sometimes playing + Indians in too realistic manner by staining ourselves (and incidentally + our clothes) in liberal fashion with poke-cherry juice. Thanksgiving was + an appreciated festival, but it in no way came up to Christmas. Christmas + was an occasion of literally delirious joy. In the evening we hung up our + stockings—or rather the biggest stockings we could borrow from the + grown-ups—and before dawn we trooped in to open them while sitting + on father's and mother's bed; and the bigger presents were arranged, those + for each child on its own table, in the drawing-room, the doors to which + were thrown open after breakfast. I never knew any one else have what + seemed to me such attractive Christmases, and in the next generation I + tried to reproduce them exactly for my own children. + </p> + <p> + My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined + strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. + He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, + cowardice, or untruthfulness. As we grew older he made us understand that + the same standard of clean living was demanded for the boys as for the + girls; that what was wrong in a woman could not be right in a man. With + great love and patience, and the most understanding sympathy and + consideration, he combined insistence on discipline. He never physically + punished me but once, but he was the only man of whom I was ever really + afraid. I do not mean that it was a wrong fear, for he was entirely just, + and we children adored him. We used to wait in the library in the evening + until we could hear his key rattling in the latch of the front hall, and + then rush out to greet him; and we would troop into his room while he was + dressing, to stay there as long as we were permitted, eagerly examining + anything which came out of his pockets which could be regarded as an + attractive novelty. Every child has fixed in his memory various details + which strike it as of grave importance. The trinkets he used to keep in a + little box on his dressing-table we children always used to speak of as + "treasures." The word, and some of the trinkets themselves, passed on to + the next generation. My own children, when small, used to troop into my + room while I was dressing, and the gradually accumulating trinkets in the + "ditty-box"—the gift of an enlisted man in the navy—always + excited rapturous joy. On occasions of solemn festivity each child would + receive a trinket for his or her "very own." My children, by the way, + enjoyed one pleasure I do not remember enjoying myself. When I came back + from riding, the child who brought the bootjack would itself promptly get + into the boots, and clump up and down the room with a delightful feeling + of kinship with Jack of the seven-league strides. + </p> + <p> + The punishing incident I have referred to happened when I was four years + old. I bit my elder sister's arm. I do not remember biting her arm, but I + do remember running down to the yard, perfectly conscious that I had + committed a crime. From the yard I went into the kitchen, got some dough + from the cook, and crawled under the kitchen table. In a minute or two my + father entered from the yard and asked where I was. The warm-hearted Irish + cook had a characteristic contempt for "informers," but although she said + nothing she compromised between informing and her conscience by casting a + look under the table. My father immediately dropped on all fours and + darted for me. I feebly heaved the dough at him, and, having the advantage + of him because I could stand up under the table, got a fair start for the + stairs, but was caught halfway up them. The punishment that ensued fitted + the crime, and I hope—and believe—that it did me good. + </p> + <p> + I never knew any one who got greater joy out of living than did my father, + or any one who more whole-heartedly performed every duty; and no one whom + I have ever met approached his combination of enjoyment of life and + performance of duty. He and my mother were given to a hospitality that at + that time was associated more commonly with southern than northern + households; and, especially in their later years when they had moved up + town, in the neighborhood of Central Park, they kept a charming, open + house. + </p> + <p> + My father worked hard at his business, for he died when he was forty-six, + too early to have retired. He was interested in every social reform + movement, and he did an immense amount of practical charitable work + himself. He was a big, powerful man, with a leonine face, and his heart + filled with gentleness for those who needed help or protection, and with + the possibility of much wrath against a bully or an oppressor. He was very + fond of riding both on the road and across the country, and was also a + great whip. He usually drove four-in-hand, or else a spike team, that is, + a pair with a third horse in the lead. I do not suppose that such a team + exists now. The trap that he drove we always called the high phaeton. The + wheels turned under in front. I have it yet. He drove long-tailed horses, + harnessed loose in light American harness, so that the whole rig had no + possible resemblance to anything that would be seen now. My father always + excelled in improving every spare half-hour or three-quarters of an hour, + whether for work or enjoyment. Much of his four-in-hand driving was done + in the summer afternoons when he would come out on the train from his + business in New York. My mother and one or perhaps two of us children + might meet him at the station. I can see him now getting out of the car in + his linen duster, jumping into the wagon, and instantly driving off at a + rattling pace, the duster sometimes bagging like a balloon. The + four-in-hand, as can be gathered from the above description, did not in + any way in his eyes represent possible pageantry. He drove it because he + liked it. He was always preaching caution to his boys, but in this respect + he did not practice his preaching overmuch himself; and, being an + excellent whip, he liked to take chances. Generally they came out all + right. Occasionally they did not; but he was even better at getting out of + a scrape than into it. Once when we were driving into New York late at + night the leaders stopped. He flicked them, and the next moment we could + dimly make out that they had jumped. It then appeared that the street was + closed and that a board had been placed across it, resting on two barrels, + but without a lantern. Over this board the leaders had jumped, and there + was considerable excitement before we got the board taken off the barrels + and resumed our way. When in the city on Thanksgiving or Christmas, my + father was very apt to drive my mother and a couple of friends up to the + racing park to take lunch. But he was always back in time to go to the + dinner at the Newsboys' Lodging-House, and not infrequently also to Miss + Sattery's Night School for little Italians. At a very early age we + children were taken with him and were required to help. He was a staunch + friend of Charles Loring Brace, and was particularly interested in the + Newsboys' Lodging-House and in the night schools and in getting the + children off the streets and out on farms in the West. When I was + President, the Governor of Alaska under me, Governor Brady, was one of + these ex-newsboys who had been sent from New York out West by Mr. Brace + and my father. My father was greatly interested in the societies to + prevent cruelty to children and cruelty to animals. On Sundays he had a + mission class. On his way to it he used to drop us children at our + Sunday-school in Dr. Adams's Presbyterian Church on Madison Square; I + remember hearing my aunt, my mother's sister, saying that when he walked + along with us children he always reminded her of Greatheart in Bunyan. + Under the spur of his example I taught a mission class myself for three + years before going to college and for all four years that I was in + college. I do not think I made much of a success of it. But the other day + on getting out of a taxi in New York the chauffeur spoke to me and told me + that he was one of my old Sunday-school pupils. I remembered him well, and + was much pleased to find that he was an ardent Bull Mooser! + </p> + <p> + My mother, Martha Bulloch, was a sweet, gracious, beautiful Southern + woman, a delightful companion and beloved by everybody. She was entirely + "unreconstructed" to the day of her death. Her mother, my grandmother, one + of the dearest of old ladies, lived with us, and was distinctly + overindulgent to us children, being quite unable to harden her heart + towards us even when the occasion demanded it. Towards the close of the + Civil War, although a very small boy, I grew to have a partial but alert + understanding of the fact that the family were not one in their views + about that conflict, my father being a strong Lincoln Republican; and + once, when I felt that I had been wronged by maternal discipline during + the day, I attempted a partial vengeance by praying with loud fervor for + the success of the Union arms, when we all came to say our prayers before + my mother in the evening. She was not only a most devoted mother, but was + also blessed with a strong sense of humor, and she was too much amused to + punish me; but I was warned not to repeat the offense, under penalty of my + father's being informed—he being the dispenser of serious + punishment. Morning prayers were with my father. We used to stand at the + foot of the stairs, and when father came down we called out, "I speak for + you and the cubby-hole too!" There were three of us young children, and we + used to sit with father on the sofa while he conducted morning prayers. + The place between father and the arm of the sofa we called the + "cubby-hole." The child who got that place we regarded as especially + favored both in comfort and somehow or other in rank and title. The two + who were left to sit on the much wider expanse of sofa on the other side + of father were outsiders for the time being. + </p> + <p> + My aunt Anna, my mother's sister, lived with us. She was as devoted to us + children as was my mother herself, and we were equally devoted to her in + return. She taught us our lessons while we were little. She and my mother + used to entertain us by the hour with tales of life on the Georgia + plantations; of hunting fox, deer, and wildcat; of the long-tailed driving + horses, Boone and Crockett, and of the riding horses, one of which was + named Buena Vista in a fit of patriotic exaltation during the Mexican War; + and of the queer goings-on in the Negro quarters. She knew all the "Br'er + Rabbit" stories, and I was brought up on them. One of my uncles, Robert + Roosevelt, was much struck with them, and took them down from her + dictation, publishing them in <i>Harper's</i>, where they fell flat. This + was a good many years before a genius arose who in "Uncle Remus" made the + stories immortal. + </p> + <p> + My mother's two brothers, James Dunwoodie Bulloch and Irvine Bulloch, came + to visit us shortly after the close of the war. Both came under assumed + names, as they were among the Confederates who were at that time exempted + from the amnesty. "Uncle Jimmy" Bulloch was a dear old retired + sea-captain, utterly unable to "get on" in the worldly sense of that + phrase, as valiant and simple and upright a soul as ever lived, a + veritable Colonel Newcome. He was an Admiral in the Confederate navy, and + was the builder of the famous Confederate war vessel Alabama. My uncle + Irvine Bulloch was a midshipman on the <i>Alabama</i>, and fired the last + gun discharged from her batteries in the fight with the <i>Kearsarge</i>. + Both of these uncles lived in Liverpool after the war. + </p> + <p> + My uncle Jimmy Bulloch was forgiving and just in reference to the Union + forces, and could discuss all phases of the Civil War with entire fairness + and generosity. But in English politics he promptly became a Tory of the + most ultra-conservative school. Lincoln and Grant he could admire, but he + would not listen to anything in favor of Mr. Gladstone. The only occasions + on which I ever shook his faith in me were when I would venture meekly to + suggest that some of the manifestly preposterous falsehoods about Mr. + Gladstone could not be true. My uncle was one of the best men I have ever + known, and when I have sometimes been tempted to wonder how good people + can believe of me the unjust and impossible things they do believe, I have + consoled myself by thinking of Uncle Jimmy Bulloch's perfectly sincere + conviction that Gladstone was a man of quite exceptional and nameless + infamy in both public and private life. + </p> + <p> + I was a sickly, delicate boy, suffered much from asthma, and frequently + had to be taken away on trips to find a place where I could breathe. One + of my memories is of my father walking up and down the room with me in his + arms at night when I was a very small person, and of sitting up in bed + gasping, with my father and mother trying to help me. I went very little + to school. I never went to the public schools, as my own children later + did, both at the "Cove School" at Oyster Bay and at the "Ford School" in + Washington. For a few months I attended Professor McMullen's school in + Twentieth Street near the house where I was born, but most of the time I + had tutors. As I have already said, my aunt taught me when I was small. At + one time we had a French governess, a loved and valued "mam'selle," in the + household. + </p> + <p> + When I was ten years old I made my first journey to Europe. My birthday + was spent in Cologne, and in order to give me a thoroughly "party" feeling + I remember that my mother put on full dress for my birthday dinner. I do + not think I gained anything from this particular trip abroad. I cordially + hated it, as did my younger brother and sister. Practically all the + enjoyment we had was in exploring any ruins or mountains when we could get + away from our elders, and in playing in the different hotels. Our one + desire was to get back to America, and we regarded Europe with the most + ignorant chauvinism and contempt. Four years later, however, I made + another journey to Europe, and was old enough to enjoy it thoroughly and + profit by it. + </p> + <p> + While still a small boy I began to take an interest in natural history. I + remember distinctly the first day that I started on my career as + zoologist. I was walking up Broadway, and as I passed the market to which + I used sometimes to be sent before breakfast to get strawberries I + suddenly saw a dead seal laid out on a slab of wood. That seal filled me + with every possible feeling of romance and adventure. I asked where it was + killed, and was informed in the harbor. I had already begun to read some + of Mayne Reid's books and other boys' books of adventure, and I felt that + this seal brought all these adventures in realistic fashion before me. As + long as that seal remained there I haunted the neighborhood of the market + day after day. I measured it, and I recall that, not having a tape + measure, I had to do my best to get its girth with a folding pocket + foot-rule, a difficult undertaking. I carefully made a record of the + utterly useless measurements, and at once began to write a natural history + of my own, on the strength of that seal. This, and subsequent natural + histories, were written down in blank books in simplified spelling, wholly + unpremeditated and unscientific. I had vague aspirations of in some way or + another owning and preserving that seal, but they never got beyond the + purely formless stage. I think, however, I did get the seal's skull, and + with two of my cousins promptly started what we ambitiously called the + "Roosevelt Museum of Natural History." The collections were at first kept + in my room, until a rebellion on the part of the chambermaid received the + approval of the higher authorities of the household and the collection was + moved up to a kind of bookcase in the back hall upstairs. It was the + ordinary small boy's collection of curios, quite incongruous and entirely + valueless except from the standpoint of the boy himself. My father and + mother encouraged me warmly in this, as they always did in anything that + could give me wholesome pleasure or help to develop me. + </p> + <p> + The adventure of the seal and the novels of Mayne Reid together + strengthened my instinctive interest in natural history. I was too young + to understand much of Mayne Reid, excepting the adventure part and the + natural history part—these enthralled me. But of course my reading + was not wholly confined to natural history. There was very little effort + made to compel me to read books, my father and mother having the good + sense not to try to get me to read anything I did not like, unless it was + in the way of study. I was given the chance to read books that they + thought I ought to read, but if I did not like them I was then given some + other good book that I did like. There were certain books that were taboo. + For instance, I was not allowed to read dime novels. I obtained some + surreptitiously and did read them, but I do not think that the enjoyment + compensated for the feeling of guilt. I was also forbidden to read the + only one of Ouida's books which I wished to read—"Under Two Flags." + I did read it, nevertheless, with greedy and fierce hope of coming on + something unhealthy; but as a matter of fact all the parts that might have + seemed unhealthy to an older person made no impression on me whatever. I + simply enjoyed in a rather confused way the general adventures. + </p> + <p> + I think there ought to be children's books. I think that the child will + like grown-up books also, and I do not believe a child's book is really + good unless grown-ups get something out of it. For instance, there is a + book I did not have when I was a child because it was not written. It is + Laura E. Richard's "Nursery Rhymes." My own children loved them dearly, + and their mother and I loved them almost equally; the delightfully + light-hearted "Man from New Mexico who Lost his Grandmother out in the + Snow," the adventures of "The Owl, the Eel, and the Warming-Pan," and the + extraordinary genealogy of the kangaroo whose "father was a whale with a + feather in his tail who lived in the Greenland sea," while "his mother was + a shark who kept very dark in the Gulf of Caribee." + </p> + <p> + As a small boy I had <i>Our Young Folks</i>, which I then firmly believed + to be the very best magazine in the world—a belief, I may add, which + I have kept to this day unchanged, for I seriously doubt if any magazine + for old or young has ever surpassed it. Both my wife and I have the bound + volumes of <i>Our Young Folks</i> which we preserved from our youth. I + have tried to read again the Mayne Reid books which I so dearly loved as a + boy, only to find, alas! that it is impossible. But I really believe that + I enjoy going over <i>Our Young Folks</i> now nearly as much as ever. + "Cast Away in the Cold," "Grandfather's Struggle for a Homestead," "The + William Henry Letters," and a dozen others like them were first-class, + good healthy stories, interesting in the first place, and in the next + place teaching manliness, decency, and good conduct. At the cost of being + deemed effeminate, I will add that I greatly liked the girls' stories—"Pussy + Willow" and "A Summer in Leslie Goldthwaite's Life," just as I worshiped + "Little Men" and "Little Women" and "An Old-Fashioned Girl." + </p> + <p> + This enjoyment of the gentler side of life did not prevent my reveling in + such tales of adventure as Ballantyne's stories, or Marryat's "Midshipman + Easy." I suppose everybody has kinks in him, and even as a child there + were books which I ought to have liked and did not. For instance, I never + cared at all for the first part of "Robinson Crusoe" (and although it is + unquestionably the best part, I do not care for it now); whereas the + second part, containing the adventures of Robinson Crusoe, with the wolves + in the Pyrenees, and out in the Far East, simply fascinated me. What I did + like in the first part were the adventures before Crusoe finally reached + his island, the fight with the Sallee Rover, and the allusion to the + strange beasts at night taking their improbable bath in the ocean. Thanks + to being already an embryo zoologist, I disliked the "Swiss Family + Robinson" because of the wholly impossible collection of animals met by + that worthy family as they ambled inland from the wreck. Even in poetry it + was the relation of adventures that most appealed to me as a boy. At a + pretty early age I began to read certain books of poetry, notably + Longfellow's poem, "The Saga of King Olaf," which absorbed me. This + introduced me to Scandinavian literature; and I have never lost my + interest in and affection for it. + </p> + <p> + Among my first books was a volume of a hopelessly unscientific kind by + Mayne Reid, about mammals, illustrated with pictures no more artistic than + but quite as thrilling as those in the typical school geography. When my + father found how deeply interested I was in this not very accurate volume, + he gave me a little book by J. G. Wood, the English writer of popular + books on natural history, and then a larger one of his called "Homes + Without Hands." Both of these were cherished possessions. They were + studied eagerly; and they finally descended to my children. The "Homes + Without Hands," by the way, grew to have an added association in + connection with a pedagogical failure on my part. In accordance with what + I believed was some kind of modern theory of making education interesting + and not letting it become a task, I endeavored to teach my eldest small + boy one or two of his letters from the title-page. As the letter "H" + appeared in the title an unusual number of times, I selected that to begin + on, my effort being to keep the small boy interested, not to let him + realize that he was learning a lesson, and to convince him that he was + merely having a good time. Whether it was the theory or my method of + applying it that was defective I do not know, but I certainly absolutely + eradicated from his brain any ability to learn what "H" was; and long + after he had learned all the other letters of the alphabet in the + old-fashioned way, he proved wholly unable to remember "H" under any + circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Quite unknown to myself, I was, while a boy, under a hopeless disadvantage + in studying nature. I was very near-sighted, so that the only things I + could study were those I ran against or stumbled over. When I was about + thirteen I was allowed to take lessons in taxidermy from a Mr. Bell, a + tall, clean-shaven, white-haired old gentleman, as straight as an Indian, + who had been a companion of Audubon's. He had a musty little shop, + somewhat on the order of Mr. Venus's shop in "Our Mutual Friend," a little + shop in which he had done very valuable work for science. This "vocational + study," as I suppose it would be called by modern educators, spurred and + directed my interest in collecting specimens for mounting and + preservation. It was this summer that I got my first gun, and it puzzled + me to find that my companions seemed to see things to shoot at which I + could not see at all. One day they read aloud an advertisement in huge + letters on a distant billboard, and I then realized that something was the + matter, for not only was I unable to read the sign but I could not even + see the letters. I spoke of this to my father, and soon afterwards got my + first pair of spectacles, which literally opened an entirely new world to + me. I had no idea how beautiful the world was until I got those + spectacles. I had been a clumsy and awkward little boy, and while much of + my clumsiness and awkwardness was doubtless due to general + characteristics, a good deal of it was due to the fact that I could not + see and yet was wholly ignorant that I was not seeing. The recollection of + this experience gives me a keen sympathy with those who are trying in our + public schools and elsewhere to remove the physical causes of deficiency + in children, who are often unjustly blamed for being obstinate or + unambitious, or mentally stupid. + </p> + <p> + This same summer, too, I obtained various new books on mammals and birds, + including the publications of Spencer Baird, for instance, and made an + industrious book-study of the subject. I did not accomplish much in + outdoor study because I did not get spectacles until late in the fall, a + short time before I started with the rest of the family for a second trip + to Europe. We were living at Dobbs Ferry, on the Hudson. My gun was a + breech-loading, pin-fire double-barrel, of French manufacture. It was an + excellent gun for a clumsy and often absent-minded boy. There was no + spring to open it, and if the mechanism became rusty it could be opened + with a brick without serious damage. When the cartridges stuck they could + be removed in the same fashion. If they were loaded, however, the result + was not always happy, and I tattooed myself with partially unburned grains + of powder more than once. + </p> + <p> + When I was fourteen years old, in the winter of '72 and '73, I visited + Europe for the second time, and this trip formed a really useful part of + my education. We went to Egypt, journeyed up the Nile, traveled through + the Holy Land and part of Syria, visited Greece and Constantinople; and + then we children spent the summer in a German family in Dresden. My first + real collecting as a student of natural history was done in Egypt during + this journey. By this time I had a good working knowledge of American bird + life from the superficially scientific standpoint. I had no knowledge of + the ornithology of Egypt, but I picked up in Cairo a book by an English + clergyman, whose name I have now forgotten, who described a trip up the + Nile, and in an appendix to his volume gave an account of his bird + collection. I wish I could remember the name of the author now, for I owe + that book very much. Without it I should have been collecting entirely in + the dark, whereas with its aid I could generally find out what the birds + were. My first knowledge of Latin was obtained by learning the scientific + names of the birds and mammals which I collected and classified by the aid + of such books as this one. + </p> + <p> + The birds I obtained up the Nile and in Palestine represented merely the + usual boy's collection. Some years afterward I gave them, together with + the other ornithological specimens I had gathered, to the Smithsonian + Institution in Washington, and I think some of them also to the American + Museum of Natural History in New York. I am told that the skins are to be + found yet in both places and in other public collections. I doubt whether + they have my original labels on them. With great pride the directors of + the "Roosevelt Museum," consisting of myself and the two cousins + aforesaid, had printed a set of Roosevelt Museum labels in pink ink + preliminary to what was regarded as my adventurous trip to Egypt. This + bird-collecting gave what was really the chief zest to my Nile journey. I + was old enough and had read enough to enjoy the temples and the desert + scenery and the general feeling of romance; but this in time would have + palled if I had not also had the serious work of collecting and preparing + my specimens. Doubtless the family had their moments of suffering—especially + on one occasion when a well-meaning maid extracted from my taxidermist's + outfit the old tooth-brush with which I put on the skins the arsenical + soap necessary for their preservation, partially washed it, and left it + with the rest of my wash kit for my own personal use. I suppose that all + growing boys tend to be grubby; but the ornithological small boy, or + indeed the boy with the taste for natural history of any kind, is + generally the very grubbiest of all. An added element in my case was the + fact that while in Egypt I suddenly started to grow. As there were no + tailors up the Nile, when I got back to Cairo I needed a new outfit. But + there was one suit of clothes too good to throw away, which we kept for a + "change," and which was known as my "Smike suit," because it left my + wrists and ankles as bare as those of poor Smike himself. + </p> + <p> + When we reached Dresden we younger children were left to spend the summer + in the house of Herr Minckwitz, a member of either the Municipal or the + Saxon Government—I have forgotten which. It was hoped that in this + way we would acquire some knowledge of the German language and literature. + They were the very kindest family imaginable. I shall never forget the + unwearied patience of the two daughters. The father and mother, and a shy, + thin, student cousin who was living in the flat, were no less kind. + Whenever I could get out into the country I collected specimens + industriously and enlivened the household with hedge-hogs and other small + beasts and reptiles which persisted in escaping from partially closed + bureau drawers. The two sons were fascinating students from the University + of Leipsic, both of them belonging to dueling corps, and much scarred in + consequence. One, a famous swordsman, was called <i>Der Rothe Herzog</i> + (the Red Duke), and the other was nicknamed <i>Herr Nasehorn</i> (Sir + Rhinoceros) because the tip of his nose had been cut off in a duel and + sewn on again. I learned a good deal of German here, in spite of myself, + and above all I became fascinated with the Nibelungenlied. German prose + never became really easy to me in the sense that French prose did, but for + German poetry I cared as much as for English poetry. Above all, I gained + an impression of the German people which I never got over. From that time + to this it would have been quite impossible to make me feel that the + Germans were really foreigners. The affection, the <i>Gemuthlichkeit</i> + (a quality which cannot be exactly expressed by any single English word), + the capacity for hard work, the sense of duty, the delight in studying + literature and science, the pride in the new Germany, the more than kind + and friendly interest in three strange children—all these + manifestations of the German character and of German family life made a + subconscious impression upon me which I did not in the least define at the + time, but which is very vivid still forty years later. + </p> + <p> + When I got back to America, at the age of fifteen, I began serious study + to enter Harvard under Mr. Arthur Cutler, who later founded the Cutler + School in New York. I could not go to school because I knew so much less + than most boys of my age in some subjects and so much more in others. In + science and history and geography and in unexpected parts of German and + French I was strong, but lamentably weak in Latin and Greek and + mathematics. My grandfather had made his summer home in Oyster Bay a + number of years before, and my father now made Oyster Bay the summer home + of his family also. Along with my college preparatory studies I carried on + the work of a practical student of natural history. I worked with greater + industry than either intelligence or success, and made very few additions + to the sum of human knowledge; but to this day certain obscure + ornithological publications may be found in which are recorded such items + as, for instance, that on one occasion a fish-crow, and on another an + Ipswich sparrow, were obtained by one Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., at Oyster + Bay, on the shore of Long Island Sound. + </p> + <p> + In the fall of 1876 I entered Harvard, graduating in 1880. I thoroughly + enjoyed Harvard, and I am sure it did me good, but only in the general + effect, for there was very little in my actual studies which helped me in + after life. More than one of my own sons have already profited by their + friendship with certain of their masters in school or college. I certainly + profited by my friendship with one of my tutors, Mr. Cutler; and in + Harvard I owed much to the professor of English, Mr. A. S. Hill. Doubtless + through my own fault, I saw almost nothing of President Eliot and very + little of the professors. I ought to have gained much more than I did gain + from writing the themes and forensics. My failure to do so may have been + partly due to my taking no interest in the subjects. Before I left Harvard + I was already writing one or two chapters of a book I afterwards published + on the Naval War of 1812. Those chapters were so dry that they would have + made a dictionary seem light reading by comparison. Still, they + represented purpose and serious interest on my part, not the perfunctory + effort to do well enough to get a certain mark; and corrections of them by + a skilled older man would have impressed me and have commanded my + respectful attention. But I was not sufficiently developed to make myself + take an intelligent interest in some of the subjects assigned me—the + character of the Gracchi, for instance. A very clever and studious lad + would no doubt have done so, but I personally did not grow up to this + particular subject until a good many years later. The frigate and sloop + actions between the American and British sea-tigers of 1812 were much more + within my grasp. I worked drearily at the Gracchi because I had to; my + conscientious and much-to-be-pitied professor dragging me through the + theme by main strength, with my feet firmly planted in dull and totally + idea-proof resistance. + </p> + <p> + I had at the time no idea of going into public life, and I never studied + elocution or practiced debating. This was a loss to me in one way. In + another way it was not. Personally I have not the slightest sympathy with + debating contests in which each side is arbitrarily assigned a given + proposition and told to maintain it without the least reference to whether + those maintaining it believe in it or not. I know that under our system + this is necessary for lawyers, but I emphatically disbelieve in it as + regards general discussion of political, social, and industrial matters. + What we need is to turn out of our colleges young men with ardent + convictions on the side of the right; not young men who can make a good + argument for either right or wrong as their interest bids them. The + present method of carrying on debates on such subjects as "Our Colonial + Policy," or "The Need of a Navy," or "The Proper Position of the Courts in + Constitutional Questions," encourages precisely the wrong attitude among + those who take part in them. There is no effort to instill sincerity and + intensity of conviction. On the contrary, the net result is to make the + contestants feel that their convictions have nothing to do with their + arguments. I am sorry I did not study elocution in college; but I am + exceedingly glad that I did not take part in the type of debate in which + stress is laid, not upon getting a speaker to think rightly, but on + getting him to talk glibly on the side to which he is assigned, without + regard either to what his convictions are or to what they ought to be. + </p> + <p> + I was a reasonably good student in college, standing just within the first + tenth of my class, if I remember rightly; although I am not sure whether + this means the tenth of the whole number that entered or of those that + graduated. I was given a Phi Beta Kappa "key." My chief interests were + scientific. When I entered college, I was devoted to out-of-doors natural + history, and my ambition was to be a scientific man of the Audubon, or + Wilson, or Baird, or Coues type—a man like Hart Merriam, or Frank + Chapman, or Hornaday, to-day. My father had from the earliest days + instilled into me the knowledge that I was to work and to make my own way + in the world, and I had always supposed that this meant that I must enter + business. But in my freshman year (he died when I was a sophomore) he told + me that if I wished to become a scientific man I could do so. He explained + that I must be sure that I really intensely desired to do scientific work, + because if I went into it I must make it a serious career; that he had + made enough money to enable me to take up such a career and do + non-remunerative work of value <i>if I intended to do the very best work + there was in me</i>; but that I must not dream of taking it up as a + dilettante. He also gave me a piece of advice that I have always + remembered, namely, that, if I was not going to earn money, I must even + things up by not spending it. As he expressed it, I had to keep the + fraction constant, and if I was not able to increase the numerator, then I + must reduce the denominator. In other words, if I went into a scientific + career, I must definitely abandon all thought of the enjoyment that could + accompany a money-making career, and must find my pleasures elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + After this conversation I fully intended to make science my life-work. I + did not, for the simple reason that at that time Harvard, and I suppose + our other colleges, utterly ignored the possibilities of the faunal + naturalist, the outdoor naturalist and observer of nature. They treated + biology as purely a science of the laboratory and the microscope, a + science whose adherents were to spend their time in the study of minute + forms of marine life, or else in section-cutting and the study of the + tissues of the higher organisms under the microscope. This attitude was, + no doubt, in part due to the fact that in most colleges then there was a + not always intelligent copying of what was done in the great German + universities. The sound revolt against superficiality of study had been + carried to an extreme; thoroughness in minutiae as the only end of study + had been erected into a fetish. There was a total failure to understand + the great variety of kinds of work that could be done by naturalists, + including what could be done by outdoor naturalists—the kind of work + which Hart Merriam and his assistants in the Biological Survey have + carried to such a high degree of perfection as regards North American + mammals. In the entirely proper desire to be thorough and to avoid + slipshod methods, the tendency was to treat as not serious, as + unscientific, any kind of work that was not carried on with laborious + minuteness in the laboratory. My taste was specialized in a totally + different direction, and I had no more desire or ability to be a + microscopist and section-cutter than to be a mathematician. Accordingly I + abandoned all thought of becoming a scientist. Doubtless this meant that I + really did not have the intense devotion to science which I thought I had; + for, if I had possessed such devotion, I would have carved out a career + for myself somehow without regard to discouragements. + </p> + <p> + As regards political economy, I was of course while in college taught the + <i>laissez-faire</i> doctrines—one of them being free trade—then + accepted as canonical. Most American boys of my age were taught both by + their surroundings and by their studies certain principles which were very + valuable from the standpoint of National interest, and certain others + which were very much the reverse. The political economists were not + especially to blame for this; it was the general attitude of the writers + who wrote for us of that generation. Take my beloved <i>Our Young Folks</i>, + the magazine of which I have already spoken, and which taught me much more + than any of my text-books. Everything in this magazine instilled the + individual virtues, and the necessity of character as the chief factor in + any man's success—a teaching in which I now believe as sincerely as + ever, for all the laws that the wit of man can devise will never make a + man a worthy citizen unless he has within himself the right stuff, unless + he has self-reliance, energy, courage, the power of insisting on his own + rights and the sympathy that makes him regardful of the rights of others. + All this individual morality I was taught by the books I read at home and + the books I studied at Harvard. But there was almost no teaching of the + need for collective action, and of the fact that in addition to, not as a + substitute for, individual responsibility, there is a collective + responsibility. Books such as Herbert Croly's "Promise of American Life" + and Walter E. Weyl's "New Democracy" would generally at that time have + been treated either as unintelligible or else as pure heresy. + </p> + <p> + The teaching which I received was genuinely democratic in one way. It was + not so democratic in another. I grew into manhood thoroughly imbued with + the feeling that a man must be respected for what he made of himself. But + I had also, consciously or unconsciously, been taught that socially and + industrially pretty much the whole duty of the man lay in thus making the + best of himself; that he should be honest in his dealings with others and + charitable in the old-fashioned way to the unfortunate; but that it was no + part of his business to join with others in trying to make things better + for the many by curbing the abnormal and excessive development of + individualism in a few. Now I do not mean that this training was by any + means all bad. On the contrary, the insistence upon individual + responsibility was, and is, and always will be, a prime necessity. + Teaching of the kind I absorbed from both my text-books and my + surroundings is a healthy anti-scorbutic to the sentimentality which by + complacently excusing the individual for all his shortcomings would + finally hopelessly weaken the spring of moral purpose. It also keeps alive + that virile vigor for the lack of which in the average individual no + possible perfection of law or of community action can ever atone. But such + teaching, if not corrected by other teaching, means acquiescence in a riot + of lawless business individualism which would be quite as destructive to + real civilization as the lawless military individualism of the Dark Ages. + I left college and entered the big world owing more than I can express to + the training I had received, especially in my own home; but with much else + also to learn if I were to become really fitted to do my part in the work + that lay ahead for the generation of Americans to which I belonged. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <h3> + THE VIGOR OF LIFE + </h3> + <p> + Looking back, a man really has a more objective feeling about himself as a + child than he has about his father or mother. He feels as if that child + were not the present he, individually, but an ancestor; just as much an + ancestor as either of his parents. The saying that the child is the father + to the man may be taken in a sense almost the reverse of that usually + given to it. The child is father to the man in the sense that his + individuality is separate from the individuality of the grown-up into + which he turns. This is perhaps one reason why a man can speak of his + childhood and early youth with a sense of detachment. + </p> + <p> + Having been a sickly boy, with no natural bodily prowess, and having lived + much at home, I was at first quite unable to hold my own when thrown into + contact with other boys of rougher antecedents. I was nervous and timid. + Yet from reading of the people I admired—ranging from the soldiers + of Valley Forge, and Morgan's riflemen, to the heroes of my favorite + stories—and from hearing of the feats performed by my Southern + forefathers and kinsfolk, and from knowing my father, I felt a great + admiration for men who were fearless and who could hold their own in the + world, and I had a great desire to be like them. Until I was nearly + fourteen I let this desire take no more definite shape than day-dreams. + Then an incident happened that did me real good. Having an attack of + asthma, I was sent off by myself to Moosehead Lake. On the stage-coach + ride thither I encountered a couple of other boys who were about my own + age, but very much more competent and also much more mischievous. I have + no doubt they were good-hearted boys, but they were boys! They found that + I was a foreordained and predestined victim, and industriously proceeded + to make life miserable for me. The worst feature was that when I finally + tried to fight them I discovered that either one singly could not only + handle me with easy contempt, but handle me so as not to hurt me much and + yet to prevent my doing any damage whatever in return. + </p> + <p> + The experience taught me what probably no amount of good advice could have + taught me. I made up my mind that I must try to learn so that I would not + again be put in such a helpless position; and having become quickly and + bitterly conscious that I did not have the natural prowess to hold my own, + I decided that I would try to supply its place by training. Accordingly, + with my father's hearty approval, I started to learn to box. I was a + painfully slow and awkward pupil, and certainly worked two or three years + before I made any perceptible improvement whatever. My first boxing-master + was John Long, an ex-prize-fighter. I can see his rooms now, with colored + pictures of the fights between Tom Hyer and Yankee Sullivan, and Heenan + and Sayers, and other great events in the annals of the squared circle. On + one occasion, to excite interest among his patrons, he held a series of + "championship" matches for the different weights, the prizes being, at + least in my own class, pewter mugs of a value, I should suppose, + approximating fifty cents. Neither he nor I had any idea that I could do + anything, but I was entered in the lightweight contest, in which it + happened that I was pitted in succession against a couple of reedy + striplings who were even worse than I was. Equally to their surprise and + to my own, and to John Long's, I won, and the pewter mug became one of my + most prized possessions. I kept it, and alluded to it, and I fear bragged + about it, for a number of years, and I only wish I knew where it was now. + Years later I read an account of a little man who once in a fifth-rate + handicap race won a worthless pewter medal and joyed in it ever after. + Well, as soon as I read that story I felt that that little man and I were + brothers. + </p> + <p> + This was, as far as I remember, the only one of my exceedingly rare + athletic triumphs which would be worth relating. I did a good deal of + boxing and wrestling in Harvard, but never attained to the first rank in + either, even at my own weight. Once, in the big contests in the Gym, I got + either into the finals or semi-finals, I forget which; but aside from this + the chief part I played was to act as trial horse for some friend or + classmate who did have a chance of distinguishing himself in the + championship contests. + </p> + <p> + I was fond of horseback-riding, but I took to it slowly and with + difficulty, exactly as with boxing. It was a long time before I became + even a respectable rider, and I never got much higher. I mean by this that + I never became a first-flight man in the hunting field, and never even + approached the bronco-busting class in the West. Any man, if he chooses, + can gradually school himself to the requisite nerve, and gradually learn + the requisite seat and hands, that will enable him to do respectably + across country, or to perform the average work on a ranch. Of my ranch + experiences I shall speak later. At intervals after leaving college I + hunted on Long Island with the Meadowbrook hounds. Almost the only + experience I ever had in this connection that was of any interest was on + one occasion when I broke my arm. My purse did not permit me to own + expensive horses. On this occasion I was riding an animal, a buggy horse + originally, which its owner sold because now and then it insisted on + thoughtfully lying down when in harness. It never did this under the + saddle; and when he turned it out to grass it would solemnly hop over the + fence and get somewhere where it did not belong. The last trait was what + converted it into a hunter. It was a natural jumper, although without any + speed. On the hunt in question I got along very well until the pace winded + my ex-buggy horse, and it turned a somersault over a fence. When I got on + it after the fall I found I could not use my left arm. I supposed it was + merely a strain. The buggy horse was a sedate animal which I rode with a + snaffle. So we pounded along at the tail of the hunt, and I did not + appreciate that my arm was broken for three or four fences. Then we came + to a big drop, and the jar made the bones slip past one another so as to + throw the hand out of position. It did not hurt me at all, and as the + horse was as easy to sit as a rocking-chair, I got in at the death. + </p> + <p> + I think August Belmont was master of the hunt when the above incident + occurred. I know he was master on another occasion on which I met with a + mild adventure. On one of the hunts when I was out a man was thrown, + dragged by one stirrup, and killed. In consequence I bought a pair of + safety stirrups, which I used the next time I went out. Within five + minutes after the run began I found that the stirrups were so very "safe" + that they would not stay in at all. First one went off at one jump, and + then the other at another jump—with a fall for me on each occasion. + I hated to give up the fun so early, and accordingly finished the run + without any stirrups. My horse never went as fast as on that run. + Doubtless a first-class horseman can ride as well without stirrups as with + them. But I was not a first-class horseman. When anything unexpected + happened, I was apt to clasp the solemn buggy horse firmly with my spurred + heels, and the result was that he laid himself out to do his best in the + way of galloping. He speedily found that, thanks to the snaffle bit, I + could not pull him in, so when we came to a down grade he would usually + put on steam. Then if there was a fence at the bottom and he checked at + all, I was apt to shoot forward, and in such event we went over the fence + in a way that reminded me of Leech's picture, in <i>Punch</i>, of Mr. Tom + Noddy and his mare jumping a fence in the following order: Mr. Tom Noddy, + I; his mare, II. However, I got in at the death this time also. + </p> + <p> + I was fond of walking and climbing. As a lad I used to go to the north + woods, in Maine, both in fall and winter. There I made life friends of two + men, Will Dow and Bill Sewall: I canoed with them, and tramped through the + woods with them, visiting the winter logging camps on snow-shoes. + Afterward they were with me in the West. Will Dow is dead. Bill Sewall was + collector of customs under me, on the Aroostook border. Except when + hunting I never did any mountaineering save for a couple of conventional + trips up the Matterhorn and the Jungfrau on one occasion when I was in + Switzerland. + </p> + <p> + I never did much with the shotgun, but I practiced a good deal with the + rifle. I had a rifle-range at Sagamore Hill, where I often took friends to + shoot. Once or twice when I was visited by parties of released Boer + prisoners, after the close of the South African War, they and I held + shooting matches together. The best man with both pistol and rifle who + ever shot there was Stewart Edward White. Among the many other good men + was a stanch friend, Baron Speck von Sternberg, afterwards German + Ambassador at Washington during my Presidency. He was a capital shot, + rider, and walker, a devoted and most efficient servant of Germany, who + had fought with distinction in the Franco-German War when barely more than + a boy; he was the hero of the story of "the pig dog" in Archibald Forbes's + volume of reminiscences. It was he who first talked over with me the + raising of a regiment of horse riflemen from among the ranchmen and + cowboys of the plains. When Ambassador, the poor, gallant, tender-hearted + fellow was dying of a slow and painful disease, so that he could not play + with the rest of us, but the agony of his mortal illness never in the + slightest degree interfered with his work. Among the other men who shot + and rode and walked with me was Cecil Spring-Rice, who has just been + appointed British Ambassador to the United States. He was my groomsman, my + best man, when I was married—at St. George's, Hanover Square, which + made me feel as if I were living in one of Thackeray's novels. + </p> + <p> + My own experience as regards marksmanship was much the same as my + experience as regards horsemanship. There are men whose eye and hand are + so quick and so sure that they achieve a perfection of marksmanship to + which no practice will enable ordinary men to attain. There are other men + who cannot learn to shoot with any accuracy at all. In between come the + mass of men of ordinary abilities who, if they choose resolutely to + practice, can by sheer industry and judgment make themselves fair rifle + shots. The men who show this requisite industry and judgment can without + special difficulty raise themselves to the second class of respectable + rifle shots; and it is to this class that I belong. But to have reached + this point of marksmanship with the rifle at a target by no means implies + ability to hit game in the field, especially dangerous game. All kinds of + other qualities, moral and physical, enter into being a good hunter, and + especially a good hunter after dangerous game, just as all kinds of other + qualities in addition to skill with the rifle enter into being a good + soldier. With dangerous game, after a fair degree of efficiency with the + rifle has been attained, the prime requisites are cool judgment and that + kind of nerve which consists in avoiding being rattled. Any beginner is + apt to have "buck fever," and therefore no beginner should go at dangerous + game. + </p> + <p> + Buck fever means a state of intense nervous excitement which may be + entirely divorced from timidity. It may affect a man the first time he has + to speak to a large audience just as it affects him the first time he sees + a buck or goes into battle. What such a man needs is not courage but nerve + control, cool-headedness. This he can get only by actual practice. He + must, by custom and repeated exercise of self-mastery, get his nerves + thoroughly under control. This is largely a matter of habit, in the sense + of repeated effort and repeated exercise of will power. If the man has the + right stuff in him, his will grows stronger and stronger with each + exercise of it—and if he has not the right stuff in him he had + better keep clear of dangerous game hunting, or indeed of any other form + of sport or work in which there is bodily peril. + </p> + <p> + After he has achieved the ability to exercise wariness and judgment and + the control over his nerves <i>which will make him shoot as well at the + game as at a target</i>, he can begin his essays at dangerous game + hunting, and he will then find that it does not demand such abnormal + prowess as the outsider is apt to imagine. A man who can hit a soda-water + bottle at the distance of a few yards can brain a lion or a bear or an + elephant at that distance, and if he cannot brain it when it charges he + can at least bring it to a standstill. All he has to do is to shoot as + accurately as he would at a soda-water bottle; and to do this requires + nerve, at least as much as it does physical address. Having reached this + point, the hunter must not imagine that he is warranted in taking + desperate chances. There are degrees in proficiency; and what is a + warrantable and legitimate risk for a man to take when he has reached a + certain grade of efficiency may be a foolish risk for him to take before + he has reached that grade. A man who has reached the degree of proficiency + indicated above is quite warranted in walking in at a lion at bay, in an + open plain, to, say, within a hundred yards. If the lion has not charged, + the man ought at that distance to knock him over and prevent his charging; + and if the lion is already charging, the man ought at that distance to be + able to stop him. But the amount of prowess which warrants a man in + relying on his ability to perform this feat does not by any means justify + him in thinking that, for instance, he can crawl after a wounded lion into + thick cover. I have known men of indifferent prowess to perform this + latter feat successfully, but at least as often they have been + unsuccessful, and in these cases the result has been unpleasant. The man + who habitually follows wounded lions into thick cover must be a hunter of + the highest skill, or he can count with certainty on an ultimate mauling. + </p> + <p> + The first two or three bucks I ever saw gave me buck fever badly, but + after I had gained experience with ordinary game I never had buck fever at + all with dangerous game. In my case the overcoming of buck fever was the + result of conscious effort and a deliberate determination to overcome it. + More happily constituted men never have to make this determined effort at + all—which may perhaps show that the average man can profit more from + my experiences than he can from those of the exceptional man. + </p> + <p> + I have shot only five kinds of animals which can fairly be called + dangerous game—that is, the lion, elephant, rhinoceros, and buffalo + in Africa, and the big grizzly bear a quarter of a century ago in the + Rockies. Taking into account not only my own personal experience, but the + experiences of many veteran hunters, I regard all the four African + animals, but especially the lion, elephant, and buffalo, as much more + dangerous than the grizzly. As it happened, however, the only narrow + escape I personally ever had was from a grizzly, and in Africa the animal + killed closest to me as it was charging was a rhinoceros—all of + which goes to show that a man must not generalize too broadly from his own + personal experiences. On the whole, I think the lion the most dangerous of + all these five animals; that is, I think that, if fairly hunted, there is + a larger percentage of hunters killed or mauled for a given number of + lions killed than for a given number of any one of the other animals. Yet + I personally had no difficulties with lions. I twice killed lions which + were at bay and just starting to charge, and I killed a heavy-maned male + while it was in full charge. But in each instance I had plenty of leeway, + the animal being so far off that even if my bullet had not been fatal I + should have had time for a couple more shots. The African buffalo is + undoubtedly a dangerous beast, but it happened that the few that I shot + did not charge. A bull elephant, a vicious "rogue," which had been killing + people in the native villages, did charge before being shot at. My son + Kermit and I stopped it at forty yards. Another bull elephant, also + unwounded, which charged, nearly got me, as I had just fired both + cartridges from my heavy double-barreled rifle in killing the bull I was + after—the first wild elephant I had ever seen. The second bull came + through the thick brush to my left like a steam plow through a light + snowdrift, everything snapping before his rush, and was so near that he + could have hit me with his trunk. I slipped past him behind a tree. People + have asked me how I felt on this occasion. My answer has always been that + I suppose I felt as most men of like experience feel on such occasions. At + such a moment a hunter is so very busy that he has no time to get + frightened. He wants to get in his cartridges and try another shot. + </p> + <p> + Rhinoceros are truculent, blustering beasts, much the most stupid of all + the dangerous game I know. Generally their attitude is one of mere + stupidity and bluff. But on occasions they do charge wickedly, both when + wounded and when entirely unprovoked. The first I ever shot I mortally + wounded at a few rods' distance, and it charged with the utmost + determination, whereat I and my companion both fired, and more by good + luck than anything else brought it to the ground just thirteen paces from + where we stood. Another rhinoceros may or may not have been meaning to + charge me; I have never been certain which. It heard us and came at us + through rather thick brush, snorting and tossing its head. I am by no + means sure that it had fixedly hostile intentions, and indeed with my + present experience I think it likely that if I had not fired it would have + flinched at the last moment and either retreated or gone by me. But I am + not a rhinoceros mind reader, and its actions were such as to warrant my + regarding it as a suspicious character. I stopped it with a couple of + bullets, and then followed it up and killed it. The skins of all these + animals which I thus killed are in the National Museum at Washington. + </p> + <p> + But, as I said above, the only narrow escape I met with was not from one + of these dangerous African animals, but from a grizzly bear. It was about + twenty-four years ago. I had wounded the bear just at sunset, in a wood of + lodge-pole pines, and, following him, I wounded him again, as he stood on + the other side of a thicket. He then charged through the brush, coming + with such speed and with such an irregular gait that, try as I would, I + was not able to get the sight of my rifle on the brain-pan, though I hit + him very hard with both the remaining barrels of my magazine Winchester. + It was in the days of black powder, and the smoke hung. After my last + shot, the first thing I saw was the bear's left paw as he struck at me, so + close that I made a quick movement to one side. He was, however, + practically already dead, and after another jump, and while in the very + act of trying to turn to come at me, he collapsed like a shot rabbit. + </p> + <p> + By the way, I had a most exasperating time trying to bring in his skin. I + was alone, traveling on foot with one very docile little mountain mare for + a pack pony. The little mare cared nothing for bears or anything else, so + there was no difficulty in packing her. But the man without experience can + hardly realize the work it was to get that bearskin off the carcass and + then to pack it, wet, slippery, and heavy, so that it would ride evenly on + the pony. I was at the time fairly well versed in packing with a "diamond + hitch," the standby of Rocky Mountain packers in my day; but the diamond + hitch is a two-man job; and even working with a "squaw hitch," I got into + endless trouble with that wet and slippery bearskin. With infinite labor I + would get the skin on the pony and run the ropes over it until to all + seeming it was fastened properly. Then off we would start, and after going + about a hundred yards I would notice the hide beginning to bulge through + between two ropes. I would shift one of them, and then the hide would + bulge somewhere else. I would shift the rope again; and still the hide + would flow slowly out as if it was lava. The first thing I knew it would + come down on one side, and the little mare, with her feet planted + resolutely, would wait for me to perform my part by getting that bearskin + back in its proper place on the McClellan saddle which I was using as a + makeshift pack saddle. The feat of killing the bear the previous day sank + into nothing compared with the feat of making the bearskin ride properly + as a pack on the following three days. + </p> + <p> + The reason why I was alone in the mountains on this occasion was because, + for the only time in all my experience, I had a difficulty with my guide. + He was a crippled old mountain man, with a profound contempt for + "tenderfeet," a contempt that in my case was accentuated by the fact that + I wore spectacles—which at that day and in that region were usually + held to indicate a defective moral character in the wearer. He had never + previously acted as guide, or, as he expressed it, "trundled a + tenderfoot," and though a good hunter, who showed me much game, our + experience together was not happy. He was very rheumatic and liked to lie + abed late, so that I usually had to get breakfast, and, in fact, do most + of the work around camp. Finally one day he declined to go out with me, + saying that he had a pain. When, that afternoon, I got back to camp, I + speedily found what the "pain" was. We were traveling very light indeed, I + having practically nothing but my buffalo sleeping-bag, my wash kit, and a + pair of socks. I had also taken a flask of whisky for emergencies—although, + as I found that the emergencies never arose and that tea was better than + whisky when a man was cold or done out, I abandoned the practice of taking + whisky on hunting trips twenty years ago. When I got back to camp the old + fellow was sitting on a tree-trunk, very erect, with his rifle across his + knees, and in response to my nod of greeting he merely leered at me. I + leaned my rifle against a tree, walked over to where my bed was lying, + and, happening to rummage in it for something, I found the whisky flask + was empty. I turned on him at once and accused him of having drunk it, to + which he merely responded by asking what I was going to do about it. There + did not seem much to do, so I said that we would part company—we + were only four or five days from a settlement—and I would go in + alone, taking one of the horses. He responded by cocking his rifle and + saying that I could go alone and be damned to me, but I could not take any + horse. I answered "all right," that if I could not I could not, and began + to move around to get some flour and salt pork. He was misled by my + quietness and by the fact that I had not in any way resented either his + actions or his language during the days we had been together, and did not + watch me as closely as he ought to have done. He was sitting with the + cocked rifle across his knees, the muzzle to the left. My rifle was + leaning against a tree near the cooking things to his right. Managing to + get near it, I whipped it up and threw the bead on him, calling, "Hands + up!" He of course put up his hands, and then said, "Oh, come, I was only + joking"; to which I answered, "Well, I am not. Now straighten your legs + and let your rifle go to the ground." He remonstrated, saying the rifle + would go off, and I told him to let it go off. However, he straightened + his legs in such fashion that it came to the ground without a jar. I then + made him move back, and picked up the rifle. By this time he was quite + sober, and really did not seem angry, looking at me quizzically. He told + me that if I would give him back his rifle, he would call it quits and we + could go on together. I did not think it best to trust him, so I told him + that our hunt was pretty well through, anyway, and that I would go home. + There was a blasted pine on the trail, in plain view of the camp, about a + mile off, and I told him that I would leave his rifle at that blasted pine + if I could see him in camp, but that he must not come after me, for if he + did I should assume that it was with hostile intent and would shoot. He + said he had no intention of coming after me; and as he was very much + crippled with rheumatism, I did not believe he would do so. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly I took the little mare, with nothing but some flour, bacon, + and tea, and my bed-roll, and started off. At the blasted pine I looked + round, and as I could see him in camp, I left his rifle there. I then + traveled till dark, and that night, for the only time in my experience, I + used in camping a trick of the old-time trappers in the Indian days. I did + not believe I would be followed, but still it was not possible to be sure, + so, after getting supper, while my pony fed round, I left the fire + burning, repacked the mare and pushed ahead until it literally became so + dark that I could not see. Then I picketed the mare, slept where I was + without a fire until the first streak of dawn, and then pushed on for a + couple of hours before halting to take breakfast and to let the little + mare have a good feed. No plainsman needs to be told that a man should not + lie near a fire if there is danger of an enemy creeping up on him, and + that above all a man should not put himself in a position where he can be + ambushed at dawn. On this second day I lost the trail, and toward + nightfall gave up the effort to find it, camped where I was, and went out + to shoot a grouse for supper. It was while hunting in vain for a grouse + that I came on the bear and killed it as above described. + </p> + <p> + When I reached the settlement and went into the store, the storekeeper + identified me by remarking: "You're the tenderfoot that old Hank was + trundling, ain't you?" I admitted that I was. A good many years later, + after I had been elected Vice-President, I went on a cougar hunt in + northwestern Colorado with Johnny Goff, a famous hunter and mountain man. + It was midwinter. I was rather proud of my achievements, and pictured + myself as being known to the few settlers in the neighborhood as a + successful mountain-lion hunter. I could not help grinning when I found + out that they did not even allude to me as the Vice-President-elect, let + alone as a hunter, but merely as "Johnny Goff's tourist." + </p> + <p> + Of course during the years when I was most busy at serious work I could do + no hunting, and even my riding was of a decorous kind. But a man whose + business is sedentary should get some kind of exercise if he wishes to + keep himself in as good physical trim as his brethren who do manual labor. + When I worked on a ranch, I needed no form of exercise except my work, but + when I worked in an office the case was different. A couple of summers I + played polo with some of my neighbors. I shall always believe we played + polo in just the right way for middle-aged men with stables of the general + utility order. Of course it was polo which was chiefly of interest to + ourselves, the only onlookers being the members of our faithful families. + My two ponies were the only occupants of my stable except a cart-horse. My + wife and I rode and drove them, and they were used for household errands + and for the children, and for two afternoons a week they served me as polo + ponies. Polo is a good game, infinitely better for vigorous men than + tennis or golf or anything of that kind. There is all the fun of football, + with the horse thrown in; and if only people would be willing to play it + in simple fashion it would be almost as much within their reach as golf. + But at Oyster Bay our great and permanent amusements were rowing and + sailing; I do not care for the latter, and am fond of the former. I + suppose it sounds archaic, but I cannot help thinking that the people with + motor boats miss a great deal. If they would only keep to rowboats or + canoes, and use oar or paddle themselves, they would get infinitely more + benefit than by having their work done for them by gasoline. But I rarely + took exercise merely as exercise. Primarily I took it because I liked it. + Play should never be allowed to interfere with work; and a life devoted + merely to play is, of all forms of existence, the most dismal. But the joy + of life is a very good thing, and while work is the essential in it, play + also has its place. + </p> + <p> + When obliged to live in cities, I for a long time found that boxing and + wrestling enabled me to get a good deal of exercise in condensed and + attractive form. I was reluctantly obliged to abandon both as I grew + older. I dropped the wrestling earliest. When I became Governor, the + champion middleweight wrestler of America happened to be in Albany, and I + got him to come round three or four afternoons a week. Incidentally I may + mention that his presence caused me a difficulty with the Comptroller, who + refused to audit a bill I put in for a wrestling-mat, explaining that I + could have a billiard-table, billiards being recognized as a proper + Gubernatorial amusement, but that a wrestling-mat symbolized something + unusual and unheard of and could not be permitted. The middleweight + champion was of course so much better than I was that he could not only + take care of himself but of me too and see that I was not hurt—for + wrestling is a much more violent amusement than boxing. But after a couple + of months he had to go away, and he left as a substitute a good-humored, + stalwart professional oarsman. The oarsman turned out to know very little + about wrestling. He could not even take care of himself, not to speak of + me. By the end of our second afternoon one of his long ribs had been caved + in and two of my short ribs badly damaged, and my left shoulder-blade so + nearly shoved out of place that it creaked. He was nearly as pleased as I + was when I told him I thought we would "vote the war a failure" and + abandon wrestling. After that I took up boxing again. While President I + used to box with some of the aides, as well as play single-stick with + General Wood. After a few years I had to abandon boxing as well as + wrestling, for in one bout a young captain of artillery cross-countered me + on the eye, and the blow smashed the little blood-vessels. Fortunately it + was my left eye, but the sight has been dim ever since, and if it had been + the right eye I should have been entirely unable to shoot. Accordingly I + thought it better to acknowledge that I had become an elderly man and + would have to stop boxing. I then took up jiu-jitsu for a year or two. + </p> + <p> + When I was in the Legislature and was working very hard, with little + chance of getting out of doors, all the exercise I got was boxing and + wrestling. A young fellow turned up who was a second-rate prize-fighter, + the son of one of my old boxing teachers. For several weeks I had him come + round to my rooms in the morning to put on the gloves with me for half an + hour. Then he suddenly stopped, and some days later I received a letter of + woe from him from the jail. I found that he was by profession a burglar, + and merely followed boxing as the amusement of his lighter moments, or + when business was slack. + </p> + <p> + Naturally, being fond of boxing, I grew to know a good many + prize-fighters, and to most of those I knew I grew genuinely attached. I + have never been able to sympathize with the outcry against prize-fighters. + The only objection I have to the prize ring is the crookedness that has + attended its commercial development. Outside of this I regard boxing, + whether professional or amateur, as a first-class sport, and I do not + regard it as brutalizing. Of course matches can be conducted under + conditions that make them brutalizing. But this is true of football games + and of most other rough and vigorous sports. Most certainly prize-fighting + is not half as brutalizing or demoralizing as many forms of big business + and of the legal work carried on in connection with big business. + Powerful, vigorous men of strong animal development must have some way in + which their animal spirits can find vent. When I was Police Commissioner I + found (and Jacob Riis will back me up in this) that the establishment of a + boxing club in a tough neighborhood always tended to do away with knifing + and gun-fighting among the young fellows who would otherwise have been in + murderous gangs. Many of these young fellows were not naturally criminals + at all, but they had to have some outlet for their activities. In the same + way I have always regarded boxing as a first-class sport to encourage in + the Young Men's Christian Association. I do not like to see young + Christians with shoulders that slope like a champagne bottle. Of course + boxing should be encouraged in the army and navy. I was first drawn to two + naval chaplains, Fathers Chidwick and Rainey, by finding that each of them + had bought half a dozen sets of boxing-gloves and encouraged their crews + in boxing. + </p> + <p> + When I was Police Commissioner, I heartily approved the effort to get + boxing clubs started in New York on a clean basis. Later I was reluctantly + obliged to come to the conclusion that the prize ring had become + hopelessly debased and demoralized, and as Governor I aided in the passage + of and signed the bill putting a stop to professional boxing for money. + This was because some of the prize-fighters themselves were crooked, while + the crowd of hangers-on who attended and made up and profited by the + matches had placed the whole business on a basis of commercialism and + brutality that was intolerable. I shall always maintain that boxing + contests themselves make good, healthy sport. It is idle to compare them + with bull-fighting; the torture and death of the wretched horses in + bull-fighting is enough of itself to blast the sport, no matter how great + the skill and prowess shown by the bull-fighters. Any sport in which the + death and torture of animals is made to furnish pleasure to the spectators + is debasing. There should always be the opportunity provided in a glove + fight or bare-fist fight to stop it when one competitor is hopelessly + outclassed or too badly hammered. But the men who take part in these + fights are hard as nails, and it is not worth while to feel sentimental + about their receiving punishment which as a matter of fact they do not + mind. Of course the men who look on ought to be able to stand up with the + gloves, or without them, themselves; I have scant use for the type of + sportsmanship which consists merely in looking on at the feats of some one + else. + </p> + <p> + Some as good citizens as I know are or were prize-fighters. Take Mike + Donovan, of New York. He and his family represent a type of American + citizenship of which we have a right to be proud. Mike is a devoted + temperance man, and can be relied upon for every movement in the interest + of good citizenship. I was first intimately thrown with him when I was + Police Commissioner. One evening he and I—both in dress suits—attended + a temperance meeting of Catholic societies. It culminated in a lively + set-to between myself and a Tammany Senator who was a very good fellow, + but whose ideas of temperance differed radically from mine, and, as the + event proved, from those of the majority of the meeting. Mike evidently + regarded himself as my backer—he was sitting on the platform beside + me—and I think felt as pleased and interested as if the set-to had + been physical instead of merely verbal. Afterward I grew to know him well + both while I was Governor and while I was President, and many a time he + came on and boxed with me. + </p> + <p> + Battling Nelson was another stanch friend, and he and I think alike on + most questions of political and industrial life; although he once + expressed to me some commiseration because, as President, I did not get + anything like the money return for my services that he aggregated during + the same term of years in the ring. Bob Fitzsimmons was another good + friend of mine. He has never forgotten his early skill as a blacksmith, + and among the things that I value and always keep in use is a penholder + made by Bob out of a horseshoe, with an inscription saying that it is + "Made for and presented to President Theodore Roosevelt by his friend and + admirer, Robert Fitzsimmons." I have for a long time had the friendship of + John L. Sullivan, than whom in his prime no better man ever stepped into + the ring. He is now a Massachusetts farmer. John used occasionally to + visit me at the White House, his advent always causing a distinct flutter + among the waiting Senators and Congressmen. When I went to Africa he + presented me with a gold-mounted rabbit's foot for luck. I carried it + through my African trip; and I certainly had good luck. + </p> + <p> + On one occasion one of my prize-fighting friends called on me at the White + House on business. He explained that he wished to see me alone, sat down + opposite me, and put a very expensive cigar on the desk, saying, "Have a + cigar." I thanked him and said I did not smoke, to which he responded, + "Put it in your pocket." He then added, "Take another; put both in your + pocket." This I accordingly did. Having thus shown at the outset the + necessary formal courtesy, my visitor, an old and valued friend, proceeded + to explain that a nephew of his had enlisted in the Marine Corps, but had + been absent without leave, and was threatened with dishonorable discharge + on the ground of desertion. My visitor, a good citizen and a patriotic + American, was stung to the quick at the thought of such an incident + occurring in his family, and he explained to me that it must not occur, + that there must not be the disgrace to the family, although he would be + delighted to have the offender "handled rough" to teach him a needed + lesson; he added that he wished I would take him and handle him myself, + for he knew that I would see that he "got all that was coming to him." + Then a look of pathos came into his eyes, and he explained: "That boy I + just cannot understand. He was my sister's favorite son, and I always took + a special interest in him myself. I did my best to bring him up the way he + ought to go. But there was just nothing to be done with him. His tastes + were naturally low. He took to music!" What form this debasing taste for + music assumed I did not inquire; and I was able to grant my friend's wish. + </p> + <p> + While in the White House I always tried to get a couple of hours' exercise + in the afternoons—sometimes tennis, more often riding, or else a + rough cross-country walk, perhaps down Rock Creek, which was then as wild + as a stream in the White Mountains, or on the Virginia side along the + Potomac. My companions at tennis or on these rides and walks we gradually + grew to style the Tennis Cabinet; and then we extended the term to take in + many of my old-time Western friends such as Ben Daniels, Seth Bullock, + Luther Kelly, and others who had taken part with me in more serious + outdoor adventures than walking and riding for pleasure. Most of the men + who were oftenest with me on these trips—men like Major-General + Leonard Wood; or Major-General Thomas Henry Barry; or Presley Marion + Rixey, Surgeon-General of the Navy; or Robert Bacon, who was afterwards + Secretary of State; or James Garfield, who was Secretary of the Interior; + or Gifford Pinchot, who was chief of the Forest Service—were better + men physically than I was; but I could ride and walk well enough for us + all thoroughly to enjoy it. Often, especially in the winters and early + springs, we would arrange for a point to point walk, not turning aside for + anything—for instance, swimming Rock Creek or even the Potomac if it + came in our way. Of course under such circumstances we had to arrange that + our return to Washington should be when it was dark, so that our + appearance might scandalize no one. On several occasions we thus swam Rock + Creek in the early spring when the ice was floating thick upon it. If we + swam the Potomac, we usually took off our clothes. I remember one such + occasion when the French Ambassador, Jusserand, who was a member of the + Tennis Cabinet, was along, and, just as we were about to get in to swim, + somebody said, "Mr. Ambassador, Mr. Ambassador, you haven't taken off your + gloves," to which he promptly responded, "I think I will leave them on; we + might meet ladies!" + </p> + <p> + We liked Rock Creek for these walks because we could do so much scrambling + and climbing along the cliffs; there was almost as much climbing when we + walked down the Potomac to Washington from the Virginia end of the Chain + Bridge. I would occasionally take some big-game friend from abroad, Selous + or St. George Littledale or Captain Radclyffe or Paul Niedicke, on these + walks. Once I invited an entire class of officers who were attending + lectures at the War College to come on one of these walks; I chose a route + which gave us the hardest climbing along the rocks and the deepest + crossings of the creek; and my army friends enjoyed it hugely—being + the right sort, to a man. + </p> + <p> + On March 1, 1909, three days before leaving the Presidency, various + members of the Tennis Cabinet lunched with me at the White House. "Tennis + Cabinet" was an elastic term, and of course many who ought to have been at + the lunch were, for one reason or another, away from Washington; but, to + make up for this, a goodly number of out-of-town honorary members, so to + speak, were present—for instance, Seth Bullock; Luther Kelly, better + known as Yellowstone Kelly in the days when he was an army scout against + the Sioux; and Abernathy, the wolf-hunter. At the end of the lunch Seth + Bullock suddenly reached forward, swept aside a mass of flowers which made + a centerpiece on the table, and revealed a bronze cougar by Proctor, which + was a parting gift to me. The lunch party and the cougar were then + photographed on the lawn. + </p> + <p> + Some of the younger officers who were my constant companions on these + walks and rides pointed out to me the condition of utter physical + worthlessness into which certain of the elder ones had permitted + themselves to lapse, and the very bad effect this would certainly have if + ever the army were called into service. I then looked into the matter for + myself, and was really shocked at what I found. Many of the older officers + were so unfit physically that their condition would have excited laughter, + had it not been so serious, to think that they belonged to the military + arm of the Government. A cavalry colonel proved unable to keep his horse + at a smart trot for even half a mile, when I visited his post; a + Major-General proved afraid even to let his horse canter, when he went on + a ride with us; and certain otherwise good men proved as unable to walk as + if they had been sedentary brokers. I consulted with men like + Major-Generals Wood and Bell, who were themselves of fine physique, with + bodies fit to meet any demand. It was late in my administration; and we + deemed it best only to make a beginning—experience teaches the most + inveterate reformer how hard it is to get a totally non-military nation to + accept seriously any military improvement. Accordingly, I merely issued + directions that each officer should prove his ability to walk fifty miles, + or ride one hundred, in three days. + </p> + <p> + This is, of course, a test which many a healthy middle-aged woman would be + able to meet. But a large portion of the press adopted the view that it + was a bit of capricious tyranny on my part; and a considerable number of + elderly officers, with desk rather than field experience, intrigued with + their friends in Congress to have the order annulled. So one day I took a + ride of a little over one hundred miles myself, in company with + Surgeon-General Rixey and two other officers. The Virginia roads were + frozen and in ruts, and in the afternoon and evening there was a storm of + snow and sleet; and when it had been thus experimentally shown, under + unfavorable conditions, how easy it was to do in one day the task for + which the army officers were allowed three days, all open objection + ceased. But some bureau chiefs still did as much underhanded work against + the order as they dared, and it was often difficult to reach them. In the + Marine Corps Captain Leonard, who had lost an arm at Tientsin, with two of + his lieutenants did the fifty miles in one day; for they were vigorous + young men, who laughed at the idea of treating a fifty-mile walk as + over-fatiguing. Well, the Navy Department officials rebuked them, and made + them take the walk over again in three days, on the ground that taking it + in one day did not comply with the regulations! This seems unbelievable; + but Leonard assures me it is true. He did not inform me at the time, being + afraid to "get in wrong" with his permanent superiors. If I had known of + the order, short work would have been made of the bureaucrat who issued + it.[*] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] One of our best naval officers sent me the following + letter, after the above had appeared:— + + "I note in your Autobiography now being published in the + Outlook that you refer to the reasons which led you to + establish a physical test for the Army, and to the action + you took (your 100-mile ride) to prevent the test being + abolished. Doubtless you did not know the following facts: + + "1. The first annual navy test of 50 miles in three days was + subsequently reduced to 25 miles in two days in each + quarter. + + "2. This was further reduced to 10 miles each month, which + is the present 'test,' and there is danger lest even this + utterly insufficient test be abolished. + + "I enclose a copy of a recent letter to the Surgeon General + which will show our present deplorable condition and the + worse condition into which we are slipping back. + + "The original test of 50 miles in three days did a very + great deal of good. It decreased by thousands of dollars the + money expended on street car fare, and by a much greater sum + the amount expended over the bar. It eliminated a number of + the wholly unfit; it taught officers to walk; it forced them + to learn the care of their feet and that of their men; and + it improved their general health and was rapidly forming a + taste for physical exercise." + + The enclosed letter ran in part as follows:— + + "I am returning under separate cover 'The Soldiers' Foot and + the Military Shoe.' + + "The book contains knowledge of a practical character that + is valuable for the men who HAVE TO MARCH, WHO HAVE SUFFERED + FROM FOOT TROUBLES, AND WHO MUST AVOID THEM IN ORDER TO + ATTAIN EFFICIENCY. + + "The words in capitals express, according to my idea, the + gist of the whole matter as regards military men. + + "The army officer whose men break down on test gets a black + eye. The one whose men show efficiency in this respect gets + a bouquet. + + "To such men the book is invaluable. There is no danger that + they will neglect it. They will actually learn it, for + exactly the same reasons that our fellows learn the gunnery + instructions—or did learn them before they were withdrawn + and burned. + + "B U T, I have not been able to interest a single naval + officer in this fine book. They will look at the pictures + and say it is a good book, but they won't read it. The + marine officers, on the contrary, are very much interested, + because they have to teach their men to care for their feet + and they must know how to care for their own. But the naval + officers feel no such necessity, simply because their men do + not have to demonstrate their efficiency by practice + marches, and they themselves do not have to do a stunt that + will show up their own ignorance and inefficiency in the + matter. + + "For example, some time ago I was talking with some chaps + about shoes—the necessity of having them long enough and + wide enough, etc., and one of them said: 'I have no use for + such shoes, as I never walk except when I have to, and any + old shoes do for the 10-mile-a-month stunt,' so there you + are! + + "When the first test was ordered, Edmonston (Washington shoe + man) told me that he sold more real walking shoes to naval + officers in three months than he had in the three preceding + years. I know three officers who lost both big-toe nails + after the first test, and another who walked nine miles in + practice with a pair of heavy walking shoes that were too + small and was laid up for three days—could not come to the + office. I know plenty of men who after the first test had to + borrow shoes from larger men until their feet 'went down' to + their normal size. + + "This test may have been a bit too strenuous for old hearts + (of men who had never taken any exercise), but it was + excellent as a matter of instruction and training of + handling feet—and in an emergency (such as we soon may have + in Mexico) sound hearts are not much good if the feet won't + stand. + + "However, the 25-mile test in two days each quarter answered + the same purpose, for the reason that 12.5 miles will + produce sore feet with bad shoes, and sore feet and lame + muscles even with good shoes, if there has been no practice + marching. + + "It was the necessity of doing 12.5 MORE MILES ON THE SECOND + DAY WITH SORE FEET AND LAME MUSCLES that made 'em sit up and + take notice—made 'em practice walking, made 'em avoid + street cars, buy proper shoes, show some curiosity about sox + and the care of the feet in general. + + "All this passed out with the introduction of the last test + of 10 miles a month. As one fellow said: 'I can do that in + sneakers'—but he couldn't if the second day involved a + tramp on the sore feet. + + "The point is that whereas formerly officers had to practice + walking a bit and give some attention to proper footgear, + now they don't have to, and the natural consequence is that + they don't do it. + + "There are plenty of officers who do not walk any more than + is necessary to reach a street car that will carry them from + their residences to their offices. Some who have motors do + not do so much. They take no exercise. They take cocktails + instead and are getting beefy and 'ponchy,' and something + should be done to remedy this state of affairs. + + "It would not be necessary if service opinion required + officers so to order their lives that it would be common + knowledge that they were 'hard,' in order to avoid the + danger of being selected out. + + "We have no such service opinion, and it is not in process + of formation. On the contrary, it is known that the + 'Principal Dignitaries' unanimously advised the Secretary to + abandon all physical tests. He, a civilian, was wise enough + not to take the advice. + + "I would like to see a test established that would oblige + officers to take sufficient exercise to pass it without + inconvenience. For the reasons given above, 20 miles in two + days every other month would do the business, while 10 miles + each month does not touch it, simply because nobody has to + walk on 'next day' feet. As for the proposed test of so many + hours 'exercise' a week, the flat foots of the pendulous + belly muscles are delighted. They are looking into the + question of pedometers, and will hang one of these on their + wheezy chests and let it count every shuffling step they + take out of doors. + + "If we had an adequate test throughout 20 years, there would + at the end of that time be few if any sacks of blubber at + the upper end of the list; and service opinion against that + sort of thing would be established." +</pre> + <p> + These tests were kept during my administration. They were afterwards + abandoned; not through perversity or viciousness; but through weakness, + and inability to understand the need of preparedness in advance, if the + emergencies of war are to be properly met, when, or if, they arrive. + </p> + <p> + In no country with an army worth calling such is there a chance for a man + physically unfit to stay in the service. Our countrymen should understand + that every army officer—and every marine officer—ought to be + summarily removed from the service unless he is able to undergo far + severer tests than those which, as a beginning, I imposed. To follow any + other course is to put a premium on slothful incapacity, and to do the + gravest wrong to the Nation. + </p> + <p> + I have mentioned all these experiences, and I could mention scores of + others, because out of them grew my philosophy—perhaps they were in + part caused by my philosophy—of bodily vigor as a method of getting + that vigor of soul without which vigor of the body counts for nothing. The + dweller in cities has less chance than the dweller in the country to keep + his body sound and vigorous. But he can do so, if only he will take the + trouble. Any young lawyer, shopkeeper, or clerk, or shop-assistant can + keep himself in good condition if he tries. Some of the best men who have + ever served under me in the National Guard and in my regiment were former + clerks or floor-walkers. Why, Johnny Hayes, the Marathon victor, and at + one time world champion, one of my valued friends and supporters, was a + floor-walker in Bloomingdale's big department store. Surely with Johnny + Hayes as an example, any young man in a city can hope to make his body all + that a vigorous man's body should be. + </p> + <p> + I once made a speech to which I gave the title "The Strenuous Life." + Afterwards I published a volume of essays with this for a title. There + were two translations of it which always especially pleased me. One was by + a Japanese officer who knew English well, and who had carried the essay + all through the Manchurian campaign, and later translated it for the + benefit of his countrymen. The other was by an Italian lady, whose + brother, an officer in the Italian army who had died on duty in a foreign + land, had also greatly liked the article and carried it round with him. In + translating the title the lady rendered it in Italian as <i>Vigor di Vita</i>. + I thought this translation a great improvement on the original, and have + always wished that I had myself used "The Vigor of Life" as a heading to + indicate what I was trying to preach, instead of the heading I actually + did use. + </p> + <p> + There are two kinds of success, or rather two kinds of ability displayed + in the achievement of success. There is, first, the success either in big + things or small things which comes to the man who has in him the natural + power to do what no one else can do, and what no amount of training, no + perseverance or will power, will enable any ordinary man to do. This + success, of course, like every other kind of success, may be on a very big + scale or on a small scale. The quality which the man possesses may be that + which enables him to run a hundred yards in nine and three-fifths seconds, + or to play ten separate games of chess at the same time blindfolded, or to + add five columns of figures at once without effort, or to write the "Ode + to a Grecian Urn," or to deliver the Gettysburg speech, or to show the + ability of Frederick at Leuthen or Nelson at Trafalgar. No amount of + training of body or mind would enable any good ordinary man to perform any + one of these feats. Of course the proper performance of each implies much + previous study or training, but in no one of them is success to be + attained save by the altogether exceptional man who has in him the + something additional which the ordinary man does not have. + </p> + <p> + This is the most striking kind of success, and it can be attained only by + the man who has in him the quality which separates him in kind no less + than in degree from his fellows. But much the commoner type of success in + every walk of life and in every species of effort is that which comes to + the man who differs from his fellows not by the kind of quality which he + possesses but by the degree of development which he has given that + quality. This kind of success is open to a large number of persons, if + only they seriously determine to achieve it. It is the kind of success + which is open to the average man of sound body and fair mind, who has no + remarkable mental or physical attributes, but who gets just as much as + possible in the way of work out of the aptitudes that he does possess. It + is the only kind of success that is open to most of us. Yet some of the + greatest successes in history have been those of this second class—when + I call it second class I am not running it down in the least, I am merely + pointing out that it differs in kind from the first class. To the average + man it is probably more useful to study this second type of success than + to study the first. From the study of the first he can learn inspiration, + he can get uplift and lofty enthusiasm. From the study of the second he + can, if he chooses, find out how to win a similar success himself. + </p> + <p> + I need hardly say that all the successes I have ever won have been of the + second type. I never won anything without hard labor and the exercise of + my best judgment and careful planning and working long in advance. Having + been a rather sickly and awkward boy, I was as a young man at first both + nervous and distrustful of my own prowess. I had to train myself painfully + and laboriously not merely as regards my body but as regards my soul and + spirit. + </p> + <p> + When a boy I read a passage in one of Marryat's books which always + impressed me. In this passage the captain of some small British man-of-war + is explaining to the hero how to acquire the quality of fearlessness. He + says that at the outset almost every man is frightened when he goes into + action, but that the course to follow is for the man to keep such a grip + on himself that he can act just as if he was not frightened. After this is + kept up long enough it changes from pretense to reality, and the man does + in very fact become fearless by sheer dint of practicing fearlessness when + he does not feel it. (I am using my own language, not Marryat's.) This was + the theory upon which I went. There were all kinds of things of which I + was afraid at first, ranging from grizzly bears to "mean" horses and + gun-fighters; but by acting as if I was not afraid I gradually ceased to + be afraid. Most men can have the same experience if they choose. They will + first learn to bear themselves well in trials which they anticipate and + which they school themselves in advance to meet. After a while the habit + will grow on them, and they will behave well in sudden and unexpected + emergencies which come upon them unawares. + </p> + <p> + It is of course much pleasanter if one is naturally fearless, and I envy + and respect the men who are naturally fearless. But it is a good thing to + remember that the man who does not enjoy this advantage can nevertheless + stand beside the man who does, and can do his duty with the like + efficiency, if he chooses to. Of course he must not let his desire take + the form merely of a day-dream. Let him dream about being a fearless man, + and the more he dreams the better he will be, always provided he does his + best to realize the dream in practice. He can do his part honorably and + well provided only he sets fearlessness before himself as an ideal, + schools himself to think of danger merely as something to be faced and + overcome, and regards life itself as he should regard it, not as something + to be thrown away, but as a pawn to be promptly hazarded whenever the + hazard is warranted by the larger interests of the great game in which we + are all engaged. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <h3> + PRACTICAL POLITICS + </h3> + <p> + When I left Harvard, I took up the study of law. If I had been + sufficiently fortunate to come under Professor Thayer, of the Harvard Law + School, it may well be that I would have realized that the lawyer can do a + great work for justice and against legalism. + </p> + <p> + But, doubtless chiefly through my own fault, some of the teaching of the + law books and of the classroom seemed to me to be against justice. The <i>caveat + emptor</i> side of the law, like the <i>caveat emptor</i> side of + business, seemed to me repellent; it did not make for social fair dealing. + The "let the buyer beware" maxim, when translated into actual practice, + whether in law or business, tends to translate itself further into the + seller making his profit at the expense of the buyer, instead of by a + bargain which shall be to the profit of both. It did not seem to me that + the law was framed to discourage as it should sharp practice, and all + other kinds of bargains except those which are fair and of benefit to both + sides. I was young; there was much in the judgment which I then formed on + this matter which I should now revise; but, then as now, many of the big + corporation lawyers, to whom the ordinary members of the bar then as now + looked up, held certain standards which were difficult to recognize as + compatible with the idealism I suppose every high-minded young man is apt + to feel. If I had been obliged to earn every cent I spent, I should have + gone whole-heartedly into the business of making both ends meet, and + should have taken up the law or any other respectable occupation—for + I then held, and now hold, the belief that a man's first duty is to pull + his own weight and to take care of those dependent upon him; and I then + believed, and now believe, that the greatest privilege and greatest duty + for any man is to be happily married, and that no other form of success or + service, for either man or woman, can be wisely accepted as a substitute + or alternative. But it happened that I had been left enough money by my + father not to make it necessary for me to think solely of earning bread + for myself and my family. I had enough to get bread. What I had to do, if + I wanted butter and jam, was to provide the butter and jam, but to count + their cost as compared with other things. In other words, I made up my + mind that, while I must earn money, I could afford to make earning money + the secondary instead of the primary object of my career. If I had had no + money at all, then my first duty would have been to earn it in any honest + fashion. As I had some money I felt that my need for more money was to be + treated as a secondary need, and that while it was my business to make + more money where I legitimately and properly could, yet that it was also + my business to treat other kinds of work as more important than + money-making. + </p> + <p> + Almost immediately after leaving Harvard in 1880 I began to take an + interest in politics. I did not then believe, and I do not now believe, + that any man should ever attempt to make politics his only career. It is a + dreadful misfortune for a man to grow to feel that his whole livelihood + and whole happiness depend upon his staying in office. Such a feeling + prevents him from being of real service to the people while in office, and + always puts him under the heaviest strain of pressure to barter his + convictions for the sake of holding office. A man should have some other + occupation—I had several other occupations—to which he can + resort if at any time he is thrown out of office, or if at any time he + finds it necessary to choose a course which will probably result in his + being thrown out, unless he is willing to stay in at cost to his + conscience. + </p> + <p> + At that day, in 1880, a young man of my bringing up and convictions could + join only the Republican party, and join it I accordingly did. It was no + simple thing to join it then. That was long before the era of ballot + reform and the control of primaries; long before the era when we realized + that the Government must take official notice of the deeds and acts of + party organizations. The party was still treated as a private corporation, + and in each district the organization formed a kind of social and + political club. A man had to be regularly proposed for and elected into + this club, just as into any other club. As a friend of mine picturesquely + phrased it, I "had to break into the organization with a jimmy." + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances there was some difficulty in joining the local + organization, and considerable amusement and excitement to be obtained out + of it after I had joined. + </p> + <p> + It was over thirty-three years ago that I thus became a member of the + Twenty-first District Republican Association in the city of New York. The + men I knew best were the men in the clubs of social pretension and the men + of cultivated taste and easy life. When I began to make inquiries as to + the whereabouts of the local Republican Association and the means of + joining it, these men—and the big business men and lawyers also—laughed + at me, and told me that politics were "low"; that the organizations were + not controlled by "gentlemen"; that I would find them run by + saloon-keepers, horse-car conductors, and the like, and not by men with + any of whom I would come in contact outside; and, moreover, they assured + me that the men I met would be rough and brutal and unpleasant to deal + with. I answered that if this were so it merely meant that the people I + knew did not belong to the governing class, and that the other people did—and + that I intended to be one of the governing class; that if they proved too + hard-bit for me I supposed I would have to quit, but that I certainly + would not quit until I had made the effort and found out whether I really + was too weak to hold my own in the rough and tumble. + </p> + <p> + The Republican Association of which I became a member held its meetings in + Morton Hall, a large, barn-like room over a saloon. Its furniture was of + the canonical kind: dingy benches, spittoons, a dais at one end with a + table and chair and a stout pitcher for iced water, and on the walls + pictures of General Grant, and of Levi P. Morton, to whose generosity we + owed the room. We had regular meetings once or twice a month, and between + times the place was treated, at least on certain nights, as a kind of + club-room. I went around there often enough to have the men get accustomed + to me and to have me get accustomed to them, so that we began to speak the + same language, and so that each could begin to live down in the other's + mind what Bret Harte has called "the defective moral quality of being a + stranger." It is not often that a man can make opportunities for himself. + But he can put himself in such shape that when or if the opportunities + come he is ready to take advantage of them. This was what happened to me + in connection with my experiences in Morton Hall. I soon became on good + terms with a number of the ordinary "heelers" and even some of the minor + leaders. The big leader was Jake Hess, who treated me with rather distant + affability. There were prominent lawyers and business men who belonged, + but they took little part in the actual meetings. What they did was done + elsewhere. The running of the machine was left to Jake Hess and his + captains of tens and of hundreds. + </p> + <p> + Among these lesser captains I soon struck up a friendship with Joe Murray, + a friendship which is as strong now as it was thirty-three years ago. He + had been born in Ireland, but brought to New York by his parents when he + was three or four years old, and, as he expressed it, "raised as a + barefooted boy on First Avenue." When not eighteen he had enlisted in the + Army of the Potomac and taken part in the campaign that closed the Civil + War. Then he came back to First Avenue, and, being a fearless, powerful, + energetic young fellow, careless and reckless, speedily grew to some + prominence as leader of a gang. In that district, and at that time, + politics was a rough business, and Tammany Hall held unquestioned sway. + The district was overwhelmingly Democratic, and Joe and his friends were + Democrats who on election day performed the usual gang work for the local + Democratic leader, whose business it was to favor and reward them in + return. This same local leader, like many other greater leaders, became + puffed up by prosperity, and forgot the instruments through which he had + achieved prosperity. After one election he showed a callous indifference + to the hard work of the gang and complete disregard of his before-election + promises. He counted upon the resentment wearing itself out, as usual, in + threats and bluster. + </p> + <p> + But Joe Murray was not a man who forgot. He explained to his gang his + purposes and the necessity of being quiet. Accordingly they waited for + their revenge until the next election day. They then, as Joe expressed it, + decided "to vote furdest away from the leader"—I am using the + language of Joe's youth—and the best way to do this was to vote the + Republican ticket. In those days each party had a booth near the + polling-place in each election district, where the party representative + dispensed the party ballots. This had been a district in which, as a rule, + very early in the day the Republican election leader had his hat knocked + over his eyes and his booth kicked over and his ballots scattered; and + then the size of the Democratic majority depended on an elastic + appreciation of exactly how much was demanded from headquarters. But on + this day things went differently. The gang, with a Roman sense of duty, + took an active interest in seeing that the Republican was given his full + rights. Moreover, they made the most energetic reprisals on their + opponents, and as they were distinctly the tough and fighting element, + justice came to her own with a whoop. Would-be repeaters were thrown out + on their heads. Every person who could be cajoled or, I fear, intimidated, + was given the Republican ticket, and the upshot was that at the end of the + day a district which had never hitherto polled more than two or three per + cent of its vote Republican broke about even between the two parties. + </p> + <p> + To Joe it had been merely an act of retribution in so far as it was not + simply a spree. But the leaders at the Republican headquarters did not + know this, and when they got over their paralyzed astonishment at the + returns, they investigated to find out what it meant. Somebody told them + that it represented the work of a young man named Joseph Murray. + Accordingly they sent for him. The room in which they received him was + doubtless some place like Morton Hall, and the men who received him were + akin to those who had leadership in Morton Hall; but in Joe's eyes they + stood for a higher civilization, for opportunity, for generous recognition + of successful effort—in short, for all the things that an eager + young man desires. He was received and patted on the back by a man who was + a great man to the world in which he lived. He was introduced to the + audience as a young man whose achievement was such as to promise much for + the future, and moreover he was given a place in the post-office—as + I have said, this was long before the day of Civil Service Reform. + </p> + <p> + Now, to the wrong kind of man all this might have meant nothing at all. + But in Joe Murray's case it meant everything. He was by nature as straight + a man, as fearless and as stanchly loyal, as any one whom I have ever met, + a man to be trusted in any position demanding courage, integrity, and good + faith. He did his duty in the public service, and became devotedly + attached to the organization which he felt had given him his chance in + life. When I knew him he was already making his way up; one of the proofs + and evidences of which was that he owned a first-class racing trotter—"Alice + Lane"—behind which he gave me more than one spin. During this first + winter I grew to like Joe and his particular cronies. But I had no idea + that they especially returned the liking, and in the first row we had in + the organization (which arose over a movement, that I backed, to stand by + a non-partisan method of street-cleaning) Joe and all his friends stood + stiffly with the machine, and my side, the reform side, was left with only + some half-dozen votes out of three or four hundred. I had expected no + other outcome and took it good-humoredly, but without changing my + attitude. + </p> + <p> + Next fall, as the elections drew near, Joe thought he would like to make a + drive at Jake Hess, and after considerable planning decided that his best + chance lay in the fight for the nomination to the Assembly, the lower + house of the Legislature. He picked me as the candidate with whom he would + be most likely to win; and win he did. It was not my fight, it was Joe's; + and it was to him that I owe my entry into politics. I had at that time + neither the reputation nor the ability to have won the nomination for + myself, and indeed never would have thought of trying for it. + </p> + <p> + Jake Hess was entirely good-humored about it. In spite of my being + anti-machine, my relations with him had been friendly and human, and when + he was beaten he turned in to help Joe elect me. At first they thought + they would take me on a personal canvass through the saloons along Sixth + Avenue. The canvass, however, did not last beyond the first saloon. I was + introduced with proper solemnity to the saloon-keeper—a very + important personage, for this was before the days when saloon-keepers + became merely the mortgaged chattels of the brewers—and he began to + cross-examine me, a little too much in the tone of one who was dealing + with a suppliant for his favor. He said he expected that I would of course + treat the liquor business fairly; to which I answered, none too cordially, + that I hoped I should treat all interests fairly. He then said that he + regarded the licenses as too high; to which I responded that I believed + they were really not high enough, and that I should try to have them made + higher. The conversation threatened to become stormy. Messrs. Murray and + Hess, on some hastily improvised plea, took me out into the street, and + then Joe explained to me that it was not worth my while staying in Sixth + Avenue any longer, that I had better go right back to Fifth Avenue and + attend to my friends there, and that he would look after my interests on + Sixth Avenue. I was triumphantly elected. + </p> + <p> + Once before Joe had interfered in similar fashion and secured the + nomination of an Assemblyman; and shortly after election he had grown to + feel toward this Assemblyman that he must have fed on the meat which + rendered Caesar proud, as he became inaccessible to the ordinary mortals + whose place of resort was Morton Hall. He eyed me warily for a short time + to see if I was likely in this respect to follow in my predecessor's + footsteps. Finding that I did not, he and all my other friends and + supporters assumed toward me the very pleasantest attitude that it was + possible to assume. They did not ask me for a thing. They accepted as a + matter of course the view that I was absolutely straight and was trying to + do the best I could in the Legislature. They desired nothing except that I + should make a success, and they supported me with hearty enthusiasm. I am + a little at a loss to know quite how to express the quality in my + relationship with Joe Murray and my other friends of this period which + rendered that relationship so beneficial to me. When I went into politics + at this time I was not conscious of going in with the set purpose to + benefit other people, but of getting for myself a privilege to which I was + entitled in common with other people. So it was in my relationship with + these men. If there had lurked in the innermost recesses of my mind + anywhere the thought that I was in some way a patron or a benefactor, or + was doing something noble by taking part in politics, or that I expected + the smallest consideration save what I could earn on my own merits, I am + certain that somehow or other the existence of that feeling would have + been known and resented. As a matter of fact, there was not the slightest + temptation on my part to have any such feeling or any one of such + feelings. I no more expected special consideration in politics than I + would have expected it in the boxing ring. I wished to act squarely to + others, and I wished to be able to show that I could hold my own as + against others. The attitude of my new friends toward me was first one of + polite reserve, and then that of friendly alliance. Afterwards I became + admitted to comradeship, and then to leadership. I need hardly say how + earnestly I believe that men should have a keen and lively sense of their + obligations in politics, of their duty to help forward great causes, and + to struggle for the betterment of conditions that are unjust to their + fellows, the men and women who are less fortunate in life. But in addition + to this feeling there must be a feeling of real fellowship with the other + men and women engaged in the same task, fellowship of work, with fun to + vary the work; for unless there is this feeling of fellowship, of common + effort on an equal plane for a common end, it will be difficult to keep + the relations wholesome and natural. To be patronized is as offensive as + to be insulted. No one of us cares permanently to have some one else + conscientiously striving to do him good; what we want is to work with that + some one else for the good of both of us—any man will speedily find + that other people can benefit him just as much as he can benefit them. + </p> + <p> + Neither Joe Murray nor I nor any of our associates at that time were alive + to social and industrial needs which we now all of us recognize. But we + then had very clearly before our minds the need of practically applying + certain elemental virtues, the virtues of honesty and efficiency in + politics, the virtue of efficiency side by side with honesty in private + and public life alike, the virtues of consideration and fair dealing in + business as between man and man, and especially as between the man who is + an employer and the man who is an employee. On all fundamental questions + Joe Murray and I thought alike. We never parted company excepting on the + question of Civil Service Reform, where he sincerely felt that I showed + doctrinaire affinities, that I sided with the pharisees. We got back again + into close relations as soon as I became Police Commissioner under Mayor + Strong, for Joe was then made Excise Commissioner, and was, I believe, the + best Excise Commissioner the city of New York ever had. He is now a + farmer, his boys have been through Columbia College, and he and I look at + the questions, political, social, and industrial, which confront us in + 1913 from practically the same standpoint, just as we once looked at the + questions that confronted us in 1881. + </p> + <p> + There are many debts that I owe Joe Murray, and some for which he was only + unconsciously responsible. I do not think that a man is fit to do good + work in our American democracy unless he is able to have a genuine + fellow-feeling for, understanding of, and sympathy with his + fellow-Americans, whatever their creed or their birthplace, the section in + which they live, or the work which they do, provided they possess the only + kind of Americanism that really counts, the Americanism of the spirit. It + was no small help to me, in the effort to make myself a good citizen and + good American, that the political associate with whom I was on closest and + most intimate terms during my early years was a man born in Ireland, by + creed a Catholic, with Joe Murray's upbringing; just as it helped me + greatly at a later period to work for certain vitally necessary public + needs with Arthur von Briesen, in whom the spirit of the + "Acht-und-Vierziger" idealists was embodied; just as my whole life was + influenced by my long association with Jacob Riis, whom I am tempted to + call the best American I ever knew, although he was already a young man + when he came hither from Denmark. + </p> + <p> + I was elected to the Legislature in the fall of 1881, and found myself the + youngest man in that body. I was reelected the two following years. Like + all young men and inexperienced members, I had considerable difficulty in + teaching myself to speak. I profited much by the advice of a hard-headed + old countryman—who was unconsciously paraphrasing the Duke of + Wellington, who was himself doubtless paraphrasing somebody else. The + advice ran: "Don't speak until you are sure you have something to say, and + know just what it is; then say it, and sit down." + </p> + <p> + My first days in the Legislature were much like those of a boy in a + strange school. My fellow-legislators and I eyed one another with mutual + distrust. Each of us chose his seat, each began by following the lead of + some veteran in the first routine matters, and then, in a week or two, we + began to drift into groups according to our several affinities. The + Legislature was Democratic. I was a Republican from the "silk stocking" + district, the wealthiest district in New York, and I was put, as one of + the minority members, on the Committee of Cities. It was a coveted + position. I did not make any effort to get on, and, as far as I know, was + put there merely because it was felt to be in accordance with the fitness + of things. + </p> + <p> + A very short experience showed me that, as the Legislature was then + constituted, the so-called party contests had no interest whatever for me. + There was no real party division on most of the things that were of + concern in State politics, both Republicans and Democrats being for and + against them. My friendships were made, not with regard to party lines, + but because I found, and my friends found, that we had the same + convictions on questions of principle and questions of policy. The only + difference was that there was a larger proportion of these men among the + Republicans than among the Democrats, and that it was easier for me at the + outset to scrape acquaintance, among the men who felt as I did, with the + Republicans. They were for the most part from the country districts. + </p> + <p> + My closest friend for the three years I was there was Billy O'Neill, from + the Adirondacks. He kept a small crossroads store. He was a young man, + although a few years older than I was, and, like myself, had won his + position without regard to the machine. He had thought he would like to be + Assemblyman, so he had taken his buggy and had driven around Franklin + County visiting everybody, had upset the local ring, and came to the + Legislature as his own master. There is surely something in American + traditions that does tend toward real democracy in spite of our faults and + shortcomings. In most other countries two men of as different antecedents, + ancestry, and surroundings as Billy O'Neill and I would have had far more + difficulty in coming together. I came from the biggest city in America and + from the wealthiest ward of that city, and he from a backwoods county + where he kept a store at a crossroads. In all the unimportant things we + seemed far apart. But in all the important things we were close together. + We looked at all questions from substantially the same view-point, and we + stood shoulder to shoulder in every legislative fight during those three + years. He abhorred demagogy just as he abhorred corruption. He had thought + much on political problems; he admired Alexander Hamilton as much as I + did, being a strong believer in a powerful National government; and we + both of us differed from Alexander Hamilton in being stout adherents of + Abraham Lincoln's views wherever the rights of the people were concerned. + Any man who has met with success, if he will be frank with himself, must + admit that there has been a big element of fortune in the success. Fortune + favored me, whereas her hand was heavy against Billy O'Neill. All his life + he had to strive hard to wring his bread from harsh surroundings and a + reluctant fate; if fate had been but a little kinder, I believe he would + have had a great political career; and he would have done good service for + the country in any position in which he might have been put. + </p> + <p> + There were other Republicans, like Isaac Hunt and Jonas van Duzer and + Walter Howe and Henry Sprague, who were among my close friends and allies; + and a gigantic one-eyed veteran of the Civil War, a gallant General, + Curtis from St. Lawrence County; and a capital fellow, whom afterwards, + when Governor, I put on the bench, Kruse, from Cattaraugus County. Kruse + was a German by birth; as far as I know, the only German from Cattaraugus + County at that time; and, besides being a German, he was also a + Prohibitionist. Among the Democrats were Hamden Robb and Thomas Newbold, + and Tom Welch of Niagara, who did a great service in getting the State to + set aside Niagara Falls Park—after a discouraging experience with + the first Governor before whom we brought the bill, who listened with + austere patience to our arguments in favor of the State establishing a + park, and then conclusively answered us by the question, "But, gentlemen, + why should we spend the people's money when just as much water will run + over the Falls without a park as with it?" Then there were a couple of + members from New York and Brooklyn, Mike Costello and Pete Kelly. + </p> + <p> + Mike Costello had been elected as a Tammany man. He was as fearless as he + was honest. He came from Ireland, and had accepted the Tammany Fourth of + July orations as indicating the real attitude of that organization towards + the rights of the people. A month or two in Albany converted him to a + profound distrust of applied Tammany methods. He and I worked hand in hand + with equal indifference to our local machines. His machine leaders warned + him fairly that they would throw him out at the next election, which they + did; but he possessed a seasoned-hickory toughness of ability to contend + with adverse circumstances, and kept his head well above water. A better + citizen does not exist; and our friendship has never faltered. + </p> + <p> + Peter Kelly's fate was a tragedy. He was a bright, well-educated young + fellow, an ardent believer in Henry George. At the beginning he and I + failed to understand each other or to get on together, for our theories of + government were radically opposed. After a couple of months spent in + active contests with men whose theories had nothing whatever to do with + their practices, Kelly and I found in our turn that it really did not make + much difference what our abstract theories were on questions that were not + before the Legislature, in view of the fact that on the actual matters + before the Legislature, the most important of which involved questions of + elementary morality, we were heartily at one. We began to vote together + and act together, and by the end of the session found that in all + practical matters that were up for action we thought together. Indeed, + each of us was beginning to change his theories, so that even in theory we + were coming closer together. He was ardent and generous; he was a young + lawyer, with a wife and children, whose ambition had tempted him into + politics, and who had been befriended by the local bosses under the belief + that they could count upon him for anything they really wished. + Unfortunately, what they really wished was often corrupt. Kelly defied + them, fought the battles of the people with ardor and good faith, and when + the bosses refused him a renomination, he appealed from them to the + people. When we both came up for reelection, I won easily in my district, + where circumstances conspired to favor me; and Kelly, with exactly the + same record that I had, except that it was more creditable because he took + his stand against greater odds, was beaten in his district. Defeat to me + would have meant merely chagrin; to Kelly it meant terrible material + disaster. He had no money. Like every rigidly honest man, he had found + that going into politics was expensive and that his salary as Assemblyman + did not cover the financial outgo. He had lost his practice and he had + incurred the ill will of the powerful, so that it was impossible at the + moment to pick up his practice again; and the worry and disappointment + affected him so much that shortly after election he was struck down by + sickness. Just before Christmas some of us were informed that Kelly was in + such financial straits that he and his family would be put out into the + street before New Year. This was prevented by the action of some of his + friends who had served with him in the Legislature, and he recovered, at + least to a degree, and took up the practice of his profession. But he was + a broken man. In the Legislature in which he served one of his + fellow-Democrats from Brooklyn was the Speaker—Alfred C. Chapin, the + leader and the foremost representative of the reform Democracy, whom Kelly + zealously supported. A few years later Chapin, a very able man, was + elected Mayor of Brooklyn on a reform Democratic ticket. Shortly after his + election I was asked to speak at a meeting in a Brooklyn club at which + various prominent citizens, including the Mayor, were present. I spoke on + civic decency, and toward the close of my speech I sketched Kelly's career + for my audience, told them how he had stood up for the rights of the + people of Brooklyn, and how the people had failed to stand up for him, and + the way he had been punished, precisely because he had been a good citizen + who acted as a good citizen should act. I ended by saying that the reform + Democracy had now come into power, that Mr. Chapin was Mayor, and that I + very earnestly hoped recognition would at last be given to Kelly for the + fight he had waged at such bitter cost to himself. My words created some + impression, and Mayor Chapin at once said that he would take care of Kelly + and see that justice was done him. I went home that evening much pleased. + In the morning, at breakfast, I received a brief note from Chapin in these + words: "It was nine last evening when you finished speaking of what Kelly + had done, and when I said that I would take care of him. At ten last night + Kelly died." He had been dying while I was making my speech, and he never + knew that at last there was to be a tardy recognition of what he had done, + a tardy justification for the sacrifices he had made. The man had fought, + at heavy cost to himself and with entire disinterestedness, for popular + rights; but no recognition for what he had done had come to him from the + people, whose interest he had so manfully upheld. + </p> + <p> + Where there is no chance of statistical or mathematical measurement, it is + very hard to tell just the degree to which conditions change from one + period to another. This is peculiarly hard to do when we deal with such a + matter as corruption. Personally I am inclined to think that in public + life we are on the whole a little better and not a little worse than we + were thirty years ago, when I was serving in the New York Legislature. I + think the conditions are a little better in National, in State, and in + municipal politics. Doubtless there are points in which they are worse, + and there is an enormous amount that needs reformation. But it does seem + to me as if, on the whole, things had slightly improved. + </p> + <p> + When I went into politics, New York City was under the control of Tammany, + which was from time to time opposed by some other—and evanescent—city + Democratic organization. The up-country Democrats had not yet fallen under + Tammany sway, and were on the point of developing a big country political + boss in the shape of David B. Hill. The Republican party was split into + the Stalwart and Half-Breed factions. Accordingly neither party had one + dominant boss, or one dominant machine, each being controlled by jarring + and warring bosses and machines. The corruption was not what it had been + in the days of Tweed, when outside individuals controlled the legislators + like puppets. Nor was there any such centralization of the boss system as + occurred later. Many of the members were under the control of local bosses + or local machines. But the corrupt work was usually done through the + members directly. + </p> + <p> + Of course I never had anything in the nature of legal proof of corruption, + and the figures I am about to give are merely approximate. But three + years' experience convinced me, in the first place, that there were a + great many thoroughly corrupt men in the Legislature, perhaps a third of + the whole number; and, in the next place, that the honest men outnumbered + the corrupt men, and that, if it were ever possible to get an issue of + right and wrong put vividly and unmistakably before them in a way that + would arrest their attention and that would arrest the attention of their + constituents, we could count on the triumph of the right. The trouble was + that in most cases the issue was confused. To read some kinds of + literature one would come to the conclusion that the only corruption in + legislative circles was in the form of bribery by corporations, and that + the line was sharp between the honest man who was always voting against + corporations and the dishonest man who was always bribed to vote for them. + My experience was the direct contrary of this. For every one bill + introduced (not passed) corruptly to favor a corporation, there were at + least ten introduced (not passed, and in this case not intended to be + passed) to blackmail corporations. The majority of the corrupt members + would be found voting for the blackmailing bills if they were not paid, + and would also be found voting in the interests of the corporation if they + were paid. The blackmailing, or, as they were always called, the "strike" + bills, could themselves be roughly divided into two categories: bills + which it would have been proper to pass, and those that it would not have + been proper to pass. Some of the bills aimed at corporations were utterly + wild and improper; and of these a proportion might be introduced by honest + and foolish zealots, whereas most of them were introduced by men who had + not the slightest intention of passing them, but who wished to be paid not + to pass them. The most profitable type of bill to the accomplished + blackmailer, however, was a bill aimed at a real corporate abuse which the + corporation, either from wickedness or folly, was unwilling to remedy. Of + the measures introduced in the interest of corporations there were also + some that were proper and some that were improper. The corrupt + legislators, the "black horse cavalry," as they were termed, would demand + payment to vote as the corporations wished, no matter whether the bill was + proper or improper. Sometimes, if the bill was a proper one, the + corporation would have the virtue or the strength of mind to refuse to pay + for its passage, and sometimes it would not. + </p> + <p> + A very slight consideration of the above state of affairs will show how + difficult it was at times to keep the issue clear, for honest and + dishonest men were continually found side by side voting now against and + now for a corporation measure, the one set from proper and the other set + from grossly improper motives. Of course part of the fault lay in the + attitudes of outsiders. It was very early borne in upon me that almost + equal harm was done by indiscriminate defense of, and indiscriminate + attack on, corporations. It was hard to say whether the man who prided + himself upon always antagonizing the corporations, or the man who, on the + plea that he was a good conservative, always stood up for them, was the + more mischievous agent of corruption and demoralization. + </p> + <p> + In one fight in the House over a bill as to which there was a bitter + contest between two New York City street railway organizations, I saw + lobbyists come down on the floor itself and draw venal men out into the + lobbies with almost no pretense of concealing what they were doing. In + another case in which the elevated railway corporations of New York City, + against the protest of the Mayor and the other local authorities, rushed + through a bill remitting over half their taxes, some of the members who + voted for the measure probably thought it was right; but every corrupt man + in the House voted with them; and the man must indeed have been stupid who + thought that these votes were given disinterestedly. + </p> + <p> + The effective fight against this bill for the revision of the elevated + railway taxes—perhaps the most openly crooked measure which during + my time was pushed at Albany—was waged by Mike Costello and myself. + We used to spend a good deal of time in industrious research into the + various bills introduced, so as to find out what their authors really had + in mind; this research, by the way, being highly unappreciated and much + resented by the authors. In the course of his researches Mike had been + puzzled by an unimportant bill, seemingly related to a Constitutional + amendment, introduced by a local saloon-keeper, whose interests, as far as + we knew, were wholly remote from the Constitution, or from any form of + abstract legal betterment. However, the measure seemed harmless; we did + not interfere; and it passed the House. Mike, however, followed its career + in the Senate, and at the last moment, almost by accident, discovered that + it had been "amended" by the simple process of striking out everything + after the enacting clause and unobtrusively substituting the proposal to + remit the elevated railway taxes! The authors of the change wished to + avoid unseemly publicity; their hope was to slip the measure through the + Legislature and have it instantly signed by the Governor, before any + public attention was excited. In the Senate their plan worked to + perfection. There was in the Senate no fighting leadership of the forces + of decency; and for such leadership of the non-fighting type the + representatives of corruption cared absolutely nothing. By bold and adroit + management the substitution in the Senate was effected without opposition + or comment. The bill (in reality, of course, an absolutely new and + undebated bill) then came back to the House nominally as a merely amended + measure, which, under the rules, was not open to debate unless the + amendment was first by vote rejected. This was the great bill of the + session for the lobby; and the lobby was keenly alive to the need of + quick, wise action. No public attention whatever had so far been excited. + Every measure was taken to secure immediate and silent action. A powerful + leader, whom the beneficiaries of the bill trusted, a fearless and + unscrupulous man, of much force and great knowledge of parliamentary law, + was put in the chair. Costello and I were watched; and when for a moment + we were out of the House, the bill was brought over from the Senate, and + the clerk began to read it, all the black horse cavalry, in expectant + mood, being in their seats. But Mike Costello, who was in the clerk's + room, happened to catch a few words of what was being read. In he rushed, + despatched a messenger for me, and began a single-handed filibuster. The + Speaker pro tem called him to order. Mike continued to speak and protest; + the Speaker hammered him down; Mike continued his protests; the + sergeant-at-arms was sent to arrest and remove him; and then I bounced in, + and continued the protest, and refused to sit down or be silent. Amid wild + confusion the amendment was declared adopted, and the bill was ordered + engrossed and sent to the Governor. But we had carried our point. The next + morning the whole press rang with what had happened; every detail of the + bill, and every detail of the way it had been slipped through the + Legislature, were made public. All the slow and cautious men in the House, + who had been afraid of taking sides, now came forward in support of us. + Another debate was held on the proposal to rescind the vote; the city + authorities waked up to protest; the Governor refused to sign the bill. + Two or three years later, after much litigation, the taxes were paid; in + the newspapers it was stated that the amount was over $1,500,000. It was + Mike Costello to whom primarily was due the fact that this sum was saved + the public, and that the forces of corruption received a stinging rebuff. + He did not expect recognition or reward for his services; and he got none. + The public, if it knew of what he had done, promptly forgot it. The + machine did not forget it, and turned him down at the next election. + </p> + <p> + One of the stand-by "strikes" was a bill for reducing the elevated railway + fare, which at that time was ten cents, to five cents. In one Legislature + the men responsible for the introduction of the bill suffered such an + extraordinary change of heart that when the bill came up—being + pushed by zealous radicals who really were honest—the introducers + actually voted against it! A number of us who had been very doubtful about + the principle of the bill voted for it simply because we were convinced + that money was being used to stop it, and we hated to seem to side with + the corruptionists. Then there came a wave of popular feeling in its + favor, the bill was reintroduced at the next session, the railways very + wisely decided that they would simply fight it on its merits, and the + entire black horse cavalry contingent, together with all the former + friends of the measure, voted against it. Some of us, who in our anger at + the methods formerly resorted to for killing the bill had voted for it the + previous year, with much heart-searching again voted for it, as I now + think unwisely; and the bill was vetoed by the then Governor, Grover + Cleveland. I believe the veto was proper, and those who felt as I did + supported the veto; for although it was entirely right that the fare + should be reduced to five cents, which was soon afterwards done, the + method was unwise, and would have set a mischievous precedent. + </p> + <p> + An instance of an opposite kind occurred in connection with a great + railway corporation which wished to increase its terminal facilities in + one of our great cities. The representatives of the railway brought the + bill to me and asked me to look into it, saying that they were well aware + that it was the kind of bill that lent itself to blackmail, and that they + wished to get it through on its merits, and invited the most careful + examination. I looked carefully into it, found that the municipal + authorities and the property-owners whose property was to be taken favored + it, and also found that it was an absolute necessity from the standpoint + of the city no less than from the standpoint of the railway. So I said I + would take charge of it if I had guarantees that no money should be used + and nothing improper done in order to push it. This was agreed to. I was + then acting as chairman of the committee before which the bill went. + </p> + <p> + A very brief experience proved what I had already been practically sure + of, that there was a secret combination of the majority of the committee + on a crooked basis. On one pretext or another the crooked members of the + committee held the bill up, refusing to report it either favorably or + unfavorably. There were one or two members of the committee who were + pretty rough characters, and when I decided to force matters I was not + sure that we would not have trouble. There was a broken chair in the room, + and I got a leg of it loose and put it down beside me where it was not + visible, but where I might get at it in a hurry if necessary. I moved that + the bill be reported favorably. This was voted down without debate by the + "combine," some of whom kept a wooden stolidity of look, while others + leered at me with sneering insolence. I then moved that it be reported + unfavorably, and again the motion was voted down by the same majority and + in the same fashion. I then put the bill in my pocket and announced that I + would report it anyhow. This almost precipitated a riot, especially when I + explained, in answer to statements that my conduct would be exposed on the + floor of the Legislature, that in that case I should give the Legislature + the reasons why I suspected that the men holding up all report of the bill + were holding it up for purposes of blackmail. The riot did not come off; + partly, I think, because the opportune production of the chair-leg had a + sedative effect, and partly owing to wise counsels from one or two of my + opponents. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly I got the bill reported to the Legislature and put on the + calendar. But here it came to a dead halt. I think this was chiefly + because most of the newspapers which noticed the matter at all treated it + in such a cynical spirit as to encourage the men who wished to blackmail. + These papers reported the introduction of the bill, and said that "all the + hungry legislators were clamoring for their share of the pie"; and they + accepted as certain the fact that there was going to be a division of + "pie." This succeeded in frightening honest men, and also in relieving the + rogues; the former were afraid they would be suspected of receiving money + if they voted for the bill, and the latter were given a shield behind + which to stand until they were paid. I was wholly unable to move the bill + forward in the Legislature, and finally a representative of the railway + told me that he thought he would like to take the bill out of my hands, + that I did not seem able to get it through, and that perhaps some "older + and more experienced" leader could be more successful. I was pretty + certain what this meant, but of course I had no kind of proof, and + moreover I was not in a position to say that I could promise success. + Accordingly, the bill was given into the charge of a veteran, whom I + believe to have been a personally honest man, but who was not inquisitive + about the motives influencing his colleagues. This gentleman, who went by + a nickname which I shall incorrectly call "the bald eagle of Weehawken," + was efficient and knew his job. After a couple of weeks a motion to put + the bill through was made by "the bald eagle"; the "black horse cavalry," + whose feelings had undergone a complete change in the intervening time, + voted unanimously for it, in company with all the decent members; and that + was the end. Now here was a bit of work in the interest of a corporation + and in the interest of a community, which the corporation at first tried + honestly to have put through on its merits. The blame for the failure lay + primarily in the supine indifference of the community to legislative + wrong-doing, so long as only the corporations were blackmailed. + </p> + <p> + Except as above mentioned, I was not brought in contact with big business, + save in the effort to impeach a certain judge. This judge had been used as + an instrument in their business by certain of the men connected with the + elevated railways and other great corporations at that time. We got hold + of his correspondence with one of these men, and it showed a shocking + willingness to use the judicial office in any way that one of the kings of + finance of that day desired. He had actually held court in one of that + financier's rooms. One expression in one of the judge's letters to this + financier I shall always remember: "I am willing to go to the very verge + of judicial discretion to serve your vast interests." The curious thing + was that I was by no means certain that the judge himself was corrupt. He + may have been; but I am inclined to think that, aside from his being a man + of coarse moral fiber, the trouble lay chiefly in the fact that he had a + genuine—if I had not so often seen it, I would say a wholly + inexplicable—reverence for the possessor of a great fortune as such. + He sincerely believed that business was the end of existence, and that + judge and legislator alike should do whatever was necessary to favor it; + and the bigger the business the more he desired to favor it. Big business + of the kind that is allied with politics thoroughly appreciated the + usefulness of such a judge, and every effort was strained to protect him. + We fought hard—by "we" I mean some thirty or forty legislators, both + Republicans and Democrats—but the "black horse cavalry," and the + timid good men, and the dull conservative men, were all against us; and + the vote in the Legislature was heavily against impeachment. The minority + of the committee that investigated him, with Chapin at its head, + recommended impeachment; the argument for impeachment before the committee + was made by Francis Lynde Stetson. + </p> + <p> + It was my first experience of the kind. Various men whom I had known well + socially and had been taught to look up to, prominent business men and + lawyers, acted in a way which not only astounded me, but which I was quite + unable to reconcile with the theories I had formed as to their high + standing—I was little more than a year out of college at the time. + Generally, as has been always the case since, they were careful to avoid + any direct conversation with me on a concrete case of what we now call + "privilege" in business and in politics, that is, of the alliance between + business and politics which represents improper favors rendered to some + men in return for improper conduct on the part of others being ignored or + permitted. + </p> + <p> + One member of a prominent law firm, an old family friend, did, however, + take me out to lunch one day, evidently for the purpose of seeing just + what it was that I wished and intended to do. I believe he had a genuine + personal liking for me. He explained that I had done well in the + Legislature; that it was a good thing to have made the "reform play," that + I had shown that I possessed ability such as would make me useful in the + right kind of law office or business concern; but that I must not overplay + my hand; that I had gone far enough, and that now was the time to leave + politics and identify myself with the right kind of people, the people who + would always in the long run control others and obtain the real rewards + which were worth having. I asked him if that meant that I was to yield to + the ring in politics. He answered somewhat impatiently that I was entirely + mistaken (as in fact I was) about there being merely a political ring, of + the kind of which the papers were fond of talking; that the "ring," if it + could be called such—that is, the inner circle—included + certain big business men, and the politicians, lawyers, and judges who + were in alliance with and to a certain extent dependent upon them, and + that the successful man had to win his success by the backing of the same + forces, whether in law, business, or politics. + </p> + <p> + This conversation not only interested me, but made such an impression that + I always remembered it, for it was the first glimpse I had of that + combination between business and politics which I was in after years so + often to oppose. In the America of that day, and especially among the + people whom I knew, the successful business man was regarded by everybody + as preeminently the good citizen. The orthodox books on political economy, + not only in America but in England, were written for his especial + glorification. The tangible rewards came to him, the admiration of his + fellow-citizens of the respectable type was apt to be his, and the severe + newspaper moralists who were never tired of denouncing politicians and + political methods were wont to hold up "business methods" as the ideal + which we were to strive to introduce into political life. Herbert Croly, + in "The Promise of American Life," has set forth the reasons why our + individualistic democracy—which taught that each man was to rely + exclusively on himself, was in no way to be interfered with by others, and + was to devote himself to his own personal welfare—necessarily + produced the type of business man who sincerely believed, as did the rest + of the community, that the individual who amassed a big fortune was the + man who was the best and most typical American. + </p> + <p> + In the Legislature the problems with which I dealt were mainly problems of + honesty and decency and of legislative and administrative efficiency. They + represented the effort, the wise, the vitally necessary effort, to get + efficient and honest government. But as yet I understood little of the + effort which was already beginning, for the most part under very bad + leadership, to secure a more genuine social and industrial justice. Nor + was I especially to blame for this. The good citizens I then knew best, + even when themselves men of limited means—men like my colleague + Billy O'Neill, and my backwoods friends Sewall and Dow—were no more + awake than I was to the changing needs the changing times were bringing. + Their outlook was as narrow as my own, and, within its limits, as + fundamentally sound. + </p> + <p> + I wish to dwell on the soundness of our outlook on life, even though as + yet it was not broad enough. We were no respecters of persons. Where our + vision was developed to a degree that enabled us to see crookedness, we + opposed it whether in great or small. As a matter of fact, we found that + it needed much more courage to stand up openly against labor men when they + were wrong than against capitalists when they were wrong. The sins against + labor are usually committed, and the improper services to capitalists are + usually rendered, behind closed doors. Very often the man with the moral + courage to speak in the open against labor when it is wrong is the only + man anxious to do effective work for labor when labor is right. + </p> + <p> + The only kinds of courage and honesty which are permanently useful to good + institutions anywhere are those shown by men who decide all cases with + impartial justice on grounds of conduct and not on grounds of class. We + found that in the long run the men who in public blatantly insisted that + labor was never wrong were the very men who in private could not be + trusted to stand for labor when it was right. We grew heartily to distrust + the reformer who never denounced wickedness unless it was embodied in a + rich man. Human nature does not change; and that type of "reformer" is as + noxious now as he ever was. The loud-mouthed upholder of popular rights + who attacks wickedness only when it is allied with wealth, and who never + publicly assails any misdeed, no matter how flagrant, if committed + nominally in the interest of labor, has either a warped mind or a tainted + soul, and should be trusted by no honest man. It was largely the indignant + and contemptuous dislike aroused in our minds by the demagogues of this + class which then prevented those of us whose instincts at bottom were + sound from going as far as we ought to have gone along the lines of + governmental control of corporations and governmental interference on + behalf of labor. + </p> + <p> + I did, however, have one exceedingly useful experience. A bill was + introduced by the Cigar-Makers' Union to prohibit the manufacture of + cigars in tenement-houses. I was appointed one of a committee of three to + investigate conditions in the tenement-houses and see if legislation + should be had. Of my two colleagues on the committee, one took no interest + in the measure and privately said he did not think it was right, but that + he had to vote for it because the labor unions were strong in his district + and he was pledged to support the bill. The other, a sporting Tammany man + who afterwards abandoned politics for the race-track, was a very good + fellow. He told me frankly that he had to be against the bill because + certain interests which were all-powerful and with which he had dealings + required him to be against it, but that I was a free agent, and that if I + would look into the matter he believed I would favor the legislation. As a + matter of fact, I had supposed I would be against the legislation, and I + rather think that I was put on the committee with that idea, for the + respectable people I knew were against it; it was contrary to the + principles of political economy of the <i>laissez-faire</i> kind; and the + business men who spoke to me about it shook their heads and said that it + was designed to prevent a man doing as he wished and as he had a right to + do with what was his own. + </p> + <p> + However, my first visits to the tenement-house districts in question made + me feel that, whatever the theories might be, as a matter of practical + common sense I could not conscientiously vote for the continuance of the + conditions which I saw. These conditions rendered it impossible for the + families of the tenement-house workers to live so that the children might + grow up fitted for the exacting duties of American citizenship. I visited + the tenement-houses once with my colleagues of the committee, once with + some of the labor union representatives, and once or twice by myself. In a + few of the tenement-houses there were suites of rooms ample in number + where the work on the tobacco was done in rooms not occupied for cooking + or sleeping or living. In the overwhelming majority of cases, however, + there were one, two, or three room apartments, and the work of + manufacturing the tobacco by men, women, and children went on day and + night in the eating, living, and sleeping rooms—sometimes in one + room. I have always remembered one room in which two families were living. + On my inquiry as to who the third adult male was I was told that he was a + boarder with one of the families. There were several children, three men, + and two women in this room. The tobacco was stowed about everywhere, + alongside the foul bedding, and in a corner where there were scraps of + food. The men, women, and children in this room worked by day and far on + into the evening, and they slept and ate there. They were Bohemians, + unable to speak English, except that one of the children knew enough to + act as interpreter. + </p> + <p> + Instead of opposing the bill I ardently championed it. It was a poorly + drawn measure, and the Governor, Grover Cleveland, was at first doubtful + about signing it. The Cigar-makers' Union then asked me to appear before + the Governor and argue for it. I accordingly did so, acting as spokesman + for the battered, undersized foreigners who represented the Union and the + workers. The Governor signed the bill. Afterwards this tenement-house + cigar legislation was declared invalid by the Court of Appeals in the + Jacobs decision. Jacobs was one of the rare tenement-house manufacturers + of cigars who occupied quite a suite of rooms, so that in his case the + living conditions were altogether exceptional. What the reason was which + influenced those bringing the suit to select the exceptional instead of + the average worker I do not know; of course such action was precisely the + action which those most interested in having the law broken down were + anxious to see taken. The Court of Appeals declared the law + unconstitutional, and in their decision the judges reprobated the law as + an assault upon the "hallowed" influences of "home." It was this case + which first waked me to a dim and partial understanding of the fact that + the courts were not necessarily the best judges of what should be done to + better social and industrial conditions. The judges who rendered this + decision were well-meaning men. They knew nothing whatever of + tenement-house conditions; they knew nothing whatever of the needs, or of + the life and labor, of three-fourths of their fellow-citizens in great + cities. They knew legalism, but not life. Their choice of the words + "hallowed" and "home," as applicable to the revolting conditions attending + the manufacture of cigars in tenement-houses, showed that they had no idea + what it was that they were deciding. Imagine the "hallowed" associations + of a "home" consisting of one room where two families, one of them with a + boarder, live, eat, and work! This decision completely blocked + tenement-house reform legislation in New York for a score of years, and + hampers it to this day. It was one of the most serious setbacks which the + cause of industrial and social progress and reform ever received. + </p> + <p> + I had been brought up to hold the courts in especial reverence. The people + with whom I was most intimate were apt to praise the courts for just such + decisions as this, and to speak of them as bulwarks against disorder and + barriers against demagogic legislation. These were the same people with + whom the judges who rendered these decisions were apt to foregather at + social clubs, or dinners, or in private life. Very naturally they all + tended to look at things from the same standpoint. Of course it took more + than one experience such as this Tenement Cigar Case to shake me out of + the attitude in which I was brought up. But various decisions, not only of + the New York court but of certain other State courts and even of the + United States Supreme Court, during the quarter of a century following the + passage of this tenement-house legislation, did at last thoroughly wake me + to the actual fact. I grew to realize that all that Abraham Lincoln had + said about the Dred Scott decision could be said with equal truth and + justice about the numerous decisions which in our own day were erected as + bars across the path of social reform, and which brought to naught so much + of the effort to secure justice and fair dealing for workingmen and + workingwomen, and for plain citizens generally. + </p> + <p> + Some of the wickedness and inefficiency in public life was then displayed + in simpler fashion than would probably now be the case. Once or twice I + was a member of committees which looked into gross and widely ramifying + governmental abuses. On the whole, the most important part I played was in + the third Legislature in which I served, when I acted as chairman of a + committee which investigated various phases of New York City official + life. + </p> + <p> + The most important of the reform measures our committee recommended was + the bill taking away from the Aldermen their power of confirmation over + the Mayor's appointments. We found that it was possible to get citizens + interested in the character and capacity of the head of the city, so that + they would exercise some intelligent interest in his conduct and + qualifications. But we found that as a matter of fact it was impossible to + get them interested in the Aldermen and other subordinate officers. In + actual practice the Aldermen were merely the creatures of the local ward + bosses or of the big municipal bosses, and where they controlled the + appointments the citizens at large had no chance whatever to make their + will felt. Accordingly we fought for the principle, which I believe to be + of universal application, that what is needed in our popular government is + to give plenty of power to a few officials, and to make these few + officials genuinely and readily responsible to the people for the exercise + of that power. Taking away the confirming power of the Board of Aldermen + did not give the citizens of New York good government. We knew that if + they chose to elect the wrong kind of Mayor they would have bad + government, no matter what the form of the law was. But we did secure to + them the chance to get good government if they desired, and this was + impossible as long as the old system remained. The change was fought in + the way in which all similar changes always are fought. The corrupt and + interested politicians were against it, and the battle-cries they used, + which rallied to them most of the unthinking conservatives, were that we + were changing the old constitutional system, that we were defacing the + monuments of the wisdom of the founders of the government, that we were + destroying that distinction between legislative and executive power which + was the bulwark of our liberties, and that we were violent and + unscrupulous radicals with no reverence for the past. + </p> + <p> + Of course the investigations, disclosures, and proceedings of the + investigating committee of which I was chairman brought me into bitter + personal conflict with very powerful financiers, very powerful + politicians, and with certain newspapers which these financiers and + politicians controlled. A number of able and unscrupulous men were + fighting, some for their financial lives, and others to keep out of + unpleasantly close neighborhood to State's prison. This meant that there + were blows to be taken as well as given. In such political struggles, + those who went in for the kind of thing that I did speedily excited + animosities among strong and cunning men who would stop at little to + gratify their animosity. Any man engaged in this particular type of + militant and practical reform movement was soon made to feel that he had + better not undertake to push matters home unless his own character was + unassailable. On one of the investigating committees on which I served + there was a countryman, a very able man, who, when he reached New York + City, felt as certain Americans do when they go to Paris—that the + moral restraints of his native place no longer applied. With all his + ability, he was not shrewd enough to realize that the Police Department + was having him as well as the rest of us carefully shadowed. He was caught + red-handed by a plain-clothes man doing what he had no business to do; and + from that time on he dared not act save as those who held his secret + permitted him to act. Thenceforth those officials who stood behind the + Police Department had one man on the committee on whom they could count. I + never saw terror more ghastly on a strong man's face than on the face of + this man on one or two occasions when he feared that events in the + committee might take such a course as to force him into a position where + his colleagues would expose him even if the city officials did not. + However, he escaped, for we were never able to get the kind of proof which + would warrant our asking for the action in which this man could not have + joined. + </p> + <p> + Traps were set for more than one of us, and if we had walked into these + traps our public careers would have ended, at least so far as following + them under the conditions which alone make it worth while to be in public + life at all. A man can of course hold public office, and many a man does + hold public office, and lead a public career of a sort, even if there are + other men who possess secrets about him which he cannot afford to have + divulged. But no man can lead a public career really worth leading, no man + can act with rugged independence in serious crises, nor strike at great + abuses, nor afford to make powerful and unscrupulous foes, if he is + himself vulnerable in his private character. Nor will clean conduct by + itself enable a man to render good service. I have always been fond of + Josh Billings's remark that "it is much easier to be a harmless dove than + a wise serpent." There are plenty of decent legislators, and plenty of + able legislators; but the blamelessness and the fighting edge are not + always combined. Both qualities are necessary for the man who is to wage + active battle against the powers that prey. He must be clean of life, so + that he can laugh when his public or his private record is searched; and + yet being clean of life will not avail him if he is either foolish or + timid. He must walk warily and fearlessly, and while he should never brawl + if he can avoid it, he must be ready to hit hard if the need arises. Let + him remember, by the way, that the unforgivable crime is soft hitting. Do + not hit at all if it can be avoided; but never hit softly. + </p> + <p> + Like most young men in politics, I went through various oscillations of + feeling before I "found myself." At one period I became so impressed with + the virtue of complete independence that I proceeded to act on each case + purely as I personally viewed it, without paying any heed to the + principles and prejudices of others. The result was that I speedily and + deservedly lost all power of accomplishing anything at all; and I thereby + learned the invaluable lesson that in the practical activities of life no + man can render the highest service unless he can act in combination with + his fellows, which means a certain amount of give-and-take between him and + them. Again, I at one period began to believe that I had a future before + me, and that it behooved me to be very far-sighted and scan each action + carefully with a view to its possible effect on that future. This speedily + made me useless to the public and an object of aversion to myself; and I + then made up my mind that I would try not to think of the future at all, + but would proceed on the assumption that each office I held would be the + last I ever should hold, and that I would confine myself to trying to do + my work as well as possible while I held that office. I found that for me + personally this was the only way in which I could either enjoy myself or + render good service to the country, and I never afterwards deviated from + this plan. + </p> + <p> + As regards political advancement the bosses could of course do a good + deal. At that time the warring Stalwart and Half-Breed factions of the + Republican party were supporting respectively President Arthur and Senator + Miller. Neither side cared for me. The first year in the Legislature I + rose to a position of leadership, so that in the second year, when the + Republicans were in a minority, I received the minority nomination for + Speaker, although I was still the youngest man in the House, being + twenty-four years old. The third year the Republicans carried the + Legislature, and the bosses at once took a hand in the Speakership + contest. I made a stout fight for the nomination, but the bosses of the + two factions, the Stalwarts and the Half-Breeds, combined and I was + beaten. I was much chagrined for the moment. But the fact that I had + fought hard and efficiently, even though defeated, and that I had made the + fight single-handed, with no machine back of me, assured my standing as + floor leader. My defeat in the end materially strengthened my position, + and enabled me to accomplish far more than I could have accomplished as + Speaker. As so often, I found that the titular position was of no + consequence; what counted was the combination of the opportunity with the + ability to accomplish results. The achievement was the all-important + thing; the position, whether titularly high or low, was of consequence + only in so far as it widened the chance for achievement. After the session + closed four of us who looked at politics from the same standpoint and were + known as Independent or Anti-Machine Republicans were sent by the State + Convention as delegates-at-large to the Republican National Convention of + 1884, where I advocated, as vigorously as I knew how, the nomination of + Senator George F. Edmunds. Mr. Edmunds was defeated and Mr. Blaine + nominated. Mr. Blaine was clearly the choice of the rank and file of the + party; his nomination was won in fair and aboveboard fashion, because the + rank and file of the party stood back of him; and I supported him to the + best of my ability in the ensuing campaign. + </p> + <p> + The Speakership contest enlightened me as regards more things than the + attitude of the bosses. I had already had some exasperating experiences + with the "silk stocking" reformer type, as Abraham Lincoln called it, the + gentlemen who were very nice, very refined, who shook their heads over + political corruption and discussed it in drawing-rooms and parlors, but + who were wholly unable to grapple with real men in real life. They were + apt vociferously to demand "reform" as if it were some concrete substance, + like cake, which could be handed out at will, in tangible masses, if only + the demand were urgent enough. These parlor reformers made up for + inefficiency in action by zeal in criticising; and they delighted in + criticising the men who really were doing the things which they said ought + to be done, but which they lacked the sinewy power to do. They often + upheld ideals which were not merely impossible but highly undesirable, and + thereby played into the hands of the very politicians to whom they + professed to be most hostile. Moreover, if they believed that their own + interests, individually or as a class, were jeoparded, they were apt to + show no higher standards than did the men they usually denounced. + </p> + <p> + One of their shibboleths was that the office should seek the man and not + the man the office. This is entirely true of certain offices at certain + times. It is entirely untrue when the circumstances are different. It + would have been unnecessary and undesirable for Washington to have sought + the Presidency. But if Abraham Lincoln had not sought the Presidency he + never would have been nominated. The objection in such a case as this lies + not to seeking the office, but to seeking it in any but an honorable and + proper manner. The effect of the shibboleth in question is usually merely + to put a premium on hypocrisy, and therefore to favor the creature who is + willing to rise by hypocrisy. When I ran for Speaker, the whole body of + machine politicians was against me, and my only chance lay in arousing the + people in the different districts. To do this I had to visit the + districts, put the case fairly before the men whom I saw, and make them + understand that I was really making a fight and would stay in the fight to + the end. Yet there were reformers who shook their heads and deplored my + "activity" in the canvass. Of course the one thing which corrupt machine + politicians most desire is to have decent men frown on the activity, that + is, on the efficiency, of the honest man who genuinely wishes to reform + politics. + </p> + <p> + If efficiency is left solely to bad men, and if virtue is confined solely + to inefficient men, the result cannot be happy. When I entered politics + there were, as there always had been—and as there always will be—any + number of bad men in politics who were thoroughly efficient, and any + number of good men who would like to have done lofty things in politics + but who were thoroughly inefficient. If I wished to accomplish anything + for the country, my business was to combine decency and efficiency; to be + a thoroughly practical man of high ideals who did his best to reduce those + ideals to actual practice. This was my ideal, and to the best of my + ability I strove to live up to it. + </p> + <p> + To a young man, life in the New York Legislature was always interesting + and often entertaining. There was always a struggle of some kind on hand. + Sometimes it was on a naked question of right and wrong. Sometimes it was + on a question of real constructive statesmanship. Moreover, there were all + kinds of humorous incidents, the humor being usually of the unconscious + kind. In one session of the Legislature the New York City Democratic + representatives were split into two camps, and there were two rivals for + leadership. One of these was a thoroughly good-hearted, happy-go-lucky + person who was afterwards for several years in Congress. He had been a + local magistrate and was called Judge. Generally he and I were friendly, + but occasionally I did something that irritated him. He was always willing + to vote for any other member's bill himself, and he regarded it as + narrow-minded for any one to oppose one of his bills, especially if the + opposition was upon the ground that it was unconstitutional—for his + views of the Constitution were so excessively liberal as to make even me + feel as if I belonged to the straitest sect of strict constructionists. On + one occasion he had a bill to appropriate money, with obvious impropriety, + for the relief of some miscreant whom he styled "one of the honest + yeomanry of the State." When I explained to him that it was clearly + unconstitutional, he answered, "Me friend, the Constitution don't touch + little things like that," and then added, with an ingratiating smile, + "Anyhow, I'd never allow the Constitution to come between friends." At the + time I was looking over the proofs of Mr. Bryce's "American Commonwealth," + and I told him the incident. He put it into the first edition of the + "Commonwealth"; whether it is in the last edition or not, I cannot say. + </p> + <p> + On another occasion the same gentleman came to an issue with me in a + debate, and wound up his speech by explaining that I occupied what + "lawyers would call a quasi position on the bill." His rival was a man of + totally different type, a man of great natural dignity, also born in + Ireland. He had served with gallantry in the Civil War. After the close of + the war he organized an expedition to conquer Canada. The expedition, + however, got so drunk before reaching Albany that it was there + incarcerated in jail, whereupon its leader abandoned it and went into New + York politics instead. He was a man of influence, and later occupied in + the Police Department the same position as Commissioner which I myself at + one time occupied. He felt that his rival had gained too much glory at my + expense, and, walking over with ceremonious solemnity to where the said + rival was sitting close beside me, he said to him: "I would like you to + know, Mr. Cameron [Cameron, of course, was not the real name], that Mr. + Roosevelt knows more law in a wake than you do in a month; and, more than + that, Michael Cameron, what do you mane by quoting Latin on the floor of + this House when you don't know the alpha and omayga of the language?" + </p> + <p> + There was in the Legislature, during the deadlock above mentioned, a man + whom I will call Brogan. He looked like a serious elderly frog. I never + heard him speak more than once. It was before the Legislature was + organized, or had adopted any rules; and each day the only business was + for the clerk to call the roll. One day Brogan suddenly rose, and the + following dialogue occurred: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Brogan. Misther Clu-r-r-k! + The Clerk. The gentleman from New York. + Brogan. I rise to a point of ordher under the rules! + The Clerk. There are no rules. + Brogan. Thin I object to them! + The Clerk. There are no rules to object to. + Brogan. Oh! [nonplussed; but immediately recovering himself]. + Thin I move that they be amended until there ar-r-re! +</pre> + <p> + The deadlock was tedious; and we hailed with joy such enlivening incidents + as the above. + </p> + <p> + During my three years' service in the Legislature I worked on a very + simple philosophy of government. It was that personal character and + initiative are the prime requisites in political and social life. It was + not only a good but an absolutely indispensable theory as far as it went; + but it was defective in that it did not sufficiently allow for the need of + collective action. I shall never forget the men with whom I worked hand in + hand in these legislative struggles, not only my fellow-legislators, but + some of the newspaper reporters, such as Spinney and Cunningham; and then + in addition the men in the various districts who helped us. We had made up + our minds that we must not fight fire with fire, that on the contrary the + way to win out was to equal our foes in practical efficiency and yet to + stand at the opposite plane from them in applied morality. + </p> + <p> + It was not always easy to keep the just middle, especially when it + happened that on one side there were corrupt and unscrupulous demagogues, + and on the other side corrupt and unscrupulous reactionaries. Our effort + was to hold the scales even between both. We tried to stand with the cause + of righteousness even though its advocates were anything but righteous. We + endeavored to cut out the abuses of property, even though good men of + property were misled into upholding those abuses. We refused to be + frightened into sanctioning improper assaults upon property, although we + knew that the champions of property themselves did things that were wicked + and corrupt. We were as yet by no means as thoroughly awake as we ought to + have been to the need of controlling big business and to the damage done + by the combination of politics with big business. In this matter I was not + behind the rest of my friends; indeed, I was ahead of them, for no serious + leader in political life then appreciated the prime need of grappling with + these questions. One partial reason—not an excuse or a + justification, but a partial reason—for my slowness in grasping the + importance of action in these matters was the corrupt and unattractive + nature of so many of the men who championed popular reforms, their + insincerity, and the folly of so many of the actions which they advocated. + Even at that date I had neither sympathy with nor admiration for the man + who was merely a money king, and I did not regard the "money touch," when + divorced from other qualities, as entitling a man to either respect or + consideration. As recited above, we did on more than one occasion fight + battles, in which we neither took nor gave quarter, against the most + prominent and powerful financiers and financial interests of the day. But + most of the fights in which we were engaged were for pure honesty and + decency, and they were more apt to be against that form of corruption + which found its expression in demagogy than against that form of + corruption which defended or advocated privilege. Fundamentally, our fight + was part of the eternal war against the Powers that Prey; and we cared not + a whit in what rank of life these powers were found. + </p> + <p> + To play the demagogue for purposes of self-interest is a cardinal sin + against the people in a democracy, exactly as to play the courtier for + such purposes is a cardinal sin against the people under other forms of + government. A man who stays long in our American political life, if he has + in his soul the generous desire to do effective service for great causes, + inevitably grows to regard himself merely as one of many instruments, all + of which it may be necessary to use, one at one time, one at another, in + achieving the triumph of those causes; and whenever the usefulness of any + one has been exhausted, it is to be thrown aside. If such a man is wise, + he will gladly do the thing that is next, when the time and the need come + together, without asking what the future holds for him. Let the half-god + play his part well and manfully, and then be content to draw aside when + the god appears. Nor should he feel vain regrets that to another it is + given to render greater services and reap a greater reward. Let it be + enough for him that he too has served, and that by doing well he has + prepared the way for the other man who can do better. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <h3> + IN COWBOY LAND + </h3> + <p> + Though I had previously made a trip into the then Territory of Dakota, + beyond the Red River, it was not until 1883 that I went to the Little + Missouri, and there took hold of two cattle ranches, the Chimney Butte and + the Elkhorn. + </p> + <p> + It was still the Wild West in those days, the Far West, the West of Owen + Wister's stories and Frederic Remington's drawings, the West of the Indian + and the buffalo-hunter, the soldier and the cow-puncher. That land of the + West has gone now, "gone, gone with lost Atlantis," gone to the isle of + ghosts and of strange dead memories. It was a land of vast silent spaces, + of lonely rivers, and of plains where the wild game stared at the passing + horseman. It was a land of scattered ranches, of herds of long-horned + cattle, and of reckless riders who unmoved looked in the eyes of life or + of death. In that land we led a free and hardy life, with horse and with + rifle. We worked under the scorching midsummer sun, when the wide plains + shimmered and wavered in the heat; and we knew the freezing misery of + riding night guard round the cattle in the late fall round-up. In the soft + springtime the stars were glorious in our eyes each night before we fell + asleep; and in the winter we rode through blinding blizzards, when the + driven snow-dust burned our faces. There were monotonous days, as we + guided the trail cattle or the beef herds, hour after hour, at the slowest + of walks; and minutes or hours teeming with excitement as we stopped + stampedes or swam the herds across rivers treacherous with quicksands or + brimmed with running ice. We knew toil and hardship and hunger and thirst; + and we saw men die violent deaths as they worked among the horses and + cattle, or fought in evil feuds with one another; but we felt the beat of + hardy life in our veins, and ours was the glory of work and the joy of + living. + </p> + <p> + It was right and necessary that this life should pass, for the safety of + our country lies in its being made the country of the small home-maker. + The great unfenced ranches, in the days of "free grass," necessarily + represented a temporary stage in our history. The large migratory flocks + of sheep, each guarded by the hired shepherds of absentee owners, were the + first enemies of the cattlemen; and owing to the way they ate out the + grass and destroyed all other vegetation, these roving sheep bands + represented little of permanent good to the country. But the homesteaders, + the permanent settlers, the men who took up each his own farm on which he + lived and brought up his family, these represented from the National + standpoint the most desirable of all possible users of, and dwellers on, + the soil. Their advent meant the breaking up of the big ranches; and the + change was a National gain, although to some of us an individual loss. + </p> + <p> + I first reached the Little Missouri on a Northern Pacific train about + three in the morning of a cool September day in 1883. Aside from the + station, the only building was a ramshackle structure called the Pyramid + Park Hotel. I dragged my duffle-bag thither, and hammered at the door + until the frowsy proprietor appeared, muttering oaths. He ushered me + upstairs, where I was given one of the fourteen beds in the room which by + itself constituted the entire upper floor. Next day I walked over to the + abandoned army post, and, after some hours among the gray log shacks, a + ranchman who had driven into the station agreed to take me out to his + ranch, the Chimney Butte ranch, where he was living with his brother and + their partner. + </p> + <p> + The ranch was a log structure with a dirt roof, a corral for the horses + near by, and a chicken-house jabbed against the rear of the ranch house. + Inside there was only one room, with a table, three or four chairs, a + cooking-stove, and three bunks. The owners were Sylvane and Joe Ferris and + William J. Merrifield. Later all three of them held my commissions while I + was President. Merrifield was Marshal of Montana, and as Presidential + elector cast the vote of that State for me in 1904; Sylvane Ferris was + Land Officer in North Dakota, and Joe Ferris Postmaster at Medora. There + was a fourth man, George Meyer, who also worked for me later. That evening + we all played old sledge round the table, and at one period the game was + interrupted by a frightful squawking outside which told us that a bobcat + had made a raid on the chicken-house. + </p> + <p> + After a buffalo hunt with my original friend, Joe Ferris, I entered into + partnership with Merrifield and Sylvane Ferris, and we started a cow + ranch, with the maltese cross brand—always known as "maltee cross," + by the way, as the general impression along the Little Missouri was that + "maltese" must be a plural. Twenty-nine years later my four friends of + that night were delegates to the First Progressive National Convention at + Chicago. They were among my most constant companions for the few years + next succeeding the evening when the bobcat interrupted the game of old + sledge. I lived and worked with them on the ranch, and with them and many + others like them on the round-up; and I brought out from Maine, in order + to start the Elkhorn ranch lower down the river, my two backwoods friends + Sewall and Dow. My brands for the lower ranch were the elkhorn and + triangle. + </p> + <p> + I do not believe there ever was any life more attractive to a vigorous + young fellow than life on a cattle ranch in those days. It was a fine, + healthy life, too; it taught a man self-reliance, hardihood, and the value + of instant decision—in short, the virtues that ought to come from + life in the open country. I enjoyed the life to the full. After the first + year I built on the Elkhorn ranch a long, low ranch house of hewn logs, + with a veranda, and with, in addition to the other rooms, a bedroom for + myself, and a sitting-room with a big fire-place. I got out a + rocking-chair—I am very fond of rocking-chairs—and enough + books to fill two or three shelves, and a rubber bathtub so that I could + get a bath. And then I do not see how any one could have lived more + comfortably. We had buffalo robes and bearskins of our own killing. We + always kept the house clean—using the word in a rather large sense. + There were at least two rooms that were always warm, even in the bitterest + weather; and we had plenty to eat. Commonly the mainstay of every meal was + game of our own killing, usually antelope or deer, sometimes grouse or + ducks, and occasionally, in the earlier days, buffalo or elk. We also had + flour and bacon, sugar, salt, and canned tomatoes. And later, when some of + the men married and brought out their wives, we had all kinds of good + things, such as jams and jellies made from the wild plums and the buffalo + berries, and potatoes from the forlorn little garden patch. Moreover, we + had milk. Most ranchmen at that time never had milk. I knew more than one + ranch with ten thousand head of cattle where there was not a cow that + could be milked. We made up our minds that we would be more enterprising. + Accordingly, we started to domesticate some of the cows. Our first effort + was not successful, chiefly because we did not devote the needed time and + patience to the matter. And we found that to race a cow two miles at full + speed on horseback, then rope her, throw her, and turn her upside down to + milk her, while exhilarating as a pastime, was not productive of results. + Gradually we accumulated tame cows, and, after we had thinned out the + bobcats and coyotes, more chickens. + </p> + <p> + The ranch house stood on the brink of a low bluff overlooking the broad, + shallow bed of the Little Missouri, through which at most seasons there + ran only a trickle of water, while in times of freshet it was filled + brimful with the boiling, foaming, muddy torrent. There was no neighbor + for ten or fifteen miles on either side of me. The river twisted down in + long curves between narrow bottoms bordered by sheer cliff walls, for the + Bad Lands, a chaos of peaks, plateaus, and ridges, rose abruptly from the + edges of the level, tree-clad, or grassy, alluvial meadows. In front of + the ranch-house veranda was a row of cottonwood trees with gray-green + leaves which quivered all day long if there was a breath of air. From + these trees came the far-away, melancholy cooing of mourning doves, and + little owls perched in them and called tremulously at night. In the long + summer afternoons we would sometimes sit on the piazza, when there was no + work to be done, for an hour or two at a time, watching the cattle on the + sand-bars, and the sharply channeled and strangely carved amphitheater of + cliffs across the bottom opposite; while the vultures wheeled overhead, + their black shadows gliding across the glaring white of the dry river-bed. + Sometimes from the ranch we saw deer, and once when we needed meat I shot + one across the river as I stood on the piazza. In the winter, in the days + of iron cold, when everything was white under the snow, the river lay in + its bed fixed and immovable as a bar of bent steel, and then at night + wolves and lynxes traveled up and down it as if it had been a highway + passing in front of the ranch house. Often in the late fall or early + winter, after a hard day's hunting, or when returning from one of the + winter line camps, we did not reach the ranch until hours after sunset; + and after the weary tramping in the cold it was keen pleasure to catch the + first red gleam of the fire-lit windows across the snowy wastes. + </p> + <p> + The Elkhorn ranch house was built mainly by Sewall and Dow, who, like most + men from the Maine woods, were mighty with the ax. I could chop fairly + well for an amateur, but I could not do one-third the work they could. One + day when we were cutting down the cottonwood trees, to begin our building + operations, I heard some one ask Dow what the total cut had been, and Dow + not realizing that I was within hearing, answered: "Well, Bill cut down + fifty-three, I cut forty-nine, and the boss he beavered down seventeen." + Those who have seen the stump of a tree which has been gnawed down by a + beaver will understand the exact force of the comparison. + </p> + <p> + In those days on a cow ranch the men were apt to be away on the various + round-ups at least half the time. It was interesting and exciting work, + and except for the lack of sleep on the spring and summer round-ups it was + not exhausting work; compared to lumbering or mining or blacksmithing, to + sit in the saddle is an easy form of labor. The ponies were of course + grass-fed and unshod. Each man had his own string of nine or ten. One pony + would be used for the morning work, one for the afternoon, and neither + would again be used for the next three days. A separate pony was kept for + night riding. + </p> + <p> + The spring and early summer round-ups were especially for the branding of + calves. There was much hard work and some risk on a round-up, but also + much fun. The meeting-place was appointed weeks beforehand, and all the + ranchmen of the territory to be covered by the round-up sent their + representatives. There were no fences in the West that I knew, and their + place was taken by the cowboy and the branding-iron. The cattle wandered + free. Each calf was branded with the brand of the cow it was following. + Sometimes in winter there was what we called line riding; that is, camps + were established and the line riders traveled a definite beat across the + desolate wastes of snow, to and fro from one camp to another, to prevent + the cattle from drifting. But as a rule nothing was done to keep the + cattle in any one place. In the spring there was a general round-up in + each locality. Each outfit took part in its own round-up, and all the + outfits of a given region combined to send representatives to the two or + three round-ups that covered the neighborhoods near by into which their + cattle might drift. For example, our Little Missouri round-up generally + worked down the river from a distance of some fifty or sixty miles above + my ranch toward the Kildeer Mountains, about the same distance below. In + addition we would usually send representatives to the Yellowstone + round-up, and to the round-up along the upper Little Missouri; and, + moreover, if we heard that cattle had drifted, perhaps toward the Indian + reservation southeast of us, we would send a wagon and rider after them. + </p> + <p> + At the meeting-point, which might be in the valley of a half-dry stream, + or in some broad bottom of the river itself, or perchance by a couple of + ponds under some queerly shaped butte that was a landmark for the region + round about, we would all gather on the appointed day. The chuck-wagons, + containing the bedding and food, each drawn by four horses and driven by + the teamster cook, would come jolting and rattling over the uneven sward. + Accompanying each wagon were eight or ten riders, the cow-punchers, while + their horses, a band of a hundred or so, were driven by the two herders, + one of whom was known as the day wrangler and one as the night wrangler. + The men were lean, sinewy fellows, accustomed to riding half-broken horses + at any speed over any country by day or by night. They wore flannel + shirts, with loose handkerchiefs knotted round their necks, broad hats, + high-heeled boots with jingling spurs, and sometimes leather shaps, + although often they merely had their trousers tucked into the tops of + their high boots. There was a good deal of rough horse-play, and, as with + any other gathering of men or boys of high animal spirits, the horse-play + sometimes became very rough indeed; and as the men usually carried + revolvers, and as there were occasionally one or two noted gun-fighters + among them, there was now and then a shooting affray. A man who was a + coward or who shirked his work had a bad time, of course; a man could not + afford to let himself be bullied or treated as a butt; and, on the other + hand, if he was "looking for a fight," he was certain to find it. But my + own experience was that if a man did not talk until his associates knew + him well and liked him, and if he did his work, he never had any + difficulty in getting on. In my own round-up district I speedily grew to + be friends with most of the men. When I went among strangers I always had + to spend twenty-four hours in living down the fact that I wore spectacles, + remaining as long as I could judiciously deaf to any side remarks about + "four eyes," unless it became evident that my being quiet was misconstrued + and that it was better to bring matters to a head at once. + </p> + <p> + If, for instance, I was sent off to represent the Little Missouri brands + on some neighboring round-up, such as the Yellowstone, I usually showed + that kind of diplomacy which consists in not uttering one word that can be + avoided. I would probably have a couple of days' solitary ride, mounted on + one horse and driving eight or ten others before me, one of them carrying + my bedding. Loose horses drive best at a trot, or canter, and if a man is + traveling alone in this fashion it is a good thing to have them reach the + camp ground sufficiently late to make them desire to feed and sleep where + they are until morning. In consequence I never spent more than two days on + the journey from whatever the point was at which I left the Little + Missouri, sleeping the one night for as limited a number of hours as + possible. + </p> + <p> + As soon as I reached the meeting-place I would find out the wagon to which + I was assigned. Riding to it, I turned my horses into the saddle-band and + reported to the wagon boss, or, in his absence, to the cook—always a + privileged character, who was allowed and expected to order men around. He + would usually grumble savagely and profanely about my having been put with + his wagon, but this was merely conventional on his part; and if I sat down + and said nothing he would probably soon ask me if I wanted anything to + eat, to which the correct answer was that I was not hungry and would wait + until meal-time. The bedding rolls of the riders would be strewn round the + grass, and I would put mine down a little outside the ring, where I would + not be in any one's way, with my six or eight branding-irons beside it. + The men would ride in, laughing and talking with one another, and perhaps + nodding to me. One of their number, usually the wagon foreman, might put + some question to me as to what brands I represented, but no other word + would be addressed to me, nor would I be expected to volunteer any + conversation. Supper would consist of bacon, Dutch oven bread, and + possibly beef; once I won the good graces of my companions at the outset + by appearing with two antelope which I had shot. After supper I would roll + up in my bedding as soon as possible, and the others would follow suit at + their pleasure. + </p> + <p> + At three in the morning or thereabouts, at a yell from the cook, all hands + would turn hurriedly out. Dressing was a simple affair. Then each man + rolled and corded his bedding—if he did not, the cook would leave it + behind and he would go without any for the rest of the trip—and came + to the fire, where he picked out a tin cup, tin plate, and knife and fork, + helped himself to coffee and to whatever food there was, and ate it + standing or squatting as best suited him. Dawn was probably breaking by + this time, and the trampling of unshod hoofs showed that the night + wrangler was bringing in the pony herd. Two of the men would then run + ropes from the wagon at right angles to one another, and into this as a + corral the horses would be driven. Each man might rope one of his own + horses, or more often point it out to the most skillful roper of the + outfit, who would rope it for him—for if the man was an unskillful + roper and roped the wrong horse or roped the horse in the wrong place + there was a chance of the whole herd stampeding. Each man then saddled and + bridled his horse. This was usually followed by some resolute bucking on + the part of two or three of the horses, especially in the early days of + each round-up. The bucking was always a source of amusement to all the men + whose horses did not buck, and these fortunate ones would gather round + giving ironical advice, and especially adjuring the rider not to "go to + leather"—that is, not to steady himself in the saddle by catching + hold of the saddle-horn. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the men had mounted, the whole outfit started on the long + circle, the morning circle. Usually the ranch foreman who bossed a given + wagon was put in charge of the men of one group by the round-up foreman; + he might keep his men together until they had gone some ten or fifteen + miles from camp, and then drop them in couples at different points. Each + couple made its way toward the wagon, gathering all the cattle it could + find. The morning's ride might last six or eight hours, and it was still + longer before some of the men got in. Singly and in twos and threes they + appeared from every quarter of the horizon, the dust rising from the hoofs + of the steers and bulls, the cows and calves, they had collected. Two or + three of the men were left to take care of the herd while the others + changed horses, ate a hasty dinner, and then came out to the afternoon + work. This consisted of each man in succession being sent into the herd, + usually with a companion, to cut out the cows of his brand or brands which + were followed by unbranded calves, and also to cut out any mavericks or + unbranded yearlings. We worked each animal gently out to the edge of the + herd, and then with a sudden dash took it off at a run. It was always + desperately anxious to break back and rejoin the herd. There was much + breakneck galloping and twisting and turning before its desire was + thwarted and it was driven to join the rest of the cut—that is, the + other animals which had been cut out, and which were being held by one or + two other men. Cattle hate being alone, and it was no easy matter to hold + the first one or two that were cut out; but soon they got a little herd of + their own, and then they were contented. When the cutting out had all been + done, the calves were branded, and all misadventures of the "calf + wrestlers," the men who seized, threw, and held each calf when roped by + the mounted roper, were hailed with yelling laughter. Then the animals + which for one reason or another it was desired to drive along with the + round-up were put into one herd and left in charge of a couple of night + guards, and the rest of us would loaf back to the wagon for supper and + bed. + </p> + <p> + By this time I would have been accepted as one of the rest of the outfit, + and all strangeness would have passed off, the attitude of my fellow + cow-punchers being one of friendly forgiveness even toward my spectacles. + Night guards for the cattle herd were then assigned by the captain of the + wagon, or perhaps by the round-up foreman, according to the needs of the + case, the guards standing for two hours at a time from eight in the + evening till four in the morning. The first and last watches were + preferable, because sleep was not broken as in both of the other two. If + things went well, the cattle would soon bed down and nothing further would + occur until morning, when there was a repetition of the work, the wagon + moving each day eight or ten miles to some appointed camping-place. + </p> + <p> + Each man would picket his night horse near the wagon, usually choosing the + quietest animal in his string for that purpose, because to saddle and + mount a "mean" horse at night is not pleasant. When utterly tired, it was + hard to have to get up for one's trick at night herd. Nevertheless, on + ordinary nights the two hours round the cattle in the still darkness were + pleasant. The loneliness, under the vast empty sky, and the silence, in + which the breathing of the cattle sounded loud, and the alert readiness to + meet any emergency which might suddenly arise out of the formless night, + all combined to give one a sense of subdued interest. Then, one soon got + to know the cattle of marked individuality, the ones that led the others + into mischief; and one also grew to recognize the traits they all + possessed in common, and the impulses which, for instance, made a whole + herd get up towards midnight, each beast turning round and then lying down + again. But by the end of the watch each rider had studied the cattle until + it grew monotonous, and heartily welcomed his relief guard. A newcomer, of + course, had any amount to learn, and sometimes the simplest things were + those which brought him to grief. + </p> + <p> + One night early in my career I failed satisfactorily to identify the + direction in which I was to go in order to reach the night herd. It was a + pitch-dark night. I managed to get started wrong, and I never found either + the herd or the wagon again until sunrise, when I was greeted with + withering scorn by the injured cow-puncher, who had been obliged to stand + double guard because I failed to relieve him. + </p> + <p> + There were other misadventures that I met with where the excuse was + greater. The punchers on night guard usually rode round the cattle in + reverse directions; calling and singing to them if the beasts seemed + restless, to keep them quiet. On rare occasions something happened that + made the cattle stampede, and then the duty of the riders was to keep with + them as long as possible and try gradually to get control of them. + </p> + <p> + One night there was a heavy storm, and all of us who were at the wagons + were obliged to turn out hastily to help the night herders. After a while + there was a terrific peal of thunder, the lightning struck right by the + herd, and away all the beasts went, heads and horns and tails in the air. + For a minute or two I could make out nothing except the dark forms of the + beasts running on every side of me, and I should have been very sorry if + my horse had stumbled, for those behind would have trodden me down. Then + the herd split, part going to one side, while the other part seemingly + kept straight ahead, and I galloped as hard as ever beside them. I was + trying to reach the point—the leading animals—in order to turn + them, when suddenly there was a tremendous splashing in front. I could + dimly make out that the cattle immediately ahead and to one side of me + were disappearing, and the next moment the horse and I went off a cut bank + into the Little Missouri. I bent away back in the saddle, and though the + horse almost went down he just recovered himself, and, plunging and + struggling through water and quicksand, we made the other side. Here I + discovered that there was another cowboy with the same part of the herd + that I was with; but almost immediately we separated. I galloped hard + through a bottom covered with big cottonwood trees, and stopped the part + of the herd that I was with, but very soon they broke on me again, and + repeated this twice. Finally toward morning the few I had left came to a + halt. + </p> + <p> + It had been raining hard for some time. I got off my horse and leaned + against a tree, but before long the infernal cattle started on again, and + I had to ride after them. Dawn came soon after this, and I was able to + make out where I was and head the cattle back, collecting other little + bunches as I went. After a while I came on a cowboy on foot carrying his + saddle on his head. He was my companion of the previous night. His horse + had gone full speed into a tree and killed itself, the man, however, not + being hurt. I could not help him, as I had all I could do to handle the + cattle. When I got them to the wagon, most of the other men had already + come in and the riders were just starting on the long circle. One of the + men changed my horse for me while I ate a hasty breakfast, and then we + were off for the day's work. + </p> + <p> + As only about half of the night herd had been brought back, the circle + riding was particularly heavy, and it was ten hours before we were back at + the wagon. We then changed horses again and worked the whole herd until + after sunset, finishing just as it grew too dark to do anything more. By + this time I had been nearly forty hours in the saddle, changing horses + five times, and my clothes had thoroughly dried on me, and I fell asleep + as soon as I touched the bedding. Fortunately some men who had gotten in + late in the morning had had their sleep during the daytime, so that the + rest of us escaped night guard and were not called until four next + morning. Nobody ever gets enough sleep on a round-up. + </p> + <p> + The above was the longest number of consecutive hours I ever had to be in + the saddle. But, as I have said, I changed horses five times, and it is a + great lightening of labor for a rider to have a fresh horse. Once when + with Sylvane Ferris I spent about sixteen hours on one horse, riding + seventy or eighty miles. The round-up had reached a place called the + ox-bow of the Little Missouri, and we had to ride there, do some work + around the cattle, and ride back. + </p> + <p> + Another time I was twenty-four hours on horseback in company with + Merrifield without changing horses. On this occasion we did not travel + fast. We had been coming back with the wagon from a hunting trip in the + Big Horn Mountains. The team was fagged out, and we were tired of walking + at a snail's pace beside it. When we reached country that the driver + thoroughly knew, we thought it safe to leave him, and we loped in one + night across a distance which it took the wagon the three following days + to cover. It was a beautiful moonlight night, and the ride was delightful. + All day long we had plodded at a walk, weary and hot. At supper time we + had rested two or three hours, and the tough little riding horses seemed + as fresh as ever. It was in September. As we rode out of the circle of the + firelight, the air was cool in our faces. Under the bright moonlight, and + then under the starlight, we loped and cantered mile after mile over the + high prairie. We passed bands of antelope and herds of long-horn Texas + cattle, and at last, just as the first red beams of the sun flamed over + the bluffs in front of us, we rode down into the valley of the Little + Missouri, where our ranch house stood. + </p> + <p> + I never became a good roper, nor more than an average rider, according to + ranch standards. Of course a man on a ranch has to ride a good many bad + horses, and is bound to encounter a certain number of accidents, and of + these I had my share, at one time cracking a rib, and on another occasion + the point of my shoulder. We were hundreds of miles from a doctor, and + each time, as I was on the round-up, I had to get through my work for the + next few weeks as best I could, until the injury healed of itself. When I + had the opportunity I broke my own horses, doing it gently and gradually + and spending much time over it, and choosing the horses that seemed gentle + to begin with. With these horses I never had any difficulty. But + frequently there was neither time nor opportunity to handle our mounts so + elaborately. We might get a band of horses, each having been bridled and + saddled two or three times, but none of them having been broken beyond the + extent implied in this bridling and saddling. Then each of us in + succession would choose a horse (for his string), I as owner of the ranch + being given the first choice on each round, so to speak. The first time I + was ever on a round-up Sylvane Ferris, Merrifield, Meyer, and I each chose + his string in this fashion. Three or four of the animals I got were not + easy to ride. The effort both to ride them and to look as if I enjoyed + doing so, on some cool morning when my grinning cowboy friends had + gathered round "to see whether the high-headed bay could buck the boss + off," doubtless was of benefit to me, but lacked much of being enjoyable. + The time I smashed my rib I was bucked off on a stone. The time I hurt the + point of my shoulder I was riding a big, sulky horse named Ben Butler, + which went over backwards with me. When we got up it still refused to go + anywhere; so, while I sat it, Sylvane Ferris and George Meyer got their + ropes on its neck and dragged it a few hundred yards, choking but + stubborn, all four feet firmly planted and plowing the ground. When they + released the ropes it lay down and wouldn't get up. The round-up had + started; so Sylvane gave me his horse, Baldy, which sometimes bucked but + never went over backwards, and he got on the now rearisen Ben Butler. To + my discomfiture Ben started quietly beside us, while Sylvane remarked, + "Why, there's nothing the matter with this horse; he's a plumb gentle + horse." Then Ben fell slightly behind and I heard Sylvane again, "That's + all right! Come along! Here, you! Go on, you! Hi, hi, fellows, help me + out! he's lying on me!" Sure enough, he was; and when we dragged Sylvane + from under him the first thing the rescued Sylvane did was to execute a + war-dance, spurs and all, on the iniquitous Ben. We could do nothing with + him that day; subsequently we got him so that we could ride him; but he + never became a nice saddle-horse. + </p> + <p> + As with all other forms of work, so on the round-up, a man of ordinary + power, who nevertheless does not shirk things merely because they are + disagreeable or irksome, soon earns his place. There were crack riders and + ropers who, just because they felt such overweening pride in their own + prowess, were not really very valuable men. Continually on the circles a + cow or a calf would get into some thick patch of bulberry bush and refuse + to come out; or when it was getting late we would pass some bad lands that + would probably not contain cattle, but might; or a steer would turn + fighting mad, or a calf grow tired and want to lie down. If in such a case + the man steadily persists in doing the unattractive thing, and after two + hours of exasperation and harassment does finally get the cow out, and + keep her out, of the bulberry bushes, and drives her to the wagon, or + finds some animals that have been passed by in the fourth or fifth patch + of bad lands he hunts through, or gets the calf up on his saddle and takes + it in anyhow, the foreman soon grows to treat him as having his uses and + as being an asset of worth in the round-up, even though neither a fancy + roper nor a fancy rider. + </p> + <p> + When at the Progressive Convention last August, I met George Meyer for the + first time in many years, and he recalled to me an incident on one + round-up where we happened to be thrown together while driving some cows + and calves to camp. When the camp was only just across the river, two of + the calves positively refused to go any further. He took one of them in + his arms, and after some hazardous maneuvering managed to get on his + horse, in spite of the objections of the latter, and rode into the river. + My calf was too big for such treatment, so in despair I roped it, + intending to drag it over. However, as soon as I roped it, the calf + started bouncing and bleating, and, owing to some lack of dexterity on my + part, suddenly swung round the rear of the horse, bringing the rope under + his tail. Down went the tail tight, and the horse "went into figures," as + the cow-puncher phrase of that day was. There was a cut bank about four + feet high on the hither side of the river, and over this the horse bucked. + We went into the water with a splash. With a "pluck" the calf followed, + described a parabola in the air, and landed beside us. Fortunately, this + took the rope out from under the horse's tail, but left him thoroughly + frightened. He could not do much bucking in the stream, for there were one + or two places where we had to swim, and the shallows were either sandy or + muddy; but across we went, at speed, and the calf made a wake like + Pharaoh's army in the Red Sea. + </p> + <p> + On several occasions we had to fight fire. In the geography books of my + youth prairie fires were always portrayed as taking place in long grass, + and all living things ran before them. On the Northern cattle plains the + grass was never long enough to be a source of danger to man or beast. The + fires were nothing like the forest fires in the Northern woods. But they + destroyed large quantities of feed, and we had to stop them where + possible. The process we usually followed was to kill a steer, split it in + two lengthwise, and then have two riders drag each half-steer, the rope of + one running from his saddle-horn to the front leg, and that of the other + to the hind leg. One of the men would spur his horse over or through the + line of fire, and the two would then ride forward, dragging the steer + bloody side downward along the line of flame, men following on foot with + slickers or wet horse-blankets, to beat out any flickering blaze that was + still left. It was exciting work, for the fire and the twitching and + plucking of the ox carcass over the uneven ground maddened the fierce + little horses so that it was necessary to do some riding in order to keep + them to their work. After a while it also became very exhausting, the + thirst and fatigue being great, as, with parched lips and blackened from + head to foot, we toiled at our task. + </p> + <p> + In those years the Stockman's Association of Montana was a powerful body. + I was the delegate to it from the Little Missouri. The meetings that I + attended were held in Miles City, at that time a typical cow town. + Stockmen of all kinds attended, including the biggest men in the stock + business, men like old Conrad Kohrs, who was and is the finest type of + pioneer in all the Rocky Mountain country; and Granville Stewart, who was + afterwards appointed Minister by Cleveland, I think to the Argentine; and + "Hashknife" Simpson, a Texan who had brought his cattle, the Hashknife + brand, up the trail into our country. He and I grew to be great friends. I + can see him now the first time we met, grinning at me as, none too + comfortable, I sat a half-broken horse at the edge of a cattle herd we + were working. His son Sloan Simpson went to Harvard, was one of the + first-class men in my regiment, and afterwards held my commission as + Postmaster at Dallas. + </p> + <p> + At the stockmen's meeting in Miles City, in addition to the big stockmen, + there were always hundreds of cowboys galloping up and down the wide dusty + streets at every hour of the day and night. It was a picturesque sight + during the three days the meetings lasted. There was always at least one + big dance at the hotel. There were few dress suits, but there was perfect + decorum at the dance, and in the square dances most of the men knew the + figures far better than I did. With such a crowd in town, sleeping + accommodations of any sort were at a premium, and in the hotel there were + two men in every bed. On one occasion I had a roommate whom I never saw, + because he always went to bed much later than I did and I always got up + much earlier than he did. On the last day, however, he rose at the same + time and I saw that he was a man I knew named Carter, and nicknamed + "Modesty" Carter. He was a stalwart, good-looking fellow, and I was sorry + when later I heard that he had been killed in a shooting row. + </p> + <p> + When I went West, the last great Indian wars had just come to an end, but + there were still sporadic outbreaks here and there, and occasionally bands + of marauding young braves were a menace to outlying and lonely + settlements. Many of the white men were themselves lawless and brutal, and + prone to commit outrages on the Indians. Unfortunately, each race tended + to hold all the members of the other race responsible for the misdeeds of + a few, so that the crime of the miscreant, red or white, who committed the + original outrage too often invited retaliation upon entirely innocent + people, and this action would in its turn arouse bitter feeling which + found vent in still more indiscriminate retaliation. The first year I was + on the Little Missouri some Sioux bucks ran off all the horses of a + buffalo-hunter's outfit. One of the buffalo-hunters tried to get even by + stealing the horses of a Cheyenne hunting party, and when pursued made for + a cow camp, with, as a result, a long-range skirmish between the cowboys + and the Cheyennes. One of the latter was wounded; but this particular + wounded man seemed to have more sense than the other participants in the + chain of wrong-doing, and discriminated among the whites. He came into our + camp and had his wound dressed. + </p> + <p> + A year later I was at a desolate little mud road ranch on the Deadwood + trail. It was kept by a very capable and very forceful woman, with sound + ideas of justice and abundantly well able to hold her own. Her husband was + a worthless devil, who finally got drunk on some whisky he obtained from + an outfit of Missouri bull-whackers—that is, freighters, driving ox + wagons. Under the stimulus of the whisky he picked a quarrel with his wife + and attempted to beat her. She knocked him down with a stove-lid lifter, + and the admiring bull-whackers bore him off, leaving the lady in full + possession of the ranch. When I visited her she had a man named Crow Joe + working for her, a slab-sided, shifty-eyed person who later, as I heard my + foreman explain, "skipped the country with a bunch of horses." The + mistress of the ranch made first-class buckskin shirts of great + durability. The one she made for me, and which I used for years, was used + by one of my sons in Arizona a couple of winters ago. I had ridden down + into the country after some lost horses, and visited the ranch to get her + to make me the buckskin shirt in question. There were, at the moment, + three Indians there, Sioux, well behaved and self-respecting, and she + explained to me that they had been resting there waiting for dinner, and + that a white man had come along and tried to run off their horses. The + Indians were on the lookout, however, and, running out, they caught the + man; but, after retaking their horses and depriving him of his gun, they + let him go. "I don't see why they let him go," exclaimed my hostess. "I + don't believe in stealing Indians' horses any more than white folks'; so I + told 'em they could go along and hang him—I'd never cheep. Anyhow, I + won't charge them anything for their dinner," concluded my hostess. She + was in advance of the usual morality of the time and place, which drew a + sharp line between stealing citizens' horses and stealing horses from the + Government or the Indians. + </p> + <p> + A fairly decent citizen, Jap Hunt, who long ago met a violent death, + exemplified this attitude towards Indians in some remarks I once heard him + make. He had started a horse ranch, and had quite honestly purchased a + number of broken-down horses of different brands, with the view of + doctoring them and selling them again. About this time there had been much + horse-stealing and cattle-killing in our Territory and in Montana, and + under the direction of some of the big cattle-growers a committee of + vigilantes had been organized to take action against the rustlers, as the + horse thieves and cattle thieves were called. The vigilantes, or + stranglers, as they were locally known, did their work thoroughly; but, as + always happens with bodies of the kind, toward the end they grew reckless + in their actions, paid off private grudges, and hung men on slight + provocation. Riding into Jap Hunt's ranch, they nearly hung him because he + had so many horses of different brands. He was finally let off. He was + much upset by the incident, and explained again and again, "The idea of + saying that I was a horse thief! Why, I never stole a horse in my life—leastways + from a white man. I don't count Indians nor the Government, of course." + Jap had been reared among men still in the stage of tribal morality, and + while they recognized their obligations to one another, both the + Government and the Indians seemed alien bodies, in regard to which the + laws of morality did not apply. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, parties of savage young bucks would treat lonely + settlers just as badly, and in addition sometimes murder them. Such a + party was generally composed of young fellows burning to distinguish + themselves. Some one of their number would have obtained a pass from the + Indian Agent allowing him to travel off the reservation, which pass would + be flourished whenever their action was questioned by bodies of whites of + equal strength. I once had a trifling encounter with such a band. I was + making my way along the edge of the bad lands, northward from my lower + ranch, and was just crossing a plateau when five Indians rode up over the + further rim. The instant they saw me they whipped out their guns and raced + full speed at me, yelling and flogging their horses. I was on a favorite + horse, Manitou, who was a wise old fellow, with nerves not to be shaken by + anything. I at once leaped off him and stood with my rifle ready. + </p> + <p> + It was possible that the Indians were merely making a bluff and intended + no mischief. But I did not like their actions, and I thought it likely + that if I allowed them to get hold of me they would at least take my horse + and rifle, and possibly kill me. So I waited until they were a hundred + yards off and then drew a bead on the first. Indians—and, for the + matter of that, white men—do not like to ride in on a man who is + cool and means shooting, and in a twinkling every man was lying over the + side of his horse, and all five had turned and were galloping backwards, + having altered their course as quickly as so many teal ducks. + </p> + <p> + After this one of them made the peace sign, with his blanket first, and + then, as he rode toward me, with his open hand. I halted him at a fair + distance and asked him what he wanted. He exclaimed, "How! Me good Injun, + me good Injun," and tried to show me the dirty piece of paper on which his + agency pass was written. I told him with sincerity that I was glad that he + was a good Indian, but that he must not come any closer. He then asked for + sugar and tobacco. I told him I had none. Another Indian began slowly + drifting toward me in spite of my calling out to keep back, so I once more + aimed with my rifle, whereupon both Indians slipped to the other side of + their horses and galloped off, with oaths that did credit to at least one + side of their acquaintance with English. I now mounted and pushed over the + plateau on to the open prairie. In those days an Indian, although not as + good a shot as a white man, was infinitely better at crawling under and + taking advantage of cover; and the worst thing a white man could do was to + get into cover, whereas out in the open if he kept his head he had a good + chance of standing off even half a dozen assailants. The Indians + accompanied me for a couple of miles. Then I reached the open prairie, and + resumed my northward ride, not being further molested. + </p> + <p> + In the old days in the ranch country we depended upon game for fresh meat. + Nobody liked to kill a beef, and although now and then a maverick yearling + might be killed on the round-up, most of us looked askance at the deed, + because if the practice of beef-killing was ever allowed to start, the + rustlers—the horse thieves and cattle thieves—would be sure to + seize on it as an excuse for general slaughter. Getting meat for the ranch + usually devolved upon me. I almost always carried a rifle when I rode, + either in a scabbard under my thigh, or across the pommel. Often I would + pick up a deer or antelope while about my regular work, when visiting a + line camp or riding after the cattle. At other times I would make a day's + trip after them. In the fall we sometimes took a wagon and made a week's + hunt, returning with eight or ten deer carcasses, and perhaps an elk or a + mountain sheep as well. I never became more than a fair hunter, and at + times I had most exasperating experiences, either failing to see game + which I ought to have seen, or committing some blunder in the stalk, or + failing to kill when I fired. Looking back, I am inclined to say that if I + had any good quality as a hunter it was that of perseverance. "It is + dogged that does it" in hunting as in many other things. Unless in wholly + exceptional cases, when we were very hungry, I never killed anything but + bucks. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally I made long trips away from the ranch and among the Rocky + Mountains with my ranch foreman Merrifield; or in later years with + Tazewell Woody, John Willis, or John Goff. We hunted bears, both the black + and the grizzly, cougars and wolves, and moose, wapiti, and white goat. On + one of these trips I killed a bison bull, and I also killed a bison bull + on the Little Missouri some fifty miles south of my ranch on a trip which + Joe Ferris and I took together. It was rather a rough trip. Each of us + carried only his slicker behind him on the saddle, with some flour and + bacon done up in it. We met with all kinds of misadventures. Finally one + night, when we were sleeping by a slimy little prairie pool where there + was not a stick of wood, we had to tie the horses to the horns of our + saddles; and then we went to sleep with our heads on the saddles. In the + middle of the night something stampeded the horses, and away they went, + with the saddles after them. As we jumped to our feet Joe eyed me with an + evident suspicion that I was the Jonah of the party, and said: "O Lord! + I've never done anything to deserve this. Did you ever do anything to + deserve this?" + </p> + <p> + In addition to my private duties, I sometimes served as deputy sheriff for + the northern end of our county. The sheriff and I crisscrossed in our + public and private relations. He often worked for me as a hired hand at + the same time that I was his deputy. His name, or at least the name he + went by, was Bill Jones, and as there were in the neighborhood several + Bill Joneses—Three Seven Bill Jones, Texas Bill Jones, and the like—the + sheriff was known as Hell Roaring Bill Jones. He was a thorough + frontiersman, excellent in all kinds of emergencies, and a very game man. + I became much attached to him. He was a thoroughly good citizen when + sober, but he was a little wild when drunk. Unfortunately, toward the end + of his life he got to drinking very heavily. When, in 1905, John Burroughs + and I visited the Yellowstone Park, poor Bill Jones, very much down in the + world, was driving a team in Gardiner outside the park. I had looked + forward to seeing him, and he was equally anxious to see me. He kept + telling his cronies of our intimacy and of what we were going to do + together, and then got drinking; and the result was that by the time I + reached Gardiner he had to be carried out and left in the sage-brush. When + I came out of the park, I sent on in advance to tell them to be sure to + keep him sober, and they did so. But it was a rather sad interview. The + old fellow had gone to pieces, and soon after I left he got lost in a + blizzard and was dead when they found him. + </p> + <p> + Bill Jones was a gun-fighter and also a good man with his fists. On one + occasion there was an election in town. There had been many threats that + the party of disorder would import section hands from the neighboring + railway stations to down our side. I did not reach Medora, the forlorn + little cattle town which was our county seat, until the election was well + under way. I then asked one of my friends if there had been any disorder. + Bill Jones was standing by. "Disorder hell!" said my friend. "Bill Jones + just stood there with one hand on his gun and the other pointing over + toward the new jail whenever any man who didn't have a right to vote came + near the polls. There was only one of them tried to vote, and Bill knocked + him down. Lord!" added my friend, meditatively, "the way that man fell!" + "Well," struck in Bill Jones, "if he hadn't fell I'd have walked round + behind him to see what was propping him up!" + </p> + <p> + In the days when I lived on the ranch I usually spent most of the winter + in the East, and when I returned in the early spring I was always + interested in finding out what had happened since my departure. On one + occasion I was met by Bill Jones and Sylvane Ferris, and in the course of + our conversation they mentioned "the lunatic." This led to a question on + my part, and Sylvane Ferris began the story: "Well, you see, he was on a + train and he shot the newsboy. At first they weren't going to do anything + to him, for they thought he just had it in for the newsboy. But then + somebody said, 'Why, he's plumb crazy, and he's liable to shoot any of + us!' and then they threw him off the train. It was here at Medora, and + they asked if anybody would take care of him, and Bill Jones said he + would, because he was the sheriff and the jail had two rooms, and he was + living in one and would put the lunatic in the other." Here Bill Jones + interrupted: "Yes, and more fool me! I wouldn't take charge of another + lunatic if the whole county asked me. Why" (with the air of a man + announcing an astounding discovery), "that lunatic didn't have his right + senses! He wouldn't eat, till me and Snyder got him down on the shavings + and made him eat." Snyder was a huge, happy-go-lucky, kind-hearted + Pennsylvania Dutchman, and was Bill Jones's chief deputy. Bill continued: + "You know, Snyder's soft-hearted, he is. Well, he'd think that lunatic + looked peaked, and he'd take him out for an airing. Then the boys would + get joshing him as to how much start he could give him over the prairie + and catch him again." Apparently the amount of the start given the lunatic + depended upon the amount of the bet to which the joshing led up. I asked + Bill what he would have done if Snyder hadn't caught the lunatic. This was + evidently a new idea, and he responded that Snyder always did catch him. + "Well, but suppose he hadn't caught him?" "Well," said Bill Jones, "if + Snyder hadn't caught the lunatic, I'd have whaled hell out of Snyder!" + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances Snyder ran his best and always did catch the + patient. It must not be gathered from this that the lunatic was badly + treated. He was well treated. He become greatly attached to both Bill + Jones and Snyder, and he objected strongly when, after the frontier theory + of treatment of the insane had received a full trial, he was finally sent + off to the territorial capital. It was merely that all the relations of + life in that place and day were so managed as to give ample opportunity + for the expression of individuality, whether in sheriff or ranchman. The + local practical joker once attempted to have some fun at the expense of + the lunatic, and Bill Jones described the result. "You know Bixby, don't + you? Well," with deep disapproval, "Bixby thinks he is funny, he does. + He'd come and he'd wake that lunatic up at night, and I'd have to get up + and soothe him. I fixed Bixby all right, though. I fastened a rope on the + latch, and next time Bixby came I let the lunatic out on him. He 'most bit + Bixby's nose off. I learned Bixby!" + </p> + <p> + Bill Jones had been unconventional in other relations besides that of + sheriff. He once casually mentioned to me that he had served on the police + force of Bismarck, but he had left because he "beat the Mayor over the + head with his gun one day." He added: "The Mayor, he didn't mind it, but + the Superintendent of Police said he guessed I'd better resign." His + feeling, obviously, was that the Superintendent of Police was a martinet, + unfit to take large views of life. + </p> + <p> + It was while with Bill Jones that I first made acquaintance with Seth + Bullock. Seth was at that time sheriff in the Black Hills district, and a + man he had wanted—a horse thief—I finally got, I being at the + time deputy sheriff two or three hundred miles to the north. The man went + by a nickname which I will call "Crazy Steve"; a year or two afterwards I + received a letter asking about him from his uncle, a thoroughly + respectable man in a Western State; and later this uncle and I met at + Washington when I was President and he a United States Senator. It was + some time after "Steve's" capture that I went down to Deadwood on + business, Sylvane Ferris and I on horseback, while Bill Jones drove the + wagon. At a little town, Spearfish, I think, after crossing the last + eighty or ninety miles of gumbo prairies, we met Seth Bullock. We had had + rather a rough trip, and had lain out for a fortnight, so I suppose we + looked somewhat unkempt. Seth received us with rather distant courtesy at + first, but unbent when he found out who we were, remarking, "You see, by + your looks I thought you were some kind of a tin-horn gambling outfit, and + that I might have to keep an eye on you!" He then inquired after the + capture of "Steve"—with a little of the air of one sportsman when + another has shot a quail that either might have claimed—"My bird, I + believe?" Later Seth Bullock became, and has ever since remained, one of + my stanchest and most valued friends. He served as Marshal for South + Dakota under me as President. When, after the close of my term, I went to + Africa, on getting back to Europe I cabled Seth Bullock to bring over Mrs. + Bullock and meet me in London, which he did; by that time I felt that I + just had to meet my own people, who spoke my neighborhood dialect. + </p> + <p> + When serving as deputy sheriff I was impressed with the advantage the + officer of the law has over ordinary wrong-doers, provided he thoroughly + knows his own mind. There are exceptional outlaws, men with a price on + their heads and of remarkable prowess, who are utterly indifferent to + taking life, and whose warfare against society is as open as that of a + savage on the war-path. The law officer has no advantage whatever over + these men save what his own prowess may—or may not—give him. + Such a man was Billy the Kid, the notorious man-killer and desperado of + New Mexico, who was himself finally slain by a friend of mine, Pat + Garrett, whom, when I was President, I made collector of customs at El + Paso. But the ordinary criminal, even when murderously inclined, feels + just a moment's hesitation as to whether he cares to kill an officer of + the law engaged in his duty. I took in more than one man who was probably + a better man than I was with both rifle and revolver; but in each case I + knew just what I wanted to do, and, like David Harum, I "did it first," + whereas the fraction of a second that the other man hesitated put him in a + position where it was useless for him to resist. + </p> + <p> + I owe more than I can ever express to the West, which of course means to + the men and women I met in the West. There were a few people of bad type + in my neighborhood—that would be true of every group of men, even in + a theological seminary—but I could not speak with too great + affection and respect of the great majority of my friends, the + hard-working men and women who dwelt for a space of perhaps a hundred and + fifty miles along the Little Missouri. I was always as welcome at their + houses as they were at mine. Everybody worked, everybody was willing to + help everybody else, and yet nobody asked any favors. The same thing was + true of the people whom I got to know fifty miles east and fifty miles + west of my own range, and of the men I met on the round-ups. They soon + accepted me as a friend and fellow-worker who stood on an equal footing + with them, and I believe the most of them have kept their feeling for me + ever since. No guests were ever more welcome at the White House than these + old friends of the cattle ranches and the cow camps—the men with + whom I had ridden the long circle and eaten at the tail-board of a + chuck-wagon—whenever they turned up at Washington during my + Presidency. I remember one of them who appeared at Washington one day just + before lunch, a huge, powerful man who, when I knew him, had been + distinctly a fighting character. It happened that on that day another old + friend, the British Ambassador, Mr. Bryce, was among those coming to + lunch. Just before we went in I turned to my cow-puncher friend and said + to him with great solemnity, "Remember, Jim, that if you shot at the feet + of the British Ambassador to make him dance, it would be likely to cause + international complications"; to which Jim responded with unaffected + horror, "Why, Colonel, I shouldn't think of it, I shouldn't think of it!" + </p> + <p> + Not only did the men and women whom I met in the cow country quite + unconsciously help me, by the insight which working and living with them + enabled me to get into the mind and soul of the average American of the + right type, but they helped me in another way. I made up my mind that the + men were of just the kind whom it would be well to have with me if ever it + became necessary to go to war. When the Spanish War came, I gave this + thought practical realization. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately, Wister and Remington, with pen and pencil, have made these + men live as long as our literature lives. I have sometimes been asked if + Wister's "Virginian" is not overdrawn; why, one of the men I have + mentioned in this chapter was in all essentials the Virginian in real + life, not only in his force but in his charm. Half of the men I worked + with or played with and half of the men who soldiered with me afterwards + in my regiment might have walked out of Wister's stories or Remington's + pictures. + </p> + <p> + There were bad characters in the Western country at that time, of course, + and under the conditions of life they were probably more dangerous than + they would have been elsewhere. I hardly ever had any difficulty, however. + I never went into a saloon, and in the little hotels I kept out of the + bar-room unless, as sometimes happened, the bar-room was the only room on + the lower floor except the dining-room. I always endeavored to keep out of + a quarrel until self-respect forbade my making any further effort to avoid + it, and I very rarely had even the semblance of trouble. + </p> + <p> + Of course amusing incidents occurred now and then. Usually these took + place when I was hunting lost horses, for in hunting lost horses I was + ordinarily alone, and occasionally had to travel a hundred or a hundred + and fifty miles away from my own country. On one such occasion I reached a + little cow town long after dark, stabled my horse in an empty outbuilding, + and when I reached the hotel was informed in response to my request for a + bed that I could have the last one left, as there was only one other man + in it. The room to which I was shown contained two double beds; one + contained two men fast asleep, and the other only one man, also asleep. + This man proved to be a friend, one of the Bill Joneses whom I have + previously mentioned. I undressed according to the fashion of the day and + place, that is, I put my trousers, boots, shaps, and gun down beside the + bed, and turned in. A couple of hours later I was awakened by the door + being thrown open and a lantern flashed in my face, the light gleaming on + the muzzle of a cocked .45. Another man said to the lantern-bearer, "It + ain't him"; the next moment my bedfellow was covered with two guns, and + addressed, "Now, Bill, don't make a fuss, but come along quiet." "I'm not + thinking of making a fuss," said Bill. "That's right," was the answer; + "we're your friends; we don't want to hurt you; we just want you to come + along, you know why." And Bill pulled on his trousers and boots and walked + out with them. Up to this time there had not been a sound from the other + bed. Now a match was scratched, a candle lit, and one of the men in the + other bed looked round the room. At this point I committed the breach of + etiquette of asking questions. "I wonder why they took Bill," I said. + There was no answer, and I repeated, "I wonder why they took Bill." + "Well," said the man with the candle, dryly, "I reckon they wanted him," + and with that he blew out the candle and conversation ceased. Later I + discovered that Bill in a fit of playfulness had held up the Northern + Pacific train at a near-by station by shooting at the feet of the + conductor to make him dance. This was purely a joke on Bill's part, but + the Northern Pacific people possessed a less robust sense of humor, and on + their complaint the United States Marshal was sent after Bill, on the + ground that by delaying the train he had interfered with the mails. + </p> + <p> + The only time I ever had serious trouble was at an even more primitive + little hotel than the one in question. It was also on an occasion when I + was out after lost horses. Below the hotel had merely a bar-room, a + dining-room, and a lean-to kitchen; above was a loft with fifteen or + twenty beds in it. It was late in the evening when I reached the place. I + heard one or two shots in the bar-room as I came up, and I disliked going + in. But there was nowhere else to go, and it was a cold night. Inside the + room were several men, who, including the bartender, were wearing the kind + of smile worn by men who are making believe to like what they don't like. + A shabby individual in a broad hat with a cocked gun in each hand was + walking up and down the floor talking with strident profanity. He had + evidently been shooting at the clock, which had two or three holes in its + face. + </p> + <p> + He was not a "bad man" of the really dangerous type, the true man-killer + type, but he was an objectionable creature, a would-be bad man, a bully + who for the moment was having things all his own way. As soon as he saw me + he hailed me as "Four eyes," in reference to my spectacles, and said, + "Four eyes is going to treat." I joined in the laugh and got behind the + stove and sat down, thinking to escape notice. He followed me, however, + and though I tried to pass it off as a jest this merely made him more + offensive, and he stood leaning over me, a gun in each hand, using very + foul language. He was foolish to stand so near, and, moreover, his heels + were close together, so that his position was unstable. Accordingly, in + response to his reiterated command that I should set up the drinks, I + said, "Well, if I've got to, I've got to," and rose, looking past him. + </p> + <p> + As I rose, I struck quick and hard with my right just to one side of the + point of his jaw, hitting with my left as I straightened out, and then + again with my right. He fired the guns, but I do not know whether this was + merely a convulsive action of his hands or whether he was trying to shoot + at me. When he went down he struck the corner of the bar with his head. It + was not a case in which one could afford to take chances, and if he had + moved I was about to drop on his ribs with my knees; but he was senseless. + I took away his guns, and the other people in the room, who were now loud + in their denunciation of him, hustled him out and put him in a shed. I got + dinner as soon as possible, sitting in a corner of the dining-room away + from the windows, and then went upstairs to bed where it was dark so that + there would be no chance of any one shooting at me from the outside. + However, nothing happened. When my assailant came to, he went down to the + station and left on a freight. + </p> + <p> + As I have said, most of the men of my regiment were just such men as those + I knew in the ranch country; indeed, some of my ranch friends were in the + regiment—Fred Herrig, the forest ranger, for instance, in whose + company I shot my biggest mountain ram. After the regiment was disbanded + the careers of certain of the men were diversified by odd incidents. Our + relations were of the friendliest, and, as they explained, they felt "as + if I was a father" to them. The manifestations of this feeling were + sometimes less attractive than the phrase sounded, as it was chiefly used + by the few who were behaving like very bad children indeed. The great + majority of the men when the regiment disbanded took up the business of + their lives where they had dropped it a few months previously, and these + men merely tried to help me or help one another as the occasion arose; no + man ever had more cause to be proud of his regiment than I had of mine, + both in war and in peace. But there was a minority among them who in + certain ways were unsuited for a life of peaceful regularity, although + often enough they had been first-class soldiers. + </p> + <p> + It was from these men that letters came with a stereotyped opening which + always caused my heart to sink—"Dear Colonel: I write you because I + am in trouble." The trouble might take almost any form. One correspondent + continued: "I did not take the horse, but they say I did." Another + complained that his mother-in-law had put him in jail for bigamy. In the + case of another the incident was more markworthy. I will call him Gritto. + He wrote me a letter beginning: "Dear Colonel: I write you because I am in + trouble. I have shot a lady in the eye. But, Colonel, I was not shooting + at the lady. I was shooting at my wife," which he apparently regarded as a + sufficient excuse as between men of the world. I answered that I drew the + line at shooting at ladies, and did not hear any more of the incident for + several years. + </p> + <p> + Then, while I was President, a member of the regiment, Major Llewellyn, + who was Federal District Attorney under me in New Mexico, wrote me a + letter filled, as his letters usually were, with bits of interesting + gossip about the comrades. It ran in part as follows: "Since I last wrote + you Comrade Ritchie has killed a man in Colorado. I understand that the + comrade was playing a poker game, and the man sat into the game and used + such language that Comrade Ritchie had to shoot. Comrade Webb has killed + two men in Beaver, Arizona. Comrade Webb is in the Forest Service, and the + killing was in the line of professional duty. I was out at the + penitentiary the other day and saw Comrade Gritto, who, you may remember, + was put there for shooting his sister-in-law [this was the first + information I had had as to the identity of the lady who was shot in the + eye]. Since he was in there Comrade Boyne has run off to old Mexico with + his (Gritto's) wife, and the people of Grant County think he ought to be + let out." Evidently the sporting instincts of the people of Grant County + had been roused, and they felt that, as Comrade Boyne had had a fair + start, the other comrade should be let out in order to see what would + happen. + </p> + <p> + The men of the regiment always enthusiastically helped me when I was + running for office. On one occasion Buck Taylor, of Texas, accompanied me + on a trip and made a speech for me. The crowd took to his speech from the + beginning and so did I, until the peroration, which ran as follows: "My + fellow-citizens, vote for my Colonel! vote for my Colonel! <i>and he will + lead you, as he led us, like sheep to the slaughter</i>!" This hardly + seemed a tribute to my military skill; but it delighted the crowd, and as + far as I could tell did me nothing but good. + </p> + <p> + On another tour, when I was running for Vice-President, a member of the + regiment who was along on the train got into a discussion with a Populist + editor who had expressed an unfavorable estimate of my character, and in + the course of the discussion shot the editor—not fatally. We had to + leave him to be tried, and as he had no money I left him $150 to hire + counsel—having borrowed the money from Senator Wolcott, of Colorado, + who was also with me. After election I received from my friend a letter + running: "Dear Colonel: I find I will not have to use that $150 you lent + me, as we have elected our candidate for District Attorney. So I have used + it to settle a horse transaction in which I unfortunately became + involved." A few weeks later, however, I received a heartbroken letter + setting forth the fact that the District Attorney—whom he evidently + felt to be a cold-blooded formalist—had put him in jail. Then the + affair dropped out of sight until two or three years later, when as + President I visited a town in another State, and the leaders of the + delegation which received me included both my correspondent and the + editor, now fast friends, and both of them ardent supporters of mine. + </p> + <p> + At one of the regimental reunions a man, who had been an excellent + soldier, in greeting me mentioned how glad he was that the judge had let + him out in time to get to the reunion. I asked what was the matter, and he + replied with some surprise: "Why, Colonel, don't you know I had a + difficulty with a gentleman, and . . . er . . . well, I killed the + gentleman. But you can see that the judge thought it was all right or he + wouldn't have let me go." Waiving the latter point, I said: "How did it + happen? How did you do it?" Misinterpreting my question as showing an + interest only in the technique of the performance, the ex-puncher replied: + "With a .38 on a .45 frame, Colonel." I chuckled over the answer, and it + became proverbial with my family and some of my friends, including Seth + Bullock. When I was shot at Milwaukee, Seth Bullock wired an inquiry to + which I responded that it was all right, that the weapon was merely "a .38 + on a .45 frame." The telegram in some way became public, and puzzled + outsiders. By the way, both the men of my regiment and the friends I had + made in the old days in the West were themselves a little puzzled at the + interest shown in my making my speech after being shot. This was what they + expected, what they accepted as the right thing for a man to do under the + circumstances, a thing the non-performance of which would have been + discreditable rather than the performance being creditable. They would not + have expected a man to leave a battle, for instance, because of being + wounded in such fashion; and they saw no reason why he should abandon a + less important and less risky duty. + </p> + <p> + One of the best soldiers of my regiment was a huge man whom I made marshal + of a Rocky Mountain State. He had spent his hot and lusty youth on the + frontier during its viking age, and at that time had naturally taken part + in incidents which seemed queer to men "accustomed to die decently of + zymotic diseases." I told him that an effort would doubtless be made to + prevent his confirmation by the Senate, and therefore that I wanted to + know all the facts in his case. Had he played faro? He had; but it was + when everybody played faro, and he had never played a brace game. Had he + killed anybody? Yes, but it was in Dodge City on occasions when he was + deputy marshal or town marshal, at a time when Dodge City, now the most + peaceful of communities, was the toughest town on the continent, and + crowded with man-killing outlaws and road agents; and he produced + telegrams from judges of high character testifying to the need of the + actions he had taken. Finally I said: "Now, Ben, how did you lose that + half of your ear?" To which, looking rather shy, he responded: "Well, + Colonel, it was bit off." "How did it happen, Ben?" "Well, you see, I was + sent to arrest a gentleman, and him and me mixed it up, and he bit off my + ear." "What did you do to the gentleman, Ben?" And Ben, looking more coy + than ever, responded: "Well, Colonel, we broke about even!" I forebore to + inquire what variety of mayhem he had committed on the "gentleman." After + considerable struggle I got him confirmed by the Senate, and he made one + of the best marshals in the entire service, exactly as he had already made + one of the best soldiers in the regiment; and I never wish to see a better + citizen, nor a man in whom I would more implicitly trust in every way. + </p> + <p> + When, in 1900, I was nominated for Vice-President, I was sent by the + National Committee on a trip into the States of the high plains and the + Rocky Mountains. These had all gone overwhelmingly for Mr. Bryan on the + free-silver issue four years previously, and it was thought that I, + because of my knowledge of and acquaintanceship with the people, might + accomplish something towards bringing them back into line. It was an + interesting trip, and the monotony usually attendant upon such a campaign + of political speaking was diversified in vivid fashion by occasional + hostile audiences. One or two of the meetings ended in riots. One meeting + was finally broken up by a mob; everybody fought so that the speaking had + to stop. Soon after this we reached another town where we were told there + might be trouble. Here the local committee included an old and valued + friend, a "two-gun" man of repute, who was not in the least quarrelsome, + but who always kept his word. We marched round to the local opera-house, + which was packed with a mass of men, many of them rather rough-looking. My + friend the two-gun man sat immediately behind me, a gun on each hip, his + arms folded, looking at the audience; fixing his gaze with instant + intentness on any section of the house from which there came so much as a + whisper. The audience listened to me with rapt attention. At the end, with + a pride in my rhetorical powers which proceeded from a misunderstanding of + the situation, I remarked to the chairman: "I held that audience well; + there wasn't an interruption." To which the chairman replied: + "Interruption? Well, I guess not! Seth had sent round word that if any son + of a gun peeped he'd kill him!" + </p> + <p> + There was one bit of frontier philosophy which I should like to see + imitated in more advanced communities. Certain crimes of revolting + baseness and cruelty were never forgiven. But in the case of ordinary + offenses, the man who had served his term and who then tried to make good + was given a fair chance; and of course this was equally true of the women. + Every one who has studied the subject at all is only too well aware that + the world offsets the readiness with which it condones a crime for which a + man escapes punishment, by its unforgiving relentlessness to the often far + less guilty man who <i>is</i> punished, and who therefore has made his + atonement. On the frontier, if the man honestly tried to behave himself + there was generally a disposition to give him fair play and a decent show. + Several of the men I knew and whom I particularly liked came in this + class. There was one such man in my regiment, a man who had served a term + for robbery under arms, and who had atoned for it by many years of fine + performance of duty. I put him in a high official position, and no man + under me rendered better service to the State, nor was there any man whom, + as soldier, as civil officer, as citizen, and as friend, I valued and + respected—and now value and respect—more. + </p> + <p> + Now I suppose some good people will gather from this that I favor men who + commit crimes. I certainly do not favor them. I have not a particle of + sympathy with the sentimentality—as I deem it, the mawkishness—which + overflows with foolish pity for the criminal and cares not at all for the + victim of the criminal. I am glad to see wrong-doers punished. The + punishment is an absolute necessity from the standpoint of society; and I + put the reformation of the criminal second to the welfare of society. But + I do desire to see the man or woman who has paid the penalty and who + wishes to reform given a helping hand—surely every one of us who + knows his own heart must know that he too may stumble, and should be + anxious to help his brother or sister who has stumbled. When the criminal + has been punished, if he then shows a sincere desire to lead a decent and + upright life, he should be given the chance, he should be helped and not + hindered; and if he makes good, he should receive that respect from others + which so often aids in creating self-respect—the most invaluable of + all possessions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <h3> + APPLIED IDEALISM + </h3> + <p> + In the spring of 1899 I was appointed by President Harrison Civil Service + Commissioner. For nearly five years I had not been very active in + political life; although I had done some routine work in the organization + and had made campaign speeches, and in 1886 had run for Mayor of New York + against Abram S. Hewitt, Democrat, and Henry George, Independent, and had + been defeated. + </p> + <p> + I served six years as Civil Service Commissioner—four years under + President Harrison and then two years under President Cleveland. I was + treated by both Presidents with the utmost consideration. Among my + fellow-Commissioners there was at one time ex-Governor Hugh Thompson, of + South Carolina, and at another time John R. Proctor, of Kentucky. They + were Democrats and ex-Confederate soldiers. I became deeply attached to + both, and we stood shoulder to shoulder in every contest in which the + Commission was forced to take part. + </p> + <p> + Civil Service Reform had two sides. There was, first, the effort to secure + a more efficient administration of the public service, and, second, the + even more important effort to withdraw the administrative offices of the + Government from the domain of spoils politics, and thereby cut out of + American political life a fruitful source of corruption and degradation. + The spoils theory of politics is that public office is so much plunder + which the victorious political party is entitled to appropriate to the use + of its adherents. Under this system the work of the Government was often + done well even in those days, when Civil Service Reform was only an + experiment, because the man running an office if himself an able and + far-sighted man, knew that inefficiency in administration would be visited + on his head in the long run, and therefore insisted upon most of his + subordinates doing good work; and, moreover, the men appointed under the + spoils system were necessarily men of a certain initiative and power, + because those who lacked these qualities were not able to shoulder + themselves to the front. Yet there were many flagrant instances of + inefficiency, where a powerful chief quartered friend, adherent, or + kinsman upon the Government. Moreover, the necessarily haphazard nature of + the employment, the need of obtaining and holding the office by service + wholly unconnected with official duty, inevitably tended to lower the + standard of public morality, alike among the office-holders and among the + politicians who rendered party service with the hope of reward in office. + Indeed, the doctrine that "To the victor belong the spoils," the cynical + battle-cry of the spoils politician in America for the sixty years + preceding my own entrance into public life, is so nakedly vicious that few + right-thinking men of trained mind defend it. To appoint, promote, reduce, + and expel from the public service, letter-carriers, stenographers, women + typewriters, clerks, because of the politics of themselves or their + friends, without regard to their own service, is, from the standpoint of + the people at large, as foolish and degrading as it is wicked. + </p> + <p> + Such being the case, it would seem at first sight extraordinary that it + should be so difficult to uproot the system. Unfortunately, it was + permitted to become habitual and traditional in American life, so that the + conception of public office as something to be used primarily for the good + of the dominant political party became ingrained in the mind of the + average American, and he grew so accustomed to the whole process that it + seemed part of the order of nature. Not merely the politicians but the + bulk of the people accepted this in a matter-of-course way as the only + proper attitude. There were plenty of communities where the citizens + themselves did not think it natural, or indeed proper, that the + Post-Office should be held by a man belonging to the defeated party. + Moreover, unless both sides were forbidden to use the offices for purposes + of political reward, the side that did use them possessed such an + advantage over the other that in the long run it was out of the question + for the other not to follow the bad example that had been set. Each party + profited by the offices when in power, and when in opposition each party + insincerely denounced its opponents for doing exactly what it itself had + done and intended again to do. + </p> + <p> + It was necessary, in order to remedy the evil, both gradually to change + the average citizen's mental attitude toward the question, and also to + secure proper laws and proper administration of the laws. The work is far + from finished even yet. There are still masses of office-holders who can + be used by an unscrupulous Administration to debauch political conventions + and fraudulently overcome public sentiment, especially in the "rotten + borough" districts—those where the party is not strong, and where + the office-holders in consequence have a disproportionate influence. This + was done by the Republican Administration in 1912, to the ruin of the + Republican party. Moreover, there are numbers of States and municipalities + where very little has as yet been done to do away with the spoils system. + But in the National Government scores of thousands of offices have been + put under the merit system, chiefly through the action of the National + Civil Service Commission. + </p> + <p> + The use of Government offices as patronage is a handicap difficult to + overestimate from the standpoint of those who strive to get good + government. Any effort for reform of any sort, National, State, or + municipal, results in the reformers immediately finding themselves face to + face with an organized band of drilled mercenaries who are paid out of the + public chest to train themselves with such skill that ordinary good + citizens when they meet them at the polls are in much the position of + militia matched against regular troops. Yet these citizens themselves + support and pay their opponents in such a way that they are drilled to + overthrow the very men who support them. Civil Service Reform is designed + primarily to give the average American citizen a fair chance in politics, + to give to this citizen the same weight in politics that the "ward heeler" + has. + </p> + <p> + Patronage does not really help a party. It helps the bosses to get control + of the machinery of the party—as in 1912 was true of the Republican + party—but it does not help the party. On the average, the most + sweeping party victories in our history have been won when the patronage + was against the victors. All that the patronage does is to help the worst + element in the party retain control of the party organization. Two of the + evil elements in our Government against which good citizens have to + contend are, 1, the lack of continuous activity on the part of these good + citizens themselves, and, 2, the ever-present activity of those who have + only an evil self-interest in political life. It is difficult to interest + the average citizen in any particular movement to the degree of getting + him to take an efficient part in it. He wishes the movement well, but he + will not, or often cannot, take the time and the trouble to serve it + efficiently; and this whether he happens to be a mechanic or a banker, a + telegraph operator or a storekeeper. He has his own interests, his own + business, and it is difficult for him to spare the time to go around to + the primaries, to see to the organization, to see to getting out the vote—in + short, to attend to all the thousand details of political management. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the spoils system breeds a class of men whose financial + interest it is to take this necessary time and trouble. They are paid for + so doing, and they are paid out of the public chest. Under the spoils + system a man is appointed to an ordinary clerical or ministerial position + in the municipal, Federal, or State government, not primarily because he + is expected to be a good servant, but because he has rendered help to some + big boss or to the henchman of some big boss. His stay in office depends + not upon how he performs service, but upon how he retains his influence in + the party. This necessarily means that his attention to the interests of + the public at large, even though real, is secondary to his devotion to his + organization, or to the interest of the ward leader who put him in his + place. So he and his fellows attend to politics, not once a year, not two + or three times a year, like the average citizen, but every day in the + year. It is the one thing that they talk of, for it is their bread and + butter. They plan about it and they scheme about it. They do it because it + is their business. I do not blame them in the least. I blame us, the + people, for we ought to make it clear as a bell that the business of + serving the people in one of the ordinary ministerial Government + positions, which have nothing to do with deciding the policy of the + Government, should have no necessary connection with the management of + primaries, of caucuses, and of nominating conventions. As a result of our + wrong thinking and supineness, we American citizens tend to breed a mass + of men whose interests in governmental matters are often adverse to ours, + who are thoroughly drilled, thoroughly organized, who make their + livelihood out of politics, and who frequently make their livelihood out + of bad politics. They know every little twist and turn, no matter how + intricate, in the politics of their several wards, and when election day + comes the ordinary citizen who has merely the interest that all good men, + all decent citizens, should have in political life, finds himself as + helpless before these men as if he were a solitary volunteer in the + presence of a band of drilled mercenaries on a field of battle. There are + a couple of hundred thousand Federal offices, not to speak of State and + municipal offices. The men who fill these offices, and the men who wish to + fill them, within and without the dominant party for the time being, make + a regular army, whose interest it is that the system of bread-and-butter + politics shall continue. Against their concrete interest we have merely + the generally unorganized sentiment of the community in favor of putting + things on a decent basis. The large number of men who believe vaguely in + good are pitted against the smaller but still larger number of men whose + interest it often becomes to act very concretely and actively for evil; + and it is small wonder that the struggle is doubtful. + </p> + <p> + During my six years' service as Commissioner the field of the merit system + was extended at the expense of the spoils system so as to include several + times the number of offices that had originally been included. Generally + this was done by the introduction of competitive entrance examinations; + sometimes, as in the Navy-Yards, by a system of registration. This of + itself was good work. + </p> + <p> + Even better work was making the law efficient and genuine where it + applied. As was inevitable in the introduction of such a system, there was + at first only partial success in its application. For instance, it applied + to the ordinary employees in the big custom-houses and post-offices, but + not to the heads of these offices. A number of the heads of the offices + were slippery politicians of a low moral grade, themselves appointed under + the spoils system, and anxious, directly or indirectly, to break down the + merit system and to pay their own political debts by appointing their + henchmen and supporters to the positions under them. Occasionally these + men acted with open and naked brutality. Ordinarily they sought by cunning + to evade the law. The Civil Service Reformers, on the other hand, were in + most cases not much used to practical politics, and were often well-nigh + helpless when pitted against veteran professional politicians. In + consequence I found at the beginning of my experiences that there were + many offices in which the execution of the law was a sham. This was very + damaging, because it encouraged the politicians to assault the law + everywhere, and, on the other hand, made good people feel that the law was + not worth while defending. + </p> + <p> + The first effort of myself and my colleagues was to secure the genuine + enforcement of the law. In this we succeeded after a number of lively + fights. But of course in these fights we were obliged to strike a large + number of influential politicians, some of them in Congress, some of them + the supporters and backers of men who were in Congress. Accordingly we + soon found ourselves engaged in a series of contests with prominent + Senators and Congressmen. There were a number of Senators and Congressmen—men + like Congressman (afterwards Senator) H. C. Lodge, of Massachusetts; + Senator Cushman K. Davis, of Minnesota; Senator Orville H. Platt, of + Connecticut; Senator Cockrell, of Missouri; Congressman (afterwards + President) McKinley, of Ohio, and Congressman Dargan, of South Carolina—who + abhorred the business of the spoilsman, who efficiently and resolutely + championed the reform at every turn, and without whom the whole reform + would certainly have failed. But there were plenty of other Senators and + Congressmen who hated the whole reform and everything concerned with it + and everybody who championed it; and sometimes, to use a legal phrase, + their hatred was for cause, and sometimes it was peremptory—that is, + sometimes the Commission interfered with their most efficient, and + incidentally most corrupt and unscrupulous, supporters, and at other + times, where there was no such interference, a man nevertheless had an + innate dislike of anything that tended to decency in government. These men + were always waging war against us, and they usually had the more or less + open support of a certain number of Government officials, from Cabinet + officers down. The Senators and Congressmen in question opposed us in many + different ways. Sometimes, for instance, they had committees appointed to + investigate us—during my public career without and within office I + grew accustomed to accept appearances before investigating committees as + part of the natural order of things. Sometimes they tried to cut off the + appropriation for the Commission. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally we would bring to terms these Senators or Congressmen who + fought the Commission by the simple expedient of not holding examinations + in their districts. This always brought frantic appeals from their + constituents, and we would explain that unfortunately the appropriations + had been cut, so that we could not hold examinations in every district, + and that obviously we could not neglect the districts of those Congressmen + who believed in the reform and therefore in the examinations. The + constituents then turned their attention to the Congressman, and the + result was that in the long run we obtained sufficient money to enable us + to do our work. On the whole, the most prominent leaders favored us. Any + man who is the head of a big department, if he has any fitness at all, + wishes to see that department run well; and a very little practical + experience shows him that it cannot be run well if he must make his + appointments to please spoilsmongering politicians. As with almost every + reform that I have ever undertaken, most of the opposition took the guise + of shrewd slander. Our opponents relied chiefly on downright + misrepresentation of what it was that we were trying to accomplish, and of + our methods, acts, and personalities. I had more than one lively encounter + with the authors and sponsors of these misrepresentations, which at the + time were full of interest to me. But it would be a dreary thing now to go + over the record of exploded mendacity, or to expose the meanness and + malice shown by some men of high official position. A favorite argument + was to call the reform Chinese, because the Chinese had constructed an + inefficient governmental system based in part on the theory of written + competitive examinations. The argument was simple. There had been written + examinations in China; it was proposed to establish written examinations + in the United States; therefore the proposed system was Chinese. The + argument might have been applied still further. For instance, the Chinese + had used gunpowder for centuries; gunpowder is used in Springfield rifles; + therefore Springfield rifles were Chinese. One argument is quite as + logical as the other. It was impossible to answer every falsehood about + the system. But it was possible to answer certain falsehoods, especially + when uttered by some Senator or Congressman of note. Usually these false + statements took the form of assertions that we had asked preposterous + questions of applicants. At times they also included the assertion that we + credited people to districts where they did not live; this simply meaning + that these persons were not known to the active ward politicians of those + districts. + </p> + <p> + One opponent with whom we had a rather lively tilt was a Republican + Congressman from Ohio, Mr. Grosvenor, one of the floor leaders. Mr. + Grosvenor made his attack in the House, and enumerated our sins in + picturesque rather than accurate fashion. There was a Congressional + committee investigating us at the time, and on my next appearance before + them I asked that Mr. Grosvenor be requested to meet me before the + committee. Mr. Grosvenor did not take up the challenge for several weeks, + until it was announced that I was leaving for my ranch in Dakota; + whereupon, deeming it safe, he wrote me a letter expressing his ardent + wish that I should appear before the committee to meet him. I promptly + canceled my ticket, waited, and met him. He proved to be a person of + happily treacherous memory, so that the simple expedient of arranging his + statements in pairs was sufficient to reduce him to confusion. For + instance, he had been trapped into making the unwary remark, "I do not + want to repeal the Civil Service Law, and I never said so." I produced the + following extract from one of his speeches: "I will vote not only to + strike out this provision, but I will vote to repeal the whole law." To + this he merely replied that there was "no inconsistency between those two + statements." He asserted that "Rufus P. Putnam, fraudulently credited to + Washington County, Ohio, never lived in Washington County, Ohio, or in my + Congressional district, or in Ohio as far as I know." We produced a letter + which, thanks to a beneficent Providence, he had himself written about Mr. + Rufus P. Putnam, in which he said: "Mr. Rufus P. Putnam is a legal + resident of my district and has relatives living there now." He explained, + first, that he had not written the letter; second, that he had forgotten + he had written the letter; and, third, that he was grossly deceived when + he wrote it. He said: "I have not been informed of one applicant who has + found a place in the classified service from my district." We confronted + him with the names of eight. He looked them over and said, "Yes, the eight + men are living in my district as now constituted," but added that his + district had been gerrymandered so that he could no longer tell who did + and who didn't live in it. When I started further to question him, he + accused me of a lack of humor in not appreciating that his statements were + made "in a jesting way," and then announced that "a Congressman making a + speech on the floor of the House of Representatives was perhaps in a + little different position from a witness on the witness stand"—a + frank admission that he did not consider exactitude of statement necessary + when he was speaking as a Congressman. Finally he rose with great dignity + and said that it was his "constitutional right" not to be questioned + elsewhere as to what he said on the floor of the House of Representatives; + and accordingly he left the delighted committee to pursue its + investigations without further aid from him. + </p> + <p> + A more important opponent was the then Democratic leader of the Senate, + Mr. Gorman. In a speech attacking the Commission Mr. Gorman described with + moving pathos how a friend of his, "a bright young man from Baltimore," a + Sunday-school scholar, well recommended by his pastor, wished to be a + letter-carrier; and how he went before us to be examined. The first + question we asked him, said Mr. Gorman, was the shortest route from + Baltimore to China, to which the "bright young man" responded that he + didn't want to go to China, and had never studied up that route. + Thereupon, said Mr. Gorman, we asked him all about the steamship lines + from the United States to Europe, then branched him off into geology, + tried him in chemistry, and finally turned him down. + </p> + <p> + Apparently Mr. Gorman did not know that we kept full records of our + examinations. I at once wrote to him stating that I had carefully looked + through all our examination papers and had not been able to find one + question even remotely resembling any of these questions which he alleged + had been asked, and that I would be greatly obliged if he would give me + the name of the "bright young man" who had deceived him. + </p> + <p> + However, that "bright young man" remained permanently without a name. I + also asked Mr. Gorman, if he did not wish to give us the name of his + informant, to give us the date of the examination in which he was supposed + to have taken part; and I offered, if he would send down a representative + to look through our files, to give him all the aid we could in his effort + to discover any such questions. But Mr. Gorman, not hitherto known as a + sensitive soul, expressed himself as so shocked at the thought that the + veracity of the "bright young man" should be doubted that he could not + bring himself to answer my letter. So I made a public statement to the + effect that no such questions had ever been asked. Mr. Gorman brooded over + this; and during the next session of Congress he rose and complained that + he had received a very "impudent" letter from me (my letter was a + respectful note calling attention to the fact that, if he wished, he could + by personal examination satisfy himself that his statements had no + foundation in fact). He further stated that he had been "cruelly" called + to account by me because he had been endeavoring to right a "great wrong" + that the Civil Service Commission had committed; but he never, then or + afterwards, furnished any clue to the identity of that child of his + fondest fancy, the bright young man without a name.[*] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] This is a condensation of a speech I at the time made to + the St. Louis Civil Service Reform Association. Senator + Gorman was then the Senate leader of the party that had just + been victorious in the Congressional elections. +</pre> + <p> + The incident is of note chiefly as shedding light on the mental make-up of + the man who at the time was one of the two or three most influential + leaders of the Democratic party. Mr. Gorman had been Mr. Cleveland's party + manager in the Presidential campaign, and was the Democratic leader in + Congress. It seemed extraordinary that he should be so reckless as to make + statements with no foundation in fact, which he might have known that I + would not permit to pass unchallenged. Then, as now, the ordinary + newspaper, in New York and elsewhere, was quite as reckless in its + misstatements of fact about public men and measures; but for a man in Mr. + Gorman's position of responsible leadership such action seemed hardly + worth while. However, it is at least to be said for Mr. Gorman that he was + not trying by falsehood to take away any man's character. It would be well + for writers and speakers to bear in mind the remark of Pudd'nhead Wilson + to the effect that while there are nine hundred and ninety-nine kinds of + falsehood, the only kind specifically condemned in Scripture, just as + murder, theft, and adultery are condemned, is bearing false witness + against one's neighbor. + </p> + <p> + One of the worst features of the old spoils system was the ruthless + cruelty and brutality it so often bred in the treatment of faithful public + servants without political influence. Life is hard enough and cruel enough + at best, and this is as true of public service as of private service. + Under no system will it be possible to do away with all favoritism and + brutality and meanness and malice. But at least we can try to minimize the + exhibition of these qualities. I once came across a case in Washington + which very keenly excited my sympathy. Under an Administration prior to + the one with which I was connected a lady had been ousted from a + Government position. She came to me to see if she could be reinstated. + (This was not possible, but by active work I did get her put back in a + somewhat lower position, and this only by an appeal to the sympathy of a + certain official.) She was so pallid and so careworn that she excited my + sympathy and I made inquiries about her. She was a poor woman with two + children, a widow. She and her two children were in actual want. She could + barely keep the two children decently clad, and she could not give them + the food growing children need. Three years before she had been employed + in a bureau in a department of Washington, doing her work faithfully, at a + salary of about $800. It was enough to keep her and her two children in + clothing, food, and shelter. One day the chief of the bureau called her up + and told her he was very sorry that he had to dismiss her. In great + distress she asked him why; she thought that she had been doing her work + satisfactorily. He answered her that she had been doing well, and that he + wished very much that he could keep her, that he would do so if he + possibly could, but that he could not; for a certain Senator, giving his + name, a very influential member of the Senate, had demanded her place for + a friend of his who had influence. The woman told the bureau chief that it + meant turning her out to starve. She had been thirteen or fourteen years + in the public service; she had lost all touch with her friends in her + native State; dismissal meant absolute want for her and her children. On + this the chief, who was a kind man, said he would not have her turned out, + and sent her back to her work. + </p> + <p> + But three weeks afterwards he called her up again and told her he could + not say how sorry he was, but the thing had to be done. The Senator had + been around in person to know why the change had not been made, and had + told the chief that he would be himself removed if the place were not + given him. The Senator was an extremely influential man. His wants had to + be attended to, and the woman had to go. And go she did, and turned out + she was, to suffer with her children and to starve outright, or to live in + semi-starvation, just as might befall. I do not blame the bureau chief, + who hated to do what he did, although he lacked the courage to refuse; I + do not even very much blame the Senator, who did not know the hardship + that he was causing, and who had been calloused by long training in the + spoils system; but this system, a system which permits and encourages such + deeds, is a system of brutal iniquity. + </p> + <p> + Any man accustomed to dealing with practical politics can with difficulty + keep a straight face when he reads or listens to some of the arguments + advanced against Civil Service Reform. One of these arguments, a favorite + with machine politicians, takes the form of an appeal to "party loyalty" + in filling minor offices. Why, again and again these very same machine + politicians take just as good care of henchmen of the opposite party as of + those of their own party. In the underworld of politics the closest ties + are sometimes those which knit together the active professional workers of + opposite political parties. A friend of mine in the New York Legislature—the + hero of the alpha and omega incident—once remarked to me: "When you + have been in public life a little longer, Mr. Roosevelt, you will + understand that there are no politics in politics." In the politics to + which he was referring this remark could be taken literally. + </p> + <p> + Another illustration of this truth was incidentally given me, at about the + same time, by an acquaintance, a Tammany man named Costigan, a good fellow + according to his lights. I had been speaking to him of a fight in one of + the New York downtown districts, a Democratic district in which the + Republican party was in a hopeless minority, and, moreover, was split into + the Half-Breed and Stalwart factions. It had been an interesting fight in + more than one way. For instance, the Republican party, at the general + election, polled something like five hundred and fifty votes, and yet at + the primary the two factions polled seven hundred and twenty-five all + told. The sum of the parts was thus considerably greater than the whole. + There had been other little details that made the contest worthy of note. + The hall in which the primary was held had been hired by the Stalwarts + from a conscientious gentleman. To him the Half-Breeds applied to know + whether they could not hire the hall away from their opponents, and + offered him a substantial money advance. The conscientious gentleman + replied that his word was as good as his bond, that he had hired the hall + to the Stalwarts, and that it must be theirs. But he added that he was + willing to hire the doorway to the Half-Breeds if they paid him the + additional sum of money they had mentioned. The bargain was struck, and + the meeting of the hostile hosts was spirited, when the men who had rented + the doorway sought to bar the path of the men who had rented the hall. I + was asking my friend Costigan about the details of the struggle, as he + seemed thoroughly acquainted with them, and he smiled good-naturedly over + my surprise at there having been more votes cast than there were members + of the party in the whole district. Said I, "Mr. Costigan, you seem to + have a great deal of knowledge about this; how did it happen?" To which he + replied, "Come now, Mr. Roosevelt, you know it's the same gang that votes + in all the primaries." + </p> + <p> + So much for most of the opposition to the reform. There was, however, some + honest and at least partially justifiable opposition both to certain of + the methods advocated by Civil Service Reformers and to certain of the + Civil Service Reformers themselves. The pet shibboleths of the opponents + of the reform were that the system we proposed to introduce would give + rise to mere red-tape bureaucracy, and that the reformers were pharisees. + Neither statement was true. Each statement contained some truth. + </p> + <p> + If men are not to be appointed by favoritism, wise or unwise, honest or + dishonest, they must be appointed in some automatic way, which generally + means by competitive examination. The easiest kind of competitive + examination is an examination in writing. This is entirely appropriate for + certain classes of work, for lawyers, stenographers, typewriters, clerks, + mathematicians, and assistants in an astronomical observatory, for + instance. It is utterly inappropriate for carpenters, detectives, and + mounted cattle inspectors along the Rio Grande—to instance three + types of employment as to which I had to do battle to prevent well-meaning + bureaucrats from insisting on written competitive entrance examinations. + It would be quite possible to hold a very good competitive examination for + mounted cattle inspectors by means of practical tests in brand reading and + shooting with rifle and revolver, in riding "mean" horses and in roping + and throwing steers. I did my best to have examinations of this kind + instituted, but my proposal was of precisely the type which most shocks + the routine official mind, and I was never able to get it put into + practical effect. + </p> + <p> + The important point, and the point most often forgotten by zealous Civil + Service Reformers, was to remember that the routine competitive + examination was merely a means to an end. It did not always produce ideal + results. But it was normally better than a system of appointments for + spoils purposes; it sometimes worked out very well indeed; and in most big + governmental offices it not only gave satisfactory results, but was the + only system under which good results could be obtained. For instance, when + I was Police Commissioner we appointed some two thousand policemen at one + time. It was utterly impossible for the Commissioners each to examine + personally the six or eight thousand applicants. Therefore they had to be + appointed either on the recommendation of outsiders or else by written + competitive examination. The latter method—the one we adopted—was + infinitely preferable. We held a rigid physical and moral pass + examination, and then, among those who passed, we held a written + competitive examination, requiring only the knowledge that any good + primary common school education would meet—that is, a test of + ordinary intelligence and simple mental training. Occasionally a man who + would have been a good officer failed, and occasionally a man who turned + out to be a bad officer passed; but, as a rule, the men with intelligence + sufficient to enable them to answer the questions were of a type very + distinctly above that of those who failed. + </p> + <p> + The answers returned to some of the questions gave an illuminating idea of + the intelligence of those answering them. For instance, one of our + questions in a given examination was a request to name five of the New + England States. One competitor, obviously of foreign birth, answered: + "England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Cork." His neighbor, who had + probably looked over his shoulder but who had North of Ireland prejudices, + made the same answer except that he substituted Belfast for Cork. A + request for a statement as to the life of Abraham Lincoln elicited, among + other less startling pieces of information, the fact that many of the + applicants thought that he was a general in the Civil War; several thought + that he was President of the Confederate States; three thought he had been + assassinated by Jefferson Davis, one by Thomas Jefferson, one by Garfield, + several by Guiteau, and one by Ballington Booth—the last + representing a memory of the fact that he had been shot by a man named + Booth, to whose surname the writer added the name with which he was most + familiar in connection therewith. A request to name five of the States + that seceded in 1861 received answers that included almost every State in + the Union. It happened to be at the time of the silver agitation in the + West, and the Rocky Mountain States accordingly figured in a large + percentage of the answers. Some of the men thought that Chicago was on the + Pacific Ocean. Others, in answer to a query as to who was the head of the + United States Government, wavered between myself and Recorder Goff; one + brilliant genius, for inscrutable reasons, placed the leadership in the + New York Fire Department. Now of course some of the men who answered these + questions wrong were nevertheless quite capable of making good policemen; + but it is fair to assume that on the average the candidate who has a + rudimentary knowledge of the government, geography, and history of his + country is a little better fitted, in point of intelligence, to be a + policeman than the one who has not. + </p> + <p> + Therefore I felt convinced, after full experience, that as regards very + large classes of public servants by far the best way to choose the men for + appointment was by means of written competitive examination. But I + absolutely split off from the bulk of my professional Civil Service Reform + friends when they advocated written competitive examinations for + promotion. In the Police Department I found these examinations a serious + handicap in the way of getting the best men promoted, and never in any + office did I find that the written competitive promotion examination did + any good. The reason for a written competitive entrance examination is + that it is impossible for the head of the office, or the candidate's + prospective immediate superior, himself to know the average candidate or + to test his ability. But when once in office the best way to test any + man's ability is by long experience in seeing him actually at work. His + promotion should depend upon the judgment formed of him by his superiors. + </p> + <p> + So much for the objections to the examinations. Now for the objections to + the men who advocated the reform. As a rule these men were high-minded and + disinterested. Certain of them, men like the leaders in the Maryland and + Indiana Reform Associations, for instances, Messrs. Bonaparte and Rose, + Foulke and Swift, added common sense, broad sympathy, and practical + efficiency to their high-mindedness. But in New York, Philadelphia, and + Boston there really was a certain mental and moral thinness among very + many of the leaders in the Civil Service Reform movement. It was this + quality which made them so profoundly antipathetic to vigorous and + intensely human people of the stamp of my friend Joe Murray—who, as + I have said, always felt that my Civil Service Reform affiliations formed + the one blot on an otherwise excellent public record. The Civil Service + Reform movement was one from above downwards, and the men who took the + lead in it were not men who as a rule possessed a very profound sympathy + with or understanding of the ways of thought and life of their average + fellow-citizen. They were not men who themselves desired to be + letter-carriers or clerks or policemen, or to have their friends appointed + to these positions. Having no temptation themselves in this direction, + they were eagerly anxious to prevent other people getting such + appointments as a reward for political services. In this they were quite + right. It would be impossible to run any big public office to advantage + save along the lines of the strictest application of Civil Service Reform + principles; and the system should be extended throughout our governmental + service far more widely than is now the case. + </p> + <p> + But there are other and more vital reforms than this. Too many Civil + Service Reformers, when the trial came, proved tepidly indifferent or + actively hostile to reforms that were of profound and far-reaching social + and industrial consequence. Many of them were at best lukewarm about + movements for the improvement of the conditions of toil and life among men + and women who labor under hard surroundings, and were positively hostile + to movements which curbed the power of the great corporation magnates and + directed into useful instead of pernicious channels the activities of the + great corporation lawyers who advised them. + </p> + <p> + Most of the newspapers which regarded themselves as the especial champions + of Civil Service Reform and as the highest exponents of civic virtue, and + which distrusted the average citizen and shuddered over the "coarseness" + of the professional politicians, were, nevertheless, given to vices even + more contemptible than, although not so gross as, those they denounced and + derided. Their editors were refined men of cultivated tastes, whose pet + temptations were backbiting, mean slander, and the snobbish worship of + anything clothed in wealth and the outward appearances of conventional + respectability. They were not robust or powerful men; they felt ill at + ease in the company of rough, strong men; often they had in them a vein of + physical timidity. They avenged themselves to themselves for an uneasy + subconsciousness of their own shortcomings by sitting in cloistered—or, + rather, pleasantly upholstered—seclusion, and sneering at and lying + about men who made them feel uncomfortable. Sometimes these were bad men, + who made them feel uncomfortable by the exhibition of coarse and repellent + vice; and sometimes they were men of high character, who held ideals of + courage and of service to others, and who looked down and warred against + the shortcomings of swollen wealth, and the effortless, easy lives of + those whose horizon is bounded by a sheltered and timid respectability. + These newspapers, owned and edited by these men, although free from the + repulsive vulgarity of the yellow press, were susceptible to influence by + the privileged interests, and were almost or quite as hostile to manliness + as they were to unrefined vice—and were much more hostile to it than + to the typical shortcomings of wealth and refinement. They favored Civil + Service Reform; they favored copyright laws, and the removal of the tariff + on works of art; they favored all the proper (and even more strongly all + the improper) movements for international peace and arbitration; in short, + they favored all good, and many goody-goody, measures so long as they did + not cut deep into social wrong or make demands on National and individual + virility. They opposed, or were lukewarm about, efforts to build up the + army and the navy, for they were not sensitive concerning National honor; + and, above all, they opposed every non-milk-and-water effort, however + sane, to change our social and economic system in such a fashion as to + substitute the ideal of justice towards all for the ideal of kindly + charity from the favored few to the possibly grateful many. + </p> + <p> + Some of the men foremost in the struggle for Civil Service Reform have + taken a position of honorable leadership in the battle for those other and + more vital reforms. But many of them promptly abandoned the field of + effort for decency when the battle took the form, not of a fight against + the petty grafting of small bosses and small politicians—a vitally + necessary battle, be it remembered—but of a fight against the great + intrenched powers of privilege, a fight to secure justice through the law + for ordinary men and women, instead of leaving them to suffer cruel + injustice either because the law failed to protect them or because it was + twisted from its legitimate purposes into a means for oppressing them. + </p> + <p> + One of the reasons why the boss so often keeps his hold, especially in + municipal matters, is, or at least has been in the past, because so many + of the men who claim to be reformers have been blind to the need of + working in human fashion for social and industrial betterment. Such words + as "boss" and "machine" now imply evil, but both the implication the words + carry and the definition of the words themselves are somewhat vague. A + leader is necessary; but his opponents always call him a boss. An + organization is necessary; but the men in opposition always call it a + machine. Nevertheless, there is a real and deep distinction between the + leader and the boss, between organizations and machines. A political + leader who fights openly for principles, and who keeps his position of + leadership by stirring the consciences and convincing the intellects of + his followers, so that they have confidence in him and will follow him + because they can achieve greater results under him than under any one + else, is doing work which is indispensable in a democracy. The boss, on + the other hand, is a man who does not gain his power by open means, but by + secret means, and usually by corrupt means. Some of the worst and most + powerful bosses in our political history either held no public office or + else some unimportant public office. They made no appeal either to + intellect or conscience. Their work was done behind closed doors, and + consisted chiefly in the use of that greed which gives in order that in + return it may get. A boss of this kind can pull wires in conventions, can + manipulate members of the Legislature, can control the giving or + withholding of office, and serves as the intermediary for bringing + together the powers of corrupt politics and corrupt business. If he is at + one end of the social scale, he may through his agents traffic in the most + brutal forms of vice and give protection to the purveyors of shame and sin + in return for money bribes. If at the other end of the scale, he may be + the means of securing favors from high public officials, legislative or + executive, to great industrial interests; the transaction being sometimes + a naked matter of bargain and sale, and sometimes being carried on in such + manner that both parties thereto can more or less successfully disguise it + to their consciences as in the public interest. The machine is simply + another name for the kind of organization which is certain to grow up in a + party or section of a party controlled by such bosses as these and by + their henchmen, whereas, of course, an effective organization of decent + men is essential in order to secure decent politics. + </p> + <p> + If these bosses were responsible for nothing but pure wickedness, they + would probably last but a short time in any community. And, in any event, + if the men who are horrified by their wickedness were themselves as + practical and as thoroughly in touch with human nature, the bosses would + have a short shrift. The trouble is that the boss does understand human + nature, and that he fills a place which the reformer cannot fill unless he + likewise understands human nature. Sometimes the boss is a man who cares + for political power purely for its own sake, as he might care for any + other hobby; more often he has in view some definitely selfish object such + as political or financial advancement. He can rarely accomplish much + unless he has another side to him. A successful boss is very apt to be a + man who, in addition to committing wickedness in his own interest, also + does look after the interests of others, even if not from good motives. + There are some communities so fortunate that there are very few men who + have private interests to be served, and in these the power of the boss is + at a minimum. There are many country communities of this type. But in + communities where there is poverty and ignorance, the conditions are ripe + for the growth of a boss. Moreover, wherever big business interests are + liable either to be improperly favored or improperly discriminated against + and blackmailed by public officials—and the result is just as + vicious in one case as in the other—the boss is almost certain to + develop. The best way of getting at this type of boss is by keeping the + public conscience aroused and alert, so that it will tolerate neither + improper attack upon, nor improper favoritism towards, these corporations, + and will quickly punish any public servant guilty of either. + </p> + <p> + There is often much good in the type of boss, especially common in big + cities, who fulfills towards the people of his district in rough and ready + fashion the position of friend and protector. He uses his influence to get + jobs for young men who need them. He goes into court for a wild young + fellow who has gotten into trouble. He helps out with cash or credit the + widow who is in straits, or the breadwinner who is crippled or for some + other cause temporarily out of work. He organizes clambakes and chowder + parties and picnics, and is consulted by the local labor leaders when a + cut in wages is threatened. For some of his constituents he does proper + favors, and for others wholly improper favors; but he preserves human + relations with all. He may be a very bad and very corrupt man, a man whose + action in blackmailing and protecting vice is of far-reaching damage to + his constituents. But these constituents are for the most part men and + women who struggle hard against poverty and with whom the problem of + living is very real and very close. They would prefer clean and honest + government, if this clean and honest government is accompanied by human + sympathy, human understanding. But an appeal made to them for virtue in + the abstract, an appeal made by good men who do not really understand + their needs, will often pass quite unheeded, if on the other side stands + the boss, the friend and benefactor, who may have been guilty of much + wrong-doing in things that they are hardly aware concern them, but who + appeals to them, not only for the sake of favors to come, but in the name + of gratitude and loyalty, and above all of understanding and + fellow-feeling. They have a feeling of clan-loyalty to him; his and their + relations may be substantially those which are right and proper among + primitive people still in the clan stage of moral development. The + successful fight against this type of vicious boss, and the type of + vicious politics which produces it, can be made only by men who have a + genuine fellow-feeling for and understanding of the people for and with + whom they are to work, and who in practical fashion seek their social and + industrial benefit. + </p> + <p> + There are communities of poor men, whose lives are hard, in which the + boss, though he would be out of place in a more advanced community, if + fundamentally an honest man, meets a real need which would otherwise not + be met. Because of his limitations in other than purely local matters it + may be our duty to fight such a boss; but it may also be our duty to + recognize, within his limitations, both his sincerity and his usefulness. + </p> + <p> + Yet again even the boss who really is evil, like the business man who + really is evil, may on certain points be sound, and be doing good work. It + may be the highest duty of the patriotic public servant to work with the + big boss or the big business man on these points, while refusing to work + with him on others. In the same way there are many self-styled reformers + whose conduct is such as to warrant Tom Reed's bitter remark, that when + Dr. Johnson defined patriotism as the last refuge of a scoundrel he was + ignorant of the infinite possibilities contained in the word reform. Yet, + none the less, it is our duty to work for the reforms these men champion, + without regard to the misconduct of the men themselves on other points. I + have known in my life many big business men and many big political bosses + who often or even generally did evil, but who on some occasions and on + certain issues were right. I never hesitated to do battle against these + men when they were wrong; and, on the other hand, as long as they were + going my way I was glad to have them do so. To have repudiated their aid + when they were right and were striving for a right end, and for what was + of benefit to the people—no matter what their motives may have been—would + have been childish, and moreover would have itself been misconduct against + the people. + </p> + <p> + My duty was to stand with every one while he was right, and to stand + against him when he went wrong; and this I have tried to do as regards + individuals and as regards groups of individuals. When a business man or + labor leader, politician or reformer, is right, I support him; when he + goes wrong, I leave him. When Mr. Lorimer upheld the war for the + liberation of Cuba, I supported him; when he became United States Senator + by improper methods, I opposed him. The principles or methods which the + Socialists advocate and which I believe to be in the interest of the + people I support, and those which I believe to be against the interest of + the people I oppose. Moreover, when a man has done evil, but changes, and + works for decency and righteousness, and when, as far as I can see, the + change is real and the man's conduct sincere, then I welcome him and work + heartily with him, as an equal with an equal. For thirty years after the + Civil War the creed of mere materialism was rampant in both American + politics and American business, and many, many strong men, in accordance + with the prevailing commercial and political morality, did things for + which they deserve blame and condemnation; but if they now sincerely + change, and strive for better things, it is unwise and unjust to bar them + from fellowship. So long as they work for evil, smite them with the sword + of the Lord and of Gideon! When they change and show their faith by their + works, remember the words of Ezekiel: "If the wicked will turn from all + the sins he has committed, and keep all my statutes, and do that which is + lawful and right, he shall surely live, he shall not die. All his + transgressions that he hath committed, they shall not be mentioned unto + him: in his righteousness that he hath done he shall live. Have I any + pleasure at all that the wicked should die? saith the Lord God; and not + that he should return from his ways and live?" + </p> + <p> + Every man who has been in practical politics grows to realize that + politicians, big and little, are no more all of them bad than they are all + of them good. Many of these men are very bad men indeed, but there are + others among them—and some among those held up to special obloquy, + too—who, even although they may have done much that is evil, also + show traits of sterling worth which many of their critics wholly lack. + There are few men for whom I have ever felt a more cordial and + contemptuous dislike than for some of the bosses and big professional + politicians with whom I have been brought into contact. On the other hand, + in the case of some political leaders who were most bitterly attacked as + bosses, I grew to know certain sides of their characters which inspired in + me a very genuine regard and respect. + </p> + <p> + To read much of the assault on Senator Hanna, one would have thought that + he was a man incapable of patriotism or of far-sighted devotion to the + country's good. I was brought into intimate contact with him only during + the two and a half years immediately preceding his death. I was then + President, and perforce watched all his actions at close range. During + that time he showed himself to be a man of rugged sincerity of purpose, of + great courage and loyalty, and of unswerving devotion to the interests of + the Nation and the people as he saw those interests. He was as sincerely + desirous of helping laboring men as of helping capitalists. His ideals + were in many ways not my ideals, and there were points where both by + temperament and by conviction we were far apart. Before this time he had + always been unfriendly to me; and I do not think he ever grew to like me, + at any rate not until the very end of his life. Moreover, I came to the + Presidency under circumstances which, if he had been a smaller man, would + inevitably have thrown him into violent antagonism to me. He was the close + and intimate friend of President McKinley. He was McKinley's devoted ally + and follower, and his trusted adviser, who was in complete sympathy with + him. Partly because of this friendship, his position in the Senate and in + the country was unique. + </p> + <p> + With McKinley's sudden death Senator Hanna found himself bereft of his + dearest friend, while I, who had just come to the Presidency, was in his + view an untried man, whose trustworthiness on many public questions was at + least doubtful. Ordinarily, as has been shown, not only in our history, + but in the history of all other countries, in countless instances, over + and over again, this situation would have meant suspicion, ill will, and, + at the last, open and violent antagonism. Such was not the result, in this + case, primarily because Senator Hanna had in him the quality that enabled + him to meet a serious crisis with dignity, with power, and with + disinterested desire to work for the common good. Within a few days of my + accession he called on me, and with entire friendliness and obvious + sincerity, but also with entire self-respect, explained that he mourned + McKinley as probably no other man did; that he had not been especially my + friend, but that he wished me to understand that thenceforward, on every + question where he could conscientiously support me, I could count upon his + giving me as loyal aid as it was in his power to render. He added that + this must not be understood as committing him to favor me for nomination + and election, because that matter must be left to take care of itself as + events should decide; but that, aside from this, what he said was to be + taken literally; in other words, he would do his best to make my + Administration a success by supporting me heartily on every point on which + he conscientiously could, and that this I could count upon. He kept his + word absolutely. He never became especially favorable to my nomination; + and most of his close friends became bitterly opposed to me and used every + effort to persuade him to try to bring about my downfall. Most men in his + position would have been tempted to try to make capital at my expense by + antagonizing me and discrediting me so as to make my policies fail, just + for the sake of making them fail. Senator Hanna, on the contrary, did + everything possible to make them succeed. He kept his word in the letter + and the spirit, and on every point on which he felt conscientiously able + to support me he gave me the heartiest and most effective support, and did + all in his power to make my Administration a success; and this with no + hope of any reward for himself, of any gratitude from me, or of any + appreciation by the public at large, but solely because he deemed such + action necessary for the well-being of the country as a whole. + </p> + <p> + My experience with Senator Quay was similar. I had no personal relations + with him before I was President, and knew nothing of him save by hearsay. + Soon after I became President, Senator Quay called upon me, told me he had + known me very slightly, that he thought most men who claimed to be + reformers were hypocrites, but that he deemed me sincere, that he thought + conditions had become such that aggressive courage and honesty were + necessary in order to remedy them, that he believed I intended to be a + good and efficient President, and that to the best of his ability he would + support me in it making my Administration a success. He kept his word with + absolute good faith. He had been in the Civil War, and was a medal of + honor man; and I think my having been in the Spanish War gave him at the + outset a kindly feeling toward me. He was also a very well-read man—I + owe to him, for instance, my acquaintance with the writings of the Finnish + novelist Topelius. Not only did he support me on almost every public + question in which I was most interested—including, I am convinced, + every one on which he felt he conscientiously could do so—but he + also at the time of his death gave a striking proof of his disinterested + desire to render a service to certain poor people, and this under + conditions in which not only would he never know if the service were + rendered but in which he had no reason to expect that his part in it would + ever be made known to any other man. + </p> + <p> + Quay was descended from a French voyageur who had some Indian blood in + him. He was proud of this Indian blood, took an especial interest in + Indians, and whenever Indians came to Washington they always called on + him. Once during my Administration a delegation of Iroquois came over from + Canada to call on me at the White House. Their visit had in it something + that was pathetic as well as amusing. They represented the descendants of + the Six Nations, who fled to Canada after Sullivan harried their towns in + the Revolutionary War. Now, a century and a quarter later, their people + thought that they would like to come back into the United States; and + these representatives had called upon me with the dim hope that perhaps I + could give their tribes land on which they could settle. As soon as they + reached Washington they asked Quay to bring them to call on me, which he + did, telling me that of course their errand was hopeless and that he had + explained as much to them, but that they would like me to extend the + courtesy of an interview. At the close of the interview, which had been + conducted with all the solemnities of calumet and wampum, the Indians + filed out. Quay, before following them, turned to me with his usual + emotionless face and said, "Good-by, Mr. President; this reminds one of + the Flight of a Tartar Tribe, doesn't it?" I answered, "So you're fond of + De Quincey, Senator?" to which Quay responded, "Yes; always liked De + Quincey; good-by." And away he went with the tribesmen, who seemed to have + walked out of a remote past. + </p> + <p> + Quay had become particularly concerned about the Delawares in the Indian + Territory. He felt that the Interior Department did not do them justice. + He also felt that his colleagues of the Senate took no interest in them. + When in the spring of 1904 he lay in his house mortally sick, he sent me + word that he had something important to say to me, and would have himself + carried round to see me. I sent back word not to think of doing so, and + that on my way back from church next Sunday I would stop in and call on + him. This I accordingly did. He was lying in his bed, death written on his + face. He thanked me for coming, and then explained that, as he was on the + point of death and knew he would never return to Washington—it was + late spring and he was about to leave—he wished to see me to get my + personal promise that, after he died, I would myself look after the + interests of the Delaware Indians. He added that he did not trust the + Interior Department—although he knew that I did not share his views + on this point—and that still less did he believe that any of his + colleagues in the Senate would exert themselves in the interests of the + Delawares, and that therefore he wished my personal assurance that I would + personally see that no injustice was done them. I told him I would do so, + and then added, in rather perfunctory fashion, that he must not take such + a gloomy view of himself, that when he got away for the summer I hoped he + would recover and be back all right when Congress opened. A gleam came + into the old fighter's eyes and he answered: "No, I am dying, and you know + it. I don't mind dying; but I do wish it were possible for me to get off + into the great north woods and crawl out on a rock in the sun and die like + a wolf!" + </p> + <p> + I never saw him again. When he died I sent a telegram of sympathy to his + wife. A paper which constantly preached reform, and which kept up its + circulation by the no less constant practice of slander, a paper which in + theory condemned all public men who violated the eighth commandment, and + in practice subsisted by incessant violation of the ninth, assailed me for + sending my message to the dead man's wife. I knew the editors of this + paper, and the editor who was their predecessor. They had led lives of + bodily ease and the avoidance of bodily risk; they earned their livelihood + by the practice of mendacity for profit; and they delivered malignant + judgment on a dead man who, whatever his faults, had in his youth freely + risked his life for a great ideal, and who when death was already + clutching his breast had spent almost his last breath on behalf of humble + and friendless people whom he had served with disinterested loyalty. + </p> + <p> + There is no greater duty than to war on the corrupt and unprincipled boss, + and on the corrupt and unprincipled business man; and for the matter of + that, on the corrupt and unprincipled labor leader also, and on the + corrupt and unprincipled editor, and on any one else who is corrupt and + unprincipled. But where the conditions are such, whether in politics or in + business, that the great majority of men have behaved in a way which is + gradually seen to be improper, but which at one time did not conflict with + the generally accepted morality, then the warfare on the system should not + include warfare on the men themselves, unless they decline to amend their + ways and to dissociate themselves from the system. There are many good, + unimaginative citizens who in politics or in business act in accordance + with accepted standards, in a matter-of-course way, without questioning + these standards; until something happens which sharply arouses them to the + situation, whereupon they try to work for better things. The proper course + in such event is to let bygones be bygones, and if the men prove by their + actions the sincerity of their conversion, heartily to work with them for + the betterment of business and political conditions. + </p> + <p> + By the time that I was ending my career as Civil Service Commissioner I + was already growing to understand that mere improvement in political + conditions by itself was not enough. I dimly realized that an even greater + fight must be waged to improve economic conditions, and to secure social + and industrial justice, justice as between individuals and justice as + between classes. I began to see that political effort was largely valuable + as it found expression and resulted in such social and industrial + betterment. I was gradually puzzling out, or trying to puzzle out, the + answers to various questions—some as yet unsolvable to any of us, + but for the solution of which it is the bounden duty of all of us to work. + I had grown to realize very keenly that the duty of the Government to + protect women and children must be extended to include the protection of + all the crushable elements of labor. I saw that it was the affair of all + our people to see that justice obtained between the big corporation and + its employees, and between the big corporation and its smaller rivals, as + well as its customers and the general public. I saw that it was the affair + of all of us, and not only of the employer, if dividends went up and wages + went down; that it was to the interest of all of us that a full share of + the benefit of improved machinery should go to the workman who used the + machinery; and also that it was to the interest of all of us that each + man, whether brain worker or hand worker, should do the best work of which + he was capable, and that there should be some correspondence between the + value of the work and the value of the reward. It is these and many + similar questions which in their sum make up the great social and + industrial problems of to-day, the most interesting and important of the + problems with which our public life must deal. + </p> + <p> + In handling these problems I believe that much can be done by the + Government. Furthermore, I believe that, after all that the Government can + do has been done, there will remain as the most vital of all factors the + individual character of the average man and the average woman. No + governmental action can do more than supplement individual action. + Moreover, there must be collective action of kinds distinct from + governmental action. A body of public opinion must be formed, must make + itself felt, and in the end transform, and be transformed by, the gradual + raising of individual standards of conduct. + </p> + <p> + It is curious to see how difficult it is to make some men understand that + insistence upon one factor does not and must not mean failure fully to + recognize other factors. The selfish individual needs to be taught that we + must now shackle cunning by law exactly as a few centuries back we + shackled force by law. Unrestricted individualism spells ruin to the + individual himself. But so does the elimination of individualism, whether + by law or custom. It is a capital error to fail to recognize the vital + need of good laws. It is also a capital error to believe that good laws + will accomplish anything unless the average man has the right stuff in + him. The toiler, the manual laborer, has received less than justice, and + he must be protected, both by law, by custom, and by the exercise of his + right to increase his wage; and yet to decrease the quantity and quality + of his work will work only evil. There must be a far greater meed of + respect and reward for the hand worker than we now give him, if our + society is to be put on a sound basis; and this respect and reward cannot + be given him unless he is as ambitious to do the best possible work as is + the highest type of brain worker, whether doctor or writer or artist. + There must be a raising of standards, and not a leveling down to the + standard of the poorest and most inefficient. There is urgent need of + intelligent governmental action to assist in making the life of the man + who tills the soil all that it should be, and to see that the manual + worker gets his full share of the reward for what he helps produce; but if + either farmer, mechanic, or day laborer is shiftless or lazy, if he shirks + downright hard work, if he is stupid or self-indulgent, then no law can + save him, and he must give way to a better type. + </p> + <p> + I suppose that some good people will misunderstand what I say, and will + insist on taking only half of it as representing the whole. Let me repeat. + When I say, that, even after we have all the good laws necessary, the + chief factor in any given man's success or failure must be that man's own + character, it must not be inferred that I am in the least minimizing the + importance of these laws, the real and vital need for them. The struggle + for individual advancement and development can be brought to naught, or + indefinitely retarded, by the absence of law or by bad law. It can be + immeasurably aided by organized effort on the part of the State. + Collective action and individual action, public law and private character, + are both necessary. It is only by a slow and patient inward transformation + such as these laws aid in bringing about that men are really helped upward + in their struggle for a higher and a fuller life. Recognition of + individual character as the most important of all factors does not mean + failure fully to recognize that we must have good laws, and that we must + have our best men in office to enforce these laws. The Nation collectively + will in this way be able to be of real and genuine service to each of us + individually; and, on the other hand, the wisdom of the collective action + will mainly depend on the high individual average of citizenship. + </p> + <p> + The relationship of man and woman is the fundamental relationship that + stands at the base of the whole social structure. Much can be done by law + towards putting women on a footing of complete and entire equal rights + with man—including the right to vote, the right to hold and use + property, and the right to enter any profession she desires on the same + terms as a man. Yet when this has been done it will amount to little + unless on the one hand the man himself realizes his duty to the woman, and + unless on the other hand the woman realizes that she has no claim to + rights unless she performs the duties that go with those rights and that + alone justify her in appealing to them. A cruel, selfish, or licentious + man is an abhorrent member of the community; but, after all, his actions + are no worse in the long run than those of the woman who is content to be + a parasite on others, who is cold, selfish, caring for nothing but + frivolous pleasure and ignoble ease. The law of worthy effort, the law of + service for a worthy end, without regard to whether it brings pleasure or + pain, is the only right law of life, whether for man or for woman. The man + must not be selfish; nor, if the woman is wise, will she let the man grow + selfish, and this not only for her own sake but for his. One of the prime + needs is to remember that almost every duty is composed of two seemingly + conflicting elements, and that over-insistence on one, to the exclusion of + the other, may defeat its own end. Any man who studies the statistics of + the birth-rate among the native Americans of New England, or among the + native French of France, needs not to be told that when prudence and + forethought are carried to the point of cold selfishness and + self-indulgence, the race is bound to disappear. Taking into account the + women who for good reasons do not marry, or who when married are childless + or are able to have but one or two children, it is evident that the + married woman able to have children must on an average have four or the + race will not perpetuate itself. This is the mere statement of a + self-evident truth. Yet foolish and self-indulgent people often resent + this statement as if it were in some way possible by denunciation to + reverse the facts of nature; and, on the other hand, improvident and + shiftless people, inconsiderate and brutal people, treat the statement as + if it justified heads of families in having enormous numbers of badly + nourished, badly brought up, and badly cared for children for whom they + make no effort to provide. A man must think well before he marries. He + must be a tender and considerate husband and realize that there is no + other human being to whom he owes so much of love and regard and + consideration as he does to the woman who with pain bears and with labor + rears the children that are his. No words can paint the scorn and contempt + which must be felt by all right-thinking men, not only for the brutal + husband, but for the husband who fails to show full loyalty and + consideration to his wife. Moreover, he must work, he must do his part in + the world. On the other hand, the woman must realize that she has no more + right to shirk the business of wifehood and motherhood than the man has to + shirk his business as breadwinner for the household. Women should have + free access to every field of labor which they care to enter, and when + their work is as valuable as that of a man it should be paid as highly. + Yet normally for the man and the woman whose welfare is more important + than the welfare of any other human beings, the woman must remain the + housemother, the homekeeper, and the man must remain the breadwinner, the + provider for the wife who bears his children and for the children she + brings into the world. No other work is as valuable or as exacting for + either man or woman; it must always, in every healthy society, be for both + man and woman the prime work, the most important work; normally all other + work is of secondary importance, and must come as an addition to, not a + substitute for, this primary work. The partnership should be one of equal + rights, one of love, of self-respect, and unselfishness, above all a + partnership for the performance of the most vitally important of all + duties. The performance of duty, and not an indulgence in vapid ease and + vapid pleasure, is all that makes life worth while. + </p> + <p> + Suffrage for women should be looked on from this standpoint. Personally I + feel that it is exactly as much a "right" of women as of men to vote. But + the important point with both men and women is to treat the exercise of + the suffrage as a duty, which, in the long run, must be well performed to + be of the slightest value. I always favored woman's suffrage, but only + tepidly, until my association with women like Jane Addams and Frances + Kellor, who desired it as one means of enabling them to render better and + more efficient service, changed me into a zealous instead of a lukewarm + adherent of the cause—in spite of the fact that a few of the best + women of the same type, women like Mary Antin, did not favor the movement. + A vote is like a rifle: its usefulness depends upon the character of the + user. The mere possession of the vote will no more benefit men and women + not sufficiently developed to use it than the possession of rifles will + turn untrained Egyptian fellaheen into soldiers. This is as true of woman + as of man—and no more true. Universal suffrage in Hayti has not made + the Haytians able to govern themselves in any true sense; and woman + suffrage in Utah in no shape or way affected the problem of polygamy. I + believe in suffrage for women in America, because I think they are fit for + it. I believe for women, as for men, more in the duty of fitting one's + self to do well and wisely with the ballot than in the naked right to cast + the ballot. + </p> + <p> + I wish that people would read books like the novels and stories, at once + strong and charming, of Henry Bordeaux, books like Kathleen Norris's + "Mother," and Cornelia Comer's "Preliminaries," and would use these, and + other such books, as tracts, now and then! Perhaps the following + correspondence will give a better idea than I can otherwise give of the + problems that in everyday life come before men and women, and of the need + that the man shall show himself unselfish and considerate, and do his full + share of the joint duty: + </p> + <p> + January 3, 1913. + </p> + <p> + <i>Colonel Theodore Roosevelt</i>: + </p> + <p> + Dear Sir—I suppose you are willing to stand sponsor for the + assertion that the women of the country are not doing their duty unless + they have large families. I wonder if you know the real reason, after all. + Society and clubs are held largely to blame, but society really takes in + so few people, after all. I thought, when I got married at twenty, that it + was the proper thing to have a family, and, as we had very little of this + world's goods, also thought it the thing to do all the necessary work for + them. I have had nine children, did all my own work, including washing, + ironing, house-cleaning, and the care of the little ones as they came + along, which was about every two years; also sewed everything they wore, + including trousers for the boys and caps and jackets for the girls while + little. I also helped them all in their school work, and started them in + music, etc. But as they grew older I got behind the times. I never + belonged to a club or a society or lodge, nor went to any one's house + scarcely; there wasn't time. In consequence, I knew nothing that was going + on in the town, much less the events of the country, and at the same time + my husband kept growing in wisdom and knowledge, from mixing with men and + hearing topics of the times discussed. At the beginning of our married + life I had just as quick a mind to grasp things as he did, and had more + school education, having graduated from a three years' high school. My + husband more and more declined to discuss things with me; as he said, "I + didn't know anything about it." When I'd ask he'd say, "Oh, you wouldn't + understand if I'd tell you." So here I am, at forty-five years, hopelessly + dull and uninteresting, while he can mix with the brightest minds in the + country as an equal. He's a strong Progressive man, took very active part + in the late campaign, etc. I am also Progressive, and tried my best, after + so many years of shut-in life, to grasp the ideas you stood for, and read + everything I could find during the summer and fall. But I've been out of + touch with people too long now, and my husband would much rather go and + talk to some woman who hasn't had any children, because she knows things + (I am not specifying any particular woman). I simply bore him to death + because I'm not interesting. Now, tell me, how was it my fault? I was only + doing what I thought was my duty. No woman can keep up with things who + never talks with any one but young children. As soon as my children grew + up they took the same attitude as their father, and frequently say, "Oh, + mother doesn't know." They look up to and admire their father because he's + a man of the world and knows how to act when he goes out. How can I urge + my daughters now to go and raise large families? It means by the time you + have lost your figure and charm for them they are all ashamed of you. Now, + as a believer in woman's rights, do a little talking to the men as to + their duties to their wives, or else refrain from urging us women to have + children. I am only one of thousands of middle-class respectable women who + give their lives to raise a nice family, and then who become bitter from + the injustice done us. Don't let this go into the waste-basket, but think + it over. + </p> + <p> + Yours respectfully, + </p> + <p> + —— ——. + </p> + <p> + New York, January 11, 1913. + </p> + <p> + <i>My Dear Mrs. ——</i>: + </p> + <p> + Most certainly your letter will not go into the waste-paper basket. I + shall think it over and show it to Mrs. Roosevelt. Will you let me say, in + the first place, that a woman who can write such a letter is certainly not + "hopelessly dull and uninteresting"! If the facts are as you state, then I + do not wonder that you feel bitterly and that you feel that the gravest + kind of injustice has been done you. I have always tried to insist to men + that they should do their duty to the women even more than the women to + them. Now I hardly like to write specifically about your husband, because + you might not like it yourself. It seems to me almost incredible that any + man who is the husband of a woman who has borne him nine children should + not feel that they and he are lastingly her debtors. You say that you have + had nine children, that you did all your own work, including washing, + ironing, house-cleaning, and the care of the little ones as they came + along; that you sewed everything they wore, including trousers for the + boys and caps and jackets for the girls while little; that you helped them + all in their school work and started them in music; but that as they grew + older you got behind the times, that you never belonged to a club or + society or lodge, nor went to any one's house, as you hardly had time to + do so; and that in consequence your husband outgrew you, and that your + children look up to him and not to you and feel that they have outgrown + you. If these facts are so, you have done a great and wonderful work, and + the only explanation I can possibly give of the attitude you describe on + the part of your husband and children is that they do not understand what + it is that you have done. I emphatically believe in unselfishness, but I + also believe that it is a mistake to let other people grow selfish, even + when the other people are husband and children. + </p> + <p> + Now, I suggest that you take your letter to me, of which I send you back a + copy, and this letter, and then select out of your family the one with + whom you feel most sympathy, whether it is your husband or one of your + children. Show the two letters to him or her, and then have a frank talk + about the matter. If any man, as you say, becomes ashamed of his wife + because she has lost her figure in bearing his children, then that man is + a hound and has every cause to be ashamed of himself. I am sending you a + little book called "Mother," by Kathleen Norris, which will give you my + views on the matter. Of course there are base and selfish men, just as + there are, although I believe in smaller number, base and selfish women. + Man and woman alike should profit by the teachings in such a story as this + of "Mother." + </p> + <p> + Sincerely yours, + </p> + <p> + THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + January 21, 1913. + </p> + <p> + <i>Colonel Theodore Roosevelt</i>: + </p> + <p> + My dear Sir—Your letter came as a surprise, for I wasn't expecting + an answer. The next day the book came, and I thank you for your ready + sympathy and understanding. I feel as though you and Mrs. Roosevelt would + think I was hardly loyal to my husband and children; but knowing of no + other way to bring the idea which was so strong in my mind to your notice, + I told my personal story. If it will, in a small measure, be the means of + helping some one else by molding public opinion, through you, I shall be + content. You have helped me more than you know. Just having you interested + is as good as a tonic, and braces me up till I feel as though I shall + refuse to be "laid on the shelf." . . . To think that you'd bother to send + me a book. I shall always treasure it both for the text of the book and + the sender. I read it with absorbing interest. The mother was so splendid. + She was ideal. The situations are so startlingly real, just like what + happens here every day with variations. + </p> + <p> + —— ——. + </p> + <p> + A narrative of facts is often more convincing than a homily; and these two + letters of my correspondent carry their own lesson. + </p> + <p> + Parenthetically, let me remark that whenever a man thinks that he has + outgrown the woman who is his mate, he will do well carefully to consider + whether his growth has not been downward instead of upward, whether the + facts are not merely that he has fallen away from his wife's standard of + refinement and of duty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <h3> + THE NEW YORK POLICE + </h3> + <p> + In the spring of 1895 I was appointed by Mayor Strong Police Commissioner, + and I served as President of the Police Commission of New York for the two + following years. Mayor Strong had been elected Mayor the preceding fall, + when the general anti-Democratic wave of that year coincided with one of + the city's occasional insurrections of virtue and consequent turning out + of Tammany from municipal control. He had been elected on a non-partisan + ticket—usually (although not always) the right kind of ticket in + municipal affairs, provided it represents not a bargain among factions but + genuine non-partisanship with the genuine purpose to get the right men in + control of the city government on a platform which deals with the needs of + the average men and women, the men and women who work hard and who too + often live hard. I was appointed with the distinct understanding that I + was to administer the Police Department with entire disregard of partisan + politics, and only from the standpoint of a good citizen interested in + promoting the welfare of all good citizens. My task, therefore, was really + simple. Mayor Strong had already offered me the Street-Cleaning + Department. For this work I did not feel that I had any especial fitness. + I resolutely refused to accept the position, and the Mayor ultimately got + a far better man for his purpose in Colonel George F. Waring. The work of + the Police Department, however, was in my line, and I was glad to + undertake it. + </p> + <p> + The man who was closest to me throughout my two years in the Police + Department was Jacob Riis. By this time, as I have said, I was getting our + social, industrial, and political needs into pretty fair perspective. I + was still ignorant of the extent to which big men of great wealth played a + mischievous part in our industrial and social life, but I was well awake + to the need of making ours in good faith both an economic and an + industrial as well as a political democracy. I already knew Jake Riis, + because his book "How the Other Half Lives" had been to me both an + enlightenment and an inspiration for which I felt I could never be too + grateful. Soon after it was written I had called at his office to tell him + how deeply impressed I was by the book, and that I wished to help him in + any practical way to try to make things a little better. I have always had + a horror of words that are not translated into deeds, of speech that does + not result in action—in other words, I believe in realizable ideals + and in realizing them, in preaching what can be practiced and then in + practicing it. Jacob Riis had drawn an indictment of the things that were + wrong, pitifully and dreadfully wrong, with the tenement homes and the + tenement lives of our wage-workers. In his book he had pointed out how the + city government, and especially those connected with the departments of + police and health, could aid in remedying some of the wrongs. + </p> + <p> + As President of the Police Board I was also a member of the Health Board. + In both positions I felt that with Jacob Riis's guidance I would be able + to put a goodly number of his principles into actual effect. He and I + looked at life and its problems from substantially the same standpoint. + Our ideals and principles and purposes, and our beliefs as to the methods + necessary to realize them, were alike. After the election in 1894 I had + written him a letter which ran in part as follows: + </p> + <p> + It is very important to the city to have a business man's Mayor, but it is + more important to have a workingman's Mayor; and I want Mr. Strong to be + that also. . . . It is an excellent thing to have rapid transit, but it is + a good deal more important, if you look at matters with a proper + perspective, to have ample playgrounds in the poorer quarters of the city, + and to take the children off the streets so as to prevent them growing up + toughs. In the same way it is an admirable thing to have clean streets; + indeed, it is an essential thing to have them; but it would be a better + thing to have our schools large enough to give ample accommodation to all + who should be pupils and to provide them with proper playgrounds. + </p> + <p> + And I added, while expressing my regret that I had not been able to accept + the street-cleaning commissionership, that "I would have been delighted to + smash up the corrupt contractors and put the street-cleaning force + absolutely out of the domain of politics." + </p> + <p> + This was nineteen years ago, but it makes a pretty good platform in + municipal politics even to-day—smash corruption, take the municipal + service out of the domain of politics, insist upon having a Mayor who + shall be a workingman's Mayor even more than a business man's Mayor, and + devote all attention possible to the welfare of the children. + </p> + <p> + Therefore, as I viewed it, there were two sides to the work: first, the + actual handling of the Police Department; second, using my position to + help in making the city a better place in which to live and work for those + to whom the conditions of life and labor were hardest. The two problems + were closely connected; for one thing never to be forgotten in striving to + better the conditions of the New York police force is the connection + between the standard of morals and behavior in that force and the general + standard of morals and behavior in the city at large. The form of + government of the Police Department at that time was such as to make it a + matter of extreme difficulty to get good results. It represented that + device of old-school American political thought, the desire to establish + checks and balances so elaborate that no man shall have power enough to do + anything very bad. In practice this always means that no man has power + enough to do anything good, and that what is bad is done anyhow. + </p> + <p> + In most positions the "division of powers" theory works unmitigated + mischief. The only way to get good service is to give somebody power to + render it, facing the fact that power which will enable a man to do a job + well will also necessarily enable him to do it ill if he is the wrong kind + of man. What is normally needed is the concentration in the hands of one + man, or of a very small body of men, of ample power to enable him or them + to do the work that is necessary; and then the devising of means to hold + these men fully responsible for the exercise of that power by the people. + This of course means that, if the people are willing to see power misused, + it will be misused. But it also means that if, as we hold, the people are + fit for self-government—if, in other words, our talk and our + institutions are not shams—we will get good government. I do not + contend that my theory will automatically bring good government. I do + contend that it will enable us to get as good government as we deserve, + and that the other way will not. + </p> + <p> + The then government of the Police Department was so devised as to render + it most difficult to accomplish anything good, while the field for + intrigue and conspiracy was limitless. There were four Commissioners, two + supposed to belong to one party and two to the other, although, as a + matter of fact, they never divided on party lines. There was a Chief, + appointed by the Commissioners, but whom they could not remove without a + regular trial subject to review by the courts of law. This Chief and any + one Commissioner had power to hold up most of the acts of the other three + Commissioners. It was made easy for the four Commissioners to come to a + deadlock among themselves; and if this danger was avoided, it was easy for + one Commissioner, by intriguing with the Chief, to bring the other three + to a standstill. The Commissioners were appointed by the Mayor, but he + could not remove them without the assent of the Governor, who was usually + politically opposed to him. In the same way the Commissioners could + appoint the patrolmen, but they could not remove them, save after a trial + which went up for review to the courts. + </p> + <p> + As was inevitable under our system of law procedure, this meant that the + action of the court was apt to be determined by legal technicalities. It + was possible to dismiss a man from the service for quite insufficient + reasons, and to provide against the reversal of the sentence, if the + technicalities of procedure were observed. But the worst criminals were + apt to be adroit men, against whom it was impossible to get legal evidence + which a court could properly consider in a criminal trial (and the mood of + the court might be to treat the case as if it were a criminal trial), + although it was easy to get evidence which would render it not merely + justifiable but necessary for a man to remove them from his private employ—and + surely the public should be as well treated as a private employer. + Accordingly, most of the worst men put out were reinstated by the courts; + and when the Mayor attempted to remove one of my colleagues who made it + his business to try to nullify the work done by the rest of us, the + Governor sided with the recalcitrant Commissioner and refused to permit + his removal. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, an astounding quantity of work was done in reforming the + force. We had a good deal of power, anyhow; we exercised it to the full; + and we accomplished some things by assuming the appearance of a power + which we did not really possess. + </p> + <p> + The first fight I made was to keep politics absolutely out of the force; + and not only politics, but every kind of improper favoritism. Doubtless in + making thousands of appointments and hundreds of promotions there were men + who contrived to use influence of which I was ignorant. But these cases + must have been few and far between. As far as was humanly possible, the + appointments and promotions were made without regard to any question + except the fitness of the man and the needs of the service. As Civil + Service Commissioner I had been instructing heads of departments and + bureaus how to get men appointed without regard to politics, and assuring + them that by following our methods they would obtain first-class results. + As Police Commissioner I was able practically to apply my own teachings. + </p> + <p> + The appointments to the police force were made as I have described in the + last chapter. We paid not the slightest attention to a man's politics or + creed, or where he was born, so long as he was an American citizen; and on + an average we obtained far and away the best men that had ever come into + the Police Department. It was of course very difficult at first to + convince both the politicians and the people that we really meant what we + said, and that every one really would have a fair trial. There had been in + previous years the most widespread and gross corruption in connection with + every activity in the Police Department, and there had been a regular + tariff for appointments and promotions. Many powerful politicians and many + corrupt outsiders believed that in some way or other it would still be + possible to secure appointments by corrupt and improper methods, and many + good citizens felt the same conviction. I endeavored to remove the + impression from the minds of both sets of people by giving the widest + publicity to what we were doing and how we were doing it, by making the + whole process open and aboveboard, and by making it evident that we would + probe to the bottom every charge of corruption. + </p> + <p> + For instance, I received visits at one time from a Catholic priest, and at + another time from a Methodist clergyman, who had parishioners who wished + to enter the police force, but who did not believe they could get in save + by the payment of money or through political pressure. The priest was + running a temperance lyceum in connection with his church, and he wished + to know if there would be a chance for some of the young men who belonged + to that lyceum. The Methodist clergyman came from a little patch of old + native America which by a recent extension had been taken within the + limits of the huge, polyglot, pleasure-loving city. His was a small + church, most of the members being shipwrights, mechanics, and sailormen + from the local coasters. In each case I assured my visitor that we wanted + on the force men of the exact type which he said he could furnish. I also + told him that I was as anxious as he was to find out if there was any + improper work being done in connection with the examinations, and that I + would like him to get four or five of his men to take the examinations + without letting me know their names. Then, whether the men failed or + succeeded, he and I would take their papers and follow them through every + stage so that we could tell at once whether they had been either + improperly favored or improperly discriminated against. This was + accordingly done, and in each case my visitor turned up a few weeks later, + his face wreathed in smiles, to say that his candidates had passed and + that everything was evidently all straight. During my two years as + President of the Commission I think I appointed a dozen or fifteen members + of that little Methodist congregation, and certainly twice that number of + men from the temperance lyceum of the Catholic church in question. They + were all men of the very type I most wished to see on the force—men + of strong physique and resolute temper, sober, self-respecting, + self-reliant, with a strong wish to improve themselves. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally I would myself pick out a man and tell him to take the + examination. Thus one evening I went down to speak in the Bowery at the + Young Men's Institute, a branch of the Young Men's Christian Association, + at the request of Mr. Cleveland H. Dodge. While there he told me he wished + to show me a young Jew who had recently, by an exhibition of marked pluck + and bodily prowess, saved some women and children from a burning building. + The young Jew, whose name was Otto Raphael, was brought up to see me; a + powerful fellow, with a good-humored, intelligent face. I asked him about + his education, and told him to try the examination. He did, passed, was + appointed, and made an admirable officer; and he and all his family, + wherever they may dwell, have been close friends of mine ever since. Otto + Raphael was a genuine East Sider. He and I were both "straight New York," + to use the vernacular of our native city. To show our community of feeling + and our grasp of the facts of life, I may mention that we were almost the + only men in the Police Department who picked Fitzsimmons as a winner + against Corbett. Otto's parents had come over from Russia, and not only in + social standing but in pay a policeman's position meant everything to him. + It enabled Otto to educate his little brothers and sisters who had been + born in this country, and to bring over from Russia two or three kinsfolk + who had perforce been left behind. + </p> + <p> + Rather curiously, it was by no means as easy to keep politics and + corruption out of the promotions as out of the entrance examinations. This + was because I could take complete charge of the entrance examinations + myself; and, moreover, they were largely automatic. In promotions, on the + other hand, the prime element was the record and capacity of the officer, + and for this we had largely to rely upon the judgment of the man's + immediate superiors. This doubtless meant that in certain cases that + judgment was given for improper reasons. + </p> + <p> + However, there were cases where I could act on personal knowledge. One + thing that we did was to endeavor to recognize gallantry. We did not have + to work a revolution in the force as to courage in the way that we had to + work a revolution in honesty. They had always been brave in dealing with + riotous and violent criminals. But they had gradually become very corrupt. + Our great work, therefore, was the stamping out of dishonesty, and this + work we did thoroughly, so far as the ridiculous bi-partisan law under + which the Department was administered would permit. But we were anxious + that, while stamping out what was evil in the force, we should keep and + improve what was good. While warring on dishonesty, we made every effort + to increase efficiency. It has unfortunately been shown by sad experience + that at times a police organization which is free from the taint of + corruption may yet show itself weak in some great crisis or unable to deal + with the more dangerous kinds of criminals. This we were determined to + prevent. + </p> + <p> + Our efforts were crowned with entire success. The improvement in the + efficiency of the force went hand in hand with the improvement in its + honesty. The men in uniform and the men in plain clothes—the + detectives—did better work than ever before. The aggregate of crimes + where punishment followed the commission of the crime increased, while the + aggregate of crimes where the criminal escaped punishment decreased. Every + discredited politician, every sensational newspaper, and every timid fool + who could be scared by clamor was against us. All three classes strove by + every means in their power to show that in making the force honest we had + impaired its efficiency; and by their utterances they tended to bring + about the very condition of things against which they professed to + protest. But we went steadily along the path we had marked out. The fight + was hard, and there was plenty of worry and anxiety, but we won. I was + appointed in May, 1895. In February, 1897, three months before I resigned + to become Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the Judge who charged the Grand + Jury of New York County was able to congratulate them on the phenomenal + decrease in crime, especially of the violent sort. This decrease was + steady during the two years. The police, after the reform policy was + thoroughly tried, proved more successful than ever before in protecting + life and property and in putting down crime and criminal vice. + </p> + <p> + The part played by the recognition and reward of actual personal prowess + among the members of the police force in producing this state of affairs + was appreciable, though there were many other factors that combined to + bring about the betterment. The immense improvement in discipline by + punishing all offenders without mercy, no matter how great their political + or personal influence; the resolute warfare against every kind of criminal + who had hitherto been able corruptly to purchase protection; the prompt + recognition of ability even where it was entirely unconnected with + personal prowess—all these were elements which had enormous weight + in producing the change. Mere courage and daring, and the rewarding of + courage and daring, cannot supply the lack of discipline, of ability, of + honesty. But they are of vital consequence, nevertheless. No police force + is worth anything if its members are not intelligent and honest; but + neither is it worth anything unless its members are brave, hardy, and well + disciplined. + </p> + <p> + We showed recognition of daring and of personal prowess in two ways: + first, by awarding a medal or a certificate in remembrance of the deed; + and, second, by giving it weight in making any promotion, especially to + the lower grades. In the higher grades—in all promotions above that + of sergeant, for instance—resolute and daring courage cannot + normally be considered as a factor of determining weight in making + promotions; rather is it a quality the lack of which unfits a man for + promotion. For in the higher places we must assume the existence of such a + quality in any fit candidate, and must make the promotion with a view to + the man's energy, executive capacity, and power of command. In the lower + grades, however, marked gallantry should always be taken into account in + deciding among different candidates for any given place. + </p> + <p> + During our two years' service we found it necessary over a hundred times + to single out men for special mention because of some feat of heroism. The + heroism usually took one of four forms: saving somebody from drowning, + saving somebody from a burning building, stopping a runaway team, or + arresting some violent lawbreaker under exceptional circumstances. To + illustrate our method of action, I will take two of the first promotions + made after I became Commissioner. One case was that of an old fellow, a + veteran of the Civil War, who was at the time a roundsman. I happened to + notice one day that he had saved a woman from drowning, and had him + summoned so that I might look into the matter. The old fellow brought up + his record before me, and showed not a little nervousness and agitation; + for it appeared that he had grown gray in the service, had performed feat + after feat of heroism, but had no political backing of any account. No + heed had ever been paid him. He was one of the quiet men who attend solely + to duty, and although a Grand Army man, he had never sought to use + influence of any kind. Now, at last, he thought there was a chance for + him. He had been twenty-two years on the force, and during that time had + saved some twenty-five persons from death by drowning, varying the + performance two or three times by saving persons from burning buildings. + Twice Congress had passed laws especially to empower the then Secretary of + the Treasury, John Sherman, to give him a medal for distinguished + gallantry in saving life. The Life-Saving Society had also given him its + medal, and so had the Police Department. There was not a complaint in all + his record against him for any infraction of duty, and he was sober and + trustworthy. He was entitled to his promotion; and he got it, there and + then. It may be worth mentioning that he kept on saving life after he was + given his sergeantcy. On October 21, 1896, he again rescued a man from + drowning. It was at night, nobody else was in the neighborhood, and the + dock from which he jumped was in absolute darkness, and he was ten minutes + in the water, which was very cold. He was fifty-five years old when he + saved this man. It was the twenty-ninth person whose life he had saved + during his twenty-three years' service in the Department. + </p> + <p> + The other man was a patrolman whom we promoted to roundsman for activity + in catching a burglar under rather peculiar circumstances. I happened to + note his getting a burglar one week. Apparently he had fallen into the + habit, for he got another next week. In the latter case the burglar + escaped from the house soon after midnight, and ran away toward Park + Avenue, with the policeman in hot chase. The New York Central Railroad + runs under Park Avenue, and there is a succession of openings in the top + of the tunnel. Finding that the policeman was gaining on him, the burglar + took a desperate chance and leaped down one of these openings, at the risk + of breaking his neck. Now the burglar was running for his liberty, and it + was the part of wisdom for him to imperil life or limb; but the policeman + was merely doing his duty, and nobody could have blamed him for not taking + the jump. However, he jumped; and in this particular case the hand of the + Lord was heavy upon the unrighteous. The burglar had the breath knocked + out of him, and the "cop" didn't. When his victim could walk, the officer + trotted him around to the station-house; and a week after I had the + officer up and promoted him, for he was sober, trustworthy, and strictly + attentive to duty. + </p> + <p> + Now I think that any decent man of reasonable intelligence will agree that + we were quite right in promoting men in cases like these, and quite right + in excluding politics from promotions. Yet it was because of our + consistently acting in this manner, resolutely warring on dishonesty and + on that peculiar form of baseness which masquerades as "practical" + politics, and steadily refusing to pay heed to any consideration except + the good of the service and the city, and the merits of the men + themselves, that we drew down upon our heads the bitter and malignant + animosity of the bread-and-butter spoils politicians. They secured the + repeal of the Civil Service Law by the State Legislature. They attempted + and almost succeeded in the effort to legislate us out of office. They + joined with the baser portion of the sensational press in every species of + foul, indecent falsehood and slander as to what we were doing. They + attempted to seduce or frighten us by every species of intrigue and + cajolery, of promise of political reward and threat of political + punishment. They failed in their purpose. I believe in political + organizations, and I believe in practical politics. If a man is not + practical, he is of no use anywhere. But when politicians treat practical + politics as foul politics, and when they turn what ought to be a necessary + and useful political organization into a machine run by professional + spoilsmen of low morality in their own interest, then it is time to drive + the politician from public life, and either to mend or destroy the + machine, according as the necessity may determine. + </p> + <p> + We promoted to roundsman a patrolman, with an already excellent record, + for gallantry shown in a fray which resulted in the death of his + antagonist. He was after a gang of toughs who had just waylaid, robbed, + and beaten a man. They scattered and he pursued the ringleader. Running + hard, he gained on his man, whereupon the latter suddenly turned and fired + full in his face. The officer already had his revolver drawn, and the two + shots rang out almost together. The policeman was within a fraction of + death, for the bullet from his opponent's pistol went through his helmet + and just broke the skin of his head. His own aim was truer, and the man he + was after fell dead, shot through the heart. I may explain that I have not + the slightest sympathy with any policy which tends to put the policeman at + the mercy of a tough, or which deprives him of efficient weapons. While + Police Commissioner we punished any brutality by the police with such + immediate severity that all cases of brutality practically came to an end. + No decent citizen had anything to fear from the police during the two + years of my service. But we consistently encouraged the police to prove + that the violent criminal who endeavored to molest them or to resist + arrest, or to interfere with them in the discharge of their duty, was + himself in grave jeopardy; and we had every "gang" broken up and the + members punished with whatever severity was necessary. Of course where + possible the officer merely crippled the criminal who was violent. + </p> + <p> + One of the things that we did while in office was to train the men in the + use of the pistol. A school of pistol practice was established, and the + marksmanship of the force was wonderfully improved. The man in charge of + the school was a roundsman, Petty, whom we promoted to sergeant. He was + one of the champion revolver shots of the country, and could hit just + about where he aimed. Twice he was forced to fire at criminals who + resisted arrest, and in each case he hit his man in the arm or leg, simply + stopping him without danger to his life. + </p> + <p> + In May, 1896, a number of burglaries occurred far uptown, in the + neighborhood of One Hundred and Fifty-sixth Street and Union Avenue. Two + officers were sent out each night to patrol the streets in plain clothes. + About two o'clock on the morning of May 8 they caught a glimpse of two men + loitering about a large corner house, and determined to make them explain + their actions. In order to cut off their escape, one officer went down one + street and one the other. The first officer, whose name was Ryan, found + the two men at the gateway of the side entrance of the house, and hailed + to know what they were doing. Without answering, they turned and ran + toward Prospect Avenue, with Ryan in close pursuit. After running about + one hundred feet, one of them turned and fired three shots at Ryan, but + failed to hit him. The two then separated, and the man who had done the + shooting escaped. The other man, whose name proved to be O'Connor, again + took to his heels, with Ryan still after him; they turned the corner and + met the other officer, whose name was Reid, running as hard as he could + toward the shooting. When O'Connor saw himself cut off by Reid, he fired + at his new foe, the bullet cutting Reid's overcoat on the left shoulder. + Reid promptly fired in return, his bullet going into O'Connor's neck and + causing him to turn a complete somersault. The two officers then cared for + their prisoner until the ambulance arrived, when he was taken to the + hospital and pronounced mortally wounded. His companion was afterward + caught, and they turned out to be the very burglars for whom Reid and Ryan + had been on the lookout. + </p> + <p> + In December, 1896, one of our officers was shot. A row occurred in a + restaurant, which ended in two young toughs drawing their revolvers and + literally running amuck, shooting two or three men. A policeman, attracted + by the noise, ran up and seized one of them, whereupon the other shot him + in the mouth, wounding him badly. Nevertheless, the officer kept his + prisoner and carried him to the station-house. The tough who had done the + shooting ran out and was seized by another officer. The tough fired at + him, the bullet passing through the officer's overcoat, but he was + promptly knocked down, disarmed, and brought to the station-house. In this + case neither policeman used his revolver, and each brought in his man, + although the latter was armed and resisted arrest, one of the officers + taking in his prisoner after having been himself severely wounded. A + lamentable feature of the case was that this same officer was a man who, + though capable of great gallantry, was also given to shirking his work, + and we were finally obliged to dismiss him from the force, after passing + over two or three glaring misdeeds in view of his record for courage. + </p> + <p> + We promoted another man on account of finding out accidentally that he had + performed a notable feat, which he had forborne even to mention, so that + his name never came on the roll of honor. Late at night, while patrolling + a lonely part of his post, he came upon three young toughs who had turned + highwaymen and were robbing a peddler. He ran in at once with his + night-stick, whereupon the toughs showed fight, and one of them struck at + him with a bludgeon, breaking his left hand. The officer, however, made + such good use of his night-stick that he knocked down two of his + assailants, whereupon the third ran away, and he brought both of his + prisoners to the station-house. Then he went round to the hospital, had + his broken hand set in plaster, and actually reported for duty at the next + tour, without losing one hour. He was a quiet fellow, with a record free + from complaints, and we made him roundsman. + </p> + <p> + The mounted squad have, of course, many opportunities to distinguish + themselves in stopping runaways. In May, 1895, a mounted policeman named + Heyer succeeded in stopping a runaway at Kingsbridge under rather + noteworthy circumstances. Two men were driving in a buggy, when the horse + stumbled, and in recovering himself broke the head-stall, so that the + bridle fell off. The horse was a spirited trotter, and at once ran away at + full speed. Heyer saw the occurrence, and followed at a run. When he got + alongside the runaway he seized him by the forelock, guided him + dexterously over the bridge, preventing him from running into the numerous + wagons that were on the road, and finally forced him up a hill and into a + wagon-shed. Three months later this same officer saved a man from + drowning. + </p> + <p> + The members of the bicycle squad, which was established shortly after we + took office, soon grew to show not only extraordinary proficiency on the + wheel, but extraordinary daring. They frequently stopped runaways, + wheeling alongside of them, and grasping the horses while going at full + speed; and, what was even more remarkable, they managed not only to + overtake but to jump into the vehicle and capture, on two or three + different occasions, men who were guilty of reckless driving, and who + fought violently in resisting arrest. They were picked men, being young + and active, and any feat of daring which could be accomplished on the + wheel they were certain to accomplish. + </p> + <p> + Three of the best riders of the bicycle squad, whose names and records + happen to occur to me, were men of the three ethnic strains most strongly + represented in the New York police force, being respectively of native + American, German, and Irish parentage. + </p> + <p> + The German was a man of enormous power, and he was able to stop each of + the many runaways he tackled without losing his wheel. Choosing his time, + he would get alongside the horse and seize the bit in his left hand, + keeping his right on the crossbar of the wheel. By degrees he then got the + animal under control. He never failed to stop it, and he never lost his + wheel. He also never failed to overtake any "scorcher," although many of + these were professional riders who deliberately violated the law to see if + they could not get away from him; for the wheelmen soon get to know the + officers whose beats they cross. + </p> + <p> + The Yankee, though a tall, powerful man and a very good rider, scarcely + came up to the German in either respect; he possessed exceptional ability, + however, as well as exceptional nerve and coolness, and he also won his + promotion. He stopped about as many runaways; but when the horse was + really panic-stricken he usually had to turn his wheel loose, getting a + firm grip on the horse's reins and then kicking his wheel so that it would + fall out of the way of injury from the wagon. On one occasion he had a + fight with a drunken and reckless driver who was urging to top speed a + spirited horse. He first got hold of the horse, whereupon the driver + lashed both him and the beast, and the animal, already mad with terror, + could not be stopped. The officer had of course kicked away his wheel at + the beginning, and after being dragged along for some distance he let go + the beast and made a grab at the wagon. The driver hit him with his whip, + but he managed to get in, and after a vigorous tussle overcame his man, + and disposed of him by getting him down and sitting on him. This left his + hands free for the reins. By degrees he got the horse under control, and + drove the wagon round to the station-house, still sitting on his victim. + "I jounced up and down on him to keep him quiet when he turned ugly," he + remarked to me parenthetically. Having disposed of the wagon, he took the + man round to the court, and on the way the prisoner suddenly sprang on him + and tried to throttle him. Convinced at last that patience had ceased to + be a virtue, he quieted his assailant with a smash on the head that took + all the fight out of him until he was brought before the judge and fined. + Like the other "bicycle cops," this officer made a number of arrests of + criminals, such as thieves, highwaymen, and the like, in addition to his + natural prey—scorchers, runaways, and reckless drivers. + </p> + <p> + The third member of the trio, a tall, sinewy man with flaming red hair, + which rather added to the terror he inspired in evil-doers, was usually + stationed in a tough part of the city, where there was a tendency to + crimes of violence, and incidentally an occasional desire to harass + wheelmen. The officer was as good off his wheel as on it, and he speedily + established perfect order on his beat, being always willing to "take + chances" in getting his man. He was no respecter of persons, and when it + became his duty to arrest a wealthy man for persistently refusing to have + his carriage lamps lighted after nightfall, he brought him in with the + same indifference that he displayed in arresting a street-corner tough who + had thrown a brick at a wheelman. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally a policeman would perform work which ordinarily comes within + the domain of the fireman. In November, 1896, an officer who had + previously saved a man from death by drowning added to his record by + saving five persons from burning. He was at the time asleep, when he was + aroused by a fire in a house a few doors away. Running over the roofs of + the adjoining houses until he reached the burning building, he found that + on the fourth floor the flames had cut off all exit from an apartment in + which there were four women, two of them over fifty, and one of the others + with a six-months-old baby. The officer ran down to the adjoining house, + broke open the door of the apartment on the same floor—the fourth—and + crept out on the coping, less than three inches wide, that ran from one + house to the other. Being a large and very powerful and active man, he + managed to keep hold of the casing of the window with one hand, and with + the other to reach to the window of the apartment where the women and + child were. The firemen appeared, and stretched a net underneath. The + crowd that was looking on suddenly became motionless and silent. Then, one + by one, he drew the women out of their window, and, holding them tight + against the wall, passed them into the other window. The exertion in such + an attitude was great, and he strained himself badly; but he possessed a + practical mind, and as soon as the women were saved he began a prompt + investigation of the cause of the fire, and arrested two men whose + carelessness, as was afterward proved, caused it. + </p> + <p> + Now and then a man, though a brave man, proved to be slack or stupid or + vicious, and we could make nothing out of him; but hardihood and courage + were qualities upon which we insisted and which we rewarded. Whenever I + see the police force attacked and vilified, I always remember my + association with it. The cases I have given above are merely instances + chosen almost at random among hundreds of others. Men such as those I have + mentioned have the right stuff in them! If they go wrong, the trouble is + with the system, and therefore with us, the citizens, for permitting the + system to go unchanged. The conditions of New York life are such as to + make the police problem therein more difficult than in any other of the + world's great capitals. I am often asked if policemen are honest. I + believe that the great majority of them want to be honest and will be + honest whenever they are given the chance. The New York police force is a + body thoroughly representative of the great city itself. As I have said + above, the predominant ethnic strains in it are, first, the men of Irish + birth or parentage, and, following these, the native Americans, usually + from the country districts, and the men of German birth or parentage. + There are also Jews, Scandinavians, Italians, Slavs, and men of other + nationalities. All soon become welded into one body. They are physically a + fine lot. Moreover, their instincts are right; they are game, they are + alert and self-reliant, they prefer to act squarely if they are allowed so + to act. All that they need is to be given the chance to prove themselves + honest, brave, and self-respecting. + </p> + <p> + The law at present is much better than in our day, so far as governing the + force is concerned. There is now a single Commissioner, and the Mayor has + complete power over him. The Mayor, through his Commissioner, now has + power to keep the police force on a good level of conduct if with + resolution and common sense he insists on absolute honesty within the + force and at the same time heartily supports it against the criminal + classes. To weaken the force in its dealings with gangs and toughs and + criminals generally is as damaging as to permit dishonesty, and, moreover, + works towards dishonesty. But while under the present law very much + improvement can be worked, there is need of change of the law which will + make the Police Commissioner a permanent, non-partisan official, holding + office so long as he proves thoroughly fit for the job, completely + independent of the politicians and privileged interests, and with complete + power over the force. This means that there must be the right law, and the + right public opinion back of the law. + </p> + <p> + The many-sided ethnic character of the force now and then gives rise to, + or affords opportunity for, queer happenings. Occasionally it enables one + to meet emergencies in the best possible fashion. While I was Police + Commissioner an anti-Semitic preacher from Berlin, Rector Ahlwardt, came + over to New York to preach a crusade against the Jews. Many of the New + York Jews were much excited and asked me to prevent him from speaking and + not to give him police protection. This, I told them, was impossible; and + if possible would have been undesirable because it would have made him a + martyr. The proper thing to do was to make him ridiculous. Accordingly I + detailed for his protection a Jew sergeant and a score or two of Jew + policemen. He made his harangue against the Jews under the active + protection of some forty policemen, every one of them a Jew! It was the + most effective possible answer; and incidentally it was an object-lesson + to our people, whose greatest need it is to learn that there must be no + division by class hatred, whether this hatred be that of creed against + creed, nationality against nationality, section against section, or men of + one social or industrial condition against men of another social and + industrial condition. We must ever judge each individual on his own + conduct and merits, and not on his membership in any class, whether that + class be based on theological, social, or industrial considerations. + </p> + <p> + Among my political opponents when I was Police Commissioner was the head + of a very influential local Democratic organization. He was a State + Senator usually known as Big Tim Sullivan. Big Tim represented the morals + of another era; that is, his principles and actions were very much those + of a Norman noble in the years immediately succeeding the Battle of + Hastings. (This will seem flattery only to those who are not acquainted + with the real histories and antecedents of the Norman nobles of the epoch + in question.) His application of these eleventh-century theories to our + nineteenth-century municipal democratic conditions brought him into sharp + contact with me, and with one of my right-hand men in the Department, + Inspector John McCullough. Under the old dispensation this would have + meant that his friends and kinsfolk were under the ban. + </p> + <p> + Now it happened that in the Department at that time there was a nephew or + cousin of his, Jerry D. Sullivan. I found that Jerry was an uncommonly + good man, a conscientious, capable officer, and I promoted him. I do not + know whether Jerry or Jerry's cousin (Senator Sullivan) was more + astonished. The Senator called upon me to express what I am sure was a + very genuine feeling of appreciation. Poor Jerry died, I think of + consumption, a year or two after I left the Department. He was promoted + again after I left, and he then showed that he possessed the very rare + quality of gratitude, for he sent me a telegram dated January 15, 1898, + running as follows: "Was made sergeant to-day. I thank you for all in my + first advancement." And in a letter written to me he said: "In the future, + as in the past, I will endeavor at all times to perform my duty honestly + and fearlessly, and never cause you to feel that you were mistaken in me, + so that you will be justly proud of my record." The Senator, though + politically opposed to me, always kept a feeling of friendship for me + after this incident. He served in Congress while I was President. + </p> + <p> + The police can be used to help all kinds of good purposes. When I was + Police Commissioner much difficulty had been encountered in locating + illegal and fraudulent practitioners of medicine. Dr. Maurice Lewi called + on me, with a letter from James Russell Parsons, the Secretary of the + Board of Regents at Albany, and asked me if I could not help. After + questioning him I found that the local authorities were eager to prosecute + these men, but could not locate them; and I made up my mind I would try my + hand at it. Accordingly, a sealed order was sent to the commanding officer + of each police precinct in New York, not to be opened until just before + the morning roll call, previous to the police squad going on duty. This + order required that, immediately upon reaching post, each patrolman should + go over his beat and enter upon a sheet of paper, provided for that + purpose, the full name and address of every doctor sign there appearing. + Immediately upon securing this information, the patrolman was instructed + to return the sheet to the officer in charge of the precinct. The latter + in turn was instructed to collect and place in one large envelope and to + return to Police Headquarters all the data thus received. As a result of + this procedure, within two hours the prosecuting officials of the city of + New York were in possession of the name and address of every person in New + York who announced himself as a physician; and scores of pretended + physicians were brought to book or driven from the city. + </p> + <p> + One of the perennially serious and difficult problems, and one of the + chief reasons for police blackmail and corruption, is to be found in the + excise situation in New York. When I was Police Commissioner, New York was + a city with twelve or fifteen thousand saloons, with a State law which + said they should be closed on Sundays, and with a local sentiment which + put a premium on violating the law by making Sunday the most profitable + day in the week to the saloon-keeper who was willing to take chances. It + was this willingness to take chances that furnished to the corrupt + politician and the corrupt police officer their opportunities. + </p> + <p> + There was in New York City a strong sentiment in favor of honesty in + politics; there was also a strong sentiment in favor of opening the + saloons on Sundays; and, finally, there was a strong sentiment in favor of + keeping the saloons closed on Sunday. Unfortunately, many of the men who + favored honest government nevertheless preferred keeping the saloons open + to having honest government; and many others among the men who favored + honest government put it second to keeping the saloons closed. Moreover, + among the people who wished the law obeyed and the saloons closed there + were plenty who objected strongly to every step necessary to accomplish + the result, although they also insisted that the result should be + accomplished. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the politicians found an incredible profit in using the law as a + club to keep the saloons in line; all except the biggest, the owners of + which, or the owners of the breweries back of which, sat in the inner + councils of Tammany, or controlled Tammany's allies in the Republican + organization. The police used the partial and spasmodic enforcement of the + law as a means of collecting blackmail. The result was that the officers + of the law, the politicians, and the saloon-keepers became inextricably + tangled in a network of crime and connivance at crime. The most powerful + saloon-keepers controlled the politicians and the police, while the latter + in turn terrorized and blackmailed all the other saloon-keepers. It was + not a case of non-enforcement of the law. The law was very actively + enforced, but it was enforced with corrupt discrimination. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult for men who have not been brought into contact with that + side of political life which deals with the underworld to understand the + brazen openness with which this blackmailing of lawbreakers was carried + out. A further very dark fact was that many of the men responsible for + putting the law on the statute-books in order to please one element of + their constituents, also connived at or even profited by the corrupt and + partial non-enforcement of the law in order to please another set of their + constituents, or to secure profit for themselves. The organ of the + liquor-sellers at that time was the Wine and Spirit Gazette. The editor of + this paper believed in selling liquor on Sunday, and felt that it was an + outrage to forbid it. But he also felt that corruption and blackmail made + too big a price to pay for the partial non-enforcement of the law. He made + in his paper a statement, the correctness of which was never questioned, + which offers a startling commentary on New York politics of that period. + In this statement he recited the fact that the system of blackmail had + been brought to such a state of perfection, and had become so oppressive + to the liquor dealers themselves, that they communicated at length on the + subject with Governor Hill (the State Democratic boss) and then with Mr. + Croker (the city Democratic boss). Finally the matter was formally taken + up by a committee of the Central Association of Liquor Dealers in an + interview they held with Mr. Martin, my Tammany predecessor as President + of the police force. In matter-of-course way the editor's statement + continues: "An agreement was made between the leaders of Tammany Hall and + the liquor dealers according to which the monthly blackmail paid to the + force should be discontinued in return for political support." Not only + did the big bosses, State and local, treat this agreement, and the + corruption to which it was due, as normal and proper, but they never even + took the trouble to deny what had been done when it was made public. + Tammany and the police, however, did not fully live up to the agreement; + and much discrimination of a very corrupt kind, and of a very exasperating + kind to liquor-sellers who wished to be honest, continued in connection + with the enforcing of the law. + </p> + <p> + In short, the agreement was kept only with those who had "pull." These men + with "pull" were benefited when their rivals were bullied and blackmailed + by the police. The police, meanwhile, who had bought appointment or + promotion, and the politicians back of them, extended the blackmailing to + include about everything from the pushcart peddler and the big or small + merchant who wished to use the sidewalk illegally for his goods, up to the + keepers of the brothel, the gambling-house, and the policy-shop. The total + blackmail ran into millions of dollars. New York was a wide-open town. The + big bosses rolled in wealth, and the corrupt policemen who ran the force + lost all sense of decency and justice. Nevertheless, I wish to insist on + the fact that the honest men on the patrol posts, "the men with the + night-sticks," remained desirous to see honesty obtain, although they were + losing courage and hope. + </p> + <p> + This was the situation that confronted me when I came to Mulberry Street. + The saloon was the chief source of mischief. It was with the saloon that I + had to deal, and there was only one way to deal with it. That was to + enforce the law. The howl that rose was deafening. The professional + politicians raved. The yellow press surpassed themselves in clamor and + mendacity. A favorite assertion was that I was enforcing a "blue" law, an + obsolete law that had never before been enforced. As a matter of fact, I + was only enforcing honestly a law that had hitherto been enforced + dishonestly. There was very little increase in the number of arrests made + for violating the Sunday law. Indeed, there were weeks when the number of + arrests went down. The only difference was that there was no protected + class. Everybody was arrested alike, and I took especial pains to see that + there was no discrimination, and that the big men and the men with + political influence were treated like every one else. The immediate effect + was wholly good. I had been told that it was not possible to close the + saloons on Sunday and that I could not succeed. However, I did succeed. + The warden of Bellevue Hospital reported, two or three weeks after we had + begun, that for the first time in its existence there had not been a case + due to a drunken brawl in the hospital all Monday. The police courts gave + the same testimony, while savings banks recorded increased deposits and + pawnshops hard times. The most touching of all things was the fact that we + received letters, literally by the hundred, from mothers in + tenement-houses who had never been allowed to take their children to the + country in the wide-open days, and who now found their husbands willing to + take them and their families for an outing on Sunday. Jake Riis and I + spent one Sunday from morning till night in the tenement districts, seeing + for ourselves what had happened. + </p> + <p> + During the two years that we were in office things never slipped back to + anything like what they had been before. But we did not succeed in keeping + them quite as highly keyed as during these first weeks. As regards the + Sunday-closing law, this was partly because public sentiment was not + really with us. The people who had demanded honesty, but who did not like + to pay for it by the loss of illegal pleasure, joined the openly dishonest + in attacking us. Moreover, all kinds of ways of evading the law were + tried, and some of them were successful. The statute, for instance, + permitted any man to take liquor with meals. After two or three months a + magistrate was found who decided judicially that seventeen beers and one + pretzel made a meal—after which decision joy again became unconfined + in at least some of the saloons, and the yellow press gleefully announced + that my "tyranny" had been curbed. But my prime object, that of stopping + blackmail, was largely attained. + </p> + <p> + All kinds of incidents occurred in connection with this crusade. One of + them introduced me to a friend who remains a friend yet. His name was + Edward J. Bourke. He was one of the men who entered the police force + through our examinations shortly after I took office. I had summoned + twenty or thirty of the successful applicants to let me look over them; + and as I walked into the hall, one of them, a well-set-up man, called out + sharply to the others, "Gangway," making them move to one side. I found he + had served in the United States navy. The incident was sufficient to make + me keep him in mind. A month later I was notified by a police reporter, a + very good fellow, that Bourke was in difficulties, and that he thought I + had better look into the matter myself, as Bourke was being accused by + certain very influential men of grave misconduct in an arrest he had made + the night before. Accordingly, I took the matter up personally. I found + that on the new patrolman's beat the preceding night—a new beat—there + was a big saloon run by a man of great influence in political circles + known as "King" Calahan. After midnight the saloon was still running in + full blast, and Bourke, stepping inside, told Calahan to close up. It was + at the time filled with "friends of personal liberty," as Governor Hill + used at that time, in moments of pathos, to term everybody who regarded as + tyranny any restriction on the sale of liquor. Calahan's saloon had never + before in its history been closed, and to have a green cop tell him to + close it seemed to him so incredible that he regarded it merely as a bad + jest. On his next round Bourke stepped in and repeated the order. Calahan + felt that the jest had gone too far, and by way of protest knocked Bourke + down. This was an error of judgment on his part, for when Bourke arose he + knocked down Calahan. The two then grappled and fell on the floor, while + the "friends of personal liberty" danced around the fight and endeavored + to stamp on everything they thought wasn't Calahan. However, Bourke, + though pretty roughly handled, got his man and shut the saloon. When he + appeared against the lawbreaker in court next day, he found the court-room + crowded with influential Tammany Hall politicians, backed by one or two + Republican leaders of the same type; for Calahan was a baron of the + underworld, and both his feudal superiors and his feudal inferiors + gathered to the rescue. His backers in court included a Congressman and a + State Senator, and so deep-rooted was the police belief in "pull" that his + own superiors had turned against Bourke and were preparing to sacrifice + him. Just at this time I acted on the information given me by my newspaper + friend by starting in person for the court. The knowledge that I knew what + was going on, that I meant what I said, and that I intended to make the + affair personal, was all that was necessary. Before I reached the court + all effort to defend Calahan had promptly ceased, and Bourke had come + forth triumphant. I immediately promoted him to roundsman. He is a captain + now. He has been on the force ever since, save that when the Spanish War + came he obtained a holiday without pay for six months and reentered the + navy, serving as gun captain in one of the gunboats, and doing his work, + as was to be expected, in first-rate fashion, especially when under fire. + </p> + <p> + Let me again say that when men tell me that the police are irredeemably + bad I remember scores and hundreds of cases like this of Bourke, like the + case I have already mentioned of Raphael, like the other cases I have + given above. + </p> + <p> + It is useless to tell me that these men are bad. They are naturally + first-rate men. There are no better men anywhere than the men of the New + York police force; and when they go bad it is because the system is wrong, + and because they are not given the chance to do the good work they can do + and would rather do. I never coddled these men. I punished them severely + whenever I thought their conduct required it. All I did was to try to be + just; to reward them when they did well; in short, to act squarely by + them. I believe that, as a whole, they liked me. When, in 1912, I ran for + President on the Progressive ticket, I received a number of unsigned + letters inclosing sums of money for the campaign. One of these inclosed + twenty dollars. The writer, who did not give his name, said that he was a + policeman, that I had once had him before me on charges, and had fined him + twenty dollars; that, as a matter of fact, he had not committed the + offense for which I fined him, but that the evidence was such that he did + not wonder that I had been misled, and never blamed me for it, because I + had acted squarely and had given honest and decent men a chance in the + Police Department; and that now he inclosed a twenty-dollar bill, the + amount of the fine inflicted on him so many years before. I have always + wished I knew who the man was. + </p> + <p> + The disciplinary courts were very interesting. But it was extraordinarily + difficult to get at the facts in the more complicated cases—as must + always be true under similar circumstances; for ordinarily it is necessary + to back up the superior officer who makes the charge, and yet it is always + possible that this superior officer is consciously or unconsciously biased + against his subordinate. + </p> + <p> + In the courts the charges were sometimes brought by police officers and + sometimes by private citizens. In the latter case we would get queer + insights into twilight phases of New York life. It was necessary to be + always on our guard. Often an accusation would be brought against the + policeman because he had been guilty of misconduct. Much more often the + accusation merely meant that the officer had incurred animosity by doing + his duty. I remember one amusing case where the officer was wholly to + blame but had acted in entire good faith. + </p> + <p> + One of the favorite and most demoralizing forms of gambling in New York + was policy-playing. The policy slips consisted of papers with three rows + of figures written on them. The officer in question was a huge pithecoid + lout of a creature, with a wooden face and a receding forehead, and his + accuser whom he had arrested the preceding evening was a little grig of a + red-headed man, obviously respectable, and almost incoherent with rage. + The anger of the little red-headed man was but natural, for he had just + come out from a night in the station-house. He had been arrested late in + the evening on suspicion that he was a policy-player, because of the rows + of figures on a piece of paper which he had held in his hand, and because + at the time of his arrest he had just stepped into the entrance of the + hall of a tenement-house in order to read by lamplight. The paper was + produced in evidence. There were the three rows of figures all right, but, + as the accused explained, hopping up and down with rage and excitement, + they were all of them the numbers of hymns. He was the superintendent of a + small Sunday-school. He had written down the hymns for several future + services, one under the other, and on the way home was stopping to look at + them, under convenient lamp-posts, and finally by the light of the lamp in + a tenement-house hallway; and it was this conduct which struck the + sagacious man in uniform as "suspicious." + </p> + <p> + One of the saddest features of police work is dealing with the social + evil, with prostitutes and houses of ill fame. In so far as the law gave + me power, I always treated the men taken in any raid on these houses + precisely as the women were treated. My experience brought me to the very + strong conviction that there ought not to be any toleration by law of the + vice. I do not know of any method which will put a complete stop to the + evil, but I do know certain things that ought to be done to minimize it. + One of these is treating men and women on an exact equality for the same + act. Another is the establishment of night courts and of special + commissions to deal with this special class of cases. Another is that + suggested by the Rev. Charles Stelzle, of the Labor Temple—to + publish conspicuously the name of the owner of any property used for + immoral purposes, after said owner had been notified of the use and has + failed to prevent it. Another is to prosecute the keepers and backers of + brothels, men and women, as relentlessly and punish them as severely as + pickpockets and common thieves. They should never be fined; they should be + imprisoned. As for the girls, the very young ones and first offenders + should be put in the charge of probation officers or sent to + reformatories, and the large percentage of feeble-minded girls and of + incorrigible girls and women should be sent to institutions created for + them. We would thus remove from this hideous commerce the articles of + commerce. Moreover, the Federal Government must in ever-increasing measure + proceed against the degraded promoters of this commercialism, for their + activities are inter-State and the Nation can often deal with them more + effectively than the States; although, as public sentiment becomes + aroused, Nation, State, and municipality will all cooperate towards the + same end of rooting out the traffic. But the prime need is to raise the + level of individual morality; and, moreover, to encourage early marriages, + the single standard of sex-morality, and a strict sense of reciprocal + conjugal obligation. The women who preach late marriages are by just so + much making it difficult to better the standard of chastity. + </p> + <p> + As regards the white slave traffic, the men engaged in it, and the women + too, are far worse criminals than any ordinary murderers can be. For them + there is need of such a law as that recently adopted in England through + the efforts of Arthur Lee, M.P., a law which includes whipping for the + male offenders. There are brutes so low, so infamous, so degraded and + bestial in their cruelty and brutality, that the only way to get at them + is through their skins. Sentimentality on behalf of such men is really + almost as unhealthy and wicked as the criminality of the men themselves. + My experience is that there should be no toleration of any "tenderloin" or + "red light" district, and that, above all, there should be the most + relentless war on commercialized vice. The men who profit and make their + living by the depravity and the awful misery of other human beings stand + far below any ordinary criminals, and no measures taken against them can + be too severe. + </p> + <p> + As for the wretched girls who follow the dreadful trade in question, a + good deal can be done by a change in economic conditions. This ought to be + done. When girls are paid wages inadequate to keep them from starvation, + or to permit them to live decently, a certain proportion are forced by + their economic misery into lives of vice. The employers and all others + responsible for these conditions stand on a moral level not far above the + white slavers themselves. But it is a mistake to suppose that either the + correction of these economic conditions or the abolition of the white + slave trade will wholly correct the evil or will even reach the major part + of it. The economic factor is very far from being the chief factor in + inducing girls to go into this dreadful life. As with so many other + problems, while there must be governmental action, there must also be + strengthening of the average individual character in order to achieve the + desired end. Even where economic conditions are bad, girls who are both + strong and pure will remain unaffected by temptations to which girls of + weak character or lax standards readily yield. Any man who knows the wide + variation in the proportions of the different races and nationalities + engaged in prostitution must come to the conclusion that it is out of the + question to treat economic conditions as the sole conditions or even as + the chief conditions that determine this question. There are certain races—the + Irish are honorably conspicuous among them—which, no matter what the + economic pressure, furnish relatively few inmates of houses of ill fame. I + do not believe that the differences are due to permanent race + characteristics; this is shown by the fact that the best settlement houses + find that practically all their "long-term graduates," so to speak, all + the girls that come for a long period under their influence, no matter + what their race or national origin, remain pure. In every race there are + some naturally vicious individuals and some weak individuals who readily + succumb under economic pressure. A girl who is lazy and hates hard work, a + girl whose mind is rather feeble, and who is of "subnormal intelligence," + as the phrase now goes, or a girl who craves cheap finery and vapid + pleasure, is always in danger. A high ideal of personal purity is + essential. Where the same pressure under the same economic conditions has + tenfold the effect on one set of people that it has on another, it is + evident that the question of moral standards is even more important than + the question of economic standards, very important though this question + is. It is important for us to remember that the girl ought to have the + chance, not only for the necessaries of life, but for innocent pleasure; + and that even more than the man she must not be broken by overwork, by + excessive toil. Moreover, public opinion and the law should combine to + hunt down the "flagrant man swine" who himself hunts down poor or silly or + unprotected girls. But we must not, in foolish sentimentality, excuse the + girl from her duty to keep herself pure. Our duty to achieve the same + moral level for the two sexes must be performed by raising the level for + the man, not by lowering it for the woman; and the fact that society must + recognize its duty in no shape or way relieves, not even to the smallest + degree, the individual from doing his or her duty. Sentimentality which + grows maudlin on behalf of the willful prostitute is a curse; to confound + her with the entrapped or coerced girl, the real white slave, is both + foolish and wicked. There are evil women just as there are evil men, + naturally depraved girls just as there are naturally depraved young men; + and the right and wise thing, the just thing, to them, and the generous + thing to innocent girls and decent men, is to wage stern war against the + evil creatures of both sexes. + </p> + <p> + In company with Jacob Riis, I did much work that was not connected with + the actual discipline of the force or indeed with the actual work of the + force. There was one thing which he and I abolished—police + lodging-houses, which were simply tramp lodging-houses, and a fruitful + encouragement to vagrancy. Those who read Mr. Riis's story of his own life + will remember the incidents that gave him from actual personal experience + his horror of these tramp lodging-houses. As member of the Health Board I + was brought into very close relations with the conditions of life in the + tenement-house districts. Here again I used to visit the different + tenement-house regions, usually in company with Riis, to see for myself + what the conditions were. It was largely this personal experience that + enabled me while on the Health Board to struggle not only zealously, but + with reasonable efficiency and success, to improve conditions. We did our + share in making forward strides in the matter of housing the working + people of the city with some regard to decency and comfort. + </p> + <p> + The midnight trips that Riis and I took enabled me to see what the Police + Department was doing, and also gave me personal insight into some of the + problems of city life. It is one thing to listen in perfunctory fashion to + tales of overcrowded tenements, and it is quite another actually to see + what that overcrowding means, some hot summer night, by even a single + inspection during the hours of darkness. There was a very hot spell one + midsummer while I was Police Commissioner, and most of each night I spent + walking through the tenement-house districts and visiting police stations + to see what was being done. It was a tragic week. We did everything + possible to alleviate the suffering. Much of it was heartbreaking, + especially the gasping misery of the little children and of the worn-out + mothers. Every resource of the Health Department, of the Police + Department, and even the Fire Department (which flooded the hot streets) + was taxed in the effort to render service. The heat killed such multitudes + of horses that the means at our disposal for removing the poor dead beasts + proved quite inadequate, although every nerve was strained to the limit. + In consequence we received scores of complaints from persons before whose + doors dead horses had remained, festering in the heat, for two or three + days. One irascible man sent us furious denunciations, until we were at + last able to send a big dray to drag away the horse that lay dead before + his shop door. The huge dray already contained eleven other dead horses, + and when it reached this particular door it broke down, and it was hours + before it could be moved. The unfortunate man who had thus been cursed + with a granted wish closed his doors in despair and wrote us a final + pathetic letter in which he requested us to remove either the horses or + his shop, he didn't care which. + </p> + <p> + I have spoken before of my experience with the tenement-house cigar + factory law which the highest court of New York State declared + unconstitutional. My experience in the Police Department taught me that + not a few of the worst tenement-houses were owned by wealthy individuals, + who hired the best and most expensive lawyers to persuade the courts that + it was "unconstitutional" to insist on the betterment of conditions. These + business men and lawyers were very adroit in using a word with fine and + noble associations to cloak their opposition to vitally necessary + movements for industrial fair play and decency. They made it evident that + they valued the Constitution, not as a help to righteousness, but as a + means for thwarting movements against unrighteousness. After my experience + with them I became more set than ever in my distrust of those men, whether + business men or lawyers, judges, legislators, or executive officers, who + seek to make of the Constitution a fetich for the prevention of the work + of social reform, for the prevention of work in the interest of those men, + women, and children on whose behalf we should be at liberty to employ + freely every governmental agency. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally during the two years we had to put a stop to riotous + violence, and now and then on these occasions some of the labor union + leaders protested against the actions of the police. By this time I was + becoming a strong believer in labor unions, a strong believer in the + rights of labor. For that very reason I was all the more bound to see that + lawlessness and disorder were put down, and that no rioter was permitted + to masquerade under the guise of being a friend of labor or a sympathizer + with labor. I was scrupulous to see that the labor men had fair play; + that, for instance, they were allowed to picket just so far as under the + law picketing could be permitted, so that the strikers had ample + opportunity peacefully to persuade other labor men not to take their + places. But I made it clearly and definitely understood that under no + circumstances would I permit violence or fail to insist upon the keeping + of order. If there were wrongs, I would join with a full heart in striving + to have them corrected. But where there was violence all other questions + had to drop until order was restored. This is a democracy, and the people + have the power, if they choose to exercise it, to make conditions as they + ought to be made, and to do this strictly within the law; and therefore + the first duty of the true democrat, of the man really loyal to the + principles of popular government, is to see that law is enforced and order + upheld. It was a peculiar gratification to me that so many of the labor + leaders with whom I was thrown in contact grew cordially to accept this + view. When I left the Department, several called upon me to say how sorry + they were that I was not to continue in office. One, the Secretary of the + Journeyman Bakers' and Confectioners' International Union, Henry Weismann, + wrote me expressing his regret that I was going, and his appreciation as a + citizen of what I had done as Police Commissioner; he added: "I am + particularly grateful for your liberal attitude toward organized labor, + your cordial championship of those speaking in behalf of the toilers, and + your evident desire to do the right thing as you saw it at whatever cost." + </p> + <p> + Some of the letters I received on leaving the Department were from + unexpected sources. Mr. E. L. Godkin, an editor who in international + matters was not a patriotic man, wrote protesting against my taking the + Assistant-Secretaryship of the Navy, and adding: "I have a concern, as the + Quakers say, to put on record my earnest belief that in New York you are + doing the greatest work of which any American to-day is capable, and + exhibiting to the young men of the country the spectacle of a very + important office administered by a man of high character in the most + efficient way amid a thousand difficulties. As a lesson in politics I + cannot think of anything more instructive." + </p> + <p> + About the same time I had a letter from Mr. (afterwards Ambassador) James + Bryce, also expressing regret that I was leaving the Police Department, + but naturally with much more appreciation of the work that was to be done + in the Navy Department. This letter I quote, with his permission, because + it conveys a lesson to those who are inclined always to think that the + conditions of the present time are very bad. It was written July 7, 1897. + Mr. Bryce spoke of the possibility of coming to America in a month or so, + and continued: "I hope I may have a chance of seeing you if I do get over, + and of drawing some comfort from you as regards your political phenomena, + which, so far as I can gather from those of your countrymen I have lately + seen, furnish some good opportunities for a persistent optimist like + myself to show that he is not to be lightly discouraged. Don't suppose + that things are specially 'nice,' as a lady would say, in Europe either. + They are not." Mr. Bryce was a very friendly and extraordinary competent + observer of things American; and there was this distinct note of + discouragement about our future in the intimate letter he was thus + sending. Yet this was at the very time when the United States was entering + on a dozen years during which our people accomplished more good, and came + nearer realizing the possibilities of a great, free, and conscientious + democracy, than during any other dozen years in our history, save only the + years of Lincoln's Presidency and the period during which the Nation was + founded. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <h3> + THE WAR OF AMERICA THE UNREADY + </h3> + <p> + I suppose the United States will always be unready for war, and in + consequence will always be exposed to great expense, and to the + possibility of the gravest calamity, when the Nation goes to war. This is + no new thing. Americans learn only from catastrophes and not from + experience. + </p> + <p> + There would have been no war in 1812 if, in the previous decade, America, + instead of announcing that "peace was her passion," instead of acting on + the theory that unpreparedness averts war, had been willing to go to the + expense of providing a fleet of a score of ships of the line. However, in + that case, doubtless the very men who in the actual event deplored the + loss of life and waste of capital which their own supineness had brought + about would have loudly inveighed against the "excessive and improper cost + of armaments"; so it all came to about the same thing in the end. + </p> + <p> + There is no more thoroughgoing international Mrs. Gummidge, and no more + utterly useless and often utterly mischievous citizen, than the + peace-at-any-price, universal-arbitration type of being, who is always + complaining either about war or else about the cost of the armaments which + act as the insurance against war. There is every reason why we should try + to limit the cost of armaments, as these tend to grow excessive, but there + is also every reason to remember that in the present stage of civilization + a proper armament is the surest guarantee of peace—and is the only + guarantee that war, if it does come, will not mean irreparable and + overwhelming disaster. + </p> + <p> + In the spring of 1897 President McKinley appointed me Assistant Secretary + of the Navy. I owed the appointment chiefly to the efforts of Senator H. + C. Lodge of Massachusetts, who doubtless was actuated mainly by his long + and close friendship for me, but also—I like to believe—by his + keen interest in the navy. The first book I had ever published, fifteen + years previously, was "The History of the Naval War of 1812"; and I have + always taken the interest in the navy which every good American ought to + take. At the time I wrote the book, in the early eighties, the navy had + reached its nadir, and we were then utterly incompetent to fight Spain or + any other power that had a navy at all. Shortly afterwards we began + timidly and hesitatingly to build up a fleet. It is amusing to recall the + roundabout steps we took to accomplish our purpose. In the reaction after + the colossal struggle of the Civil War our strongest and most capable men + had thrown their whole energy into business, into money-making, into the + development, and above all the exploitation and exhaustion at the most + rapid rate possible, of our natural resources—mines, forests, soil, + and rivers. These men were not weak men, but they permitted themselves to + grow shortsighted and selfish; and while many of them down at the bottom + possessed the fundamental virtues, including the fighting virtues, others + were purely of the glorified huckster or glorified pawnbroker type—which + when developed to the exclusion of everything else makes about as poor a + national type as the world has seen. This unadulterated huckster or + pawnbroker type is rarely keenly sympathetic in matters of social and + industrial justice, and is usually physically timid and likes to cover an + unworthy fear of the most just war under high-sounding names. + </p> + <p> + It was reinforced by the large mollycoddle vote—the people who are + soft physically and morally, or who have a twist in them which makes them + acidly cantankerous and unpleasant as long as they can be so with safety + to their bodies. In addition there are the good people with no imagination + and no foresight, who think war will not come, but that if it does come + armies and navies can be improvised—a very large element, typified + by a Senator I knew personally who, in a public speech, in answer to a + question as to what we would do if America were suddenly assailed by a + first-class military power, answered that "we would build a battle-ship in + every creek." Then, among the wise and high-minded people who in + self-respecting and genuine fashion strive earnestly for peace, there are + the foolish fanatics always to be found in such a movement and always + discrediting it—the men who form the lunatic fringe in all reform + movements. + </p> + <p> + All these elements taken together made a body of public opinion so + important during the decades immediately succeeding the Civil War as to + put a stop to any serious effort to keep the Nation in a condition of + reasonable military preparedness. The representatives of this opinion then + voted just as they now do when they vote against battle-ships or against + fortifying the Panama Canal. It would have been bad enough if we had been + content to be weak, and, in view of our weakness, not to bluster. But we + were not content with such a policy. We wished to enjoy the incompatible + luxuries of an unbridled tongue and an unready hand. There was a very + large element which was ignorant of our military weakness, or, naturally + enough, unable to understand it; and another large element which liked to + please its own vanity by listening to offensive talk about foreign + nations. Accordingly, too many of our politicians, especially in Congress, + found that the cheap and easy thing to do was to please the foolish peace + people by keeping us weak, and to please the foolish violent people by + passing denunciatory resolutions about international matters—resolutions + which would have been improper even if we had been strong. Their idea was + to please both the mollycoddle vote and the vote of the international + tail-twisters by upholding, with pretended ardor and mean intelligence, a + National policy of peace with insult. + </p> + <p> + I abhor unjust war. I abhor injustice and bullying by the strong at the + expense of the weak, whether among nations or individuals. I abhor + violence and bloodshed. I believe that war should never be resorted to + when, or so long as, it is honorably possible to avoid it. I respect all + men and women who from high motives and with sanity and self-respect do + all they can to avert war. I advocate preparation for war in order to + avert war; and I should never advocate war unless it were the only + alternative to dishonor. I describe the folly of which so many of our + people were formerly guilty, in order that we may in our own day be on our + guard against similar folly. + </p> + <p> + We did not at the time of which I write take our foreign duties seriously, + and as we combined bluster in speech with refusal to make any preparation + whatsoever for action, we were not taken seriously in return. Gradually a + slight change for the better occurred, the writings of Captain Mahan + playing no small part therein. We built some modern cruisers to start + with; the people who felt that battle-ships were wicked compromising with + their misguided consciences by saying that the cruisers could be used "to + protect our commerce"—which they could not be, unless they had + battle-ships to back them. Then we attempted to build more powerful + fighting vessels, and as there was a section of the public which regarded + battle-ships as possessing a name immorally suggestive of violence, we + compromised by calling the new ships armored cruisers, and making them + combine with exquisite nicety all the defects and none of the virtues of + both types. Then we got to the point of building battle-ships. But there + still remained a public opinion, as old as the time of Jefferson, which + thought that in the event of war all our problem ought to be one of coast + defense, that we should do nothing except repel attack; an attitude about + as sensible as that of a prize-fighter who expected to win by merely + parrying instead of hitting. To meet the susceptibilities of this large + class of well-meaning people, we provided for the battle-ships under the + name of "coast defense battle-ships"; meaning thereby that we did not make + them quite as seaworthy as they ought to have been, or with quite as much + coal capacity as they ought to have had. Then we decided to build real + battle-ships. But there still remained a lingering remnant of public + opinion that clung to the coast defense theory, and we met this in + beautiful fashion by providing for "sea-going coast defense battle-ships"—the + fact that the name was a contradiction in terms being of very small + consequence compared to the fact that we did thereby get real + battle-ships. + </p> + <p> + Our men had to be trained to handle the ships singly and in fleet + formation, and they had to be trained to use the new weapons of precision + with which the ships were armed. Not a few of the older officers, kept in + the service under our foolish rule of pure seniority promotion, were not + competent for the task; but a proportion of the older officers were + excellent, and this was true of almost all the younger officers. They were + naturally first-class men, trained in the admirable naval school at + Annapolis. They were overjoyed that at last they were given proper + instruments to work with, and they speedily grew to handle these ships + individually in the best fashion. They were fast learning to handle them + in squadron and fleet formation; but when the war with Spain broke out, + they had as yet hardly grasped the principles of modern scientific naval + gunnery. + </p> + <p> + Soon after I began work as Assistant Secretary of the Navy I became + convinced that the war would come. The revolt in Cuba had dragged its + weary length until conditions in the island had become so dreadful as to + be a standing disgrace to us for permitting them to exist. There is much + that I sincerely admire about the Spanish character; and there are few men + for whom I have felt greater respect than for certain gentlemen of Spain + whom I have known. But Spain attempted to govern her colonies on archaic + principles which rendered her control of them incompatible with the + advance of humanity and intolerable to the conscience of mankind. In 1898 + the so-called war in Cuba had dragged along for years with unspeakable + horror, degradation, and misery. It was not "war" at all, but murderous + oppression. Cuba was devastated. + </p> + <p> + During those years, while we continued at "peace," several hundred times + as many lives were lost, lives of men, women, and children, as were lost + during the three months' "war" which put an end to this slaughter and + opened a career of peaceful progress to the Cubans. Yet there were + misguided professional philanthropists who cared so much more for names + than for facts that they preferred a "peace" of continuous murder to a + "war" which stopped the murder and brought real peace. Spain's humiliation + was certain, anyhow; indeed, it was more certain without war than with it, + for she could not permanently keep the island, and she minded yielding to + the Cubans more than yielding to us. Our own direct interests were great, + because of the Cuban tobacco and sugar, and especially because of Cuba's + relation to the projected Isthmian Canal. But even greater were our + interests from the standpoint of humanity. Cuba was at our very doors. It + was a dreadful thing for us to sit supinely and watch her death agony. It + was our duty, even more from the standpoint of National honor than from + the standpoint of National interest, to stop the devastation and + destruction. Because of these considerations I favored war; and to-day, + when in retrospect it is easier to see things clearly, there are few + humane and honorable men who do not believe that the war was both just and + necessary. + </p> + <p> + The big financiers and the men generally who were susceptible to touch on + the money nerve, and who cared nothing for National honor if it conflicted + even temporarily with business prosperity, were against the war. The more + fatuous type of philanthropist agreed with them. The newspapers controlled + by, or run in the interests of, these two classes deprecated war, and did + everything in their power to prevent any preparation for war. As a whole + the people in Congress were at that time (and are now) a shortsighted set + as regards international matters. There were a few men, Senators Cushman + K. Davis,[*] for instance, and John Morgan, who did look ahead; and + Senator H. C. Lodge, who throughout his quarter of a century of service in + the Senate and House has ever stood foremost among those who uphold with + farsighted fearlessness and strict justice to others our national honor + and interest; but most of the Congressmen were content to follow the worst + of all possible courses, that is, to pass resolutions which made war more + likely, and yet to decline to take measures which would enable us to meet + the war if it did come. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] In a letter written me just before I became Assistant + Secretary, Senator Davis unburdened his mind about one of + the foolish "peace" proposals of that period; his letter + running in part: "I left the Senate Chamber about three + o'clock this afternoon when there was going on a deal of + mowing and chattering over the treaty by which the United + States is to be bound to arbitrate its sovereign + functions—for policies are matters of sovereignty. . . . + The + aberrations of the social movement are neither progress nor + retrogression. They represent merely a local and temporary + sagging of the line of the great orbit. Tennyson knew this + when he wrote that fine and noble 'Maud.' I often read it, + for to do so does me good." After quoting one of Poe's + stories the letter continues: "The world will come out all + right. Let him who believes in the decline of the military + spirit observe the boys of a common school during the recess + or the noon hour. Of course when American patriotism speaks + out from its rank and file and demands action or expression, + and when, thereupon, the 'business man,' so called, places + his hand on his stack of reds as if he feared a policeman + were about to disturb the game, and protests until American + patriotism ceases to continue to speak as it had started to + do—why, you and I get mad, and I swear. I hope you will be + with us here after March 4. We can then pass judgment + together on the things we don't like, and together indulge + in hopes that I believe are prophetic." +</pre> + <p> + However, in the Navy Department we were able to do a good deal, thanks to + the energy and ability of some of the bureau chiefs, and to the general + good tone of the service. I soon found my natural friends and allies in + such men as Evans, Taylor, Sampson, Wainwright, Brownson, Schroeder, + Bradford, Cowles, Cameron, Winslow, O'Neil, and others like them. I used + all the power there was in my office to aid these men in getting the + material ready. I also tried to gather from every source information as to + who the best men were to occupy the fighting positions. + </p> + <p> + Sound naval opinion was overwhelmingly in favor of Dewey to command one + squadron. I was already watching him, for I had been struck by an incident + in his past career. It was at a time when there was threat of trouble with + Chile. Dewey was off the Argentine, and was told to get ready to move to + the other coast of South America. If the move became necessary, he would + have to have coal, and yet if he did not make the move, the coal would not + be needed. In such a case a man afraid of responsibility always acts + rigidly by the regulations and communicates with the Department at home to + get authority for everything he does; and therefore he usually + accomplishes nothing whatever, but is able to satisfy all individuals with + red-tape minds by triumphantly pointing out his compliance with the + regulations. In a crisis, the man worth his salt is the man who meets the + needs of the situation in whatever way is necessary. Dewey purchased the + coal and was ready to move at once if need arose. The affair blew over; + the need to move did not occur; and for some time there seemed to be a + chance that Dewey would get into trouble over having purchased the coal, + for our people are like almost all other peoples in requiring responsible + officers under such conditions to decide at their own personal peril, no + matter which course they follow. However, the people higher up ultimately + stood by Dewey. + </p> + <p> + The incident made me feel that here was a man who could be relied upon to + prepare in advance, and to act promptly, fearlessly, and on his own + responsibility when the emergency arose. Accordingly I did my best to get + him put in command of the Asiatic fleet, the fleet where it was most + essential to have a man who would act without referring things back to the + home authorities. An officer senior to him, of the respectable commonplace + type, was being pushed by certain politicians who I knew had influence + with the Navy Department and with the President. I would have preferred to + see Dewey get the appointment without appealing to any politician at all. + But while this was my preference, the essential thing was to get him the + appointment. For a naval officer to bring pressure to get himself a soft + and easy place is unpardonable; but a large leniency should be observed + toward the man who uses influence only to get himself a place in the + picture near the flashing of the guns. There was a Senator, Proctor of + Vermont, who I knew was close to McKinley, and who was very ardent for the + war, and desirous to have it fought in the most efficient fashion. I + suggested to Dewey that he should enlist the services of Senator Proctor, + which was accordingly done. In a fortunate hour for the Nation, Dewey was + given command of the Asiatic squadron. + </p> + <p> + When the Maine was blown up in Havana Harbor, war became inevitable. A + number of the peace-at-any-price men of course promptly assumed the + position that she had blown herself up; but investigation showed that the + explosion was from outside. And, in any event, it would have been + impossible to prevent war. The enlisted men of the navy, who often grew + bored to the point of desertion in peace, became keyed up to a high pitch + of efficiency, and crowds of fine young fellows, from the interior as well + as from the seacoast, thronged to enlist. The navy officers showed alert + ability and unwearied industry in getting things ready. There was one + deficiency, however, which there was no time to remedy, and of the very + existence of which, strange to say, most of our best men were ignorant. + Our navy had no idea how low our standard of marksmanship was. We had not + realized that the modern battle-ship had become such a complicated piece + of mechanism that the old methods of training in marksmanship were as + obsolete as the old muzzle-loading broadside guns themselves. Almost the + only man in the navy who fully realized this was our naval attache at + Paris, Lieutenant Sims. He wrote letter after letter pointing out how + frightfully backward we were in marksmanship. I was much impressed by his + letters; but Wainwright was about the only other man who was. And as Sims + proved to be mistaken in his belief that the French had taught the + Spaniards how to shoot, and as the Spaniards proved to be much worse even + than we were, in the service generally Sims was treated as an alarmist. + But although I at first partly acquiesced in this view, I grew uneasy when + I studied the small proportion of hits to shots made by our vessels in + battle. When I was President I took up the matter, and speedily became + convinced that we needed to revolutionize our whole training in + marksmanship. Sims was given the lead in organizing and introducing the + new system; and to him more than to any other one man was due the + astonishing progress made by our fleet in this respect, a progress which + made the fleet, gun for gun, at least three times as effective, in point + of fighting efficiency, in 1908, as it was in 1902. The shots that hit are + the shots that count! + </p> + <p> + Like the people, the Government was for a long time unwilling to prepare + for war, because so many honest but misguided men believed that the + preparation itself tended to bring on the war. I did not in the least + share this feeling, and whenever I was left as Acting Secretary I did + everything in my power to put us in readiness. I knew that in the event of + war Dewey could be slipped like a wolf-hound from a leash; I was sure that + if he were given half a chance he would strike instantly and with telling + effect; and I made up my mind that all I could do to give him that + half-chance should be done. I was in the closest touch with Senator Lodge + throughout this period, and either consulted him about or notified him of + all the moves I was taking. By the end of February I felt it was vital to + send Dewey (as well as each of our other commanders who were not in home + waters) instructions that would enable him to be in readiness for + immediate action. On the afternoon of Saturday, February 25, when I was + Acting Secretary, Lodge called on me just as I was preparing the order, + which (as it was addressed to a man of the right stamp) was of much + importance to the subsequent operations. Admiral Dewey speaks of the + incident as follows, in his autobiography: + </p> + <p> + "The first real step [as regards active naval preparations] was taken on + February 25, when telegraphic instructions were sent to the Asiatic, + European, and South Atlantic squadrons to rendezvous at certain convenient + points where, should war break out, they would be most available. + </p> + <p> + "The message to the Asiatic squadron bore the signature of that Assistant + Secretary who had seized the opportunity while Acting Secretary to hasten + preparations for a conflict which was inevitable. As Mr. Roosevelt + reasoned, precautions for readiness would cost little in time of peace, + and yet would be invaluable in case of war. His cablegram was as follows: + </p> + <p> + "'Washington, February 25, '98. + </p> + <p> + "'<i>Dewey, Hong Kong</i>: + </p> + <p> + "'Order the squadron, except the Monocacy, to Hong Kong. Keep full of + coal. In the event of declaration of war Spain, your duty will be to see + that the Spanish squadron does not leave the Asiatic coast, and then + offensive operations in Philippine Islands. Keep Olympia until further + orders. + </p> + <p> + "'ROOSEVELT.' + </p> + <p> + "(The reference to keeping the Olympia until further orders was due to the + fact that I had been notified that she would soon be recalled to the + United States.)" + </p> + <p> + All that was needed with Dewey was to give him the chance to get ready, + and then to strike, without being hampered by orders from those not on the + ground. Success in war depends very largely upon choosing a man fit to + exercise such powers, and then giving him the powers. + </p> + <p> + It would be instructive to remember, if only we were willing to do so, the + fairly comic panic which swept in waves over our seacoast, first when it + became evident that war was about to be declared, and then when it was + declared. The public waked up to the sufficiently obvious fact that the + Government was in its usual state—perennial unreadiness for war. + Thereupon the people of the seaboard district passed at one bound from + unreasoning confidence that war never could come to unreasoning fear as to + what might happen now that it had come. That acute philosopher Mr. Dooley + proclaimed that in the Spanish War we were in a dream, but that the + Spaniards were in a trance. This just about summed up the facts. Our + people had for decades scoffed at the thought of making ready for possible + war. Now, when it was too late, they not only backed every measure, wise + and unwise, that offered a chance of supplying a need that ought to have + been met before, but they also fell into a condition of panic apprehension + as to what the foe might do. + </p> + <p> + For years we had been saying, just as any number of our people now say, + that no nation would venture to attack us. Then when we did go to war with + an exceedingly feeble nation, we, for the time being, rushed to the other + extreme of feeling, and attributed to this feeble nation plans of + offensive warfare which it never dreamed of making, and which, if made, it + would have been wholly unable to execute. Some of my readers doubtless + remember the sinister intentions and unlimited potentialities for + destruction with which the fertile imagination of the yellow press endowed + the armored cruiser Viscaya when she appeared in American waters just + before war was declared. The state of nervousness along much of the + seacoast was funny in view of the lack of foundation for it; but it + offered food for serious thought as to what would happen if we ever became + engaged with a serious foe. + </p> + <p> + The Governor of one State actually announced that he would not permit the + National Guard of that State to leave its borders, the idea being to + retain it against a possible Spanish invasion. So many of the business men + of the city of Boston took their securities inland to Worcester that the + safe deposit companies of Worcester proved unable to take care of them. In + my own neighborhood on Long Island clauses were gravely put into leases to + the effect that if the property were destroyed by the Spaniards the lease + should lapse. As Assistant Secretary of the Navy I had every conceivable + impossible request made to me. Members of Congress who had actively + opposed building any navy came clamorously around to ask each for a ship + for some special purpose of protection connected with his district. It + seems incredible, but it is true, that not only these Congressmen but the + Chambers of Commerce and Boards of Trade of different coast cities all + lost their heads for the time being, and raised a deafening clamor and + brought every species of pressure to bear on the Administration to get it + to adopt the one most fatal course—that is, to distribute the navy, + ship by ship, at all kinds of points and in all kinds of ports with the + idea of protecting everything everywhere, and thereby rendering it + absolutely certain that even the Spanish fleet, poor though it was, would + be able to pick up our own navy ship by ship in detail. One Congressman + besought me for a ship to protect Jekyll Island, off the coast of Georgia, + an island which derived its sole consequence because it contained the + winter homes of certain millionaires. A lady whose husband occupied a very + influential position, and who was normally a most admirable and sensible + woman, came to insist that a ship should be anchored off a huge seaside + hotel because she had a house in the neighborhood. + </p> + <p> + There were many such instances. One stood out above the others. A certain + seaboard State contained in its Congressional delegation one of the most + influential men in the Senate, and one of the most influential men in the + lower house. These two men had been worse than lukewarm about building up + the navy, and had scoffed at the idea of there ever being any danger from + any foreign power. With the advent of war the feelings of their + constituents, and therefore their own feelings, suffered an immediate + change, and they demanded that a ship be anchored in the harbor of their + city as a protection. Getting no comfort from me, they went "higher up," + and became a kind of permanent committee in attendance upon the President. + They were very influential men in the Houses, with whom it was important + for the Administration to keep on good terms; and, moreover, they + possessed a pertinacity as great as the widow who won her case from the + unjust judge. Finally the President gave in and notified me to see that a + ship was sent to the city in question. I was bound that, as long as a ship + had to be sent, it should not be a ship worth anything. Accordingly a + Civil War Monitor, with one smooth-bore gun, managed by a crew of about + twenty-one naval militia, was sent to the city in question, under convoy + of a tug. It was a hazardous trip for the unfortunate naval militiamen, + but it was safely accomplished; and joy and peace descended upon the + Senator and the Congressman, and upon the President whom they had jointly + harassed. Incidentally, the fact that the protecting war-vessel would not + have been a formidable foe to any antagonists of much more modern + construction than the galleys of Alcibiades seemed to disturb nobody. + </p> + <p> + This was one side of the picture. The other side was that the crisis at + once brought to the front any amount of latent fighting strength. There + were plenty of Congressmen who showed cool-headed wisdom and resolution. + The plain people, the men and women back of the persons who lost their + heads, set seriously to work to see that we did whatever was necessary, + and made the job a thorough one. The young men swarmed to enlist. In time + of peace it had been difficult to fill the scanty regular army and navy, + and there were innumerable desertions; now the ships and regiments were + over-enlisted, and so many deserters returned in order to fight that it + became difficult to decide what to do with them. England, and to a less + degree Japan, were friendly. The great powers of Continental Europe were + all unfriendly. They jeered at our ships and men, and with fatuous + partisanship insisted that the Spaniards would prove too much for our + "mercenaries" because we were a commercial people of low ideals who could + not fight, while the men whom we attempted to hire for that purpose were + certain to run on the day of battle. + </p> + <p> + Among my friends was the then Army Surgeon Leonard Wood. He was a surgeon. + Not having an income, he had to earn his own living. He had gone through + the Harvard Medical School, and had then joined the army in the Southwest + as a contract doctor. He had every physical, moral, and mental quality + which fitted him for a soldier's life and for the exercise of command. In + the inconceivably wearing and harassing campaigns against the Apaches he + had served nominally as a surgeon, really in command of troops, on more + than one expedition. He was as anxious as I was that if there were war we + should both have our part in it. I had always felt that if there were a + serious war I wished to be in a position to explain to my children why I + did take part in it, and not why I did not take part in it. Moreover, I + had very deeply felt that it was our duty to free Cuba, and I had publicly + expressed this feeling; and when a man takes such a position, he ought to + be willing to make his words good by his deeds unless there is some very + strong reason to the contrary. He should pay with his body. + </p> + <p> + As soon as war was upon us, Wood and I began to try for a chance to go to + the front. Congress had authorized the raising of three National Volunteer + Cavalry regiments, wholly apart from the State contingents. Secretary + Alger of the War Department was fond of me personally, and Wood was his + family doctor. Alger had been a gallant soldier in the Civil War, and was + almost the only member of the Administration who felt all along that we + would have to go to war with Spain over Cuba. He liked my attitude in the + matter, and because of his remembrance of his own experiences he + sympathized with my desire to go to the front. Accordingly he offered me + the command of one of the regiments. I told him that after six weeks' + service in the field I would feel competent to handle the regiment, but + that I would not know how to equip it or how to get it into the first + action; but that Wood was entirely competent at once to take command, and + that if he would make Wood colonel I would accept the + lieutenant-colonelcy. General Alger thought this an act of foolish + self-abnegation on my part—instead of its being, what it was, the + wisest act I could have performed. He told me to accept the colonelcy, and + that he would make Wood lieutenant-colonel, and that Wood would do the + work anyway; but I answered that I did not wish to rise on any man's + shoulders; that I hoped to be given every chance that my deeds and + abilities warranted; but that I did not wish what I did not earn, and that + above all I did not wish to hold any position where any one else did the + work. He laughed at me a little and said I was foolish, but I do not think + he really minded, and he promised to do as I wished. True to his word, he + secured the appointment of Wood as colonel and of myself as + lieutenant-colonel of the First United States Volunteer Cavalry. This was + soon nicknamed, both by the public and by the rest of the army, the Rough + Riders, doubtless because the bulk of the men were from the Southwestern + ranch country and were skilled in the wild horsemanship of the great + plains. + </p> + <p> + Wood instantly began the work of raising the regiment. He first assembled + several old non-commissioned officers of experience, put them in office, + and gave them blanks for requisitions for the full equipment of a cavalry + regiment. He selected San Antonio as the gathering-place, as it was in a + good horse country, near the Gulf from some port on which we would have to + embark, and near an old arsenal and an old army post from which we got a + good deal of stuff—some of it practically condemned, but which we + found serviceable at a pinch, and much better than nothing. He organized a + horse board in Texas, and began purchasing all horses that were not too + big and were sound. A day or two after he was commissioned he wrote out in + the office of the Secretary of War, under his authority, telegrams to the + Governors of Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Indian Territory, in + substance as follows: + </p> + <p> + The President desires to raise —- volunteers in your Territory to + form part of a regiment of mounted riflemen to be commanded by Leonard + Wood, Colonel; Theodore Roosevelt, Lieutenant-Colonel. He desires that the + men selected should be young, sound, good shots and good riders, and that + you expedite by all means in your power the enrollment of these men. + </p> + <p> + (Signed) R. A. ALGER, Secretary of War. + </p> + <p> + As soon as he had attended to a few more odds and ends he left Washington, + and the day after his arrival in San Antonio the troops began to arrive. + </p> + <p> + For several weeks before I joined the regiment, to which Wood went ahead + of me, I continued as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, trying to get some + coherence of plan between the War Department and the Navy Department; and + also being used by Wood to finish getting the equipment for the regiment. + As regards finding out what the plans of the War Department were, the task + was simple. They had no plans. Even during the final months before the + outbreak of hostilities very little was done in the way of efficient + preparation. On one occasion, when every one knew that the declaration of + war was sure to come in a few days, I went on military business to the + office of one of the highest line generals of the army, a man who at that + moment ought to have been working eighteen hours out of the twenty-four on + the vital problems ahead of him. What he was actually doing was trying on + a new type of smart-looking uniform on certain enlisted men; and he called + me in to ask my advice as to the position of the pockets in the blouse, + with a view to making it look attractive. An aide of this general—funnily + enough a good fighting man in actual service—when I consulted him as + to what my uniform for the campaign should be, laid special stress upon my + purchasing a pair of black top boots for full dress, explaining that they + were very effective on hotel piazzas and in parlors. I did not intend to + be in any hotel if it could possibly be avoided; and as things turned out, + I had no full-dress uniform, nothing but my service uniform, during my + brief experience in the army. + </p> + <p> + I suppose that war always does bring out what is highest and lowest in + human nature. The contractors who furnish poor materials to the army or + the navy in time of war stand on a level of infamy only one degree above + that of the participants in the white slave traffic themselves. But there + is conduct far short of this which yet seems inexplicable to any man who + has in him any spirit of disinterested patriotism combined with any power + of imagination. Respectable men, who I suppose lack the imagination + thoroughly to realize what they are doing, try to make money out of the + Nation's necessities in war at the very time that other men are making + every sacrifice, financial and personal, for the cause. In the closing + weeks of my service as Assistant Secretary of the Navy we were collecting + ships for auxiliary purposes. Some men, at cost to their own purses, + helped us freely and with efficiency; others treated the affair as an + ordinary business transaction; and yet others endeavored, at some given + crisis when our need was great, to sell us inferior vessels at exorbitant + prices, and used every pressure, through Senators and Congressmen, to + accomplish their ends. In one or two cases they did accomplish them too, + until we got a really first-class board established to superintend such + purchases. A more curious experience was in connection with the point + chosen for the starting of the expedition against Cuba. I had not supposed + that any human being could consider this matter save from the standpoint + of military need. But one morning a very wealthy and influential man, a + respectable and upright man according to his own lights, called on me to + protest against our choice of Tampa, and to put in a plea for a certain + other port, on the ground that his railroad was entitled to its share of + the profit for hauling the army and equipment! I happened to know that at + this time this very man had kinsfolk with the army, who served gallantly, + and the circumstances of his coming to me were such as to show that he was + not acting secretly, and had no idea that there was anything out of the + way in his proposal. I think the facts were merely that he had been + trained to regard business as the sole object in life, and that he lacked + the imagination to enable him to understand the real nature of the request + that he was making; and, moreover, he had good reason to believe that one + of his business competitors had been unduly favored. + </p> + <p> + The War Department was in far worse shape than the Navy Department. The + young officers turned out from West Point are precisely as good as the + young officers turned out from Annapolis, and this always has been true. + But at that time (something has been done to remedy the worst conditions + since), and ever since the close of the Civil War, the conditions were + such that after a few years the army officer stagnated so far as his + profession was concerned. When the Spanish War broke out the navy really + was largely on a war footing, as any navy which is even respectably cared + for in time of peace must be. The admirals, captains, and lieutenants were + continually practicing their profession in almost precisely the way that + it has to be practiced in time of war. Except actually shooting at a foe, + most of the men on board ship went through in time of peace practically + all that they would have to go through in time of war. The heads of + bureaus in the Navy Department were for the most part men who had seen sea + service, who expected to return to sea service, and who were preparing for + needs which they themselves knew by experience. Moreover, the civilian + head of the navy had to provide for keeping the ships in a state of + reasonable efficiency, and Congress could not hopelessly misbehave itself + about the navy without the fact at once becoming evident. + </p> + <p> + All this was changed so far as the army was concerned. Not only was it + possible to decrease the efficiency of the army without being called to + account for it, but the only way in which the Secretary of War could gain + credit for himself or the Administration was by economy, and the easiest + way to economize was in connection with something that would not be felt + unless war should arise. The people took no interest whatever in the army; + demagogues clamored against it, and, inadequate though it was in size, + insisted that it should be still further reduced. Popular orators always + appealed to the volunteers; the regulars had no votes and there was no + point in politicians thinking of them. The chief activity shown by + Congressmen about the army was in getting special army posts built in + places where there was no need for them. Even the work of the army in its + campaigns against the Indians was of such a character that it was + generally performed by small bodies of fifty or a hundred men. Until a man + ceased being a lieutenant he usually had plenty of professional work to + attend to and was employed in the field, and, in short, had the same kind + of practice that his brother in the navy had, and he did his work as well. + But once past this stage he had almost no opportunity to perform any work + corresponding to his rank, and but little opportunity to do any military + work whatsoever. The very best men, men like Lawton, Young, Chaffee, + Hawkins, and Sumner, to mention only men under or beside whom I served, + remained good soldiers, soldiers of the best stamp, in spite of the + disheartening conditions. But it was not to be expected that the average + man could continue to grow when every influence was against him. + Accordingly, when the Spanish War suddenly burst upon us, a number of + inert elderly captains and field officers were, much against their own + wishes, suddenly pitchforked into the command of regiments, brigades, and + even divisions and army corps. Often these men failed painfully. This was + not their fault; it was the fault of the Nation, that is, the fault of all + of us, of you, my reader, and of myself, and of those like us, because we + had permitted conditions to be such as to render these men unfit for + command. Take a stout captain of an out-of-the-way two-company post, where + nothing in the world ever occurred even resembling military action, and + where the only military problem that really convulsed the post to its + foundations was the quarrel between the captain and the quartermaster as + to how high a mule's tail ought to be shaved (I am speaking of an actual + incident). What could be expected of such a man, even though thirty-five + years before he had been a gallant second lieutenant in the Civil War, if, + after this intervening do-nothing period, he was suddenly put in command + of raw troops in a midsummer campaign in the tropics? + </p> + <p> + The bureau chiefs were for the most part elderly incompetents, whose idea + was to do their routine duties in such way as to escape the censure of + routine bureaucratic superiors and to avoid a Congressional investigation. + They had not the slightest conception of preparing the army for war. It + was impossible that they could have any such conception. The people and + the Congress did not wish the army prepared for war; and those editors and + philanthropists and peace advocates who felt vaguely that if the army were + incompetent their principles were safe, always inveighed against any + proposal to make it efficient, on the ground that this showed a natural + bloodthirstiness in the proposer. When such were the conditions, it was + absolutely impossible that either the War Department or the army could do + well in the event of war. Secretary Alger happened to be Secretary when + war broke out, and all the responsibility for the shortcomings of the + Department were visited upon his devoted head. He was made the scapegoat + for our National shortcomings. The fault was not his; the fault and + responsibility lay with us, the people, who for thirty-three years had + permitted our representatives in Congress and in National executive office + to bear themselves so that it was absolutely impossible to avoid the great + bulk of all the trouble that occurred, and of all the shortcomings of + which our people complained, during the Spanish War. The chief immediate + cause was the conditions of red-tape bureaucracy which existed in the War + Department at Washington, which had prevented any good organization or the + preparation of any good plan of operation for using our men and supplies. + The recurrence of these conditions, even though in somewhat less + aggravated form, in any future emergency is as certain as sunrise unless + we bring about the principle of a four years' detail in the staff corps—a + principle which Congress has now for years stubbornly refused to grant. + </p> + <p> + There are nations who only need to have peaceful ideals inculcated, and to + whom militarism is a curse and a misfortune. There are other nations, like + our own, so happily situated that the thought of war is never present to + their minds. They are wholly free from any tendency improperly to exalt or + to practice militarism. These nations should never forget that there must + be military ideals no less than peaceful ideals. The exaltation of Nogi's + career, set forth so strikingly in Stanley Washburn's little volume on the + great Japanese warrior, contains much that is especially needed for us of + America, prone as we are to regard the exigencies of a purely commercial + and industrial civilization as excusing us from the need of admiring and + practicing the heroic and warlike virtues. + </p> + <p> + Our people are not military. We need normally only a small standing army; + but there should be behind it a reserve of instructed men big enough to + fill it up to full war strength, which is over twice the peace strength. + Moreover, the young men of the country should realize that it is the duty + of every one of them to prepare himself so that in time of need he may + speedily become an efficient soldier—a duty now generally forgotten, + but which should be recognized as one of the vitally essential parts of + every man's training. + </p> + <p> + In endeavoring to get the "Rough Riders" equipped I met with some + experiences which were both odd and instructive. There were not enough + arms and other necessaries to go round, and there was keen rivalry among + the intelligent and zealous commanders of the volunteer organizations as + to who should get first choice. Wood's experience was what enabled us to + equip ourselves in short order. There was another cavalry organization + whose commander was at the War Department about this time, and we had been + eyeing him with much alertness as a rival. One day I asked him what his + plans were about arming and drilling his troops, who were of precisely the + type of our own men. He answered that he expected "to give each of the + boys two revolvers and a lariat, and then just turn them loose." I + reported the conversation to Wood, with the remark that we might feel + ourselves safe from rivalry in that quarter; and safe we were. + </p> + <p> + In trying to get the equipment I met with checks and rebuffs, and in + return was the cause of worry and concern to various bureau chiefs who + were unquestionably estimable men in their private and domestic relations, + and who doubtless had been good officers thirty years before, but who were + as unfit for modern war as if they were so many smooth-bores. One fine old + fellow did his best to persuade us to take black powder rifles, explaining + with paternal indulgence that no one yet really knew just what smokeless + powder might do, and that there was a good deal to be said in favor of + having smoke to conceal us from the enemy. I saw this pleasing theory + actually worked out in practice later on, for the National Guard regiments + with us at Santiago had black powder muskets, and the regular artillery + black powder guns, and they really might almost as well have replaced + these weapons by crossbows and mangonels. We succeeded, thanks to Wood, in + getting the same cavalry carbines that were used by the regulars. We were + determined to do this, not only because the weapons were good, but because + this would in all probability mean that we were brigaded with the regular + cavalry, which it was certain would be sent immediately to the front for + the fighting. + </p> + <p> + There was one worthy bureau chief who was continually refusing + applications of mine as irregular. In each case I would appeal to + Secretary Alger—who helped me in every way—and get an order + from him countenancing the irregularity. For instance, I found out that as + we were nearer the July date than the January date for the issuance of + clothing, and as it had long been customary to issue the winter clothing + in July, so as to give ample leisure for getting it to all the various + posts, it was therefore solemnly proposed to issue this same winter + clothing to us who were about to start for a summer campaign in the + tropics. This would seem incredible to those who have never dealt with an + inert officialdom, a red-tape bureaucracy, but such is the fact. I + rectified this and got an order for khaki clothing. We were then told we + would have to advertise thirty days for horses. This meant that we would + have missed the Santiago expedition. So I made another successful appeal + to the Secretary. Other difficulties came up about wagons, and various + articles, and in each case the same result followed. On the last occasion, + when I came up in triumph with the needed order, the worried office head, + who bore me no animosity, but who did feel that fate had been very unkind, + threw himself back in his chair and exclaimed with a sigh: "Oh, dear! I + had this office running in such good shape—and then along came the + war and upset everything!" His feeling was that war was an illegitimate + interruption to the work of the War Department. + </p> + <p> + There were of course department heads and bureau chiefs and assistants + who, in spite of the worthlessness of the system, and of the paralyzing + conditions that had prevailed, remained first-class men. An example of + these was Commissary-General Weston. His energy, activity, administrative + efficiency, and common sense were supplemented by an eager desire to help + everybody do the best that could be done. Both in Washington and again + down at Santiago we owed him very much. When I was President, it was my + good fortune to repay him in part our debt, which means the debt of the + people of the country, by making him a major-general. + </p> + <p> + The regiment assembled at San Antonio. When I reached there, the men, + rifles, and horses, which were the essentials, were coming in fast, and + the saddles, blankets, and the like were also accumulating. Thanks to + Wood's exertions, when we reached Tampa we were rather better equipped + than most of the regular regiments. We adhered strictly to field + equipment, allowing no luxuries or anything else unnecessary, and so we + were able to move off the field when ordered, with our own transportation, + leaving nothing behind. + </p> + <p> + I suppose every man tends to brag about his regiment; but it does seem to + me that there never was a regiment better worth bragging about than ours. + Wood was an exceptional commander, of great power, with a remarkable gift + for organization. The rank and file were as fine natural fighting men as + ever carried a rifle or rode a horse in any country or any age. We had a + number of first-class young fellows from the East, most of them from + colleges like Harvard, Yale, and Princeton; but the great majority of the + men were Southwesterners, from the then territories of Oklahoma, Indian + Territory, Arizona, and New Mexico. They were accustomed to the use of + firearms, accustomed to taking care of themselves in the open; they were + intelligent and self-reliant; they possessed hardihood and endurance and + physical prowess; and, above all, they had the fighting edge, the cool and + resolute fighting temper. They went into the war with full knowledge, + having deliberately counted the cost. In the great majority of cases each + man was chiefly anxious to find out what he should do to make the regiment + a success. They bought, first and last, about 800 copies of the cavalry + drill regulations and studied them industriously. Such men were + practically soldiers to start with, in all the essentials. It is small + wonder that with them as material to work upon the regiment was raised, + armed, equipped, drilled, sent on trains to Tampa, embarked, disembarked, + and put through two victorious offensive—not defensive—fights + in which a third of the officers and one-fifth of the men were killed or + wounded, all within sixty days. It is a good record, and it speaks well + for the men of the regiment; and it speaks well for Wood.[*] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] To counterbalance the newspapers which ignorantly and + indiscriminately praised all the volunteers there were + others whose blame was of the same intelligent quality. The + New York <i>Evening Post</i>, on June 18, gave expression to the + following gloomy foreboding: "Competent observers have + remarked that nothing more extraordinary has been done than + the sending to Cuba of the First United States Volunteer + Cavalry, known as the 'rough riders.' Organized but four + weeks, barely given their full complement of officers, and + only a week of regular drill, these men have been sent to + the front before they have learned the first elements of + soldiering and discipline, or have even become acquainted + with their officers. In addition to all this, like the + regular cavalry, they have been sent with only their + carbines and revolvers to meet an enemy armed with long-range + rifles. There have been few cases of such military + cruelty in our military annals." A week or so after this not + wholly happy prophecy was promulgated, the "cruelty" was + consummated, first at Las Guasimas and then in the San Juan + fighting. +</pre> + <p> + Wood was so busy getting the regiment ready that when I reached San + Antonio he turned most of the drilling of it over to me. This was a piece + of great good fortune for me, and I drilled the men industriously, mounted + and unmounted. I had plenty to learn, and the men and the officers even + more; but we went at our work with the heartiest good will. We speedily + made it evident that there was no room and no mercy for any man who + shirked any duty, and we accomplished good results. The fact is that the + essentials of drill and work for a cavalry or an infantry regiment are + easy to learn, which of course is not true for the artillery or the + engineers or for the navy. The reason why it takes so long to turn the + average civilized man into a good infantryman or cavalryman is because it + takes a long while to teach the average untrained man how to shoot, to + ride, to march, to take care of himself in the open, to be alert, + resourceful, cool, daring, and resolute, to obey quickly, as well as to be + willing, and to fit himself, to act on his own responsibility. If he + already possesses these qualities, there is very little difficulty in + making him a soldier; all the drill that is necessary to enable him to + march and to fight is of a simple character. Parade ground and barrack + square maneuvers are of no earthly consequence in real war. When men can + readily change from line to column, and column to line, can form front in + any direction, and assemble and scatter, and can do these things with + speed and precision, they have a fairly good grasp of the essentials. When + our regiment reached Tampa it could already be handled creditably at fast + gaits, and both in mass and extended formations, mounted and dismounted. + </p> + <p> + I had served three years in the New York National Guard, finally becoming + a captain. This experience was invaluable to me. It enabled me at once to + train the men in the simple drill without which they would have been a + mob; for although the drill requirements are simple, they are also + absolutely indispensable. But if I had believed that my experience in the + National Guard had taught me all that there was to teach about a soldier's + career, it would have been better for me not to have been in it at all. + There were in the regiment a number of men who had served in the National + Guard, and a number of others who had served in the Regular Army. Some of + these latter had served in the field in the West under campaign + conditions, and were accustomed to long marches, privation, risk, and + unexpected emergencies. These men were of the utmost benefit to the + regiment. They already knew their profession, and could teach and help the + others. But if the man had merely served in a National Guard regiment, or + in the Regular Army at some post in a civilized country where he learned + nothing except what could be picked up on the parade ground, in the + barracks, and in practice marches of a few miles along good roads, then it + depended purely upon his own good sense whether he had been helped or hurt + by the experience. If he realized that he had learned only five per cent + of his profession, that there remained ninety-five per cent to accomplish + before he would be a good soldier, why, he had profited immensely. + </p> + <p> + To start with five per cent handicap was a very great advantage; and if + the man was really a good man, he could not be overtaken. But if the man + thought that he had learned all about the profession of a soldier because + he had been in the National Guard or in the Regular Army under the + conditions I have described, then he was actually of less use than if he + had never had any military experience at all. Such a man was apt to think + that nicety of alignment, precision in wheeling, and correctness in the + manual of arms were the ends of training and the guarantees of good + soldiership, and that from guard mounting to sentry duty everything in war + was to be done in accordance with what he had learned in peace. As a + matter of fact, most of what he had learned was never used at all, and + some of it had to be unlearned. The one thing, for instance, that a sentry + ought never to do in an actual campaign is to walk up and down a line + where he will be conspicuous. His business is to lie down somewhere off a + ridge crest where he can see any one approaching, but where a man + approaching cannot see him. As for the ceremonies, during the really hard + part of a campaign only the barest essentials are kept. + </p> + <p> + Almost all of the junior regular officers, and many of the senior regular + officers, were fine men. But, through no fault of their own, had been + forced to lead lives that fairly paralyzed their efficiency when the + strain of modern war came on them. The routine elderly regular officer who + knew nothing whatever of modern war was in most respects nearly as + worthless as a raw recruit. The positions and commands prescribed in the + text-books were made into fetishes by some of these men, and treated as if + they were the ends, instead of the not always important means by which the + ends were to be achieved. In the Cuban fighting, for instance, it would + have been folly for me to have taken my place in the rear of the regiment, + the canonical text-book position. My business was to be where I could keep + most command over the regiment, and, in a rough-and-tumble, scrambling + fight in thick jungle, this had to depend upon the course of events, and + usually meant that I had to be at the front. I saw in that fighting more + than one elderly regimental commander who unwittingly rendered the only + service he could render to his regiment by taking up his proper position + several hundred yards in the rear when the fighting began; for then the + regiment disappeared in the jungle, and for its good fortune the + commanding officer never saw it again until long after the fight was over. + </p> + <p> + After one Cuban fight a lieutenant-colonel of the regulars, in command of + a regiment, who had met with just such an experience and had rejoined us + at the front several hours after the close of the fighting, asked me what + my men were doing when the fight began. I answered that they were + following in trace in column of twos, and that the instant the shooting + began I deployed them as skirmishers on both sides of the trail. He + answered triumphantly, "You can't deploy men as skirmishers from column + formation"; to which I responded, "Well, I did, and, what is more, if any + captain had made any difficulty about it, I would have sent him to the + rear." My critic was quite correct from the parade ground standpoint. The + prescribed orders at that time were to deploy the column first into a line + of squads at correct intervals, and then to give an order which, if my + memory serves correctly, ran: "As skirmishers, by the right and left + flanks, at six yards, take intervals, march." The order I really gave ran + more like this: "Scatter out to the right there, quick, you! scatter to + the left! look alive, look alive!" And they looked alive, and they + scattered, and each took advantage of cover, and forward went the line. + </p> + <p> + Now I do not wish what I have said to be misunderstood. If ever we have a + great war, the bulk of our soldiers will not be men who have had any + opportunity to train soul and mind and body so as to meet the iron needs + of an actual campaign. Long continued and faithful drill will alone put + these men in shape to begin to do their duty, and failure to recognize + this on the part of the average man will mean laziness and folly and not + the possession of efficiency. Moreover, if men have been trained to + believe, for instance, that they can "arbitrate questions of vital + interest and national honor," if they have been brought up with flabbiness + of moral fiber as well as flabbiness of physique, then there will be need + of long and laborious and faithful work to give the needed tone to mind + and body. But if the men have in them the right stuff, it is not so very + difficult. + </p> + <p> + At San Antonio we entrained for Tampa. In various sociological books by + authors of Continental Europe, there are jeremiads as to the way in which + service in the great European armies, with their minute and machine-like + efficiency and regularity, tends to dwarf the capacity for individual + initiative among the officers and men. There is no such danger for any + officer or man of a volunteer organization in America when our country, + with playful light-heartedness, has pranced into war without making any + preparation for it. I know no larger or finer field for the display of an + advanced individualism than that which opened before us as we went from + San Antonio to Tampa, camped there, and embarked on a transport for Cuba. + Nobody ever had any definite information to give us, and whatever + information we unearthed on our own account was usually wrong. Each of us + had to show an alert and not overscrupulous self-reliance in order to + obtain food for his men, provender for his horses, or transportation of + any kind for any object. One lesson early impressed on me was that if I + wanted anything to eat it was wise to carry it with me; and if any new war + should arise, I would earnestly advise the men of every volunteer + organization always to proceed upon the belief that their supplies will + not turn up, and to take every opportunity of getting food for themselves. + </p> + <p> + Tampa was a scene of the wildest confusion. There were miles of tracks + loaded with cars of the contents of which nobody seemed to have any + definite knowledge. General Miles, who was supposed to have supervision + over everything, and General Shafter, who had charge of the expedition, + were both there. But, thanks to the fact that nobody had had any + experience in handling even such a small force as ours—about 17,000 + men—there was no semblance of order. Wood and I were bound that we + should not be left behind when the expedition started. When we were + finally informed that it was to leave next morning, we were ordered to go + to a certain track to meet a train. We went to the track, but the train + never came. Then we were sent to another track to meet another train. + Again it never came. However, we found a coal train, of which we took + possession, and the conductor, partly under duress and partly in a spirit + of friendly helpfulness, took us down to the quay. + </p> + <p> + All kinds of other organizations, infantry and cavalry, regular and + volunteer, were arriving at the quay and wandering around it, and there + was no place where we could get any specific information as to what + transport we were to have. Finally Wood was told to "get any ship you can + get which is not already assigned." He borrowed without leave a small + motor boat, and commandeered the transport Yucatan. When asked by the + captain what his authority was, he reported that he was acting "by orders + of General Shafter," and directed the ship to be brought to the dock. He + had already sent me word to be ready, as soon as the ship touched the + pier, to put the regiment aboard her. I found that she had already been + assigned to a regular regiment, and to another volunteer regiment, and as + it was evident that not more than half of the men assigned to her could + possibly get on, I was determined that we should not be among the men left + off. The volunteer regiment offered a comparatively easy problem. I simply + marched my men past them to the allotted place and held the gangway. With + the regulars I had to be a little more diplomatic, because their + commander, a lieutenant-colonel, was my superior in rank, and also + doubtless knew his rights. He sent word to me to make way, to draw my + regiment off to one side, and let his take possession of the gangway. I + could see the transport coming in, and could dimly make out Wood's figure + thereon. Accordingly I played for time. I sent respectful requests through + his officers to the commander of the regulars, entered into parleys, and + made protestations, until the transport got near enough so that by yelling + at the top of my voice I was able to get into a—highly constructive—communication + with Wood. What he was saying I had no idea, but he was evidently + speaking, and on my own responsibility I translated it into directions to + hold the gangway, and so informed the regulars that I was under the orders + of my superior and of a ranking officer, and—to my great regret, + etc., etc.—could not give way as they desired. As soon as the + transport was fast we put our men aboard at the double. Half of the + regular regiment got on, and the other half and the other volunteer + regiment went somewhere else. + </p> + <p> + We were kept several days on the transport, which was jammed with men, so + that it was hard to move about on the deck. Then the fleet got under way, + and we steamed slowly down to Santiago. Here we disembarked, + higgledy-piggledy, just as we had embarked. Different parts of different + outfits were jumbled together, and it was no light labor afterwards to + assemble the various batteries. For instance, one transport had guns, and + another the locks for the guns; the two not getting together for several + days after one of them had been landed. Soldiers went here, provisions + there; and who got ashore first largely depended upon individual activity. + Fortunately for us, my former naval aide, when I had been Assistant + Secretary of the Navy, Lieutenant-Commander Sharp, a first-class fellow, + was there in command of a little ship to which I had succeeded in getting + him appointed before I left the Navy Department. He gave us a black pilot, + who took our transport right in shore, the others following like a flock + of sheep; and we disembarked with our rifles, ammunition belts, and not + much else. In theory it was out of our turn, but if we had not disembarked + then, Heaven only knows when our turn would have come, and we did not + intend to be out of the fighting if we could help it. I carried some food + in my pockets, and a light waterproof coat, which was my sole camp + equipment for the next two or three days. Twenty-four hours after getting + ashore we marched from Daiquiri, where we had landed, to Siboney, also on + the coast, reaching it during a terrific downpour of rain. When this was + over, we built a fire, dried our clothes, and ate whatever we had brought + with us. + </p> + <p> + We were brigaded with the First and Tenth Regular Cavalry, under + Brigadier-General Sam Young. He was a fine type of the American regular. + Like General Chaffee, another of the same type, he had entered the army in + the Civil War as a private. Later, when I was President, it was my good + fortune to make each of them in succession Lieutenant-General of the army + of the United States. When General Young retired and General Chaffee was + to take his place, the former sent to the latter his three stars to wear + on his first official presentation, with a note that they were from + "Private Young to Private Chaffee." The two fine old fellows had served in + the ranks, one in the cavalry, one in the infantry, in their golden youth, + in the days of the great war nearly half a century before; each had grown + gray in a lifetime of honorable service under the flag, and each closed + his active career in command of the army. General Young was one of the few + men who had given and taken wounds with the saber. He was an old friend of + mine, and when in Washington before starting for the front he told me that + if we got in his brigade he would put us into the fighting all right. He + kept his word. + </p> + <p> + General Young had actively superintended getting his two regular + regiments, or at least a squadron of each, off the transports, and late + that night he sent us word that he had received permission to move at dawn + and strike the Spanish advance position. He directed us to move along a + ridge trail with our two squadrons (one squadron having been left at + Tampa), while with the two squadrons of regulars, one of the First and one + of the Tenth, under his personal supervision, he marched up the valley + trail. Accordingly Wood took us along the hill trail early next morning, + till we struck the Spaniards, and began our fight just as the regulars + began the fight in the valley trail. + </p> + <p> + It was a mountainous country covered with thick jungle, a most confusing + country, and I had an awful time trying to get into the fight and trying + to do what was right when in it; and all the while I was thinking that I + was the only man who did not know what I was about, and that all the + others did—whereas, as I found out later, pretty much everybody else + was as much in the dark as I was. There was no surprise; we struck the + Spaniards exactly where we had expected; then Wood halted us and put us + into the fight deliberately and in order. He ordered us to deploy + alternately by troops to the right and left of the trail, giving our + senior major, Brodie, a West Pointer and as good a soldier as ever wore a + uniform, the left wing, while I took the right wing. I was told if + possible to connect with the regulars who were on the right. In theory + this was excellent, but as the jungle was very dense the first troop that + deployed to the right vanished forthwith, and I never saw it again until + the fight was over—having a frightful feeling meanwhile that I might + be court-martialed for losing it. The next troop deployed to the left + under Brodie. Then the third came along, and I started to deploy it to the + right as before. + </p> + <p> + By the time the first platoon had gotten into the jungle I realized that + it likewise would disappear unless I kept hold of it. I managed to keep + possession of the last platoon. One learns fast in a fight, and I marched + this platoon and my next two troops in column through the jungle without + any attempt to deploy until we got on the firing line. This sounds simple. + But it was not. I did not know when I had gotten on the firing line! I + could hear a good deal of firing, some over to my right at a good + distance, and the rest to the left and ahead. I pushed on, expecting to + strike the enemy somewhere between. + </p> + <p> + Soon we came to the brink of a deep valley. There was a good deal of + cracking of rifles way off in front of us, but as they used smokeless + powder we had no idea as to exactly where they were, or who they were + shooting at. Then it dawned on us that we were the target. The bullets + began to come overhead, making a sound like the ripping of a silk dress, + with sometimes a kind of pop; a few of my men fell, and I deployed the + rest, making them lie down and get behind trees. Richard Harding Davis was + with us, and as we scanned the landscape with our glasses it was he who + first pointed out to us some Spaniards in a trench some three-quarters of + a mile off. It was difficult to make them out. There were not many of + them. However, we finally did make them out, and we could see their + conical hats, for the trench was a poor one. We advanced, firing at them, + and drove them off. + </p> + <p> + What to do then I had not an idea. The country in front fell away into a + very difficult jungle-filled valley. There was nothing but jungle all + around, and if I advanced I was afraid I might get out of touch with + everybody and not be going in the right direction. Moreover, as far as I + could see, there was now nobody in front who was shooting at us, although + some of the men on my left insisted that our own men had fired into us—an + allegation which I soon found was almost always made in such a fight, and + which in this case was not true. At this moment some of the regulars + appeared across the ravine on our right. The first thing they did was to + fire a volley at us, but one of our first sergeants went up a tree and + waved a guidon at them and they stopped. Firing was still going on to our + left, however, and I was never more puzzled to know what to do. I did not + wish to take my men out of their position without orders, for fear that I + might thereby be leaving a gap if there was a Spanish force which + meditated an offensive return. On the other hand, it did not seem to me + that I had been doing enough fighting to justify my existence, and there + was obviously fighting going on to the left. I remember that I kept + thinking of the refrain of the fox-hunting song, "Here's to every friend + who struggled to the end"; in the hunting field I had always acted on this + theory, and, no matter how discouraging appearances might be, had never + stopped trying to get in at the death until the hunt was actually over; + and now that there was work, and not play, on hand, I intended to struggle + as hard as I knew how not to be left out of any fighting into which I + could, with any possible propriety, get. + </p> + <p> + So I left my men where they were and started off at a trot toward where + the firing was, with a couple of orderlies to send back for the men in + case that proved advisable. Like most tyros, I was wearing my sword, which + in thick jungle now and then got between my legs—from that day on it + always went corded in the baggage. I struck the trail, and began to pass + occasional dead men. Pretty soon I reached Wood and found, much to my + pleasure, that I had done the right thing, for as I came up word was + brought to him that Brodie had been shot, and he at once sent me to take + charge of the left wing. It was more open country here, and at least I was + able to get a glimpse of my own men and exercise some control over them. + There was much firing going on, but for the life of me I could not see any + Spaniards, and neither could any one else. Finally we made up our minds + that they were shooting at us from a set of red-tiled ranch buildings a + good way in front, and these I assaulted, finally charging them. Before we + came anywhere near, the Spaniards, who, as it proved, really were inside + and around them, abandoned them, leaving a few dead men. + </p> + <p> + By the time I had taken possession of these buildings all firing had + ceased everywhere. I had not the faintest idea what had happened: whether + the fight was over; or whether this was merely a lull in the fight; or + where the Spaniards were; or whether we might be attacked again; or + whether we ought ourselves to attack somebody somewhere else. I got my men + in order and sent out small parties to explore the ground in front, who + returned without finding any foe. (By this time, as a matter of fact, the + Spaniards were in full retreat.) Meanwhile I was extending my line so as + to get into touch with our people on the right. Word was brought to me + that Wood had been shot—which fortunately proved not to be true—and + as, if this were so, it meant that I must take charge of the regiment, I + moved over personally to inquire. Soon I learned that he was all right, + that the Spaniards had retreated along the main road, and that Colonel + Wood and two or three other officers were a short distance away. Before I + reached them I encountered a captain of the Ninth Cavalry, very glum + because his troopers had not been up in time to take part in the fight, + and he congratulated me—with visible effort!—upon my share in + our first victory. I thanked him cordially, not confiding in him that till + that moment I myself knew exceeding little about the victory; and + proceeded to where Generals Wheeler, Lawton, and Chaffee, who had just + come up, in company with Wood, were seated on a bank. They expressed + appreciation of the way that I had handled my troops, first on the right + wing and then on the left! As I was quite prepared to find I had committed + some awful sin, I did my best to accept this in a nonchalant manner, and + not to look as relieved as I felt. As throughout the morning I had + preserved a specious aspect of wisdom, and had commanded first one and + then the other wing, the fight was really a capital thing for me, for + practically all the men had served under my actual command, and + thenceforth felt an enthusiastic belief that I would lead them aright. + </p> + <p> + It was a week after this skirmish before the army made the advance on + Santiago. Just before this occurred General Young was stricken down with + fever. General Wheeler, who had commanded the Cavalry Division, was put in + general charge of the left wing of the army, which fought before the city + itself. Brigadier-General Sam Sumner, an excellent officer, who had the + second cavalry brigade, took command of the cavalry division, and Wood + took command of our brigade, while, to my intense delight, I got my + regiment. I therefore had command of the regiment before the stiffest + fighting occurred. Later, when Wood was put in command in Santiago, I + became the brigade commander. + </p> + <p> + Late in the evening we camped at El Poso. There were two regular officers, + the brigade commander's aides, Lieutenants A. L. Mills and W. E. Shipp, + who were camped by our regiment. Each of my men had food in his haversack, + but I had none, and I would have gone supperless to bed if Mills and Shipp + had not given me out of their scanty stores a big sandwich, which I shared + with my orderly, who also had nothing. Next morning my body servant + Marshall, an ex-soldier of the Ninth (Colored) Cavalry, a fine and + faithful fellow, had turned up and I was able in my turn to ask Mills and + Shipp, who had eaten all their food the preceding evening, to take + breakfast with me. A few hours later gallant Shipp was dead, and Mills, an + exceptionally able officer, had been shot through the head from side to + side, just back of the eyes; yet he lived, although one eye was blinded, + and before I left the Presidency I gave him his commission as + Brigadier-General. + </p> + <p> + Early in the morning our artillery began firing from the hill-crest + immediately in front of where our men were camped. Several of the regiment + were killed and wounded by the shrapnel of the return fire of the + Spaniards. One of the shrapnel bullets fell on my wrist and raised a bump + as big as a hickory nut, but did not even break the skin. Then we were + marched down from the hill on a muddy road through thick jungle towards + Santiago. The heat was great, and we strolled into the fight with no + definite idea on the part of any one as to what we were to do or what + would happen. There was no plan that our left wing was to make a serious + fight that day; and as there were no plans, it was naturally exceedingly + hard to get orders, and each of us had to act largely on his own + responsibility. + </p> + <p> + Lawton's infantry division attacked the little village of El Caney, some + miles to the right. Kent's infantry division and Sumner's dismounted + cavalry division were supposed to detain the Spanish army in Santiago + until Lawton had captured El Caney. Spanish towns and villages, however, + with their massive buildings, are natural fortifications, as the French + found in the Peninsular War, and as both the French and our people found + in Mexico. The Spanish troops in El Caney fought very bravely, as did the + Spanish troops in front of us, and it was late in the afternoon before + Lawton accomplished his task. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile we of the left wing had by degrees become involved in a fight + which toward the end became not even a colonel's fight, but a squad + leader's fight. The cavalry division was put at the head of the line. We + were told to march forward, cross a little river in front, and then, + turning to the right, march up alongside the stream until we connected + with Lawton. Incidentally, this movement would not have brought us into + touch with Lawton in any event. But we speedily had to abandon any thought + of carrying it out. The maneuver brought us within fair range of the + Spanish intrenchments along the line of hills which we called the San Juan + Hills, because on one of them was the San Juan blockhouse. On that day my + regiment had the lead of the second brigade, and we marched down the trail + following in trace behind the first brigade. Apparently the Spaniards + could not make up their minds what to do as the three regular regiments of + the first brigade crossed and defiled along the other bank of the stream, + but when our regiment was crossing they began to fire at us. + </p> + <p> + Under this flank fire it soon became impossible to continue the march. The + first brigade halted, deployed, and finally began to fire back. Then our + brigade was halted. From time to time some of our men would fall, and I + sent repeated word to the rear to try to get authority to attack the hills + in front. Finally General Sumner, who was fighting the division in fine + shape, sent word to advance. The word was brought to me by Mills, who said + that my orders were to support the regulars in the assault on the hills, + and that my objective would be the red-tiled ranch-house in front, on a + hill which we afterwards christened Kettle Hill. I mention Mills saying + this because it was exactly the kind of definite order the giving of which + does so much to insure success in a fight, as it prevents all obscurity as + to what is to be done. The order to attack did not reach the first brigade + until after we ourselves reached it, so that at first there was doubt on + the part of their officers whether they were at liberty to join in the + advance. + </p> + <p> + I had not enjoyed the Guasimas fight at all, because I had been so + uncertain as to what I ought to do. But the San Juan fight was entirely + different. The Spaniards had a hard position to attack, it is true, but we + could see them, and I knew exactly how to proceed. I kept on horseback, + merely because I found it difficult to convey orders along the line, as + the men were lying down; and it is always hard to get men to start when + they cannot see whether their comrades are also going. So I rode up and + down the lines, keeping them straightened out, and gradually worked + through line after line until I found myself at the head of the regiment. + By the time I had reached the lines of the regulars of the first brigade I + had come to the conclusion that it was silly to stay in the valley firing + at the hills, because that was really where we were most exposed, and that + the thing to do was to try to rush the intrenchments. Where I struck the + regulars there was no one of superior rank to mine, and after asking why + they did not charge, and being answered that they had no orders, I said I + would give the order. There was naturally a little reluctance shown by the + elderly officer in command to accept my order, so I said, "Then let my men + through, sir," and I marched through, followed by my grinning men. The + younger officers and the enlisted men of the regulars jumped up and joined + us. I waved my hat, and we went up the hill with a rush. Having taken it, + we looked across at the Spaniards in the trenches under the San Juan + blockhouse to our left, which Hawkins's brigade was assaulting. I ordered + our men to open fire on the Spaniards in the trenches. + </p> + <p> + Memory plays funny tricks in such a fight, where things happen quickly, + and all kinds of mental images succeed one another in a detached kind of + way, while the work goes on. As I gave the order in question there slipped + through my mind Mahan's account of Nelson's orders that each ship as it + sailed forward, if it saw another ship engaged with an enemy's ship, + should rake the latter as it passed. When Hawkins's soldiers captured the + blockhouse, I, very much elated, ordered a charge on my own hook to a line + of hills still farther on. Hardly anybody heard this order, however; only + four men started with me, three of whom were shot. I gave one of them, who + was only wounded, my canteen of water, and ran back, much irritated that I + had not been followed—which was quite unjustifiable, because I found + that nobody had heard my orders. General Sumner had come up by this time, + and I asked his permission to lead the charge. He ordered me to do so, and + this time away we went, and stormed the Spanish intrenchments. There was + some close fighting, and we took a few prisoners. We also captured the + Spanish provisions, and ate them that night with great relish. One of the + items was salted flying-fish, by the way. There were also bottles of wine, + and jugs of fiery spirit, and as soon as possible I had these broken, + although not before one or two of my men had taken too much liquor. + Lieutenant Howze, of the regulars, an aide of General Sumner's, brought me + an order to halt where I was; he could not make up his mind to return + until he had spent an hour or two with us under fire. The Spaniards + attempted a counter-attack in the middle of the afternoon, but were driven + back without effort, our men laughing and cheering as they rose to fire; + because hitherto they had been assaulting breastworks, or lying still + under artillery fire, and they were glad to get a chance to shoot at the + Spaniards in the open. We lay on our arms that night and as we were + drenched with sweat, and had no blankets save a few we took from the dead + Spaniards, we found even the tropic night chilly before morning came. + </p> + <p> + During the afternoon's fighting, while I was the highest officer at our + immediate part of the front, Captains Boughton and Morton of the regular + cavalry, two as fine officers as any man could wish to have beside him in + battle, came along the firing line to tell me that they had heard a rumor + that we might fall back, and that they wished to record their emphatic + protest against any such course. I did not believe there was any truth in + the rumor, for the Spaniards were utterly incapable of any effective + counter-attack. However, late in the evening, after the fight, General + Wheeler visited us at the front, and he told me to keep myself in + readiness, as at any moment it might be decided to fall back. Jack + Greenway was beside me when General Wheeler was speaking. I answered, + "Well, General, I really don't know whether we would obey an order to fall + back. We can take that city by a rush, and if we have to move out of here + at all I should be inclined to make the rush in the right direction." + Greenway nodded an eager assent. The old General, after a moment's pause, + expressed his hearty agreement, and said that he would see that there was + no falling back. He had been very sick for a couple of days, but, sick as + he was, he managed to get into the fight. He was a gamecock if ever there + was one, but he was in very bad physical shape on the day of the fight. If + there had been any one in high command to supervise and press the attack + that afternoon, we would have gone right into Santiago. In my part of the + line the advance was halted only because we received orders not to move + forward, but to stay on the crest of the captured hill and hold it. + </p> + <p> + We are always told that three-o'clock-in-the-morning courage is the most + desirable kind. Well, my men and the regulars of the cavalry had just that + brand of courage. At about three o'clock on the morning after the first + fight, shooting began in our front and there was an alarm of a Spanish + advance. I was never more pleased than to see the way in which the hungry, + tired, shabby men all jumped up and ran forward to the hill-crest, so as + to be ready for the attack; which, however, did not come. As soon as the + sun rose the Spaniards again opened upon us with artillery. A shell burst + between Dave Goodrich and myself, blacking us with powder, and killing and + wounding several of the men immediately behind us. + </p> + <p> + Next day the fight turned into a siege; there were some stirring + incidents; but for the most part it was trench work. A fortnight later + Santiago surrendered. Wood won his brigadier-generalship by the capital + way in which he handled his brigade in the fight, and in the following + siege. He was put in command of the captured city; and in a few days I + succeeded to the command of the brigade. + </p> + <p> + The health of the troops was not good, and speedily became very bad. There + was some dysentery, and a little yellow fever; but most of the trouble was + from a severe form of malarial fever. The Washington authorities had + behaved better than those in actual command of the expedition at one + crisis. Immediately after the first day's fighting around Santiago the + latter had hinted by cable to Washington that they might like to withdraw, + and Washington had emphatically vetoed the proposal. I record this all the + more gladly because there were not too many gleams of good sense shown in + the home management of the war; although I wish to repeat that the real + blame for this rested primarily with us ourselves, the people of the + United States, who had for years pursued in military matters a policy that + rendered it certain that there would be ineptitude and failure in high + places if ever a crisis came. After the siege the people in Washington + showed no knowledge whatever of the conditions around Santiago, and + proposed to keep the army there. This would have meant that at least + three-fourths of the men would either have died or have been permanently + invalided, as a virulent form of malaria was widespread, and there was a + steady growth of dysentery and other complaints. No object of any kind was + to be gained by keeping the army in or near the captured city. General + Shafter tried his best to get the Washington authorities to order the army + home. As he failed to accomplish anything, he called a council of the + division and brigade commanders and the chief medical officers to consult + over the situation. + </p> + <p> + Although I had command of a brigade, I was only a colonel, and so I did + not intend to attend, but the General informed me that I was particularly + wanted, and accordingly I went. At the council General Shafter asked the + medical authorities as to conditions, and they united in informing him + that they were very bad, and were certain to grow much worse; and that in + order to avoid frightful ravages from disease, chiefly due to malaria, the + army should be sent back at once to some part of the northern United + States. The General then explained that he could not get the War + Department to understand the situation; that he could not get the + attention of the public; and that he felt that there should be some + authoritative publication which would make the War Department take action + before it was too late to avert the ruin of the army. All who were in the + room expressed their agreement. + </p> + <p> + Then the reason for my being present came out. It was explained to me by + General Shafter, and by others, that as I was a volunteer officer and + intended immediately to return to civil life, I could afford to take risks + which the regular army men could not afford to take and ought not to be + expected to take, and that therefore I ought to make the publication in + question; because to incur the hostility of the War Department would not + make any difference to me, whereas it would be destructive to the men in + the regular army, or to those who hoped to get into the regular army. I + thought this true, and said I would write a letter or make a statement + which could then be published. Brigadier-General Ames, who was in the same + position that I was, also announced that he would make a statement. + </p> + <p> + When I left the meeting it was understood that I was to make my statement + as an interview in the press; but Wood, who was by that time + Brigadier-General commanding the city of Santiago, gave me a quiet hint to + put my statement in the form of a letter to General Shafter, and this I + accordingly did. When I had written my letter, the correspondent of the + Associated Press, who had been informed by others of what had occurred, + accompanied me to General Shafter. I presented the letter to General + Shafter, who waved it away and said: "I don't want to take it; do whatever + you wish with it." I, however, insisted on handing it to him, whereupon he + shoved it toward the correspondent of the Associated Press, who took hold + of it, and I released my hold. General Ames made a statement direct to the + correspondent, and also sent a cable to the Assistant Secretary of the + Navy at Washington, a copy of which he gave to the correspondent. By this + time the other division and brigade commanders who were present felt that + they had better take action themselves. They united in a round robin to + General Shafter, which General Wood dictated, and which was signed by + Generals Kent, Gates, Chaffee, Sumner, Ludlow, Ames, and Wood, and by + myself. General Wood handed this to General Shafter, and it was made + public by General Shafter precisely as mine was made public.[*] Later I + was much amused when General Shafter stated that he could not imagine how + my letter and the round robin got out! When I saw this statement, I + appreciated how wise Wood had been in hinting to me not to act on the + suggestion of the General that I should make a statement to the + newspapers, but to put my statement in the form of a letter to him as my + superior officer, a letter which I delivered to him. Both the letter and + the round robin were written at General Shafter's wish, and at the + unanimous suggestion of all the commanding and medical officers of the + Fifth Army Corps, and both were published by General Shafter. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] General Wood writes me: "The representative of the + Associated Press was very anxious to get a copy of this + despatch or see it, and I told him it was impossible for him + to have it or see it. I then went in to General Shafter and + stated the case to him, handing him the despatch, saying, + 'The matter is now in your hands.' He, General Shafter, then + said, 'I don't care whether this gentleman has it or not,' + and I left then. When I went back the General told me he had + given the Press representative a copy of the despatch, and + that he had gone to the office with it." +</pre> + <p> + In a regiment the prime need is to have fighting men; the prime virtue is + to be able and eager to fight with the utmost effectiveness. I have never + believed that this was incompatible with other virtues. On the contrary, + while there are of course exceptions, I believe that on the average the + best fighting men are also the best citizens. I do not believe that a + finer set of natural soldiers than the men of my regiment could have been + found anywhere, and they were first-class citizens in civil life also. One + fact may perhaps be worthy of note. Whenever we were in camp and so fixed + that we could have regular meals, we used to have a general officers' + mess, over which I of course presided. During our entire service there was + never a foul or indecent word uttered at the officers' mess—I mean + this literally; and there was very little swearing—although now and + then in the fighting, if there was a moment when swearing seemed to be the + best method of reaching the heart of the matter, it was resorted to. + </p> + <p> + The men I cared for most in the regiment were the men who did the best + work; and therefore my liking for them was obliged to take the shape of + exposing them to the most fatigue and hardship, of demanding from them the + greatest service, and of making them incur the greatest risk. Once I kept + Greenway and Goodrich at work for forty-eight hours, without sleeping, and + with very little food, fighting and digging trenches. I freely sent the + men for whom I cared most, to where death might smite them; and death + often smote them—as it did the two best officers in my regiment, + Allyn Capron and Bucky O'Neil. My men would not have respected me had I + acted otherwise. Their creed was my creed. The life even of the most + useful man, of the best citizen, is not to be hoarded if there be need to + spend it. I felt, and feel, this about others; and of course also about + myself. This is one reason why I have always felt impatient contempt for + the effort to abolish the death penalty on account of sympathy with + criminals. I am willing to listen to arguments in favor of abolishing the + death penalty so far as they are based purely on grounds of public + expediency, although these arguments have never convinced me. But inasmuch + as, without hesitation, in the performance of duty, I have again and again + sent good and gallant and upright men to die, it seems to me the height of + a folly both mischievous and mawkish to contend that criminals who have + deserved death should nevertheless be allowed to shirk it. No brave and + good man can properly shirk death; and no criminal who has earned death + should be allowed to shirk it. + </p> + <p> + One of the best men with our regiment was the British military attache, + Captain Arthur Lee, an old friend. The other military attaches were herded + together at headquarters and saw little. Captain Lee, who had known me in + Washington, escaped and stayed with the regiment. We grew to feel that he + was one of us, and made him an honorary member. There were two other + honorary members. One was Richard Harding Davis, who was with us + continually and who performed valuable service on the fighting line. The + other was a regular officer, Lieutenant Parker, who had a battery of + gatlings. We were with this battery throughout the San Juan fighting, and + we grew to have the strongest admiration for Parker as a soldier and the + strongest liking for him as a man. During our brief campaign we were + closely and intimately thrown with various regular officers of the type of + Mills, Howze, and Parker. We felt not merely fondness for them as officers + and gentlemen, but pride in them as Americans. It is a fine thing to feel + that we have in the army and in the navy modest, efficient, gallant + gentlemen of this type, doing such disinterested work for the honor of the + flag and of the Nation. No American can overpay the debt of gratitude we + all of us owe to the officers and enlisted men of the army and of the + navy. + </p> + <p> + Of course with a regiment of our type there was much to learn both among + the officers and the men. There were all kinds of funny incidents. One of + my men, an ex-cow-puncher and former round-up cook, a very good shot and + rider, got into trouble on the way down on the transport. He understood + entirely that he had to obey the officers of his own regiment, but, like + so many volunteers, or at least like so many volunteers of my regiment, he + did not understand that this obligation extended to officers of other + regiments. One of the regular officers on the transport ordered him to do + something which he declined to do. When the officer told him to consider + himself under arrest, he responded by offering to fight him for a trifling + consideration. He was brought before a court martial which sentenced him + to a year's imprisonment at hard labor with dishonorable discharge, and + the major-general commanding the division approved the sentence. + </p> + <p> + We were on the transport. There was no hard labor to do; and the prison + consisted of another cow-puncher who kept guard over him with his carbine, + evidently divided in his feelings as to whether he would like most to + shoot him or to let him go. When we landed, somebody told the prisoner + that I intended to punish him by keeping him with the baggage. He at once + came to me in great agitation, saying: "Colonel, they say you're going to + leave me with the baggage when the fight is on. Colonel, if you do that, I + will never show my face in Arizona again. Colonel, if you will let me go + to the front, I promise I will obey any one you say; any one you say, + Colonel," with the evident feeling that, after this concession, I could + not, as a gentleman, refuse his request. Accordingly I answered: "Shields, + there is no one in this regiment more entitled to be shot than you are, + and you shall go to the front." His gratitude was great, and he kept + repeating, "I'll never forget this, Colonel, never." Nor did he. When we + got very hard up, he would now and then manage to get hold of some flour + and sugar, and would cook a doughnut and bring it round to me, and watch + me with a delighted smile as I ate it. He behaved extremely well in both + fights, and after the second one I had him formally before me and remitted + his sentence—something which of course I had not the slightest power + to do, although at the time it seemed natural and proper to me. + </p> + <p> + When we came to be mustered out, the regular officer who was doing the + mustering, after all the men had been discharged, finally asked me where + the prisoner was. I said, "What prisoner?" He said, "The prisoner, the man + who was sentenced to a year's imprisonment with hard labor and + dishonorable discharge." I said, "Oh! I pardoned him"; to which he + responded, "I beg your pardon; you did what?" This made me grasp the fact + that I had exceeded authority, and I could only answer, "Well, I did + pardon him, anyhow, and he has gone with the rest"; whereupon the + mustering-out officer sank back in his chair and remarked, "He was + sentenced by a court martial, and the sentence was approved by the + major-general commanding the division. You were a lieutenant-colonel, and + you pardoned him. Well, it was nervy, that's all I'll say." + </p> + <p> + The simple fact was that under the circumstances it was necessary for me + to enforce discipline and control the regiment, and therefore to reward + and punish individuals in whatever way the exigencies demanded. I often + explained to the men what the reasons for an order were, the first time it + was issued, if there was any trouble on their part in understanding what + they were required to do. They were very intelligent and very eager to do + their duty, and I hardly ever had any difficulty the second time with + them. If, however, there was the slightest willful shirking of duty or + insubordination, I punished instantly and mercilessly, and the whole + regiment cordially backed me up. To have punished men for faults and + shortcomings which they had no opportunity to know were such would have + been as unwise as to have permitted any of the occasional bad characters + to exercise the slightest license. It was a regiment which was sensitive + about its dignity and was very keenly alive to justice and to courtesy, + but which cordially approved absence of mollycoddling, insistence upon the + performance of duty, and summary punishment of wrong-doing. + </p> + <p> + In the final fighting at San Juan, when we captured one of the trenches, + Jack Greenway had seized a Spaniard, and shortly afterwards I found Jack + leading his captive round with a string. I told him to turn him over to a + man who had two or three other captives, so that they should all be taken + to the rear. It was the only time I ever saw Jack look aggrieved. "Why, + Colonel, can't I keep him for myself?" he asked, plaintively. I think he + had an idea that as a trophy of his bow and spear the Spaniard would make + a fine body servant. + </p> + <p> + One reason that we never had the slightest trouble in the regiment was + because, when we got down to hard pan, officers and men shared exactly + alike. It is all right to have differences in food and the like in times + of peace and plenty, when everybody is comfortable. But in really hard + times officers and men must share alike if the best work is to be done. As + long as I had nothing but two hardtacks, which was the allowance to each + man on the morning after the San Juan fight, no one could complain; but if + I had had any private little luxuries the men would very naturally have + realized keenly their own shortages. + </p> + <p> + Soon after the Guasimas fight we were put on short commons; and as I knew + that a good deal of food had been landed and was on the beach at Siboney, + I marched thirty or forty of the men down to see if I could not get some + and bring it up. I finally found a commissary officer, and he asked me + what I wanted, and I answered, anything he had. So he told me to look + about for myself. I found a number of sacks of beans, I think about eleven + hundred pounds, on the beach; and told the officer that I wanted eleven + hundred pounds of beans. He produced a book of regulations, and showed me + the appropriate section and subdivision which announced that beans were + issued only for the officers' mess. This did me no good, and I told him + so. He said he was sorry, and I answered that he was not as sorry as I + was. I then "studied on it," as Br'r Rabbit would say, and came back with + a request for eleven hundred pounds of beans for the officers' mess. He + said, "Why, Colonel, your officers can't eat eleven hundred pounds of + beans," to which I responded, "You don't know what appetites my officers + have." He then said he would send the requisition to Washington. I told + him I was quite willing, so long as he gave me the beans. He was a good + fellow, so we finally effected a working compromise—he got the + requisition and I got the beans, although he warned me that the price + would probably be deducted from my salary. + </p> + <p> + Under some regulation or other only the regular supply trains were allowed + to act, and we were supposed not to have any horses or mules in the + regiment itself. This was very pretty in theory; but, as a matter of fact, + the supply trains were not numerous enough. My men had a natural genius + for acquiring horseflesh in odd ways, and I continually found that they + had staked out in the brush various captured Spanish cavalry horses and + Cuban ponies and abandoned commissary mules. Putting these together, I + would organize a small pack train and work it industriously for a day or + two, until they learned about it at headquarters and confiscated it. Then + I would have to wait for a week or so until my men had accumulated some + more ponies, horses, and mules, the regiment meanwhile living in plenty on + what we had got before the train was confiscated. + </p> + <p> + All of our men were good at accumulating horses, but within our own ranks + I think we were inclined to award the palm to our chaplain. There was not + a better man in the regiment than the chaplain, and there could not have + been a better chaplain for our men. He took care of the sick and the + wounded, he never spared himself, and he did every duty. In addition, he + had a natural aptitude for acquiring mules, which made some admirer, when + the regiment was disbanded, propose that we should have a special medal + struck for him, with, on the obverse, "A Mule passant and Chaplain + regardant." After the surrender of Santiago, a Philadelphia clergyman whom + I knew came down to General Wheeler's headquarters, and after visiting him + announced that he intended to call on the Rough Riders, because he knew + their colonel. One of General Wheeler's aides, Lieutenant Steele, who + liked us both individually and as a regiment, and who appreciated some of + our ways, asked the clergyman, after he had announced that he knew Colonel + Roosevelt, "But do you know Colonel Roosevelt's regiment?" "No," said the + clergyman. "Very well, then, let me give you a piece of advice. When you + go down to see the Colonel, don't let your horse out of your sight; and if + the chaplain is there, don't get off the horse!" + </p> + <p> + We came back to Montauk Point and soon after were disbanded. We had been + in the service only a little over four months. There are no four months of + my life to which I look back with more pride and satisfaction. I believe + most earnestly and sincerely in peace, but as things are yet in this world + the nation that cannot fight, the people that have lost the fighting edge, + that have lost the virile virtues, occupy a position as dangerous as it is + ignoble. The future greatness of America in no small degree depends upon + the possession by the average American citizen of the qualities which my + men showed when they served under me at Santiago. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, there is one thing in connection with this war which it is well + that our people should remember, our people who genuinely love the peace + of righteousness, the peace of justice—and I would be ashamed to be + other than a lover of the peace of righteousness and of justice. The true + preachers of peace, who strive earnestly to bring nearer the day when + peace shall obtain among all peoples, and who really do help forward the + cause, are men who never hesitate to choose righteous war when it is the + only alternative to unrighteous peace. These are the men who, like Dr. + Lyman Abbott, have backed every genuine movement for peace in this + country, and who nevertheless recognized our clear duty to war for the + freedom of Cuba. + </p> + <p> + But there are other men who put peace ahead of righteousness, and who care + so little for facts that they treat fantastic declarations for immediate + universal arbitration as being valuable, instead of detrimental, to the + cause they profess to champion, and who seek to make the United States + impotent for international good under the pretense of making us impotent + for international evil. All the men of this kind, and all of the + organizations they have controlled, since we began our career as a nation, + all put together, have not accomplished one hundredth part as much for + both peace and righteousness, have not done one hundredth part as much + either for ourselves or for other peoples, as was accomplished by the + people of the United States when they fought the war with Spain and with + resolute good faith and common sense worked out the solution of the + problems which sprang from the war. + </p> + <p> + Our army and navy, and above all our people, learned some lessons from the + Spanish War, and applied them to our own uses. During the following decade + the improvement in our navy and army was very great; not in material only, + but also in personnel, and, above all, in the ability to handle our forces + in good-sized units. By 1908, when our battle fleet steamed round the + world, the navy had become in every respect as fit a fighting instrument + as any other navy in the world, fleet for fleet. Even in size there was + but one nation, England, which was completely out of our class; and in + view of our relations with England and all the English-speaking peoples, + this was of no consequence. Of our army, of course, as much could not be + said. Nevertheless the improvement in efficiency was marked. Our artillery + was still very inferior in training and practice to the artillery arm of + any one of the great Powers such as Germany, France, or Japan—a + condition which we only then began to remedy. But the workmanlike speed + and efficiency with which the expedition of some 6000 troops of all arms + was mobilized and transported to Cuba during the revolution of 1908 showed + that, as regards our cavalry and infantry, we had at least reached the + point where we could assemble and handle in first-rate fashion + expeditionary forces. This is mighty little to boast of, for a Nation of + our wealth and population; it is not pleasant to compare it with the + extraordinary feats of contemporary Japan and the Balkan peoples; but, + such as it is, it represents a long stride in advance over conditions as + they were in 1898. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE" id="link2H_APPE"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX A + </h2> + <h3> + A MANLY LETTER + </h3> + <p> + There was a sequel to the "round robin" incident which caused a little + stir at the moment; Secretary Alger had asked me to write him freely from + time to time. Accordingly, after the surrender of Santiago, I wrote him + begging that the cavalry division might be put into the Porto Rican + fighting, preparatory to what we supposed would be the big campaign + against Havana in the fall. In the letter I extolled the merits of the + Rough Riders and of the Regulars, announcing with much complacency that + each of our regiments was worth "three of the National Guard regiments, + armed with their archaic black powder rifles."[*] Secretary Alger + believed, mistakenly, that I had made public the round robin, and was + naturally irritated, and I suddenly received from him a published + telegram, not alluding to the round robin incident, but quoting my + reference to the comparative merits of the cavalry regiments and the + National Guard regiments and rebuking me for it. The publication of the + extract from my letter was not calculated to help me secure the votes of + the National Guard if I ever became a candidate for office. However, I did + not mind the matter much, for I had at the time no idea of being a + candidate for anything—while in the campaign I ate and drank and + thought and dreamed regiment and nothing but regiment, until I got the + brigade, and then I devoted all my thoughts to handling the brigade. + Anyhow, there was nothing I could do about the matter. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] I quote this sentence from memory; it is substantially + correct. +</pre> + <p> + When our transport reached Montauk Point, an army officer came aboard and + before doing anything else handed me a sealed letter from the Secretary of + War which ran as follows:— + </p> + <p> + WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, + </p> + <p> + August 10, 1898. + </p> + <p> + DEAR COL. ROOSEVELT: + </p> + <p> + You have been a most gallant officer and in the battle before Santiago + showed superb soldierly qualities. I would rather add to, than detract + from, the honors you have so fairly won, and I wish you all good things. + In a moment of aggravation under great stress of feeling, first because I + thought you spoke in a disparaging manner of the volunteers (probably + without intent, but because of your great enthusiasm for your own men) and + second that I believed your published letter would embarrass the + Department I sent you a telegram which with an extract from a private + letter of yours I gave to the press. I would gladly recall both if I + could, but unable to do that I write you this letter which I hope you will + receive in the same friendly spirit in which I send it. Come and see me at + a very early day. No one will welcome you more heartily than I. + </p> + <p> + Yours very truly, (Signed) R. A. ALGER. + </p> + <p> + I thought this a manly letter, and paid no more heed to the incident; and + when I was President, and General Alger was Senator from Michigan, he was + my stanch friend and on most matters my supporter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE2" id="link2H_APPE2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX B + </h2> + <h3> + THE SAN JUAN FIGHT + </h3> + <p> + The San Juan fight took its name from the San Juan Hill or hills—I + do not know whether the name properly belonged to a line of hills or to + only one hill. + </p> + <p> + To compare small things with large things, this was precisely as the + Battle of Gettysburg took its name from the village of Gettysburg, where + only a small part of the fighting was done; and the battle of Waterloo + from the village of Waterloo, where none of the fighting was done. When it + became the political interest of certain people to endeavor to minimize my + part in the Santiago fighting (which was merely like that of various other + squadron, battalion and regimental commanders) some of my opponents laid + great stress on the alleged fact that the cavalry did not charge up San + Juan Hill. We certainly charged some hills; but I did not ask their names + before charging them. To say that the Rough Riders and the cavalry + division, and among other people myself, were not in the San Juan fight is + precisely like saying that the men who made Pickett's Charge, or the men + who fought at Little Round Top and Culps Hill, were not at Gettysburg; or + that Picton and the Scotch Greys and the French and English guards were + not at Waterloo. The present Vice-President of the United States in the + campaign last year was reported in the press as repeatedly saying that I + was not in the San Juan fight. The documents following herewith have been + printed for many years, and were accessible to him had he cared to know or + to tell the truth. + </p> + <p> + These documents speak for themselves. The first is the official report + issued by the War Department. From this it will be seen that there were in + the Santiago fighting thirty infantry and cavalry regiments represented. + Six of these were volunteer, of which one was the Rough Riders. The other + twenty-four were regular regiments. The percentage of loss of our regiment + was about seven times as great as that of the other five volunteer + regiments. Of the twenty-four regular regiments, twenty-two suffered a + smaller percentage of loss than we suffered. Two, the Sixth United States + Infantry and the Thirteenth United States Infantry, suffered a slightly + greater percentage of loss—twenty-six per cent and twenty-three per + cent as against twenty-two per cent. + </p> + <p> + NOMINATIONS BY THE PRESIDENT + </p> + <p> + To be Colonel by Brevet + </p> + <p> + Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, First Volunteer Cavalry, for + gallantry in battle, Las Guasima, Cuba, June 24, 1898. + </p> + <p> + To be Brigadier-General by Brevet + </p> + <p> + Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, First Volunteer Cavalry, for + gallantry in battle, Santiago de Cuba, July 1, 1898. (Nominated for brevet + colonel, to rank from June 24, 1898.) + </p> + <p> + FORT SAN JUAN, CUBA, July 17, 1898. + </p> + <p> + THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL UNITED STATES ARMY, Washington, D. C. (Through + military channels) + </p> + <p> + SIR: I have the honor to invite attention to the following list of + officers and enlisted men who specially distinguished themselves in the + action at Las Guasimas, Cuba, June 24, 1898. + </p> + <p> + These officers and men have been recommended for favorable consideration + by their immediate commanding officers in their respective reports, and I + would respectfully urge that favorable action be taken. + </p> + <p> + OFFICERS . . . . . + </p> + <p> + In First United States Volunteer Cavalry—Colonel Leonard Wood, + Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt. + </p> + <p> + Respectfully, JOSEPH WHEELER, Major-General United States Volunteers, + Commanding. + </p> + <p> + HEADQUARTERS SECOND CAVALRY BRIGADE, CAMP NEAR SANTIAGO DE CUBA, CUBA, + June 29, 1898. + </p> + <p> + THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL CAVALRY DIVISION. + </p> + <p> + SIR: By direction of the major-general commanding the Cavalry Division, I + have the honor to submit the following report of the engagement of a part + of this brigade with the enemy at Guasimas, Cuba, on June 24th, + accompanied by detailed reports from the regimental and other commanders + engaged, and a list of the killed and wounded: + </p> + <p> + . . . . . + </p> + <p> + I cannot speak too highly of the efficient manner in which Colonel Wood + handled his regiment, and of his magnificent behavior on the field. The + conduct of Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt, as reported to me by my two + aides, deserves my highest commendation. Both Colonel Wood and + Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt disdained to take advantage of shelter or + cover from the enemy's fire while any of their men remained exposed to it—an + error of judgment, but happily on the heroic side. + </p> + <p> + . . . . . + </p> + <p> + Very respectfully, S. B. M. YOUNG, Brigadier General United States + Volunteers, Commanding. + </p> + <p> + HEADQUARTERS FIRST DIVISION SECOND ARMY CORPS CAMP MACKENZIE, GA., + December 30, 1898. + </p> + <p> + ADJUTANT-GENERAL, Washington, D. C. + </p> + <p> + SIR: I have the honor to recommend Hon. Theodore Roosevelt, late Colonel + First United States Volunteer Cavalry, for a medal of honor, as a reward + for conspicuous gallantry at the battle of San Juan, Cuba, on July 1, + 1898. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Roosevelt by his example and fearlessness inspired his men, and + both at Kettle Hill and the ridge known as San Juan he led his command in + person. I was an eye-witness of Colonel Roosevelt's action. + </p> + <p> + As Colonel Roosevelt has left the service, a Brevet Commission is of no + particular value in his case. + </p> + <p> + Very respectfully, SAMUEL S. SUMNER, Major-General United States + Volunteers. + </p> + <p> + WEST POINT, N. Y., December 17, 1898. + </p> + <p> + MY DEAR COLONEL: I saw you lead the line up the first hill—you were + certainly the first officer to reach the top—and through your + efforts, and your personally jumping to the front, a line more or less + thin, but strong enough to take it, was led by you to the San Juan or + first hill. In this your life was placed in extreme jeopardy, as you may + recall, and as it proved by the number of dead left in that vicinity. + Captain Stevens, then of the Ninth Cavalry, now of the Second Cavalry, was + with you, and I am sure he recalls your gallant conduct. After the line + started on the advance from the first hill, I did not see you until our + line was halted, under a most galling fire, at the extreme front, where + you afterwards entrenched. I spoke to you there and gave instructions from + General Sumner that the position was to be held and that there would be no + further advance till further orders. You were the senior officer there, + took charge of the line, scolded me for having my horse so high upon the + ridge; at the same time you were exposing yourself most conspicuously, + while adjusting the line, for the example was necessary, as was proved + when several colored soldiers—about eight or ten, Twenty-fourth + Infantry, I think—started at a run to the rear to assist a wounded + colored soldier, and you drew your revolver and put a short and effective + stop to such apparent stampede—it quieted them. That position was + hot, and now I marvel at your escaping there. . . . Very sincerely yours, + ROBERT L. HOWZE. + </p> + <p> + WEST POINT, N. Y., December 17, 1898. + </p> + <p> + I hereby certify that on July 1, 1898, Colonel (then Lieutenant-Colonel) + Theodore Roosevelt, First Volunteer Cavalry, distinguished himself through + the action, and on two occasions during the battle when I was an + eye-witness, his conduct was most conspicuous and clearly distinguished + above other men, as follows: + </p> + <p> + 1. At the base of San Juan, or first hill, there was a strong wire fence, + or entanglement, at which the line hesitated under a galling fire, and + where the losses were severe. Colonel Roosevelt jumped through the fence + and by his enthusiasm, his example and courage succeeded in leading to the + crest of the hill a line sufficiently strong to capture it. In this charge + the Cavalry Brigade suffered its greatest loss, and the Colonel's life was + placed in extreme jeopardy, owing to the conspicuous position he took in + leading the line, and being the first to reach the crest of that hill, + while under heavy fire of the enemy at close range. + </p> + <p> + 2. At the extreme advanced position occupied by our lines, Colonel + Roosevelt found himself the senior, and under his instructions from + General Sumner to hold that position. He displayed the greatest bravery + and placed his life in extreme jeopardy by unavoidable exposure to severe + fire while adjusting and strengthening the line, placing the men in + positions which afforded best protection, etc., etc. His conduct and + example steadied the men, and on one occasion by severe but not + unnecessary measures prevented a small detachment from stampeding to the + rear. He displayed the most conspicuous gallantry, courage and coolness, + in performing extraordinarily hazardous duty. + </p> + <p> + ROBERT L. HOWZE, Captain A. A. G., U. S. V. (First Lieutenant Sixth United + States Cavalry.) + </p> + <p> + TO THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL UNITED STATES ARMY, Washington, D. C. + </p> + <p> + HEADQUARTERS UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY, WEST POINT, N. Y., April 5, + 1899. + </p> + <p> + LIEUTENANT-COLONEL W. H. CARTER, Assistant Adjutant-General United States + Army, Washington, D. C. + </p> + <p> + SIR: In compliance with the request, contained in your letter of April + 30th, of the Board convened to consider the awarding of brevets, medals of + honor, etc., for the Santiago Campaign, that I state any facts, within my + knowledge as Adjutant-General of the Brigade in which Colonel Theodore + Roosevelt served, to aid the Board in determining, in connection with + Colonel Roosevelt's application for a medal of honor, whether his conduct + at Santiago was such as to distinguish him above others, I have the honor + to submit the following: + </p> + <p> + My duties on July 1, 1898, brought me in constant observation of and + contact with Colonel Roosevelt from early morning until shortly before the + climax of the assault of the Cavalry Division on the San Juan Hill—the + so-called Kettle Hill. During this time, while under the enemy's artillery + fire at El Poso, and while on the march from El Poso by the San Juan ford + to the point from which his regiment moved to the assault—about two + miles, the greater part under fire—Colonel Roosevelt was conspicuous + above any others I observed in his regiment in the zealous performance of + duty, in total disregard of his personal danger and in his eagerness to + meet the enemy. At El Poso, when the enemy opened on that place with + artillery fire, a shrapnel bullet grazed and bruised one of Colonel + Roosevelt's wrists. The incident did not lessen his hazardous exposure, + but he continued so exposed until he had placed his command under cover. + In moving to the assault of San Juan Hill, Colonel Roosevelt was most + conspicuously brave, gallant and indifferent to his own safety. He, in the + open, led his regiment; no officer could have set a more striking example + to his men or displayed greater intrepidity. + </p> + <p> + Very respectfully, Your obedient servant, A. L. MILLS, Colonel United + States Army, Superintendent. + </p> + <p> + HEADQUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF SANTIAGO DE CUBA, SANTIAGO DE CUBA, December + 30, 1898. + </p> + <p> + TO THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL, UNITED STATES ARMY, Washington, D. C. + </p> + <p> + SIR: I have the honor to make the following statement relative to the + conduct of Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, late First United States Volunteer + Cavalry, during the assault upon San Juan Hill, July 1, 1898. + </p> + <p> + I have already recommended this officer for a medal of honor, which I + understand has been denied him, upon the ground that my previous letter + was too indefinite. I based my recommendation upon the fact that Colonel + Roosevelt, accompanied only by four or five men, led a very desperate and + extremely gallant charge on San Juan Hill, thereby setting a splendid + example to the troops and encouraging them to pass over the open country + intervening between their position and the trenches of the enemy. In + leading this charge, he started off first, as he supposed, with quite a + following of men, but soon discovered that he was alone. He then returned + and gathered up a few men and led them to the charge, as above stated. The + charge in itself was an extremely gallant one, and the example set a most + inspiring one to the troops in that part of the line, and while it is + perfectly true that everybody finally went up the hill in good style, yet + there is no doubt that the magnificent example set by Colonel Roosevelt + had a very encouraging effect and had great weight in bringing up the + troops behind him. During the assault, Colonel Roosevelt was the first to + reach the trenches in his part of the line and killed one of the enemy + with his own hand. + </p> + <p> + I earnestly recommend that the medal be conferred upon Colonel Roosevelt, + for I believe that he in every way deserves it, and that his services on + the day in question were of great value and of a most distinguished + character. + </p> + <p> + Very respectfully, LEONARD WOOD, Major-General, United States Volunteers. + Commanding Department of Santiago de Cuba. + </p> + <p> + HUNTSVILLE, ALA., January 4, 1899. + </p> + <p> + THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL, UNITED STATES ARMY, Washington, D. C. + </p> + <p> + SIR: I have the honor to recommend that a "Congressional Medal of Honor" + be given to Theodore Roosevelt (late Colonel First Volunteer Cavalry), for + distinguished conduct and conspicuous bravery in command of his regiment + in the charge on San Juan Hill, Cuba, July 1, 1898. + </p> + <p> + In compliance with G. O. 135, A. G. O. 1898, I enclose my certificate + showing my personal knowledge of Colonel Roosevelt's conduct. + </p> + <p> + Very respectfully, C. J. STEVENS, Captain Second Cavalry. + </p> + <p> + I hereby certify that on July 1, 1898, at the battle of San Juan, Cuba, I + witnessed Colonel (then Lieutenant-Colonel) Roosevelt, First Volunteer + Cavalry, United States of America, mounted, leading his regiment in the + charge on San Juan. By his gallantry and strong personality he contributed + most materially to the success of the charge of the Cavalry Division up + San Juan Hill. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Roosevelt was among the first to reach the crest of the hill, and + his dashing example, his absolute fearlessness and gallant leading + rendered his conduct conspicuous and clearl distinguished above other men. + </p> + <p> + C. J. STEVENS, Captain Second Cavalry. (Late First Lieutenant Ninth + Cavalry.) + </p> + <p> + YOUNG'S ISLAND, S. C., December 28, 1898. + </p> + <p> + TO THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL, UNITED STATES ARMY. Washington, D. C. + </p> + <p> + SIR: Believing that information relating to superior conduct on the part + of any of the higher officers who participated in the Spanish-American War + (and which information may not have been given) would be appreciated by + the Department over which you preside, I have the honor to call your + attention to the part borne by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, of the late + First United States Volunteer Cavalry, in the battle of July 1st last. I + do this not only because I think you ought to know, but because his + regiment as a whole were very proud of his splendid actions that day and + believe they call for that most coveted distinction of the American + officer, the Medal of Honor. Held in support, he brought his regiment, at + exactly the right time, not only up to the line of regulars, but went + through them and headed, on horseback, the charge on Kettle Hill; this + being done on his own initiative, the regulars as well as his own men + following. He then headed the charge on the next hill, both regulars and + the First United States Volunteer Cavalry following. He was so near the + intrenchments on the second hill, that he shot and killed with a revolver + one of the enemy before they broke completely. He then led the cavalry on + the chain of hills overlooking Santiago, where he remained in charge of + all the cavalry that was at the extreme front for the rest of that day and + night. His unhesitating gallantry in taking the initiative against + intrenchments lined by men armed with rapid fire guns certainly won him + the highest consideration and admiration of all who witnessed his conduct + throughout that day. + </p> + <p> + What I here write I can bear witness to from personally having seen. + </p> + <p> + Very respectfully, M. J. JENKINS, Major Late First United States Cavalry. + </p> + <p> + PRESCOTT, A. T., December 25, 1898. + </p> + <p> + I was Colonel Roosevelt's orderly at the battle of San Juan Hill, and from + that time on until our return to Montauk Point. I was with him all through + the fighting, and believe I was the only man who was always with him, + though during part of the time Lieutenants Ferguson and Greenwald were + also close to him. He led our regiment forward on horseback until he came + to the men of the Ninth Cavalry lying down. He led us through these and + they got up and joined us. He gave the order to charge on Kettle Hill, and + led us on horseback up the hill, both Rough Riders and the Ninth Cavalry. + He was the first on the hill, I being very nearly alongside of him. Some + Spanish riflemen were coming out of the intrenchments and he killed one + with his revolver. He took the men on to the crest of the hill and bade + them begin firing on the blockhouse on the hill to our left, the one the + infantry were attacking. When he took it, he gave the order to charge, and + led the troops on Kettle Hill forward against the blockhouse on our front. + He then had charge of all the cavalry on the hills overlooking Santiago, + where we afterwards dug our trenches. He had command that afternoon and + night, and for the rest of the time commanded our regiment at this point. + </p> + <p> + Yours very truly, H. P. BARDSHAR. + </p> + <p> + CAMBRIDGE, MD., March 27, 1902. + </p> + <p> + THEODORE ROOSEVELT, President of the United States. Washington, D. C. + </p> + <p> + DEAR SIR: At your request, I send you the following extracts from my + diary, and from notes taken on the day of the assault on San Juan. I kept + in my pocket a small pad on which incidents were noted daily from the + landing until the surrender. On the day of the fight notes were taken just + before Grimes fired his first gun, just after the third reply from the + enemy—when we were massed in the road about seventy paces from + Grimes' guns, and when I was beginning to get scared and to think I would + be killed—at the halt just before you advanced, and under the + shelter of the hills in the evening. Each time that notes were taken, the + page was put in an envelope addressed to my wife. At the first chance they + were mailed to her, and on my arrival in the United States the story of + the fight, taken from these notes, was entered in the diary I keep in a + book. I make this lengthy explanation that you may see that everything put + down was fresh in my memory. + </p> + <p> + I quote from my diary: "The tension on the men was great. Suddenly a line + of men appeared coming from our right. They were advancing through the + long grass, deployed as skirmishers and were under fire. At their head, or + rather in front of them and leading them, rode Colonel Roosevelt. He was + very conspicuous, mounted as he was. The men were the 'Rough Riders,' + so-called. I heard some one calling to them not to fire into us, and + seeing Colonel Carrol, reported to him, and was told to go out and meet + them, and caution them as to our position, we being between them and the + enemy. I did so, speaking to Colonel Roosevelt. I also told him we were + under orders not to advance, and asked him if he had received any orders. + He replied that he was going to charge the Spanish trenches. I told this + to Colonel Carrol, and to Captain Dimmick, our squadron commander. A few + moments after the word passed down that our left (Captain Taylor) was + about to charge. Captain McBlain called out, 'we must go in with those + troops; we must support Taylor.' I called this to Captain Dimmick, and he + gave the order to assault." + </p> + <p> + "The cheer was taken up and taken up again, on the left, and in the + distance it rolled on and on. And so we started. Colonel Roosevelt, of the + Rough Riders, started the whole movement on the left, which was the first + advance of the assault." + </p> + <p> + The following is taken from my notes and was hastily jotted down on the + field: "The Rough Riders came in line—Colonel Roosevelt said he + would assault—Taylor joined them with his troop—McBlain called + to Dimmick, 'let us go, we must go to support them.' Dimmick said all + right—and so, with no orders, we went in." + </p> + <p> + I find many of my notes are illegible from perspiration. My authority for + saying Taylor went in with you, "joined with his troop" was the word + passed to me and repeated to Captain Dimmick that Taylor was about to + charge with you. I could not see his troop. I have not put it in my diary, + but in another place I have noted that Colonel Carrol, who was acting as + brigade commander, told me to ask you if you had any orders. + </p> + <p> + I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, Your obedient servant, HENRY + ANSON BARBER, Captain Twenty-Eighth Infantry, (formerly of Ninth Cavalry.) + </p> + <p> + HEADQUARTERS PACIFIC DIVISION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., May 11, 1905. + </p> + <p> + DEAR MR. PRESIDENT: As some discussion has arisen in the public prints + regarding the battle of San Juan, Cuba, July 1, 1898, and your personal + movements during that day have been the subject of comment, it may not be + amiss in me to state some facts coming under my personal observation as + Commanding General of the Cavalry Division of which your regiment formed a + part. It will, perhaps, be advisable to show first how I came to be in + command, in order that my statement may have due weight as an + authoritative statement of facts: I was placed in command of the Cavalry + Division on the afternoon of June 30th by General Shafter; the assignment + was made owing to the severe illness of General Wheeler, who was the + permanent commander of said Division. Brigadier General Young, who + commanded the Second Cavalry Brigade, of which your regiment—the + First Volunteer Cavalry—formed a part, was also very ill, and I + found it necessary to relieve him from command and place Colonel Wood, of + the Rough Riders, in command of the Brigade; this change placed you in + command of your regiment. + </p> + <p> + The Division moved from its camp on the evening of June 30th, and + bivouacked at and about El Poso. I saw you personally in the vicinity of + El Poso, about 8 A.M., July 1st. I saw you again on the road leading from + El Poso to the San Juan River; you were at the head of your regiment, + which was leading the Second Brigade, and immediately behind the rear + regiment of the First Brigade. My orders were to turn to the right at San + Juan River and take up a line along that stream and try and connect with + General Lawton, who was to engage the enemy at El Caney. On reaching the + river we came under the fire of the Spanish forces posted on San Juan + Ridge and Kettle Hill. The First Brigade was faced to the front in line as + soon as it had cleared the road, and the Second Brigade was ordered to + pass in rear of the first and face to the front when clear of the First + Brigade. This movement was very difficult, owing to the heavy undergrowth, + and the regiments became more or less tangled up, but eventually the + formation was accomplished, and the Division stood in an irregular line + along the San Juan River, the Second Brigade on the right. We were + subjected to a heavy fire from the forces on San Juan Ridge and Kettle + Hill; our position was untenable, and it became necessary to assault the + enemy or fall back. Kettle Hill was immediately in front of the Cavalry, + and it was determined to assault that hill. The First Brigade was ordered + forward, and the Second Brigade was ordered to support the attack; + personally, I accompanied a portion of the Tenth Cavalry, Second Brigade, + and the Rough Riders were to the right. This brought your regiment to the + right of the house which was at the summit of the hill. Shortly after I + reached the crest of the hill you came to me, accompanied, I think, by + Captain C. J. Stevens, of the Ninth Cavalry. We were then in a position to + see the line of intrenchments along San Juan Ridge, and could see Kent's + Infantry Division engaged on our left, and Hawkins' assault against Fort + San Juan. You asked me for permission to move forward and assault San Juan + Ridge. I gave you the order in person to move forward, and I saw you move + forward and assault San Juan Ridge with your regiment and portions of the + First and Tenth Cavalry belonging to your Brigade. I held a portion of the + Second Brigade as a reserve on Kettle Hill, not knowing what force the + enemy might have in reserve behind the ridge. The First Brigade also moved + forward and assaulted the ridge to the right of Fort San Juan. There was a + small lake between Kettle Hill and San Juan Ridge, and in moving forward + your command passed to the right of this lake. This brought you opposite a + house on San Juan Ridge—not Fort San Juan proper, but a frame house + surrounded by an earthwork. The enemy lost a number of men at this point, + whose bodies lay in the trenches. Later in the day I rode along the line, + and, as I recall it, a portion of the Tenth Cavalry was immediately about + this house, and your regiment occupied an irregular semi-circular position + along the ridge and immediately to the right of the house. You had pickets + out to your front; and several hundred yards to your front the Spaniards + had a heavy outpost occupying a house, with rifle pits surrounding it. + Later in the day, and during the following day, the various regiments + forming the Division were rearranged and brought into tactical formation, + the First Brigade on the left and immediately to the right of Fort San + Juan, and the Second Brigade on the right of the First. + </p> + <p> + This was the position occupied by the Cavalry Division until the final + surrender of the Spanish forces, on July 17, 1898. + </p> + <p> + In conclusion allow me to say, that I saw you, personally, at about 8 + A.M., at El Poso; later, on the road to San Juan River; later, on the + summit of Kettle Hill, immediately after its capture by the Cavalry + Division. I saw you move forward with your command to assault San Juan + Ridge, and I saw you on San Juan Ridge, where we visited your line + together, and you explained to me the disposition of your command. + </p> + <p> + I am, sir, with much respect, Your obedient servant, SAMUEL S. SUMNER, + Major-General United States Army. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE NEW YORK GOVERNORSHIP + </h3> + <p> + In September, 1898, the First Volunteer Cavalry, in company with most of + the rest of the Fifth Army Corps, was disembarked at Montauk Point. + Shortly after it was disbanded, and a few days later, I was nominated for + Governor of New York by the Republican party. Timothy L. Woodruff was + nominated for Lieutenant-Governor. He was my stanch friend throughout the + term of our joint service. + </p> + <p> + The previous year, the machine or standpat Republicans, who were under the + domination of Senator Platt, had come to a complete break with the + anti-machine element over the New York mayoralty. This had brought the + Republican party to a smash, not only in New York City, but in the State, + where the Democratic candidate for Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals, + Alton B. Parker, was elected by sixty or eighty thousand majority. Mr. + Parker was an able man, a lieutenant of Mr. Hill's, standing close to the + conservative Democrats of the Wall Street type. These conservative + Democrats were planning how to wrest the Democratic party from the control + of Mr. Bryan. They hailed Judge Parker's victory as a godsend. The Judge + at once loomed up as a Presidential possibility, and was carefully groomed + for the position by the New York Democratic machine, and its financial + allies in the New York business world. + </p> + <p> + The Republicans realized that the chances were very much against them. + Accordingly the leaders were in a chastened mood and ready to nominate any + candidate with whom they thought there was a chance of winning. I was the + only possibility, and, accordingly, under pressure from certain of the + leaders who recognized this fact, and who responded to popular pressure, + Senator Platt picked me for the nomination. He was entirely frank in the + matter. He made no pretense that he liked me personally; but he deferred + to the judgment of those who insisted that I was the only man who could be + elected, and that therefore I had to be nominated. + </p> + <p> + Foremost among the leaders who pressed me on Mr. Platt (who "pestered" him + about me, to use his own words) were Mr. Quigg, Mr. Odell—then State + Chairman of the Republican organization, and afterwards Governor—and + Mr. Hazel, now United States Judge. Judge Hazel did not know me + personally, but felt that the sentiment in his city, Buffalo, demanded my + nomination, and that the then Republican Governor, Mr. Black, could not be + reelected. Mr. Odell, who hardly knew me personally, felt the same way + about Mr. Black's chances, and, as he had just taken the State + Chairmanship, he was very anxious to win a victory. Mr. Quigg knew me + quite well personally; he had been in touch with me for years, while he + was a reporter on the <i>Tribune</i>, and also when he edited a paper in + Montana; he had been on good terms with me while he was in Congress and I + was Civil Service Commissioner, meeting me often in company with my + especial cronies in Congress—men like Lodge, Speaker Tom Reed, + Greenhalge, Butterworth, and Dolliver—and he had urged my + appointment as Police Commissioner on Mayor Strong. + </p> + <p> + It was Mr. Quigg who called on me at Montauk Point to sound me about the + Governorship; Mr. Platt being by no means enthusiastic over Mr. Quigg's + mission, largely because he disapproved of the Spanish War and of my part + in bringing it about. Mr. Quigg saw me in my tent, in which he spent a + couple of hours with me, my brother-in-law, Douglas Robinson, being also + present. Quigg spoke very frankly to me, stating that he earnestly desired + to see me nominated and believed that the great body of Republican voters + in the State so desired, but that the organization and the State + Convention would finally do what Senator Platt desired. He said that + county leaders were already coming to Senator Platt, hinting at a close + election, expressing doubt of Governor Black's availability for + reelection, and asking why it would not be a good thing to nominate me; + that now that I had returned to the United States this would go on more + and more all the time, and that he (Quigg) did not wish that these men + should be discouraged and be sent back to their localities to suppress a + rising sentiment in my favor. For this reason he said that he wanted from + me a plain statement as to whether or not I wanted the nomination, and as + to what would be my attitude toward the organization in the event of my + nomination and election, whether or not I would "make war" on Mr. Platt + and his friends, or whether I would confer with them and with the + organization leaders generally, and give fair consideration to their point + of view as to party policy and public interest. He said he had not come to + make me any offer of the nomination, and had no authority to do so, nor to + get any pledges or promises. He simply wanted a frank definition of my + attitude towards existing party conditions. + </p> + <p> + To this I replied that I should like to be nominated, and if nominated + would promise to throw myself into the campaign with all possible energy. + I said that I should not make war on Mr. Platt or anybody else if war + could be avoided; that what I wanted was to be Governor and not a faction + leader; that I certainly would confer with the organization men, as with + everybody else who seemed to me to have knowledge of and interest in + public affairs, and that as to Mr. Platt and the organization leaders, I + would do so in the sincere hope that there might always result harmony of + opinion and purpose; but that while I would try to get on well with the + organization, the organization must with equal sincerity strive to do what + I regarded as essential for the public good; and that in every case, after + full consideration of what everybody had to say who might possess real + knowledge of the matter, I should have to act finally as my own judgment + and conscience dictated and administer the State government as I thought + it ought to be administered. Quigg said that this was precisely what he + supposed I would say, that it was all anybody could expect, and that he + would state it to Senator Platt precisely as I had put it to him, which he + accordingly did; and, throughout my term as Governor, Quigg lived loyally + up to our understanding.[*] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] In a letter to me Mr. Quigg states, what I had + forgotten, that I told him to tell the Senator that I would + talk freely with him, and had no intention of becoming a + factional leader with a personal organization, yet that I + must have direct personal relations with everybody, and get + their views at first hand whenever I so desired, because I + could not have one man speaking for all. +</pre> + <p> + After being nominated, I made a hard and aggressive campaign through the + State. My opponent was a respectable man, a judge, behind whom stood Mr. + Croker, the boss of Tammany Hall. My object was to make the people + understand that it was Croker, and not the nominal candidate, who was my + real opponent; that the choice lay between Crokerism and myself. Croker + was a powerful and truculent man, the autocrat of his organization, and of + a domineering nature. For his own reasons he insisted upon Tammany's + turning down an excellent Democratic judge who was a candidate for + reelection. This gave me my chance. Under my attack, Croker, who was a + stalwart fighting man and who would not take an attack tamely, himself + came to the front. I was able to fix the contest in the public mind as one + between himself and myself; and, against all probabilities, I won by the + rather narrow margin of eighteen thousand plurality. + </p> + <p> + As I have already said, there is a lunatic fringe to every reform + movement. At least nine-tenths of all the sincere reformers supported me; + but the ultra-pacifists, the so-called anti-imperialists, or + anti-militarists, or peace-at-any-price men, preferred Croker to me; and + another knot of extremists who had at first ardently insisted that I must + be "forced" on Platt, as soon as Platt supported me themselves opposed me + <i>because</i> he supported me. After election John Hay wrote me as + follows: "While you are Governor, I believe the party can be made solid as + never before. You have already shown that a man may be absolutely honest + and yet practical; a reformer by instinct and a wise politician; brave, + bold, and uncompromising, and yet not a wild ass of the desert. The + exhibition made by the professional independents in voting against you for + no reason on earth except that somebody else was voting for you, is a + lesson that is worth its cost." + </p> + <p> + At that time boss rule was at its very zenith. Mr. Bryan's candidacy in + 1896 on a free silver platform had threatened such frightful business + disaster as to make the business men, the wage-workers, and the + professional classes generally, turn eagerly to the Republican party. East + of the Mississippi the Republican vote for Mr. McKinley was larger by far + than it had been for Abraham Lincoln in the days when the life of the + Nation was at stake. Mr. Bryan championed many sorely needed reforms in + the interest of the plain people; but many of his platform proposals, + economic and otherwise, were of such a character that to have put them + into practice would have meant to plunge all our people into conditions + far worse than any of those for which he sought a remedy. The free silver + advocates included sincere and upright men who were able to make a strong + case for their position; but with them and dominating them were all the + believers in the complete or partial repudiation of National, State, and + private debts; and not only the business men but the workingmen grew to + feel that under these circumstances too heavy a price could not be paid to + avert the Democratic triumph. The fear of Mr. Bryan threw almost all the + leading men of all classes into the arms of whoever opposed him. + </p> + <p> + The Republican bosses, who were already very powerful, and who were + already in fairly close alliance with the privileged interests, now found + everything working to their advantage. Good and high-minded men of + conservative temperament in their panic played into the hands of the + ultra-reactionaries of business and politics. The alliance between the two + kinds of privilege, political and financial, was closely cemented; and + wherever there was any attempt to break it up, the cry was at once raised + that this merely represented another phase of the assault on National + honesty and individual and mercantile integrity. As so often happens, the + excesses and threats of an unwise and extreme radicalism had resulted in + immensely strengthening the position of the beneficiaries of reaction. + This was the era when the Standard Oil Company achieved a mastery of + Pennsylvania politics so far-reaching and so corrupt that it is difficult + to describe it without seeming to exaggerate. + </p> + <p> + In New York State, United States Senator Platt was the absolute boss of + the Republican party. "Big business" was back of him; yet at the time + this, the most important element in his strength, was only imperfectly + understood. It was not until I was elected Governor that I myself came to + understand it. We were still accustomed to talking of the "machine" as if + it were something merely political, with which business had nothing to do. + Senator Platt did not use his political position to advance his private + fortunes—therein differing absolutely from many other political + bosses. He lived in hotels and had few extravagant tastes. Indeed, I could + not find that he had any tastes at all except for politics, and on rare + occasions for a very dry theology wholly divorced from moral implications. + But big business men contributed to him large sums of money, which enabled + him to keep his grip on the machine and secured for them the help of the + machine if they were threatened with adverse legislation. The + contributions were given in the guise of contributions for campaign + purposes, of money for the good of the party; when the money was + contributed there was rarely talk of specific favors in return.[*] It was + simply put into Mr. Platt's hands and treated by him as in the campaign + chest. Then he distributed it in the districts where it was most needed by + the candidates and organization leaders. Ordinarily no pledge was required + from the latter to the bosses, any more than it was required by the + business men from Mr. Platt or his lieutenants. No pledge was needed. It + was all a "gentlemen's understanding." As the Senator once said to me, if + a man's character was such that it was necessary to get a promise from + him, it was clear proof that his character was such that the promise would + not be worth anything after it was made. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] Each nation has its own pet sins to which it is merciful + and also sins which it treats as most abhorrent. In America + we are peculiarly sensitive about big money contributions + for which the donors expect any reward. In England, where in + some ways the standard is higher than here, such + contributions are accepted as a matter of course, nay, as + one of the methods by which wealthy men obtain peerages. It + would be well-nigh an impossibility for a man to secure a + seat in the United States Senate by mere campaign + contributions, in the way that seats in the British House of + Lords have often been secured without any scandal being + caused thereby. +</pre> + <p> + It must not be forgotten that some of the worst practices of the machine + in dealings of this kind represented merely virtues in the wrong place, + virtues wrenched out of proper relation to their surroundings. A man in a + doubtful district might win only because of the help Mr. Platt gave him; + he might be a decent young fellow without money enough to finance his own + campaign, who was able to finance it only because Platt of his own accord + found out or was apprised of his need and advanced the money. Such a man + felt grateful, and, because of his good qualities, joined with the purely + sordid and corrupt heelers and crooked politicians to become part of the + Platt machine. In his turn Mr. Platt was recognized by the business men, + the big contributors, as an honorable man; not only a man of his word, but + a man who, whenever he received a favor, could be trusted to do his best + to repay it on any occasion that arose. I believe that usually the + contributors, and the recipient, sincerely felt that the transaction was + proper and subserved the cause of good politics and good business; and, + indeed, as regards the major part of the contributions, it is probable + that this was the fact, and that the only criticism that could properly be + made about the contributions was that they were not made with publicity—and + at that time neither the parties nor the public had any realization that + publicity was necessary, or any adequate understanding of the dangers of + the "invisible empire" which throve by what was done in secrecy. Many, + probably most, of the contributors of this type never wished anything + personal in exchange for their contributions, and made them with sincere + patriotism, desiring in return only that the Government should be + conducted on a proper basis. Unfortunately, it was, in practice, + exceedingly difficult to distinguish these men from the others who + contributed big sums to the various party bosses with the expectation of + gaining concrete and personal advantages (in which the bosses shared) at + the expense of the general public. It was very hard to draw the line + between these two types of contributions. + </p> + <p> + There was but one kind of money contributions as to which it seemed to me + absolutely impossible for either the contributor or the recipient to + disguise to themselves the evil meaning of the contribution. This was + where a big corporation contributed to both political parties. I knew of + one such case where in a State campaign a big corporation which had many + dealings with public officials frankly contributed in the neighborhood of + a hundred thousand dollars to one campaign fund and fifty thousand dollars + to the campaign fund of the other side—and, I believe, made some + further substantial contributions in the same ratio of two dollars to one + side for every one dollar given to the other. The contributors were + Democrats, and the big contributions went to the Democratic managers. The + Republican was elected, and after his election, when a matter came up + affecting the company, in which its interests were hostile to those of the + general public, the successful candidate, then holding a high State + office, was approached by his campaign managers and the situation put + frankly before him. He was less disturbed than astonished, and remarked, + "Why, I thought So-and-so and his associates were Democrats and subscribed + to the Democratic campaign fund." "So they did," was the answer; "they + subscribed to them twice as much as they subscribed to us, but if they had + had any idea that you intended doing what you now say you will do, they + would have subscribed it all to the other side, and more too." The State + official in his turn answered that he was very sorry if any one had + subscribed under a misapprehension, that it was no fault of his, for he + had stated definitely and clearly his position, that he of course had no + money wherewith himself to return what without his knowledge had been + contributed, and that all he could say was that any man who had subscribed + to his campaign fund under the impression that the receipt of the + subscription would be a bar to the performance of public duty was sadly + mistaken. + </p> + <p> + The control by Mr. Platt and his lieutenants over the organization was + well-nigh complete. There were splits among the bosses, and insurgent + movements now and then, but the ordinary citizens had no control over the + political machinery except in a very few districts. There were, however, + plenty of good men in politics, men who either came from districts where + there was popular control, or who represented a genuine aspiration towards + good citizenship on the part of some boss or group of bosses, or else who + had been nominated frankly for reasons of expediency by bosses whose + attitude towards good citizenship was at best one of Gallio-like + indifference. At the time when I was nominated for Governor, as later when + Mr. Hughes was nominated and renominated for Governor, there was no + possibility of securing the nomination unless the bosses permitted it. In + each case the bosses, the machine leaders, took a man for whom they did + not care, because he was the only man with whom they could win. In the + case of Mr. Hughes there was of course also the fact of pressure from the + National Administration. But the bosses were never overcome in a fair + fight, when they had made up their minds to fight, until the Saratoga + Convention in 1910, when Mr. Stimson was nominated for Governor. + </p> + <p> + Senator Platt had the same inborn capacity for the kind of politics which + he liked that many big Wall Street men have shown for not wholly + dissimilar types of finance. It was his chief interest, and he applied + himself to it unremittingly. He handled his private business successfully; + but it was politics in which he was absorbed, and he concerned himself + therewith every day in the year. He had built up an excellent system of + organization, and the necessary funds came from corporations and men of + wealth who contributed as I have described above. The majority of the men + with a natural capacity for organization leadership of the type which has + generally been prevalent in New York politics turned to Senator Platt as + their natural chief and helped build up the organization, until under his + leadership it became more powerful and in a position of greater control + than any other Republican machine in the country, excepting in + Pennsylvania. The Democratic machines in some of the big cities, as in New + York and Boston, and the country Democratic machine of New York under + David B. Hill, were probably even more efficient, representing an even + more complete mastery by the bosses, and an even greater degree of drilled + obedience among the henchmen. It would be an entire mistake to suppose + that Mr. Platt's lieutenants were either all bad men or all influenced by + unworthy motives. He was constantly doing favors for men. He had won the + gratitude of many good men. In the country districts especially, there + were many places where his machine included the majority of the best + citizens, the leading and substantial citizens, among the inhabitants. + Some of his strongest and most efficient lieutenants were disinterested + men of high character. + </p> + <p> + There had always been a good deal of opposition to Mr. Platt and the + machine, but the leadership of this opposition was apt to be found only + among those whom Abraham Lincoln called the "silk stockings," and much of + it excited almost as much derision among the plain people as the machine + itself excited anger or dislike. Very many of Mr. Platt's opponents really + disliked him and his methods, for aesthetic rather than for moral reasons, + and the bulk of the people half-consciously felt this and refused to + submit to their leadership. The men who opposed him in this manner were + good citizens according to their lights, prominent in the social clubs and + in philanthropic circles, men of means and often men of business standing. + They disliked coarse and vulgar politicians, and they sincerely reprobated + all the shortcomings that were recognized by, and were offensive to, + people of their own caste. They had not the slightest understanding of the + needs, interests, ways of thought, and convictions of the average small + man; and the small man felt this, although he could not express it, and + sensed that they were really not concerned with his welfare, and that they + did not offer him anything materially better from his point of view than + the machine. + </p> + <p> + When reformers of this type attempted to oppose Mr. Platt, they usually + put up either some rather inefficient, well-meaning person, who bathed + every day, and didn't steal, but whose only good point was + "respectability," and who knew nothing of the great fundamental questions + looming before us; or else they put up some big business man or + corporation lawyer who was wedded to the gross wrong and injustice of our + economic system, and who neither by personality nor by programme gave the + ordinary plain people any belief that there was promise of vital good to + them in the change. The correctness of their view was proved by the fact + that as soon as fundamental economic and social reforms were at stake the + aesthetic, as distinguished from the genuinely moral, reformers, for the + most part sided with the bosses against the people. + </p> + <p> + When I became Governor, the conscience of the people was in no way or + shape aroused, as it has since become roused. The people accepted and + practiced in a matter-of-course way as quite proper things which they + would not now tolerate. They had no definite and clearly outlined + conception of what they wished in the way of reform. They on the whole + tolerated, and indeed approved of, the machine; and there had been no + development on any considerable scale of reformers with the vision to see + what the needs of the people were, and the high purpose sanely to achieve + what was necessary in order to meet these needs. I knew both the machine + and the silk-stocking reformers fairly well, from many years' close + association with them. The machine as such had no ideals at all, although + many of the men composing it did have. On the other hand, the ideals of + very many of the silk-stocking reformers did not relate to the questions + of real and vital interest to our people; and, singularly enough, in + international matters, these same silk-stockings were no more to be + trusted than the average ignorant demagogue or shortsighted spoils + politicians. I felt that these men would be broken reeds to which to trust + in any vital contest for betterment of social and industrial conditions. + </p> + <p> + I had neither the training nor the capacity that would have enabled me to + match Mr. Platt and his machine people on their own ground. Nor did I + believe that the effort to build up a machine of my own under the then + existing conditions would meet the needs of the situation so far as the + people were concerned. I therefore made no effort to create a machine of + my own, and consistently adopted the plan of going over the heads of the + men holding public office and of the men in control of the organization, + and appealing directly to the people behind them. The machine, for + instance, had a more or less strong control over the great bulk of the + members of the State Legislature; but in the last resort the people behind + these legislators had a still greater control over them. I made up my mind + that the only way I could beat the bosses whenever the need to do so arose + (and unless there was such need I did not wish to try) was, not by + attempting to manipulate the machinery, and not by trusting merely to the + professional reformers, but by making my appeal as directly and as + emphatically as I knew how to the mass of voters themselves, to the + people, to the men who if waked up would be able to impose their will on + their representatives. My success depended upon getting the people in the + different districts to look at matters in my way, and getting them to take + such an active interest in affairs as to enable them to exercise control + over their representatives. + </p> + <p> + There were a few of the Senators and Assemblymen whom I could reach by + seeing them personally and putting before them my arguments; but most of + them were too much under the control of the machine for me to shake them + loose unless they knew that the people were actively behind me. In making + my appeal to the people as a whole I was dealing with an entirely + different constituency from that which, especially in the big cities, + liked to think of itself as the "better element," the particular exponent + of reform and good citizenship. I was dealing with shrewd, hard-headed, + kindly men and women, chiefly concerned with the absorbing work of earning + their own living, and impatient of fads, who had grown to feel that the + associations with the word "reformer" were not much better than the + associations with the word "politician." I had to convince these men and + women of my good faith, and, moreover, of my common sense and efficiency. + They were most of them strong partisans, and an outrage had to be very + real and very great to shake them even partially loose from their party + affiliations. Moreover, they took little interest in any fight of mere + personalities. They were not influenced in the least by the silk-stocking + reform view of Mr. Platt. I knew that if they were persuaded that I was + engaged in a mere faction fight against him, that it was a mere issue + between his ambition and mine, they would at once become indifferent, and + my fight would be lost. + </p> + <p> + But I felt that I could count on their support wherever I could show them + that the fight was not made just for the sake of the row, that it was not + made merely as a factional contest against Senator Platt and the + organization, but was waged from a sense of duty for real and tangible + causes such as the promotion of governmental efficiency and honesty, and + forcing powerful moneyed men to take the proper attitude toward the + community at large. They stood by me when I insisted upon having the canal + department, the insurance department, and the various departments of the + State Government run with efficiency and honesty; they stood by me when I + insisted upon making wealthy men who owned franchises pay the State what + they properly ought to pay; they stood by me when, in connection with the + strikes on the Croton Aqueduct and in Buffalo, I promptly used the + military power of the State to put a stop to rioting and violence. + </p> + <p> + In the latter case my chief opponents and critics were local politicians + who were truckling to the labor vote; but in all cases coming under the + first two categories I had serious trouble with the State leaders of the + machine. I always did my best, in good faith, to get Mr. Platt and the + other heads of the machine to accept my views, and to convince them, by + repeated private conversations, that I was right. I never wantonly + antagonized or humiliated them. I did not wish to humiliate them or to + seem victorious over them; what I wished was to secure the things that I + thought it essential to the men and women of the State to secure. If I + could finally persuade them to support me, well and good; in such case I + continued to work with them in the friendliest manner. + </p> + <p> + If after repeated and persistent effort I failed to get them to support + me, then I made a fair fight in the open, and in a majority of cases I + carried my point and succeeded in getting through the legislation which I + wished. In theory the Executive has nothing to do with legislation. In + practice, as things now are, the Executive is or ought to be peculiarly + representative of the people as a whole. As often as not the action of the + Executive offers the only means by which the people can get the + legislation they demand and ought to have. Therefore a good executive + under the present conditions of American political life must take a very + active interest in getting the right kind of legislation, in addition to + performing his executive duties with an eye single to the public welfare. + More than half of my work as Governor was in the direction of getting + needed and important legislation. I accomplished this only by arousing the + people, and riveting their attention on what was done. + </p> + <p> + Gradually the people began to wake up more and more to the fact that the + machine politicians were not giving them the kind of government which they + wished. As this waking up grew more general, not merely in New York or any + other one State, but throughout most of the Nation, the power of the + bosses waned. Then a curious thing happened. The professional reformers + who had most loudly criticized these bosses began to change toward them. + Newspaper editors, college presidents, corporation lawyers, and big + business men, all alike, had denounced the bosses and had taken part in + reform movements against them so long as these reforms dealt only with + things that were superficial, or with fundamental things that did not + affect themselves and their associates. But the majority of these men + turned to the support of the bosses when the great new movement began + clearly to make itself evident as one against privilege in business no + less than against privilege in politics, as one for social and industrial + no less than for political righteousness and fair dealing. The big + corporation lawyer who had antagonized the boss in matters which he + regarded as purely political stood shoulder to shoulder with the boss when + the movement for betterment took shape in direct attack on the combination + of business with politics and with the judiciary which has done so much to + enthrone privilege in the economic world. + </p> + <p> + The reformers who denounced political corruption and fraud when shown at + the expense of their own candidates by machine ward heelers of a low type + hysterically applauded similar corrupt trickery when practiced by these + same politicians against men with whose political and industrial programme + the reformers were not in sympathy. I had always been instinctively and by + nature a democrat, but if I had needed conversion to the democratic ideal + here in America the stimulus would have been supplied by what I saw of the + attitude, not merely of the bulk of the men of greatest wealth, but of the + bulk of the men who most prided themselves upon their education and + culture, when we began in good faith to grapple with the wrong and + injustice of our social and industrial system, and to hit at the men + responsible for the wrong, no matter how high they stood in business or in + politics, at the bar or on the bench. It was while I was Governor, and + especially in connection with the franchise tax legislation, that I first + became thoroughly aware of the real causes of this attitude among the men + of great wealth and among the men who took their tone from the men of + great wealth. + </p> + <p> + Very soon after my victory in the race for Governor I had one or two + experiences with Senator Platt which showed in amusing fashion how + absolute the rule of the boss was in the politics of that day. Senator + Platt, who was always most kind and friendly in his personal relations + with me, asked me in one day to talk over what was to be done at Albany. + He had the two or three nominal heads of the organization with him. They + were his lieutenants, who counseled and influenced him, whose advice he + often followed, but who, when he had finally made up his mind, merely + registered and carried out his decrees. After a little conversation the + Senator asked if I had any member of the Assembly whom I wished to have + put on any committee, explaining that the committees were being arranged. + I answered no, and expressed my surprise at what he had said, because I + had not understood the Speaker who appointed the committees had himself + been agreed upon by the members-elect. "Oh!" responded the Senator, with a + tolerant smile, "He has not been chosen yet, but of course whoever we + choose as Speaker will agree beforehand to make the appointments we wish." + I made a mental note to the effect that if they attempted the same process + with the Governor-elect they would find themselves mistaken. + </p> + <p> + In a few days the opportunity to prove this arrived. Under the preceding + Administration there had been grave scandals about the Erie Canal, the + trans-State Canal, and these scandals had been one of the chief issues in + the campaign for the Governorship. The construction of this work was under + the control of the Superintendent of Public Works. In the actual state of + affairs his office was by far the most important office under me, and I + intended to appoint to it some man of high character and capacity who + could be trusted to do the work not merely honestly and efficiently, but + without regard to politics. A week or so after the Speakership incident + Senator Platt asked me to come and see him (he was an old and physically + feeble man, able to move about only with extreme difficulty). + </p> + <p> + On arrival I found the Lieutenant-Governor elect, Mr. Woodruff, who had + also been asked to come. The Senator informed me that he was glad to say + that I would have a most admirable man as Superintendent of Public Works, + as he had just received a telegram from a certain gentleman, whom he + named, saying that he would accept the position! He handed me the + telegram. The man in question was a man I liked; later I appointed him to + an important office in which he did well. But he came from a city along + the line of the canal, so that I did not think it best that he should be + appointed anyhow; and, moreover, what was far more important, it was + necessary to have it understood at the very outset that the Administration + was my Administration and was no one else's but mine. So I told the + Senator very politely that I was sorry, but that I could not appoint his + man. This produced an explosion, but I declined to lose my temper, merely + repeating that I must decline to accept any man chosen for me, and that I + must choose the man myself. Although I was very polite, I was also very + firm, and Mr. Platt and his friends finally abandoned their position. + </p> + <p> + I appointed an engineer from Brooklyn, a veteran of the Civil War, Colonel + Partridge, who had served in Mayor Low's administration. He was an + excellent man in every way. He chose as his assistant, actively to + superintend the work, a Cornell graduate named Elon Hooker, a man with no + political backing at all, picked simply because he was the best equipped + man for the place. The office, the most important office under me, was run + in admirable fashion throughout my Administration; I doubt if there ever + was an important department of the New York State Government run with a + higher standard of efficiency and integrity. + </p> + <p> + But this was not all that had to be done about the canals. Evidently the + whole policy hitherto pursued had been foolish and inadequate. I appointed + a first-class non-partisan commission of business men and expert engineers + who went into the matter exhaustively, and their report served as the + basis upon which our entire present canal system is based. There remained + the question of determining whether the canal officials who were in office + before I became Governor, and whom I had declined to reappoint, had been + guilty of any action because of which it would be possible to proceed + against them criminally or otherwise under the law. Such criminal action + had been freely charged against them during the campaign by the Democratic + (including the so-called mugwump) press. To determine this matter I + appointed two Democratic lawyers, Messrs. Fox and MacFarlane (the latter + Federal District Attorney for New York under President Cleveland), and put + the whole investigation in their hands. These gentlemen made an exhaustive + investigation lasting several months. They reported that there had been + grave delinquency in the prosecution of the work, delinquency which + justified public condemnation of those responsible for it (who were out of + office), but that there was no ground for criminal prosecution. I laid + their report before the Legislature with a message in which I said: "There + is probably no lawyer of high standing in the State who, after studying + the report of counsel in this case and the testimony taken by the + investigating commission, would disagree with them as to the + impracticability of a successful prosecution. Under such circumstances the + one remedy was a thorough change in the methods and management. This + change has been made." + </p> + <p> + When my successor in the Governorship took office, Colonel Partridge + retired, and Elon Hooker, finding that he could no longer act with entire + disregard of politics and with an eye single to the efficiency of the + work, also left. A dozen years later—having in the meantime made a + marked success in a business career—he became the Treasurer of the + National Progressive party. + </p> + <p> + My action in regard to the canals, and the management of his office, the + most important office under me, by Colonel Partridge, established my + relations with Mr. Platt from the outset on pretty nearly the right basis. + But, besides various small difficulties, we had one or two serious bits of + trouble before my duties as Governor ceased. It must be remembered that + Mr. Platt was to all intents and purposes a large part of, and sometimes a + majority of, the Legislature. There were a few entirely independent men + such as Nathaniel Elsberg, Regis Post, and Alford Cooley, in each of the + two houses; the remainder were under the control of the Republican and + Democratic bosses, but could also be more or less influenced by an aroused + public opinion. The two machines were apt to make common cause if their + vital interests were touched. It was my business to devise methods by + which either the two machines could be kept apart or else overthrown if + they came together. + </p> + <p> + My desire was to achieve results, and not merely to issue manifestoes of + virtue. It is very easy to be efficient if the efficiency is based on + unscrupulousness, and it is still easier to be virtuous if one is content + with the purely negative virtue which consists in not doing anything + wrong, but being wholly unable to accomplish anything positive for good. + My favorite quotation from Josh Billings again applies: It is so much + easier to be a harmless dove than a wise serpent. My duty was to combine + both idealism and efficiency. At that time the public conscience was still + dormant as regards many species of political and business misconduct, as + to which during the next decade it became sensitive. I had to work with + the tools at hand and to take into account the feeling of the people, + which I have already described. My aim was persistently to refuse to be + put in a position where what I did would seem to be a mere faction + struggle against Senator Platt. My aim was to make a fight only when I + could so manage it that there could be no question in the minds of honest + men that my prime purpose was not to attack Mr. Platt or any one else + except as a necessary incident to securing clean and efficient government. + </p> + <p> + In each case I did my best to persuade Mr. Platt not to oppose me. I + endeavored to make it clear to him that I was not trying to wrest the + organization from him; and I always gave him in detail the reasons why I + felt I had to take the position I intended to adopt. It was only after I + had exhausted all the resources of my patience that I would finally, if he + still proved obstinate, tell him that I intended to make the fight anyhow. + As I have said, the Senator was an old and feeble man in physique, and it + was possible for him to go about very little. Until Friday evening he + would be kept at his duties at Washington, while I was in Albany. If I + wished to see him it generally had to be at his hotel in New York on + Saturday, and usually I would go there to breakfast with him. The one + thing I would not permit was anything in the nature of a secret or + clandestine meeting. I always insisted on going openly. Solemn reformers + of the tom-fool variety, who, according to their custom, paid attention to + the name and not the thing, were much exercised over my "breakfasting with + Platt." Whenever I breakfasted with him they became sure that the fact + carried with it some sinister significance. The worthy creatures never + took the trouble to follow the sequence of facts and events for + themselves. If they had done so they would have seen that any series of + breakfasts with Platt always meant that I was going to do something he did + not like, and that I was trying, courteously and frankly, to reconcile him + to it. My object was to make it as easy as possible for him to come with + me. As long as there was no clash between us there was no object in my + seeing him; it was only when the clash came or was imminent that I had to + see him. A series of breakfasts was always the prelude to some active + warfare.[*] In every instance I substantially carried my point, although + in some cases not in exactly the way in which I had originally hoped. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] To illustrate my meaning I quote from a letter of mine + to Senator Platt of December 13, 1899. He had been trying to + get me to promote a certain Judge X over the head of another + Judge Y. I wrote: "There is a strong feeling among the + judges and the leading members of the bar that Judge Y ought + not to have Judge X jumped over his head, and I do not see + my way clear to doing it. I am inclined to think that the + solution I mentioned to you is the solution I shall have to + adopt. Remember the breakfast at Douglas Robinson's at + 8:30." +</pre> + <p> + There were various measures to which he gave a grudging and querulous + assent without any break being threatened. I secured the reenactment of + the Civil Service Law, which under my predecessor had very foolishly been + repealed. I secured a mass of labor legislation, including the enactment + of laws to increase the number of factory inspectors, to create a Tenement + House Commission (whose findings resulted in further and excellent + legislation to improve housing conditions), to regulate and improve + sweatshop labor, to make the eight-hour and prevailing rate of wages law + effective, to secure the genuine enforcement of the act relating to the + hours of railway workers, to compel railways to equip freight trains with + air-brakes, to regulate the working hours of women and protect both women + and children from dangerous machinery, to enforce good scaffolding + provisions for workmen on buildings, to provide seats for the use of + waitresses in hotels and restaurants, to reduce the hours of labor for + drug-store clerks, to provide for the registration of laborers for + municipal employment. I tried hard but failed to secure an employers' + liability law and the state control of employment offices. There was hard + fighting over some of these bills, and, what was much more serious, there + was effort to get round the law by trickery and by securing its + inefficient enforcement. I was continually helped by men with whom I had + gotten in touch while in the Police Department; men such as James Bronson + Reynolds, through whom I first became interested in settlement work on the + East Side. Once or twice I went suddenly down to New York City without + warning any one and traversed the tenement-house quarters, visiting + various sweat-shops picked at random. Jake Riis accompanied me; and as a + result of our inspection we got not only an improvement in the law but a + still more marked improvement in its administration. Thanks chiefly to the + activity and good sense of Dr. John H. Pryor, of Buffalo, and by the use + of every pound of pressure which as Governor I could bring to bear in + legitimate fashion—including a special emergency message—we + succeeded in getting through a bill providing for the first State hospital + for incipient tuberculosis. We got valuable laws for the farmer; laws + preventing the adulteration of food products (which laws were equally + valuable to the consumer), and laws helping the dairyman. In addition to + labor legislation I was able to do a good deal for forest preservation and + the protection of our wild life. All that later I strove for in the Nation + in connection with Conservation was foreshadowed by what I strove to + obtain for New York State when I was Governor; and I was already working + in connection with Gifford Pinchot and Newell. I secured better + administration, and some improvement in the laws themselves. The + improvement in administration, and in the character of the game and forest + wardens, was secured partly as the result of a conference in the executive + chamber which I held with forty of the best guides and woodsmen of the + Adirondacks. + </p> + <p> + As regards most legislation, even that affecting labor and the forests, I + got on fairly well with the machine. But on the two issues in which "big + business" and the kind of politics which is allied to big business were + most involved we clashed hard—and clashing with Senator Platt meant + clashing with the entire Republican organization, and with the organized + majority in each house of the Legislature. One clash was in connection + with the Superintendent of Insurance, a man whose office made him a factor + of immense importance in the big business circles of New York. The then + incumbent of the office was an efficient man, the boss of an up-State + county, a veteran politician and one of Mr. Platt's right-hand men. + Certain investigations which I made—in the course of the fight—showed + that this Superintendent of Insurance had been engaged in large business + operations in New York City. These operations had thrown him into a + peculiarly intimate business contact of one sort and another with various + financiers with whom I did not deem it expedient that the Superintendent + of Insurance, while such, should have any intimate and secret money-making + relations. Moreover, the gentleman in question represented the straitest + sect of the old-time spoils politicians. I therefore determined not to + reappoint him. Unless I could get his successor confirmed, however, he + would stay in under the law, and the Republican machine, with the + assistance of Tammany, expected to control far more than a majority of all + the Senators. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Platt issued an ultimatum to me that the incumbent must be reappointed + or else that he would fight, and that if he chose to fight the man would + stay in anyhow because I could not oust him—for under the New York + Constitution the assent of the Senate was necessary not only to appoint a + man to office but to remove him from office. As always with Mr. Platt, I + persistently refused to lose my temper, no matter what he said—he + was much too old and physically feeble for there to be any point of honor + in taking up any of his remarks—and I merely explained + good-humoredly that I had made up my mind and that the gentleman in + question would not be retained. As for not being able to get his successor + confirmed, I pointed out that as soon as the Legislature adjourned I could + and would appoint another man temporarily. Mr. Platt then said that the + incumbent would be put back as soon as the Legislature reconvened; I + admitted that this was possible, but added cheerfully that I would remove + him again just as soon as that Legislature adjourned, and that even though + I had an uncomfortable time myself, I would guarantee to make my opponents + more uncomfortable still. We parted without any sign of reaching an + agreement. + </p> + <p> + There remained some weeks before final action could be taken, and the + Senator was confident that I would have to yield. His most efficient + allies were the pretended reformers, most of them my open or covert + enemies, who loudly insisted that I must make an open fight on the Senator + himself and on the Republican organization. This was what he wished, for + at that time there was no way of upsetting him within the Republican + party; and, as I have said, if I had permitted the contest to assume the + shape of a mere faction fight between the Governor and the United States + Senator, I would have insured the victory of the machine. So I blandly + refused to let the thing become a personal fight, explaining again and + again that I was perfectly willing to appoint an organization man, and + naming two or three whom I was willing to appoint, but also explaining + that I would not retain the incumbent, and would not appoint any man of + his type. Meanwhile pressure on behalf of the said incumbent began to come + from the business men of New York. + </p> + <p> + The Superintendent of Insurance was not a man whose ill will the big life + insurance companies cared to incur, and company after company passed + resolutions asking me to reappoint him, although in private some of the + men who signed these resolutions nervously explained that they did not + mean what they had written, and hoped I would remove the man. A citizen + prominent in reform circles, marked by the Cato-like austerity of his + reform professions, had a son who was a counsel for one of the insurance + companies. The father was engaged in writing letters to the papers + demanding in the name of uncompromising virtue that I should not only get + rid of the Superintendent of Insurance, but in his place should appoint + somebody or other personally offensive to Senator Platt—which last + proposition, if adopted, would have meant that the Superintendent of + Insurance would have stayed in, for the reasons I have already given. + Meanwhile the son came to see me on behalf of the insurance company he + represented and told me that the company was anxious that there should be + a change in the superintendency; that if I really meant to fight, they + thought they had influence with four of the State Senators, Democrats and + Republicans, whom they could get to vote to confirm the man I nominated, + but that they wished to be sure that I would not abandon the fight, + because it would be a very bad thing for them if I started the fight and + then backed down. I told my visitor that he need be under no + apprehensions, that I would certainly see the fight through. A man who has + much to do with that kind of politics which concerns both New York + politicians and New York business men and lawyers is not easily surprised, + and therefore I felt no other emotion than a rather sardonic amusement + when thirty-six hours later I read in the morning paper an open letter + from the officials of the very company who had been communicating with me + in which they enthusiastically advocated the renomination of the + Superintendent. Shortly afterwards my visitor, the young lawyer, called me + up on the telephone and explained that the officials did not mean what + they had said in this letter, that they had been obliged to write it for + fear of the Superintendent, but that if they got the chance they intended + to help me get rid of him. I thanked him and said I thought I could manage + the fight by myself. I did not hear from him again, though his father + continued to write public demands that I should practice pure virtue, + undefiled and offensive. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Senator Platt declined to yield. I had picked out a man, a + friend of his, who I believed would make an honest and competent official, + and whose position in the organization was such that I did not believe the + Senate would venture to reject him. However, up to the day before the + appointment was to go to the Senate, Mr. Platt remained unyielding. I saw + him that afternoon and tried to get him to yield, but he said No, that if + I insisted, it would be war to the knife, and my destruction, and perhaps + the destruction of the party. I said I was very sorry, that I could not + yield, and if the war came it would have to come, and that next morning I + should send in the name of the Superintendent's successor. We parted, and + soon afterwards I received from the man who was at the moment Mr. Platt's + right-hand lieutenant a request to know where he could see me that + evening. I appointed the Union League Club. My visitor went over the old + ground, explained that the Senator would under no circumstances yield, + that he was certain to win in the fight, that my reputation would be + destroyed, and that he wished to save me from such a lamentable smash-up + as an ending to my career. I could only repeat what I had already said, + and after half an hour of futile argument I rose and said that nothing was + to be gained by further talk and that I might as well go. My visitor + repeated that I had this last chance, and that ruin was ahead of me if I + refused it; whereas, if I accepted, everything would be made easy. I shook + my head and answered, "There is nothing to add to what I have already + said." He responded, "You have made up your mind?" and I said, "I have." + He then said, "You know it means your ruin?" and I answered, "Well, we + will see about that," and walked toward the door. He said, "You + understand, the fight will begin to-morrow and will be carried on to the + bitter end." I said, "Yes," and added, as I reached the door, "Good + night." Then, as the door opened, my opponent, or visitor, whichever one + chooses to call him, whose face was as impassive and as inscrutable as + that of Mr. John Hamlin in a poker game, said: "Hold on! We accept. Send + in So-and-so [the man I had named]. The Senator is very sorry, but he will + make no further opposition!" I never saw a bluff carried more resolutely + through to the final limit. My success in the affair, coupled with the + appointment of Messrs. Partridge and Hooker, secured me against further + effort to interfere with my handling of the executive departments. + </p> + <p> + It was in connection with the insurance business that I first met Mr. + George W. Perkins. He came to me with a letter of introduction from the + then Speaker of the National House of Representatives, Tom Reed, which + ran: "Mr. Perkins is a personal friend of mine, whose straightforwardness + and intelligence will commend to you whatever he has to say. If you will + give him proper opportunity to explain his business, I have no doubt that + what he will say will be worthy of your attention." Mr. Perkins wished to + see me with reference to a bill that had just been introduced in the + Legislature, which aimed to limit the aggregate volume of insurance that + any New York State company could assume. There were then three big + insurance companies in New York—the Mutual Life, Equitable, and New + York Life. Mr. Perkins was a Vice-President of the New York Life Insurance + Company and Mr. John A. McCall was its President. I had just finished my + fight against the Superintendent of Insurance, whom I refused to continue + in office. Mr. McCall had written me a very strong letter urging that he + be retained, and had done everything he could to aid Senator Platt in + securing his retention. The Mutual Life and Equitable people had openly + followed the same course, but in private had hedged. They were both + backing the proposed bill. Mr. McCall was opposed to it; he was in + California, and just before starting thither he had been told by the + Mutual Life and Equitable that the Limitation Bill was favored by me and + would be put through if such a thing were possible. Mr. McCall did not + know me, and on leaving for California told Mr. Perkins that from all he + could learn he was sure I was bent on putting this bill through, and that + nothing he could say to me would change my view; in fact, because he had + fought so hard to retain the old Insurance Superintendent, he felt that I + would be particularly opposed to anything he might wish done. + </p> + <p> + As a matter of fact, I had no such feeling. I had been carefully studying + the question. I had talked with the Mutual Life and Equitable people about + it, but was not committed to any particular course, and had grave doubts + as to whether it was well to draw the line on size instead of on conduct. + I was therefore very glad to see Perkins and get a new point of view. I + went over the matter with a great deal of care and at considerable length, + and after we had thrashed the matter out pretty fully and Perkins had laid + before me in detail the methods employed by Austria, Germany, Switzerland, + and other European countries to handle their large insurance companies, I + took the position that there undoubtedly were evils in the insurance + business, but that they did not consist in insuring people's lives, for + that certainly was not an evil; and I did not see how the real evils could + be eradicated by limiting or suppressing a company's ability to protect an + additional number of lives with insurance. I therefore announced that I + would not favor a bill that limited volume of business, and would not sign + it if it were passed; but that I favored legislation that would make it + impossible to place, through agents, policies that were ambiguous and + misleading, or to pay exorbitant prices to agents for business, or to + invest policy-holders' money in improper securities, or to give power to + officers to use the company's funds for their own personal profit. In + reaching this determination I was helped by Mr. Loeb, then merely a + stenographer in my office, but who had already attracted my attention both + by his efficiency and by his loyalty to his former employers, who were for + the most part my political opponents. Mr. Loeb gave me much information + about various improper practices in the insurance business. I began to + gather data on the subject, with the intention of bringing about + corrective legislation, for at that time I expected to continue in office + as Governor. But in a few weeks I was nominated as Vice-President, and my + successor did nothing about the matter. + </p> + <p> + So far as I remember, this was the first time the question of correcting + evils in a business by limiting the volume of business to be done was ever + presented to me, and my decision in the matter was on all fours with the + position I have always since taken when any similar principle was + involved. At the time when I made my decision about the Limitation Bill, I + was on friendly terms with the Mutual and Equitable people who were back + of it, whereas I did not know Mr. McCall at all, and Mr. Perkins only from + hearing him discuss the bill. + </p> + <p> + An interesting feature of the matter developed subsequently. Five years + later, after the insurance investigations took place, the Mutual Life + strongly urged the passage of a Limitation Bill, and, because of the + popular feeling developed by the exposure of the improper practices of the + companies, this bill was generally approved. Governor Hughes adopted the + suggestion, such a bill was passed by the Legislature, and Governor Hughes + signed it. This bill caused the three great New York companies to reduce + markedly the volume of business they were doing; it threw a great many + agents out of employment, and materially curtailed the foreign business of + the companies—which business was bringing annually a considerable + sum of money to this country for investment. In short, the experiment + worked so badly that before Governor Hughes went out of office one of the + very last bills he signed was one that permitted the life insurance + companies to increase their business each year by an amount representing a + certain percentage of the business they had previously done. This in + practice, within a few years, practically annulled the Limitation Bill + that had been previously passed. The experiment of limiting the size of + business, of legislating against it merely because it was big, had been + tried, and had failed so completely that the authors of the bill had + themselves in effect repealed it. My action in refusing to try the + experiment had been completely justified. + </p> + <p> + As a sequel to this incident I got Mr. Perkins to serve on the Palisade + Park Commission. At the time I was taking active part in the effort to + save the Palisades from vandalism and destruction by getting the States of + New York and New Jersey jointly to include them in a public park. It is + not easy to get a responsible and capable man of business to undertake + such a task, which is unpaid, which calls on his part for an immense + expenditure of time, money, and energy, which offers no reward of any + kind, and which entails the certainty of abuse and misrepresentation. Mr. + Perkins accepted the position, and has filled it for the last thirteen + years, doing as disinterested, efficient, and useful a bit of public + service as any man in the State has done throughout these thirteen years. + </p> + <p> + The case of most importance in which I clashed with Senator Platt related + to a matter of fundamental governmental policy, and was the first step I + ever took toward bringing big corporations under effective governmental + control. In this case I had to fight the Democratic machine as well as the + Republican machine, for Senator Hill and Senator Platt were equally + opposed to my action, and the big corporation men, the big business men + back of both of them, took precisely the same view of these matters + without regard to their party feelings on other points. What I did + convulsed people at that time, and marked the beginning of the effort, at + least in the Eastern states, to make the great corporations really + responsible to popular wish and governmental command. But we have gone so + far past the stage in which we then were that now it seems well-nigh + incredible that there should have been any opposition at all to what I at + that time proposed. + </p> + <p> + The substitution of electric power for horse power in the street car lines + of New York offered a fruitful chance for the most noxious type of dealing + between business men and politicians. The franchises granted by New York + were granted without any attempt to secure from the grantees returns, in + the way of taxation or otherwise, for the value received. The fact that + they were thus granted by improper favoritism, a favoritism which in many + cases was unquestionably secured by downright bribery, led to all kinds of + trouble. In return for the continuance of these improper favors to the + corporations the politicians expected improper favors in the way of + excessive campaign contributions, often contributed by the same + corporation at the same time to two opposing parties. Before I became + Governor a bill had been introduced into the New York Legislature to tax + the franchises of these street railways. It affected a large number of + corporations, but particularly those in New York and Buffalo. It had been + suffered to slumber undisturbed, as none of the people in power dreamed of + taking it seriously, and both the Republican and Democratic machines were + hostile to it. Under the rules of the New York Legislature a bill could + always be taken up out of its turn and passed if the Governor sent in a + special emergency message on its behalf. + </p> + <p> + After I was elected Governor I had my attention directed to the franchise + tax matter, looked into the subject, and came to the conclusion that it + was a matter of plain decency and honesty that these companies should pay + a tax on their franchises, inasmuch as they did nothing that could be + considered as service rendered the public in lieu of a tax. This seemed to + me so evidently the common-sense and decent thing to do that I was hardly + prepared for the storm of protest and anger which my proposal aroused. + Senator Platt and the other machine leaders did everything to get me to + abandon my intention. As usual, I saw them, talked the matter all over + with them, and did my best to convert them to my way of thinking. Senator + Platt, I believe, was quite sincere in his opposition. He did not believe + in popular rule, and he did believe that the big business men were + entitled to have things their way. He profoundly distrusted the people—naturally + enough, for the kind of human nature with which a boss comes in contact is + not of an exalted type. He felt that anarchy would come if there was any + interference with a system by which the people in mass were, under various + necessary cloaks, controlled by the leaders in the political and business + worlds. He wrote me a very strong letter of protest against my attitude, + expressed in dignified, friendly, and temperate language, but using one + word in a curious way. This was the word "altruistic." He stated in his + letter that he had not objected to my being independent in politics, + because he had been sure that I had the good of the party at heart, and + meant to act fairly and honorably; but that he had been warned, before I + became a candidate, by a number of his business friends that I was a + dangerous man because I was "altruistic," and that he now feared that my + conduct would justify the alarm thus expressed. I was interested in this, + not only because Senator Platt was obviously sincere, but because of the + way in which he used "altruistic" as a term of reproach, as if it was + Communistic or Socialistic—the last being a word he did use to me + when, as now and then happened, he thought that my proposals warranted + fairly reckless vituperation. + </p> + <p> + Senator Platt's letter ran in part as follows: + </p> + <p> + "When the subject of your nomination was under consideration, there was + one matter that gave me real anxiety. I think you will have no trouble in + appreciating the fact that it was <i>not</i> the matter of your + independence. I think we have got far enough along in our political + acquaintance for you to see that my support in a convention does not imply + subsequent 'demands,' nor any other relation that may not reasonably exist + for the welfare of the party. . . . The thing that did bother me was this: + I had heard from a good many sources that you were a little loose on the + relations of capital and labor, on trusts and combinations, and, indeed, + on those numerous questions which have recently arisen in politics + affecting the security of earnings and the right of a man to run his own + business in his own way, with due respect of course to the Ten + Commandments and the Penal Code. Or, to get at it even more clearly, I + understood from a number of business men, and among them many of your own + personal friends, that you entertained various altruistic ideas, all very + well in their way, but which before they could safely be put into law + needed very profound consideration. . . . You have just adjourned a + Legislature which created a good opinion throughout the State. I + congratulate you heartily upon this fact because I sincerely believe, as + everybody else does, that this good impression exists very largely as a + result of your personal influence in the Legislative chambers. But at the + last moment, and to my very great surprise, you did a thing which has + caused the business community of New York to wonder how far the notions of + Populism, as laid down in Kansas and Nebraska, have taken hold upon the + Republican party of the State of New York." + </p> + <p> + In my answer I pointed out to the Senator that I had as Governor + unhesitatingly acted, at Buffalo and elsewhere, to put down mobs, without + regard to the fact that the professed leaders of labor furiously denounced + me for so doing; but that I could no more tolerate wrong committed in the + name of property than wrong committed against property. My letter ran in + part as follows: + </p> + <p> + "I knew that you had just the feelings that you describe; that is, apart + from my 'impulsiveness,' you felt that there was a justifiable anxiety + among men of means, and especially men representing large corporate + interests, lest I might feel too strongly on what you term the + 'altruistic' side in matters of labor and capital and as regards the + relations of the State to great corporations. . . . I know that when + parties divide on such issues [as Bryanism] the tendency is to force + everybody into one of two camps, and to throw out entirely men like + myself, who are as strongly opposed to Populism in every stage as the + greatest representative of corporate wealth, but who also feel strongly + that many of these representatives of enormous corporate wealth have + themselves been responsible for a portion of the conditions against which + Bryanism is in ignorant revolt. I do not believe that it is wise or safe + for us as a party to take refuge in mere negation and to say that there + are no evils to be corrected. It seems to me that our attitude should be + one of correcting the evils and thereby showing that, whereas the + Populists, Socialists, and others really do not correct the evils at all, + or else only do so at the expense of producing others in aggravated form; + on the contrary we Republicans hold the just balance and set ourselves as + resolutely against improper corporate influence on the one hand as against + demagogy and mob rule on the other. I understand perfectly that such an + attitude of moderation is apt to be misunderstood when passions are + greatly excited and when victory is apt to rest with the extremists on one + side or the other; yet I think it is in the long run the only wise + attitude. . . . I appreciate absolutely [what Mr. Platt had said] that any + applause I get will be too evanescent for a moment's consideration. I + appreciate absolutely that the people who now loudly approve of my action + in the franchise tax bill will forget all about it in a fortnight, and + that, on the other hand, the very powerful interests adversely affected + will always remember it. . . . [The leaders] urged upon me that I + personally could not afford to take this action, for under no + circumstances could I ever again be nominated for any public office, as no + corporation would subscribe to a campaign fund if I was on the ticket, and + that they would subscribe most heavily to beat me; and when I asked if + this were true of Republican corporations, the cynical answer was made + that the corporations that subscribed most heavily to the campaign funds + subscribed impartially to both party organizations. Under all these + circumstances, it seemed to me there was no alternative but to do what I + could to secure the passage of the bill." + </p> + <p> + These two letters, written in the spring of 1899, express clearly the + views of the two elements of the Republican party, whose hostility + gradually grew until it culminated, thirteen years later. In 1912 the + political and financial forces of which Mr. Platt had once been the + spokesman, usurped the control of the party machinery and drove out of the + party the men who were loyally endeavoring to apply the principles of the + founders of the party to the needs and issues of their own day. + </p> + <p> + I had made up my mind that if I could get a show in the Legislature the + bill would pass, because the people had become interested and the + representatives would scarcely dare to vote the wrong way. Accordingly, on + April 27, 1899, I sent a special message to the Assembly, certifying that + the emergency demanded the immediate passage of the bill. The machine + leaders were bitterly angry, and the Speaker actually tore up the message + without reading it to the Assembly. That night they were busy trying to + arrange some device for the defeat of the bill—which was not + difficult, as the session was about to close. At seven the next morning I + was informed of what had occurred. At eight I was in the Capitol at the + Executive chamber, and sent in another special message, which opened as + follows: "I learn that the emergency message which I sent last evening to + the Assembly on behalf of the Franchise Tax Bill has not been read. I + therefore send hereby another message on the subject. I need not impress + upon the Assembly the need of passing this bill at once." I sent this + message to the Assembly, by my secretary, William J. Youngs, afterwards + United States District Attorney of Kings, with an intimation that if this + were not promptly read I should come up in person and read it. Then, as so + often happens, the opposition collapsed and the bill went through both + houses with a rush. I had in the House stanch friends, such as Regis Post + and Alford Cooley, men of character and courage, who would have fought to + a finish had the need arisen. + </p> + <p> + My troubles were not at an end, however. The bill put the taxation in the + hands of the local county boards, and as the railways sometimes passed + through several different counties, this was inadvisable. It was the end + of the session, and the Legislature adjourned. The corporations affected, + through various counsel, and the different party leaders of both + organizations, urged me not to sign the bill, laying especial stress on + this feature, and asking that I wait until the following year, when a good + measure could be put through with this obnoxious feature struck out. I had + thirty days under the law in which to sign the bill. If I did not sign it + by the end of that time it would not become a law. I answered my political + and corporation friends by telling them that I agreed with them that this + feature was wrong, but that I would rather have the bill with this feature + than not have it at all; and that I was not willing to trust to what might + be done a year later. Therefore, I explained, I would reconvene the + Legislature in special session, and if the legislators chose to amend the + bill by placing the power of taxation in the State instead of in the + county or municipality, I would be glad; but that if they failed to amend + it, or amended it improperly, I would sign the original bill and let it + become law as it was. + </p> + <p> + When the representatives of Mr. Platt and of the corporations affected + found they could do no better, they assented to this proposition. Efforts + were tentatively made to outwit me, by inserting amendments that would + nullify the effect of the law, or by withdrawing the law when the + Legislature convened; which would at once have deprived me of the whip + hand. On May 12 I wrote Senator Platt, outlining the amendments I desired, + and said: "Of course it must be understood that I will sign the present + bill if the proposed bill containing the changes outlined above fails to + pass." On May 18 I notified the Senate leader, John Raines, by telegram: + "Legislature has no power to withdraw the Ford bill. If attempt is made to + do so, I will sign the bill at once." On the same day, by telegram, I + wired Mr. Odell concerning the bill the leaders were preparing: "Some + provisions of bill very objectionable. I am at work on bill to show you + to-morrow. The bill must not contain greater changes than those outlined + in my message." My wishes were heeded, and when I had reconvened the + Legislature it amended the bill as I outlined in my message; and in its + amended form the bill became law. + </p> + <p> + There promptly followed something which afforded an index of the good + faith of the corporations that had been protesting to me. As soon as the + change for which they had begged was inserted in the law, and the law was + signed, they turned round and refused to pay the taxes; and in the lawsuit + that followed, they claimed that the law was unconstitutional, because it + contained the very clause which they had so clamorously demanded. Senator + David B. Hill had appeared before me on behalf of the corporations to + argue for the change; and he then appeared before the courts to make the + argument on the other side. The suit was carried through to the Supreme + Court of the United States, which declared the law constitutional during + the time that I was President. + </p> + <p> + One of the painful duties of the chief executive in States like New York, + as well as in the Nation, is the refusing of pardons. Yet I can imagine + nothing more necessary from the standpoint of good citizenship than the + ability to steel one's heart in this matter of granting pardons. The + pressure is always greatest in two classes of cases: first, that where + capital punishment is inflicted; second, that where the man is prominent + socially and in the business world, and where in consequence his crime is + apt to have been one concerned in some way with finance. + </p> + <p> + As regards capital cases, the trouble is that emotional men and women + always see only the individual whose fate is up at the moment, and neither + his victim nor the many millions of unknown individuals who would in the + long run be harmed by what they ask. Moreover, almost any criminal, + however brutal, has usually some person, often a person whom he has + greatly wronged, who will plead for him. If the mother is alive she will + always come, and she cannot help feeling that the case in which she is so + concerned is peculiar, that in this case a pardon should be granted. It + was really heartrending to have to see the kinsfolk and friends of + murderers who were condemned to death, and among the very rare occasions + when anything governmental or official caused me to lose sleep were the + times when I had to listen to some poor mother making a plea for a + criminal so wicked, so utterly brutal and depraved, that it would have + been a crime on my part to remit his punishment. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, there were certain crimes where requests for leniency + merely made me angry. Such crimes were, for instance, rape, or the + circulation of indecent literature, or anything connected with what would + now be called the "white slave" traffic, or wife murder, or gross cruelty + to women and children, or seduction and abandonment, or the action of some + man in getting a girl whom he had seduced to commit abortion. I am + speaking in each instance of cases that actually came before me, either + while I was Governor or while I was President. In an astonishing number of + these cases men of high standing signed petitions or wrote letters asking + me to show leniency to the criminal. In two or three of the cases—one + where some young roughs had committed rape on a helpless immigrant girl, + and another in which a physician of wealth and high standing had seduced a + girl and then induced her to commit abortion—I rather lost my + temper, and wrote to the individuals who had asked for the pardon, saying + that I extremely regretted that it was not in my power to increase the + sentence. I then let the facts be made public, for I thought that my + petitioners deserved public censure. Whether they received this public + censure or not I did not know, but that my action made them very angry I + do know, and their anger gave me real satisfaction. The list of these + petitioners was a fairly long one, and included two United States + Senators, a Governor of a State, two judges, an editor, and some eminent + lawyers and business men. + </p> + <p> + In the class of cases where the offense was one involving the misuse of + large sums of money the reason for the pressure was different. Cases of + this kind more frequently came before me when I was President, but they + also came before me when I was Governor, chiefly in the cases of county + treasurers who had embezzled funds. A big bank president, a railway + magnate, an official connected with some big corporation, or a Government + official in a responsible fiduciary position, necessarily belongs among + the men who have succeeded in life. This means that his family are living + in comfort, and perhaps luxury and refinement, and that his sons and + daughters have been well educated. In such a case the misdeed of the + father comes as a crushing disaster to the wife and children, and the + people of the community, however bitter originally against the man, grow + to feel the most intense sympathy for the bowed-down women and children + who suffer for the man's fault. It is a dreadful thing in life that so + much of atonement for wrong-doing is vicarious. If it were possible in + such a case to think only of the banker's or county treasurer's wife and + children, any man would pardon the offender at once. Unfortunately, it is + not right to think only of the women and children. The very fact that in + cases of this class there is certain to be pressure from high sources, + pressure sometimes by men who have been beneficially, even though + remotely, interested in the man's criminality, no less than pressure + because of honest sympathy with the wife and children, makes it necessary + that the good public servant shall, no matter how deep his sympathy and + regret, steel his heart and do his duty by refusing to let the wrong-doer + out. My experience of the way in which pardons are often granted is one of + the reasons why I do not believe that life imprisonment for murder and + rape is a proper substitute for the death penalty. The average term of + so-called life imprisonment in this country is only about fourteen years. + </p> + <p> + Of course there were cases where I either commuted sentences or pardoned + offenders with very real pleasure. For instance, when President, I + frequently commuted sentences for horse stealing in the Indian Territory + because the penalty for stealing a horse was disproportionate to the + penalty for many other crimes, and the offense was usually committed by + some ignorant young fellow who found a half-wild horse, and really did not + commit anything like as serious an offense as the penalty indicated. The + judges would be obliged to give the minimum penalty, but would forward me + memoranda stating that if there had been a less penalty they would have + inflicted it, and I would then commute the sentence to the penalty thus + indicated. + </p> + <p> + In one case in New York I pardoned outright a man convicted of murder in + the second degree, and I did this on the recommendation of a friend, + Father Doyle of the Paulist Fathers. I had become intimate with the + Paulist Fathers while I was Police Commissioner, and I had grown to feel + confidence in their judgment, for I had found that they always told me + exactly what the facts were about any man, whether he belonged to their + church or not. In this case the convicted man was a strongly built, + respectable old Irishman employed as a watchman around some big + cattle-killing establishments. The young roughs of the neighborhood, which + was then of a rather lawless type, used to try to destroy the property of + the companies. In a conflict with a watchman a member of one of the gangs + was slain. The watchman was acquitted, but the neighborhood was much + wrought up over the acquittal. Shortly afterwards, a gang of the same + roughs attacked another watchman, the old Irishman in question, and + finally, to save his own life, he was obliged in self-defense to kill one + of his assailants. The feeling in the community, however, was strongly + against him, and some of the men high up in the corporation became + frightened and thought that it would be better to throw over the watchman. + He was convicted. Father Doyle came to me, told me that he knew the man + well, that he was one of the best members of his church, admirable in + every way, that he had simply been forced to fight for his life while + loyally doing his duty, and that the conviction represented the triumph of + the tough element of the district and the abandonment of this man, by + those who should have stood by him, under the influence of an unworthy + fear. I looked into the case, came to the conclusion that Father Doyle was + right, and gave the man a full pardon before he had served thirty days. + </p> + <p> + The various clashes between myself and the machine, my triumph in them, + and the fact that the people were getting more and more interested and + aroused, brought on a curious situation in the Republican National + Convention at Philadelphia in June, 1900. Senator Platt and the New York + machine leaders had become very anxious to get me out of the Governorship, + chiefly because of the hostility of the big corporation men towards me; + but they had also become convinced that there was such popular feeling on + my behalf that it would be difficult to refuse me a renomination if I + demanded it. They accordingly decided to push me for Vice-President, + taking advantage of the fact that there was at that time a good deal of + feeling for me in the country at large. [See Appendix B to this chapter.] + I myself did not appreciate that there was any such feeling, and as I + greatly disliked the office of Vice-President and was much interested in + the Governorship, I announced that I would not accept the Vice-Presidency. + I was one of the delegates to Philadelphia. On reaching there I found that + the situation was complicated. Senator Hanna appeared on the surface to + have control of the Convention. He was anxious that I should not be + nominated as Vice-President. Senator Platt was anxious that I should be + nominated as Vice-President, in order to get me out of the New York + Governorship. Each took a position opposite to that of the other, but each + at that time cordially sympathized with the other's feelings about me—it + was the manifestations and not the feelings that differed. My supporters + in New York State did not wish me nominated for Vice-President because + they wished me to continue as Governor; but in every other State all the + people who admired me were bound that I should be nominated as + Vice-President. These people were almost all desirous of seeing Mr. + McKinley renominated as President, but they became angry at Senator + Hanna's opposition to me as Vice-President. He in his turn suddenly became + aware that if he persisted he might find that in their anger these men + would oppose Mr. McKinley's renomination, and although they could not have + prevented the nomination, such opposition would have been a serious blow + in the campaign which was to follow. Senator Hanna, therefore, began to + waver. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile a meeting of the New York delegation was called. Most of the + delegates were under the control of Senator Platt. The Senator notified me + that if I refused to accept the nomination for Vice-President I would be + beaten for the nomination for Governor. I answered that I would accept the + challenge, that we would have a straight-out fight on the proposition, and + that I would begin it at once by telling the assembled delegates of the + threat, and giving fair warning that I intended to fight for the + Governorship nomination, and, moreover, that I intended to get it. This + brought Senator Platt to terms. The effort to instruct the New York + delegation for me was abandoned, and Lieutenant-Governor Woodruff was + presented for nomination in my place. + </p> + <p> + I supposed that this closed the incident, and that no further effort would + be made to nominate me for the Vice-Presidency. On the contrary, the + effect was directly the reverse. The upset of the New York machine + increased the feeling of the delegates from other States that it was + necessary to draft me for the nomination. By next day Senator Hanna + himself concluded that this was a necessity, and acquiesced in the + movement. As New York was already committed against me, and as I was not + willing that there should be any chance of supposing that the New Yorkers + had nominated me to get rid of me, the result was that I was nominated and + seconded from outside States. No other candidate was placed in the field. + </p> + <p> + By this time the Legislature had adjourned, and most of my work as + Governor of New York was over. One unexpected bit of business arose, + however. It was the year of the Presidential campaign. Tammany, which had + been lukewarm about Bryan in 1896, cordially supported him in 1900; and + when Tammany heartily supports a candidate it is well for the opposing + candidate to keep a sharp lookout for election frauds. The city government + was in the hands of Tammany; but I had power to remove the Mayor, the + Sheriff, and the District Attorney for malfeasance or misfeasance in + office. Such power had not been exercised by any previous Governor, as far + as I knew; but it existed, and if the misfeasance or malfeasance warranted + it, and if the Governor possessed the requisite determination, the power + could be, and ought to be, exercised. + </p> + <p> + By an Act of the Legislature, a State Bureau of Elections had been created + in New York City, and a Superintendent of Elections appointed by the + Governor. The Chief of the State Bureau of Elections was John McCullagh, + formerly in the Police Department when I was Police Commissioner. The + Chief of Police for the city was William F. Devery, one of the Tammany + leaders, who represented in the Police Department all that I had warred + against while Commissioner. On November 4 Devery directed his subordinates + in the Police Department to disregard the orders which McCullagh had given + to his deputies, orders which were essential if we were to secure an + honest election in the city. I had just returned from a Western campaign + trip, and was at Sagamore Hill. I had no direct power over Devery; but the + Mayor had; and I had power over the Mayor. Accordingly, I at once wrote to + the Mayor of New York, to the Sheriff of New York, and to the District + Attorney of New York County the following letters: + </p> + <p> + STATE OF NEW YORK OYSTER BAY, November 5, 1900. + </p> + <p> + To the Mayor of the City of New York. + </p> + <p> + Sir: My attention has been called to the official order issued by Chief of + Police Devery, in which he directs his subordinates to disregard the Chief + of the State Election Bureau, John McCullagh, and his deputies. Unless you + have already taken steps to secure the recall of this order, it is + necessary for me to point out that I shall be obliged to hold you + responsible as the head of the city government for the action of the Chief + of Police, if it should result in any breach of the peace and intimidation + or any crime whatever against the election laws. The State and city + authorities should work together. I will not fail to call to summary + account either State or city authority in the event of either being guilty + of intimidation or connivance at fraud or of failure to protect every + legal voter in his rights. I therefore hereby notify you that in the event + of any wrong-doing following upon the failure immediately to recall Chief + Devery's order, or upon any action or inaction on the part of Chief + Devery, I must necessarily call you to account. + </p> + <p> + Yours, etc., THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + STATE OF NEW YORK OYSTER BAY, November 5, 1900. + </p> + <p> + To the Sheriff of the County of New York. + </p> + <p> + Sir: My attention has been called to the official order issued by Chief of + Police Devery in which he directs his subordinates to disregard the Chief + of the State Election Bureau, John McCullagh, and his deputies. + </p> + <p> + It is your duty to assist in the orderly enforcement of the law, and I + shall hold you strictly responsible for any breach of the public peace + within your county, or for any failure on your part to do your full duty + in connection with the election to-morrow. + </p> + <p> + Yours truly, THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + STATE OF NEW YORK OYSTER BAY, November 5, 1900. + </p> + <p> + To the District Attorney of the County of New York. + </p> + <p> + Sir: My attention has been called to the official order issued by Chief of + Police Devery, in which he directs his subordinates to disregard the Chief + of the State Election Bureau, John McCullagh, and his deputies. + </p> + <p> + In view of this order I call your attention to the fact that it is your + duty to assist in the orderly enforcement of the law, and there must be no + failure on your part to do your full duty in the matter. + </p> + <p> + Yours truly, THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + These letters had the desired effect. The Mayor promptly required Chief + Devery to rescind the obnoxious order, which was as promptly done. The + Sheriff also took prompt action. The District Attorney refused to heed my + letter, and assumed an attitude of defiance, and I removed him from + office. On election day there was no clash between the city and State + authorities; the election was orderly and honest. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE3" id="link2H_APPE3"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX A + </h2> + <h3> + CONSERVATION + </h3> + <p> + As foreshadowing the course I later, as President, followed in this + matter, I give extracts from one of my letters to the Commission, and from + my second (and last) Annual Message. I spent the first months of my term + in investigations to find out just what the situation was. + </p> + <p> + On November 28, 1899, I wrote to the Commission as follows: + </p> + <p> + ". . . I have had very many complaints before this as to the inefficiency + of the game wardens and game protectors, the complaints usually taking the + form that the men have been appointed and are retained without due regard + to the duties to be performed. I do not wish a man to be retained or + appointed who is not thoroughly fit to perform the duties of game + protector. The Adirondacks are entitled to a peculiar share of the + Commission's attention, both from the standpoint of forestry, and from the + less important, but still very important, standpoint of game and fish + protection. The men who do duty as game protectors in the Adirondacks + should, by preference, be appointed from the locality itself, and should + in all cases be thorough woodsmen. The mere fact that a game protector has + to hire a guide to pilot him through the woods is enough to show his + unfitness for the position. I want as game protectors men of courage, + resolution, and hardihood, who can handle the rifle, ax, and paddle; who + can camp out in summer or winter; who can go on snow-shoes, if necessary; + who can go through the woods by day or by night without regard to trails. + </p> + <p> + "I should like full information about all your employees, as to their + capacities, as to the labor they perform, as to their distribution from + and where they do their work." + </p> + <p> + Many of the men hitherto appointed owed their positions principally to + political preference. The changes I recommended were promptly made, and + much to the good of the public service. In my Annual Message, in January, + 1900, I said: + </p> + <p> + "Great progress has been made through the fish hatcheries in the + propagation of valuable food and sporting fish. The laws for the + protection of deer have resulted in their increase. Nevertheless, as + railroads tend to encroach on the wilderness, the temptation to illegal + hunting becomes greater, and the danger from forest fires increases. There + is need of great improvement both in our laws and in their administration. + The game wardens have been too few in number. More should be provided. + None save fit men must be appointed; and their retention in office must + depend purely upon the zeal, ability, and efficiency with which they + perform their duties. The game wardens in the forests must be woodsmen; + and they should have no outside business. In short, there should be a + thorough reorganization of the work of the Commission. A careful study of + the resources and condition of the forests on State land must be made. It + is certainly not too much to expect that the State forests should be + managed as efficiently as the forests on private lands in the same + neighborhoods. And the measure of difference in efficiency of management + must be the measure of condemnation or praise of the way the public + forests have been managed. + </p> + <p> + "The subject of forest preservation is of the utmost importance to the + State. The Adirondacks and Catskills should be great parks kept in + perpetuity for the benefit and enjoyment of our people. Much has been done + of late years towards their preservation, but very much remains to be + done. The provisions of law in reference to sawmills and wood-pulp mills + are defective and should be changed so as to prohibit dumping dye-stuff, + sawdust, or tan-bark, in any amount whatsoever, into the streams. + Reservoirs should be made, but not where they will tend to destroy large + sections of the forest, and only after a careful and scientific study of + the water resources of the region. The people of the forest regions are + themselves growing more and more to realize the necessity of preserving + both the trees and the game. A live deer in the woods will attract to the + neighborhood ten times the money that could be obtained for the deer's + dead carcass. Timber theft on the State lands is, of course, a grave + offense against the whole public. + </p> + <p> + "Hardy outdoor sports, like hunting, are in themselves of no small value + to the National character and should be encouraged in every way. Men who + go into the wilderness, indeed, men who take part in any field sports with + horse or rifle, receive a benefit which can hardly be given by even the + most vigorous athletic games. + </p> + <p> + "There is a further and more immediate and practical end in view. A + primeval forest is a great sponge which absorbs and distills the rain + water. And when it is destroyed the result is apt to be an alternation of + flood and drought. Forest fires ultimately make the land a desert, and are + a detriment to all that portion of the State tributary to the streams + through the woods where they occur. Every effort should be made to + minimize their destructive influence. We need to have our system of + forestry gradually developed and conducted along scientific principles. + When this has been done it will be possible to allow marketable lumber to + be cut everywhere without damage to the forests—indeed, with + positive advantage to them. But until lumbering is thus conducted, on + strictly scientific principles no less than upon principles of the + strictest honesty toward the State, we cannot afford to suffer it at all + in the State forests. Unrestrained greed means the ruin of the great woods + and the drying up of the sources of the rivers. + </p> + <p> + "Ultimately the administration of the State lands must be so centralized + as to enable us definitely to place responsibility in respect to + everything concerning them, and to demand the highest degree of trained + intelligence in their use. + </p> + <p> + "The State should not permit within its limits factories to make bird + skins or bird feathers into articles of ornament or wearing apparel. + Ordinary birds, and especially song birds, should be rigidly protected. + Game birds should never be shot to a greater extent than will offset the + natural rate of increase. . . . Care should be taken not to encourage the + use of cold storage or other market systems which are a benefit to no one + but the wealthy epicure who can afford to pay a heavy price for luxuries. + These systems tend to the destruction of the game, which would bear most + severely upon the very men whose rapacity has been appealed to in order to + secure its extermination. . . ." + </p> + <p> + I reorganized the Commission, putting Austin Wadsworth at its head. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE4" id="link2H_APPE4"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX B + </h2> + <h3> + THE POLITICAL SITUATION IN 1900 + </h3> + <p> + My general scheme of action as Governor was given in a letter I wrote one + of my supporters among the independent district organization leaders, + Norton Goddard, on April 16, 1900. It runs in part as follows: "Nobody can + tell, and least of all the machine itself, whether the machine intends to + renominate me next fall or not. If for some reason I should be weak, + whether on account of faults or virtues, doubtless the machine will throw + me over, and I think I am not uncharitable when I say they would feel no + acute grief at so doing. It would be very strange if they did feel such + grief. If, for instance, we had strikes which led to riots, I would of + course be obliged to preserve order and stop the riots. Decent citizens + would demand that I should do it, and in any event I should do it wholly + without regard to their demands. But, once it was done, they would forget + all about it, while a great many laboring men, honest but ignorant and + prejudiced, would bear a grudge against me for doing it. This might put me + out of the running as a candidate. Again, the big corporations undoubtedly + want to beat me. They prefer the chance of being blackmailed to the + certainty that they will not be allowed any more than their due. Of course + they will try to beat me on some entirely different issue, and, as they + are very able and very unscrupulous, nobody can tell that they won't + succeed. . . . I have been trying to stay in with the organization. I did + not do it with the idea that they would renominate me. I did it with the + idea of getting things done, and in that I have been absolutely + successful. Whether Senator Platt and Mr. Odell endeavor to beat me, or do + beat me, for the renomination next fall, is of very small importance + compared to the fact that for my two years I have been able to make a + Republican majority in the Legislature do good and decent work and have + prevented any split within the party. The task was one of great + difficulty, because, on the one hand, I had to keep clearly before me the + fact that it was better to have a split than to permit bad work to be + done, and, on the other hand, the fact that to have that split would + absolutely prevent all <i>good</i> work. The result has been that I have + avoided a split and that as a net result of my two years and the two + sessions of the Legislature, there has been an enormous improvement in the + administration of the Government, and there has also been a great advance + in legislation." + </p> + <p> + To show my reading of the situation at the time I quote from a letter of + mine to Joseph B. Bishop, then editor of the <i>Commercial Advertiser</i>, + with whom towards the end of my term I had grown into very close + relations, and who, together with two other old friends, Albert Shaw, of + the <i>Review of Reviews</i>, and Silas McBee, now editor of the <i>Constructive + Quarterly</i>, knew the inside of every movement, so far as I knew it + myself. The letter, which is dated April 11, 1900, runs in part as + follows: "The dangerous element as far as I am concerned comes from the + corporations. The [naming certain men] crowd and those like them have been + greatly exasperated by the franchise tax. They would like to get me out of + politics for good, but at the moment they think the best thing to do is to + put me into the Vice-Presidency. Naturally I will not be opposed openly on + the ground of the corporations' grievance; but every kind of false + statement will continually be made, and men like [naming the editors of + certain newspapers] will attack me, not as the enemy of corporations, but + as their tool! There is no question whatever that if the leaders can they + will upset me." + </p> + <p> + One position which as Governor (and as President) I consistently took, + seems to me to represent what ought to be a fundamental principle in + American legislative work. I steadfastly refused to advocate any law, no + matter how admirable in theory, if there was good reason to believe that + in practice it would not be executed. I have always sympathized with the + view set forth by Pelatiah Webster in 1783—quoted by Hannis Taylor + in his <i>Genesis of the Supreme Court</i>—"Laws or ordinances of + any kind (especially of august bodies of high dignity and consequence) + which fail of execution, are much worse than none. They weaken the + government, expose it to contempt, destroy the confidence of all men, + native and foreigners, in it, and expose both aggregate bodies and + individuals who have placed confidence in it to many ruinous + disappointments which they would have escaped had no such law or ordinance + been made." This principle, by the way, not only applies to an internal + law which cannot be executed; it applies even more to international + action, such as a universal arbitration treaty which cannot and will not + be kept; and most of all it applies to proposals to make such universal + arbitration treaties at the very time that we are not keeping our solemn + promise to execute limited arbitration treaties which we have already + made. A general arbitration treaty is merely a promise; it represents + merely a debt of honorable obligation; and nothing is more discreditable, + for a nation or an individual, than to cover up the repudiation of a debt + which can be and ought to be paid, by recklessly promising to incur a new + and insecure debt which no wise man for one moment supposes ever will be + paid. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <h3> + OUTDOORS AND INDOORS + </h3> + <p> + There are men who love out-of-doors who yet never open a book; and other + men who love books but to whom the great book of nature is a sealed + volume, and the lines written therein blurred and illegible. Nevertheless + among those men whom I have known the love of books and the love of + outdoors, in their highest expressions, have usually gone hand in hand. It + is an affectation for the man who is praising outdoors to sneer at books. + Usually the keenest appreciation of what is seen in nature is to be found + in those who have also profited by the hoarded and recorded wisdom of + their fellow-men. Love of outdoor life, love of simple and hardy pastimes, + can be gratified by men and women who do not possess large means, and who + work hard; and so can love of good books—not of good bindings and of + first editions, excellent enough in their way but sheer luxuries—I + mean love of reading books, owning them if possible of course, but, if + that is not possible, getting them from a circulating library. + </p> + <p> + Sagamore Hill takes its name from the old Sagamore Mohannis, who, as chief + of his little tribe, signed away his rights to the land two centuries and + a half ago. The house stands right on the top of the hill, separated by + fields and belts of woodland from all other houses, and looks out over the + bay and the Sound. We see the sun go down beyond long reaches of land and + of water. Many birds dwell in the trees round the house or in the pastures + and the woods near by, and of course in winter gulls, loons, and wild fowl + frequent the waters of the bay and the Sound. We love all the seasons; the + snows and bare woods of winter; the rush of growing things and the + blossom-spray of spring; the yellow grain, the ripening fruits and + tasseled corn, and the deep, leafy shades that are heralded by "the green + dance of summer"; and the sharp fall winds that tear the brilliant banners + with which the trees greet the dying year. + </p> + <p> + The Sound is always lovely. In the summer nights we watch it from the + piazza, and see the lights of the tall Fall River boats as they steam + steadily by. Now and then we spend a day on it, the two of us together in + the light rowing skiff, or perhaps with one of the boys to pull an extra + pair of oars; we land for lunch at noon under wind-beaten oaks on the edge + of a low bluff, or among the wild plum bushes on a spit of white sand, + while the sails of the coasting schooners gleam in the sunlight, and the + tolling of the bell-buoy comes landward across the waters. + </p> + <p> + Long Island is not as rich in flowers as the valley of the Hudson. Yet + there are many. Early in April there is one hillside near us which glows + like a tender flame with the white of the bloodroot. About the same time + we find the shy mayflower, the trailing arbutus; and although we rarely + pick wild flowers, one member of the household always plucks a little + bunch of mayflowers to send to a friend working in Panama, whose soul + hungers for the Northern spring. Then there are shadblow and delicate + anemones, about the time of the cherry blossoms; the brief glory of the + apple orchards follows; and then the thronging dogwoods fill the forests + with their radiance; and so flowers follow flowers until the springtime + splendor closes with the laurel and the evanescent, honey-sweet locust + bloom. The late summer flowers follow, the flaunting lilies, and cardinal + flowers, and marshmallows, and pale beach rosemary; and the goldenrod and + the asters when the afternoons shorten and we again begin to think of + fires in the wide fireplaces. + </p> + <p> + Most of the birds in our neighborhood are the ordinary home friends of the + house and the barn, the wood lot and the pasture; but now and then the + species make queer shifts. The cheery quail, alas! are rarely found near + us now; and we no longer hear the whip-poor-wills at night. But some birds + visit us now which formerly did not. When I was a boy neither the + black-throated green warbler nor the purple finch nested around us, nor + were bobolinks found in our fields. The black-throated green warbler is + now one of our commonest summer warblers; there are plenty of purple + finches; and, best of all, the bobolinks are far from infrequent. I had + written about these new visitors to John Burroughs, and once when he came + out to see me I was able to show them to him. + </p> + <p> + When I was President, we owned a little house in western Virginia; a + delightful house, to us at least, although only a shell of rough boards. + We used sometimes to go there in the fall, perhaps at Thanksgiving, and on + these occasions we would have quail and rabbits of our own shooting, and + once in a while a wild turkey. We also went there in the spring. Of course + many of the birds were different from our Long Island friends. There were + mocking-birds, the most attractive of all birds, and blue grosbeaks, and + cardinals and summer redbirds, instead of scarlet tanagers, and those + wonderful singers the Bewick's wrens, and Carolina wrens. All these I was + able to show John Burroughs when he came to visit us; although, by the + way, he did not appreciate as much as we did one set of inmates of the + cottage—the flying squirrels. We loved having the flying squirrels, + father and mother and half-grown young, in their nest among the rafters; + and at night we slept so soundly that we did not in the least mind the + wild gambols of the little fellows through the rooms, even when, as + sometimes happened, they would swoop down to the bed and scuttle across + it. + </p> + <p> + One April I went to Yellowstone Park, when the snow was still very deep, + and I took John Burroughs with me. I wished to show him the big game of + the Park, the wild creatures that have become so astonishingly tame and + tolerant of human presence. In the Yellowstone the animals seem always to + behave as one wishes them to! It is always possible to see the sheep and + deer and antelope, and also the great herds of elk, which are shyer than + the smaller beasts. In April we found the elk weak after the short commons + and hard living of winter. Once without much difficulty I regularly + rounded up a big band of them, so that John Burroughs could look at them. + I do not think, however, that he cared to see them as much as I did. The + birds interested him more, especially a tiny owl the size of a robin which + we saw perched on the top of a tree in mid-afternoon entirely uninfluenced + by the sun and making a queer noise like a cork being pulled from a + bottle. I was rather ashamed to find how much better his eyes were than + mine in seeing the birds and grasping their differences. + </p> + <p> + When wolf-hunting in Texas, and when bear-hunting in Louisiana and + Mississippi, I was not only enthralled by the sport, but also by the + strange new birds and other creatures, and the trees and flowers I had not + known before. By the way, there was one feast at the White House which + stands above all others in my memory—even above the time when I + lured Joel Chandler Harris thither for a night, a deed in which to + triumph, as all who knew that inveterately shy recluse will testify. This + was "the bear-hunters' dinner." I had been treated so kindly by my friends + on these hunts, and they were such fine fellows, men whom I was so proud + to think of as Americans, that I set my heart on having them at a hunters' + dinner at the White House. One December I succeeded; there were twenty or + thirty of them, all told, as good hunters, as daring riders, as + first-class citizens as could be found anywhere; no finer set of guests + ever sat at meat in the White House; and among other game on the table was + a black bear, itself contributed by one of these same guests. + </p> + <p> + When I first visited California, it was my good fortune to see the "big + trees," the Sequoias, and then to travel down into the Yosemite, with John + Muir. Of course of all people in the world he was the one with whom it was + best worth while thus to see the Yosemite. He told me that when Emerson + came to California he tried to get him to come out and camp with him, for + that was the only way in which to see at their best the majesty and charm + of the Sierras. But at the time Emerson was getting old and could not go. + John Muir met me with a couple of packers and two mules to carry our tent, + bedding, and food for a three days' trip. The first night was clear, and + we lay down in the darkening aisles of the great Sequoia grove. The + majestic trunks, beautiful in color and in symmetry, rose round us like + the pillars of a mightier cathedral than ever was conceived even by the + fervor of the Middle Ages. Hermit thrushes sang beautifully in the + evening, and again, with a burst of wonderful music, at dawn. I was + interested and a little surprised to find that, unlike John Burroughs, + John Muir cared little for birds or bird songs, and knew little about + them. The hermit-thrushes meant nothing to him, the trees and the flowers + and the cliffs everything. The only birds he noticed or cared for were + some that were very conspicuous, such as the water-ousels—always + particular favorites of mine too. The second night we camped in a + snow-storm, on the edge of the canyon walls, under the spreading limbs of + a grove of mighty silver fir; and next day we went down into the + wonderland of the valley itself. I shall always be glad that I was in the + Yosemite with John Muir and in the Yellowstone with John Burroughs. + </p> + <p> + Like most Americans interested in birds and books, I know a good deal + about English birds as they appear in books. I know the lark of + Shakespeare and Shelley and the Ettrick Shepherd; I know the nightingale + of Milton and Keats; I know Wordsworth's cuckoo; I know mavis and merle + singing in the merry green wood of the old ballads; I know Jenny Wren and + Cock Robin of the nursery books. Therefore I had always much desired to + hear the birds in real life; and the opportunity offered in June, 1910, + when I spent two or three weeks in England. As I could snatch but a few + hours from a very exciting round of pleasures and duties, it was necessary + for me to be with some companion who could identify both song and singer. + In Sir Edward Grey, a keen lover of outdoor life in all its phases, and a + delightful companion, who knows the songs and ways of English birds as + very few do know them, I found the best possible guide. + </p> + <p> + We left London on the morning of June 9, twenty-four hours before I sailed + from Southampton. Getting off the train at Basingstoke, we drove to the + pretty, smiling valley of the Itchen. Here we tramped for three or four + hours, then again drove, this time to the edge of the New Forest, where we + first took tea at an inn, and then tramped through the forest to an inn on + its other side, at Brockenhurst. At the conclusion of our walk my + companion made a list of the birds we had seen, putting an asterisk (*) + opposite those which we had heard sing. There were forty-one of the former + and twenty-three of the latter, as follows: + </p> + <hr /> + <hr /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *greenfinch, pied wagtail, sparrow, * dunnock (hedge, + accentor), missel thrush, starling, rook, jackdaw, + *blackcap, * garden warbler, * willow warbler, * chiffchaff, + * wood warbler, tree-creeper, * reed bunting, * sedge + warbler, coot, water hen, little grebe (dabchick), tufted + duck, wood pigeon, stock dove, * turtle dove, peewit, tit (? + coal-tit), * cuckoo, * nightjar, * swallow, martin, swift, + pheasant, partridge. +</pre> + <p> + The valley of the Itchen is typically the England that we know from novel + and story and essay. It is very beautiful in every way, with a rich, + civilized, fertile beauty—the rapid brook twisting among its reed + beds, the rich green of trees and grass, the stately woods, the gardens + and fields, the exceedingly picturesque cottages, the great handsome + houses standing in their parks. Birds were plentiful; I know but few + places in America where one would see such an abundance of individuals, + and I was struck by seeing such large birds as coots, water hens, grebes, + tufted ducks, pigeons, and peewits. In places in America as thickly + settled as the valley of the Itchen, I should not expect to see any like + number of birds of this size; but I hope that the efforts of the Audubon + societies and kindred organizations will gradually make themselves felt + until it becomes a point of honor not only with the American man, but with + the American small boy, to shield and protect all forms of harmless wild + life. True sportsmen should take the lead in such a movement, for if there + is to be any shooting there must be something to shoot; the prime + necessity is to keep, and not kill out, even the birds which in legitimate + numbers may be shot. + </p> + <p> + The New Forest is a wild, uninhabited stretch of heath and woodland, many + of the trees gnarled and aged, and its very wildness, the lack of + cultivation, the ruggedness, made it strongly attractive in my eyes, and + suggested my own country. The birds of course were much less plentiful + than beside the Itchen. + </p> + <p> + The bird that most impressed me on my walk was the blackbird. I had + already heard nightingales in abundance near Lake Como, and had also + listened to larks, but I had never heard either the blackbird, the song + thrush, or the blackcap warbler; and while I knew that all three were good + singers, I did not know what really beautiful singers they were. + Blackbirds were very abundant, and they played a prominent part in the + chorus which we heard throughout the day on every hand, though perhaps + loudest the following morning at dawn. In its habits and manners the + blackbird strikingly resembles our American robin, and indeed looks + exactly like a robin, with a yellow bill and coal-black plumage. It hops + everywhere over the lawns, just as our robin does, and it lives and nests + in the gardens in the same fashion. Its song has a general resemblance to + that of our robin, but many of the notes are far more musical, more like + those of our wood thrush. Indeed, there were individuals among those we + heard certain of whose notes seemed to me almost to equal in point of + melody the chimes of the wood thrush; and the highest possible praise for + any song-bird is to liken its song to that of the wood thrush or hermit + thrush. I certainly do not think that the blackbird has received full + justice in the books. I knew that he was a singer, but I really had no + idea how fine a singer he was. I suppose one of his troubles has been his + name, just as with our own catbird. When he appears in the ballads as the + merle, bracketed with his cousin the mavis, the song thrush, it is far + easier to recognize him as the master singer that he is. It is a fine + thing for England to have such an asset of the countryside, a bird so + common, so much in evidence, so fearless, and such a really beautiful + singer. + </p> + <p> + The thrush is a fine singer too, a better singer than our American robin, + but to my mind not at the best quite as good as the blackbird at his best; + although often I found difficulty in telling the song of one from the song + of the other, especially if I only heard two or three notes. + </p> + <p> + The larks were, of course, exceedingly attractive. It was fascinating to + see them spring from the grass, circle upwards, steadily singing and + soaring for several minutes, and then return to the point whence they had + started. As my companion pointed out, they exactly fulfilled Wordsworth's + description; they soared but did not roam. It is quite impossible wholly + to differentiate a bird's voice from its habits and surroundings. Although + in the lark's song there are occasional musical notes, the song as a whole + is not very musical; but it is so joyous, buoyant and unbroken, and + uttered under such conditions as fully to entitle the bird to the place he + occupies with both poet and prose writer. + </p> + <p> + The most musical singer we heard was the blackcap warbler. To my ear its + song seemed more musical than that of the nightingale. It was + astonishingly powerful for so small a bird; in volume and continuity it + does not come up to the songs of the thrushes and of certain other birds, + but in quality, as an isolated bit of melody, it can hardly be surpassed. + </p> + <p> + Among the minor singers the robin was noticeable. We all know this pretty + little bird from the books, and I was prepared to find him as friendly and + attractive as he proved to be, but I had not realized how well he sang. It + is not a loud song, but very musical and attractive, and the bird is said + to sing practically all through the year. The song of the wren interested + me much, because it was not in the least like that of our house wren, but, + on the contrary, like that of our winter wren. The theme is the same as + the winter wren's, but the song did not seem to me to be as brilliantly + musical as that of the tiny singer of the North Woods. The sedge warbler + sang in the thick reeds a mocking ventriloquial lay, which reminded me at + times of the less pronounced parts of our yellow-breasted chat's song. The + cuckoo's cry was singularly attractive and musical, far more so than the + rolling, many times repeated, note of our rain-crow. + </p> + <p> + We did not reach the inn at Brockenhurst until about nine o'clock, just at + nightfall, and a few minutes before that we heard a nightjar. It did not + sound in the least like either our whip-poor-will or our night-hawk, + uttering a long-continued call of one or two syllables, repeated over and + over. The chaffinch was very much in evidence, continually chaunting its + unimportant little ditty. I was pleased to see the bold, masterful missel + thrush, the stormcock as it is often called; but this bird breeds and + sings in the early spring, when the weather is still tempestuous, and had + long been silent when we saw it. The starlings, rooks, and jackdaws did + not sing, and their calls were attractive merely as the calls of our + grackles are attractive; and the other birds that we heard sing, though + they played their part in the general chorus, were performers of no + especial note, like our tree-creepers, pine warblers, and chipping + sparrows. The great spring chorus had already begun to subside, but the + woods and fields were still vocal with beautiful bird music, the country + was very lovely, the inn as comfortable as possible, and the bath and + supper very enjoyable after our tramp; and altogether I passed no + pleasanter twenty-four hours during my entire European trip. + </p> + <p> + Ten days later, at Sagamore Hill, I was among my own birds, and was much + interested as I listened to and looked at them in remembering the notes + and actions of the birds I had seen in England. On the evening of the + first day I sat in my rocking-chair on the broad veranda, looking across + the Sound towards the glory of the sunset. The thickly grassed hillside + sloped down in front of me to a belt of forest from which rose the golden, + leisurely chiming of the wood thrushes, chanting their vespers; through + the still air came the warble of vireo and tanager; and after nightfall we + heard the flight song of an ovenbird from the same belt of timber. + Overhead an oriole sang in the weeping elm, now and then breaking his song + to scold like an overgrown wren. Song-sparrows and catbirds sang in the + shrubbery; one robin had built its nest over the front and one over the + back door, and there was a chippy's nest in the wistaria vine by the + stoop. During the next twenty-four hours I saw and heard, either right + around the house or while walking down to bathe, through the woods, the + following forty-two birds: + </p> + <p> + Little green heron, night heron, red-tailed hawk, yellow-billed cuckoo, + kingfisher, flicker, humming-bird, swift, meadow-lark, red-winged + blackbird, sharp-tailed finch, song sparrow, chipping sparrow, bush + sparrow, purple finch, Baltimore oriole, cowbunting, robin, wood thrush, + thrasher, catbird, scarlet tanager, red-eyed vireo, yellow warbler, + black-throated green warbler, kingbird, wood peewee, crow, blue jay, + cedar-bird, Maryland yellowthroat, chickadee, black and white creeper, + barn swallow, white-breasted swallow, ovenbird, thistlefinch, vesperfinch, + indigo bunting, towhee, grasshopper-sparrow, and screech owl. + </p> + <p> + The birds were still in full song, for on Long Island there is little + abatement in the chorus until about the second week of July, when the + blossoming of the chestnut trees patches the woodland with frothy + greenish-yellow.[*] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] Alas! the blight has now destroyed the chestnut trees, + and robbed our woods of one of their distinctive beauties. +</pre> + <p> + Our most beautiful singers are the wood thrushes; they sing not only in + the early morning but throughout the long hot June afternoons. Sometimes + they sing in the trees immediately around the house, and if the air is + still we can always hear them from among the tall trees at the foot of the + hill. The thrashers sing in the hedgerows beyond the garden, the catbirds + everywhere. The catbirds have such an attractive song that it is extremely + irritating to know that at any moment they may interrupt it to mew and + squeal. The bold, cheery music of the robins always seems typical of the + bold, cheery birds themselves. The Baltimore orioles nest in the young + elms around the house, and the orchard orioles in the apple trees near the + garden and outbuildings. Among the earliest sounds of spring is the + cheerful, simple, homely song of the song-sparrow; and in March we also + hear the piercing cadence of the meadow-lark—to us one of the most + attractive of all bird calls. Of late years now and then we hear the + rollicking, bubbling melody of the bobolink in the pastures back of the + barn; and when the full chorus of these and of many other of the singers + of spring is dying down, there are some true hot-weather songsters, such + as the brightly hued indigo buntings and thistlefinches. Among the finches + one of the most musical and plaintive songs is that of the bush-sparrow—I + do not know why the books call it field-sparrow, for it does not dwell in + the open fields like the vesperfinch, the savannah-sparrow, and + grasshopper-sparrow, but among the cedars and bayberry bushes and young + locusts in the same places where the prairie warbler is found. Nor is it + only the true songs that delight us. We love to hear the flickers call, + and we readily pardon any one of their number which, as occasionally + happens, is bold enough to wake us in the early morning by drumming on the + shingles of the roof. In our ears the red-winged blackbirds have a very + attractive note. We love the screaming of the red-tailed hawks as they + soar high overhead, and even the calls of the night heron that nest in the + tall water maples by one of the wood ponds on our place, and the little + green herons that nest beside the salt marsh. It is hard to tell just how + much of the attraction in any bird-note lies in the music itself and how + much in the associations. This is what makes it so useless to try to + compare the bird songs of one country with those of another. A man who is + worth anything can no more be entirely impartial in speaking of the bird + songs with which from his earliest childhood he has been familiar than he + can be entirely impartial in speaking of his own family. + </p> + <p> + At Sagamore Hill we love a great many things—birds and trees and + books, and all things beautiful, and horses and rifles and children and + hard work and the joy of life. We have great fireplaces, and in them the + logs roar and crackle during the long winter evenings. The big piazza is + for the hot, still afternoons of summer. As in every house, there are + things that appeal to the householder because of their associations, but + which would not mean much to others. Naturally, any man who has been + President, and filled other positions, accumulates such things, with scant + regard to his own personal merits. Perhaps our most cherished possessions + are a Remington bronze, "The Bronco Buster," given me by my men when the + regiment was mustered out, and a big Tiffany silver vase given to Mrs. + Roosevelt by the enlisted men of the battleship Louisiana after we + returned from a cruise on her to Panama. It was a real surprise gift, + presented to her in the White House, on behalf of the whole crew, by four + as strapping man-of-war's-men as ever swung a turret or pointed a + twelve-inch gun. The enlisted men of the army I already knew well—of + course I knew well the officers of both army and navy. But the enlisted + men of the navy I only grew to know well when I was President. On the + Louisiana Mrs. Roosevelt and I once dined at the chief petty officers' + mess, and on another battleship, the Missouri (when I was in company with + Admiral Evans and Captain Cowles), and again on the Sylph and on the + Mayflower, we also dined as guests of the crew. When we finished our trip + on the Louisiana I made a short speech to the assembled crew, and at its + close one of the petty officers, the very picture of what a + man-of-war's-man should look like, proposed three cheers for me in terms + that struck me as curiously illustrative of America at her best; he said, + "Now then, men, three cheers for Theodore Roosevelt, the typical American + citizen!" That was the way in which they thought of the American President—and + a very good way, too. It was an expression that would have come naturally + only to men in whom the American principles of government and life were + ingrained, just as they were ingrained in the men of my regiment. I need + scarcely add, but I will add for the benefit of those who do not know, + that this attitude of self-respecting identification of interest and + purpose is not only compatible with but can only exist when there is fine + and real discipline, as thorough and genuine as the discipline that has + always obtained in the most formidable fighting fleets and armies. The + discipline and the mutual respect are complementary, not antagonistic. + During the Presidency all of us, but especially the children, became close + friends with many of the sailor men. The four bearers of the vase to Mrs. + Roosevelt were promptly hailed as delightful big brothers by our two + smallest boys, who at once took them to see the sights of Washington in + the landau—"the President's land-ho!" as, with seafaring humor, our + guests immediately styled it. Once, after we were in private life again, + Mrs. Roosevelt was in a railway station and had some difficulty with her + ticket. A fine-looking, quiet man stepped up and asked if he could be of + help; he remarked that he had been one of the Mayflower's crew, and knew + us well; and in answer to a question explained that he had left the navy + in order to study dentistry, and added—a delicious touch—that + while thus preparing himself to be a dentist he was earning the necessary + money to go on with his studies by practicing the profession of a + prize-fighter, being a good man in the ring. + </p> + <p> + There are various bronzes in the house: Saint-Gaudens's "Puritan," a token + from my staff officers when I was Governor; Proctor's cougar, the gift of + the Tennis Cabinet—who also gave us a beautiful silver bowl, which + is always lovingly pronounced to rhyme with "owl" because that was the + pronunciation used at the time of the giving by the valued friend who + acted as spokesman for his fellow-members, and who was himself the only + non-American member of the said Cabinet. There is a horseman by + Macmonnies, and a big bronze vase by Kemys, an adaptation or development + of the pottery vases of the Southwestern Indians. Mixed with all of these + are gifts from varied sources, ranging from a brazen Buddha sent me by the + Dalai Lama and a wonderful psalter from the Emperor Menelik to a priceless + ancient Samurai sword, coming from Japan in remembrance of the peace of + Portsmouth, and a beautifully inlaid miniature suit of Japanese armor, + given me by a favorite hero of mine, Admiral Togo, when he visited + Sagamore Hill. There are things from European friends; a mosaic picture of + Pope Leo XIII in his garden; a huge, very handsome edition of the + Nibelungenlied; a striking miniature of John Hampden from Windsor Castle; + editions of Dante, and the campaigns of "Eugenio von Savoy" (another of my + heroes, a dead hero this time); a Viking cup; the state sword of a Uganda + king; the gold box in which the "freedom of the city of London" was given + me; a beautiful head of Abraham Lincoln given me by the French authorities + after my speech at the Sorbonne; and many other things from sources as + diverse as the Sultan of Turkey and the Dowager Empress of China. Then + there are things from home friends: a Polar bear skin from Peary; a Sioux + buffalo robe with, on it, painted by some long-dead Sioux artist, the + picture story of Custer's fight; a bronze portrait plaque of Joel Chandler + Harris; the candlestick used in sealing the Treaty of Portsmouth, sent me + by Captain Cameron Winslow; a shoe worn by Dan Patch when he paced a mile + in 1:59, sent me by his owner. There is a picture of a bull moose by Carl + Rungius, which seems to me as spirited an animal painting as I have ever + seen. In the north room, with its tables and mantelpiece and desks and + chests made of woods sent from the Philippines by army friends, or by + other friends for other reasons; with its bison and wapiti heads; there + are three paintings by Marcus Symonds—"Where Light and Shadow Meet," + "The Porcelain Towers," and "The Seats of the Mighty"; he is dead now, and + he had scant recognition while he lived, yet surely he was a great + imaginative artist, a wonderful colorist, and a man with a vision more + wonderful still. There is one of Lungren's pictures of the Western plains; + and a picture of the Grand Canyon; and one by a Scandinavian artist who + could see the fierce picturesqueness of workaday Pittsburgh; and sketches + of the White House by Sargent and by Hopkinson Smith. + </p> + <p> + The books are everywhere. There are as many in the north room and in the + parlor—is drawing-room a more appropriate name than parlor?—as + in the library; the gun-room at the top of the house, which incidentally + has the loveliest view of all, contains more books than any of the other + rooms; and they are particularly delightful books to browse among, just + because they have not much relevance to one another, this being one of the + reasons why they are relegated to their present abode. But the books have + overflowed into all the other rooms too. + </p> + <p> + I could not name any principle upon which the books have been gathered. + Books are almost as individual as friends. There is no earthly use in + laying down general laws about them. Some meet the needs of one person, + and some of another; and each person should beware of the booklover's + besetting sin, of what Mr. Edgar Allan Poe calls "the mad pride of + intellectuality," taking the shape of arrogant pity for the man who does + not like the same kind of books. Of course there are books which a man or + woman uses as instruments of a profession—law books, medical books, + cookery books, and the like. I am not speaking of these, for they are not + properly "books" at all; they come in the category of time-tables, + telephone directories, and other useful agencies of civilized life. I am + speaking of books that are meant to be read. Personally, granted that + these books are decent and healthy, the one test to which I demand that + they all submit is that of being interesting. If the book is not + interesting to the reader, then in all but an infinitesimal number of + cases it gives scant benefit to the reader. Of course any reader ought to + cultivate his or her taste so that good books will appeal to it, and that + trash won't. But after this point has once been reached, the needs of each + reader must be met in a fashion that will appeal to those needs. + Personally the books by which I have profited infinitely more than by any + others have been those in which profit was a by-product of the pleasure; + that is, I read them because I enjoyed them, because I liked reading them, + and the profit came in as part of the enjoyment. + </p> + <p> + Of course each individual is apt to have some special tastes in which he + cannot expect that any but a few friends will share. Now, I am very proud + of my big-game library. I suppose there must be many big-game libraries in + Continental Europe, and possibly in England, more extensive than mine, but + I have not happened to come across any such library in this country. Some + of the originals go back to the sixteenth century, and there are copies or + reproductions of the two or three most famous hunting books of the Middle + Ages, such as the Duke of York's translation of Gaston Phoebus, and the + queer book of the Emperor Maximilian. It is only very occasionally that I + meet any one who cares for any of these books. On the other hand, I expect + to find many friends who will turn naturally to some of the old or the new + books of poetry or romance or history to which we of the household + habitually turn. Let me add that ours is in no sense a collector's + library. Each book was procured because some one of the family wished to + read it. We could never afford to take overmuch thought for the outsides + of books; we were too much interested in their insides. + </p> + <p> + Now and then I am asked as to "what books a statesman should read," and my + answer is, poetry and novels—including short stories under the head + of novels. I don't mean that he should read only novels and modern poetry. + If he cannot also enjoy the Hebrew prophets and the Greek dramatists, he + should be sorry. He ought to read interesting books on history and + government, and books of science and philosophy; and really good books on + these subjects are as enthralling as any fiction ever written in prose or + verse. Gibbon and Macaulay, Herodotus, Thucydides and Tacitus, the + Heimskringla, Froissart, Joinville and Villehardouin, Parkman and Mahan, + Mommsen and Ranke—why! there are scores and scores of solid + histories, the best in the world, which are as absorbing as the best of + all the novels, and of as permanent value. The same thing is true of + Darwin and Huxley and Carlyle and Emerson, and parts of Kant, and of + volumes like Sutherland's "Growth of the Moral Instinct," or Acton's + Essays and Lounsbury's studies—here again I am not trying to class + books together, or measure one by another, or enumerate one in a thousand + of those worth reading, but just to indicate that any man or woman of some + intelligence and some cultivation can in some line or other of serious + thought, scientific or historical or philosophical or economic or + governmental, find any number of books which are charming to read, and + which in addition give that for which his or her soul hungers. I do not + for a minute mean that the statesman ought not to read a great many + different books of this character, just as every one else should read + them. But, in the final event, the statesman, and the publicist, and the + reformer, and the agitator for new things, and the upholder of what is + good in old things, all need more than anything else to know human nature, + to know the needs of the human soul; and they will find this nature and + these needs set forth as nowhere else by the great imaginative writers, + whether of prose or of poetry. + </p> + <p> + The room for choice is so limitless that to my mind it seems absurd to try + to make catalogues which shall be supposed to appeal to all the best + thinkers. This is why I have no sympathy whatever with writing lists of + the One Hundred Best Books, or the Five-Foot Library. It is all right for + a man to amuse himself by composing a list of a hundred very good books; + and if he is to go off for a year or so where he cannot get many books, it + is an excellent thing to choose a five-foot library of particular books + which in that particular year and on that particular trip he would like to + read. But there is no such thing as a hundred books that are best for all + men, or for the majority of men, or for one man at all times; and there is + no such thing as a five-foot library which will satisfy the needs of even + one particular man on different occasions extending over a number of + years. Milton is best for one mood and Pope for another. Because a man + likes Whitman or Browning or Lowell he should not feel himself debarred + from Tennyson or Kipling or Korner or Heine or the Bard of the Dimbovitza. + Tolstoy's novels are good at one time and those of Sienkiewicz at another; + and he is fortunate who can relish "Salammbo" and "Tom Brown" and the "Two + Admirals" and "Quentin Durward" and "Artemus Ward" and the "Ingoldsby + Legends" and "Pickwick" and "Vanity Fair." Why, there are hundreds of + books like these, each one of which, if really read, really assimilated, + by the person to whom it happens to appeal, will enable that person quite + unconsciously to furnish himself with much ammunition which he will find + of use in the battle of life. + </p> + <p> + A book must be interesting to the particular reader at that particular + time. But there are tens of thousands of interesting books, and some of + them are sealed to some men and some are sealed to others; and some stir + the soul at some given point of a man's life and yet convey no message at + other times. The reader, the booklover, must meet his own needs without + paying too much attention to what his neighbors say those needs should be. + He must not hypocritically pretend to like what he does not like. Yet at + the same time he must avoid that most unpleasant of all the indications of + puffed-up vanity which consists in treating mere individual, and perhaps + unfortunate, idiosyncrasy as a matter of pride. I happen to be devoted to + Macbeth, whereas I very seldom read Hamlet (though I like parts of it). + Now I am humbly and sincerely conscious that this is a demerit in me and + not in Hamlet; and yet it would not do me any good to pretend that I like + Hamlet as much as Macbeth when, as a matter of fact, I don't. I am very + fond of simple epics and of ballad poetry, from the Nibelungenlied and the + Roland song through "Chevy Chase" and "Patrick Spens" and "Twa Corbies" to + Scott's poems and Longfellow's "Saga of King Olaf" and "Othere." On the + other hand, I don't care to read dramas as a rule; I cannot read them with + enjoyment unless they appeal to me very strongly. They must almost be + AEschylus or Euripides, Goethe or Moliere, in order that I may not feel + after finishing them a sense of virtuous pride in having achieved a task. + Now I would be the first to deny that even the most delightful old English + ballad should be put on a par with any one of scores of dramatic works by + authors whom I have not mentioned; I know that each of these dramatists + has written what is of more worth than the ballad; only, I enjoy the + ballad, and I don't enjoy the drama; and therefore the ballad is better + for me, and this fact is not altered by the other fact that my own + shortcomings are to blame in the matter. I still read a number of Scott's + novels over and over again, whereas if I finish anything by Miss Austen I + have a feeling that duty performed is a rainbow to the soul. But other + booklovers who are very close kin to me, and whose taste I know to be + better than mine, read Miss Austen all the time—and, moreover, they + are very kind, and never pity me in too offensive a manner for not reading + her myself. + </p> + <p> + Aside from the masters of literature, there are all kinds of books which + one person will find delightful, and which he certainly ought not to + surrender just because nobody else is able to find as much in the beloved + volume. There is on our book-shelves a little pre-Victorian novel or tale + called "The Semi-Attached Couple." It is told with much humor; it is a + story of gentlefolk who are really gentlefolk; and to me it is altogether + delightful. But outside the members of my own family I have never met a + human being who had even heard of it, and I don't suppose I ever shall + meet one. I often enjoy a story by some living author so much that I write + to tell him so—or to tell her so; and at least half the time I + regret my action, because it encourages the writer to believe that the + public shares my views, and he then finds that the public doesn't. + </p> + <p> + Books are all very well in their way, and we love them at Sagamore Hill; + but children are better than books. Sagamore Hill is one of three + neighboring houses in which small cousins spent very happy years of + childhood. In the three houses there were at one time sixteen of these + small cousins, all told, and once we ranged them in order of size and took + their photograph. There are many kinds of success in life worth having. It + is exceedingly interesting and attractive to be a successful business man, + or railroad man, or farmer, or a successful lawyer or doctor; or a writer, + or a President, or a ranchman, or the colonel of a fighting regiment, or + to kill grizzly bears and lions. But for unflagging interest and + enjoyment, a household of children, if things go reasonably well, + certainly makes all other forms of success and achievement lose their + importance by comparison. It may be true that he travels farthest who + travels alone; but the goal thus reached is not worth reaching. And as for + a life deliberately devoted to pleasure as an end—why, the greatest + happiness is the happiness that comes as a by-product of striving to do + what must be done, even though sorrow is met in the doing. There is a bit + of homely philosophy, quoted by Squire Bill Widener, of Widener's Valley, + Virginia, which sums up one's duty in life: "Do what you can, with what + you've got, where you are." + </p> + <p> + The country is the place for children, and if not the country, a city + small enough so that one can get out into the country. When our own + children were little, we were for several winters in Washington, and each + Sunday afternoon the whole family spent in Rock Creek Park, which was then + very real country indeed. I would drag one of the children's wagons; and + when the very smallest pairs of feet grew tired of trudging bravely after + us, or of racing on rapturous side trips after flowers and other + treasures, the owners would clamber into the wagon. One of these wagons, + by the way, a gorgeous red one, had "Express" painted on it in gilt + letters, and was known to the younger children as the "'spress" wagon. + They evidently associated the color with the term. Once while we were at + Sagamore something happened to the cherished "'spress" wagon to the + distress of the children, and especially of the child who owned it. Their + mother and I were just starting for a drive in the buggy, and we promised + the bereaved owner that we would visit a store we knew in East Norwich, a + village a few miles away, and bring back another "'spress" wagon. When we + reached the store, we found to our dismay that the wagon which we had seen + had been sold. We could not bear to return without the promised gift, for + we knew that the brains of small persons are much puzzled when their + elders seem to break promises. Fortunately, we saw in the store a + delightful little bright-red chair and bright-red table, and these we + brought home and handed solemnly over to the expectant recipient, + explaining that as there unfortunately was not a "'spress" wagon we had + brought him back a "'spress" chair and "'spress" table. It worked + beautifully! The "'spress" chair and table were received with such rapture + that we had to get duplicates for the other small member of the family who + was the particular crony of the proprietor of the new treasures. + </p> + <p> + When their mother and I returned from a row, we would often see the + children waiting for us, running like sand-spiders along the beach. They + always liked to swim in company with a grown-up of buoyant temperament and + inventive mind, and the float offered limitless opportunities for + enjoyment while bathing. All dutiful parents know the game of + "stage-coach"; each child is given a name, such as the whip, the nigh + leader, the off wheeler, the old lady passenger, and, under penalty of + paying a forfeit, must get up and turn round when the grown-up, who is + improvising a thrilling story, mentions that particular object; and when + the word "stage-coach" is mentioned, everybody has to get up and turn + round. Well, we used to play stage-coach on the float while in swimming, + and instead of tamely getting up and turning round, the child whose turn + it was had to plunge overboard. When I mentioned "stage-coach," the water + fairly foamed with vigorously kicking little legs; and then there was + always a moment of interest while I counted, so as to be sure that the + number of heads that came up corresponded with the number of children who + had gone down. + </p> + <p> + No man or woman will ever forget the time when some child lies sick of a + disease that threatens its life. Moreover, much less serious sickness is + unpleasant enough at the time. Looking back, however, there are elements + of comedy in certain of the less serious cases. I well remember one such + instance which occurred when we were living in Washington, in a small + house, with barely enough room for everybody when all the chinks were + filled. Measles descended on the household. In the effort to keep the + children that were well and those that were sick apart, their mother and I + had to camp out in improvised fashion. When the eldest small boy was + getting well, and had recovered his spirits, I slept on a sofa beside his + bed—the sofa being so short that my feet projected over anyhow. One + afternoon the small boy was given a toy organ by a sympathetic friend. + Next morning early I was waked to find the small boy very vivacious and + requesting a story. Having drowsily told the story, I said, "Now, father's + told you a story, so you amuse yourself and let father go to sleep"; to + which the small boy responded most virtuously, "Yes, father will go to + sleep and I'll play the organ," which he did, at a distance of two feet + from my head. Later his sister, who had just come down with the measles, + was put into the same room. The small boy was convalescing, and was + engaged in playing on the floor with some tin ships, together with two or + three pasteboard monitors and rams of my own manufacture. He was giving a + vivid rendering of Farragut at Mobile Bay, from memories of how I had told + the story. My pasteboard rams and monitors were fascinating—if a + naval architect may be allowed to praise his own work—and as + property they were equally divided between the little girl and the small + boy. The little girl looked on with alert suspicion from the bed, for she + was not yet convalescent enough to be allowed down on the floor. The small + boy was busily reciting the phases of the fight, which now approached its + climax, and the little girl evidently suspected that her monitor was + destined to play the part of victim. + </p> + <p> + Little boy. "And then they steamed bang into the monitor." + </p> + <p> + Little girl. "Brother, don't you sink my monitor!" + </p> + <p> + Little boy (without heeding, and hurrying toward the climax). "And the + torpedo went at the monitor!" + </p> + <p> + Little girl. "My monitor is not to sink!" + </p> + <p> + Little boy, dramatically: "And bang the monitor sank!" + </p> + <p> + Little girl. "It didn't do any such thing. My monitor always goes to bed + at seven, and it's now quarter past. My monitor was in bed and couldn't + sink!" + </p> + <p> + When I was Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Leonard Wood and I used often + to combine forces and take both families of children out to walk, and + occasionally some of their playmates. Leonard Wood's son, I found, + attributed the paternity of all of those not of his own family to me. Once + we were taking the children across Rock Creek on a fallen tree. I was + standing on the middle of the log trying to prevent any of the children + from falling off, and while making a clutch at one peculiarly active and + heedless child I fell off myself. As I emerged from the water I heard the + little Wood boy calling frantically to the General: "Oh! oh! The father of + all the children fell into the creek!"—which made me feel like an + uncommonly moist patriarch. Of course the children took much interest in + the trophies I occasionally brought back from my hunts. When I started for + my regiment, in '98, the stress of leaving home, which was naturally not + pleasant, was somewhat lightened by the next to the youngest boy, whose + ideas of what was about to happen were hazy, clasping me round the legs + with a beaming smile and saying, "And is my father going to the war? And + will he bring me back a bear?" When, some five months later, I returned, + of course in my uniform, this little boy was much puzzled as to my + identity, although he greeted me affably with "Good afternoon, Colonel." + Half an hour later somebody asked him, "Where's father?" to which he + responded, "I don't know; but the Colonel is taking a bath." + </p> + <p> + Of course the children anthropomorphized—if that is the proper term—their + friends of the animal world. Among these friends at one period was the + baker's horse, and on a very rainy day I heard the little girl, who was + looking out of the window, say, with a melancholy shake of her head, "Oh! + there's poor Kraft's horse, all soppin' wet!" + </p> + <p> + While I was in the White House the youngest boy became an <i>habitue</i> + of a small and rather noisome animal shop, and the good-natured owner + would occasionally let him take pets home to play with. On one occasion I + was holding a conversation with one of the leaders in Congress, Uncle Pete + Hepburn, about the Railroad Rate Bill. The children were strictly trained + not to interrupt business, but on this particular occasion the little + boy's feelings overcame him. He had been loaned a king-snake, which, as + all nature-lovers know, is not only a useful but a beautiful snake, very + friendly to human beings; and he came rushing home to show the treasure. + He was holding it inside his coat, and it contrived to wiggle partly down + the sleeve. Uncle Pete Hepburn naturally did not understand the full + import of what the little boy was saying to me as he endeavored to wriggle + out of his jacket, and kindly started to help him—and then jumped + back with alacrity as the small boy and the snake both popped out of the + jacket. + </p> + <p> + There could be no healthier and pleasanter place in which to bring up + children than in that nook of old-time America around Sagamore Hill. + Certainly I never knew small people to have a better time or a better + training for their work in after life than the three families of cousins + at Sagamore Hill. It was real country, and—speaking from the + somewhat detached point of view of the masculine parent—I should say + there was just the proper mixture of freedom and control in the management + of the children. They were never allowed to be disobedient or to shirk + lessons or work; and they were encouraged to have all the fun possible. + They often went barefoot, especially during the many hours passed in + various enthralling pursuits along and in the waters of the bay. They + swam, they tramped, they boated, they coasted and skated in winter, they + were intimate friends with the cows, chickens, pigs, and other live stock. + They had in succession two ponies, General Grant and, when the General's + legs became such that he lay down too often and too unexpectedly in the + road, a calico pony named Algonquin, who is still living a life of + honorable leisure in the stable and in the pasture—where he has to + be picketed, because otherwise he chases the cows. Sedate pony Grant used + to draw the cart in which the children went driving when they were very + small, the driver being their old nurse Mame, who had held their mother in + her arms when she was born, and who was knit to them by a tie as close as + any tie of blood. I doubt whether I ever saw Mame really offended with + them except once when, out of pure but misunderstood affection, they named + a pig after her. They loved pony Grant. Once I saw the then little boy of + three hugging pony Grant's fore legs. As he leaned over, his broad straw + hat tilted on end, and pony Grant meditatively munched the brim; whereupon + the small boy looked up with a wail of anguish, evidently thinking the + pony had decided to treat him like a radish. + </p> + <p> + The children had pets of their own, too, of course. Among them guinea pigs + were the stand-bys—their highly unemotional nature fits them for + companionship with adoring but over-enthusiastic young masters and + mistresses. Then there were flying squirrels, and kangaroo rats, gentle + and trustful, and a badger whose temper was short but whose nature was + fundamentally friendly. The badger's name was Josiah; the particular + little boy whose property he was used to carry him about, clasped firmly + around what would have been his waist if he had had any. Inasmuch as when + on the ground the badger would play energetic games of tag with the little + boy and nip his bare legs, I suggested that it would be uncommonly + disagreeable if he took advantage of being held in the little boy's arms + to bite his face; but this suggestion was repelled with scorn as an + unworthy assault on the character of Josiah. "He bites legs sometimes, but + he never bites faces," said the little boy. We also had a young black bear + whom the children christened Jonathan Edwards, partly out of compliment to + their mother, who was descended from that great Puritan divine, and partly + because the bear possessed a temper in which gloom and strength were + combined in what the children regarded as Calvinistic proportions. As for + the dogs, of course there were many, and during their lives they were + intimate and valued family friends, and their deaths were household + tragedies. One of them, a large yellow animal of several good breeds and + valuable rather because of psychical than physical traits, was named + "Susan" by his small owners, in commemoration of another retainer, a white + cow; the fact that the cow and the dog were not of the same sex being + treated with indifference. Much the most individual of the dogs and the + one with the strongest character was Sailor Boy, a Chesapeake Bay dog. He + had a masterful temper and a strong sense of both dignity and duty. He + would never let the other dogs fight, and he himself never fought unless + circumstances imperatively demanded it; but he was a murderous animal when + he did fight. He was not only exceedingly fond of the water, as was to be + expected, but passionately devoted to gunpowder in every form, for he + loved firearms and fairly reveled in the Fourth of July celebrations—the + latter being rather hazardous occasions, as the children strongly objected + to any "safe and sane" element being injected into them, and had the + normal number of close shaves with rockets, Roman candles, and + firecrackers. + </p> + <p> + One of the stand-bys for enjoyment, especially in rainy weather, was the + old barn. This had been built nearly a century previously, and was as + delightful as only the pleasantest kind of old barn can be. It stood at + the meeting-spot of three fences. A favorite amusement used to be an + obstacle race when the barn was full of hay. The contestants were timed + and were started successively from outside the door. They rushed inside, + clambered over or burrowed through the hay, as suited them best, dropped + out of a place where a loose board had come off, got over, through, or + under the three fences, and raced back to the starting-point. When they + were little, their respective fathers were expected also to take part in + the obstacle race, and when with the advance of years the fathers finally + refused to be contestants, there was a general feeling of pained regret + among the children at such a decline in the sporting spirit. + </p> + <p> + Another famous place for handicap races was Cooper's Bluff, a gigantic + sand-bank rising from the edge of the bay, a mile from the house. If the + tide was high there was an added thrill, for some of the contestants were + sure to run into the water. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the little boys learned to swim they were allowed to go off by + themselves in rowboats and camp out for the night along the Sound. + Sometimes I would go along so as to take the smaller children. Once a + schooner was wrecked on a point half a dozen miles away. She held together + well for a season or two after having been cleared of everything down to + the timbers, and this gave us the chance to make camping-out trips in + which the girls could also be included, for we put them to sleep in the + wreck, while the boys slept on the shore; squaw picnics, the children + called them. + </p> + <p> + My children, when young, went to the public school near us, the little + Cove School, as it is called. For nearly thirty years we have given the + Christmas tree to the school. Before the gifts are distributed I am + expected to make an address, which is always mercifully short, my own + children having impressed upon me with frank sincerity the attitude of + other children to addresses of this kind on such occasions. There are of + course performances by the children themselves, while all of us parents + look admiringly on, each sympathizing with his or her particular offspring + in the somewhat wooden recital of "Darius Green and his Flying Machine" or + "The Mountain and the Squirrel had a Quarrel." But the tree and the gifts + make up for all shortcomings. + </p> + <p> + We had a sleigh for winter; but if, when there was much snow, the whole + family desired to go somewhere, we would put the body of the farm wagon on + runners and all bundle in together. We always liked snow at Christmas + time, and the sleigh-ride down to the church on Christmas eve. One of the + hymns always sung at this Christmas eve festival begins, "It's Christmas + eve on the river, it's Christmas eve on the bay." All good natives of the + village firmly believe that this hymn was written here, and with direct + reference to Oyster Bay; although if such were the case the word "river" + would have to be taken in a hyperbolic sense, as the nearest approach to a + river is the village pond. I used to share this belief myself, until my + faith was shaken by a Denver lady who wrote that she had sung that hymn + when a child in Michigan, and that at the present time her little Denver + babies also loved it, although in their case the river was not represented + by even a village pond. + </p> + <p> + When we were in Washington, the children usually went with their mother to + the Episcopal church, while I went to the Dutch Reformed. But if any child + misbehaved itself, it was sometimes sent next Sunday to church with me, on + the theory that my companionship would have a sedative effect—which + it did, as I and the child walked along with rather constrained + politeness, each eying the other with watchful readiness for the + unexpected. On one occasion, when the child's conduct fell just short of + warranting such extreme measures, his mother, as they were on the point of + entering church, concluded a homily by a quotation which showed a certain + haziness of memory concerning the marriage and baptismal services: "No, + little boy, if this conduct continues, I shall think that you neither + love, honor, nor obey me!" However, the culprit was much impressed with a + sense of shortcoming as to the obligations he had undertaken; so the + result was as satisfactory as if the quotation had been from the right + service. + </p> + <p> + As for the education of the children, there was of course much of it that + represented downright hard work and drudgery. There was also much training + that came as a by-product and was perhaps almost as valuable—not as + a substitute but as an addition. After their supper, the children, when + little, would come trotting up to their mother's room to be read to, and + it was always a surprise to me to notice the extremely varied reading + which interested them, from Howard Pyle's "Robin Hood," Mary Alicia Owen's + "Voodoo Tales," and Joel Chandler Harris's "Aaron in the Wild Woods," to + "Lycides" and "King John." If their mother was absent, I would try to act + as vice-mother—a poor substitute, I fear—superintending the + supper and reading aloud afterwards. The children did not wish me to read + the books they desired their mother to read, and I usually took some such + book as "Hereward the Wake," or "Guy Mannering," or "The Last of the + Mohicans" or else some story about a man-eating tiger, or a man-eating + lion, from one of the hunting books in my library. These latter stories + were always favorites, and as the authors told them in the first person, + my interested auditors grew to know them by the name of the "I" stories, + and regarded them as adventures all of which happened to the same + individual. When Selous, the African hunter, visited us, I had to get him + to tell to the younger children two or three of the stories with which + they were already familiar from my reading; and as Selous is a most + graphic narrator, and always enters thoroughly into the feeling not only + of himself but of the opposing lion or buffalo, my own rendering of the + incidents was cast entirely into the shade. + </p> + <p> + Besides profiting by the more canonical books on education, we profited by + certain essays and articles of a less orthodox type. I wish to express my + warmest gratitude for such books—not of avowedly didactic purpose—as + Laura Richards's books, Josephine Dodge Daskam's "Madness of Philip," + Palmer Cox's "Queer People," the melodies of Father Goose and Mother Wild + Goose, Flandreau's "Mrs. White's," Myra Kelly's stories of her little East + Side pupils, and Michelson's "Madigans." It is well to take duties, and + life generally, seriously. It is also well to remember that a sense of + humor is a healthy anti-scorbutic to that portentous seriousness which + defeats its own purpose. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally bits of self-education proved of unexpected help to the + children in later years. Like other children, they were apt to take to bed + with them treasures which they particularly esteemed. One of the boys, + just before his sixteenth birthday, went moose hunting with the family + doctor, and close personal friend of the entire family, Alexander Lambert. + Once night overtook them before they camped, and they had to lie down just + where they were. Next morning Dr. Lambert rather enviously congratulated + the boy on the fact that stones and roots evidently did not interfere with + the soundness of his sleep; to which the boy responded, "Well, Doctor, you + see it isn't very long since I used to take fourteen china animals to bed + with me every night!" + </p> + <p> + As the children grew up, Sagamore Hill remained delightful for them. There + were picnics and riding parties, there were dances in the north room—sometimes + fancy dress dances—and open-air plays on the green tennis court of + one of the cousin's houses. The children are no longer children now. Most + of them are men and women, working out their own fates in the big world; + some in our own land, others across the great oceans or where the Southern + Cross blazes in the tropic nights. Some of them have children of their + own; some are working at one thing, some at another; in cable ships, in + business offices, in factories, in newspaper offices, building steel + bridges, bossing gravel trains and steam shovels, or laying tracks and + superintending freight traffic. They have had their share of accidents and + escapes; as I write, word comes from a far-off land that one of them, whom + Seth Bullock used to call "Kim" because he was the friend of all mankind, + while bossing a dangerous but necessary steel structural job has had two + ribs and two back teeth broken, and is back at work. They have known and + they will know joy and sorrow, triumph and temporary defeat. But I believe + they are all the better off because of their happy and healthy childhood. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to win the great prizes of life without running risks, + and the greatest of all prizes are those connected with the home. No + father and mother can hope to escape sorrow and anxiety, and there are + dreadful moments when death comes very near those we love, even if for the + time being it passes by. But life is a great adventure, and the worst of + all fears is the fear of living. There are many forms of success, many + forms of triumph. But there is no other success that in any shape or way + approaches that which is open to most of the many, many men and women who + have the right ideals. These are the men and the women who see that it is + the intimate and homely things that count most. They are the men and women + who have the courage to strive for the happiness which comes only with + labor and effort and self-sacrifice, and only to those whose joy in life + springs in part from power of work and sense of duty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <h3> + THE PRESIDENCY; MAKING AN OLD PARTY PROGRESSIVE + </h3> + <p> + On September 6, 1901, President McKinley was shot by an Anarchist in the + city of Buffalo. I went to Buffalo at once. The President's condition + seemed to be improving, and after a day or two we were told that he was + practically out of danger. I then joined my family, who were in the + Adirondacks, near the foot of Mount Tahawus. A day or two afterwards we + took a long tramp through the forest, and in the afternoon I climbed Mount + Tahawus. After reaching the top I had descended a few hundred feet to a + shelf of land where there was a little lake, when I saw a guide coming out + of the woods on our trail from below. I felt at once that he had bad news, + and, sure enough, he handed me a telegram saying that the President's + condition was much worse and that I must come to Buffalo immediately. It + was late in the afternoon, and darkness had fallen by the time I reached + the clubhouse where we were staying. It was some time afterwards before I + could get a wagon to drive me out to the nearest railway station, North + Creek, some forty or fifty miles distant. The roads were the ordinary + wilderness roads and the night was dark. But we changed horses two or + three times—when I say "we" I mean the driver and I, as there was no + one else with us—and reached the station just at dawn, to learn from + Mr. Loeb, who had a special train waiting, that the President was dead. + That evening I took the oath of office, in the house of Ansley Wilcox, at + Buffalo. + </p> + <p> + On three previous occasions the Vice-President had succeeded to the + Presidency on the death of the President. In each case there had been a + reversal of party policy, and a nearly immediate and nearly complete + change in the personnel of the higher offices, especially the Cabinet. I + had never felt that this was wise from any standpoint. If a man is fit to + be President, he will speedily so impress himself in the office that the + policies pursued will be his anyhow, and he will not have to bother as to + whether he is changing them or not; while as regards the offices under + him, the important thing for him is that his subordinates shall make a + success in handling their several departments. The subordinate is sure to + desire to make a success of his department for his own sake, and if he is + a fit man, whose views on public policy are sound, and whose abilities + entitle him to his position, he will do excellently under almost any chief + with the same purposes. + </p> + <p> + I at once announced that I would continue unchanged McKinley's policies + for the honor and prosperity of the country, and I asked all the members + of the Cabinet to stay. There were no changes made among them save as + changes were made among their successors whom I myself appointed. I + continued Mr. McKinley's policies, changing and developing them and adding + new policies only as the questions before the public changed and as the + needs of the public developed. Some of my friends shook their heads over + this, telling me that the men I retained would not be "loyal to me," and + that I would seem as if I were "a pale copy of McKinley." I told them that + I was not nervous on this score, and that if the men I retained were loyal + to their work they would be giving me the loyalty for which I most cared; + and that if they were not, I would change them anyhow; and that as for + being "a pale copy of McKinley," I was not primarily concerned with either + following or not following in his footsteps, but in facing the new + problems that arose; and that if I were competent I would find ample + opportunity to show my competence by my deeds without worrying myself as + to how to convince people of the fact. + </p> + <p> + For the reasons I have already given in my chapter on the Governorship of + New York, the Republican party, which in the days of Abraham Lincoln was + founded as the radical progressive party of the Nation, had been obliged + during the last decade of the nineteenth century to uphold the interests + of popular government against a foolish and illjudged mock-radicalism. It + remained the Nationalist as against the particularist or State's rights + party, and in so far it remained absolutely sound; for little permanent + good can be done by any party which worships the State's rights fetish or + which fails to regard the State, like the county or the municipality, as + merely a convenient unit for local self-government, while in all National + matters, of importance to the whole people, the Nation is to be supreme + over State, county, and town alike. But the State's rights fetish, + although still effectively used at certain times by both courts and + Congress to block needed National legislation directed against the huge + corporations or in the interests of workingmen, was not a prime issue at + the time of which I speak. In 1896, 1898, and 1900 the campaigns were + waged on two great moral issues: (1) the imperative need of a sound and + honest currency; (2) the need, after 1898, of meeting in manful and + straightforward fashion the extraterritorial problems arising from the + Spanish War. On these great moral issues the Republican party was right, + and the men who were opposed to it, and who claimed to be the radicals, + and their allies among the sentimentalists, were utterly and hopelessly + wrong. This had, regrettably but perhaps inevitably, tended to throw the + party into the hands not merely of the conservatives but of the + reactionaries; of men who, sometimes for personal and improper reasons, + but more often with entire sincerity and uprightness of purpose, + distrusted anything that was progressive and dreaded radicalism. These men + still from force of habit applauded what Lincoln had done in the way of + radical dealing with the abuses of his day; but they did not apply the + spirit in which Lincoln worked to the abuses of their own day. Both houses + of Congress were controlled by these men. Their leaders in the Senate were + Messrs. Aldrich and Hale. The Speaker of the House when I became President + was Mr. Henderson, but in a little over a year he was succeeded by Mr. + Cannon, who, although widely differing from Senator Aldrich in matters of + detail, represented the same type of public sentiment. There were many + points on which I agreed with Mr. Cannon and Mr. Aldrich, and some points + on which I agreed with Mr. Hale. I made a resolute effort to get on with + all three and with their followers, and I have no question that they made + an equally resolute effort to get on with me. We succeeded in working + together, although with increasing friction, for some years, I pushing + forward and they hanging back. Gradually, however, I was forced to abandon + the effort to persuade them to come my way, and then I achieved results + only by appealing over the heads of the Senate and House leaders to the + people, who were the masters of both of us. I continued in this way to get + results until almost the close of my term; and the Republican party became + once more the progressive and indeed the fairly radical progressive party + of the Nation. When my successor was chosen, however, the leaders of the + House and Senate, or most of them, felt that it was safe to come to a + break with me, and the last or short session of Congress, held between the + election of my successor and his inauguration four months later, saw a + series of contests between the majorities in the two houses of Congress + and the President,—myself,—quite as bitter as if they and I + had belonged to opposite political parties. However, I held my own. I was + not able to push through the legislation I desired during these four + months, but I was able to prevent them doing anything I did not desire, or + undoing anything that I had already succeeded in getting done. + </p> + <p> + There were, of course, many Senators and members of the lower house with + whom up to the very last I continued to work in hearty accord, and with a + growing understanding. I have not the space to enumerate, as I would like + to, these men. For many years Senator Lodge had been my close personal and + political friend, with whom I discussed all public questions that arose, + usually with agreement; and our intimately close relations were of course + unchanged by my entry into the White House. He was of all our public men + the man who had made the closest and wisest study of our foreign + relations, and more clearly than almost any other man he understood the + vital fact that the efficiency of our navy conditioned our national + efficiency in foreign affairs. Anything relating to our international + relations, from Panama and the navy to the Alaskan boundary question, the + Algeciras negotiations, or the peace of Portsmouth, I was certain to + discuss with Senator Lodge and also with certain other members of + Congress, such as Senator Turner of Washington and Representative Hitt of + Illinois. Anything relating to labor legislation and to measures for + controlling big business or efficiently regulating the giant railway + systems, I was certain to discuss with Senator Dolliver or Congressman + Hepburn or Congressman Cooper. With men like Senator Beveridge, + Congressman (afterwards Senator) Dixon, and Congressman Murdock, I was apt + to discuss pretty nearly everything relating to either our internal or our + external affairs. There were many, many others. The present president of + the Senate, Senator Clark, of Arkansas, was as fearless and high-minded a + representative of the people of the United States as I ever dealt with. He + was one of the men who combined loyalty to his own State with an equally + keen loyalty to the people of all the United States. He was politically + opposed to me; but when the interests of the country were at stake, he was + incapable of considering party differences; and this was especially his + attitude in international matters—including certain treaties which + most of his party colleagues, with narrow lack of patriotism, and complete + subordination of National to factional interest, opposed. I have never + anywhere met finer, more faithful, more disinterested, and more loyal + public servants than Senator O. H. Platt, a Republican, from Connecticut, + and Senator Cockrell, a Democrat, from Missouri. They were already old men + when I came to the Presidency; and doubtless there were points on which I + seemed to them to be extreme and radical; but eventually they found that + our motives and beliefs were the same, and they did all in their power to + help any movement that was for the interest of our people as a whole. I + had met them when I was Civil Service Commissioner and Assistant Secretary + of the Navy. All I ever had to do with either was to convince him that a + given measure I championed was right, and he then at once did all he could + to have it put into effect. If I could not convince them, why! that was my + fault, or my misfortune; but if I could convince them, I never had to + think again as to whether they would or would not support me. There were + many other men of mark in both houses with whom I could work on some + points, whereas on others we had to differ. There was one powerful leader—a + burly, forceful man, of admirable traits—who had, however, been + trained in the post-bellum school of business and politics, so that his + attitude towards life, quite unconsciously, reminded me a little of + Artemus Ward's view of the Tower of London—"If I like it, I'll buy + it." There was a big governmental job in which this leader was much + interested, and in reference to which he always wished me to consult a man + whom he trusted, whom I will call Pitt Rodney. One day I answered him, + "The trouble with Rodney is that he misestimates his relations to cosmos"; + to which he responded, "Cosmos—Cosmos? Never heard of him. You stick + to Rodney. He's your man!" Outside of the public servants there were + multitudes of men, in newspaper offices, in magazine offices, in business + or the professions or on farms or in shops, who actively supported the + policies for which I stood and did work of genuine leadership which was + quite as effective as any work done by men in public office. Without the + active support of these men I would have been powerless. In particular, + the leading newspaper correspondents at Washington were as a whole a + singularly able, trustworthy, and public-spirited body of men, and the + most useful of all agents in the fight for efficient and decent + government. + </p> + <p> + As for the men under me in executive office, I could not overstate the + debt of gratitude I owe them. From the heads of the departments, the + Cabinet officers, down, the most striking feature of the Administration + was the devoted, zealous, and efficient work that was done as soon as it + became understood that the one bond of interest among all of us was the + desire to make the Government the most effective instrument in advancing + the interests of the people as a whole, the interests of the average men + and women of the United States and of their children. I do not think I + overstate the case when I say that most of the men who did the best work + under me felt that ours was a partnership, that we all stood on the same + level of purpose and service, and that it mattered not what position any + one of us held so long as in that position he gave the very best that was + in him. We worked very hard; but I made a point of getting a couple of + hours off each day for equally vigorous play. The men with whom I then + played, whom we laughingly grew to call the "Tennis Cabinet," have been + mentioned in a previous chapter of this book in connection with the gift + they gave me at the last breakfast which they took at the White House. + There were many others in the public service under me with whom I happened + not to play, but who did their share of our common work just as + effectively as it was done by us who did play. Of course nothing could + have been done in my Administration if it had not been for the zeal, + intelligence, masterful ability, and downright hard labor of these men in + countless positions under me. I was helpless to do anything except as my + thoughts and orders were translated into action by them; and, moreover, + each of them, as he grew specially fit for his job, used to suggest to me + the right thought to have, and the right order to give, concerning that + job. It is of course hard for me to speak with cold and dispassionate + partiality of these men, who were as close to me as were the men of my + regiment. But the outside observers best fitted to pass judgment about + them felt as I did. At the end of my Administration Mr. Bryce, the British + Ambassador, told me that in a long life, during which he had studied + intimately the government of many different countries, he had never in any + country seen a more eager, high-minded, and efficient set of public + servants, men more useful and more creditable to their country, than the + men then doing the work of the American Government in Washington and in + the field. I repeat this statement with the permission of Mr. Bryce. + </p> + <p> + At about the same time, or a little before, in the spring of 1908, there + appeared in the English <i>Fortnightly Review</i> an article, evidently by + a competent eye witness, setting forth more in detail the same views to + which the British Ambassador thus privately gave expression. It was in + part as follows: + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Roosevelt has gathered around him a body of public servants who are + nowhere surpassed, I question whether they are anywhere equaled, for + efficiency, self-sacrifice, and an absolute devotion to their country's + interests. Many of them are poor men, without private means, who have + voluntarily abandoned high professional ambitions and turned their backs + on the rewards of business to serve their country on salaries that are not + merely inadequate, but indecently so. There is not one of them who is not + constantly assailed by offers of positions in the world of commerce, + finance, and the law that would satisfy every material ambition with which + he began life. There is not one of them who could not, if he chose, earn + outside Washington from ten to twenty times the income on which he + economizes as a State official. But these men are as indifferent to money + and to the power that money brings as to the allurements of Newport and + New York, or to merely personal distinctions, or to the commercialized + ideals which the great bulk of their fellow-countrymen accept without + question. They are content, and more than content, to sink themselves in + the National service without a thought of private advancement, and often + at a heavy sacrifice of worldly honors, and to toil on . . . sustained by + their own native impulse to make of patriotism an efficient instrument of + public betterment." + </p> + <p> + The American public rarely appreciate the high quality of the work done by + some of our diplomats—work, usually entirely unnoticed and + unrewarded, which redounds to the interest and the honor of all of us. The + most useful man in the entire diplomatic service, during my presidency, + and for many years before, was Henry White; and I say this having in mind + the high quality of work done by such admirable ambassadors and ministers + as Bacon, Meyer, Straus, O'Brien, Rockhill, and Egan, to name only a few + among many. When I left the presidency White was Ambassador to France; + shortly afterwards he was removed by Mr. Taft, for reasons unconnected + with the good of the service. + </p> + <p> + The most important factor in getting the right spirit in my + Administration, next to the insistence upon courage, honesty, and a + genuine democracy of desire to serve the plain people, was my insistence + upon the theory that the executive power was limited only by specific + restrictions and prohibitions appearing in the Constitution or imposed by + the Congress under its Constitutional powers. My view was that every + executive officer, and above all every executive officer in high position, + was a steward of the people bound actively and affirmatively to do all he + could for the people, and not to content himself with the negative merit + of keeping his talents undamaged in a napkin. I declined to adopt the view + that what was imperatively necessary for the Nation could not be done by + the President unless he could find some specific authorization to do it. + My belief was that it was not only his right but his duty to do anything + that the needs of the Nation demanded unless such action was forbidden by + the Constitution or by the laws. Under this interpretation of executive + power I did and caused to be done many things not previously done by the + President and the heads of the departments. I did not usurp power, but I + did greatly broaden the use of executive power. In other words, I acted + for the public welfare, I acted for the common well-being of all our + people, whenever and in whatever manner was necessary, unless prevented by + direct constitutional or legislative prohibition. I did not care a rap for + the mere form and show of power; I cared immensely for the use that could + be made of the substance. The Senate at one time objected to my + communicating with them in printing, preferring the expensive, foolish, + and laborious practice of writing out the messages by hand. It was not + possible to return to the outworn archaism of hand writing; but we + endeavored to have the printing made as pretty as possible. Whether I + communicated with the Congress in writing or by word of mouth, and whether + the writing was by a machine, or a pen, were equally, and absolutely, + unimportant matters. The importance lay in what I said and in the heed + paid to what I said. So as to my meeting and consulting Senators, + Congressmen, politicians, financiers, and labor men. I consulted all who + wished to see me; and if I wished to see any one, I sent for him; and + where the consultation took place was a matter of supreme unimportance. I + consulted every man with the sincere hope that I could profit by and + follow his advice; I consulted every member of Congress who wished to be + consulted, hoping to be able to come to an agreement of action with him; + and I always finally acted as my conscience and common sense bade me act. + </p> + <p> + About appointments I was obliged by the Constitution to consult the + Senate; and the long-established custom of the Senate meant that in + practice this consultation was with individual Senators and even with big + politicians who stood behind the Senators. I was only one-half the + appointing power; I nominated; but the Senate confirmed. In practice, by + what was called "the courtesy of the Senate," the Senate normally refused + to confirm any appointment if the Senator from the State objected to it. + In exceptional cases, where I could arouse public attention, I could force + through the appointment in spite of the opposition of the Senators; in all + ordinary cases this was impossible. On the other hand, the Senator could + of course do nothing for any man unless I chose to nominate him. In + consequence the Constitution itself forced the President and the Senators + from each State to come to a working agreement on the appointments in and + from that State. + </p> + <p> + My course was to insist on absolute fitness, including honesty, as a + prerequisite to every appointment; and to remove only for good cause, and, + where there was such cause, to refuse even to discuss with the Senator in + interest the unfit servant's retention. Subject to these considerations, I + normally accepted each Senator's recommendations for offices of a routine + kind, such as most post-offices and the like, but insisted on myself + choosing the men for the more important positions. I was willing to take + any good man for postmaster; but in the case of a Judge or District + Attorney or Canal Commissioner or Ambassador, I was apt to insist either + on a given man or else on any man with a given class of qualifications. If + the Senator deceived me, I took care that he had no opportunity to repeat + the deception. + </p> + <p> + I can perhaps best illustrate my theory of action by two specific + examples. In New York Governor Odell and Senator Platt sometimes worked in + agreement and sometimes were at swords' points, and both wished to be + consulted. To a friendly Congressman, who was also their friend, I wrote + as follows on July 22, 1903: + </p> + <p> + "I want to work with Platt. I want to work with Odell. I want to support + both and take the advice of both. But of course ultimately I must be the + judge as to acting on the advice given. When, as in the case of the + judgeship, I am convinced that the advice of both is wrong, I shall act as + I did when I appointed Holt. When I can find a friend of Odell's like + Cooley, who is thoroughly fit for the position I desire to fill, it gives + me the greatest pleasure to appoint him. When Platt proposes to me a man + like Hamilton Fish, it is equally a pleasure to appoint him." + </p> + <p> + This was written in connection with events which led up to my refusing to + accept Senator Platt's or Governor Odell's suggestions as to a Federal + Judgeship and a Federal District Attorneyship, and insisting on the + appointment, first of Judge Hough and later of District Attorney Stimson; + because in each case I felt that the work to be done was of so high an + order that I could not take an ordinary man. + </p> + <p> + The other case was that of Senator Fulton, of Oregon. Through Francis + Heney I was prosecuting men who were implicated in a vast network of + conspiracy against the law in connection with the theft of public land in + Oregon. I had been acting on Senator Fulton's recommendations for office, + in the usual manner. Heney had been insisting that Fulton was in league + with the men we were prosecuting, and that he had recommended unfit men. + Fulton had been protesting against my following Heney's advice, + particularly as regards appointing Judge Wolverton as United States Judge. + Finally Heney laid before me a report which convinced me of the truth of + his statements. I then wrote to Fulton as follows, on November 20, 1905: + "My dear Senator Fulton: I inclose you herewith a copy of the report made + to me by Mr. Heney. I have seen the originals of the letters from you and + Senator Mitchell quoted therein. I do not at this time desire to discuss + the report itself, which of course I must submit to the Attorney-General. + But I have been obliged to reach the painful conclusion that your own + letters as therein quoted tend to show that you recommended for the + position of District Attorney B when you had good reason to believe that + he had himself been guilty of fraudulent conduct; that you recommended C + for the same position simply because it was for B's interest that he + should be so recommended, and, as there is reason to believe, because he + had agreed to divide the fees with B if he were appointed; and that you + finally recommended the reappointment of H with the knowledge that if H + were appointed he would abstain from prosecuting B for criminal + misconduct, this being why B advocated H's claims for reappointment. If + you care to make any statement in the matter, I shall of course be glad to + hear it. As the District Judge of Oregon I shall appoint Judge Wolverton." + In the letter I of course gave in full the names indicated above by + initials. Senator Fulton gave no explanation. I therefore ceased to + consult him about appointments under the Department of Justice and the + Interior, the two departments in which the crookedness had occurred—there + was no question of crookedness in the other offices in the State, and they + could be handled in the ordinary manner. Legal proceedings were undertaken + against his colleague in the Senate, and one of his colleagues in the + lower house, and the former was convicted and sentenced to the + penitentiary. + </p> + <p> + In a number of instances the legality of executive acts of my + Administration was brought before the courts. They were uniformly + sustained. For example, prior to 1907 statutes relating to the disposition + of coal lands had been construed as fixing the flat price at $10 to $20 + per acre. The result was that valuable coal lands were sold for wholly + inadequate prices, chiefly to big corporations. By executive order the + coal lands were withdrawn and not opened for entry until proper + classification was placed thereon by Government agents. There was a great + clamor that I was usurping legislative power; but the acts were not + assailed in court until we brought suits to set aside entries made by + persons and associations to obtain larger areas than the statutes + authorized. This position was opposed on the ground that the restrictions + imposed were illegal; that the executive orders were illegal. The Supreme + Court sustained the Government. In the same way our attitude in the water + power question was sustained, the Supreme Court holding that the Federal + Government had the rights we claimed over streams that are or may be + declared navigable by Congress. Again, when Oklahoma became a State we + were obliged to use the executive power to protect Indian rights and + property, for there had been an enormous amount of fraud in the obtaining + of Indian lands by white men. Here we were denounced as usurping power + over a State as well as usurping power that did not belong to the + executive. The Supreme Court sustained our action. + </p> + <p> + In connection with the Indians, by the way, it was again and again + necessary to assert the position of the President as steward of the whole + people. I had a capital Indian Commissioner, Francis E. Leupp. I found + that I could rely on his judgment not to get me into fights that were + unnecessary, and therefore I always backed him to the limit when he told + me that a fight was necessary. On one occasion, for example, Congress + passed a bill to sell to settlers about half a million acres of Indian + land in Oklahoma at one and a half dollars an acre. I refused to sign it, + and turned the matter over to Leupp. The bill was accordingly withdrawn, + amended so as to safeguard the welfare of the Indians, and the minimum + price raised to five dollars an acre. Then I signed the bill. We sold that + land under sealed bids, and realized for the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache + Indians more than four million dollars—three millions and a quarter + more than they would have obtained if I had signed the bill in its + original form. In another case, where there had been a division among the + Sac and Fox Indians, part of the tribe removing to Iowa, the Iowa + delegation in Congress, backed by two Iowans who were members of my + Cabinet, passed a bill awarding a sum of nearly a half million dollars to + the Iowa seceders. They had not consulted the Indian Bureau. Leupp + protested against the bill, and I vetoed it. A subsequent bill was passed + on the lines laid down by the Indian Bureau, referring the whole + controversy to the courts, and the Supreme Court in the end justified our + position by deciding against the Iowa seceders and awarding the money to + the Oklahoma stay-at-homes. + </p> + <p> + As to all action of this kind there have long been two schools of + political thought, upheld with equal sincerity. The division has not + normally been along political, but temperamental, lines. The course I + followed, of regarding the executive as subject only to the people, and, + under the Constitution, bound to serve the people affirmatively in cases + where the Constitution does not explicitly forbid him to render the + service, was substantially the course followed by both Andrew Jackson and + Abraham Lincoln. Other honorable and well-meaning Presidents, such as + James Buchanan, took the opposite and, as it seems to me, narrowly + legalistic view that the President is the servant of Congress rather than + of the people, and can do nothing, no matter how necessary it be to act, + unless the Constitution explicitly commands the action. Most able lawyers + who are past middle age take this view, and so do large numbers of + well-meaning, respectable citizens. My successor in office took this, the + Buchanan, view of the President's powers and duties. + </p> + <p> + For example, under my Administration we found that one of the favorite + methods adopted by the men desirous of stealing the public domain was to + carry the decision of the Secretary of the Interior into court. By + vigorously opposing such action, and only by so doing, we were able to + carry out the policy of properly protecting the public domain. My + successor not only took the opposite view, but recommended to Congress the + passage of a bill which would have given the courts direct appellate power + over the Secretary of the Interior in these land matters. This bill was + reported favorably by Mr. Mondell, Chairman of the House Committee on + public lands, a Congressman who took the lead in every measure to prevent + the conservation of our natural resources and the preservation of the + National domain for the use of home-seekers. Fortunately, Congress + declined to pass the bill. Its passage would have been a veritable + calamity. + </p> + <p> + I acted on the theory that the President could at any time in his + discretion withdraw from entry any of the public lands of the United + States and reserve the same for forestry, for water-power sites, for + irrigation, and other public purposes. Without such action it would have + been impossible to stop the activity of the land thieves. No one ventured + to test its legality by lawsuit. My successor, however, himself questioned + it, and referred the matter to Congress. Again Congress showed its wisdom + by passing a law which gave the President the power which he had long + exercised, and of which my successor had shorn himself. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the sharp difference between what may be called the + Lincoln-Jackson and the Buchanan-Taft schools, in their views of the power + and duties of the President, may be best illustrated by comparing the + attitude of my successor toward his Secretary of the Interior, Mr. + Ballinger, when the latter was accused of gross misconduct in office, with + my attitude towards my chiefs of department and other subordinate + officers. More than once while I was President my officials were attacked + by Congress, generally because these officials did their duty well and + fearlessly. In every such case I stood by the official and refused to + recognize the right of Congress to interfere with me excepting by + impeachment or in other Constitutional manner. On the other hand, wherever + I found the officer unfit for his position I promptly removed him, even + although the most influential men in Congress fought for his retention. + The Jackson-Lincoln view is that a President who is fit to do good work + should be able to form his own judgment as to his own subordinates, and, + above all, of the subordinates standing highest and in closest and most + intimate touch with him. My secretaries and their subordinates were + responsible to me, and I accepted the responsibility for all their deeds. + As long as they were satisfactory to me I stood by them against every + critic or assailant, within or without Congress; and as for getting + Congress to make up my mind for me about them, the thought would have been + inconceivable to me. My successor took the opposite, or Buchanan, view + when he permitted and requested Congress to pass judgment on the charges + made against Mr. Ballinger as an executive officer. These charges were + made to the President; the President had the facts before him and could + get at them at any time, and he alone had power to act if the charges were + true. However, he permitted and requested Congress to investigate Mr. + Ballinger. The party minority of the committee that investigated him, and + one member of the majority, declared that the charges were well founded + and that Mr. Ballinger should be removed. The other members of the + majority declared the charges ill founded. The President abode by the view + of the majority. Of course believers in the Jackson-Lincoln theory of the + Presidency would not be content with this town meeting majority and + minority method of determining by another branch of the Government what it + seems the especial duty of the President himself to determine for himself + in dealing with his own subordinate in his own department. + </p> + <p> + There are many worthy people who reprobate the Buchanan method as a matter + of history, but who in actual life reprobate still more strongly the + Jackson-Lincoln method when it is put into practice. These persons + conscientiously believe that the President should solve every doubt in + favor of inaction as against action, that he should construe strictly and + narrowly the Constitutional grant of powers both to the National + Government, and to the President within the National Government. In + addition, however, to the men who conscientiously believe in this course + from high, although as I hold misguided, motives, there are many men who + affect to believe in it merely because it enables them to attack and to + try to hamper, for partisan or personal reasons, an executive whom they + dislike. There are other men in whom, especially when they are themselves + in office, practical adherence to the Buchanan principle represents not + well-thought-out devotion to an unwise course, but simple weakness of + character and desire to avoid trouble and responsibility. Unfortunately, + in practice it makes little difference which class of ideas actuates the + President, who by his action sets a cramping precedent. Whether he is + highminded and wrongheaded or merely infirm of purpose, whether he means + well feebly or is bound by a mischievous misconception of the powers and + duties of the National Government and of the President, the effect of his + actions is the same. The President's duty is to act so that he himself and + his subordinates shall be able to do efficient work for the people, and + this efficient work he and they cannot do if Congress is permitted to + undertake the task of making up his mind for him as to how he shall + perform what is clearly his sole duty. + </p> + <p> + One of the ways in which by independent action of the executive we were + able to accomplish an immense amount of work for the public was through + volunteer unpaid commissions appointed by the President. It was possible + to get the work done by these volunteer commissions only because of the + enthusiasm for the public service which, starting in the higher offices at + Washington, made itself felt throughout the Government departments—as + I have said, I never knew harder and more disinterested work done by any + people than was done by the men and women of all ranks in the Government + service. The contrast was really extraordinary between their live interest + in their work and the traditional clerical apathy which has so often been + the distinguishing note of governmental work in Washington. Most of the + public service performed by these volunteer commissions, carried on + without a cent of pay to the men themselves, and wholly without cost to + the Government, was done by men the great majority of whom were already in + the Government service and already charged with responsibilities amounting + each to a full man's job. + </p> + <p> + The first of these Commissions was the Commission on the Organization of + Government Scientific Work, whose Chairman was Charles D. Walcott. + Appointed March 13, 1903, its duty was to report directly to the President + "upon the organization, present condition, and needs of the Executive + Government work wholly or partly scientific in character, and upon the + steps which should be taken, if any, to prevent the duplication of such + work, to co-ordinate its various branches, to increase its efficiency and + economy, and to promote its usefulness to the Nation at large." This + Commission spent four months in an examination which covered the work of + about thirty of the larger scientific and executive bureaus of the + Government, and prepared a report which furnished the basis for numerous + improvements in the Government service. + </p> + <p> + Another Commission, appointed June 2, 1905, was that on Department Methods—Charles + H. Keep, Chairman—whose task was to "find out what changes are + needed to place the conduct of the executive business of the Government in + all its branches on the most economical and effective basis in the light + of the best modern business practice." The letter appointing this + Commission laid down nine principles of effective Governmental work, the + most striking of which was: "The existence of any method, standard, + custom, or practice is no reason for its continuance when a better is + offered." This Commission, composed like that just described, of men + already charged with important work, performed its functions wholly + without cost to the Government. It was assisted by a body of about seventy + experts in the Government departments chosen for their special + qualifications to carry forward a study of the best methods in business, + and organized into assistant committees under the leadership of Overton W. + Price, Secretary of the Commission. These assistant committees, all of + whose members were still carrying on their regular work, made their + reports during the last half of 1906. The Committee informed itself fully + regarding the business methods of practically every individual branch of + the business of the Government, and effected a marked improvement in + general efficiency throughout the service. The conduct of the routine + business of the Government had never been thoroughly overhauled before, + and this examination of it resulted in the promulgation of a set of + working principles for the transaction of public business which are as + sound to-day as they were when the Committee finished its work. The + somewhat elaborate and costly investigations of Government business + methods since made have served merely to confirm the findings of the + Committee on Departmental Methods, which were achieved without costing the + Government a dollar. The actual saving in the conduct of the business of + the Government through the better methods thus introduced amounted yearly + to many hundreds of thousands of dollars; but a far more important gain + was due to the remarkable success of the Commission in establishing a new + point of view in public servants toward their work. + </p> + <p> + The need for improvement in the Governmental methods of transacting + business may be illustrated by an actual case. An officer in charge of an + Indian agency made a requisition in the autumn for a stove costing seven + dollars, certifying at the same time that it was needed to keep the + infirmary warm during the winter, because the old stove was worn out. + Thereupon the customary papers went through the customary routine, without + unusual delay at any point. The transaction moved like a glacier with + dignity to its appointed end, and the stove reached the infirmary in good + order in time for the Indian agent to acknowledge its arrival in these + words: "The stove is here. So is spring." + </p> + <p> + The Civil Service Commission, under men like John McIlhenny and Garfield, + rendered service without which the Government could have been conducted + with neither efficiency nor honesty. The politicians were not the only + persons at fault; almost as much improper pressure for appointments is due + to mere misplaced sympathy, and to the spiritless inefficiency which seeks + a Government office as a haven for the incompetent. An amusing feature of + office seeking is that each man desiring an office is apt to look down on + all others with the same object as forming an objectionable class with + which <i>he</i> has nothing in common. At the time of the eruption of Mt. + Pelee, when among others the American Consul was killed, a man who had + long been seeking an appointment promptly applied for the vacancy. He was + a good man, of persistent nature, who felt I had been somewhat blind to + his merits. The morning after the catastrophe he wrote, saying that as the + consul was dead he would like his place, and that I could surely give it + to him, because "even the office seekers could not have applied for it + yet!" + </p> + <p> + The method of public service involved in the appointment and the work of + the two commissions just described was applied also in the establishment + of four other commissions, each of which performed its task without salary + or expense for its members, and wholly without cost to the Government. The + other four commissions were: + </p> + <p> + Commission on Public Lands; + </p> + <p> + Commission on Inland Waterways; + </p> + <p> + Commission on Country Life; and + </p> + <p> + Commission on National Conservation. + </p> + <p> + All of these commissions were suggested to me by Gifford Pinchot, who + served upon them all. The work of the last four will be touched upon in + connection with the chapter on Conservation. These commissions by their + reports and findings directly interfered with many place-holders who were + doing inefficient work, and their reports and the action taken thereon by + the Administration strengthened the hands of those administrative officers + who in the various departments, and especially in the Secret Service, were + proceeding against land thieves and other corrupt wrong-doers. Moreover, + the mere fact that they did efficient work for the public along lines new + to veteran and cynical politicians of the old type created vehement + hostility to them. Senators like Mr. Hale and Congressmen like Mr. Tawney + were especially bitter against these commissions; and towards the end of + my term they were followed by the majority of their fellows in both + houses, who had gradually been sundered from me by the open or covert + hostility of the financial or Wall Street leaders, and of the newspaper + editors and politicians who did their bidding in the interest of + privilege. These Senators and Congressmen asserted that they had a right + to forbid the President profiting by the unpaid advice of disinterested + experts. Of course I declined to admit the existence of any such right, + and continued the Commissions. My successor acknowledged the right, upheld + the view of the politicians in question, and abandoned the commissions, to + the lasting detriment of the people as a whole. + </p> + <p> + One thing is worth pointing out: During the seven and a half years of my + Administration we greatly and usefully extended the sphere of Governmental + action, and yet we reduced the burden of the taxpayers; for we reduced the + interest-bearing debt by more than $90,000,000. To achieve a marked + increase in efficiency and at the same time an increase in economy is not + an easy feat; but we performed it. + </p> + <p> + There was one ugly and very necessary task. This was to discover and root + out corruption wherever it was found in any of the departments. The first + essential was to make it clearly understood that no political or business + or social influence of any kind would for one moment be even considered + when the honesty of a public official was at issue. It took a little time + to get this fact thoroughly drilled into the heads both of the men within + the service and of the political leaders without. The feat was + accomplished so thoroughly that every effort to interfere in any shape or + way with the course of justice was abandoned definitely and for good. + Most, although not all, of the frauds occurred in connection with the + Post-Office Department and the Land Office. + </p> + <p> + It was in the Post-Office Department that we first definitely established + the rule of conduct which became universal throughout the whole service. + Rumors of corruption in the department became rife, and finally I spoke of + them to the then First Assistant Postmaster-General, afterwards + Postmaster-General, Robert J. Wynne. He reported to me, after some + investigation, that in his belief there was doubtless corruption, but that + it was very difficult to get at it, and that the offenders were confident + and defiant because of their great political and business backing and the + ramifications of their crimes. Talking the matter over with him, I came to + the conclusion that the right man to carry on the investigation was the + then Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General, now a Senator from Kansas, + Joseph L. Bristow, who possessed the iron fearlessness needful to front + such a situation. Mr. Bristow had perforce seen a good deal of the seamy + side of politics, and of the extent of the unscrupulousness with which + powerful influence was brought to bear to shield offenders. Before + undertaking the investigation he came to see me, and said that he did not + wish to go into it unless he could be assured that I would stand + personally behind him, and, no matter where his inquiries led him, would + support him and prevent interference with him. I answered that I would + certainly do so. He went into the investigation with relentless energy, + dogged courage, and keen intelligence. His success was complete, and the + extent of his services to the Nation are not easily to be exaggerated. He + unearthed a really appalling amount of corruption, and he did his work + with such absolute thoroughness that the corruption was completely + eradicated. + </p> + <p> + We had, of course, the experience usual in all such investigations. At + first there was popular incredulity and disbelief that there was much + behind the charges, or that much could be unearthed. Then when the + corruption was shown there followed a yell of anger from all directions, + and a period during which any man accused was forthwith held guilty by the + public; and violent demands were made by the newspapers for the + prosecution not only of the men who could be prosecuted with a fair chance + of securing conviction and imprisonment, but of other men whose misconduct + had been such as to warrant my removing them from office, but against whom + it was not possible to get the kind of evidence which would render likely + conviction in a criminal case. Suits were brought against all the + officials whom we thought we could convict; and the public complained + bitterly that we did not bring further suits. We secured several + convictions, including convictions of the most notable offenders. The + trials consumed a good deal of time. Public attention was attracted to + something else. Indifference succeeded to excitement, and in some subtle + way the juries seemed to respond to the indifference. One of the worst + offenders was acquitted by a jury; whereupon not a few of the same men who + had insisted that the Government was derelict in not criminally + prosecuting every man whose misconduct was established so as to make it + necessary to turn him out of office, now turned round and, inasmuch as the + jury had not found this man guilty of crime, demanded that he should be + reinstated in office! It is needless to say that the demand was not + granted. There were two or three other acquittals, of prominent outsiders. + Nevertheless the net result was that the majority of the worst offenders + were sent to prison, and the remainder dismissed from the Government + service, if they were public officials, and if they were not public + officials at least so advertised as to render it impossible that they + should ever again have dealings with the Government. The department was + absolutely cleaned and became one of the very best in the Government. + Several Senators came to me—Mr. Garfield was present on the occasion—and + said that they were glad I was putting a stop to corruption, but they + hoped I would avoid all scandal; that if I would make an example of some + one man and then let the others quietly resign, it would avoid a + disturbance which might hurt the party. They were advising me in good + faith, and I was as courteous as possible in my answer, but explained that + I would have to act with the utmost rigor against the offenders, no matter + what the effect on the party, and, moreover, that I did not believe it + would hurt the party. It did not hurt the party. It helped the party. A + favorite war-cry in American political life has always been, "Turn the + rascals out." We made it evident that, as far as we were concerned, this + war-cry was pointless; for we turned our own rascals out. + </p> + <p> + There were important and successful land fraud prosecutions in several + Western States. Probably the most important were the cases prosecuted in + Oregon by Francis J. Heney, with the assistance of William J. Burns, a + secret service agent who at that time began his career as a great + detective. It would be impossible to overstate the services rendered to + the cause of decency and honesty by Messrs. Heney and Burns. Mr. Heney was + my close and intimate adviser professionally and non-professionally, not + only as regards putting a stop to frauds in the public lands, but in many + other matters of vital interest to the Republic. No man in the country has + waged the battle for National honesty with greater courage and success, + with more whole-hearted devotion to the public good; and no man has been + more traduced and maligned by the wrong-doing agents and representatives + of the great sinister forces of evil. He secured the conviction of various + men of high political and financial standing in connection with the Oregon + prosecutions; he and Burns behaved with scrupulous fairness and propriety; + but their services to the public caused them to incur the bitter hatred of + those who had wronged the public, and after I left office the National + Administration turned against them. One of the most conspicuous of the men + whom they had succeeded in convicting was pardoned by President Taft—in + spite of the fact that the presiding Judge, Judge Hunt, had held that the + evidence amply warranted the conviction, and had sentenced the man to + imprisonment. As was natural, the one hundred and forty-six land-fraud + defendants in Oregon, who included the foremost machine political leaders + in the State, furnished the backbone of the opposition to me in the + Presidential contest of 1912. The opposition rallied behind Messrs. Taft + and LaFollette; and although I carried the primaries handsomely, half of + the delegates elected from Oregon under instructions to vote for me, sided + with my opponents in the National Convention—and as regards some of + them I became convinced that the mainspring of their motive lay in the + intrigue for securing the pardon of certain of the men whose conviction + Heney had secured. + </p> + <p> + Land fraud and post-office cases were not the only ones. We were + especially zealous in prosecuting all of the "higher up" offenders in the + realms of politics and finance who swindled on a large scale. Special + assistants of the Attorney-General, such as Mr. Frank Kellogg, of St. + Paul, and various first-class Federal district attorneys in different + parts of the country secured notable results: Mr. Stimson and his + assistants, Messrs. Wise, Denison, and Frankfurter, in New York, for + instance, in connection with the prosecution of the Sugar Trust and of the + banker Morse, and of a great metropolitan newspaper for opening its + columns to obscene and immoral advertisements; and in St. Louis Messrs. + Dyer and Nortoni, who, among other services, secured the conviction and + imprisonment of Senator Burton, of Kansas; and in Chicago Mr. Sims, who + raised his office to the highest pitch of efficiency, secured the + conviction of the banker Walsh and of the Beef Trust, and first broke + through the armor of the Standard Oil Trust. It is not too much to say + that these men, and others like them, worked a complete revolution in the + enforcement of the Federal laws, and made their offices organized legal + machines fit and ready to conduct smashing fights for the people's rights + and to enforce the laws in aggressive fashion. When I took the Presidency, + it was a common and bitter saying that a big man, a rich man, could not be + put in jail. We put many big and rich men in jail; two United States + Senators, for instance, and among others two great bankers, one in New + York and one in Chicago. One of the United States Senators died, the other + served his term. (One of the bankers was released from prison by executive + order after I left office.) These were merely individual cases among many + others like them. Moreover, we were just as relentless in dealing with + crimes of violence among the disorderly and brutal classes as in dealing + with the crimes of cunning and fraud of which certain wealthy men and big + politicians were guilty. Mr. Sims in Chicago was particularly efficient in + sending to the penitentiary numbers of the infamous men who batten on the + "white slave" traffic, after July, 1908, when by proclamation I announced + the adherence of our Government to the international agreement for the + suppression of the traffic. + </p> + <p> + The views I then held and now hold were expressed in a memorandum made in + the case of a Negro convicted of the rape of a young Negro girl, + practically a child. A petition for his pardon had been sent me. + </p> + <p> + WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON, D. C., August 8, 1904. + </p> + <p> + The application for the commutation of sentence of John W. Burley is + denied. This man committed the most hideous crime known to our laws, and + twice before he has committed crimes of a similar, though less horrible, + character. In my judgment there is no justification whatever for paying + heed to the allegations that he is not of sound mind, allegations made + after the trial and conviction. Nobody would pretend that there has ever + been any such degree of mental unsoundness shown as would make people even + consider sending him to an asylum if he had not committed this crime. + Under such circumstances he should certainly be esteemed sane enough to + suffer the penalty for his monstrous deed. I have scant sympathy with the + plea of insanity advanced to save a man from the consequences of crime, + when unless that crime had been committed it would have been impossible to + persuade any responsible authority to commit him to an asylum as insane. + Among the most dangerous criminals, and especially among those prone to + commit this particular kind of offense, there are plenty of a temper so + fiendish or so brutal as to be incompatible with any other than a brutish + order of intelligence; but these men are nevertheless responsible for + their acts; and nothing more tends to encourage crime among such men than + the belief that through the plea of insanity or any other method it is + possible for them to escape paying the just penalty of their crimes. The + crime in question is one to the existence of which we largely owe the + existence of that spirit of lawlessness which takes form in lynching. It + is a crime so revolting that the criminal is not entitled to one particle + of sympathy from any human being. It is essential that the punishment for + it should be not only as certain but as swift as possible. The jury in + this case did their duty by recommending the infliction of the death + penalty. It is to be regretted that we do not have special provision for + more summary dealing with this type of case. The more we do what in us + lies to secure certain and swift justice in dealing with these cases, the + more effectively do we work against the growth of that lynching spirit + which is so full of evil omen for this people, because it seeks to avenge + one infamous crime by the commission of another of equal infamy. + </p> + <p> + The application is denied and the sentence will be carried into effect. + </p> + <p> + (Signed) THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + One of the most curious incidents of lawlessness with which I had to deal + affected an entire State. The State of Nevada in the year 1907 was + gradually drifting into utter governmental impotence and downright + anarchy. The people were at heart all right; but the forces of evil had + been permitted to get the upper hand, and for the time being the decent + citizens had become helpless to assert themselves either by controlling + the greedy corporations on the one hand or repressing the murderous + violence of certain lawless labor organizations on the other hand. The + Governor of the State was a Democrat and a Southern man, and in the + abstract a strong believer in the doctrine of State's Rights. But his + experience finally convinced him that he could obtain order only through + the intervention of the National Government; and then he went over too far + and wished to have the National Government do his police work for him. In + the Rocky Mountain States there had existed for years what was practically + a condition of almost constant war between the wealthy mine-owners and the + Western Federation of Miners, at whose head stood Messrs. Haywood, + Pettibone, and Moyer, who were about that time indicted for the murder of + the Governor of Idaho. Much that was lawless, much that was indefensible, + had been done by both sides. The Legislature of Nevada was in sympathy + with, or at least was afraid of not expressing sympathy for, Messrs. + Moyer, Haywood, Pettibone, and their associates. The State was practically + without any police, and the Governor had recommended the establishment of + a State Constabulary, along the lines of the Texas Rangers; but the + Legislature rejected his request. The Governor reported to me the + conditions as follows. During 1907 the Goldfield mining district became + divided into two hostile camps. Half of the Western Federation of Miners + were constantly armed, and arms and ammunition were purchased and kept by + the union as a body, while the mine-owners on their side retained large + numbers of watchmen and guards who were also armed and always on duty. In + addition to these opposing forces there was, as the Governor reported, an + unusually large number of the violent and criminal element, always + attracted to a new and booming mining camp. Under such conditions the + civil authorities were practically powerless, and the Governor, being + helpless to avert civil war, called on me to keep order. I accordingly + threw in a body of regular troops under General Funston. These kept order + completely, and the Governor became so well satisfied that he thought he + would like to have them there permanently! This seemed to me unhealthy, + and on December 28, 1907, I notified him that while I would do my duty, + the first need was that the State authorities should do theirs, and that + the first step towards this was the assembling of the Legislature. I + concluded my telegram: "If within five days from receipt of this telegram + you shall have issued the necessary notice to convene the Legislature of + Nevada, I shall continue the troops during a period of three weeks. If + when the term of five days has elapsed the notice has not been issued, the + troops will be immediately returned to their former stations." I had + already investigated the situation through a committee, composed of the + Chief of the Bureau of Corporations, Mr. H. K. Smith, the Chief of the + Bureau of Labor, Mr. C. P. Neill, and the Comptroller of the Treasury, Mr. + Lawrence Murray. These men I could thoroughly trust, and their report, + which was not over-favorable to either side, had convinced me that the + only permanent way to get good results was to insist on the people of the + State themselves grappling with and solving their own troubles. The + Governor summoned the Legislature, it met, and the constabulary bill was + passed. The troops remained in Nevada until time had been given for the + State authorities to organize their force so that violence could at once + be checked. Then they were withdrawn. + </p> + <p> + Nor was it only as regards their own internal affairs that I sometimes had + to get into active communication with the State authorities. There has + always been a strong feeling in California against the immigration of + Asiatic laborers, whether these are wage-workers or men who occupy and + till the soil. I believe this to be fundamentally a sound and proper + attitude, an attitude which must be insisted upon, and yet which can be + insisted upon in such a manner and with such courtesy and such sense of + mutual fairness and reciprocal obligation and respect as not to give any + just cause of offense to Asiatic peoples. In the present state of the + world's progress it is highly inadvisable that peoples in wholly different + stages of civilization, or of wholly different types of civilization even + although both equally high, shall be thrown into intimate contact. This is + especially undesirable when there is a difference of both race and + standard of living. In California the question became acute in connection + with the admission of the Japanese. I then had and now have a hearty + admiration for the Japanese people. I believe in them; I respect their + great qualities; I wish that our American people had many of these + qualities. Japanese and American students, travelers, scientific and + literary men, merchants engaged in international trade, and the like can + meet on terms of entire equality and should be given the freest access + each to the country of the other. But the Japanese themselves would not + tolerate the intrusion into their country of a mass of Americans who would + displace Japanese in the business of the land. I think they are entirely + right in this position. I would be the first to admit that Japan has the + absolute right to declare on what terms foreigners shall be admitted to + work in her country, or to own land in her country, or to become citizens + of her country. America has and must insist upon the same right. The + people of California were right in insisting that the Japanese should not + come thither in mass, that there should be no influx of laborers, of + agricultural workers, or small tradesmen—in short, no mass + settlement or immigration. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, during the latter part of my term as President certain + unwise and demagogic agitators in California, to show their disapproval of + the Japanese coming into the State, adopted the very foolish procedure of + trying to provide by law that the Japanese children should not be allowed + to attend the schools with the white children, and offensive and injurious + language was used in connection with the proposal. The Federal + Administration promptly took up the matter with the California + authorities, and I got into personal touch with them. At my request the + Mayor of San Francisco and other leaders in the movement came on to see + me. I explained that the duty of the National Government was twofold: in + the first place, to meet every reasonable wish and every real need of the + people of California or any other State in dealing with the people of a + foreign power; and, in the next place, itself exclusively and fully to + exercise the right of dealing with this foreign power. + </p> + <p> + Inasmuch as in the last resort, including that last of all resorts, war, + the dealing of necessity had to be between the foreign power and the + National Government, it was impossible to admit that the doctrine of State + sovereignty could be invoked in such a matter. As soon as legislative or + other action in any State affects a foreign nation, then the affair + becomes one for the Nation, and the State should deal with the foreign + power purely through the Nation. + </p> + <p> + I explained that I was in entire sympathy with the people of California as + to the subject of immigration of the Japanese in mass; but that of course + I wished to accomplish the object they had in view in the way that would + be most courteous and most agreeable to the feelings of the Japanese; that + all relations between the two peoples must be those of reciprocal justice, + and that it was an intolerable outrage on the part of newspapers and + public men to use offensive and insulting language about a high-spirited, + sensitive, and friendly people; and that such action as was proposed about + the schools could only have bad effects, and would in no shape or way + achieve the purpose that the Californians had in mind. I also explained + that I would use every resource of the National Government to protect the + Japanese in their treaty rights, and would count upon the State + authorities backing me up to the limit in such action. In short, I + insisted upon the two points (1) that the Nation and not the individual + States must deal with matters of such international significance and must + treat foreign nations with entire courtesy and respect; and (2) that the + Nation would at once, and in efficient and satisfactory manner, take + action that would meet the needs of California. I both asserted the power + of the Nation and offered a full remedy for the needs of the State. This + is the right, and the only right, course. The worst possible course in + such a case is to fail to insist on the right of the Nation, to offer no + action of the Nation to remedy what is wrong, and yet to try to coax the + State not to do what it is mistakenly encouraged to believe it has the + power to do, when no other alternative is offered. + </p> + <p> + After a good deal of discussion, we came to an entirely satisfactory + conclusion. The obnoxious school legislation was abandoned, and I secured + an arrangement with Japan under which the Japanese themselves prevented + any immigration to our country of their laboring people, it being + distinctly understood that if there was such emigration the United States + would at once pass an exclusion law. It was of course infinitely better + that the Japanese should stop their own people from coming rather than + that we should have to stop them; but it was necessary for us to hold this + power in reserve. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, after I left office, a most mistaken and ill-advised policy + was pursued towards Japan, combining irritation and inefficiency, which + culminated in a treaty under which we surrendered this important and + necessary right. It was alleged in excuse that the treaty provided for its + own abrogation; but of course it is infinitely better to have a treaty + under which the power to exercise a necessary right is explicitly retained + rather than a treaty so drawn that recourse must be had to the extreme + step of abrogating if it ever becomes necessary to exercise the right in + question. + </p> + <p> + The arrangement we made worked admirably, and entirely achieved its + purpose. No small part of our success was due to the fact that we + succeeded in impressing on the Japanese that we sincerely admired and + respected them, and desired to treat them with the utmost consideration. I + cannot too strongly express my indignation with, and abhorrence of, + reckless public writers and speakers who, with coarse and vulgar + insolence, insult the Japanese people and thereby do the greatest wrong + not only to Japan but to their own country. + </p> + <p> + Such conduct represents that nadir of underbreeding and folly. The + Japanese are one of the great nations of the world, entitled to stand, and + standing, on a footing of full equality with any nation of Europe or + America. I have the heartiest admiration for them. They can teach us much. + Their civilization is in some respects higher than our own. It is + eminently undesirable that Japanese and Americans should attempt to live + together in masses; any such attempt would be sure to result disastrously, + and the far-seeing statesmen of both countries should join to prevent it. + </p> + <p> + But this is not because either nation is inferior to the other; it is + because they are different. The two peoples represent two civilizations + which, although in many respects equally high, are so totally distinct in + their past history that it is idle to expect in one or two generations to + overcome this difference. One civilization is as old as the other; and in + neither case is the line of cultural descent coincident with that of + ethnic descent. Unquestionably the ancestors of the great majority both of + the modern Americans and the modern Japanese were barbarians in that + remote past which saw the origins of the cultured peoples to which the + Americans and the Japanese of to-day severally trace their civilizations. + But the lines of development of these two civilizations, of the Orient and + the Occident, have been separate and divergent since thousands of years + before the Christian era; certainly since that hoary eld in which the + Akkadian predecessors of the Chaldean Semites held sway in Mesopotamia. An + effort to mix together, out of hand, the peoples representing the + culminating points of two such lines of divergent cultural development + would be fraught with peril; and this, I repeat, because the two are + different, not because either is inferior to the other. Wise statesmen, + looking to the future, will for the present endeavor to keep the two + nations from mass contact and intermingling, precisely because they wish + to keep each in relations of permanent good will and friendship with the + other. + </p> + <p> + Exactly what was done in the particular crisis to which I refer is shown + in the following letter which, after our policy had been successfully put + into execution, I sent to the then Speaker of the California lower house + of the Legislature: + </p> + <p> + THE WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON, February 8, 1909. + </p> + <p> + HON P. A. STANTON, Speaker of the Assembly, Sacramento, California: + </p> + <p> + I trust there will be no misunderstanding of the Federal Government's + attitude. We are jealously endeavoring to guard the interests of + California and of the entire West in accordance with the desires of our + Western people. By friendly agreement with Japan, we are now carrying out + a policy which, while meeting the interests and desires of the Pacific + slope, is yet compatible, not merely with mutual self-respect, but with + mutual esteem and admiration between the Americans and Japanese. The + Japanese Government is loyally and in good faith doing its part to carry + out this policy, precisely as the American Government is doing. The policy + aims at mutuality of obligation and behavior. In accordance with it the + purpose is that the Japanese shall come here exactly as Americans go to + Japan, which is in effect that travelers, students, persons engaged in + international business, men who sojourn for pleasure or study, and the + like, shall have the freest access from one country to the other, and + shall be sure of the best treatment, but that there shall be no settlement + in mass by the people of either country in the other. During the last six + months under this policy more Japanese have left the country than have + come in, and the total number in the United States has diminished by over + two thousand. These figures are absolutely accurate and cannot be + impeached. In other words, if the present policy is consistently followed + and works as well in the future as it is now working, all difficulties and + causes of friction will disappear, while at the same time each nation will + retain its self-respect and the good will of the other. But such a bill as + this school bill accomplishes literally nothing whatever in the line of + the object aimed at, and gives just and grave cause for irritation; while + in addition the United States Government would be obliged immediately to + take action in the Federal courts to test such legislation, as we hold it + to be clearly a violation of the treaty. On this point I refer you to the + numerous decisions of the United States Supreme Court in regard to State + laws which violate treaty obligations of the United States. The + legislation would accomplish nothing beneficial and would certainly cause + some mischief, and might cause very grave mischief. In short, the policy + of the Administration is to combine the maximum of efficiency in achieving + the real object which the people of the Pacific Slope have at heart, with + the minimum of friction and trouble, while the misguided men who advocate + such action as this against which I protest are following a policy which + combines the very minimum of efficiency with the maximum of insult, and + which, while totally failing to achieve any real result for good, yet + might accomplish an infinity of harm. If in the next year or two the + action of the Federal Government fails to achieve what it is now + achieving, then through the further action of the President and Congress + it can be made entirely efficient. I am sure that the sound judgment of + the people of California will support you, Mr. Speaker, in your effort. + Let me repeat that at present we are actually doing the very thing which + the people of California wish to be done, and to upset the arrangement + under which this is being done cannot do good and may do great harm. If in + the next year or two the figures of immigration prove that the arrangement + which has worked so successfully during the last six months is no longer + working successfully, then there would be ground for grievance and for the + reversal by the National Government of its present policy. But at present + the policy is working well, and until it works badly it would be a grave + misfortune to change it, and when changed it can only be changed + effectively by the National Government. + </p> + <p> + THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + In foreign and domestic affairs alike the policy pursued during my + Administration was simple. In foreign affairs the principle from which we + never deviated was to have the Nation behave toward other nations + precisely as a strong, honorable, and upright man behaves in dealing with + his fellow-men. There is no such thing as international law in the sense + that there is municipal law or law within a nation. Within the nation + there is always a judge, and a policeman who stands back of the judge. The + whole system of law depends first upon the fact that there is a judge + competent to pass judgment, and second upon the fact that there is some + competent officer whose duty it is to carry out this judgment, by force if + necessary. In international law there is no judge, unless the parties in + interest agree that one shall be constituted; and there is no policeman to + carry out the judge's orders. In consequence, as yet each nation must + depend upon itself for its own protection. The frightful calamities that + have befallen China, solely because she has had no power of self-defense, + ought to make it inexcusable in any wise American citizen to pretend to + patriotic purpose, and yet to fail to insist that the United States shall + keep in a condition of ability if necessary to assert its rights with a + strong hand. It is folly of the criminal type for the Nation not to keep + up its navy, not to fortify its vital strategic points, and not to provide + an adequate army for its needs. On the other hand, it is wicked for the + Nation to fail in either justice, courtesy, or consideration when dealing + with any other power, big or little. John Hay was Secretary of State when + I became President, and continued to serve under me until his death, and + his and my views as to the attitude that the Nation should take in foreign + affairs were identical, both as regards our duty to be able to protect + ourselves against the strong and as regards our duty always to act not + only justly but generously toward the weak. + </p> + <p> + John Hay was one of the most delightful of companions, one of the most + charming of all men of cultivation and action. Our views on foreign + affairs coincided absolutely; but, as was natural enough, in domestic + matters he felt much more conservative than he did in the days when as a + young man he was private secretary to the great radical democratic leader + of the '60's, Abraham Lincoln. He was fond of jesting with me about my + supposedly dangerous tendencies in favor of labor against capital. When I + was inaugurated on March 4, 1905, I wore a ring he sent me the evening + before, containing the hair of Abraham Lincoln. This ring was on my finger + when the Chief Justice administered to me the oath of allegiance to the + United States; I often thereafter told John Hay that when I wore such a + ring on such an occasion I bound myself more than ever to treat the + Constitution, after the manner of Abraham Lincoln, as a document which put + human rights above property rights when the two conflicted. The last + Christmas John Hay was alive he sent me the manuscript of a Norse saga by + William Morris, with the following note: + </p> + <p> + Christmas Eve, 1904. + </p> + <p> + DEAR THEODORE: In your quality of Viking this Norse saga should belong to + you, and in your character of Enemy of Property this Ms. of William Morris + will appeal to you. Wishing you a Merry Christmas and many happy years, I + am yours affectionately, + </p> + <p> + JOHN HAY. + </p> + <p> + In internal affairs I cannot say that I entered the Presidency with any + deliberately planned and far-reaching scheme of social betterment. I had, + however, certain strong convictions; and I was on the lookout for every + opportunity of realizing those convictions. I was bent upon making the + Government the most efficient possible instrument in helping the people of + the United States to better themselves in every way, politically, + socially, and industrially. I believed with all my heart in real and + thoroughgoing democracy, and I wished to make this democracy industrial as + well as political, although I had only partially formulated the methods I + believed we should follow. I believed in the people's rights, and + therefore in National rights and States' rights just exactly to the degree + in which they severally secured popular rights. I believed in invoking the + National power with absolute freedom for every National need; and I + believed that the Constitution should be treated as the greatest document + ever devised by the wit of man to aid a people in exercising every power + necessary for its own betterment, and not as a straitjacket cunningly + fashioned to strangle growth. As for the particular methods of realizing + these various beliefs, I was content to wait and see what method might be + necessary in each given case as it arose; and I was certain that the cases + would arise fast enough. + </p> + <p> + As the time for the Presidential nomination of 1904 drew near, it became + evident that I was strong with the rank and file of the party, but that + there was much opposition to me among many of the big political leaders, + and especially among many of the Wall Street men. A group of these men met + in conference to organize this opposition. It was to be done with complete + secrecy. But such secrets are very hard to keep. I speedily knew all about + it, and took my measures accordingly. The big men in question, who + possessed much power so long as they could work under cover, or so long as + they were merely throwing their weight one way or the other between forces + fairly evenly balanced, were quite helpless when fighting in the open by + themselves. I never found out that anything practical was even attempted + by most of the men who took part in the conference. Three or four of them, + however, did attempt something. The head of one big business corporation + attempted to start an effort to control the delegations from New Jersey, + North Carolina, and certain Gulf States against me. The head of a great + railway system made preparations for a more ambitious effort looking + towards the control of the delegations from Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, + Colorado, and California against me. He was a very powerful man + financially, but his power politically was much more limited, and he did + not really understand his own limitations or the situation itself, whereas + I did. He could not have secured a delegate against me from Iowa, + Nebraska, or Kansas. In Colorado and California he could have made a + fight, but even there I think he would have been completely beaten. + However, long before the time for the Convention came around, it was + recognized that it was hopeless to make any opposition to my nomination. + The effort was abandoned, and I was nominated unanimously. Judge Parker + was nominated by the Democrats against me. Practically all the + metropolitan newspapers of largest circulation were against me; in New + York City fifteen out of every sixteen copies of papers issued were + hostile to me. I won by a popular majority of about two million and a + half, and in the electoral college carried 330 votes against 136. It was + by far the largest popular majority ever hitherto given any Presidential + candidate. + </p> + <p> + My opponents during the campaign had laid much stress upon my supposed + personal ambition and intention to use the office of President to + perpetuate myself in power. I did not say anything on the subject prior to + the election, as I did not wish to say anything that could be construed + into a promise offered as a consideration in order to secure votes. But on + election night, after the returns were in I issued the following + statement: "The wise custom which limits the President to two terms + regards the substance and not the form, and under no circumstances will I + be a candidate for or accept another nomination." + </p> + <p> + The reason for my choice of the exact phraseology used was twofold. In the + first place, many of my supporters were insisting that, as I had served + only three and a half years of my first term, coming in from the + Vice-Presidency when President McKinley was killed, I had really had only + one elective term, so that the third term custom did not apply to me; and + I wished to repudiate this suggestion. I believed then (and I believe now) + the third term custom or tradition to be wholesome, and, therefore, I was + determined to regard its substance, refusing to quibble over the words + usually employed to express it. On the other hand, I did not wish simply + and specifically to say that I would not be a candidate for the nomination + in 1908, because if I had specified the year when I would not be a + candidate, it would have been widely accepted as meaning that I intended + to be a candidate some other year; and I had no such intention, and had no + idea that I would ever be a candidate again. Certain newspaper men did ask + me if I intended to apply my prohibition to 1912, and I answered that I + was not thinking of 1912, nor of 1920, nor of 1940, and that I must + decline to say anything whatever except what appeared in my statement. + </p> + <p> + The Presidency is a great office, and the power of the President can be + effectively used to secure a renomination, especially if the President has + the support of certain great political and financial interests. It is for + this reason, and this reason alone, that the wholesome principle of + continuing in office, so long as he is willing to serve, an incumbent who + has proved capable, is not applicable to the Presidency. Therefore, the + American people have wisely established a custom against allowing any man + to hold that office for more than two consecutive terms. But every shred + of power which a President exercises while in office vanishes absolutely + when he has once left office. An ex-President stands precisely in the + position of any other private citizen, and has not one particle more power + to secure a nomination or election than if he had never held the office at + all—indeed, he probably has less because of the very fact that he + has held the office. Therefore the reasoning on which the anti-third term + custom is based has no application whatever to an ex-President, and no + application whatever to anything except consecutive terms. As a barrier of + precaution against more than two consecutive terms the custom embodies a + valuable principle. Applied in any other way it becomes a mere formula, + and like all formulas a potential source of mischievous confusion. Having + this in mind, I regarded the custom as applying practically, if not just + as much, to a President who had been seven and a half years in office as + to one who had been eight years in office, and therefore, in the teeth of + a practically unanimous demand from my own party that I accept another + nomination, and the reasonable certainty that the nomination would be + ratified at the polls, I felt that the substance of the custom applied to + me in 1908. On the other hand, it had no application whatever to any human + being save where it was invoked in the case of a man desiring a third + consecutive term. Having given such substantial proof of my own regard for + the custom, I deem it a duty to add this comment on it. I believe that it + is well to have a custom of this kind, to be generally observed, but that + it would be very unwise to have it definitely hardened into a + Constitutional prohibition. It is not desirable ordinarily that a man + should stay in office twelve consecutive years as President; but most + certainly the American people are fit to take care of themselves, and + stand in no need of an irrevocable self-denying ordinance. They should not + bind themselves never to take action which under some quite conceivable + circumstances it might be to their great interest to take. It is obviously + of the last importance to the safety of a democracy that in time of real + peril it should be able to command the service of every one among its + citizens in the precise position where the service rendered will be most + valuable. It would be a benighted policy in such event to disqualify + absolutely from the highest office a man who while holding it had actually + shown the highest capacity to exercise its powers with the utmost effect + for the public defense. If, for instance, a tremendous crisis occurred at + the end of the second term of a man like Lincoln, as such a crisis + occurred at the end of his first term, it would be a veritable calamity if + the American people were forbidden to continue to use the services of the + one man whom they knew, and did not merely guess, could carry them through + the crisis. The third term tradition has no value whatever except as it + applies to a third consecutive term. While it is well to keep it as a + custom, it would be a mark both of weakness and unwisdom for the American + people to embody it into a Constitutional provision which could not do + them good and on some given occasion might work real harm. + </p> + <p> + There was one cartoon made while I was President, in which I appeared + incidentally, that was always a great favorite of mine. It pictured an old + fellow with chin whiskers, a farmer, in his shirt-sleeves, with his boots + off, sitting before the fire, reading the President's Message. On his feet + were stockings of the kind I have seen hung up by the dozen in Joe + Ferris's store at Medora, in the days when I used to come in to town and + sleep in one of the rooms over the store. The title of the picture was + "His Favorite Author." This was the old fellow whom I always used to keep + in mind. He had probably been in the Civil War in his youth; he had worked + hard ever since he left the army; he had been a good husband and father; + he had brought up his boys and girls to work; he did not wish to do + injustice to any one else, but he wanted justice done to himself and to + others like him; and I was bound to secure that justice for him if it lay + in my power to do so.[*] + </p> + <p> + [*] I believe I realized fairly well this ambition. I shall turn to my + enemies to attest the truth of this statement. The New York <i>Sun</i>, + shortly before the National Convention of 1904, spoke of me as follows: + </p> + <p> + "President Roosevelt holds that his nomination by the National Republican + Convention of 1904 is an assured thing. He makes no concealment of his + conviction, and it is unreservedly shared by his friends. We think + President Roosevelt is right. + </p> + <p> + "There are strong and convincing reasons why the President should feel + that success is within his grasp. He has used the opportunities that he + found or created, and he has used them with consummate skill and + undeniable success. + </p> + <p> + "The President has disarmed all his enemies. Every weapon they had, new or + old, has been taken from them and added to the now unassailable Roosevelt + arsenal. Why should people wonder that Mr. Bryan clings to silver? Has not + Mr. Roosevelt absorbed and sequestered every vestige of the Kansas City + platform that had a shred of practical value? Suppose that Mr. Bryan had + been elected President. What could he have accomplished compared with what + Mr. Roosevelt has accomplished? Will his most passionate followers pretend + for one moment that Mr. Bryan could have conceived, much less enforced, + any such pursuit of the trusts as that which Mr. Roosevelt has just + brought to a triumphant issue? Will Mr. Bryan himself intimate that the + Federal courts would have turned to his projects the friendly countenance + which they have lent to those of Mr. Roosevelt? + </p> + <p> + "Where is 'government by injunction' gone to? The very emptiness of that + once potent phrase is beyond description! A regiment of Bryans could not + compete with Mr. Roosevelt in harrying the trusts, in bringing wealth to + its knees, and in converting into the palpable actualities of action the + wildest dreams of Bryan's campaign orators. He has outdone them all. + </p> + <p> + "And how utterly the President has routed the pretensions of Bryan, and of + the whole Democratic horde in respect to organized labor! How empty were + all their professions, their mouthings and their howlings in the face of + the simple and unpretentious achievements of the President! In his own + straightforward fashion he inflicted upon capital in one short hour of the + coal strike a greater humiliation than Bryan could have visited upon it in + a century. He is the leader of the labor unions of the United States. Mr. + Roosevelt has put them above the law and above the Constitution, because + for him they are the American people." [This last, I need hardly say, is + merely a rhetorical method of saying that I gave the labor union precisely + the same treatment as the corporation.] + </p> + <p> + Senator La Follette, in the issue of his magazine immediately following my + leaving the Presidency in March, 1909, wrote as follows: + </p> + <p> + "Roosevelt steps from the stage gracefully. He has ruled his party to a + large extent against its will. He has played a large part in the world's + work, for the past seven years. The activities of his remarkably forceful + personality have been so manifold that it will be long before his true + rating will be fixed in the opinion of the race. He is said to think that + the three great things done by him are the undertaking of the construction + of the Panama Canal and its rapid and successful carrying forward, the + making of peace between Russia and Japan, and the sending around the world + of the fleet. + </p> + <p> + "These are important things, but many will be slow to think them his + greatest services. The Panama Canal will surely serve mankind when in + operation; and the manner of organizing this work seems to be fine. But no + one can say whether this project will be a gigantic success or a gigantic + failure; and the task is one which must, in the nature of things, have + been undertaken and carried through some time soon, as historic periods + go, anyhow. The Peace of Portsmouth was a great thing to be responsible + for, and Roosevelt's good offices undoubtedly saved a great and bloody + battle in Manchuria. But the war was fought out, and the parties ready to + quit, and there is reason to think that it was only when this situation + was arrived at that the good offices of the President of the United States + were, more or less indirectly, invited. The fleet's cruise was a strong + piece of diplomacy, by which we informed Japan that we will send our fleet + wherever we please and whenever we please. It worked out well. + </p> + <p> + "But none of these things, it will seem to many, can compare with some of + Roosevelt's other achievements. Perhaps he is loath to take credit as a + reformer, for he is prone to spell the word with question marks, and to + speak disparagingly of 'reform.' + </p> + <p> + "But for all that, this contemner of 'reformers' made reform respectable + in the United States, and this rebuker of 'muck-rakers' has been the chief + agent in making the history of 'muck-raking' in the United States a + National one, conceded to be useful. He has preached from the White House + many doctrines; but among them he has left impressed on the American mind + the one great truth of economic justice couched in the pithy and stinging + phrase 'the square deal.' The task of making reform respectable in a + commercialized world, and of giving the Nation a slogan in a phrase, is + greater than the man who performed it is likely to think. + </p> + <p> + "And, then, there is the great and statesmanlike movement for the + conservation of our National resources, into which Roosevelt so + energetically threw himself at a time when the Nation as a whole knew not + that we are ruining and bankrupting ourselves as fast as we can. This is + probably the greatest thing Roosevelt did, undoubtedly. This globe is the + capital stock of the race. It is just so much coal and oil and gas. This + may be economized or wasted. The same thing is true of phosphates and + other mineral resources. Our water resources are immense, and we are only + just beginning to use them. Our forests have been destroyed; they must be + restored. Our soils are being depleted; they must be built up and + conserved. + </p> + <p> + "These questions are not of this day only or of this generation. They + belong all to the future. Their consideration requires that high moral + tone which regards the earth as the home of a posterity to whom we owe a + sacred duty. + </p> + <p> + "This immense idea Roosevelt, with high statesmanship, dinned into the + ears of the Nation until the Nation heeded. He held it so high that it + attracted the attention of the neighboring nations of the continent, and + will so spread and intensify that we will soon see the world's conferences + devoted to it. + </p> + <p> + "Nothing can be greater or finer than this. It is so great and so fine + that when the historian of the future shall speak of Theodore Roosevelt he + is likely to say that he did many notable things, among them that of + inaugurating the movement which finally resulted in the square deal, but + that his greatest work was inspiring and actually beginning a world + movement for staying terrestrial waste and saving for the human race the + things upon which, and upon which alone, a great and peaceful and + progressive and happy race life can be founded. + </p> + <p> + "What statesman in all history has done anything calling for so wide a + view and for a purpose more lofty?" + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <h3> + THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE NATION + </h3> + <p> + When Governor of New York, as I have already described, I had been in + consultation with Gifford Pinchot and F. H. Newell, and had shaped my + recommendations about forestry largely in accordance with their + suggestions. Like other men who had thought about the national future at + all, I had been growing more and more concerned over the destruction of + the forests. + </p> + <p> + While I had lived in the West I had come to realize the vital need of + irrigation to the country, and I had been both amused and irritated by the + attitude of Eastern men who obtained from Congress grants of National + money to develop harbors and yet fought the use of the Nation's power to + develop the irrigation work of the West. Major John Wesley Powell, the + explorer of the Grand Canyon, and Director of the Geological Survey, was + the first man who fought for irrigation, and he lived to see the + Reclamation Act passed and construction actually begun. Mr. F. H. Newell, + the present Director of the Reclamation Service, began his work as an + assistant hydraulic engineer under Major Powell; and, unlike Powell, he + appreciated the need of saving the forests and the soil as well as the + need of irrigation. Between Powell and Newell came, as Director of the + Geological Survey, Charles D. Walcott, who, after the Reclamation Act was + passed, by his force, pertinacity, and tact, succeeded in putting the act + into effect in the best possible manner. Senator Francis G. Newlands, of + Nevada, fought hard for the cause of reclamation in Congress. He attempted + to get his State to act, and when that proved hopeless to get the Nation + to act; and was ably assisted by Mr. G. H. Maxwell, a Californian, who had + taken a deep interest in irrigation matters. Dr. W. J. McGee was one of + the leaders in all the later stages of the movement. But Gifford Pinchot + is the man to whom the nation owes most for what has been accomplished as + regards the preservation of the natural resources of our country. He led, + and indeed during its most vital period embodied, the fight for the + preservation through use of our forests. He played one of the leading + parts in the effort to make the National Government the chief instrument + in developing the irrigation of the arid West. He was the foremost leader + in the great struggle to coordinate all our social and governmental forces + in the effort to secure the adoption of a rational and farseeing policy + for securing the conservation of all our national resources. He was + already in the Government service as head of the Forestry Bureau when I + became President; he continued throughout my term, not only as head of the + Forest service, but as the moving and directing spirit in most of the + conservation work, and as counsellor and assistant on most of the other + work connected with the internal affairs of the country. Taking into + account the varied nature of the work he did, its vital importance to the + nation and the fact that as regards much of it he was practically breaking + new ground, and taking into account also his tireless energy and activity, + his fearlessness, his complete disinterestedness, his single-minded + devotion to the interests of the plain people, and his extraordinary + efficiency, I believe it is but just to say that among the many, many + public officials who under my administration rendered literally invaluable + service to the people of the United States, he, on the whole, stood first. + A few months after I left the Presidency he was removed from office by + President Taft. + </p> + <p> + The first work I took up when I became President was the work of + reclamation. Immediately after I had come to Washington, after the + assassination of President McKinley, while staying at the house of my + sister, Mrs. Cowles, before going into the White House, Newell and Pinchot + called upon me and laid before me their plans for National irrigation of + the arid lands of the West, and for the consolidation of the forest work + of the Government in the Bureau of Forestry. + </p> + <p> + At that time a narrowly legalistic point of view toward natural resources + obtained in the Departments, and controlled the Governmental + administrative machinery. Through the General Land Office and other + Government bureaus, the public resources were being handled and disposed + of in accordance with the small considerations of petty legal formalities, + instead of for the large purposes of constructive development, and the + habit of deciding, whenever possible, in favor of private interests + against the public welfare was firmly fixed. It was as little customary to + favor the bona-fide settler and home builder, as against the strict + construction of the law, as it was to use the law in thwarting the + operations of the land grabbers. A technical compliance with the letter of + the law was all that was required. + </p> + <p> + The idea that our natural resources were inexhaustible still obtained, and + there was as yet no real knowledge of their extent and condition. The + relation of the conservation of natural resources to the problems of + National welfare and National efficiency had not yet dawned on the public + mind. The reclamation of arid public lands in the West was still a matter + for private enterprise alone; and our magnificent river system, with its + superb possibilities for public usefulness, was dealt with by the National + Government not as a unit, but as a disconnected series of pork-barrel + problems, whose only real interest was in their effect on the reelection + or defeat of a Congressman here and there—a theory which, I regret + to say, still obtains. + </p> + <p> + The place of the farmer in the National economy was still regarded solely + as that of a grower of food to be eaten by others, while the human needs + and interests of himself and his wife and children still remained wholly + outside the recognition of the Government. + </p> + <p> + All the forests which belonged to the United States were held and + administered in one Department, and all the foresters in Government employ + were in another Department. Forests and foresters had nothing whatever to + do with each other. The National Forests in the West (then called forest + reserves) were wholly inadequate in area to meet the purposes for which + they were created, while the need for forest protection in the East had + not yet begun to enter the public mind. + </p> + <p> + Such was the condition of things when Newell and Pinchot called on me. I + was a warm believer in reclamation and in forestry, and, after listening + to my two guests, I asked them to prepare material on the subject for me + to use in my first message to Congress, of December 3, 1901. This message + laid the foundation for the development of irrigation and forestry during + the next seven and one-half years. It set forth the new attitude toward + the natural resources in the words: "The Forest and water problems are + perhaps the most vital internal problems of the United States." + </p> + <p> + On the day the message was read, a committee of Western Senators and + Congressmen was organized to prepare a Reclamation Bill in accordance with + the recommendations. By far the most effective of the Senators in drafting + and pushing the bill, which became known by his name, was Newlands. The + draft of the bill was worked over by me and others at several conferences + and revised in important particulars; my active interference was necessary + to prevent it from being made unworkable by an undue insistence upon + States Rights, in accordance with the efforts of Mr. Mondell and other + Congressmen, who consistently fought for local and private interests as + against the interests of the people as a whole. + </p> + <p> + On June 17, 1902, the Reclamation Act was passed. It set aside the + proceeds of the disposal of public lands for the purpose of reclaiming the + waste areas of the arid West by irrigating lands otherwise worthless, and + thus creating new homes upon the land. The money so appropriated was to be + repaid to the Government by the settlers, and to be used again as a + revolving fund continuously available for the work. + </p> + <p> + The impatience of the Western people to see immediate results from the + Reclamation Act was so great that red tape was disregarded, and the work + was pushed forward at a rate previously unknown in Government affairs. + Later, as in almost all such cases, there followed the criticisms of + alleged illegality and haste which are so easy to make after results have + been accomplished and the need for the measures without which nothing + could have been done has gone by. These criticisms were in character + precisely the same as that made about the acquisition of Panama, the + settlement of the anthracite coal strike, the suits against the big + trusts, the stopping of the panic of 1907 by the action of the Executive + concerning the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company; and, in short, about most + of the best work done during my administration. + </p> + <p> + With the Reclamation work, as with much other work under me, the men in + charge were given to understand that they must get into the water if they + would learn to swim; and, furthermore, they learned to know that if they + acted honestly, and boldly and fearlessly accepted responsibility, I would + stand by them to the limit. In this, as in every other case, in the end + the boldness of the action fully justified itself. + </p> + <p> + Every item of the whole great plan of Reclamation now in effect was + undertaken between 1902 and 1906. By the spring of 1909 the work was an + assured success, and the Government had become fully committed to its + continuance. The work of Reclamation was at first under the United States + Geological Survey, of which Charles D. Walcott was at that time Director. + In the spring of 1908 the United States Reclamation Service was + established to carry it on, under the direction of Frederick Hayes Newell, + to whom the inception of the plan was due. Newell's single-minded devotion + to this great task, the constructive imagination which enabled him to + conceive it, and the executive power and high character through which he + and his assistant, Arthur P. Davis, built up a model service—all + these have made him a model servant. The final proof of his merit is + supplied by the character and records of the men who later assailed him. + </p> + <p> + Although the gross expenditure under the Reclamation Act is not yet as + large as that for the Panama Canal, the engineering obstacles to be + overcome have been almost as great, and the political impediments many + times greater. The Reclamation work had to be carried on at widely + separated points, remote from railroads, under the most difficult pioneer + conditions. The twenty-eight projects begun in the years 1902 to 1906 + contemplated the irrigation of more than three million acres and the + watering of more than thirty thousand farms. Many of the dams required for + this huge task are higher than any previously built anywhere in the world. + They feed main-line canals over seven thousand miles in total length, and + involve minor constructions, such as culverts and bridges, tens of + thousands in number. + </p> + <p> + What the Reclamation Act has done for the country is by no means limited + to its material accomplishment. This Act and the results flowing from it + have helped powerfully to prove to the Nation that it can handle its own + resources and exercise direct and business-like control over them. The + population which the Reclamation Act has brought into the arid West, while + comparatively small when compared with that in the more closely inhabited + East, has been a most effective contribution to the National life, for it + has gone far to transform the social aspect of the West, making for the + stability of the institutions upon which the welfare of the whole country + rests: it has substituted actual homemakers, who have settled on the land + with their families, for huge, migratory bands of sheep herded by the + hired shepherds of absentee owners. + </p> + <p> + The recent attacks on the Reclamation Service, and on Mr. Newell, arise in + large part, if not altogether, from an organized effort to repudiate the + obligation of the settlers to repay the Government for what it has + expended to reclaim the land. The repudiation of any debt can always find + supporters, and in this case it has attracted the support not only of + certain men among the settlers who hope to be relieved of paying what they + owe, but also of a variety of unscrupulous politicians, some highly + placed. It is unlikely that their efforts to deprive the West of the + revolving Irrigation fund will succeed in doing anything but discrediting + these politicians in the sight of all honest men. + </p> + <p> + When in the spring of 1911 I visited the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona, and + opened the reservoir, I made a short speech to the assembled people. Among + other things, I said to the engineers present that in the name of all good + citizens I thanked them for their admirable work, as efficient as it was + honest, and conducted according to the highest standards of public + service. As I looked at the fine, strong, eager faces of those of the + force who were present, and thought of the similar men in the service, in + the higher positions, who were absent, and who were no less responsible + for the work done, I felt a foreboding that they would never receive any + real recognition for their achievement; and, only half humorously, I + warned them not to expect any credit, or any satisfaction, except their + own knowledge that they had done well a first-class job, for that probably + the only attention Congress would ever pay them would be to investigate + them. Well, a year later a Congressional Committee actually did + investigate them. The investigation was instigated by some unscrupulous + local politicians and by some settlers who wished to be relieved from + paying their just obligations; and the members of the Committee joined in + the attack on as fine and honorable a set of public servants as the + Government has ever had; an attack made on them solely because they were + honorable and efficient and loyal to the interests both of the Government + and the settlers. + </p> + <p> + When I became President, the Bureau of Forestry (since 1905 the United + States Forest Service) was a small but growing organization, under Gifford + Pinchot, occupied mainly with laying the foundation of American forestry + by scientific study of the forests, and with the promotion of forestry on + private lands. It contained all the trained foresters in the Government + service, but had charge of no public timberland whatsoever. The Government + forest reserves of that day were in the care of a Division in the General + Land Office, under the management of clerks wholly without knowledge of + forestry, few if any of whom had ever seen a foot of the timberlands for + which they were responsible. Thus the reserves were neither well protected + nor well used. There were no foresters among the men who had charge of the + National Forests, and no Government forests in charge of the Government + foresters. + </p> + <p> + In my first message to Congress I strongly recommended the consolidation + of the forest work in the hands of the trained men of the Bureau of + Forestry. This recommendation was repeated in other messages, but Congress + did not give effect to it until three years later. In the meantime, by + thorough study of the Western public timberlands, the groundwork was laid + for the responsibilities which were to fall upon the Bureau of Forestry + when the care of the National Forests came to be transferred to it. It was + evident that trained American Foresters would be needed in considerable + numbers, and a forest school was established at Yale to supply them. + </p> + <p> + In 1901, at my suggestion as President, the Secretary of the Interior, Mr. + Hitchcock, made a formal request for technical advice from the Bureau of + Forestry in handling the National Forests, and an extensive examination of + their condition and needs was accordingly taken up. The same year a study + was begun of the proposed Appalachian National Forest, the plan of which, + already formulated at that time, has since been carried out. A year later + experimental planting on the National Forests was also begun, and studies + preparatory to the application of practical forestry to the Indian + Reservations were undertaken. In 1903, so rapidly did the public work of + the Bureau of Forestry increase, that the examination of land for new + forest reserves was added to the study of those already created, the + forest lands of the various States were studied, and cooperation with + several of them in the examination and handling of their forest lands was + undertaken. While these practical tasks were pushed forward, a technical + knowledge of American Forests was rapidly accumulated. The special + knowledge gained was made public in printed bulletins; and at the same + time the Bureau undertook, through the newspaper and periodical press, to + make all the people of the United States acquainted with the needs and the + purposes of practical forestry. It is doubtful whether there has ever been + elsewhere under the Government such effective publicity—publicity + purely in the interest of the people—at so low a cost. Before the + educational work of the Forest Service was stopped by the Taft + Administration, it was securing the publication of facts about forestry in + fifty million copies of newspapers a month at a total expense of $6000 a + year. Not one cent has ever been paid by the Forest Service to any + publication of any kind for the printing of this material. It was given + out freely, and published without cost because it was news. Without this + publicity the Forest Service could not have survived the attacks made upon + it by the representatives of the great special interests in Congress; nor + could forestry in America have made the rapid progress it has. + </p> + <p> + The result of all the work outlined above was to bring together in the + Bureau of Forestry, by the end of 1904, the only body of forest experts + under the Government, and practically all of the first-hand information + about the public forests which was then in existence. In 1905, the obvious + foolishness of continuing to separate the foresters and the forests, + reenforced by the action of the First National Forest Congress, held in + Washington, brought about the Act of February 1, 1905, which transferred + the National Forests from the care of the Interior Department to the + Department of Agriculture, and resulted in the creation of the present + United States Forest Service. + </p> + <p> + The men upon whom the responsibility of handling some sixty million acres + of National Forest lands was thus thrown were ready for the work, both in + the office and in the field, because they had been preparing for it for + more than five years. Without delay they proceeded, under the leadership + of Pinchot, to apply to the new work the principles they had already + formulated. One of these was to open all the resources of the National + Forests to regulated use. Another was that of putting every part of the + land to that use in which it would best serve the public. Following this + principle, the Act of June 11, 1906, was drawn, and its passage was + secured from Congress. This law throws open to settlement all land in the + National Forests that is found, on examination, to be chiefly valuable for + agriculture. Hitherto all such land had been closed to the settler. + </p> + <p> + The principles thus formulated and applied may be summed up in the + statement that the rights of the public to the natural resources outweigh + private rights, and must be given its first consideration. Until that + time, in dealing with the National Forests, and the public lands + generally, private rights had almost uniformly been allowed to overbalance + public rights. The change we made was right, and was vitally necessary; + but, of course, it created bitter opposition from private interests. + </p> + <p> + One of the principles whose application was the source of much hostility + was this: It is better for the Government to help a poor man to make a + living for his family than to help a rich man make more profit for his + company. This principle was too sound to be fought openly. It is the kind + of principle to which politicians delight to pay unctuous homage in words. + But we translated the words into deeds; and when they found that this was + the case, many rich men, especially sheep owners, were stirred to + hostility, and they used the Congressmen they controlled to assault us—getting + most aid from certain demagogues, who were equally glad improperly to + denounce rich men in public and improperly to serve them in private. The + Forest Service established and enforced regulations which favored the + settler as against the large stock owner; required that necessary + reductions in the stock grazed on any National Forest should bear first on + the big man, before the few head of the small man, upon which the living + of his family depended, were reduced; and made grazing in the National + Forests a help, instead of a hindrance, to permanent settlement. As a + result, the small settlers and their families became, on the whole, the + best friends the Forest Service has; although in places their ignorance + was played on by demagogues to influence them against the policy that was + primarily for their own interest. + </p> + <p> + Another principle which led to the bitterest antagonism of all was this—whoever + (except a bona-fide settler) takes public property for private profit + should pay for what he gets. In the effort to apply this principle, the + Forest Service obtained a decision from the Attorney-General that it was + legal to make the men who grazed sheep and cattle on the National Forests + pay for what they got. Accordingly, in the summer of 1906, for the first + time, such a charge was made; and, in the face of the bitterest + opposition, it was collected. + </p> + <p> + Up to the time the National Forests were put under the charge of the + Forest Service, the Interior Department had made no effort to establish + public regulation and control of water powers. Upon the transfer, the + Service immediately began its fight to handle the power resources of the + National Forests so as to prevent speculation and monopoly and to yield a + fair return to the Government. On May 1, 1906, an Act was passed granting + the use of certain power sites in Southern California to the Edison + Electric Power Company, which Act, at the suggestion of the Service, + limited the period of the permit to forty years, and required the payment + of an annual rental by the company, the same conditions which were + thereafter adopted by the Service as the basis for all permits for power + development. Then began a vigorous fight against the position of the + Service by the water-power interests. The right to charge for water-power + development was, however, sustained by the Attorney-General. + </p> + <p> + In 1907, the area of the National Forests was increased by Presidential + proclamation more than forty-three million acres; the plant necessary for + the full use of the Forests, such as roads, trails, and telephone lines, + began to be provided on a large scale; the interchange of field and office + men, so as to prevent the antagonism between them, which is so destructive + of efficiency in most great businesses, was established as a permanent + policy; and the really effective management of the enormous area of the + National Forests began to be secured. + </p> + <p> + With all this activity in the field, the progress of technical forestry + and popular education was not neglected. In 1907, for example, sixty-one + publications on various phases of forestry, with a total of more than a + million copies, were issued, as against three publications, with a total + of eighty-two thousand copies, in 1901. By this time, also, the opposition + of the servants of the special interests in Congress to the Forest Service + had become strongly developed, and more time appeared to be spent in the + yearly attacks upon it during the passage of the appropriation bills than + on all other Government Bureaus put together. Every year the Forest + Service had to fight for its life. + </p> + <p> + One incident in these attacks is worth recording. While the Agricultural + Appropriation Bill was passing through the Senate, in 1907, Senator + Fulton, of Oregon, secured an amendment providing that the President could + not set aside any additional National Forests in the six Northwestern + States. This meant retaining some sixteen million of acres to be exploited + by land grabbers and by the representatives of the great special + interests, at the expense of the public interest. But for four years the + Forest Service had been gathering field notes as to what forests ought to + be set aside in these States, and so was prepared to act. It was equally + undesirable to veto the whole agricultural bill, and to sign it with this + amendment effective. Accordingly, a plan to create the necessary National + Forest in these States before the Agricultural Bill could be passed and + signed was laid before me by Mr. Pinchot. I approved it. The necessary + papers were immediately prepared. I signed the last proclamation a couple + of days before, by my signature, the bill became law; and, when the + friends of the special interests in the Senate got their amendment through + and woke up, they discovered that sixteen million acres of timberland had + been saved for the people by putting them in the National Forests before + the land grabbers could get at them. The opponents of the Forest Service + turned handsprings in their wrath; and dire were their threats against the + Executive; but the threats could not be carried out, and were really only + a tribute to the efficiency of our action. + </p> + <p> + By 1908, the fire prevention work of the Forest Service had become so + successful that eighty-six per cent of the fires that did occur were held + down to an area of five acres or less, and the timber sales, which yielded + $60,000 in 1905, in 1908 produced $850,000. In the same year, in addition + to the work of the National Forests, the responsibility for the proper + handling of Indian timberlands was laid upon the Forest Service, where it + remained with great benefit to the Indians until it was withdrawn, as a + part of the attack on the Conservation policy made after I left office. + </p> + <p> + By March 4, 1909, nearly half a million acres of agricultural land in the + National Forests had been opened to settlement under the Act of June 11, + 1906. The business management of the Forest Service became so excellent, + thanks to the remarkable executive capacity of the Associate Forester, + Overton W. Price (removed after I left office), that it was declared by a + well-known firm of business organizers to compare favorably with the best + managed of the great private corporations, an opinion which was confirmed + by the report of a Congressional investigation, and by the report of the + Presidential Committee on Department method. The area of the National + Forests had increased from 43 to 194 million acres; the force from about + 500 to more than 3000. There was saved for public use in the National + Forests more Government timberland during the seven and a half years prior + to March 4, 1909, than during all previous and succeeding years put + together. + </p> + <p> + The idea that the Executive is the steward of the public welfare was first + formulated and given practical effect in the Forest Service by its law + officer, George Woodruff. The laws were often insufficient, and it became + well-nigh impossible to get them amended in the public interest when once + the representatives of privilege in Congress grasped the fact that I would + sign no amendment that contained anything not in the public interest. It + was necessary to use what law was already in existence, and then further + to supplement it by Executive action. The practice of examining every + claim to public land before passing it into private ownership offers a + good example of the policy in question. This practice, which has since + become general, was first applied in the National Forests. Enormous areas + of valuable public timberland were thereby saved from fraudulent + acquisition; more than 250,000 acres were thus saved in a single case. + </p> + <p> + This theory of stewardship in the interest of the public was well + illustrated by the establishment of a water-power policy. Until the Forest + Service changed the plan, water-powers on the navigable streams, on the + public domain, and in the National Forests were given away for nothing, + and substantially without question, to whoever asked for them. At last, + under the principle that public property should be paid for and should not + be permanently granted away when such permanent grant is avoidable, the + Forest Service established the policy of regulating the use of power in + the National Forests in the public interest and making a charge for value + received. This was the beginning of the water-power policy now + substantially accepted by the public, and doubtless soon to be enacted + into law. But there was at the outset violent opposition to it on the part + of the water-power companies, and such representatives of their views in + Congress as Messrs. Tawney and Bede. + </p> + <p> + Many bills were introduced in Congress aimed, in one way or another, at + relieving the power companies of control and payment. When these bills + reached me I refused to sign them; and the injury to the public interest + which would follow their passage was brought sharply to public attention + in my message of February 26, 1908. The bills made no further progress. + </p> + <p> + Under the same principle of stewardship, railroads and other corporations, + which applied for and were given rights in the National Forests, were + regulated in the use of those rights. In short, the public resources in + charge of the Forest Service were handled frankly and openly for the + public welfare under the clear-cut and clearly set forth principle that + the public rights come first and private interest second. + </p> + <p> + The natural result of this new attitude was the assertion in every form by + the representatives of special interests that the Forest Service was + exceeding its legal powers and thwarting the intention of Congress. Suits + were begun wherever the chance arose. It is worth recording that, in spite + of the novelty and complexity of the legal questions it had to face, no + court of last resort has ever decided against the Forest Service. This + statement includes two unanimous decisions by the Supreme Court of the + United States (U. S. vs. Grimaud, 220 U. S., 506, and Light vs. U. S., 220 + U. S., 523). + </p> + <p> + In its administration of the National Forests, the Forest Service found + that valuable coal lands were in danger of passing into private ownership + without adequate money return to the Government and without safeguard + against monopoly; and that existing legislation was insufficient to + prevent this. When this condition was brought to my attention I withdrew + from all forms of entry about sixty-eight million acres of coal land in + the United States, including Alaska. The refusal of Congress to act in the + public interest was solely responsible for keeping these lands from entry. + </p> + <p> + The Conservation movement was a direct outgrowth of the forest movement. + It was nothing more than the application to our other natural resources of + the principles which had been worked out in connection with the forests. + Without the basis of public sentiment which had been built up for the + protection of the forests, and without the example of public foresight in + the protection of this, one of the great natural resources, the + Conservation movement would have been impossible. The first formal step + was the creation of the Inland Waterways Commission, appointed on March + 14, 1907. In my letter appointing the Commission, I called attention to + the value of our streams as great natural resources, and to the need for a + progressive plan for their development and control, and said: "It is not + possible to properly frame so large a plan as this for the control of our + rivers without taking account of the orderly development of other natural + resources. Therefore I ask that the Inland Waterways Commission shall + consider the relations of the streams to the use of all the great + permanent natural resources and their conservation for the making and + maintenance of prosperous homes." + </p> + <p> + Over a year later, writing on the report of the Commission, I said: + </p> + <p> + "The preliminary Report of the Inland Waterways Commission was excellent + in every way. It outlines a general plan of waterway improvement which + when adopted will give assurance that the improvements will yield + practical results in the way of increased navigation and water + transportation. In every essential feature the plan recommended by the + Commission is new. In the principle of coordinating all uses of the waters + and treating each waterway system as a unit; in the principle of + correlating water traffic with rail and other land traffic; in the + principle of expert initiation of projects in accordance with commercial + foresight and the needs of a growing country; and in the principle of + cooperation between the States and the Federal Government in the + administration and use of waterways, etc.; the general plan proposed by + the Commission is new, and at the same time sane and simple. The plan + deserves unqualified support. I regret that it has not yet been adopted by + Congress, but I am confident that ultimately it will be adopted." + </p> + <p> + The most striking incident in the history of the Commission was the trip + down the Mississippi River in October, 1907, when, as President of the + United States, I was the chief guest. This excursion, with the meetings + which were held and the wide public attention it attracted, gave the + development of our inland waterways a new standing in public estimation. + During the trip a letter was prepared and presented to me asking me to + summon a conference on the conservation of natural resources. My intention + to call such a conference was publicly announced at a great meeting at + Memphis, Tenn. + </p> + <p> + In the November following I wrote to each of the Governors of the several + States and to the Presidents of various important National Societies + concerned with natural resources, inviting them to attend the conference, + which took place May 13 to 15, 1908, in the East Room of the White House. + It is doubtful whether, except in time of war, any new idea of like + importance has ever been presented to a Nation and accepted by it with + such effectiveness and rapidity, as was the case with this Conservation + movement when it was introduced to the American people by the Conference + of Governors. The first result was the unanimous declaration of the + Governors of all the States and Territories upon the subject of + Conservation, a document which ought to be hung in every schoolhouse + throughout the land. A further result was the appointment of thirty-six + State Conservation Commissions and, on June 8, 1908, of the National + Conservation Commission. The task of this Commission was to prepare an + inventory, the first ever made for any nation, of all the natural + resources which underlay its property. The making of this inventory was + made possible by an Executive order which placed the resources of the + Government Departments at the command of the Commission, and made possible + the organization of subsidiary committees by which the actual facts for + the inventory were prepared and digested. Gifford Pinchot was made + chairman of the Commission. + </p> + <p> + The report of the National Conservation Commission was not only the first + inventory of our resources, but was unique in the history of Government in + the amount and variety of information brought together. It was completed + in six months. It laid squarely before the American people the essential + facts regarding our natural resources, when facts were greatly needed as + the basis for constructive action. This report was presented to the Joint + Conservation Congress in December, at which there were present Governors + of twenty States, representatives of twenty-two State Conservation + Commissions, and representatives of sixty National organizations + previously represented at the White House conference. The report was + unanimously approved, and transmitted to me, January 11, 1909. On January + 22, 1909, I transmitted the report of the National Conservation Commission + to Congress with a Special Message, in which it was accurately described + as "one of the most fundamentally important documents ever laid before the + American people." + </p> + <p> + The Joint Conservation Conference of December, 1908, suggested to me the + practicability of holding a North American Conservation Conference. I + selected Gifford Pinchot to convey this invitation in person to Lord Grey, + Governor General of Canada; to Sir Wilfrid Laurier; and to President Diaz + of Mexico; giving as reason for my action, in the letter in which this + invitation was conveyed, the fact that: "It is evident that natural + resources are not limited by the boundary lines which separate nations, + and that the need for conserving them upon this continent is as wide as + the area upon which they exist." + </p> + <p> + In response to this invitation, which included the colony of Newfoundland, + the Commissioners assembled in the White House on February 18, 1909. The + American Commissioners were Gifford Pinchot, Robert Bacon, and James R. + Garfield. After a session continuing through five days, the Conference + united in a declaration of principles, and suggested to the President of + the United States "that all nations should be invited to join together in + conference on the subject of world resources, and their inventory, + conservation, and wise utilization." Accordingly, on February 19, 1909, + Robert Bacon, Secretary of State, addressed to forty-five nations a letter + of invitation "to send delegates to a conference to be held at The Hague + at such date to be found convenient, there to meet and consult the like + delegates of the other countries, with a view of considering a general + plan for an inventory of the natural resources of the world and to + devising a uniform scheme for the expression of the results of such + inventory, to the end that there may be a general understanding and + appreciation of the world's supply of the material elements which underlie + the development of civilization and the welfare of the peoples of the + earth." After I left the White House the project lapsed. + </p> + <p> + Throughout the early part of my Administration the public land policy was + chiefly directed to the defense of the public lands against fraud and + theft. Secretary Hitchcock's efforts along this line resulted in the + Oregon land fraud cases, which led to the conviction of Senator Mitchell, + and which made Francis J. Heney known to the American people as one of + their best and most effective servants. These land fraud prosecutions + under Mr. Heney, together with the study of the public lands which + preceded the passage of the Reclamation Act in 1902, and the investigation + of land titles in the National Forests by the Forest Service, all combined + to create a clearer understanding of the need of land law reform, and thus + led to the appointment of the Public Lands Commission. This Commission, + appointed by me on October 22, 1903, was directed to report to the + President: "Upon the condition, operation, and effect of the present land + laws, and to recommend such changes as are needed to effect the largest + practicable disposition of the public lands to actual settlers who will + build permanent homes upon them, and to secure in permanence the fullest + and most effective use of the resources of the public lands." It proceeded + without loss of time to make a personal study on the ground of public land + problems throughout the West, to confer with the Governors and other + public men most concerned, and to assemble the information concerning the + public lands, the laws and decisions which governed them, and the methods + of defeating or evading those laws, which was already in existence, but + which remained unformulated in the records of the General Land Office and + in the mind of its employees. The Public Lands Commission made its first + preliminary report on March 7, 1904. It found "that the present land laws + do not fit the conditions of the remaining public lands," and recommended + specific changes to meet the public needs. A year later the second report + of the Commission recommended still further changes, and said "The + fundamental fact that characterizes the situation under the present land + laws is this, that the number of patents issued is increasing out of all + proportion to the number of new homes." This report laid the foundation of + the movement for Government control of the open range, and included by far + the most complete statement ever made of the disposition of the public + domain. + </p> + <p> + Among the most difficult topics considered by the Public Lands Commission + was that of the mineral land laws. This subject was referred by the + Commission to the American Institute of Mining Engineers, which reported + upon it through a Committee. This Committee made the very important + recommendation, among others, "that the Government of the United States + should retain title to all minerals, including coal and oil, in the lands + of unceded territory, and lease the same to individuals or corporations at + a fixed rental." The necessity for this action has since come to be very + generally recognized. Another recommendation, since partly carried into + effect, was for the separation of the surface and the minerals in lands + containing coal and oil. + </p> + <p> + Our land laws have of recent years proved inefficient; yet the land laws + themselves have not been so much to blame as the lax, unintelligent, and + often corrupt administration of these laws. The appointment on March 4, + 1907, of James R. Garfield as Secretary of the Interior led to a new era + in the interpretation and enforcement of the laws governing the public + lands. His administration of the Interior Department was beyond comparison + the best we have ever had. It was based primarily on the conception that + it is as much the duty of public land officials to help the honest settler + get title to his claim as it is to prevent the looting of the public + lands. The essential fact about public land frauds is not merely that + public property is stolen, but that every claim fraudulently acquired + stands in the way of the making of a home or a livelihood by an honest + man. + </p> + <p> + As the study of the public land laws proceeded and their administration + improved, a public land policy was formulated in which the saving of the + resources on the public domain for public use became the leading + principle. There followed the withdrawal of coal lands as already + described, of oil lands and phosphate lands, and finally, just at the end + of the Administration, of water-power sites on the public domain. These + withdrawals were made by the Executive in order to afford to Congress the + necessary opportunity to pass wise laws dealing with their use and + disposal; and the great crooked special interests fought them with + incredible bitterness. + </p> + <p> + Among the men of this Nation interested in the vital problems affecting + the welfare of the ordinary hard-working men and women of the Nation, + there is none whose interest has been more intense, and more wholly free + from taint of thought of self, than that of Thomas Watson, of Georgia. + While President I often discussed with him the condition of women on the + small farms, and on the frontier, the hardship of their lives as compared + with those of the men, and the need for taking their welfare into consideration + in whatever was done for the improvement of life on the land. I also went + over the matter with C. S. Barrett, of Georgia, a leader in the Southern + farmers' movement, and with other men, such as Henry Wallace, Dean L. H. + Bailey, of Cornell, and Kenyon Butterfield. One man from whose advice I + especially profited was not an American, but an Irishman, Sir Horace + Plunkett. In various conversations he described to me and my close + associates the reconstruction of farm life which had been accomplished by + the Agricultural Organization Society of Ireland, of which he was the + founder and the controlling force; and he discussed the application of + similar methods to the improvements of farm life in the United States. In + the spring of 1908, at my request, Plunkett conferred on the subject with + Garfield and Pinchot, and the latter suggested to him the appointment of a + Commission on Country Life as a means for directing the attention of the + Nation to the problems of the farm, and for securing the necessary + knowledge of the actual conditions of life in the open country. After long + discussion a plan for a Country Life Commission was laid before me and + approved. The appointment of the Commission followed in August, 1908. In + the letter of appointment the reasons for creating the Commission were set + forth as follows: "I doubt if any other nation can bear comparison with + our own in the amount of attention given by the Government, both Federal + and State, to agricultural matters. But practically the whole of this + effort has hitherto been directed toward increasing the production of + crops. Our attention has been concentrated almost exclusively on getting + better farming. In the beginning this was unquestionably the right thing + to do. The farmer must first of all grow good crops in order to support + himself and his family. But when this has been secured, the effort for + better farming should cease to stand alone, and should be accompanied by + the effort for better business and better living on the farm. It is at + least as important that the farmer should get the largest possible return + in money, comfort, and social advantages from the crops he grows, as that + he should get the largest possible return in crops from the land he farms. + Agriculture is not the whole of country life. The great rural interests + are human interests, and good crops are of little value to the farmer + unless they open the door to a good kind of life on the farm." + </p> + <p> + The Commission on Country Life did work of capital importance. By means of + a widely circulated set of questions the Commission informed itself upon + the status of country life throughout the Nation. Its trip through the + East, South, and West brought it into contact with large numbers of + practical farmers and their wives, secured for the Commissioners a most + valuable body of first-hand information, and laid the foundation for the + remarkable awakening of interest in country life which has since taken + place throughout the Nation. + </p> + <p> + One of the most illuminating—and incidentally one of the most + interesting and amusing—series of answers sent to the Commission was + from a farmer in Missouri. He stated that he had a wife and 11 living + children, he and his wife being each 52 years old; and that they owned 520 + acres of land without any mortgage hanging over their heads. He had + himself done well, and his views as to why many of his neighbors had done + less well are entitled to consideration. These views are expressed in + terse and vigorous English; they cannot always be quoted in full. He + states that the farm homes in his neighborhood are not as good as they + should be because too many of them are encumbered by mortgages; that the + schools do not train boys and girls satisfactorily for life on the farm, + because they allow them to get an idea in their heads that city life is + better, and that to remedy this practical farming should be taught. To the + question whether the farmers and their wives in his neighborhood are + satisfactorily organized, he answers: "Oh, there is a little one-horse + grange gang in our locality, and every darned one thinks they ought to be + a king." To the question, "Are the renters of farms in your neighborhood + making a satisfactory living?" he answers: "No; because they move about so + much hunting a better job." To the question, "Is the supply of farm labor + in your neighborhood satisfactory?" the answer is: "No; because the people + have gone out of the baby business"; and when asked as to the remedy, he + answers, "Give a pension to every mother who gives birth to seven living + boys on American soil." To the question, "Are the conditions surrounding + hired labor on the farm in your neighborhood satisfactory to the hired + men?" he answers: "Yes, unless he is a drunken cuss," adding that he would + like to blow up the stillhouses and root out whiskey and beer. To the + question, "Are the sanitary conditions on the farms in your neighborhood + satisfactory?" he answers: "No; too careless about chicken yards, and the + like, and poorly covered wells. In one well on neighbor's farm I counted + seven snakes in the wall of the well, and they used the water daily: his + wife dead now and he is looking for another." He ends by stating that the + most important single thing to be done for the betterment of country life + is "good roads"; but in his answers he shows very clearly that most + important of all is the individual equation of the man or woman. + </p> + <p> + Like the rest of the Commissions described in this chapter, the Country + Life Commission cost the Government not one cent, but laid before the + President and the country a mass of information so accurate and so vitally + important as to disturb the serenity of the advocates of things as they + are; and therefore it incurred the bitter opposition of the reactionaries. + The report of the Country Life Commission was transmitted to Congress by + me on February 9, 1909. In the accompanying message I asked for $25,000 to + print and circulate the report and to prepare for publication the immense + amount of valuable material collected by the Commission but still + unpublished. The reply made by Congress was not only a refusal to + appropriate the money, but a positive prohibition against continuing the + work. The Tawney amendment to the Sundry Civil bill forbade the President + to appoint any further Commissions unless specifically authorized by + Congress to do so. Had this prohibition been enacted earlier <i>and + complied with</i>, it would have prevented the appointment of the six + Roosevelt commissions. But I would not have complied with it. Mr. Tawney, + one of the most efficient representatives of the cause of special + privilege as against public interest to be found in the House, was later, + in conjunction with Senator Hale and others, able to induce my successor + to accept their view. As what was almost my last official act, I replied + to Congress that if I did not believe the Tawney amendment to be + unconstitutional I would veto the Sundry Civil bill which contained it, + and that if I were remaining in office I would refuse to obey it. The + memorandum ran in part: + </p> + <p> + "The chief object of this provision, however, is to prevent the Executive + repeating what it has done within the last year in connection with the + Conservation Commission and the Country Life Commission. It is for the + people of the country to decide whether or not they believe in the work + done by the Conservation Commission and by the Country Life Commission. . + . . + </p> + <p> + "If they believe in improving our waterways, in preventing the waste of + soil, in preserving the forests, in thrifty use of the mineral resources + of the country for the nation as a whole rather than merely for private + monopolies, in working for the betterment of the condition of the men and + women who live on the farms, then they will unstintedly condemn the action + of every man who is in any way responsible for inserting this provision, + and will support those members of the legislative branch who opposed its + adoption. I would not sign the bill at all if I thought the provision + entirely effective. But the Congress cannot prevent the President from + seeking advice. Any future President can do as I have done, and ask + disinterested men who desire to serve the people to give this service free + to the people through these commissions. . . . + </p> + <p> + "My successor, the President-elect, in a letter to the Senate Committee on + Appropriations, asked for the continuance and support of the Conservation + Commission. The Conservation Commission was appointed at the request of + the Governors of over forty States, and almost all of these States have + since appointed commissions to cooperate with the National Commission. + Nearly all the great national organizations concerned with natural + resources have been heartily cooperating with the commission. + </p> + <p> + "With all these facts before it, the Congress has refused to pass a law to + continue and provide for the commission; and it now passes a law with the + purpose of preventing the Executive from continuing the commission at all. + The Executive, therefore, must now either abandon the work and reject the + cooperation of the States, or else must continue the work personally and + through executive officers whom he may select for that purpose." + </p> + <p> + The Chamber of Commerce of Spokane, Washington, a singularly energetic and + far-seeing organization, itself published the report which Congress had + thus discreditably refused to publish. + </p> + <p> + The work of the Bureau of Corporations, under Herbert Knox Smith, formed + an important part of the Conservation movement almost from the beginning. + Mr. Smith was a member of the Inland Waterways Commission and of the + National Conservation Commission and his Bureau prepared material of + importance for the reports of both. The investigation of standing timber + in the United States by the Bureau of Corporations furnished for the first + time a positive knowledge of the facts. Over nine hundred counties in + timbered regions were covered by the Bureau, and the work took five years. + The most important facts ascertained were that forty years ago + three-fourths of the standing timber in the United States was publicly + owned, while at the date of the report four-fifths of the timber in the + country was in private hands. The concentration of private ownership had + developed to such an amazing extent that about two hundred holders owned + nearly one-half of all privately owned timber in the United States; and of + this the three greatest holders, the Southern Pacific Railway, the + Northern Pacific Railway, and the Weyerhaeuser Timber Company, held over + ten per cent. Of this work, Mr. Smith says: + </p> + <p> + "It was important, indeed, to know the facts so that we could take proper + action toward saving the timber still left to the public. But of far more + importance was the light that this history (and the history of our other + resources) throws on the basic attitude, tradition and governmental + beliefs of the American people. The whole standpoint of the people toward + the proper aim of government, toward the relation of property to the + citizen, and the relation of property to the government, were brought out + first by this Conservation work." + </p> + <p> + The work of the Bureau of Corporations as to water power was equally + striking. In addition to bringing the concentration of water-power control + first prominently to public attention, through material furnished for my + message in my veto of the James River Dam Bill, the work of the Bureau + showed that ten great interests and their allies held nearly sixty per + cent of the developed water power of the United States. Says Commissioner + Smith: "Perhaps the most important thing in the whole work was its clear + demonstration of the fact that the only effective place to control water + power in the public interest is at the power sites; that as to powers now + owned by the public it is absolutely essential that the public shall + retain title. . . . The only way in which the public can get back to + itself the margin of natural advantage in the water-power site is to rent + that site at a rental which, added to the cost of power production there, + will make the total cost of water power about the same as fuel power, and + then let the two sell at the same price, i. e., the price of fuel power." + </p> + <p> + Of the fight of the water-power men for States Rights at the St. Paul + Conservation Congress in September, 1909, Commissioner Smith says: + </p> + <p> + "It was the first open sign of the shift of the special interests to the + Democratic party for a logical political reason, namely, because of the + availability of the States Rights idea for the purposes of the large + corporations. It marked openly the turn of the tide." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Smith brought to the attention of the Inland Waterways Commission the + overshadowing importance to waterways of their relation with railroad + lines, the fact that the bulk of the traffic is long distance traffic, + that it cannot pass over the whole distance by water, while it can go + anywhere by rail, and that therefore the power of the rail lines to + pro-rate or not to pro-rate, with water lines really determines the + practical value of a river channel. The controlling value of terminals and + the fact that out of fifty of our leading ports, over half the active + water frontage in twenty-one ports was controlled by the railroads, was + also brought to the Commission's attention, and reports of great value + were prepared both for the Inland Waterways Commission and for the + National Conservation Commission. In addition to developing the basic + facts about the available timber supply, about waterways, water power, and + iron ore, Mr. Smith helped to develop and drive into the public conscience + the idea that the people ought to retain title to our natural resources + and handle them by the leasing system. + </p> + <p> + The things accomplished that have been enumerated above were of immediate + consequence to the economic well-being of our people. In addition certain + things were done of which the economic bearing was more remote, but which + bore directly upon our welfare, because they add to the beauty of living + and therefore to the joy of life. Securing a great artist, Saint-Gaudens, + to give us the most beautiful coinage since the decay of Hellenistic + Greece was one such act. In this case I had power myself to direct the + Mint to employ Saint-Gaudens. The first, and most beautiful, of his coins + were issued in thousands before Congress assembled or could intervene; and + a great and permanent improvement was made in the beauty of the coinage. + In the same way, on the advice and suggestion of Frank Millet, we got some + really capital medals by sculptors of the first rank. Similarly, the new + buildings in Washington were erected and placed in proper relation to one + another, on plans provided by the best architects and landscape + architects. I also appointed a Fine Arts Council, an unpaid body of the + best architects, painters, and sculptors in the country, to advise the + Government as to the erection and decoration of all new buildings. The + "pork-barrel" Senators and Congressmen felt for this body an instinctive, + and perhaps from their standpoint a natural, hostility; and my successor a + couple of months after taking office revoked the appointment and disbanded + the Council. + </p> + <p> + Even more important was the taking of steps to preserve from destruction + beautiful and wonderful wild creatures whose existence was threatened by + greed and wantonness. During the seven and a half years closing on March + 4, 1909, more was accomplished for the protection of wild life in the + United States than during all the previous years, excepting only the + creation of the Yellowstone National Park. The record includes the + creation of five National Parks—Crater Lake, Oregon; Wind Cave, + South Dakota; Platt, Oklahoma; Sully Hill, North Dakota, and Mesa Verde, + Colorado; four big game refuges in Oklahoma, Arizona, Montana, and + Washington; fifty-one bird reservations; and the enactment of laws for the + protection of wild life in Alaska, the District of Columbia, and on + National bird reserves. These measures may be briefly enumerated as + follows: + </p> + <p> + The enactment of the first game laws for the Territory of Alaska in 1902 + and 1908, resulting in the regulation of the export of heads and trophies + of big game and putting an end to the slaughter of deer for hides along + the southern coast of the Territory. + </p> + <p> + The securing in 1902 of the first appropriation for the preservation of + buffalo and the establishment in the Yellowstone National Park of the + first and now the largest herd of buffalo belonging to the Government. + </p> + <p> + The passage of the Act of January 24, 1905, creating the Wichita Game + Preserves, the first of the National game preserves. In 1907, 12,000 acres + of this preserve were inclosed with a woven wire fence for the reception + of the herd of fifteen buffalo donated by the New York Zoological Society. + </p> + <p> + The passage of the Act of June 29, 1906, providing for the establishment + of the Grand Canyon Game Preserve of Arizona, now comprising 1,492,928 + acres. + </p> + <p> + The passage of the National Monuments Act of June 8, 1906, under which a + number of objects of scientific interest have been preserved for all time. + Among the Monuments created are Muir Woods, Pinnacles National Monument in + California, and the Mount Olympus National Monument, Washington, which + form important refuges for game. + </p> + <p> + The passage of the Act of June 30, 1906, regulating shooting in the + District of Columbia and making three-fourths of the environs of the + National Capital within the District in effect a National Refuge. + </p> + <p> + The passage of the Act of May 23, 1908, providing for the establishment of + the National Bison Range in Montana. This range comprises about 18,000 + acres of land formerly in the Flathead Indian Reservation, on which is now + established a herd of eighty buffalo, a nucleus of which was donated to + the Government by the American Bison Society. + </p> + <p> + The issue of the Order protecting birds on the Niobrara Military + Reservation, Nebraska, in 1908, making this entire reservation in effect a + bird reservation. + </p> + <p> + The establishment by Executive Order between March 14, 1903, and March 4, + 1909, of fifty-one National Bird Reservations distributed in seventeen + States and Territories from Porto Rico to Hawaii and Alaska. The creation + of these reservations at once placed the United States in the front rank + in the world work of bird protection. Among these reservations are the + celebrated Pelican Island rookery in Indian River, Florida; the Mosquito + Inlet Reservation, Florida, the northernmost home of the manatee; the + extensive marshes bordering Klamath and Malhuer Lakes in Oregon, formerly + the scene of slaughter of ducks for market and ruthless destruction of + plume birds for the millinery trade; the Tortugas Key, Florida, where, in + connection with the Carnegie Institute, experiments have been made on the + homing instinct of birds; and the great bird colonies on Laysan and sister + islets in Hawaii, some of the greatest colonies of sea birds in the world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <h3> + THE BIG STICK AND THE SQUARE DEAL + </h3> + <p> + One of the vital questions with which as President I had to deal was the + attitude of the Nation toward the great corporations. Men who understand + and practice the deep underlying philosophy of the Lincoln school of + American political thought are necessarily Hamiltonian in their belief in + a strong and efficient National Government and Jeffersonian in their + belief in the people as the ultimate authority, and in the welfare of the + people as the end of Government. The men who first applied the extreme + Democratic theory in American life were, like Jefferson, ultra + individualists, for at that time what was demanded by our people was the + largest liberty for the individual. During the century that had elapsed + since Jefferson became President the need had been exactly reversed. There + had been in our country a riot of individualistic materialism, under which + complete freedom for the individual—that ancient license which + President Wilson a century after the term was excusable has called the + "New" Freedom—turned out in practice to mean perfect freedom for the + strong to wrong the weak. The total absence of governmental control had + led to a portentous growth in the financial and industrial world both of + natural individuals and of artificial individuals—that is, + corporations. In no other country in the world had such enormous fortunes + been gained. In no other country in the world was such power held by the + men who had gained these fortunes; and these men almost always worked + through, and by means of, the giant corporations which they controlled. + The power of the mighty industrial overlords of the country had increased + with giant strides, while the methods of controlling them, or checking + abuses by them, on the part of the people, through the Government, + remained archaic and therefore practically impotent. The courts, not + unnaturally, but most regrettably, and to the grave detriment of the + people and of their own standing, had for a quarter of a century been on + the whole the agents of reaction, and by conflicting decisions which, + however, in their sum were hostile to the interests of the people, had + left both the nation and the several States well-nigh impotent to deal + with the great business combinations. Sometimes they forbade the Nation to + interfere, because such interference trespassed on the rights of the + States; sometimes they forbade the States to interfere (and often they + were wise in this), because to do so would trespass on the rights of the + Nation; but always, or well-nigh always, their action was negative action + against the interests of the people, ingeniously devised to limit their + power against wrong, instead of affirmative action giving to the people + power to right wrong. They had rendered these decisions sometimes as + upholders of property rights against human rights, being especially + zealous in securing the rights of the very men who were most competent to + take care of themselves; and sometimes in the name of liberty, in the name + of the so-called "new freedom," in reality the old, old "freedom," which + secured to the powerful the freedom to prey on the poor and the helpless. + </p> + <p> + One of the main troubles was the fact that the men who saw the evils and + who tried to remedy them attempted to work in two wholly different ways, + and the great majority of them in a way that offered little promise of + real betterment. They tried (by the Sherman law method) to bolster up an + individualism already proved to be both futile and mischievous; to remedy + by more individualism the concentration that was the inevitable result of + the already existing individualism. They saw the evil done by the big + combinations, and sought to remedy it by destroying them and restoring the + country to the economic conditions of the middle of the nineteenth + century. This was a hopeless effort, and those who went into it, although + they regarded themselves as radical progressives, really represented a + form of sincere rural toryism. They confounded monopolies with big + business combinations, and in the effort to prohibit both alike, instead + of where possible prohibiting one and drastically controlling the other, + they succeeded merely in preventing any effective control of either. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, a few men recognized that corporations and combinations + had become indispensable in the business world, that it was folly to try + to prohibit them, but that it was also folly to leave them without + thoroughgoing control. These men realized that the doctrines of the old + laissez faire economists, of the believers in unlimited competition, + unlimited individualism, were in the actual state of affairs false and + mischievous. They realized that the Government must now interfere to + protect labor, to subordinate the big corporation to the public welfare, + and to shackle cunning and fraud exactly as centuries before it had + interfered to shackle the physical force which does wrong by violence. + </p> + <p> + The big reactionaries of the business world and their allies and + instruments among politicians and newspaper editors took advantage of this + division of opinion, and especially of the fact that most of their + opponents were on the wrong path; and fought to keep matters absolutely + unchanged. These men demanded for themselves an immunity from governmental + control which, if granted, would have been as wicked and as foolish as + immunity to the barons of the twelfth century. Many of them were evil men. + Many others were just as good men as were some of these same barons; but + they were as utterly unable as any medieval castle-owner to understand + what the public interest really was. There have been aristocracies which + have played a great and beneficent part at stages in the growth of + mankind; but we had come to the stage where for our people what was needed + was a real democracy; and of all forms of tyranny the least attractive and + the most vulgar is the tyranny of mere wealth, the tyranny of a + plutocracy. + </p> + <p> + When I became President, the question as to the method by which the United + States Government was to control the corporations was not yet important. + The absolutely vital question was whether the Government had power to + control them at all. This question had not yet been decided in favor of + the United States Government. It was useless to discuss methods of + controlling big business by the National Government until it was + definitely settled that the National Government had the power to control + it. A decision of the Supreme Court had, with seeming definiteness, + settled that the National Government had not the power. + </p> + <p> + This decision I caused to be annulled by the court that had rendered it; + and the present power of the National Government to deal effectively with + the trusts is due solely to the success of the Administration in securing + this reversal of its former decision by the Supreme Court. + </p> + <p> + The Constitution was formed very largely because it had become imperative + to give to some central authority the power to regulate and control + interstate commerce. At that time when corporations were in their infancy + and big combinations unknown, there was no difficulty in exercising the + power granted. In theory, the right of the Nation to exercise this power + continued unquestioned. But changing conditions obscured the matter in the + sight of the people as a whole; and the conscious and the unconscious + advocates of an unlimited and uncontrollable capitalism gradually secured + the whittling away of the National power to exercise this theoretical + right of control until it practically vanished. After the Civil War, with + the portentous growth of industrial combinations in this country, came a + period of reactionary decisions by the courts which, as regards + corporations, culminated in what is known as the Knight case. + </p> + <p> + The Sherman Anti-Trust Law was enacted in 1890 because the formation of + the Tobacco Trust and the Sugar Trust, the only two great trusts then in + the country (aside from the Standard Oil Trust, which was a gradual + growth), had awakened a popular demand for legislation to destroy monopoly + and curb industrial combinations. This demand the Anti-Trust Law was + intended to satisfy. The Administrations of Mr. Harrison and Mr. Cleveland + evidently construed this law as prohibiting such combinations in the + future, not as condemning those which had been formed prior to its + enactment. In 1895, however, the Sugar Trust, whose output originally was + about fifty-five per cent of all sugar produced in the United States, + obtained control of three other companies in Philadelphia by exchanging + its stock for theirs, and thus increased its business until it controlled + ninety-eight per cent of the entire product. Under Cleveland, the + Government brought proceedings against the Sugar Trust, invoking the + Anti-Trust Law, to set aside the acquisition of these corporations. The + test case was on the absorption of the Knight Company. The Supreme Court + of the United States, with but one dissenting vote, held adversely to the + Government. They took the ground that the power conferred by the + Constitution to regulate and control interstate commerce did not extend to + the production or manufacture of commodities within a State, and that + nothing in the Sherman Anti-Trust Law prohibited a corporation from + acquiring all the stock of other corporations through exchange of its + stock for theirs, such exchange not being "commerce" in the opinion of the + Court, even though by such acquisition the corporation was enabled to + control the entire production of a commodity that was a necessary of life. + The effect of this decision was not merely the absolute nullification of + the Anti-Trust Law, so far as industrial corporations were concerned, but + was also in effect a declaration that, under the Constitution, the + National Government could pass no law really effective for the destruction + or control of such combinations. + </p> + <p> + This decision left the National Government, that is, the people of the + Nation, practically helpless to deal with the large combinations of modern + business. The courts in other cases asserted the power of the Federal + Government to enforce the Anti-Trust Law so far as transportation rates by + railways engaged in interstate commerce were concerned. But so long as the + trusts were free to control the production of commodities without + interference from the General Government, they were well content to let + the transportation of commodities take care of itself—especially as + the law against rebates was at that time a dead letter; and the Court by + its decision in the Knight case had interdicted any interference by the + President or by Congress with the production of commodities. It was on the + authority of this case that practically all the big trusts in the United + States, excepting those already mentioned, were formed. Usually they were + organized as "holding" companies, each one acquiring control of its + constituent corporations by exchanging its stock for theirs, an operation + which the Supreme Court had thus decided could not be prohibited, + controlled, regulated, or even questioned by the Federal Government. + </p> + <p> + Such was the condition of our laws when I acceded to the Presidency. Just + before my accession, a small group of financiers, desiring to profit by + the governmental impotence to which we had been reduced by the Knight + decision, had arranged to take control of practically the entire railway + system in the Northwest—possibly as the first step toward + controlling the entire railway system of the country. This control of the + Northwestern railway systems was to be effected by organizing a new + "holding" company, and exchanging its stock against the stock of the + various corporations engaged in railway transportation throughout that + vast territory, exactly as the Sugar Trust had acquired control of the + Knight company and other concerns. This company was called the Northern + Securities Company. Not long after I became President, on the advice of + the Attorney-General, Mr. Knox, and through him, I ordered proceedings to + be instituted for the dissolution of the company. As far as could be told + by their utterances at the time, among all the great lawyers in the United + States Mr. Knox was the only one who believed that this action could be + sustained. The defense was based expressly on the ground that the Supreme + Court in the Knight case had explicitly sanctioned the formation of such a + company as the Northern Securities Company. The representatives of + privilege intimated, and sometimes asserted outright, that in directing + the action to be brought I had shown a lack of respect for the Supreme + Court, which had already decided the question at issue by a vote of eight + to one. Mr. Justice White, then on the Court and now Chief Justice, set + forth the position that the two cases were in principle identical with + incontrovertible logic. In giving the views of the dissenting minority on + the action I had brought, he said: + </p> + <p> + "The parallel between the two cases [the Knight case and the Northern + Securities case] is complete. The one corporation acquired the stock of + other and competing corporations in exchange for its own. It was conceded + for the purposes of the case, that in doing so monopoly had been brought + about in the refining of sugar, that the sugar to be produced was likely + to become the subject of interstate commerce, and indeed that part of it + would certainly become so. But the power of Congress was decided not to + extend to the subject, because the ownership of the stock in the + corporations was not itself commerce." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Justice White was entirely correct in this statement. The cases were + parallel. It was necessary to reverse the Knight case in the interests of + the people against monopoly and privilege just as it had been necessary to + reverse the Dred Scott case in the interest of the people against slavery + and privilege; just as later it became necessary to reverse the New York + Bakeshop case in the interest of the people against that form of + monopolistic privilege which put human rights below property rights where + wage workers were concerned. + </p> + <p> + By a vote of five to four the Supreme Court reversed its decision in the + Knight case, and in the Northern Securities case sustained the Government. + The power to deal with industrial monopoly and suppress it and to control + and regulate combinations, of which the Knight case had deprived the + Federal Government, was thus restored to it by the Northern Securities + case. After this later decision was rendered, suits were brought by my + direction against the American Tobacco Company and the Standard Oil + Company. Both were adjudged criminal conspiracies, and their dissolution + ordered. The Knight case was finally overthrown. The vicious doctrine it + embodied no longer remains as an obstacle to obstruct the pathway of + justice when it assails monopoly. Messrs. Knox, Moody, and Bonaparte, who + successively occupied the position of Attorney-General under me, were + profound lawyers and fearless and able men; and they completely + established the newer and more wholesome doctrine under which the Federal + Government may now deal with monopolistic combinations and conspiracies. + </p> + <p> + The decisions rendered in these various cases brought under my direction + constitute the entire authority upon which any action must rest that seeks + through the exercise of national power to curb monopolistic control. The + men who organized and directed the Northern Securities Company were also + the controlling forces in the Steel Corporation, which has since been + prosecuted under the act. The proceedings against the Sugar Trust for + corruption in connection with the New York Custom House are sufficiently + interesting to be considered separately. + </p> + <p> + From the standpoint of giving complete control to the National Government + over big corporations engaged in inter-State business, it would be + impossible to over-estimate the importance of the Northern Securities + decision and of the decisions afterwards rendered in line with it in + connection with the other trusts whose dissolution was ordered. The + success of the Northern Securities case definitely established the power + of the Government to deal with all great corporations. Without this + success the National Government must have remained in the impotence to + which it had been reduced by the Knight decision as regards the most + important of its internal functions. But our success in establishing the + power of the National Government to curb monopolies did not establish the + right method of exercising that power. We had gained the power. We had not + devised the proper method of exercising it. + </p> + <p> + Monopolies can, although in rather cumbrous fashion, be broken up by law + suits. Great business combinations, however, cannot possibly be made + useful instead of noxious industrial agencies merely by law suits, and + especially by law suits supposed to be carried on for their destruction + and not for their control and regulation. I at once began to urge upon + Congress the need of laws supplementing the Anti-Trust Law—for this + law struck at all big business, good and bad, alike, and as the event + proved was very inefficient in checking bad big business, and yet was a + constant threat against decent business men. I strongly urged the + inauguration of a system of thoroughgoing and drastic Governmental + regulation and control over all big business combinations engaged in + inter-State industry. + </p> + <p> + Here I was able to accomplish only a small part of what I desired to + accomplish. I was opposed both by the foolish radicals who desired to + break up all big business, with the impossible ideal of returning to + mid-nineteenth century industrial conditions; and also by the great + privileged interests themselves, who used these ordinarily—but + sometimes not entirely—well-meaning "stool pigeon progressives" to + further their own cause. The worst representatives of big business + encouraged the outcry for the total abolition of big business, because + they knew that they could not be hurt in this way, and that such an outcry + distracted the attention of the public from the really efficient method of + controlling and supervising them, in just but masterly fashion, which was + advocated by the sane representatives of reform. However, we succeeded in + making a good beginning by securing the passage of a law creating the + Department of Commerce and Labor, and with it the erection of the Bureau + of Corporations. The first head of the Department of Commerce and Labor + was Mr. Cortelyou, later Secretary of the Treasury. He was succeeded by + Mr. Oscar Straus. The first head of the Bureau of Corporations was Mr. + Garfield, who was succeeded by Mr. Herbert Knox Smith. No four better + public servants from the standpoint of the people as a whole could have + been found. + </p> + <p> + The Standard Oil Company took the lead in opposing all this legislation. + This was natural, for it had been the worst offender in the amassing of + enormous fortunes by improper methods of all kinds, at the expense of + business rivals and of the public, including the corruption of public + servants. If any man thinks this condemnation extreme, I refer him to the + language officially used by the Supreme Court of the nation in its + decision against the Standard Oil Company. Through their counsel, and by + direct telegrams and letters to Senators and Congressmen from various + heads of the Standard Oil organization, they did their best to kill the + bill providing for the Bureau of Corporations. I got hold of one or two of + these telegrams and letters, however, and promptly published them; and, as + generally happens in such a case, the men who were all-powerful as long as + they could work in secret and behind closed doors became powerless as soon + as they were forced into the open. The bill went through without further + difficulty. + </p> + <p> + The true way of dealing with monopoly is to prevent it by administrative + action before it grows so powerful that even when courts condemn it they + shrink from destroying it. The Supreme Court in the Tobacco and Standard + Oil cases, for instance, used very vigorous language in condemning these + trusts; but the net result of the decision was of positive advantage to + the wrongdoers, and this has tended to bring the whole body of our law + into disrepute in quarters where it is of the very highest importance that + the law be held in respect and even in reverence. My effort was to secure + the creation of a Federal Commission which should neither excuse nor + tolerate monopoly, but prevent it when possible and uproot it when + discovered; and which should in addition effectively control and regulate + all big combinations, and should give honest business certainty as to what + the law was and security as long as the law was obeyed. Such a Commission + would furnish a steady expert control, a control adapted to the problem; + and dissolution is neither control nor regulation, but is purely negative; + and negative remedies are of little permanent avail. Such a Commission + would have complete power to examine into every big corporation engaged or + proposing to engage in business between the States. It would have the + power to discriminate sharply between corporations that are doing well and + those that are doing ill; and the distinction between those who do well + and those who do ill would be defined in terms so clear and unmistakable + that no one could misapprehend them. Where a company is found seeking its + profits through serving the community by stimulating production, lowering + prices, or improving service, while scrupulously respecting the rights of + others (including its rivals, its employees, its customers, and the + general public), and strictly obeying the law, then no matter how large + its capital, or how great the volume of its business it would be + encouraged to still more abundant production, or better service, by the + fullest protection that the Government could afford it. On the other hand, + if a corporation were found seeking profit through injury or oppression of + the community, by restricting production through trick or device, by plot + or conspiracy against competitors, or by oppression of wage-workers, and + then extorting high prices for the commodity it had made artificially + scarce, it would be prevented from organizing if its nefarious purpose + could be discovered in time, or pursued and suppressed by all the power of + Government whenever found in actual operation. Such a commission, with the + power I advocate, would put a stop to abuses of big corporations and small + corporations alike; it would draw the line on conduct and not on size; it + would destroy monopoly, and make the biggest business man in the country + conform squarely to the principles laid down by the American people, while + at the same time giving fair play to the little man and certainty of + knowledge as to what was wrong and what was right both to big man and + little man. + </p> + <p> + Although under the decision of the courts the National Government had + power over the railways, I found, when I became President, that this power + was either not exercised at all or exercised with utter inefficiency. The + law against rebates was a dead letter. All the unscrupulous railway men + had been allowed to violate it with impunity; and because of this, as was + inevitable, the scrupulous and decent railway men had been forced to + violate it themselves, under penalty of being beaten by their less + scrupulous rivals. It was not the fault of these decent railway men. It + was the fault of the Government. + </p> + <p> + Thanks to a first-class railway man, Paul Morton of the Santa Fe, son of + Mr. Cleveland's Secretary of Agriculture, I was able completely to stop + the practice. Mr. Morton volunteered to aid the Government in abolishing + rebates. He frankly stated that he, like every one else, had been guilty + in the matter; but he insisted that he uttered the sentiments of the + decent railway men of the country when he said that he hoped the practice + would be stopped, and that if I would really stop it, and not merely make + believe to stop it, he would give the testimony which would put into the + hands of the Government the power to put a complete check to the practice. + Accordingly he testified, and on the information which he gave us we were + able to take such action through the Inter-State Commerce Commission and + the Department of Justice, supplemented by the necessary additional + legislation, that the evil was absolutely eradicated. He thus rendered, of + his own accord, at his own personal risk, and from purely disinterested + motives, an invaluable service to the people, a service which no other man + who was able to render was willing to render. As an immediate sequel, the + world-old alliance between Blifil and Black George was immediately revived + against Paul Morton. In giving rebates he had done only what every honest + railway man in the country had been obliged to do because of the failure + of the Government to enforce the prohibition as regards dishonest railway + men. But unlike his fellows he had then shown the courage and sense of + obligation to the public which made him come forward and without evasion + or concealment state what he had done, in order that we might successfully + put an end to the practice; and put an end to the practice we did, and we + did it because of the courage and patriotism he had shown. The + unscrupulous railway men, whose dishonest practices were thereby put a + stop to, and the unscrupulous demagogues who were either under the + influence of these men or desirous of gaining credit with thoughtless and + ignorant people no matter who was hurt, joined in vindictive clamor + against Mr. Morton. They actually wished me to prosecute him, although + such prosecution would have been a piece of unpardonable ingratitude and + treachery on the part of the public toward him—for I was merely + acting as the steward of the public in this matter. I need hardly say that + I stood by him; and later he served under me as Secretary of the Navy, and + a capital Secretary he made too. + </p> + <p> + We not only secured the stopping of rebates, but in the Hepburn Rate Bill + we were able to put through a measure which gave the Inter-State Commerce + Commission for the first time real control over the railways. There were + two or three amusing features in the contest over this bill. All of the + great business interests which objected to Governmental control banded to + fight it, and they were helped by the honest men of ultra-conservative + type who always dread change, whether good or bad. We finally forced it + through the House. In the Senate it was referred to a committee in which + the Republican majority was under the control of Senator Aldrich, who took + the lead in opposing the bill. There was one Republican on the committee, + however, whom Senator Aldrich could not control—Senator Dolliver, of + Iowa. The leading Democrat on the committee was Senator Tillman, of South + Carolina, with whom I was not on good terms, because I had been obliged to + cancel an invitation to him to dine at the White House on account of his + having made a personal assault in the Senate Chamber on his colleague from + South Carolina; and later I had to take action against him on account of + his conduct in connection with certain land matters. Senator Tillman + favored the bill. The Republican majority in the committee under Senator + Aldrich, when they acted adversely on the bill, turned it over to Senator + Tillman, thereby making him its sponsor. The object was to create what it + was hoped would be an impossible situation in view of the relations + between Senator Tillman and myself. I regarded the action as simply + childish. It was a curious instance of how able and astute men sometimes + commit blunders because of sheer inability to understand intensity of + disinterested motive in others. I did not care a rap about Mr. Tillman's + getting credit for the bill, or having charge of it. I was delighted to go + with him or with any one else just so long as he was traveling in my way—and + no longer. + </p> + <p> + There was another amusing incident in connection with the passage of the + bill. All the wise friends of the effort to secure Governmental control of + corporations know that this Government control must be exercised through + administrative and not judicial officers if it is to be effective. + Everything possible should be done to minimize the chance of appealing + from the decisions of the administrative officer to the courts. But it is + not possible Constitutionally, and probably would not be desirable anyhow, + completely to abolish the appeal. Unwise zealots wished to make the effort + totally to abolish the appeal in connection with the Hepburn Bill. + Representatives of the special interests wished to extend the appeal to + include what it ought not to include. Between stood a number of men whose + votes would mean the passage of, or the failure to pass, the bill, and who + were not inclined towards either side. Three or four substantially + identical amendments were proposed, and we then suddenly found ourselves + face to face with an absurd situation. The good men who were willing to go + with us but had conservative misgivings about the ultra-radicals would not + accept a good amendment if one of the latter proposed it; and the radicals + would not accept their own amendment if one of the conservatives proposed + it. Each side got so wrought up as to be utterly unable to get matters + into proper perspective; each prepared to stand on unimportant trifles; + each announced with hysterical emphasis—the reformers just as + hysterically as the reactionaries—that the decision as regards each + unimportant trifle determined the worth or worthlessness of the measure. + Gradually we secured a measurable return to sane appreciation of the + essentials. Finally both sides reluctantly agreed to accept the so-called + Allison amendment which did not, as a matter of fact, work any change in + the bill at all. The amendment was drawn by Attorney-General Moody after + consultation with the Inter-State Commerce Commission, and was forwarded + by me to Senator Dolliver; it was accepted, and the bill became law. + </p> + <p> + Thanks to this law and to the way in which the Inter-State Commerce + Commission was backed by the Administration, the Commission, under men + like Prouty, Lane, and Clark, became a most powerful force for good. Some + of the good that we had accomplished was undone after the close of my + Administration by the unfortunate law creating a Commerce Court; but the + major part of the immense advance we had made remained. There was one + point on which I insisted, and upon which it is necessary always to + insist. The Commission cannot do permanent good unless it does justice to + the corporations precisely as it exacts justice from them. The public, the + shippers, the stock and bondholders, and the employees, all have their + rights, and none should be allowed unfair privileges at the expense of the + others. Stock watering and swindling of any kind should of course not only + be stopped but punished. When, however, a road is managed fairly and + honestly, and when it renders a real and needed service, then the + Government must see that it is not so burdened as to make it impossible to + run it at a profit. There is much wise legislation necessary for the + safety of the public, or—like workmen's compensation—necessary + to the well-being of the employee, which nevertheless imposes such a + burden on the road that the burden must be distributed between the general + public and the corporation, or there will be no dividends. In such a case + it may be the highest duty of the commission to raise rates; and the + commission, when satisfied that the necessity exists, in order to do + justice to the owners of the road, should no more hesitate to raise rates, + than under other circumstances to lower them. + </p> + <p> + So much for the "big stick" in dealing with the corporations when they + went wrong. Now for a sample of the square deal. + </p> + <p> + In the fall of 1907 there were severe business disturbances and financial + stringency, culminating in a panic which arose in New York and spread over + the country. The damage actually done was great, and the damage threatened + was incalculable. Thanks largely to the action of the Government, the + panic was stopped before, instead of being merely a serious business + check, it became a frightful and Nation-wide calamity, a disaster fraught + with untold misery and woe to all our people. For several days the Nation + trembled on the brink of such a calamity, of such a disaster. + </p> + <p> + During these days both the Secretary of the Treasury and I personally were + in hourly communication with New York, following every change in the + situation, and trying to anticipate every development. It was the obvious + duty of the Administration to take every step possible to prevent + appalling disaster by checking the spread of the panic before it grew so + that nothing could check it. And events moved with such speed that it was + necessary to decide and to act on the instant, as each successive crisis + arose, if the decision and action were to accomplish anything. The + Secretary of the Treasury took various actions, some on his own + initiative, some by my direction. Late one evening I was informed that two + representatives of the Steel Corporation wished to see me early the + following morning, the precise object not being named. Next morning, while + at breakfast, I was informed that Messrs. Frick and Gary were waiting at + the office. I at once went over, and, as the Attorney-General, Mr. + Bonaparte, had not yet arrived from Baltimore, where he had been passing + the night, I sent a message asking the Secretary of State, Mr. Root, who + was also a lawyer, to join us, which he did. Before the close of the + interview and in the presence of the three gentlemen named, I dictated a + note to Mr. Bonaparte, setting forth exactly what Messrs. Frick and Gary + had proposed, and exactly what I had answered—so that there might be + no possibility of misunderstanding. This note was published in a Senate + Document while I was still President. It runs as follows: + </p> + <p> + THE WHITE HOUSE, Washington, November 4, 1907. + </p> + <p> + My dear Mr. Attorney-General: + </p> + <p> + Judge E. H. Gary and Mr. H. C. Frick, on behalf of the Steel Corporation, + have just called upon me. They state that there is a certain business firm + (the name of which I have not been told, but which is of real importance + in New York business circles), which will undoubtedly fail this week if + help is not given. Among its assets are a majority of the securities of + the Tennessee Coal Company. Application has been urgently made to the + Steel Corporation to purchase this stock as the only means of avoiding a + failure. Judge Gary and Mr. Frick informed me that as a mere business + transaction they do not care to purchase the stock; that under ordinary + circumstances they would not consider purchasing the stock, because but + little benefit will come to the Steel Corporation from the purchase; that + they are aware that the purchase will be used as a handle for attack upon + them on the ground that they are striving to secure a monopoly of the + business and prevent competition—not that this would represent what + could honestly be said, but what might recklessly and untruthfully be + said. + </p> + <p> + They further informed me that, as a matter of fact, the policy of the + company has been to decline to acquire more than sixty per cent of the + steel properties, and that this purpose has been persevered in for several + years past, with the object of preventing these accusations, and, as a + matter of fact, their proportion of steel properties has slightly + decreased, so that it is below this sixty per cent, and the acquisition of + the property in question will not raise it above sixty per cent. But they + feel that it is immensely to their interest, as to the interest of every + responsible business man, to try to prevent a panic and general industrial + smash-up at this time, and that they are willing to go into this + transaction, which they would not otherwise go into, because it seems the + opinion of those best fitted to express judgment in New York that it will + be an important factor in preventing a break that might be ruinous; and + that this has been urged upon them by the combination of the most + responsible bankers in New York who are now thus engaged in endeavoring to + save the situation. But they asserted that they did not wish to do this if + I stated that it ought not to be done. I answered that, while of course I + could not advise them to take the action proposed, I felt it no public + duty of mine to interpose any objections. + </p> + <p> + Sincerely yours, (Signed) THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + HON. CHARLES J. BONAPARTE, Attorney-General. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Bonaparte received this note in about an hour, and that same morning + he came over, acknowledged its receipt, and said that my answer was the + only proper answer that could have been made, having regard both to the + law and to the needs of the situation. He stated that the legal situation + had been in no way changed, and that no sufficient ground existed for + prosecution of the Steel Corporation. But I acted purely on my own + initiative, and the responsibility for the act was solely mine. + </p> + <p> + I was intimately acquainted with the situation in New York. The word + "panic" means fear, unreasoning fear; to stop a panic it is necessary to + restore confidence; and at the moment the so-called Morgan interests were + the only interests which retained a full hold on the confidence of the + people of New York—not only the business people, but the immense + mass of men and women who owned small investments or had small savings in + the banks and trust companies. Mr. Morgan and his associates were of + course fighting hard to prevent the loss of confidence and the panic + distrust from increasing to such a degree as to bring any other big + financial institutions down; for this would probably have been followed by + a general, and very likely a worldwide, crash. The Knickerbocker Trust + Company had already failed, and runs had begun on, or were threatened as + regards, two other big trust companies. These companies were now on the + fighting line, and it was to the interest of everybody to strengthen them, + in order that the situation might be saved. It was a matter of general + knowledge and belief that they, or the individuals prominent in them, held + the securities of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company, which securities + had no market value, and were useless as a source of strength in the + emergency. The Steel Corporation securities, on the contrary, were + immediately marketable, their great value being known and admitted all + over the world—as the event showed. The proposal of Messrs. Frick + and Gary was that the Steel Corporation should at once acquire the + Tennessee Coal and Iron Company, and thereby substitute, among the assets + of the threatened institutions (which, by the way, they did not name to + me), securities of great and immediate value for securities which at the + moment were of no value. It was necessary for me to decide on the instant, + before the Stock Exchange opened, for the situation in New York was such + that any hour might be vital, and failure to act for even an hour might + make all subsequent effort to act utterly useless. From the best + information at my disposal, I believed (what was actually the fact) that + the addition of the Tennessee Coal and Iron property would only increase + the proportion of the Steel Company's holdings by about four per cent, + making them about sixty-two per cent instead of about fifty-eight per cent + of the total value in the country; an addition which, by itself, in my + judgment (concurred in, not only by the Attorney-General but by every + competent lawyer), worked no change in the legal status of the Steel + corporation. The diminution in the percentage of holdings, and production, + has gone on steadily, and the percentage is now about ten per cent less + than it was ten years ago. + </p> + <p> + The action was emphatically for the general good. It offered the only + chance for arresting the panic, and it did arrest the panic. I answered + Messrs. Frick and Gary, as set forth in the letter quoted above, to the + effect that I did not deem it my duty to interfere, that is, to forbid the + action which more than anything else in actual fact saved the situation. + The result justified my judgment. The panic was stopped, public confidence + in the solvency of the threatened institution being at once restored. + </p> + <p> + Business was vitally helped by what I did. The benefit was not only for + the moment. It was permanent. Particularly was this the case in the South. + Three or four years afterwards I visited Birmingham. Every man I met, + without exception, who was competent to testify, informed me voluntarily + that the results of the action taken had been of the utmost benefit to + Birmingham, and therefore to Alabama, the industry having profited to an + extraordinary degree, not only from the standpoint of the business, but + from the standpoint of the community at large and of the wage-workers, by + the change in ownership. The results of the action I took were beneficial + from every standpoint, and the action itself, at the time when it was + taken, was vitally necessary to the welfare of the people of the United + States. + </p> + <p> + I would have been derelict in my duty, I would have shown myself a timid + and unworthy public servant, if in that extraordinary crisis I had not + acted precisely as I did act. In every such crisis the temptation to + indecision, to non-action, is great, for excuses can always be found for + non-action, and action means risk and the certainty of blame to the man + who acts. But if the man is worth his salt he will do his duty, he will + give the people the benefit of the doubt, and act in any way which their + interests demand and which is not affirmatively prohibited by law, + unheeding the likelihood that he himself, when the crisis is over and the + danger past, will be assailed for what he has done. + </p> + <p> + Every step I took in this matter was open as the day, and was known in + detail at the moment to all people. The press contained full accounts of + the visit to me of Messrs. Frick and Gary, and heralded widely and with + acclamation the results of that visit. At the time the relief and + rejoicing over what had been done were well-nigh universal. The danger was + too imminent and too appalling for me to be willing to condemn those who + were successful in saving them from it. But I fully understood and + expected that when there was no longer danger, when the fear had been + forgotten, attack would be made upon me; and as a matter of fact after a + year had elapsed the attack was begun, and has continued at intervals ever + since; my ordinary assailant being some politician of rather cheap type. + </p> + <p> + If I were on a sail-boat, I should not ordinarily meddle with any of the + gear; but if a sudden squall struck us, and the main sheet jammed, so that + the boat threatened to capsize, I would unhesitatingly cut the main sheet, + even though I were sure that the owner, no matter how grateful to me at + the moment for having saved his life, would a few weeks later, when he had + forgotten his danger and his fear, decide to sue me for the value of the + cut rope. But I would feel a hearty contempt for the owner who so acted. + </p> + <p> + There were many other things that we did in connection with corporations. + One of the most important was the passage of the meat inspection law + because of scandalous abuses shown to exist in the great packing-houses in + Chicago and elsewhere. There was a curious result of this law, similar to + what occurred in connection with the law providing for effective railway + regulation. The big beef men bitterly opposed the law; just as the big + railway men opposed the Hepburn Act. Yet three or four years after these + laws had been put on the statute books every honest man both in the beef + business and the railway business came to the conclusion that they worked + good and not harm to the decent business concerns. They hurt only those + who were not acting as they should have acted. The law providing for the + inspection of packing-houses, and the Pure Food and Drugs Act, were also + extremely important; and the way in which they were administered was even + more important. It would be hard to overstate the value of the service + rendered in all these cases by such cabinet officers as Moody and + Bonaparte, and their outside assistants of the stamp of Frank Kellogg. + </p> + <p> + It would be useless to enumerate all the suits we brought. Some of them I + have already touched upon. Others, such as the suits against the Harriman + railway corporations, which were successful, and which had been rendered + absolutely necessary by the grossly improper action of the corporations + concerned, offered no special points of interest. The Sugar Trust + proceedings, however, may be mentioned as showing just the kind of thing + that was done and the kind of obstacle encountered and overcome in + prosecutions of this character. + </p> + <p> + It was on the advice of my secretary, William Loeb, Jr., afterward head of + the New York Custom-House, that the action was taken which started the + uncovering of the frauds perpetrated by the Sugar Trust and other + companies in connection with the importing of sugar. Loeb had from time to + time told me that he was sure that there was fraud in connection with the + importations by the Sugar Trust through the New York Custom-House. + Finally, some time toward the end of 1904, he informed me that Richard + Parr, a sampler at the New York Appraisers' Stores (whose duties took him + almost continually on the docks in connection with the sampling of + merchandise), had called on him, and had stated that in his belief the + sugar companies were defrauding the Government in the matter of weights, + and had stated that if he could be made an investigating officer of the + Treasury Department, he was confident that he could show there was + wrongdoing. Parr had been a former school fellow of Loeb in Albany, and + Loeb believed him to be loyal, honest, and efficient. He thereupon laid + the matter before me, and advised the appointment of Parr as a special + employee of the Treasury Department, for the specific purpose of + investigating the alleged sugar frauds. I instructed the Treasury + Department accordingly, and was informed that there was no vacancy in the + force of special employees, but that Parr would be given the first place + that opened up. Early in the spring of 1905 Parr came to Loeb again, and + said that he had received additional information about the sugar frauds, + and was anxious to begin the investigation. Loeb again discussed the + matter with me; and I notified the Treasury Department to appoint Parr + immediately. On June 1, 1905, he received his appointment, and was + assigned to the port of Boston for the purpose of gaining some experience + as an investigating officer. During the month he was transferred to the + Maine District, with headquarters at Portland, where he remained until + March, 1907. During his service in Maine he uncovered extensive wool + smuggling frauds. At the conclusion of the wool case, he appealed to Loeb + to have him transferred to New York, so that he might undertake the + investigation of the sugar underweighing frauds. I now called the + attention of Secretary Cortelyou personally to the matter, so that he + would be able to keep a check over any subordinates who might try to + interfere with Parr, for the conspiracy was evidently widespread, the + wealth of the offenders great, and the corruption in the service + far-reaching—while moreover as always happens with "respectable" + offenders, there were many good men who sincerely disbelieved in the + possibility of corruption on the part of men of such high financial + standing. Parr was assigned to New York early in March, 1907, and at once + began an active investigation of the conditions existing on the sugar + docks. This terminated in the discovery of a steel spring in one of the + scales of the Havemeyer & Elder docks in Brooklyn, November 20, 1907, + which enabled us to uncover what were probably the most colossal frauds + ever perpetrated in the Customs Service. From the beginning of his active + work in the investigation of the sugar frauds in March, 1907, to March 4, + 1909, Parr, from time to time, personally reported to Loeb, at the White + House, the progress of his investigations, and Loeb in his turn kept me + personally advised. On one occasion there was an attempt made to shunt + Parr off the investigation and substitute another agent of the Treasury, + who was suspected of having some relations with the sugar companies under + investigation; but Parr reported the facts to Loeb, I sent for Secretary + Cortelyou, and Secretary Cortelyou promptly took charge of the matter + himself, putting Parr back on the investigation. + </p> + <p> + During the investigation Parr was subjected to all sorts of harassments, + including an attempt to bribe him by Spitzer, the dock superintendent of + the Havemeyer & Elder Refinery, for which Spitzer was convicted and + served a term in prison. Brzezinski, a special agent, who was assisting + Parr, was convicted of perjury and also served a term in prison, he having + changed his testimony, in the trial of Spitzer for the attempted bribery + of Parr, from that which he gave before the Grand Jury. For his + extraordinary services in connection with this investigation Parr was + granted an award of $100,000 by the Treasury Department. + </p> + <p> + District-Attorney Stimson, of New York, assisted by Denison, Frankfurter, + Wise, and other employees of the Department of Justice, took charge of the + case, and carried on both civil and criminal proceedings. The trial in the + action against the Sugar Trust, for the recovery of duties on the cargo of + sugar, which was being sent over the scales at the time of the discovery + of the steel spring by Parr, was begun in 1908; judgment was rendered + against the defendants on March 5, 1909, the day after I left office. Over + four million dollars were recovered and paid back into the United States + Treasury by the sugar companies which had perpetrated the various forms of + fraud. These frauds were unearthed by Parr, Loeb, Stimson, Frankfurter, + and the other men mentioned and their associates, and it was to them that + the people owed the refunding of the huge sum of money mentioned. We had + already secured heavy fines from the Sugar Trust, and from various big + railways, and private individuals, such as Edwin Earle, for unlawful + rebates. In the case of the chief offender, the American Sugar Refining + Company (the Sugar Trust), criminal prosecutions were carried on against + every living man whose position was such that he would naturally know + about the fraud. All of them were indicted, and the biggest and most + responsible ones were convicted. The evidence showed that the president of + the company, Henry O. Havemeyer, virtually ran the entire company, and was + responsible for all the details of the management. He died two weeks after + the fraud was discovered, just as proceedings were being begun. Next to + him in importance was the secretary and treasurer, Charles R. Heike, who + was convicted. Various other officials and employees of the Trust, and + various Government employees, were indicted, and most of them convicted. + Ernest W. Gerbracht, the superintendent of one of the refineries, was + convicted, but his sentence was commuted to a short jail imprisonment, + because he became a Government witness and greatly assisted the Government + in the suits. + </p> + <p> + Heike's sentence was commuted so as to excuse him from going to the + penitentiary; just as the penitentiary sentence of Morse, the big New York + banker, who was convicted of gross fraud and misapplication of funds, was + commuted. Both commutations were granted long after I left office. In each + case the commutation was granted because, as was stated, of the prisoner's + age and state of health. In Morse's case the President originally refused + the request, saying that Morse had exhibited "fraudulent and criminal + disregard of the trust imposed upon him," that "he was entirely + unscrupulous as to the methods he adopted," and "that he seemed at times + to be absolutely heartless with regard to the consequences to others, and + he showed great shrewdness in obtaining large sums of money from the bank + without adequate security and without making himself personally liable + therefor." The two cases may be considered in connection with the + announcement in the public press that on May 17, 1913, the President + commuted the sentence of Lewis A. Banks, who was serving a very long term + penitentiary sentence for an attack on a girl in the Indian Territory; + "the reason for the commutation which is set forth in the press being that + 'Banks is in poor health.'" + </p> + <p> + It is no easy matter to balance the claims of justice and mercy in such + cases. In these three cases, of all of which I had personal cognizance, I + disagreed radically with the views my successors took, and with the views + which many respectable men took who in these and similar cases, both while + I was in office and afterward, urged me to show, or to ask others to show, + clemency. It then seemed to me, and it now seems to me, that such clemency + is from the larger standpoint a gross wrong to the men and women of the + country. + </p> + <p> + One of the former special assistants of the district-attorney, Mr. W. + Cleveland Runyon, in commenting bitterly on the release of Heike and Morse + on account of their health, pointed out that their health apparently + became good when once they themselves became free men, and added: + </p> + <p> + "The commutation of these sentences amounts to a direct interference with + the administration of justice by the courts. Heike got a $25,000 salary + and has escaped his imprisonment, but what about the six $18 a week + checkers, who were sent to jail, one of them a man of more than sixty? It + is cases like this that create discontent and anarchy. They make it seem + plain that there is one law for the rich and another for the poor man, and + I for one will protest." + </p> + <p> + In dealing with Heike the individual (or Morse or any other individual), + it is necessary to emphasize the social aspects of his case. The moral of + the Heike case, as has been well said, is "how easy it is for a man in + modern corporate organization to drift into wrongdoing." The moral + restraints are loosened in the case of a man like Heike by the insulation + of himself from the sordid details of crime, through industrially coerced + intervening agents. Professor Ross has made the penetrating observation + that "distance disinfects dividends"; it also weakens individual + responsibility, particularly on the part of the very managers of large + business, who should feel it most acutely. One of the officers of the + Department of Justice who conducted the suit, and who inclined to the side + of mercy in the matter, nevertheless writes: "Heike is a beautiful + illustration of mental and moral obscuration in the business life of an + otherwise valuable member of society. Heike had an ample share in the + guidance of the affairs of the American Sugar Company, and we are apt to + have a foreshortened picture of his responsibility, because he operated + from the easy coign of vantage of executive remoteness. It is difficult to + say to what extent he did, directly or indirectly, profit by the sordid + practices of his company. But the social damage of an individual in his + position may be just as deep, whether merely the zest of the game or hard + cash be his dominant motive." + </p> + <p> + I have coupled the cases of the big banker and the Sugar Trust official + and the case of the man convicted of a criminal assault on a woman. All of + the criminals were released from penitentiary sentences on grounds of ill + health. The offenses were typical of the worst crimes committed at the two + ends of the social scale. One offense was a crime of brutal violence; the + other offenses were crimes of astute corruption. All of them were offenses + which in my judgment were of such a character that clemency towards the + offender worked grave injustice to the community as a whole, injustice so + grave that its effects might be far-reaching in their damage. + </p> + <p> + Every time that rape or criminal assault on a woman is pardoned, and + anything less than the full penalty of the law exacted, a premium is put + on the practice of lynching such offenders. Every time a big moneyed + offender, who naturally excites interest and sympathy, and who has many + friends, is excused from serving a sentence which a man of less prominence + and fewer friends would have to serve, justice is discredited in the eyes + of plain people—and to undermine faith in justice is to strike at + the foundation of the Republic. As for ill health, it must be remembered + that few people are as healthy in prison as they would be outside; and + there should be no discrimination among criminals on this score; either + all criminals who grow unhealthy should be let out, or none. Pardons must + sometimes be given in order that the cause of justice may be served; but + in cases such as these I am considering, while I know that many amiable + people differ from me, I am obliged to say that in my judgment the pardons + work far-reaching harm to the cause of justice. + </p> + <p> + Among the big corporations themselves, even where they did wrong, there + was a wide difference in the moral obliquity indicated by the wrongdoer. + There was a wide distinction between the offenses committed in the case of + the Northern Securities Company, and the offenses because of which the + Sugar Trust, the Tobacco Trust, and the Standard Oil Trust were + successfully prosecuted under my Administration. It was vital to destroy + the Northern Securities Company; but the men creating it had done so in + open and above-board fashion, acting under what they, and most of the + members of the bar, thought to be the law established by the Supreme Court + in the Knight sugar case. But the Supreme Court in its decree dissolving + the Standard Oil and Tobacco Trusts, condemned them in the severest + language for moral turpitude; and an even severer need of condemnation + should be visited on the Sugar Trust. + </p> + <p> + However, all the trusts and big corporations against which we proceeded—which + included in their directorates practically all the biggest financiers in + the country—joined in making the bitterest assaults on me and on my + Administration. Of their actions I wrote as follows to Attorney-General + Bonaparte, who had been a peculiarly close friend and adviser through the + period covered by my public life in high office and who, together with + Attorney-General Moody, possessed the same understanding sympathy with my + social and industrial program that was possessed by such officials as + Straus, Garfield, H. K. Smith, and Pinchot. The letter runs: + </p> + <p> + January 2, 1908. + </p> + <p> + My dear Bonaparte: + </p> + <p> + I must congratulate you on your admirable speech at Chicago. You said the + very things it was good to say at this time. What you said bore especial + weight because it represented what you had done. You have shown by what + you have actually accomplished that the law is enforced against the + wealthiest corporation, and the richest and most powerful manager or + manipulator of that corporation, just as resolutely and fearlessly as + against the humblest citizen. The Department of Justice is now in very + fact the Department of Justice, and justice is meted out with an even hand + to great and small, rich and poor, weak and strong. Those who have + denounced you and the action of the Department of Justice are either + misled, or else are the very wrongdoers, and the agents of the very + wrongdoers, who have for so many years gone scot-free and flouted the laws + with impunity. Above all, you are to be congratulated upon the bitterness + felt and expressed towards you by the representatives and agents of the + great law-defying corporations of immense wealth, who, until within the + last half-dozen years, have treated themselves and have expected others to + treat them as being beyond and above all possible check from law. + </p> + <p> + It was time to say something, for the representatives of predatory wealth, + of wealth accumulated on a giant scale by iniquity, by wrongdoing in many + forms, by plain swindling, by oppressing wage-workers, by manipulating + securities, by unfair and unwholesome competition and by stock-jobbing,—in + short, by conduct abhorrent to every man of ordinarily decent conscience, + have during the last few months made it evident that they are banded + together to work for a reaction, to endeavor to overthrow and discredit + all who honestly administer the law, and to secure a return to the days + when every unscrupulous wrongdoer could do what he wished unchecked, + provided he had enough money. They attack you because they know your + honesty and fearlessness, and dread them. The enormous sums of money these + men have at their control enable them to carry on an effective campaign. + They find their tools in a portion of the public press, including + especially certain of the great New York newspapers. They find their + agents in some men in public life,—now and then occupying, or having + occupied, positions as high as Senator or Governor,—in some men in + the pulpit, and most melancholy of all, in a few men on the bench. By + gifts to colleges and universities they are occasionally able to subsidize + in their own interest some head of an educational body, who, save only a + judge, should of all men be most careful to keep his skirts clear from the + taint of such corruption. There are ample material rewards for those who + serve with fidelity the Mammon of unrighteousness, but they are dearly + paid for by that institution of learning whose head, by example and + precept, teaches the scholars who sit under him that there is one law for + the rich and another for the poor. The amount of money the representatives + of the great moneyed interests are willing to spend can be gauged by their + recent publication broadcast throughout the papers of this country from + the Atlantic to the Pacific of huge advertisements, attacking with + envenomed bitterness the Administration's policy of warring against + successful dishonesty, advertisements that must have cost enormous sums of + money. This advertisement, as also a pamphlet called "The Roosevelt + Panic," and one or two similar books and pamphlets, are written especially + in the interest of the Standard Oil and Harriman combinations, but also + defend all the individuals and corporations of great wealth that have been + guilty of wrongdoing. From the railroad rate law to the pure food law, + every measure for honesty in business that has been pressed during the + last six years, has been opposed by these men, on its passage and in its + administration, with every resource that bitter and unscrupulous craft + could suggest, and the command of almost unlimited money secure. These men + do not themselves speak or write; they hire others to do their bidding. + Their spirit and purpose are made clear alike by the editorials of the + papers owned in, or whose policy is dictated by, Wall Street, and by the + speeches of public men who, as Senators, Governors, or Mayors, have served + these their masters to the cost of the plain people. At one time one of + their writers or speakers attacks the rate law as the cause of the panic; + he is, whether in public life or not, usually a clever corporation lawyer, + and he is not so foolish a being as to believe in the truth of what he + says; he has too closely represented the railroads not to know well that + the Hepburn Rate Bill has helped every honest railroad, and has hurt only + the railroads that regarded themselves as above the law. At another time, + one of them assails the Administration for not imprisoning people under + the Sherman Anti-Trust Law; for declining to make what he well knows, in + view of the actual attitude of juries (as shown in the Tobacco Trust cases + and in San Francisco in one or two of the cases brought against corrupt + business men) would have been the futile endeavor to imprison defendants + whom we are actually able to fine. He raises the usual clamor, raised by + all who object to the enforcement of the law, that we are fining + corporations instead of putting the heads of the corporations in jail; and + he states that this does not really harm the chief offenders. Were this + statement true, he himself would not be found attacking us. The + extraordinary violence of the assault upon our policy contained in + speeches like these, in the articles in the subsidized press, in such huge + advertisements and pamphlets as those above referred to, and the enormous + sums of money spent in these various ways, give a fairly accurate measure + of the anger and terror which our actions have caused the corrupt men of + vast wealth to feel in the very marrow of their being. + </p> + <p> + The man thus attacking us is usually, like so many of his fellows, either + a great lawyer, or a paid editor who takes his commands from the + financiers and his arguments from their attorneys. If the former, he has + defended many malefactors, and he knows well that, thanks to the advice of + lawyers like himself, a certain kind of modern corporation has been turned + into an admirable instrument by which to render it well nigh impossible to + get at the really guilty man, so that in most cases the only way of + punishing the wrong is by fining the corporation or by proceeding + personally against some of the minor agents. These lawyers and their + employers are the men mainly responsible for this state of things, and + their responsibility is shared with the legislators who ingeniously oppose + the passing of just and effective laws, and with those judges whose one + aim seems to be to construe such laws so that they cannot be executed. + Nothing is sillier than this outcry on behalf of the "innocent + stockholders" in the corporations. We are besought to pity the Standard + Oil Company for a fine relatively far less great than the fines every day + inflicted in the police courts upon multitudes of push cart peddlers and + other petty offenders, whose woes never extort one word from the men whose + withers are wrung by the woes of the mighty. The stockholders have the + control of the corporation in their own hands. The corporation officials + are elected by those holding the majority of the stock and can keep office + only by having behind them the good-will of these majority stockholders. + They are not entitled to the slightest pity if they deliberately choose to + resign into the hands of great wrongdoers the control of the corporations + in which they own the stock. Of course innocent people have become + involved in these big corporations and suffer because of the misdeeds of + their criminal associates. Let these innocent people be careful not to + invest in corporations where those in control are not men of probity, men + who respect the laws; above all let them avoid the men who make it their + one effort to evade or defy the laws. But if these honest innocent people + are in the majority in any corporation they can immediately resume control + and throw out of the directory the men who misrepresent them. Does any man + for a moment suppose that the majority stockholders of the Standard Oil + are others than Mr. Rockefeller and his associates themselves and the + beneficiaries of their wrongdoing? When the stock is watered so that the + innocent investors suffer, a grave wrong is indeed done to these innocent + investors as well as to the public; but the public men, lawyers and + editors, to whom I refer, do not under these circumstances express + sympathy for the innocent; on the contrary they are the first to protest + with frantic vehemence against our efforts by law to put a stop to + over-capitalization and stock-watering. The apologists of successful + dishonesty always declaim against any effort to punish or prevent it on + the ground that such effort will "unsettle business." It is they who by + their acts have unsettled business; and the very men raising this cry + spend hundreds of thousands of dollars in securing, by speech, editorial, + book or pamphlet, the defense by misstatement of what they have done; and + yet when we correct their misstatements by telling the truth, they declaim + against us for breaking silence, lest "values be unsettled!" They have + hurt honest business men, honest working men, honest farmers; and now they + clamor against the truth being told. + </p> + <p> + The keynote of all these attacks upon the effort to secure honesty in + business and in politics, is expressed in a recent speech, in which the + speaker stated that prosperity had been checked by the effort for the + "moral regeneration of the business world," an effort which he denounced + as "unnatural, unwarranted, and injurious" and for which he stated the + panic was the penalty. The morality of such a plea is precisely as great + as if made on behalf of the men caught in a gambling establishment when + that gambling establishment is raided by the police. If such words mean + anything they mean that those whose sentiments they represent stand + against the effort to bring about a moral regeneration of business which + will prevent a repetition of the insurance, banking, and street railroad + scandals in New York; a repetition of the Chicago and Alton deal; a + repetition of the combination between certain professional politicians, + certain professional labor leaders and certain big financiers from the + disgrace of which San Francisco has just been rescued; a repetition of the + successful efforts by the Standard Oil people to crush out every + competitor, to overawe the common carriers, and to establish a monopoly + which treats the public with the contempt which the public deserves so + long as it permits men like the public men of whom I speak to represent it + in politics, men like the heads of colleges to whom I refer to educate its + youth. The outcry against stopping dishonest practices among the very + wealthy is precisely similar to the outcry raised against every effort for + cleanliness and decency in city government because, forsooth, it will + "hurt business." The same outcry is made against the Department of Justice + for prosecuting the heads of colossal corporations that is made against + the men who in San Francisco are prosecuting with impartial severity the + wrongdoers among business men, public officials, and labor leaders alike. + The principle is the same in the two cases. Just as the blackmailer and + the bribe giver stand on the same evil eminence of infamy, so the man who + makes an enormous fortune by corrupting Legislatures and municipalities + and fleecing his stockholders and the public stands on a level with the + creature who fattens on the blood money of the gambling house, the saloon + and the brothel. Moreover, both kinds of corruption in the last analysis + are far more intimately connected than would at first sight appear; the + wrong-doing is at bottom the same. Corrupt business and corrupt politics + act and react, with ever increasing debasement, one on the other; the + rebate-taker, the franchise-trafficker, the manipulator of securities, the + purveyor and protector of vice, the black-mailing ward boss, the ballot + box stuffer, the demagogue, the mob leader, the hired bully and mankiller, + all alike work at the same web of corruption, and all alike should be + abhorred by honest men. + </p> + <p> + The "business" which is hurt by the movement for honesty is the kind of + business which, in the long run, it pays the country to have hurt. It is + the kind of business which has tended to make the very name "high finance" + a term of scandal to which all honest American men of business should join + in putting an end. One of the special pleaders for business dishonesty, in + a recent speech, in denouncing the Administration for enforcing the law + against the huge and corrupt corporations which have defied the law, also + denounced it for endeavoring to secure a far-reaching law making employers + liable for injuries to their employees. It is meet and fit that the + apologists for corrupt wealth should oppose every effort to relieve weak + and helpless people from crushing misfortune brought upon them by injury + in the business from which they gain a bare livelihood and their employers + fortunes. It is hypocritical baseness to speak of a girl who works in a + factory where the dangerous machinery is unprotected as having the "right" + freely to contract to expose herself to dangers to life and limb. She has + no alternative but to suffer want or else to expose herself to such + dangers, and when she loses a hand or is otherwise maimed or disfigured + for life it is a moral wrong that the burden of the risk necessarily + incidental to the business should be placed with crushing weight upon her + weak shoulders and the man who has profited by her work escape scot-free. + This is what our opponents advocate, and it is proper that they should + advocate it, for it rounds out their advocacy of those most dangerous + members of the criminal class, the criminals of vast wealth, the men who + can afford best to pay for such championship in the press and on the + stump. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to speak about the judges, for it behooves us all to treat + with the utmost respect the high office of judge; and our judges as a + whole are brave and upright men. But there is need that those who go wrong + should not be allowed to feel that there is no condemnation of their + wrongdoing. A judge who on the bench either truckles to the mob or bows + down before a corporation; or who, having left the bench to become a + corporation lawyer, seeks to aid his clients by denouncing as enemies of + property all those who seek to stop the abuses of the criminal rich; such + a man performs an even worse service to the body politic than the + Legislator or Executive who goes wrong. In no way can respect for the + courts be so quickly undermined as by teaching the public through the + action of a judge himself that there is reason for the loss of such + respect. The judge who by word or deed makes it plain that the corrupt + corporation, the law-defying corporation, the law-defying rich man, has in + him a sure and trustworthy ally, the judge who by misuse of the process of + injunction makes it plain that in him the wage-worker has a determined and + unscrupulous enemy, the judge who when he decides in an employers' + liability or a tenement house factory case shows that he has neither + sympathy for nor understanding of those fellow-citizens of his who most + need his sympathy and understanding; these judges work as much evil as if + they pandered to the mob, as if they shrank from sternly repressing + violence and disorder. The judge who does his full duty well stands + higher, and renders a better service to the people, than any other public + servant; he is entitled to greater respect; and if he is a true servant of + the people, if he is upright, wise and fearless, he will unhesitatingly + disregard even the wishes of the people if they conflict with the eternal + principles of right as against wrong. He must serve the people; but he + must serve his conscience first. All honor to such a judge; and all honor + cannot be rendered him if it is rendered equally to his brethren who fall + immeasurably below the high ideals for which he stands. There should be a + sharp discrimination against such judges. They claim immunity from + criticism, and the claim is heatedly advanced by men and newspapers like + those of whom I speak. Most certainly they can claim immunity from + untruthful criticism; and their champions, the newspapers and the public + men I have mentioned, exquisitely illustrate by their own actions + mendacious criticism in its most flagrant and iniquitous form. + </p> + <p> + But no servant of the people has a right to expect to be free from just + and honest criticism. It is the newspapers, and the public men whose + thoughts and deeds show them to be most alien to honesty and truth who + themselves loudly object to truthful and honest criticism of their + fellow-servants of the great moneyed interests. + </p> + <p> + We have no quarrel with the individuals, whether public men, lawyers or + editors, to whom I refer. These men derive their sole power from the + great, sinister offenders who stand behind them. They are but puppets who + move as the strings are pulled by those who control the enormous masses of + corporate wealth which if itself left uncontrolled threatens dire evil to + the Republic. It is not the puppets, but the strong, cunning men and the + mighty forces working for evil behind, and to a certain extent through, + the puppets, with whom we have to deal. We seek to control law-defying + wealth, in the first place to prevent its doing evil, and in the next + place to avoid the vindictive and dreadful radicalism which if left + uncontrolled it is certain in the end to arouse. Sweeping attacks upon all + property, upon all men of means, without regard to whether they do well or + ill, would sound the death knell of the Republic; and such attacks become + inevitable if decent citizens permit rich men whose lives are corrupt and + evil to domineer in swollen pride, unchecked and unhindered, over the + destinies of this country. We act in no vindictive spirit, and we are no + respecters of persons. If a labor union does what is wrong, we oppose it + as fearlessly as we oppose a corporation that does wrong; and we stand + with equal stoutness for the rights of the man of wealth and for the + rights of the wage-workers; just as much so for one as for the other. We + seek to stop wrongdoing; and we desire to punish the wrongdoer only so far + as is necessary in order to achieve this end. We are the stanch upholders + of every honest man, whether business man or wage-worker. + </p> + <p> + I do not for a moment believe that our actions have brought on business + distress; so far as this is due to local and not world-wide causes, and to + the actions of any particular individuals, it is due to the speculative + folly and flagrant dishonesty of a few men of great wealth, who now seek + to shield themselves from the effects of their own wrongdoings by + ascribing its results to the actions of those who have sought to put a + stop to the wrongdoing. But if it were true that to cut out rottenness + from the body politic meant a momentary check to an unhealthy seeming + prosperity, I should not for one moment hesitate to put the knife to the + cancer. On behalf of all our people, on behalf no less of the honest man + of means than of the honest man who earns each day's livelihood by that + day's sweat of his brow, it is necessary to insist upon honesty in + business and politics alike, in all walks of life, in big things and in + little things; upon just and fair dealing as between man and man. We are + striving for the right in the spirit of Abraham Lincoln when he said: + </p> + <p> + "Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty + scourge may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue until + all the wealth piled by the bondsmen's two hundred and fifty years of + unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with + the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three + thousand years ago, so still it must be said, 'The judgments of the Lord + are true and righteous altogether.' + </p> + <p> + "With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the + right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the + work we are in." + </p> + <p> + Sincerely yours, THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + HON. CHARLES J. BONAPARTE. Attorney-General. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII + </h2> + <h3> + SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL JUSTICE + </h3> + <p> + By the time I became President I had grown to feel with deep intensity of + conviction that governmental agencies must find their justification + largely in the way in which they are used for the practical betterment of + living and working conditions among the mass of the people. I felt that + the fight was really for the abolition of privilege; and one of the first + stages in the battle was necessarily to fight for the rights of the + workingman. For this reason I felt most strongly that all that the + government could do in the interest of labor should be done. The Federal + Government can rarely act with the directness that the State governments + act. It can, however, do a good deal. My purpose was to make the National + Government itself a model employer of labor, the effort being to make the + per diem employee just as much as the Cabinet officer regard himself as + one of the partners employed in the service of the public, proud of his + work, eager to do it in the best possible manner, and confident of just + treatment. Our aim was also to secure good laws wherever the National + Government had power, notably in the Territories, in the District of + Columbia, and in connection with inter-State commerce. I found the + eight-hour law a mere farce, the departments rarely enforcing it with any + degree of efficiency. This I remedied by executive action. Unfortunately, + thoroughly efficient government servants often proved to be the prime + offenders so far as the enforcement of the eight-hour law was concerned, + because in their zeal to get good work done for the Government they became + harsh taskmasters, and declined to consider the needs of their + fellow-employees who served under them. The more I had studied the subject + the more strongly I had become convinced that an eight-hour day under the + conditions of labor in the United States was all that could, with wisdom + and propriety, be required either by the Government or by private + employers; that more than this meant, on the average, a decrease in the + qualities that tell for good citizenship. I finally solved the problem, as + far as Government employees were concerned, by calling in Charles P. + Neill, the head of the Labor Bureau; and acting on his advice, I speedily + made the eight-hour law really effective. Any man who shirked his work, + who dawdled and idled, received no mercy; slackness is even worse than + harshness; for exactly as in battle mercy to the coward is cruelty to the + brave man, so in civil life slackness towards the vicious and idle is + harshness towards the honest and hardworking. + </p> + <p> + We passed a good law protecting the lives and health of miners in the + Territories, and other laws providing for the supervision of employment + agencies in the District of Columbia, and protecting the health of + motormen and conductors on street railways in the District. We practically + started the Bureau of Mines. We provided for safeguarding factory + employees in the District against accidents, and for the restriction of + child labor therein. We passed a workmen's compensation law for the + protection of Government employees; a law which did not go as far as I + wished, but which was the best I could get, and which committed the + Government to the right policy. We provided for an investigation of woman + and child labor in the United States. We incorporated the National Child + Labor Committee. Where we had most difficulty was with the railway + companies engaged in inter-State business. We passed an act improving + safety appliances on railway trains without much opposition, but we had + more trouble with acts regulating the hours of labor of railway employees + and making those railways which were engaged in inter-State commerce + liable for injuries to or the death of their employees while on duty. One + important step in connection with these latter laws was taken by + Attorney-General Moody when, on behalf of the Government, he intervened in + the case of a wronged employee. It is unjust that a law which has been + declared public policy by the representatives of the people should be + submitted to the possibility of nullification because the Government + leaves the enforcement of it to the private initiative of poor people who + have just suffered some crushing accident. It should be the business of + the Government to enforce laws of this kind, and to appear in court to + argue for their constitutionality and proper enforcement. Thanks to Moody, + the Government assumed this position. The first employers' liability law + affecting inter-State railroads was declared unconstitutional. We got + through another, which stood the test of the courts. + </p> + <p> + The principle to which we especially strove to give expression, through + these laws and through executive action, was that a right is valueless + unless reduced from the abstract to the concrete. This sounds like a + truism. So far from being such, the effort practically to apply it was + almost revolutionary, and gave rise to the bitterest denunciation of us by + all the big lawyers, and all the big newspaper editors, who, whether + sincerely or for hire, gave expression to the views of the privileged + classes. Ever since the Civil War very many of the decisions of the + courts, not as regards ordinary actions between man and man, but as + regards the application of great governmental policies for social and + industrial justice, had been in reality nothing but ingenious + justification of the theory that these policies were mere high-sounding + abstractions, and were not to be given practical effect. The tendency of + the courts had been, in the majority of cases, jealously to exert their + great power in protecting those who least needed protection and hardly to + use their power at all in the interest of those who most needed + protection. Our desire was to make the Federal Government efficient as an + instrument for protecting the rights of labor within its province, and + therefore to secure and enforce judicial decisions which would permit us + to make this desire effective. Not only some of the Federal judges, but + some of the State courts invoked the Constitution in a spirit of the + narrowest legalistic obstruction to prevent the Government from acting in + defense of labor on inter-State railways. In effect, these judges took the + view that while Congress had complete power as regards the goods + transported by the railways, and could protect wealthy or well-to-do + owners of these goods, yet that it had no power to protect the lives of + the men engaged in transporting the goods. Such judges freely issued + injunctions to prevent the obstruction of traffic in the interest of the + property owners, but declared unconstitutional the action of the + Government in seeking to safeguard the men, and the families of the men, + without whose labor the traffic could not take place. It was an instance + of the largely unconscious way in which the courts had been twisted into + the exaltation of property rights over human rights, and the subordination + of the welfare of the laborer when compared with the profit of the man for + whom he labored. By what I fear my conservative friends regarded as + frightfully aggressive missionary work, which included some uncommonly + plain speaking as to certain unjust and anti-social judicial decisions, we + succeeded in largely, but by no means altogether, correcting this view, at + least so far as the best and most enlightened judges were concerned. + </p> + <p> + Very much the most important action I took as regards labor had nothing to + do with legislation, and represented executive action which was not + required by the Constitution. It illustrated as well as anything that I + did the theory which I have called the Jackson-Lincoln theory of the + Presidency; that is, that occasionally great national crises arise which + call for immediate and vigorous executive action, and that in such cases + it is the duty of the President to act upon the theory that he is the + steward of the people, and that the proper attitude for him to take is + that he is bound to assume that he has the legal right to do whatever the + needs of the people demand, unless the Constitution or the laws explicitly + forbid him to do it. + </p> + <p> + Early in the spring of 1902 a universal strike began in the anthracite + regions. The miners and the operators became deeply embittered, and the + strike went on throughout the summer and the early fall without any sign + of reaching an end, and with almost complete stoppage of mining. In many + cities, especially in the East, the heating apparatus is designed for + anthracite, so that the bituminous coal is only a very partial substitute. + Moreover, in many regions, even in farmhouses, many of the provisions are + for burning coal and not wood. In consequence, the coal famine became a + National menace as the winter approached. In most big cities and many + farming districts east of the Mississippi the shortage of anthracite + threatened calamity. In the populous industrial States, from Ohio + eastward, it was not merely calamity, but the direct disaster, that was + threatened. Ordinarily conservative men, men very sensitive as to the + rights of property under normal conditions, when faced by this crisis + felt, quite rightly, that there must be some radical action. The Governor + of Massachusetts and the Mayor of New York both notified me, as the cold + weather came on, that if the coal famine continued the misery throughout + the Northeast, and especially in the great cities, would become appalling, + and the consequent public disorder so great that frightful consequences + might follow. It is not too much to say that the situation which + confronted Pennsylvania, New York, and New England, and to a less degree + the States of the Middle West, in October, 1902, was quite as serious as + if they had been threatened by the invasion of a hostile army of + overwhelming force. + </p> + <p> + The big coal operators had banded together, and positively refused to take + any steps looking toward an accommodation. They knew that the suffering + among the miners was great; they were confident that if order were kept, + and nothing further done by the Government, they would win; and they + refused to consider that the public had any rights in the matter. They + were, for the most part, men of unquestionably good private life, and they + were merely taking the extreme individualistic view of the rights of + property and the freedom of individual action upheld in the <i>laissez-faire</i> + political economics. The mines were in the State of Pennsylvania. There + was no duty whatever laid upon me by the Constitution in the matter, and I + had in theory the power to act directly unless the Governor of + Pennsylvania or the Legislature, if it were in session, should notify me + that Pennsylvania could not keep order, and request me as + commander-in-chief of the army of the United States to intervene and keep + order. + </p> + <p> + As long as I could avoid interfering I did so; but I directed the head of + the Labor Bureau, Carroll Wright, to make a thorough investigation and lay + the facts fully before me. As September passed without any sign of + weakening either among the employers or the striking workmen, the + situation became so grave that I felt I would have to try to do something. + The thing most feasible was to get both sides to agree to a Commission of + Arbitration, with a promise to accept its findings; the miners to go to + work as soon as the commission was appointed, at the old rate of wages. To + this proposition the miners, headed by John Mitchell, agreed, stipulating + only that I should have the power to name the Commission. The operators, + however, positively refused. They insisted that all that was necessary to + do was for the State to keep order, using the militia as a police force; + although both they and the miners asked me to intervene under the + Inter-State Commerce Law, each side requesting that I proceed against the + other, and both requests being impossible. + </p> + <p> + Finally, on October 3, the representatives of both the operators and the + miners met before me, in pursuance of my request. The representatives of + the miners included as their head and spokesman John Mitchell, who kept + his temper admirably and showed to much advantage. The representatives of + the operators, on the contrary, came down in a most insolent frame of + mind, refused to talk of arbitration or other accommodation of any kind, + and used language that was insulting to the miners and offensive to me. + They were curiously ignorant of the popular temper; and when they went + away from the interview they, with much pride, gave their own account of + it to the papers, exulting in the fact that they had "turned down" both + the miners and the President. + </p> + <p> + I refused to accept the rebuff, however, and continued the effort to get + an agreement between the operators and the miners. I was anxious to get + this agreement, because it would prevent the necessity of taking the + extremely drastic action I meditated, and which is hereinafter described. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately, this time we were successful. Yet we were on the verge of + failure, because of self-willed obstinacy on the part of the operators. + This obstinacy was utterly silly from their own standpoint, and well-nigh + criminal from the standpoint of the people at large. The miners proposed + that I should name the Commission, and that if I put on a representative + of the employing class I should also put on a labor union man. The + operators positively declined to accept the suggestion. They insisted upon + my naming a Commission of only five men, and specified the qualifications + these men should have, carefully choosing these qualifications so as to + exclude those whom it had leaked out I was thinking of appointing, + including ex-President Cleveland. They made the condition that I was to + appoint one officer of the engineer corps of the army or navy, one man + with experience of mining, one "man of prominence," "eminent as a + sociologist," one Federal judge of the Eastern district of Pennsylvania, + and one mining engineer. + </p> + <p> + They positively refused to have me appoint any representative of labor, or + to put on an extra man. I was desirous of putting on the extra man, + because Mitchell and the other leaders of the miners had urged me to + appoint some high Catholic ecclesiastic. Most of the miners were + Catholics, and Mitchell and the leaders were very anxious to secure + peaceful acquiescence by the miners in any decision rendered, and they + felt that their hands would be strengthened if such an appointment were + made. They also, quite properly, insisted that there should be one + representative of labor on the commission, as all of the others + represented the propertied classes. The operators, however, absolutely + refused to acquiesce in the appointment of any representative of labor, + and also announced that they would refuse to accept a sixth man on the + Commission; although they spoke much less decidedly on this point. The + labor men left everything in my hands. + </p> + <p> + The final conferences with the representatives of the operators took place + in my rooms on the evening of October 15. Hour after hour went by while I + endeavored to make the operators through their representatives see that + the country would not tolerate their insisting upon such conditions; but + in vain. The two representatives of the operators were Robert Bacon and + George W. Perkins. They were entirely reasonable. But the operators + themselves were entirely unreasonable. They had worked themselves into a + frame of mind where they were prepared to sacrifice everything and see + civil war in the country rather than back down and acquiesce in the + appointment of a representative of labor. It looked as if a deadlock were + inevitable. + </p> + <p> + Then, suddenly, after about two hours' argument, it dawned on me that they + were not objecting to the thing, but to the name. I found that they did + not mind my appointing any man, whether he was a labor man or not, so long + as he was not appointed <i>as</i> a labor man, or <i>as</i> a + representative of labor; they did not object to my exercising any latitude + I chose in the appointments so long as they were made under the headings + they had given. I shall never forget the mixture of relief and amusement I + felt when I thoroughly grasped the fact that while they would heroically + submit to anarchy rather than have Tweedledum, yet if I would call it + Tweedledee they would accept it with rapture; it gave me an illuminating + glimpse into one corner of the mighty brains of these "captains of + industry." In order to carry the great and vital point and secure + agreement by both parties, all that was necessary for me to do was to + commit a technical and nominal absurdity with a solemn face. This I gladly + did. I announced at once that I accepted the terms laid down. With this + understanding, I appointed the labor man I had all along had in view, Mr. + E. E. Clark, the head of the Brotherhood of Railway Conductors, calling + him an "eminent sociologist"—a term which I doubt whether he had + ever previously heard. He was a first-class man, whom I afterward put on + the Inter-State Commerce Commission. I added to the Arbitration + Commission, on my own authority, a sixth member, in the person of Bishop + Spalding, a Catholic bishop, of Peoria, Ill., one of the very best men to + be found in the entire country. The man whom the operators had expected me + to appoint as the sociologist was Carroll Wright—who really was an + eminent sociologist. I put him on as recorder of the Commission, and added + him as a seventh member as soon as the Commission got fairly started. In + publishing the list of the Commissioners, when I came to Clark's + appointment, I added: "As a sociologist—the President assuming that + for the purposes of such a Commission, the term sociologist means a man + who has thought and studied deeply on social questions and has practically + applied his knowledge." + </p> + <p> + The relief of the whole country was so great that the sudden appearance of + the head of the Brotherhood of Railway Conductors as an "eminent + sociologist" merely furnished material for puzzled comment on the part of + the press. It was a most admirable Commission. It did a noteworthy work, + and its report is a monument in the history of the relations of labor and + capital in this country. The strike, by the way, brought me into contact + with more than one man who was afterward a valued friend and + fellow-worker. On the suggestion of Carroll Wright I appointed as + assistant recorders to the Commission Charles P. Neill, whom I afterward + made Labor Commissioner, to succeed Wright himself, and Mr. Edward A. + Moseley. Wilkes-Barre was the center of the strike; and the man in + Wilkes-Barre who helped me most was Father Curran; I grew to know and + trust and believe in him, and throughout my term in office, and afterward, + he was not only my stanch friend, but one of the men by whose advice and + counsel I profited most in matters affecting the welfare of the miners and + their families. + </p> + <p> + I was greatly relieved at the result, for more than one reason. Of course, + first and foremost, my concern was to avert a frightful calamity to the + United States. In the next place I was anxious to save the great coal + operators and all of the class of big propertied men, of which they were + members, from the dreadful punishment which their own folly would have + brought on them if I had not acted; and one of the exasperating things was + that they were so blinded that they could not see that I was trying to + save them from themselves and to avert, not only for their sakes, but for + the sake of the country, the excesses which would have been indulged in at + their expense if they had longer persisted in their conduct. + </p> + <p> + The great Anthracite Strike of 1902 left an indelible impress upon the + people of the United States. It showed clearly to all wise and far-seeing + men that the labor problem in this country had entered upon a new phase. + Industry had grown. Great financial corporations, doing a nation-wide and + even a world-wide business, had taken the place of the smaller concerns of + an earlier time. The old familiar, intimate relations between employer and + employee were passing. A few generations before, the boss had known every + man in his shop; he called his men Bill, Tom, Dick, John; he inquired + after their wives and babies; he swapped jokes and stories and perhaps a + bit of tobacco with them. In the small establishment there had been a + friendly human relationship between employer and employee. + </p> + <p> + There was no such relation between the great railway magnates, who + controlled the anthracite industry, and the one hundred and fifty thousand + men who worked in their mines, or the half million women and children who + were dependent upon these miners for their daily bread. Very few of these + mine workers had ever seen, for instance, the president of the Reading + Railroad. Had they seen him many of them could not have spoken to him, for + tens of thousands of the mine workers were recent immigrants who did not + understand the language which he spoke and who spoke a language which he + could not understand. + </p> + <p> + Again, a few generations ago an American workman could have saved money, + gone West and taken up a homestead. Now the free lands were gone. In + earlier days a man who began with pick and shovel might have come to own a + mine. That outlet too was now closed, as regards the immense majority, and + few, if any, of the one hundred and fifty thousand mine workers could ever + aspire to enter the small circle of men who held in their grasp the great + anthracite industry. The majority of the men who earned wages in the coal + industry, if they wished to progress at all, were compelled to progress + not by ceasing to be wage-earners, but by improving the conditions under + which all the wage-earners in all the industries of the country lived and + worked, as well of course, as improving their own individual efficiency. + </p> + <p> + Another change which had come about as a result of the foregoing was a + crass inequality in the bargaining relation between the employer and the + individual employee standing alone. The great coal-mining and + coal-carrying companies, which employed their tens of thousands, could + easily dispense with the services of any particular miner. The miner, on + the other hand, however expert, could not dispense with the companies. He + needed a job; his wife and children would starve if he did not get one. + What the miner had to sell—his labor—was a perishable + commodity; the labor of to-day—if not sold to-day—was lost + forever. Moreover, his labor was not like most commodities—a mere + thing; it was part of a living, breathing human being. The workman saw, + and all citizens who gave earnest thought to the matter saw, that the + labor problem was not only an economic, but also a moral, a human problem. + Individually the miners were impotent when they sought to enter a + wage-contract with the great companies; they could make fair terms only by + uniting into trade unions to bargain collectively. The men were forced to + cooperate to secure not only their economic, but their simple human + rights. They, like other workmen, were compelled by the very conditions + under which they lived to unite in unions of their industry or trade, and + these unions were bound to grow in size, in strength, and in power for + good and evil as the industries in which the men were employed grew larger + and larger. + </p> + <p> + A democracy can be such in fact only if there is some rough approximation + in similarity in stature among the men composing it. One of us can deal in + our private lives with the grocer or the butcher or the carpenter or the + chicken raiser, or if we are the grocer or carpenter or butcher or farmer, + we can deal with our customers, because <i>we are all of about the same + size</i>. Therefore a simple and poor society can exist as a democracy on + a basis of sheer individualism. But a rich and complex industrial society + cannot so exist; for some individuals, and especially those artificial + individuals called corporations, become so very big that the ordinary + individual is utterly dwarfed beside them, and cannot deal with them on + terms of equality. It therefore becomes necessary for these ordinary + individuals to combine in their turn, first in order to act in their + collective capacity through that biggest of all combinations called the + Government, and second, to act, also in their own self-defense, through + private combinations, such as farmers' associations and trade unions. + </p> + <p> + This the great coal operators did not see. They did not see that their + property rights, which they so stoutly defended, were of the same texture + as were the human rights, which they so blindly and hotly denied. They did + not see that the power which they exercised by representing their + stockholders was of the same texture as the power which the union leaders + demanded of representing the workmen, who had democratically elected them. + They did not see that the right to use one's property as one will can be + maintained only so long as it is consistent with the maintenance of + certain fundamental human rights, of the rights to life, liberty and the + pursuit of happiness, or, as we may restate them in these later days, of + the rights of the worker to a living wage, to reasonable hours of labor, + to decent working and living conditions, to freedom of thought and speech + and industrial representation,—in short, to a measure of industrial + democracy and, in return for his arduous toil, to a worthy and decent life + according to American standards. Still another thing these great business + leaders did not see. They did not see that both their interests and the + interests of the workers must be accommodated, and if need be, + subordinated, to the fundamental permanent interests of the whole + community. No man and no group of men may so exercise their rights as to + deprive the nation of the things which are necessary and vital to the + common life. A strike which ties up the coal supplies of a whole section + is a strike invested with a public interest. + </p> + <p> + So great was that public interest in the Coal Strike of 1902, so deeply + and strongly did I feel the wave of indignation which swept over the whole + country that had I not succeeded in my efforts to induce the operators to + listen to reason, I should reluctantly but none the less decisively have + taken a step which would have brought down upon my head the execrations of + many of "the captains of industry," as well as of sundry "respectable" + newspapers who dutifully take their cue from them. As a man should be + judged by his intentions as well as by his actions, I will give here the + story of the intervention that never happened. + </p> + <p> + While the coal operators were exulting over the fact that they had "turned + down" the miners and the President, there arose in all parts of the + country an outburst of wrath so universal that even so naturally + conservative a man as Grover Cleveland wrote to me, expressing his + sympathy with the course I was following, his indignation at the conduct + of the operators, and his hope that I would devise some method of + effective action. In my own mind I was already planning effective action; + but it was of a very drastic character, and I did not wish to take it + until the failure of all other expedients had rendered it necessary. Above + all, I did not wish to talk about it until and unless I actually acted. I + had definitely determined that somehow or other act I would, that somehow + or other the coal famine should be broken. To accomplish this end it was + necessary that the mines should be run, and, if I could get no voluntary + agreement between the contending sides, that an Arbitration Commission + should be appointed which would command such public confidence as to + enable me, without too much difficulty, to enforce its terms upon both + parties. Ex-President Cleveland's letter not merely gratified me, but gave + me the chance to secure him as head of the Arbitration Commission. I at + once wrote him, stating that I would very probably have to appoint an + Arbitration Commission or Investigating Commission to look into the matter + and decide on the rights of the case, whether or not the operators asked + for or agreed to abide by the decisions of such a Commission; and that I + would ask him to accept the chief place on the Commission. He answered + that he would do so. I picked out several first-class men for other + positions on the Commission. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the Governor of Pennsylvania had all the Pennsylvania militia in + the anthracite region, although without any effect upon the resumption of + mining. The method of action upon which I had determined in the last + resort was to get the Governor of Pennsylvania to ask me to keep order. + Then I would put in the army under the command of some first-rate general. + I would instruct this general to keep absolute order, taking any steps + whatever that was necessary to prevent interference by the strikers or + their sympathizers with men who wanted to work. I would also instruct him + to dispossess the operators and run the mines as a receiver until such + time as the Commission might make its report, and until I, as President, + might issue further orders in view of this report. I had to find a man who + possessed the necessary good sense, judgment, and nerve to act in such + event. He was ready to hand in the person of Major-General Schofield. I + sent for him, telling him that if I had to make use of him it would be + because the crisis was only less serious than that of the Civil War, that + the action taken would be practically a war measure, and that if I sent + him he must act in a purely military capacity under me as + commander-in-chief, paying no heed to any authority, judicial or + otherwise, except mine. He was a fine fellow—a most + respectable-looking old boy, with side whiskers and a black skull-cap, + without any of the outward aspect of the conventional military dictator; + but in both nerve and judgment he was all right, and he answered quietly + that if I gave the order he would take possession of the mines, and would + guarantee to open them and to run them without permitting any interference + either by the owners or the strikers or anybody else, so long as I told + him to stay. I then saw Senator Quay, who, like every other responsible + man in high position, was greatly wrought up over the condition of things. + I told him that he need be under no alarm as to the problem not being + solved, that I was going to make another effort to get the operators and + miners to come together, but that I would solve the problem in any event + and get coal; that, however, I did not wish to tell him anything of the + details of my intention, but merely to have him arrange that whenever I + gave the word the Governor of Pennsylvania should request me to intervene; + that when this was done I would be responsible for all that followed, and + would guarantee that the coal famine would end forthwith. The Senator made + no inquiry or comment, and merely told me that he in his turn would + guarantee that the Governor would request my intervention the minute I + asked that the request be made. + </p> + <p> + These negotiations were concluded with the utmost secrecy, General + Schofield being the only man who knew exactly what my plan was, and + Senator Quay, two members of my Cabinet, and ex-President Cleveland and + the other men whom I proposed to put on the Commission, the only other men + who knew that I had a plan. As I have above outlined, my efforts to bring + about an agreement between the operators and miners were finally + successful. I was glad not to have to take possession of the mines on my + own initiative by means of General Schofield and the regulars. I was all + ready to act, and would have done so without the slightest hesitation or a + moment's delay if the negotiations had fallen through. And my action would + have been entirely effective. But it is never well to take drastic action + if the result can be achieved with equal efficiency in less drastic + fashion; and, although this was a minor consideration, I was personally + saved a good deal of future trouble by being able to avoid this drastic + action. At the time I should have been almost unanimously supported. With + the famine upon them the people would not have tolerated any conduct that + would have thwarted what I was doing. Probably no man in Congress, and no + man in the Pennsylvania State Legislature, would have raised his voice + against me. Although there would have been plenty of muttering, nothing + would have been done to interfere with the solution of the problem which I + had devised, <i>until the solution was accomplished and the problem ceased + to be a problem</i>. Once this was done, and when people were no longer + afraid of a coal famine, and began to forget that they ever had been + afraid of it, and to be indifferent as regards the consequences to those + who put an end to it, then my enemies would have plucked up heart and + begun a campaign against me. I doubt if they could have accomplished much + anyway, for the only effective remedy against me would have been + impeachment, and that they would not have ventured to try.[*] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] One of my appointees on the Anthracite Strike Commission + was Judge George Gray, of Delaware, a Democrat whose + standing in the country was second only to that of Grover + Cleveland. A year later he commented on my action as + follows: +</pre> + <p> + "I have no hesitation in saying that the President of the United States + was confronted in October, 1902, by the existence of a crisis more grave + and threatening than any that had occurred since the Civil War. I mean + that the cessation of mining in the anthracite country, brought about by + the dispute between the miners and those who controlled the greatest + natural monopoly in this country and perhaps in the world, had brought + upon more than one-half of the American people a condition of deprivation + of one of the necessaries of life, and the probable continuance of the + dispute threatened not only the comfort and health, but the safety and + good order, of the nation. He was without legal or constitutional power to + interfere, but his position as President of the United States gave him an + influence, a leadership, as first citizen of the republic, that enabled + him to appeal to the patriotism and good sense of the parties to the + controversy and to place upon them the moral coercion of public opinion to + agree to an arbitrament of the strike then existing and threatening + consequences so direful to the whole country. He acted promptly and + courageously, and in so doing averted the dangers to which I have alluded. + </p> + <p> + "So far from interfering or infringing upon property rights, the + Presidents' action tended to conserve them. The peculiar situation, as + regards the anthracite coal interest, was that they controlled a natural + monopoly of a product necessary to the comfort and to the very life of a + large portion of the people. A prolonged deprivation of the enjoyment of + this necessary of life would have tended to precipitate an attack upon + these property rights of which you speak; for, after all, it is vain to + deny that this property, so peculiar in its conditions, and which is + properly spoken of as a natural monopoly, is affected with a public + interest. + </p> + <p> + "I do not think that any President ever acted more wisely, courageously or + promptly in a national crisis. Mr. Roosevelt deserves unstinted praise for + what he did." + </p> + <p> + They would doubtless have acted precisely as they acted as regards the + acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone in 1903, and the stoppage of the + panic of 1907 by my action in the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company matter. + Nothing could have made the American people surrender the canal zone. But + after it was an accomplished fact, and the canal was under way, then they + settled down to comfortable acceptance of the accomplished fact, and as + their own interests were no longer in jeopardy, they paid no heed to the + men who attacked me because of what I had done—and also continue to + attack me, although they are exceedingly careful not to propose to right + the "wrong," in the only proper way if it really was a wrong, by replacing + the old Republic of Panama under the tyranny of Colombia and giving + Colombia sole or joint ownership of the canal itself. In the case of the + panic of 1907 (as in the case of Panama), what I did was not only done + openly, but depended for its effect upon being done and with the widest + advertisement. Nobody in Congress ventured to make an objection at the + time. No serious leader outside made any objection. The one concern of + everybody was to stop the panic, and everybody was overjoyed that I was + willing to take the responsibility of stopping it upon my own shoulders. + But a few months afterward, the panic was a thing of the past. People + forgot the frightful condition of alarm in which they had been. They no + longer had a personal interest in preventing any interference with the + stoppage of the panic. Then the men who had not dared to raise their + voices until all danger was past came bravely forth from their hiding + places and denounced the action which had saved them. They had kept a + hushed silence when there was danger; they made clamorous outcry when + there was safety in doing so. + </p> + <p> + Just the same course would have been followed in connection with the + Anthracite Coal Strike if I had been obliged to act in the fashion I + intended to act had I failed to secure a voluntary agreement between the + miners and the operators. Even as it was, my action was remembered with + rancor by the heads of the great moneyed interests; and as time went by + was assailed with constantly increasing vigor by the newspapers these men + controlled. Had I been forced to take possession of the mines, these men + and the politicians hostile to me would have waited until the popular + alarm was over and the popular needs met, just as they waited in the case + of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company; and then they would have attacked + me precisely as they did attack me as regards the Tennessee Coal and Iron + Company. + </p> + <p> + Of course, in labor controversies it was not always possible to champion + the cause of the workers, because in many cases strikes were called which + were utterly unwarranted and were fought by methods which cannot be too + harshly condemned. No straightforward man can believe, and no fearless man + will assert, that a trade union is always right. That man is an unworthy + public servant who by speech or silence, by direct statement or cowardly + evasion, invariably throws the weight of his influence on the side of the + trade union, whether it is right or wrong. It has occasionally been my + duty to give utterance to the feelings of all right thinking men by + expressing the most emphatic disapproval of unwise or even immoral notions + by representatives of labor. The man is no true democrat, and if an + American, is unworthy of the traditions of his country who, in problems + calling for the exercise of a moral judgment, fails to take his stand on + conduct and not on class. There are good and bad wage-workers just as + there are good and bad employers, and good and bad men of small means and + of large means alike. + </p> + <p> + But a willingness to do equal and exact justice to all citizens, + irrespective of race, creed, section or economic interest and position, + does not imply a failure to recognize the enormous economic, political and + moral possibilities of the trade union. Just as democratic government + cannot be condemned because of errors and even crimes committed by men + democratically elected, so trade-unionism must not be condemned because of + errors or crimes of occasional trade-union leaders. The problem lies + deeper. While we must repress all illegalities and discourage all + immoralities, whether of labor organizations or of corporations, we must + recognize the fact that to-day the organization of labor into trade unions + and federations is necessary, is beneficent, and is one of the greatest + possible agencies in the attainment of a true industrial, as well as a + true political, democracy in the United States. + </p> + <p> + This is a fact which many well-intentioned people even to-day do not + understand. They do not understand that the labor problem is a human and a + moral as well as an economic problem; that a fall in wages, an increase in + hours, a deterioration of labor conditions mean wholesale moral as well as + economic degeneration, and the needless sacrifice of human lives and human + happiness, while a rise of wages, a lessening of hours, a bettering of + conditions, mean an intellectual, moral and social uplift of millions of + American men and women. There are employers to-day who, like the great + coal operators, speak as though they were lords of these countless armies + of Americans, who toil in factory, in shop, in mill and in the dark places + under the earth. They fail to see that all these men have the right and + the duty to combine to protect themselves and their families from want and + degradation. They fail to see that the Nation and the Government, within + the range of fair play and a just administration of the law, must + inevitably sympathize with the men who have nothing but their wages, with + the men who are struggling for a decent life, as opposed to men, however + honorable, who are merely fighting for larger profits and an autocratic + control of big business. Each man should have all he earns, whether by + brain or body; and the director, the great industrial leader, is one of + the greatest of earners, and should have a proportional reward; but no man + should live on the earnings of another, and there should not be too gross + inequality between service and reward. + </p> + <p> + There are many men to-day, men of integrity and intelligence, who honestly + believe that we must go back to the labor conditions of half a century + ago. They are opposed to trade unions, root and branch. They note the + unworthy conduct of many labor leaders, they find instances of bad work by + union men, of a voluntary restriction of output, of vexations and violent + strikes, of jurisdictional disputes between unions which often + disastrously involve the best intentioned and fairest of employers. All + these things occur and should be repressed. But the same critic of the + trade union might find equal causes of complaint against individual + employers of labor, or even against great associations of manufacturers. + He might find many instances of an unwarranted cutting of wages, of + flagrant violations of factory laws and tenement house laws, of the + deliberate and systematic cheating of employees by means of truck stores, + of the speeding up of work to a point which is fatal to the health of the + workman, of the sweating of foreign-born workers, of the drafting of + feeble little children into dusty workshops, of black-listing, of putting + spies into union meetings and of the employment in strike times of vicious + and desperate ruffians, who are neither better nor worse than are the + thugs who are occasionally employed by unions under the sinister name, + "entertainment committees." I believe that the overwhelming majority, both + of workmen and of employers, are law-abiding peaceful, and honorable + citizens, and I do not think that it is just to lay up the errors and + wrongs of individuals to the entire group to which they belong. I also + think—and this is a belief which has been borne upon me through many + years of practical experience—that the trade union is growing + constantly in wisdom as well as in power, and is becoming one of the most + efficient agencies toward the solution of our industrial problems, the + elimination of poverty and of industrial disease and accidents, the + lessening of unemployment, the achievement of industrial democracy and the + attainment of a larger measure of social and industrial justice. + </p> + <p> + If I were a factory employee, a workman on the railroads or a wage-earner + of any sort, I would undoubtedly join the union of my trade. If I + disapproved of its policy, I would join in order to fight that policy; if + the union leaders were dishonest, I would join in order to put them out. I + believe in the union and I believe that all men who are benefited by the + union are morally bound to help to the extent of their power in the common + interests advanced by the union. Nevertheless, irrespective of whether a + man should or should not, and does or does not, join the union of his + trade, all the rights, privileges and immunities of that man as an + American and as a citizen should be safeguarded and upheld by the law. We + dare not make an outlaw of any individual or any group, whatever his or + its opinions or professions. The non-unionist, like the unionist, must be + protected in all his legal rights by the full weight and power of the law. + </p> + <p> + This question came up before me in the shape of the right of a non-union + printer named Miller to hold his position in the Government Printing + Office. As I said before, I believe in trade unions. I always prefer to + see a union shop. But any private preferences cannot control my public + actions. The Government can recognize neither union men nor non-union men + as such, and is bound to treat both exactly alike. In the Government + Printing Office not many months prior to the opening of the Presidential + campaign of 1904, when I was up for reelection, I discovered that a man + had been dismissed because he did not belong to the union. I reinstated + him. Mr. Gompers, the President of the American Federation of Labor, with + various members of the executive council of that body, called upon me to + protest on September 29, 1903, and I answered them as follows: + </p> + <p> + "I thank you and your committee for your courtesy, and I appreciate the + opportunity to meet with you. It will always be a pleasure to see you or + any representative of your organizations or of your Federation as a whole. + </p> + <p> + "As regards the Miller case, I have little to add to what I have already + said. In dealing with it I ask you to remember that I am dealing purely + with the relation of the Government to its employees. I must govern my + action by the laws of the land, which I am sworn to administer, and which + differentiate any case in which the Government of the United States is a + party from all other cases whatsoever. These laws are enacted for the + benefit of the whole people, and cannot and must not be construed as + permitting the crimination against some of the people. I am President of + all the people of the United States, without regard to creed, color, + birthplace, occupation or social condition. My aim is to do equal and + exact justice as among them all. In the employment and dismissal of men in + the Government service I can no more recognize the fact that a man does or + does not belong to a union as being for or against him than I can + recognize the fact that he is a Protestant or a Catholic, a Jew or a + Gentile, as being for or against him. + </p> + <p> + "In the communications sent me by various labor organizations protesting + against the retention of Miller in the Government Printing Office, the + grounds alleged are twofold: 1, that he is a non-union man; 2, that he is + not personally fit. The question of his personal fitness is one to be + settled in the routine of administrative detail, and cannot be allowed to + conflict with or to complicate the larger question of governmental + discrimination for or against him or any other man because he is or is not + a member of a union. This is the only question now before me for decision; + and as to this my decision is final." + </p> + <p> + Because of things I have done on behalf of justice to the workingman, I + have often been called a Socialist. Usually I have not taken the trouble + even to notice the epithet. I am not afraid of names, and I am not one of + those who fear to do what is right because some one else will confound me + with partisans with whose principles I am not in accord. Moreover, I know + that many American Socialists are high-minded and honorable citizens, who + in reality are merely radical social reformers. They are oppressed by the + brutalities and industrial injustices which we see everywhere about us. + When I recall how often I have seen Socialists and ardent non-Socialists + working side by side for some specific measure of social or industrial + reform, and how I have found opposed to them on the side of privilege many + shrill reactionaries who insist on calling all reformers Socialists, I + refuse to be panic-stricken by having this title mistakenly applied to me. + </p> + <p> + None the less, without impugning their motives, I do disagree most + emphatically with both the fundamental philosophy and the proposed + remedies of the Marxian Socialists. These Socialists are unalterably + opposed to our whole industrial system. They believe that the payment of + wages means everywhere and inevitably an exploitation of the laborer by + the employer, and that this leads inevitably to a class war between those + two groups, or, as they would say, between the capitalists and the + proletariat. They assert that this class war is already upon us and can + only be ended when capitalism is entirely destroyed and all the machines, + mills, mines, railroads and other private property used in production are + confiscated, expropriated or taken over by the workers. They do not as a + rule claim—although some of the sinister extremists among them do—that + there is and must be a continual struggle between two great classes, whose + interests are opposed and cannot be reconciled. In this war they insist + that the whole government—National, State and local—is on the + side of the employers and is used by them against the workmen, and that + our law and even our common morality are class weapons, like a policeman's + club or a Gatling gun. + </p> + <p> + I have never believed, and do not to-day believe, that such a class war is + upon us, or need ever be upon us; nor do I believe that the interests of + wage-earners and employers cannot be harmonized, compromised and adjusted. + It would be idle to deny that wage-earners have certain different economic + interests from, let us say, manufacturers or importers, just as farmers + have different interests from sailors, and fishermen from bankers. There + is no reason why any of these economic groups should not consult their + group interests by any legitimate means and with due regard to the common, + overlying interests of all. I do not even deny that the majority of + wage-earners, because they have less property and less industrial security + than others and because they do not own the machinery with which they work + (as does the farmer) are perhaps in greater need of acting together than + are other groups in the community. But I do insist (and I believe that the + great majority of wage-earners take the same view) that employers and + employees have overwhelming interests in common, both as partners in + industry and as citizens of the republic, and that where these interests + are apart they can be adjusted by so altering our laws and their + interpretation as to secure to all members of the community social and + industrial justice. + </p> + <p> + I have always maintained that our worst revolutionaries to-day are those + reactionaries who do not see and will not admit that there is any need for + change. Such men seem to believe that the four and a half million + Progressive voters, who in 1912 registered their solemn protest against + our social and industrial injustices, are "anarchists," who are not + willing to let ill enough alone. If these reactionaries had lived at an + earlier time in our history, they would have advocated Sedition Laws, + opposed free speech and free assembly, and voted against free schools, + free access by settlers to the public lands, mechanics' lien laws, the + prohibition of truck stores and the abolition of imprisonment for debt; + and they are the men who to-day oppose minimum wage laws, insurance of + workmen against the ills of industrial life and the reform of our + legislators and our courts, which can alone render such measures possible. + Some of these reactionaries are not bad men, but merely shortsighted and + belated. It is these reactionaries, however, who, by "standing pat" on + industrial injustice, incite inevitably to industrial revolt, and it is + only we who advocate political and industrial democracy who render + possible the progress of our American industry on large constructive lines + with a minimum of friction because with a maximum of justice. + </p> + <p> + Everything possible should be done to secure the wage-workers fair + treatment. There should be an increased wage for the worker of increased + productiveness. Everything possible should be done against the capitalist + who strives, not to reward special efficiency, but to use it as an excuse + for reducing the reward of moderate efficiency. The capitalist is an + unworthy citizen who pays the efficient man no more than he has been + content to pay the average man, and nevertheless reduces the wage of the + average man; and effort should be made by the Government to check and + punish him. When labor-saving machinery is introduced, special care should + be taken—by the Government if necessary—to see that the + wage-worker gets his share of the benefit, and that it is not all absorbed + by the employer or capitalist. The following case, which has come to my + knowledge, illustrates what I mean. A number of new machines were + installed in a certain shoe factory, and as a result there was a heavy + increase in production even though there was no increase in the labor + force. Some of the workmen were instructed in the use of these machines by + special demonstrators sent out by the makers of the machines. These men, + by reason of their special aptitudes and the fact that they were not + called upon to operate the machines continuously nine hours every day, + week in and week out, but only for an hour or so at special times, were + naturally able to run the machines at their maximum capacity. When these + demonstrators had left the factory, and the company's own employees had + become used to operating the machines at a fair rate of speed, the foreman + of the establishment gradually speeded the machines and demanded a larger + and still larger output, constantly endeavoring to drive the men on to + greater exertions. Even with a slightly less maximum capacity, the + introduction of this machinery resulted in a great increase over former + production with the same amount of labor; and so great were the profits + from the business in the following two years as to equal the total + capitalized stock of the company. But not a cent got into the pay envelope + of the workmen beyond what they had formerly been receiving before the + introduction of this new machinery, notwithstanding that it had meant an + added strain, physical and mental, upon their energies, and that they were + forced to work harder than ever before. The whole of the increased profits + remained with the company. Now this represented an "increase of + efficiency," with a positive decrease of social and industrial justice. + The increase of prosperity which came from increase of production in no + way benefited the wage-workers. I hold that they were treated with gross + injustice; and that society, acting if necessary through the Government, + in such a case should bend its energies to remedy such injustice; and I + will support any proper legislation that will aid in securing the desired + end. + </p> + <p> + The wage-worker should not only receive fair treatment; he should give + fair treatment. In order that prosperity may be passed around it is + necessary that the prosperity exist. In order that labor shall receive its + fair share in the division of reward it is necessary that there be a + reward to divide. Any proposal to reduce efficiency by insisting that the + most efficient shall be limited in their output to what the least + efficient can do, is a proposal to limit by so much production, and + therefore to impoverish by so much the public, and specifically to reduce + the amount that can be divided among the producers. This is all wrong. Our + protest must be against unfair division of the reward for production. + Every encouragement should be given the business man, the employer, to + make his business prosperous, and therefore to earn more money for + himself; and in like fashion every encouragement should be given the + efficient workman. We must always keep in mind that to reduce the amount + of production serves merely to reduce the amount that is to be divided, is + in no way permanently efficient as a protest against unequal distribution + and is permanently detrimental to the entire community. But increased + productiveness is not secured by excessive labor amid unhealthy + surroundings. The contrary is true. Shorter hours, and healthful + conditions, and opportunity for the wage-worker to make more money, and + the chance for enjoyment as well as work, all add to efficiency. My + contention is that there should be no penalization of efficient + productiveness, brought about under healthy conditions; but that every + increase of production brought about by an increase in efficiency should + benefit all the parties to it, including wage-workers as well as employers + or capitalists, men who work with their hands as well as men who work with + their heads. + </p> + <p> + With the Western Federation of Miners I more than once had serious + trouble. The leaders of this organization had preached anarchy, and + certain of them were indicted for having practiced murder in the case of + Governor Steunenberg, of Idaho. On one occasion in a letter or speech I + coupled condemnation of these labor leaders and condemnation of certain + big capitalists, describing them all alike as "undesirable citizens." This + gave great offense to both sides. The open attack upon me was made for the + most part either by the New York newspapers which were frankly + representatives of Wall Street, or else by those so-called—and + miscalled—Socialists who had anarchistic leanings. Many of the + latter sent me open letters of denunciation, and to one of them I + responded as follows: + </p> + <p> + THE WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON, April 22, 1907. + </p> + <p> + Dear Sir: + </p> + <p> + I have received your letter of the 19th instant, in which you enclose the + draft of the formal letter which is to follow. I have been notified that + several delegations, bearing similar requests, are on the way hither. In + the letter you, on behalf of the Cook County, Moyer-Haywood conference, + protest against certain language I used in a recent letter which you + assert to be designed to influence the course of justice in the case of + the trial for murder of Messrs. Moyer and Haywood. I entirely agree with + you that it is improper to endeavor to influence the course of justice, + whether by threats or in any similar manner. For this reason I have + regretted most deeply the actions of such organizations as your own in + undertaking to accomplish this very result in the very case of which you + speak. For instance, your letter is headed "Cook County + Moyer-Haywood-Pettibone Conference," with the headlines: "<i>Death</i>—cannot—will + not—and shall not claim our brothers!" This shows that you and your + associates are not demanding a fair trial, or working for a fair trial, + but are announcing in advance that the verdict shall only be one way and + that you will not tolerate any other verdict. Such action is flagrant in + its impropriety, and I join heartily in condemning it. + </p> + <p> + But it is a simple absurdity to suppose that because any man is on trial + for a given offense he is therefore to be freed from all criticism upon + his general conduct and manner of life. In my letter to which you object I + referred to a certain prominent financier, Mr. Harriman, on the one hand, + and to Messrs. Moyer, Haywood and Debs on the other, as being equally + undesirable citizens. It is as foolish to assert that this was designed to + influence the trial of Moyer and Haywood as to assert that it was designed + to influence the suits that have been brought against Mr. Harriman. I + neither expressed nor indicated any opinion as to whether Messrs. Moyer + and Haywood were guilty of the murder of Governor Steunenberg. If they are + guilty, they certainly ought to be punished. If they are not guilty, they + certainly ought not to be punished. But no possible outcome either of the + trial or the suits can affect my judgment as to the undesirability of the + type of citizenship of those whom I mentioned. Messrs. Moyer, Haywood, and + Debs stand as representatives of those men who have done as much to + discredit the labor movement as the worst speculative financiers or most + unscrupulous employers of labor and debauchers of legislatures have done + to discredit honest capitalists and fair-dealing business men. They stand + as the representatives of those men who by their public utterances and + manifestoes, by the utterances of the papers they control or inspire, and + by the words and deeds of those associated with or subordinated to them, + habitually appear as guilty of incitement to or apology for bloodshed and + violence. If this does not constitute undesirable citizenship, then there + can never be any undesirable citizens. The men whom I denounce represent + the men who have abandoned that legitimate movement for the uplifting of + labor, with which I have the most hearty sympathy; they have adopted + practices which cut them off from those who lead this legitimate movement. + In every way I shall support the law-abiding and upright representatives + of labor, and in no way can I better support them than by drawing the + sharpest possible line between them on the one hand, and, on the other + hand, those preachers of violence who are themselves the worst foes of the + honest laboring man. + </p> + <p> + Let me repeat my deep regret that any body of men should so far forget + their duty to the country as to endeavor by the formation of societies and + in other ways to influence the course of justice in this matter. I have + received many such letters as yours. Accompanying them were newspaper + clippings announcing demonstrations, parades, and mass-meetings designed + to show that the representatives of labor, without regard to the facts, + demand the acquittal of Messrs. Haywood and Moyer. Such meetings can, of + course, be designed only to coerce court or jury in rendering a verdict, + and they therefore deserve all the condemnation which you in your letters + say should be awarded to those who endeavor improperly to influence the + course of justice. + </p> + <p> + You would, of course, be entirely within your rights if you merely + announced that you thought Messrs. Moyer and Haywood were "desirable + citizens"—though in such case I should take frank issue with you and + should say that, wholly without regard to whether or not they are guilty + of the crime for which they are now being tried, they represent as + thoroughly undesirable a type of citizenship as can be found in this + country; a type which, in the letter to which you so unreasonably take + exception, I showed not to be confined to any one class, but to exist + among some representatives of great capitalists as well as among some + representatives of wage-workers. In that letter I condemned both types. + Certain representatives of the great capitalists in turn condemned me for + including Mr. Harriman in my condemnation of Messrs. Moyer and Haywood. + Certain of the representatives of labor in their turn condemned me because + I included Messrs. Moyer and Haywood as undesirable citizens together with + Mr. Harrison. I am as profoundly indifferent to the condemnation in one + case as in the other. I challenge as a right the support of all good + Americans, whether wage-workers or capitalists, whatever their occupation + or creed, or in whatever portion of the country they live, when I condemn + both the types of bad citizenship which I have held up to reprobation. It + seems to be a mark of utter insincerity to fail thus to condemn both; and + to apologize for either robs the man thus apologizing of all right to + condemn any wrongdoing in any man, rich or poor, in public or in private + life. + </p> + <p> + You say you ask for a "square deal" for Messrs. Moyer and Haywood. So do + I. When I say "Square deal," I mean a square deal to every one; it is + equally a violation of the policy of the square deal for a capitalist to + protest against denunciation of a capitalist who is guilty of wrongdoing + and for a labor leader to protest against the denunciation of a labor + leader who has been guilty of wrongdoing. I stand for equal justice to + both; and so far as in my power lies I shall uphold justice, whether the + man accused of guilt has behind him the wealthiest corporation, the + greatest aggregations of riches in the country, or whether he has behind + him the most influential labor organization in the country. + </p> + <p> + I treated anarchists and the bomb-throwing and dynamiting gentry precisely + as I treated other criminals. Murder is murder. It is not rendered one + whit better by the allegation that it is committed on behalf of "a cause." + It is true that law and order are not all sufficient; but they are + essential; lawlessness and murderous violence must be quelled before any + permanence of reform can be obtained. Yet when they have been quelled, the + beneficiaries of the enforcement of law must in their turn be taught that + law is upheld as a means to the enforcement of justice, and that we will + not tolerate its being turned into an engine of injustice and oppression. + The fundamental need in dealing with our people, whether laboring men or + others, is not charity but justice; we must all work in common for the + common end of helping each and all, in a spirit of the sanest, broadest + and deepest brotherhood. + </p> + <p> + It was not always easy to avoid feeling very deep anger with the + selfishness and short-sightedness shown both by the representatives of + certain employers' organizations and by certain great labor federations or + unions. One such employers' association was called the National + Association of Manufacturers. Extreme though the attacks sometimes made + upon me by the extreme labor organizations were, they were not quite as + extreme as the attacks made upon me by the head of the National + Association of Manufacturers, and as regards their attitude toward + legislation I came to the conclusion toward the end of my term that the + latter had actually gone further the wrong way than did the former—and + the former went a good distance also. The opposition of the National + Association of Manufacturers to every rational and moderate measure for + benefiting workingmen, such as measures abolishing child labor, or + securing workmen's compensation, caused me real and grave concern; for I + felt that it was ominous of evil for the whole country to have men who + ought to stand high in wisdom and in guiding force take a course and use + language of such reactionary type as directly to incite revolution—for + this is what the extreme reactionary always does. + </p> + <p> + Often I was attacked by the two sides at once. In the spring of 1906 I + received in the same mail a letter from a very good friend of mine who + thought that I had been unduly hard on some labor men, and a letter from + another friend, the head of a great corporation, who complained about me + for both favoring labor and speaking against large fortunes. My answers + ran as follows: + </p> + <p> + April 26, 1906. + </p> + <p> + "Personal. <i>My dear Doctor</i>: + </p> + <p> + "In one of my last letters to you I enclosed you a copy of a letter of + mine, in which I quoted from [So and so's] advocacy of murder. You may be + interested to know that he and his brother Socialists—in reality + anarchists—of the frankly murderous type have been violently + attacking my speech because of my allusion to the sympathy expressed for + murder. In <i>The Socialist</i>, of Toledo, Ohio, of April 21st, for + instance, the attack [on me] is based specifically on the following + paragraph of my speech, to which he takes violent exception: + </p> + <p> + "We can no more and no less afford to condone evil in the man of capital + than evil in the man of no capital. The wealthy man who exults because + there is a failure of justice in the effort to bring some trust magnate to + an account for his misdeeds is as bad as, and no worse than, the so-called + labor leader who clamorously strives to excite a foul class feeling on + behalf of some other labor leader who is implicated in murder. One + attitude is as bad as the other, and no worse; in each case the accused is + entitled to exact justice; and in neither case is there need of action by + others which can be construed into an expression of sympathy for crime. + </p> + <p> + "Remember that this crowd of labor leaders have done all in their power to + overawe the executive and the courts of Idaho on behalf of men accused of + murder, and beyond question inciters of murder in the past." + </p> + <p> + April 26, 1906. + </p> + <p> + "<i>My dear Judge</i>: + </p> + <p> + "I wish the papers had given more prominence to what I said as to the + murder part of my speech. But oh, my dear sir, I utterly and radically + disagree with you in what you say about large fortunes. I wish it were in + my power to devise some scheme to make it increasingly difficult to heap + them up beyond a certain amount. As the difficulties in the way of such a + scheme are very great, let us at least prevent their being bequeathed + after death or given during life to any one man in excessive amount. + </p> + <p> + "You and other capitalist friends, on one side, shy off at what I say + against them. Have you seen the frantic articles against me by [the + anarchists and] the Socialists of the bomb-throwing persuasion, on the + other side, because of what I said in my speech in reference to those who, + in effect, advocate murder?" + </p> + <p> + On another occasion I was vehemently denounced in certain capitalistic + papers because I had a number of labor leaders, including miners from + Butte, lunch with me at the White House; and this at the very time that + the Western Federation of Miners was most ferocious in its denunciation of + me because of what it alleged to be my unfriendly attitude toward labor. + To one of my critics I set forth my views in the following letter: + </p> + <p> + November 26, 1903. + </p> + <p> + "I have your letter of the 25th instant, with enclosure. These men, not + all of whom were miners, by the way, came here and were at lunch with me, + in company with Mr. Carroll D. Wright, Mr. Wayne MacVeagh, and Secretary + Cortelyou. They are as decent a set of men as can be. They all agreed + entirely with me in my denunciation of what had been done in the Court + d'Alene country; and it appeared that some of them were on the platform + with me when I denounced this type of outrage three years ago in Butte. + There is not one man who was here, who, I believe, was in any way, shape + or form responsible for such outrages. I find that the ultra-Socialistic + members of the unions in Butte denounced these men for coming here, in a + manner as violent—and I may say as irrational—as the + denunciation [by the capitalistic writer] in the article you sent me. + Doubtless the gentleman of whom you speak as your general manager is an + admirable man. I, of course, was not alluding to him; but I most + emphatically <i>was</i> alluding to men who write such articles as that + you sent me. These articles are to be paralleled by the similar articles + in the Populist and Socialist papers when two years ago I had at dinner at + one time Pierpont Morgan, and at another time J. J. Hill, and at another, + Harriman, and at another time Schiff. Furthermore, they could be + paralleled by the articles in the same type of paper which at the time of + the Miller incident in the Printing Office were in a condition of nervous + anxiety because I met the labor leaders to discuss it. It would have been + a great misfortune if I had not met them; and it would have been an even + greater misfortune if after meeting them I had yielded to their protests + in the matter. + </p> + <p> + "You say in your letter that you know that I am 'on record' as opposed to + violence. Pardon my saying that this seems to me not the right way to put + the matter, if by 'record' you mean utterance and not action. Aside from + what happened when I was Governor in connection, for instance with the + Croton dam strike riots, all you have to do is to turn back to what took + place last June in Arizona—and you can find out about it from [Mr. + X] of New York. The miners struck, violence followed, and the Arizona + Territorial authorities notified me they could not grapple with the + situation. Within twenty minutes of the receipt of the telegram, orders + were issued to the nearest available troops, and twenty-four hours + afterwards General Baldwin and his regulars were on the ground, and + twenty-four hours later every vestige of disorder had disappeared. The + Miners' Federation in their meeting, I think at Denver, a short while + afterwards, passed resolutions denouncing me. I do not know whether the <i>Mining + and Engineering Journal</i> paid any heed to this incident or know of it. + If the <i>Journal</i> did, I suppose it can hardly have failed to + understand that to put an immediate stop to rioting by the use of the + United States army is a fact of importance beside which the criticism of + my having 'labor leaders' to lunch, shrinks into the same insignificance + as the criticism in a different type of paper about my having 'trust + magnates' to lunch. While I am President I wish the labor man to feel that + he has the same right of access to me that the capitalist has; that the + doors swing open as easily to the wage-worker as to the head of a big + corporation—<i>and no easier</i>. Anything else seems to be not only + un-American, but as symptomatic of an attitude which will cost grave + trouble if persevered in. To discriminate against labor men from Butte + because there is reason to believe that rioting has been excited in other + districts by certain labor unions, or individuals in labor unions in + Butte, would be to adopt precisely the attitude of those who desire me to + discriminate against all capitalists in Wall street because there are + plenty of capitalists in Wall Street who have been guilty of bad financial + practices and who have endeavored to override or evade the laws of the + land. In my judgment, the only safe attitude for a private citizen, and + still more for a public servant, to assume, is that he will draw the line + on conduct, discriminating against neither corporation nor union as such, + nor in favor of either as such, but endeavoring to make the decent member + of the union and the upright capitalists alike feel that they are bound, + not only by self-interest, but by every consideration of principle and + duty to stand together on the matters of most moment to the nation." + </p> + <p> + On another of the various occasions when I had labor leaders to dine at + the White House, my critics were rather shocked because I had John Morley + to meet them. The labor leaders in question included the heads of the + various railroad brotherhoods, men like Mr. Morrissey, in whose sound + judgment and high standard of citizenship I had peculiar confidence; and I + asked Mr. Morley to meet them because they represented the exact type of + American citizen with whom I thought he ought to be brought in contact. + </p> + <p> + One of the devices sometimes used by big corporations to break down the + law was to treat the passage of laws as an excuse for action on their part + which they knew would be resented by the public, it being their purpose to + turn this resentment against the law instead of against themselves. The + heads of the Louisville and Nashville road were bitter opponents of + everything done by the Government toward securing good treatment for their + employees. In February, 1908, they and various other railways announced + that they intended to reduce the wages of their employees. A general + strike, with all the attendant disorder and trouble, was threatened in + consequence. I accordingly sent the following open letter to the + Inter-State Commerce Commission: + </p> + <p> + February 16, 1908. + </p> + <p> + "To the Inter-State Commerce Commission: + </p> + <p> + "I am informed that a number of railroad companies have served notice of a + proposed reduction of wages of their employees. One of them, the + Louisville and Nashville, in announcing the reduction, states that 'the + drastic laws inimical to the interests of the railroads that have in the + past year or two been enacted by Congress and the State Legislatures' are + largely or chiefly responsible for the conditions requiring the reduction. + </p> + <p> + "Under such circumstances it is possible that the public may soon be + confronted by serious industrial disputes, and the law provides that in + such case either party may demand the services of your Chairman and of the + Commissioner of Labor as a Board of Mediation and Conciliation. These + reductions in wages may be warranted, or they may not. As to this the + public, which is a vitally interested party, can form no judgment without + a more complete knowledge of the essential facts and real merits of the + case than it now has or than it can possibly obtain from the special + pleadings, certain to be put forth by each side in case their dispute + should bring about serious interruption to traffic. If the reduction in + wages is due to natural causes, the loss of business being such that the + burden should be and is, equitably distributed between capitalist and + wage-worker, the public should know it. If it is caused by legislation, + the public, and Congress, should know it; and if it is caused by + misconduct in the past financial or other operations of any railroad, then + everybody should know it, especially if the excuse of unfriendly + legislation is advanced as a method of covering up past business + misconduct by the railroad managers, or as a justification for failure to + treat fairly the wage-earning employees of the company. + </p> + <p> + "Moreover, an industrial conflict between a railroad corporation and its + employees offers peculiar opportunities to any small number of + evil-disposed persons to destroy life and property and foment public + disorder. Of course, if life, property, and public order are endangered, + prompt and drastic measures for their protection become the first plain + duty. All other issues then become subordinate to the preservation of the + public peace, and the real merits of the original controversy are + necessarily lost from view. This vital consideration should be ever kept + in mind by all law-abiding and far-sighted members of labor organizations. + </p> + <p> + "It is sincerely to be hoped, therefore, that any wage controversy that + may arise between the railroads and their employees may find a peaceful + solution through the methods of conciliation and arbitration already + provided by Congress, which have proven so effective during the past year. + To this end the Commission should be in a position to have available for + any Board of Conciliation or Arbitration relevant data pertaining to such + carriers as may become involved in industrial disputes. Should + conciliation fail to effect a settlement and arbitration be rejected, + accurate information should be available in order to develop a properly + informed public opinion. + </p> + <p> + "I therefore ask you to make such investigation, both of your records and + by any other means at your command, as will enable you to furnish data + concerning such conditions obtaining on the Louisville and Nashville and + any other roads, as may relate, directly or indirectly, to the real merits + of the possibly impending controversy. + </p> + <p> + "THEODORE ROOSEVELT." + </p> + <p> + This letter achieved its purpose, and the threatened reduction of wages + was not made. It was an instance of what could be accomplished by + governmental action. Let me add, however, with all the emphasis I possess, + that this does not mean any failure on my part to recognize the fact that + if governmental action places too heavy burdens on railways, it will be + impossible for them to operate without doing injustice to somebody. + Railways cannot pay proper wages and render proper service unless they + make money. The investors must get a reasonable profit or they will not + invest, and the public cannot be well served unless the investors are + making reasonable profits. There is every reason why rates should not be + too high, but they must be sufficiently high to allow the railways to pay + good wages. Moreover, when laws like workmen's compensation laws, and the + like are passed, it must always be kept in mind by the Legislature that + the purpose is to distribute over the whole community a burden that should + not be borne only by those least able to bear it—that is, by the + injured man or the widow and orphans of the dead man. If the railway is + already receiving a disproportionate return from the public, then the + burden may, with propriety, bear purely on the railway; but if it is not + earning a disproportionate return, then the public must bear its share of + the burden of the increased service the railway is rendering. Dividends + and wages should go up together; and the relation of rates to them should + never be forgotten. This of course does not apply to dividends based on + water; nor does it mean that if foolish people have built a road that + renders no service, the public must nevertheless in some way guarantee a + return on the investment; but it does mean that the interests of the + honest investor are entitled to the same protection as the interests of + the honest manager, the honest shipper and the honest wage-earner. All + these conflicting considerations should be carefully considered by + Legislatures before passing laws. One of the great objects in creating + commissions should be the provision of disinterested, fair-minded experts + who will really and wisely consider all these matters, and will shape + their actions accordingly. This is one reason why such matters as the + regulation of rates, the provision for full crews on roads and the like + should be left for treatment by railway commissions, and not be settled + off hand by direct legislative action. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE5" id="link2H_APPE5"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX + </h2> + <h3> + SOCIALISM + </h3> + <p> + As regards what I have said in this chapter concerning Socialism, I wish + to call especial attention to the admirable book on "Marxism versus + Socialism," which has just been published by Vladimir D. Simkhovitch. What + I have, here and elsewhere, merely pointed out in rough and ready fashion + from actual observation of the facts of life around me, Professor + Simkhovitch in his book has discussed with keen practical insight, with + profundity of learning, and with a wealth of applied philosophy. Crude + thinkers in the United States, and moreover honest and intelligent men who + are not crude thinkers, but who are oppressed by the sight of the misery + around them and have not deeply studied what has been done elsewhere, are + very apt to adopt as their own the theories of European Marxian Socialists + of half a century ago, ignorant that the course of events has so + completely falsified the prophecies contained in these theories that they + have been abandoned even by the authors themselves. With quiet humor + Professor Simkhovitch now and then makes an allusion which shows that he + appreciates to perfection this rather curious quality of some of our + fellow countrymen; as for example when he says that "A Socialist State + with the farmer outside of it is a conception that can rest comfortably + only in the head of an American Socialist," or as when he speaks of Marx + and Engels as men "to whom thinking was not an irrelevant foreign + tradition." Too many thoroughly well-meaning men and women in the America + of to-day glibly repeat and accept—much as medieval schoolmen + repeated and accepted authorized dogma in their day—various + assumptions and speculations by Marx and others which by the lapse of time + and by actual experiment have been shown to possess not one shred of + value. Professor Simkhovitch possesses the gift of condensation as well as + the gift of clear and logical statement, and it is not possible to give in + brief any idea of his admirable work. Every social reformer who desires to + face facts should study it—just as social reformers should study + John Graham Brooks's "American Syndicalism." From Professor Simkhovitch's + book we Americans should learn: First, to discard crude thinking; second, + to realize that the orthodox or so-called scientific or purely economic or + materialistic socialism of the type preached by Marx is an exploded + theory; and, third, that many of the men who call themselves Socialists + to-day are in reality merely radical social reformers, with whom on many + points good citizens can and ought to work in hearty general agreement, + and whom in many practical matters of government good citizens well afford + to follow. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV + </h2> + <h3> + THE MONROE DOCTRINE AND THE PANAMA CANAL + </h3> + <p> + No nation can claim rights without acknowledging the duties that go with + the rights. It is a contemptible thing for a great nation to render itself + impotent in international action, whether because of cowardice or sloth, + or sheer inability or unwillingness to look into the future. It is a very + wicked thing for a nation to do wrong to others. But the most contemptible + and most wicked course of conduct is for a nation to use offensive + language or be guilty of offensive actions toward other people and yet + fail to hold its own if the other nation retaliates; and it is almost as + bad to undertake responsibilities and then not fulfil them. During the + seven and a half years that I was President, this Nation behaved in + international matters toward all other nations precisely as an honorable + man behaves to his fellow-men. We made no promise which we could not and + did not keep. We made no threat which we did not carry out. We never + failed to assert our rights in the face of the strong, and we never failed + to treat both strong and weak with courtesy and justice; and against the + weak when they misbehaved we were slower to assert our rights than we were + against the strong. + </p> + <p> + As a legacy of the Spanish War we were left with peculiar relations to the + Philippines, Cuba, and Porto Rico, and with an immensely added interest in + Central America and the Caribbean Sea. As regards the Philippines my + belief was that we should train them for self-government as rapidly as + possible, and then leave them free to decide their own fate. I did not + believe in setting the time-limit within which we would give them + independence, because I did not believe it wise to try to forecast how + soon they would be fit for self-government; and once having made the + promise I would have felt that it was imperative to keep it. Within a few + months of my assuming office we had stamped out the last armed resistance + in the Philippines that was not of merely sporadic character; and as soon + as peace was secured we turned our energies to developing the islands in + the interests of the natives. We established schools everywhere; we built + roads; we administered an even-handed justice; we did everything possible + to encourage agriculture and industry; and in constantly increasing + measure we employed natives to do their own governing, and finally + provided a legislative chamber. No higher grade of public officials ever + handled the affairs of any colony than the public officials who in + succession governed the Philippines. With the possible exception of the + Sudan, and not even excepting Algiers, I know of no country ruled and + administered by men of the white race where that rule and that + administration have been exercised so emphatically with an eye single to + the welfare of the natives themselves. The English and Dutch + administrators of Malaysia have done admirable work; but the profit to the + Europeans in those States has always been one of the chief elements + considered; whereas in the Philippines our whole attention was + concentrated upon the welfare of the Filipinos themselves, if anything to + the neglect of our own interests. + </p> + <p> + I do not believe that America has any special beneficial interest in + retaining the Philippines. Our work there has benefited us only as any + efficiently done work performed for the benefit of others does + incidentally help the character of those who do it. The people of the + islands have never developed so rapidly, from every standpoint, as during + the years of the American occupation. The time will come when it will be + wise to take their own judgment as to whether they wish to continue their + association with America or not. There is, however, one consideration upon + which we should insist. Either we should retain complete control of the + islands, or absolve ourselves from all responsibility for them. Any half + and half course would be both foolish and disastrous. We are governing and + have been governing the islands in the interests of the Filipinos + themselves. If after due time the Filipinos themselves decide that they do + not wish to be thus governed, then I trust that we will leave; but when we + do leave it must be distinctly understood that we retain no protectorate—and + above all that we take part in no joint protectorate—over the + islands, and give them no guarantee, of neutrality or otherwise; that, in + short, we are absolutely quit of responsibility for them, of every kind + and description. + </p> + <p> + The Filipinos were quite incapable of standing by themselves when we took + possession of the islands, and we had made no promise concerning them. But + we had explicitly promised to leave the island of Cuba, had explicitly + promised that Cuba should be independent. Early in my administration that + promise was redeemed. When the promise was made, I doubt if there was a + single ruler or diplomat in Europe who believed that it would be kept. As + far as I know, the United States was the first power which, having made + such a promise, kept it in letter and spirit. England was unwise enough to + make such a promise when she took Egypt. It would have been a capital + misfortune to have kept the promise, and England has remained in Egypt for + over thirty years, and will unquestionably remain indefinitely; but though + it is necessary for her to do so, the fact of her doing so has meant the + breaking of a positive promise and has been a real evil. Japan made the + same guarantee about Korea, but as far as can be seen there was never even + any thought of keeping the promise in this case; and Korea, which had + shown herself utterly impotent either for self-government or self-defense, + was in actual fact almost immediately annexed to Japan. + </p> + <p> + We made the promise to give Cuba independence; and we kept the promise. + Leonard Wood was left in as Governor for two or three years, and evolved + order out of chaos, raising the administration of the island to a level, + moral and material, which it had never before achieved. We also by treaty + gave the Cubans substantial advantages in our markets. Then we left the + island, turning the government over to its own people. After four or five + years a revolution broke out, during my administration, and we again had + to intervene to restore order. We promptly sent thither a small army of + pacification. Under General Barry, order was restored and kept, and + absolute justice done. The American troops were then withdrawn and the + Cubans reestablished in complete possession of their own beautiful island, + and they are in possession of it now. There are plenty of occasions in our + history when we have shown weakness or inefficiency, and some occasions + when we have not been as scrupulous as we should have been as regards the + rights of others. But I know of no action by any other government in + relation to a weaker power which showed such disinterested efficiency in + rendering service as was true in connection with our intervention in Cuba. + </p> + <p> + In Cuba, as in the Philippines and as in Porto Rico, Santo Domingo, and + later in Panama, no small part of our success was due to the fact that we + put in the highest grade of men as public officials. This practice was + inaugurated under President McKinley. I found admirable men in office, and + I continued them and appointed men like them as their successors. The way + that the custom-houses in Santo Domingo were administered by Colton + definitely established the success of our experiment in securing peace for + that island republic; and in Porto Rico, under the administration of + affairs under such officials as Hunt, Winthrop, Post, Ward and Grahame, + more substantial progress was achieved in a decade than in any previous + century. + </p> + <p> + The Philippines, Cuba, and Porto Rico came within our own sphere of + governmental action. In addition to this we asserted certain rights in the + Western Hemisphere under the Monroe Doctrine. My endeavor was not only to + assert these rights, but frankly and fully to acknowledge the duties that + went with the rights. + </p> + <p> + The Monroe Doctrine lays down the rule that the Western Hemisphere is not + hereafter to be treated as subject to settlement and occupation by Old + World powers. It is not international law; but it is a cardinal principle + of our foreign policy. There is no difficulty at the present day in + maintaining this doctrine, save where the American power whose interest is + threatened has shown itself in international matters both weak and + delinquent. The great and prosperous civilized commonwealths, such as the + Argentine, Brazil, and Chile, in the Southern half of South America, have + advanced so far that they no longer stand in any position of tutelage + toward the United States. They occupy toward us precisely the position + that Canada occupies. Their friendship is the friendship of equals for + equals. My view was that as regards these nations there was no more + necessity for asserting the Monroe Doctrine than there was to assert it in + regard to Canada. They were competent to assert it for themselves. Of + course if one of these nations, or if Canada, should be overcome by some + Old World power, which then proceeded to occupy its territory, we would + undoubtedly, if the American Nation needed our help, give it in order to + prevent such occupation from taking place. But the initiative would come + from the Nation itself, and the United States would merely act as a friend + whose help was invoked. + </p> + <p> + The case was (and is) widely different as regards certain—not all—of + the tropical states in the neighborhood of the Caribbean Sea. Where these + states are stable and prosperous, they stand on a footing of absolute + equality with all other communities. But some of them have been a prey to + such continuous revolutionary misrule as to have grown impotent either to + do their duties to outsiders or to enforce their rights against outsiders. + The United States has not the slightest desire to make aggressions on any + one of these states. On the contrary, it will submit to much from them + without showing resentment. If any great civilized power, Russia or + Germany, for instance, had behaved toward us as Venezuela under Castro + behaved, this country would have gone to war at once. We did not go to war + with Venezuela merely because our people declined to be irritated by the + actions of a weak opponent, and showed a forbearance which probably went + beyond the limits of wisdom in refusing to take umbrage at what was done + by the weak; although we would certainly have resented it had it been done + by the strong. In the case of two states, however, affairs reached such a + crisis that we had to act. These two states were Santo Domingo and the + then owner of the Isthmus of Panama, Colombia. + </p> + <p> + The Santo Domingan case was the less important; and yet it possessed a + real importance, and moreover is instructive because the action there + taken should serve as a precedent for American action in all similar + cases. During the early years of my administration Santo Domingo was in + its usual condition of chronic revolution. There was always fighting, + always plundering; and the successful graspers for governmental power were + always pawning ports and custom-houses, or trying to put them up as + guarantees for loans. Of course the foreigners who made loans under such + conditions demanded exorbitant interest, and if they were Europeans + expected their governments to stand by them. So utter was the disorder + that on one occasion when Admiral Dewey landed to pay a call of ceremony + on the President, he and his party were shot at by revolutionists in + crossing the square, and had to return to the ships, leaving the call + unpaid. There was default on the interest due to the creditors; and + finally the latter insisted upon their governments intervening. Two or + three of the European powers were endeavoring to arrange for concerted + action, and I was finally notified that these powers intended to take and + hold several of the seaports which held custom-houses. + </p> + <p> + This meant that unless I acted at once I would find foreign powers in + partial possession of Santo Domingo; in which event the very individuals + who, in the actual event deprecated the precaution taken to prevent such + action, would have advocated extreme and violent measures to undo the + effect of their own supineness. Nine-tenths of wisdom is to be wise in + time, and at the right time; and my whole foreign policy was based on the + exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently + far in advance of any likely crisis to make it improbable that we would + run into serious trouble. + </p> + <p> + Santo Domingo had fallen into such chaos that once for some weeks there + were two rival governments in it, and a revolution was being carried on + against each. At one period one government was at sea in a small gunboat, + but still stoutly maintained that it was in possession of the island and + entitled to make loans and declare peace or war. The situation had become + intolerable by the time that I interfered. There was a naval commander in + the waters whom I directed to prevent any fighting which might menace the + custom-houses. He carried out his orders, both to his and my satisfaction, + in thoroughgoing fashion. On one occasion, when an insurgent force + threatened to attack a town in which Americans had interests, he notified + the commanders on both sides that he would not permit any fighting in the + town, but that he would appoint a certain place where they could meet and + fight it out, and that the victors should have the town. They agreed to + meet his wishes, the fight came off at the appointed place, and the + victors, who if I remember rightly were the insurgents, were given the + town. + </p> + <p> + It was the custom-houses that caused the trouble, for they offered the + only means of raising money, and the revolutions were carried on to get + possession of them. Accordingly I secured an agreement with the + governmental authorities, who for the moment seemed best able to speak for + the country, by which these custom-houses were placed under American + control. The arrangement was that we should keep order and prevent any + interference with the custom-houses or the places where they stood, and + should collect the revenues. Forty-five per cent of the revenue was then + turned over to the Santo Domingan Government, and fifty-five per cent put + in a sinking fund in New York for the benefit of the creditors. The + arrangement worked in capital style. On the forty-five per cent basis the + Santo Domingan Government received from us a larger sum than it had ever + received before when nominally all the revenue went to it. The creditors + were entirely satisfied with the arrangement, and no excuse for + interference by European powers remained. Occasional disturbances occurred + in the island, of course, but on the whole there ensued a degree of peace + and prosperity which the island had not known before for at least a + century. + </p> + <p> + All this was done without the loss of a life, with the assent of all the + parties in interest, and without subjecting the United States to any + charge, while practically all of the interference, after the naval + commander whom I have mentioned had taken the initial steps in preserving + order, consisted in putting a first-class man trained in our insular + service at the head of the Santo Domingan customs service. We secured + peace, we protected the people of the islands against foreign foes, and we + minimized the chance of domestic trouble. We satisfied the creditors and + the foreign nations to which the creditors belonged; and our own part of + the work was done with the utmost efficiency and with rigid honesty, so + that not a particle of scandal was ever so much as hinted at. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances those who do not know the nature of the + professional international philanthropists would suppose that these + apostles of international peace would have been overjoyed with what we had + done. As a matter of fact, when they took any notice of it at all it was + to denounce it; and those American newspapers which are fondest of + proclaiming themselves the foes of war and the friends of peace violently + attacked me for averting war from, and bringing peace to, the island. They + insisted I had no power to make the agreement, and demanded the rejection + of the treaty which was to perpetuate the agreement. They were, of course, + wholly unable to advance a single sound reason of any kind for their + attitude. I suppose the real explanation was partly their dislike of me + personally, and unwillingness to see peace come through or national honor + upheld by me; and in the next place their sheer, simple devotion to + prattle and dislike of efficiency. They liked to have people come together + and talk about peace, or even sign bits of paper with something about + peace or arbitration on them, but they took no interest whatever in the + practical achievement of a peace that told for good government and decency + and honesty. They were joined by the many moderately well-meaning men who + always demand that a thing be done, but also always demand that it be not + done in the only way in which it is, as a matter of fact, possible to do + it. The men of this kind insisted that of course Santo Domingo must be + protected and made to behave itself, and that of course the Panama Canal + must be dug; but they insisted even more strongly that neither feat should + be accomplished in the only way in which it was possible to accomplish it + at all. + </p> + <p> + The Constitution did not explicitly give me power to bring about the + necessary agreement with Santo Domingo. But the Constitution did not + forbid my doing what I did. I put the agreement into effect, and I + continued its execution for two years before the Senate acted; and I would + have continued it until the end of my term, if necessary, without any + action by Congress. But it was far preferable that there should be action + by Congress, so that we might be proceeding under a treaty which was the + law of the land and not merely by a direction of the Chief Executive which + would lapse when that particular executive left office. I therefore did my + best to get the Senate to ratify what I had done. There was a good deal of + difficulty about it. With the exception of one or two men like Clark of + Arkansas, the Democratic Senators acted in that spirit of unworthy + partisanship which subordinates national interest to some fancied partisan + advantage, and they were cordially backed by all that portion of the press + which took its inspiration from Wall Street, and was violently hostile to + the Administration because of its attitude towards great corporations. + Most of the Republican Senators under the lead of Senator Lodge stood by + me; but some of them, of the more "conservative" or reactionary type, who + were already growing hostile to me on the trust question, first proceeded + to sneer at what had been done, and to raise all kinds of meticulous + objections, which they themselves finally abandoned, but which furnished + an excuse on which the opponents of the treaty could hang adverse action. + Unfortunately the Senators who were most apt to speak of the dignity of + the Senate, and to insist upon its importance, were the very ones who were + also most apt to try to make display of this dignity and importance by + thwarting the public business. This case was typical. The Republicans in + question spoke against certain provisions of the proposed treaty. They + then, having ingeniously provided ammunition for the foes of the treaty, + abandoned their opposition to it, and the Democrats stepped into the + position they had abandoned. Enough Republicans were absent to prevent the + securing of a two-thirds vote for the treaty, and the Senate adjourned + without any action at all, and with a feeling of entire self-satisfaction + at having left the country in the position of assuming a responsibility + and then failing to fulfil it. Apparently the Senators in question felt + that in some way they had upheld their dignity. All that they had really + done was to shirk their duty. Somebody had to do that duty, and + accordingly I did it. I went ahead and administered the proposed treaty + anyhow, considering it as a simple agreement on the part of the Executive + which would be converted into a treaty whenever the Senate acted. After a + couple of years the Senate did act, having previously made some utterly + unimportant changes which I ratified and persuaded Santo Domingo to + ratify. In all its history Santo Domingo has had nothing happen to it as + fortunate as this treaty, and the passing of it saved the United States + from having to face serious difficulties with one or more foreign powers. + </p> + <p> + It cannot in the long run prove possible for the United States to protect + delinquent American nations from punishment for the non-performance of + their duties unless she undertakes to make them perform their duties. + People may theorize about this as much as they wish, but whenever a + sufficiently strong outside nation becomes sufficiently aggrieved, then + either that nation will act or the United States Government itself will + have to act. We were face to face at one period of my administration with + this condition of affairs in Venezuela, when Germany, rather feebly backed + by England, undertook a blockade against Venezuela to make Venezuela adopt + the German and English view about certain agreements. There was real + danger that the blockade would finally result in Germany's taking + possession of certain cities or custom-houses. I succeeded, however, in + getting all the parties in interest to submit their cases to the Hague + Tribunal. + </p> + <p> + By far the most important action I took in foreign affairs during the time + I was President related to the Panama Canal. Here again there was much + accusation about my having acted in an "unconstitutional" manner—a + position which can be upheld only if Jefferson's action in acquiring + Louisiana be also treated as unconstitutional; and at different stages of + the affair believers in a do-nothing policy denounced me as having + "usurped authority"—which meant, that when nobody else could or + would exercise efficient authority, I exercised it. + </p> + <p> + During the nearly four hundred years that had elapsed since Balboa crossed + the Isthmus, there had been a good deal of talk about building an Isthmus + canal, and there had been various discussions of the subject and + negotiations about it in Washington for the previous half century. So far + it had all resulted merely in conversation; and the time had come when + unless somebody was prepared to act with decision we would have to resign + ourselves to at least half a century of further conversation. Under the + Hay-Pauncefote Treaty signed shortly after I became President, and thanks + to our negotiations with the French Panama Company, the United States at + last acquired a possession, so far as Europe was concerned, which + warranted her in immediately undertaking the task. It remained to decide + where the canal should be, whether along the line already pioneered by the + French company in Panama, or in Nicaragua. Panama belonged to the Republic + of Colombia. Nicaragua bid eagerly for the privilege of having the United + States build the canal through her territory. As long as it was doubtful + which route we would decide upon, Colombia extended every promise of + friendly cooperation; at the Pan-American Congress in Mexico her delegate + joined in the unanimous vote which requested the United States forthwith + to build the canal; and at her eager request we negotiated the Hay-Herran + Treaty with her, which gave us the right to build the canal across Panama. + A board of experts sent to the Isthmus had reported that this route was + better than the Nicaragua route, and that it would be well to build the + canal over it provided we could purchase the rights of the French company + for forty million dollars; but that otherwise they would advise taking the + Nicaragua route. Ever since 1846 we had had a treaty with the power then + in control of the Isthmus, the Republic of New Granada, the predecessor of + the Republic of Colombia and of the present Republic of Panama, by which + treaty the United States was guaranteed free and open right of way across + the Isthmus of Panama by any mode of communication that might be + constructed, while in return our Government guaranteed the perfect + neutrality of the Isthmus with a view to the preservation of free transit. + </p> + <p> + For nearly fifty years we had asserted the right to prevent the closing of + this highway of commerce. Secretary of State Cass in 1858 officially + stated the American position as follows: + </p> + <p> + "Sovereignty has its duties as well as its rights, and none of these local + governments, even if administered with more regard to the just demands of + other nations than they have been, would be permitted, in a spirit of + Eastern isolation, to close the gates of intercourse of the great highways + of the world, and justify the act by the pretension that these avenues of + trade and travel belong to them and that they choose to shut them, or, + what is almost equivalent, to encumber them with such unjust relations as + would prevent their general use." + </p> + <p> + We had again and again been forced to intervene to protect the transit + across the Isthmus, and the intervention was frequently at the request of + Colombia herself. The effort to build a canal by private capital had been + made under De Lesseps and had resulted in lamentable failure. Every + serious proposal to build the canal in such manner had been abandoned. The + United States had repeatedly announced that we would not permit it to be + built or controlled by any old-world government. Colombia was utterly + impotent to build it herself. Under these circumstances it had become a + matter of imperative obligation that we should build it ourselves without + further delay. + </p> + <p> + I took final action in 1903. During the preceding fifty-three years the + Governments of New Granada and of its successor, Colombia, had been in a + constant state of flux; and the State of Panama had sometimes been treated + as almost independent, in a loose Federal league, and sometimes as the + mere property of the Government at Bogota; and there had been innumerable + appeals to arms, sometimes of adequate, sometimes for inadequate, reasons. + The following is a partial list of the disturbances on the Isthmus of + Panama during the period in question, as reported to us by our consuls. It + is not possible to give a complete list, and some of the reports that + speak of "revolutions" must mean unsuccessful revolutions: + </p> + <p> + May 22, 1850.—Outbreak; two Americans killed. War vessel demanded to + quell outbreak. + </p> + <p> + October, 1850.—Revolutionary plot to bring about independence of the + Isthmus. + </p> + <p> + July 22, 1851.—Revolution in four Southern provinces. + </p> + <p> + November 14, 1851.—Outbreak at Chagres. Man-of-war requested for + Chagres. + </p> + <p> + June 27, 1853.—Insurrection at Bogota, and consequent disturbance on + Isthmus. War vessel demanded. + </p> + <p> + May 23, 1854.—Political disturbances. War vessel requested. + </p> + <p> + June 28, 1854.—Attempted revolution. + </p> + <p> + October 24, 1854.—Independence of Isthmus demanded by provincial + legislature. + </p> + <p> + April, 1856.—Riot, and massacre of Americans. + </p> + <p> + May 4, 1856.—Riot. + </p> + <p> + May 18, 1856.—Riot. + </p> + <p> + June 3, 1856.—Riot. + </p> + <p> + October 2, 1856.—Conflict between two native parties. United States + force landed. + </p> + <p> + December 18, 1858.—Attempted secession of Panama. + </p> + <p> + April, 1859.—Riots. + </p> + <p> + September, 1860.—Outbreak. + </p> + <p> + October 4, 1860.—Landing of United States forces in consequence. + </p> + <p> + May 23, 1861.—Intervention of the United States force required, by + intendente. + </p> + <p> + October 2, 1861.—Insurrection and civil war. + </p> + <p> + April 4, 1862.—Measures to prevent rebels crossing Isthmus. + </p> + <p> + June 13, 1862.—Mosquera's troops refused admittance to Panama. + </p> + <p> + March, 1865.—Revolution, and United States troops landed. + </p> + <p> + August, 1865.—Riots; unsuccessful attempt to invade Panama. + </p> + <p> + March, 1866.—Unsuccessful revolution. + </p> + <p> + April, 1867.—Attempt to overthrow Government. + </p> + <p> + August, 1867.—Attempt at revolution. + </p> + <p> + July 5, 1868.—Revolution; provisional government inaugurated. + </p> + <p> + August 29, 1868.—Revolution; provisional government overthrown. + </p> + <p> + April, 1871.—Revolution; followed apparently by counter revolution. + </p> + <p> + April, 1873.—Revolution and civil war which lasted to October, 1875. + </p> + <p> + August, 1876.—Civil war which lasted until April, 1877. + </p> + <p> + July, 1878.—Rebellion. + </p> + <p> + December, 1878.—Revolt. + </p> + <p> + April, 1879.—Revolution. + </p> + <p> + June, 1879.—Revolution. + </p> + <p> + March, 1883.—Riot. + </p> + <p> + May, 1883.—Riot. + </p> + <p> + June, 1884.—Revolutionary attempt. + </p> + <p> + December, 1884.—Revolutionary attempt. + </p> + <p> + January, 1885.—Revolutionary disturbances. + </p> + <p> + March, 1885.—Revolution. + </p> + <p> + April, 1887.—Disturbance on Panama Railroad. + </p> + <p> + November, 1887.—Disturbance on line of canal. + </p> + <p> + January, 1889.—Riot. + </p> + <p> + January, 1895.—Revolution which lasted until April. + </p> + <p> + March, 1895.—Incendiary attempt. + </p> + <p> + October, 1899.—Revolution. + </p> + <p> + February, 1900, to July, 1900.—Revolution. + </p> + <p> + January, 1901.—Revolution. + </p> + <p> + July, 1901.—Revolutionary disturbances. + </p> + <p> + September, 1901.—City of Colon taken by rebels. + </p> + <p> + March, 1902.—Revolutionary disturbances. + </p> + <p> + July, 1902.—Revolution + </p> + <p> + The above is only a partial list of the revolutions, rebellions, + insurrections, riots, and other outbreaks that occurred during the period + in question; yet they number fifty-three for the fifty-three years, and + they showed a tendency to increase, rather than decrease, in numbers and + intensity. One of them lasted for nearly three years before it was + quelled; another for nearly a year. In short, the experience of over half + a century had shown Colombia to be utterly incapable of keeping order on + the Isthmus. Only the active interference of the United States had enabled + her to preserve so much as a semblance of sovereignty. Had it not been for + the exercise by the United States of the police power in her interest, her + connection with the Isthmus would have been sundered long before it was. + In 1856, in 1860, in 1873, in 1885, in 1901, and again in 1902, sailors + and marines from United States warships were forced to land in order to + patrol the Isthmus, to protect life and property, and to see that the + transit across the Isthmus was kept open. In 1861, in 1862, in 1885, and + in 1900, the Colombian Government asked that the United States Government + would land troops to protect Colombian interests and maintain order on the + Isthmus. The people of Panama during the preceding twenty years had three + times sought to establish their independence by revolution or secession—in + 1885, in 1895, and in 1899. + </p> + <p> + The peculiar relations of the United States toward the Isthmus, and the + acquiescence by Colombia in acts which were quite incompatible with the + theory of her having an absolute and unconditioned sovereignty on the + Isthmus, are illustrated by the following three telegrams between two of + our naval officers whose ships were at the Isthmus, and the Secretary of + the Navy on the occasion of the first outbreak that occurred on the + Isthmus after I became President (a year before Panama became + independent): + </p> + <p> + September 12, 1902. + </p> + <p> + Ranger, Panama: + </p> + <p> + United States guarantees perfect neutrality of Isthmus and that a free + transit from sea to sea be not interrupted or embarrassed. . . . Any + transportation of troops which might contravene these provisions of treaty + should not be sanctioned by you, nor should use of road be permitted which + might convert the line of transit into theater of hostility. + </p> + <p> + MOODY. + </p> + <p> + COLON, September 20, 1902. + </p> + <p> + Secretary Navy, Washington: + </p> + <p> + Everything is conceded. The United States guards and guarantees traffic + and the line of transit. To-day I permitted the exchange of Colombian + troops from Panama to Colon, about 1000 men each way, the troops without + arms in trains guarded by American naval force in the same manner as other + passengers; arms and ammunition in separate train, guarded also by naval + force in the same manner as other freight. + </p> + <p> + MCLEAN. + </p> + <p> + PANAMA, October 3, 1902. + </p> + <p> + Secretary Navy, Washington, D.C.: + </p> + <p> + Have sent this communication to the American Consul at Panama: + </p> + <p> + "Inform Governor, while trains running under United States protection, I + must decline transportation any combatants, ammunition, arms, which might + cause interruption to traffic or convert line of transit into theater + hostilities." + </p> + <p> + CASEY. + </p> + <p> + When the Government in nominal control of the Isthmus continually besought + American interference to protect the "rights" it could not itself protect, + and permitted our Government to transport Colombian troops unarmed, under + protection of our own armed men, while the Colombian arms and ammunition + came in a separate train, it is obvious that the Colombian "sovereignty" + was of such a character as to warrant our insisting that inasmuch as it + only existed because of our protection there should be in requital a sense + of the obligations that the acceptance of this protection implied. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Colombia was under a dictatorship. In 1898 M. A. Sanclamente was + elected President, and J. M. Maroquin Vice-President, of the Republic of + Colombia. On July 31, 1900, the Vice-President, Maroquin, executed a "coup + d'etat" by seizing the person of the President, Sanclamente, and + imprisoning him at a place a few miles out of Bogota. Maroquin thereupon + declared himself possessed of the executive power because of "the absence + of the President"—a delightful touch of unconscious humor. He then + issued a decree that public order was disturbed, and, upon that ground, + assumed to himself legislative power under another provision of the + constitution; that is, having himself disturbed the public order, he + alleged the disturbance as a justification for seizing absolute power. + Thenceforth Maroquin, without the aid of any legislative body, ruled as a + dictator, combining the supreme executive, legislative, civil, and + military authorities, in the so-called Republic of Colombia. The "absence" + of Sanclamente from the capital became permanent by his death in prison in + the year 1902. When the people of Panama declared their independence in + November, 1903, no Congress had sat in Colombia since the year 1898, + except the special Congress called by Maroquin to reject the canal treaty, + and which did reject it by a unanimous vote, and adjourned without + legislating on any other subject. The constitution of 1886 had taken away + from Panama the power of self-government and vested it in Columbia. The <i>coup + d'etat</i> of Maroquin took away from Colombia herself the power of + government and vested it in an irresponsible dictator. + </p> + <p> + Consideration of the above facts ought to be enough to show any human + being that we were not dealing with normal conditions on the Isthmus and + in Colombia. We were dealing with the government of an irresponsible alien + dictator, and with a condition of affairs on the Isthmus itself which was + marked by one uninterrupted series of outbreaks and revolutions. As for + the "consent of the governed" theory, that absolutely justified our + action; the people on the Isthmus were the "governed"; they were governed + by Colombia, without their consent, and they unanimously repudiated the + Colombian government, and demanded that the United States build the canal. + </p> + <p> + I had done everything possible, personally and through Secretary Hay, to + persuade the Colombian Government to keep faith. Under the Hay-Pauncefote + Treaty, it was explicitly provided that the United States should build the + canal, should control, police and protect it, and keep it open to the + vessels of all nations on equal terms. We had assumed the position of + guarantor of the canal, including, of course, the building of the canal, + and of its peaceful use by all the world. The enterprise was recognized + everywhere as responding to an international need. It was a mere travesty + on justice to treat the government in possession of the Isthmus as having + the right—which Secretary Cass forty-five years before had so + emphatically repudiated—to close the gates of intercourse on one of + the great highways of the world. When we submitted to Colombia the + Hay-Herran Treaty, it had been settled that the time for delay, the time + for permitting any government of anti-social character, or of imperfect + development, to bar the work, had passed. The United States had assumed in + connection with the canal certain responsibilities not only to its own + people but to the civilized world, which imperatively demanded that there + should be no further delay in beginning the work. The Hay-Herran Treaty, + if it erred at all, erred in being overgenerous toward Colombia. The + people of Panama were delighted with the treaty, and the President of + Colombia, who embodied in his own person the entire government of + Colombia, had authorized the treaty to be made. But after the treaty had + been made the Colombia Government thought it had the matter in its own + hands; and the further thought, equally wicked and foolish, came into the + heads of the people in control at Bogota that they would seize the French + Company at the end of another year and take for themselves the forty + million dollars which the United States had agreed to pay the Panama Canal + Company. + </p> + <p> + President Maroquin, through his Minister, had agreed to the Hay-Herran + Treaty in January, 1903. He had the absolute power of an unconstitutional + dictator to keep his promise or break it. He determined to break it. To + furnish himself an excuse for breaking it he devised the plan of summoning + a Congress especially called to reject the canal treaty. This the Congress—a + Congress of mere puppets—did, without a dissenting vote; and the + puppets adjourned forthwith without legislating on any other subject. The + fact that this was a mere sham, and that the President had entire power to + confirm his own treaty and act on it if he desired, was shown as soon as + the revolution took place, for on November 6 General Reyes of Colombia + addressed the American Minister at Bogota, on behalf of President + Maroquin, saying that "if the Government of the United States would land + troops and restore the Colombian sovereignty" the Colombian President + would "declare martial law; and, by virtue of vested constitutional + authority, when public order is disturbed, would approve by decree the + ratification of the canal treaty as signed; or, if the Government of the + United States prefers, would call an extra session of the Congress—with + new and friendly members—next May to approve the treaty." This, of + course, is proof positive that the Colombian dictator had used his + Congress as a mere shield, and a sham shield at that, and it shows how + utterly useless it would have been further to trust his good faith in the + matter. + </p> + <p> + When, in August, 1903, I became convinced that Colombia intended to + repudiate the treaty made the preceding January, under cover of securing + its rejection by the Colombian Legislature, I began carefully to consider + what should be done. By my direction, Secretary Hay, personally and + through the Minister at Bogota, repeatedly warned Colombia that grave + consequences might follow her rejection of the treaty. The possibility of + ratification did not wholly pass away until the close of the session of + the Colombian Congress on the last day of October. There would then be two + possibilities. One was that Panama would remain quiet. In that case I was + prepared to recommend to Congress that we should at once occupy the + Isthmus anyhow, and proceed to dig the canal; and I had drawn out a draft + of my message to this effect.[*] But from the information I received, I + deemed it likely that there would be a revolution in Panama as soon as the + Colombian Congress adjourned without ratifying the treaty, for the entire + population of Panama felt that the immediate building of the canal was of + vital concern to their well-being. Correspondents of the different + newspapers on the Isthmus had sent to their respective papers widely + published forecasts indicating that there would be a revolution in such + event. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] See appendix at end of this chapter. +</pre> + <p> + Moreover, on October 16, at the request of Lieutenant-General Young, + Captain Humphrey, and Lieutenant Murphy, two army officers who had + returned from the Isthmus, saw me and told me that there would + unquestionably be a revolution on the Isthmus, that the people were + unanimous in their criticism of the Bogota Government and their disgust + over the failure of that Government to ratify the treaty; and that the + revolution would probably take place immediately after the adjournment of + the Colombian Congress. They did not believe that it would be before + October 20, but they were confident that it would certainly come at the + end of October or immediately afterwards, when the Colombian Congress had + adjourned. Accordingly I directed the Navy Department to station various + ships within easy reach of the Isthmus, to be ready to act in the event of + need arising. + </p> + <p> + These ships were barely in time. On November 3 the revolution occurred. + Practically everybody on the Isthmus, including all the Colombian troops + that were already stationed there, joined in the revolution, and there was + no bloodshed. But on that same day four hundred new Colombian troops were + landed at Colon. Fortunately, the gunboat <i>Nashville</i>, under + Commander Hubbard, reached Colon almost immediately afterwards, and when + the commander of the Colombian forces threatened the lives and property of + the American citizens, including women and children, in Colon, Commander + Hubbard landed a few score sailors and marines to protect them. By a + mixture of firmness and tact he not only prevented any assault on our + citizens, but persuaded the Colombian commander to reembark his troops for + Cartagena. On the Pacific side a Colombian gunboat shelled the City of + Panama, with the result of killing one Chinaman—the only life lost + in the whole affair. + </p> + <p> + No one connected with the American Government had any part in preparing, + inciting, or encouraging the revolution, and except for the reports of our + military and naval officers, which I forwarded to Congress, no one + connected with the Government had any previous knowledge concerning the + proposed revolution, except such as was accessible to any person who read + the newspapers and kept abreast of current questions and current affairs. + By the unanimous action of its people, and without the firing of a shot, + the state of Panama declared themselves an independent republic. The time + for hesitation on our part had passed. + </p> + <p> + My belief then was, and the events that have occurred since have more than + justified it, that from the standpoint of the United States it was + imperative, not only for civil but for military reasons, that there should + be the immediate establishment of easy and speedy communication by sea + between the Atlantic and the Pacific. These reasons were not of + convenience only, but of vital necessity, and did not admit of indefinite + delay. The action of Colombia had shown not only that the delay would be + indefinite, but that she intended to confiscate the property and rights of + the French Panama Canal Company. The report of the Panama Canal Committee + of the Colombian Senate on October 14, 1903, on the proposed treaty with + the United States, proposed that all consideration of the matter should be + postponed until October 31, 1904, when the next Colombian Congress would + have convened, because by that time the new Congress would be in condition + to determine whether through lapse of time the French company had not + forfeited its property and rights. "When that time arrives," the report + significantly declared, "the Republic, without any impediment, will be + able to contract and will be in more clear, more definite and more + advantageous possession, both legally and materially." The naked meaning + of this was that Colombia proposed to wait a year, and then enforce a + forfeiture of the rights and property of the French Panama Company, so as + to secure the forty million dollars our Government had authorized as + payment to this company. If we had sat supine, this would doubtless have + meant that France would have interfered to protect the company, and we + should then have had on the Isthmus, not the company, but France; and the + gravest international complications might have ensued. Every consideration + of international morality and expediency, of duty to the Panama people, + and of satisfaction of our own national interests and honor, bade us take + immediate action. I recognized Panama forthwith on behalf of the United + States, and practically all the countries of the world immediately + followed suit. The State Department immediately negotiated a canal treaty + with the new Republic. One of the foremost men in securing the + independence of Panama, and the treaty which authorized the United States + forthwith to build the canal, was M. Philippe Bunau-Varilla, an eminent + French engineer formerly associated with De Lesseps and then living on the + Isthmus; his services to civilization were notable, and deserve the + fullest recognition. + </p> + <p> + From the beginning to the end our course was straightforward and in + absolute accord with the highest of standards of international morality. + Criticism of it can come only from misinformation, or else from a + sentimentality which represents both mental weakness and a moral twist. To + have acted otherwise than I did would have been on my part betrayal of the + interests of the United States, indifference to the interests of Panama, + and recreancy to the interests of the world at large. Colombia had + forfeited every claim to consideration; indeed, this is not stating the + case strongly enough: she had so acted that yielding to her would have + meant on our part that culpable form of weakness which stands on a level + with wickedness. As for me personally, if I had hesitated to act, and had + not in advance discounted the clamor of those Americans who have made a + fetish of disloyalty to their country, I should have esteemed myself as + deserving a place in Dante's inferno beside the faint-hearted cleric who + was guilty of "il gran rifiuto." The facts I have given above are mere + bald statements from the record. They show that from the beginning there + had been acceptance of our right to insist on free transit, in whatever + form was best, across the Isthmus; and that towards the end there had been + a no less universal feeling that it was our duty to the world to provide + this transit in the shape of a canal—the resolution of the + Pan-American Congress was practically a mandate to this effect. Colombia + was then under a one-man government, a dictatorship, founded on usurpation + of absolute and irresponsible power. She eagerly pressed us to enter into + an agreement with her, as long as there was any chance of our going to the + alternative route through Nicaragua. When she thought we were committed, + she refused to fulfil the agreement, with the avowed hope of seizing the + French company's property for nothing and thereby holding us up. This was + a bit of pure bandit morality. It would have achieved its purpose had I + possessed as weak moral fiber as those of my critics who announced that I + ought to have confined my action to feeble scolding and temporizing until + the opportunity for action passed. I did not lift my finger to incite the + revolutionists. The right simile to use is totally different. I simply + ceased to stamp out the different revolutionary fuses that were already + burning. When Colombia committed flagrant wrong against us, I considered + it no part of my duty to aid and abet her in her wrongdoing at our + expense, and also at the expense of Panama, of the French company, and of + the world generally. There had been fifty years of continuous bloodshed + and civil strife in Panama; because of my action Panama has now known ten + years of such peace and prosperity as she never before saw during the four + centuries of her existence—for in Panama, as in Cuba and Santo + Domingo, it was the action of the American people, against the outcries of + the professed apostles of peace, which alone brought peace. We gave to the + people of Panama self-government, and freed them from subjection to alien + oppressors. We did our best to get Colombia to let us treat her with a + more than generous justice; we exercised patience to beyond the verge of + proper forbearance. When we did act and recognize Panama, Colombia at once + acknowledged her own guilt by promptly offering to do what we had + demanded, and what she had protested it was not in her power to do. But + the offer came too late. What we would gladly have done before, it had by + that time become impossible for us honorably to do; for it would have + necessitated our abandoning the people of Panama, our friends, and turning + them over to their and our foes, who would have wreaked vengeance on them + precisely because they had shown friendship to us. Colombia was solely + responsible for her own humiliation; and she had not then, and has not + now, one shadow of claim upon us, moral or legal; all the wrong that was + done was done by her. If, as representing the American people, I had not + acted precisely as I did, I would have been an unfaithful or incompetent + representative; and inaction at that crisis would have meant not only + indefinite delay in building the canal, but also practical admission on + our part that we were not fit to play the part on the Isthmus which we had + arrogated to ourselves. I acted on my own responsibility in the Panama + matter. John Hay spoke of this action as follows: "The action of the + President in the Panama matter is not only in the strictest accordance + with the principles of justice and equity, and in line with all the best + precedents of our public policy, but it was the only course he could have + taken in compliance with our treaty rights and obligations." + </p> + <p> + I deeply regretted, and now deeply regret, the fact that the Colombian + Government rendered it imperative for me to take the action I took; but I + had no alternative, consistent with the full performance of my duty to my + own people, and to the nations of mankind. (For, be it remembered, that + certain other nations, Chile for example, will probably benefit even more + by our action than will the United States itself.) I am well aware that + the Colombian people have many fine traits; that there is among them a + circle of high-bred men and women which would reflect honor on the social + life of any country; and that there has been an intellectual and literary + development within this small circle which partially atones for the + stagnation and illiteracy of the mass of the people; and I also know that + even the illiterate mass possesses many sterling qualities. But + unfortunately in international matters every nation must be judged by the + action of its Government. The good people in Colombia apparently made no + effort, certainly no successful effort, to cause the Government to act + with reasonable good faith towards the United States; and Colombia had to + take the consequences. If Brazil, or the Argentine, or Chile, had been in + possession of the Isthmus, doubtless the canal would have been built under + the governmental control of the nation thus controlling the Isthmus, with + the hearty acquiescence of the United States and of all other powers. But + in the actual fact the canal would not have been built at all save for the + action I took. If men choose to say that it would have been better not to + build it, than to build it as the result of such action, their position, + although foolish, is compatible with belief in their wrongheaded + sincerity. But it is hypocrisy, alike odious and contemptible, for any man + to say both that we ought to have built the canal and that we ought not to + have acted in the way we did act. + </p> + <p> + After a sufficient period of wrangling, the Senate ratified the treaty + with Panama, and work on the canal was begun. The first thing that was + necessary was to decide the type of canal. I summoned a board of + engineering experts, foreign and native. They divided on their report. The + majority of the members, including all the foreign members, approved a + sea-level canal. The minority, including most of the American members, + approved a lock canal. Studying these conclusions, I came to the belief + that the minority was right. The two great traffic canals of the world + were the Suez and the Soo. The Suez Canal is a sea-level canal, and it was + the one best known to European engineers. The Soo Canal, through which an + even greater volume of traffic passes every year, is a lock canal, and the + American engineers were thoroughly familiar with it; whereas, in my + judgment, the European engineers had failed to pay proper heed to the + lessons taught by its operation and management. Moreover, the engineers + who were to do the work at Panama all favored a lock canal. I came to the + conclusion that a sea-level canal would be slightly less exposed to damage + in the event of war; that the running expenses, apart from the heavy cost + of interest on the amount necessary to build it, would be less; and that + for small ships the time of transit would be less. But I also came to the + conclusion that the lock canal at the proposed level would cost only about + half as much to build and would be built in half the time, with much less + risk; that for large ships the transit would be quicker, and that, taking + into account the interest saved, the cost of maintenance would be less. + Accordingly I recommended to Congress, on February 19, 1906, that a lock + canal should be built, and my recommendation was adopted. Congress + insisted upon having it built by a commission of several men. I tried + faithfully to get good work out of the commission, and found it quite + impossible; for a many-headed commission is an extremely poor executive + instrument. At last I put Colonel Goethals in as head of the commission. + Then, when Congress still refused to make the commission single-headed, I + solved the difficulty by an executive order of January 6, 1908, which + practically accomplished the object by enlarging the powers of the + chairman, making all the other members of the commission dependent upon + him, and thereby placing the work under one-man control. Dr. Gorgas had + already performed an inestimable service by caring for the sanitary + conditions so thoroughly as to make the Isthmus as safe as a health + resort. Colonel Goethals proved to be the man of all others to do the job. + It would be impossible to overstate what he has done. It is the greatest + task of any kind that any man in the world has accomplished during the + years that Colonel Goethals has been at work. It is the greatest task of + its own kind that has ever been performed in the world at all. Colonel + Goethals has succeeded in instilling into the men under him a spirit which + elsewhere has been found only in a few victorious armies. It is proper and + appropriate that, like the soldiers of such armies, they should receive + medals which are allotted each man who has served for a sufficient length + of time. A finer body of men has never been gathered by any nation than + the men who have done the work of building the Panama Canal; the + conditions under which they have lived and have done their work have been + better than in any similar work ever undertaken in the tropics; they have + all felt an eager pride in their work; and they have made not only America + but the whole world their debtors by what they have accomplished. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE6" id="link2H_APPE6"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX + </h2> + <h3> + COLOMBIA: THE PROPOSED MESSAGE TO CONGRESS + </h3> + <p> + The rough draft of the message I had proposed to send Congress ran as + follows: + </p> + <p> + "The Colombian Government, through its representative here, and directly + in communication with our representative at Colombia, has refused to come + to any agreement with us, and has delayed action so as to make it evident + that it intends to make extortionate and improper terms with us. The + Isthmian Canal bill was, of course, passed upon the assumption that + whatever route was used, the benefit to the particular section of the + Isthmus through which it passed would be so great that the country + controlling this part would be eager to facilitate the building of the + canal. It is out of the question to submit to extortion on the part of a + beneficiary of the scheme. All the labor, all the expense, all the risk + are to be assumed by us and all the skill shown by us. Those controlling + the ground through which the canal is to be put are wholly incapable of + building it. + </p> + <p> + "Yet the interest of international commerce generally and the interest of + this country generally demands that the canal should be begun with no + needless delay. The refusal of Colombia properly to respond to our sincere + and earnest efforts to come to an agreement, or to pay heed to the many + concessions we have made, renders it in my judgment necessary that the + United States should take immediate action on one of two lines: either we + should drop the Panama canal project and immediately begin work on the + Nicaraguan canal, or else we should purchase all the rights of the French + company, and, without any further parley with Colombia, enter upon the + completion of the canal which the French company has begun. I feel that + the latter course is the one demanded by the interests of this Nation, and + I therefore bring the matter to your attention for such action in the + premises as you may deem wise. If in your judgment it is better not to + take such action, then I shall proceed at once with the Nicaraguan canal. + </p> + <p> + "The reason that I advocate the action above outlined in regard to the + Panama canal is, in the first place, the strong testimony of the experts + that this route is the most feasible; and in the next place, the + impropriety from an international standpoint of permitting such conduct as + that to which Colombia seems to incline. The testimony of the experts is + very strong, not only that the Panama route is feasible, but that in the + Nicaragua route we may encounter some unpleasant surprises, and that it is + far more difficult to forecast the result with any certainty as regards + this latter route. As for Colombia's attitude, it is incomprehensible upon + any theory of desire to see the canal built upon the basis of mutual + advantage alike to those building it and to Colombia herself. All we + desire to do is to take up the work begun by the French Government and to + finish it. Obviously it is Colombia's duty to help towards such + completion. We are most anxious to come to an agreement with her in which + most scrupulous care should be taken to guard her interests and ours. But + we cannot consent to permit her to block the performance of the work which + it is so greatly to our interest immediately to begin and carry through." + </p> + <p> + Shortly after this rough draft was dictated the Panama revolution came, + and I never thought of the rough draft again until I was accused of having + instigated the revolution. This accusation is preposterous in the eyes of + any one who knows the actual conditions at Panama. Only the menace of + action by us in the interest of Colombia kept down revolution; as soon as + Colombia's own conduct removed such menace, all check on the various + revolutionary movements (there were at least three from entirely separate + sources) ceased; and then an explosion was inevitable, for the French + company knew that all their property would be confiscated if Colombia put + through her plans, and the entire people of Panama felt that if in disgust + with Colombia's extortions the United States turned to Nicaragua, they, + the people of Panama, would be ruined. Knowing the character of those then + in charge of the Colombian Government, I was not surprised at their bad + faith; but I was surprised at their folly. They apparently had no idea + either of the power of France or the power of the United States, and + expected to be permitted to commit wrong with impunity, just as Castro in + Venezuela had done. The difference was that, unless we acted in + self-defense, Colombia had it in her power to do us serious harm, and + Venezuela did not have such power. Colombia's wrongdoing, therefore, + recoiled on her own head. There was no new lesson taught; it ought already + to have been known to every one that wickedness, weakness, and folly + combined rarely fail to meet punishment, and that the intent to do wrong, + when joined to inability to carry the evil purpose to a successful + conclusion, inevitably reacts on the wrongdoer. + </p> + <p> + For the full history of the acquisition and building of the canal see "The + Panama Gateway," by Joseph Bucklin Bishop (Scribner's Sons). Mr. Bishop + has been for eight years secretary of the commission and is one of the + most efficient of the many efficient men to whose work on the Isthmus + America owes so much. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV + </h2> + <h3> + THE PEACE OF RIGHTEOUSNESS + </h3> + <p> + There can be no nobler cause for which to work than the peace of + righteousness; and high honor is due those serene and lofty souls who with + wisdom and courage, with high idealism tempered by sane facing of the + actual facts of life, have striven to bring nearer the day when armed + strife between nation and nation, between class and class, between man and + man shall end throughout the world. Because all this is true, it is also + true that there are no men more ignoble or more foolish, no men whose + actions are fraught with greater possibility of mischief to their country + and to mankind, than those who exalt unrighteous peace as better than + righteous war. The men who have stood highest in our history, as in the + history of all countries, are those who scorned injustice, who were + incapable of oppressing the weak, or of permitting their country, with + their consent, to oppress the weak, but who did not hesitate to draw the + sword when to leave it undrawn meant inability to arrest triumphant wrong. + </p> + <p> + All this is so obvious that it ought not to be necessary to repeat it. Yet + every man in active affairs, who also reads about the past, grows by + bitter experience to realize that there are plenty of men, not only among + those who mean ill, but among those who mean well, who are ready enough to + praise what was done in the past, and yet are incapable of profiting by it + when faced by the needs of the present. During our generation this seems + to have been peculiarly the case among the men who have become obsessed + with the idea of obtaining universal peace by some cheap patent panacea. + </p> + <p> + There has been a real and substantial growth in the feeling for + international responsibility and justice among the great civilized nations + during the past threescore or fourscore years. There has been a real + growth of recognition of the fact that moral turpitude is involved in the + wronging of one nation by another, and that in most cases war is an evil + method of settling international difficulties. But as yet there has been + only a rudimentary beginning of the development of international tribunals + of justice, and there has been no development at all of any international + police power. Now, as I have already said, the whole fabric of municipal + law, of law within each nation, rests ultimately upon the judge and the + policeman; and the complete absence of the policeman, and the almost + complete absence of the judge, in international affairs, prevents there + being as yet any real homology between municipal and international law. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, the questions which sometimes involve nations in war are far + more difficult and complex than any questions that affect merely + individuals. Almost every great nation has inherited certain questions, + either with other nations or with sections of its own people, which it is + quite impossible, in the present state of civilization, to decide as + matters between private individuals can be decided. During the last + century at least half of the wars that have been fought have been civil + and not foreign wars. There are big and powerful nations which habitually + commit, either upon other nations or upon sections of their own people, + wrongs so outrageous as to justify even the most peaceful persons in going + to war. There are also weak nations so utterly incompetent either to + protect the rights of foreigners against their own citizens, or to protect + their own citizens against foreigners, that it becomes a matter of sheer + duty for some outside power to interfere in connection with them. As yet + in neither case is there any efficient method of getting international + action; and if joint action by several powers is secured, the result is + usually considerably worse than if only one Power interfered. The worst + infamies of modern times—such affairs as the massacres of the + Armenians by the Turks, for instance—have been perpetrated in a time + of nominally profound international peace, when there has been a concert + of big Powers to prevent the breaking of this peace, although only by + breaking it could the outrages be stopped. Be it remembered that the + peoples who suffered by these hideous massacres, who saw their women + violated and their children tortured, were actually enjoying all the + benefits of "disarmament." Otherwise they would not have been massacred; + for if the Jews in Russia and the Armenians in Turkey had been armed, and + had been efficient in the use of their arms, no mob would have meddled + with them. + </p> + <p> + Yet amiable but fatuous persons, with all these facts before their eyes, + pass resolutions demanding universal arbitration for everything, and the + disarmament of the free civilized powers and their abandonment of their + armed forces; or else they write well-meaning, solemn little books, or + pamphlets or editorials, and articles in magazines or newspapers, to show + that it is "an illusion" to believe that war ever pays, because it is + expensive. This is precisely like arguing that we should disband the + police and devote our sole attention to persuading criminals that it is + "an illusion" to suppose that burglary, highway robbery and white slavery + are profitable. It is almost useless to attempt to argue with these + well-intentioned persons, because they are suffering under an obsession + and are not open to reason. They go wrong at the outset, for they lay all + the emphasis on peace and none at all on righteousness. They are not all + of them physically timid men; but they are usually men of soft life; and + they rarely possess a high sense of honor or a keen patriotism. They + rarely try to prevent their fellow countrymen from insulting or wronging + the people of other nations; but they always ardently advocate that we, in + our turn, shall tamely submit to wrong and insult from other nations. As + Americans their folly is peculiarly scandalous, because if the principles + they now uphold are right, it means that it would have been better that + Americans should never have achieved their independence, and better that, + in 1861, they should have peacefully submitted to seeing their country + split into half a dozen jangling confederacies and slavery made perpetual. + If unwilling to learn from their own history, let those who think that it + is an "illusion" to believe that a war ever benefits a nation look at the + difference between China and Japan. China has neither a fleet nor an + efficient army. It is a huge civilized empire, one of the most populous on + the globe; and it has been the helpless prey of outsiders because it does + not possess the power to fight. Japan stands on a footing of equality with + European and American nations because it does possess this power. China + now sees Japan, Russia, Germany, England and France in possession of + fragments of her empire, and has twice within the lifetime of the present + generation seen her capital in the hands of allied invaders, because she + in very fact realizes the ideals of the persons who wish the United States + to disarm, and then trust that our helplessness will secure us a + contemptuous immunity from attack by outside nations. + </p> + <p> + The chief trouble comes from the entire inability of these worthy people + to understand that they are demanding things that are mutually + incompatible when they demand peace at any price, and also justice and + righteousness. I remember one representative of their number, who used to + write little sonnets on behalf of the Mahdi and the Sudanese, these + sonnets setting forth the need that the Sudan should be both independent + and peaceful. As a matter of fact, the Sudan valued independence only + because it desired to war against all Christians and to carry on an + unlimited slave trade. It was "independent" under the Mahdi for a dozen + years, and during those dozen years the bigotry, tyranny, and cruel + religious intolerance were such as flourished in the seventh century, and + in spite of systematic slave raids the population decreased by nearly + two-thirds, and practically all the children died. Peace came, well-being + came, freedom from rape and murder and torture and highway robbery, and + every brutal gratification of lust and greed came, only when the Sudan + lost its independence and passed under English rule. Yet this well-meaning + little sonneteer sincerely felt that his verses were issued in the cause + of humanity. Looking back from the vantage point of a score of years, + probably every one will agree that he was an absurd person. But he was not + one whit more absurd than most of the more prominent persons who advocate + disarmament by the United States, the cessation of up-building the navy, + and the promise to agree to arbitrate all matters, including those + affecting our national interests and honor, with all foreign nations. + </p> + <p> + These persons would do no harm if they affected only themselves. Many of + them are, in the ordinary relations of life, good citizens. They are + exactly like the other good citizens who believe that enforced universal + vegetarianism or anti-vaccination is the panacea for all ills. But in + their particular case they are able to do harm because they affect our + relations with foreign powers, so that other men pay the debt which they + themselves have really incurred. It is the foolish, peace-at-any-price + persons who try to persuade our people to make unwise and improper + treaties, or to stop building up the navy. But if trouble comes and the + treaties are repudiated, or there is a demand for armed intervention, it + is not these people who will pay anything; they will stay at home in + safety, and leave brave men to pay in blood, and honest men to pay in + shame, for their folly. + </p> + <p> + The trouble is that our policy is apt to go in zigzags, because different + sections of our people exercise at different times unequal pressure on our + government. One class of our citizens clamors for treaties impossible of + fulfilment, and improper to fulfil; another class has no objection to the + passage of these treaties so long as there is no concrete case to which + they apply, but instantly oppose a veto on their application when any + concrete case does actually arise. One of our cardinal doctrines is + freedom of speech, which means freedom of speech about foreigners as well + as about ourselves; and, inasmuch as we exercise this right with complete + absence of restraint, we cannot expect other nations to hold us harmless + unless in the last resort we are able to make our own words good by our + deeds. One class of our citizens indulges in gushing promises to do + everything for foreigners, another class offensively and improperly + reviles them; and it is hard to say which class more thoroughly + misrepresents the sober, self-respecting judgment of the American people + as a whole. The only safe rule is to promise little, and faithfully to + keep every promise; to "speak softly and carry a big stick." + </p> + <p> + A prime need for our nation, as of course for every other nation, is to + make up its mind definitely what it wishes, and not to try to pursue paths + of conduct incompatible one with the other. If this nation is content to + be the China of the New World, then and then only can it afford to do away + with the navy and the army. If it is content to abandon Hawaii and the + Panama Canal, to cease to talk of the Monroe Doctrine, and to admit the + right of any European or Asiatic power to dictate what immigrants shall be + sent to and received in America, and whether or not they shall be allowed + to become citizens and hold land—why, of course, if America is + content to have nothing to say on any of these matters and to keep silent + in the presence of armed outsiders, then it can abandon its navy and agree + to arbitrate all questions of all kinds with every foreign power. In such + event it can afford to pass its spare time in one continuous round of + universal peace celebrations, and of smug self-satisfaction in having + earned the derision of all the virile peoples of mankind. Those who + advocate such a policy do not occupy a lofty position. But at least their + position is understandable. + </p> + <p> + It is entirely inexcusable, however, to try to combine the unready hand + with the unbridled tongue. It is folly to permit freedom of speech about + foreigners as well as ourselves—and the peace-at-any-price persons + are much too feeble a folk to try to interfere with freedom of speech—and + yet to try to shirk the consequences of freedom of speech. It is folly to + try to abolish our navy, and at the same time to insist that we have a + right to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, that we have a right to control the + Panama Canal which we ourselves dug, that we have a right to retain Hawaii + and prevent foreign nations from taking Cuba, and a right to determine + what immigrants, Asiatic or European, shall come to our shores, and the + terms on which they shall be naturalized and shall hold land and exercise + other privileges. We are a rich people, and an unmilitary people. In + international affairs we are a short-sighted people. But I know my + countrymen. Down at bottom their temper is such that they will not + permanently tolerate injustice done to them. In the long run they will no + more permit affronts to their National honor than injuries to their + national interest. Such being the case, they will do well to remember that + the surest of all ways to invite disaster is to be opulent, aggressive and + unarmed. + </p> + <p> + Throughout the seven and a half years that I was President, I pursued + without faltering one consistent foreign policy, a policy of genuine + international good will and of consideration for the rights of others, and + at the same time of steady preparedness. The weakest nations knew that + they, no less than the strongest, were safe from insult and injury at our + hands; and the strong and the weak alike also knew that we possessed both + the will and the ability to guard ourselves from wrong or insult at the + hands of any one. + </p> + <p> + It was under my administration that the Hague Court was saved from + becoming an empty farce. It had been established by joint international + agreement, but no Power had been willing to resort to it. Those + establishing it had grown to realize that it was in danger of becoming a + mere paper court, so that it would never really come into being at all. M. + d'Estournelles de Constant had been especially alive to this danger. By + correspondence and in personal interviews he impressed upon me the need + not only of making advances by actually applying arbitration—not + merely promising by treaty to apply it—to questions that were up for + settlement, but of using the Hague tribunal for this purpose. I cordially + sympathized with these views. On the recommendation of John Hay, I + succeeded in getting an agreement with Mexico to lay a matter in dispute + between the two republics before the Hague Court. This was the first case + ever brought before the Hague Court. It was followed by numerous others; + and it definitely established that court as the great international peace + tribunal. By mutual agreement with Great Britain, through the decision of + a joint commission, of which the American members were Senators Lodge and + Turner, and Secretary Root, we were able peacefully to settle the Alaska + Boundary question, the only question remaining between ourselves and the + British Empire which it was not possible to settle by friendly + arbitration; this therefore represented the removal of the last obstacle + to absolute agreement between the two peoples. We were of substantial + service in bringing to a satisfactory conclusion the negotiations at + Algeciras concerning Morocco. We concluded with Great Britain, and with + most of the other great nations, arbitration treaties specifically + agreeing to arbitrate all matters, and especially the interpretation of + treaties, save only as regards questions affecting territorial integrity, + national honor and vital national interest. We made with Great Britain a + treaty guaranteeing the free use of the Panama Canal on equal terms to the + ships of all nations, while reserving to ourselves the right to police and + fortify the canal, and therefore to control it in time of war. Under this + treaty we are in honor bound to arbitrate the question of canal tolls for + coastwise traffic between the Western and Eastern coasts of the United + States. I believe that the American position as regards this matter is + right; but I also believe that under the arbitration treaty we are in + honor bound to submit the matter to arbitration in view of Great Britain's + contention—although I hold it to be an unwise contention—that + our position is unsound. I emphatically disbelieve in making universal + arbitration treaties which neither the makers nor any one else would for a + moment dream of keeping. I no less emphatically insist that it is our duty + to keep the limited and sensible arbitration treaties which we have + already made. The importance of a promise lies not in making it, but in + keeping it; and the poorest of all positions for a nation to occupy in + such a matter is readiness to make impossible promises at the same time + that there is failure to keep promises which have been made, which can be + kept, and which it is discreditable to break. + </p> + <p> + During the early part of the year 1905, the strain on the civilized world + caused by the Russo-Japanese War became serious. The losses of life and of + treasure were frightful. From all the sources of information at hand, I + grew most strongly to believe that a further continuation of the struggle + would be a very bad thing for Japan, and an even worse thing for Russia. + Japan was already suffering terribly from the drain upon her men, and + especially upon her resources, and had nothing further to gain from + continuance of the struggle; its continuance meant to her more loss than + gain, even if she were victorious. Russia, in spite of her gigantic + strength, was, in my judgment, apt to lose even more than she had already + lost if the struggle continued. I deemed it probable that she would no + more be able successfully to defend Eastern Siberia and Northern Manchuria + than she had been able to defend Southern Manchuria and Korea. If the war + went on, I thought it, on the whole, likely that Russia would be driven + west of Lake Baikal. But it was very far from certain. There is no + certainty in such a war. Japan might have met defeat, and defeat to her + would have spelt overwhelming disaster; and even if she had continued to + win, what she thus won would have been of no value to her, and the cost in + blood and money would have left her drained white. I believed, therefore, + that the time had come when it was greatly to the interest of both + combatants to have peace, and when therefore it was possible to get both + to agree to peace. + </p> + <p> + I first satisfied myself that each side wished me to act, but that, + naturally and properly, each side was exceedingly anxious that the other + should not believe that the action was taken on its initiative. I then + sent an identical note to the two powers proposing that they should meet, + through their representatives, to see if peace could not be made directly + between them, and offered to act as an intermediary in bringing about such + a meeting, but not for any other purpose. Each assented to my proposal in + principle. There was difficulty in getting them to agree on a common + meeting place; but each finally abandoned its original contention in the + matter, and the representatives of the two nations finally met at + Portsmouth, in New Hampshire. I previously received the two delegations at + Oyster Bay on the U. S. S. Mayflower, which, together with another naval + vessel, I put at their disposal, on behalf of the United States + Government, to take them from Oyster Bay to Portsmouth. + </p> + <p> + As is customary—but both unwise and undesirable—in such cases, + each side advanced claims which the other could not grant. The chief + difficulty came because of Japan's demand for a money indemnity. I felt + that it would be better for Russia to pay some indemnity than to go on + with the war, for there was little chance, in my judgment, of the war + turning out favorably for Russia, and the revolutionary movement already + under way bade fair to overthrow the negotiations entirely. I advised the + Russian Government to this effect, at the same time urging them to abandon + their pretensions on certain other points, notably concerning the southern + half of Saghalien, which the Japanese had taken. I also, however, and + equally strongly, advised the Japanese that in my judgment it would be the + gravest mistake on their part to insist on continuing the war for the sake + of a money indemnity; for Russia was absolutely firm in refusing to give + them an indemnity, and the longer the war continued the less able she + would be to pay. I pointed out that there was no possible analogy between + their case and that of Germany in the war with France, which they were + fond of quoting. The Germans held Paris and half of France, and gave up + much territory in lieu of the indemnity, whereas the Japanese were still + many thousand miles from Moscow, and had no territory whatever which they + wished to give up. I also pointed out that in my judgment whereas the + Japanese had enjoyed the sympathy of most of the civilized powers at the + outset of and during the continuance of the war, they would forfeit it if + they turned the war into one merely for getting money—and, moreover, + they would almost certainly fail to get the money, and would simply find + themselves at the end of a year, even if things prospered with them, in + possession of territory they did not want, having spent enormous + additional sums of money, and lost enormous additional numbers of men, and + yet without a penny of remuneration. The treaty of peace was finally + signed. + </p> + <p> + As is inevitable under such circumstances, each side felt that it ought to + have got better terms; and when the danger was well past each side felt + that it had been over-reached by the other, and that if the war had gone + on it would have gotten more than it actually did get. The Japanese + Government had been wise throughout, except in the matter of announcing + that it would insist on a money indemnity. Neither in national nor in + private affairs is it ordinarily advisable to make a bluff which cannot be + put through—personally, I never believe in doing it under any + circumstances. The Japanese people had been misled by this bluff of their + Government; and the unwisdom of the Government's action in the matter was + shown by the great resentment the treaty aroused in Japan, although it was + so beneficial to Japan. There were various mob outbreaks, especially in + the Japanese cities; the police were roughly handled, and several + Christian churches were burned, as reported to me by the American + Minister. In both Russia and Japan I believe that the net result as + regards myself was a feeling of injury, and of dislike of me, among the + people at large. I had expected this; I regarded it as entirely natural; + and I did not resent it in the least. The Governments of both nations + behaved toward me not only with correct and entire propriety, but with + much courtesy and the fullest acknowledgment of the good effect of what I + had done; and in Japan, at least, I believe that the leading men sincerely + felt that I had been their friend. I had certainly tried my best to be the + friend not only of the Japanese people but of the Russian people, and I + believe that what I did was for the best interests of both and of the + world at large. + </p> + <p> + During the course of the negotiations I tried to enlist the aid of the + Governments of one nation which was friendly to Russia, and of another + nation which was friendly to Japan, in helping bring about peace. I got no + aid from either. I did, however, receive aid from the Emperor of Germany. + His Ambassador at St. Petersburg was the one Ambassador who helped the + American Ambassador, Mr. Meyer, at delicate and doubtful points of the + negotiations. Mr. Meyer, who was, with the exception of Mr. White, the + most useful diplomat in the American service, rendered literally + invaluable aid by insisting upon himself seeing the Czar at critical + periods of the transaction, when it was no longer possible for me to act + successfully through the representatives of the Czar, who were often at + cross purposes with one another. + </p> + <p> + As a result of the Portsmouth peace, I was given the Nobel Peace Prize. + This consisted of a medal, which I kept, and a sum of $40,000, which I + turned over as a foundation of industrial peace to a board of trustees + which included Oscar Straus, Seth Low and John Mitchell. In the present + state of the world's development industrial peace is even more essential + than international peace; and it was fitting and appropriate to devote the + peace prize to such a purpose. In 1910, while in Europe, one of my most + pleasant experiences was my visit to Norway, where I addressed the Nobel + Committee, and set forth in full the principles upon which I had acted, + not only in this particular case but throughout my administration. + </p> + <p> + I received another gift which I deeply appreciated, an original copy of + Sully's "Memoires" of "Henry le Grand," sent me with the following + inscription (I translate it roughly): + </p> + <p> + PARIS, January, 1906. + </p> + <p> + "The undersigned members of the French Parliamentary Group of + International Arbitration and Conciliation have decided to tender + President Roosevelt a token of their high esteem and their sympathetic + recognition of the persistent and decisive initiative he has taken towards + gradually substituting friendly and judicial for violent methods in case + of conflict between Nations. + </p> + <p> + "They believe that the action of President Roosevelt, which has realized + the most generous hopes to be found in history, should be classed as a + continuance of similar illustrious attempts of former times, notably the + project for international concord known under the name of the 'Great + Design of Henry IV' in the memoirs of his Prime Minister, the Duke de + Sully. In consequence they have sought out a copy of the first edition of + these memoirs, and they take pleasure in offering it to him, with the + request that he will keep it among his family papers." + </p> + <p> + The signatures include those of Emile Loubet, A. Carnot, d'Estournelles de + Constant, Aristide Briand, Sully Prudhomme, Jean Jaurés, A. Fallieres, R. + Poincare, and two or three hundred others. + </p> + <p> + Of course what I had done in connection with the Portsmouth peace was + misunderstood by some good and sincere people. Just as after the + settlement of the coal strike, there were persons who thereupon thought + that it was in my power, and was my duty, to settle all other strikes, so + after the peace of Portsmouth there were other persons—not only + Americans, by the way,—who thought it my duty forthwith to make + myself a kind of international Meddlesome Mattie and interfere for peace + and justice promiscuously over the world. Others, with a delightful + non-sequitur, jumped to the conclusion that inasmuch as I had helped to + bring about a beneficent and necessary peace I must of necessity have + changed my mind about war being ever necessary. A couple of days after + peace was concluded I wrote to a friend: "Don't you be misled by the fact + that just at the moment men are speaking well of me. They will speak ill + soon enough. As Loeb remarked to me to-day, some time soon I shall have to + spank some little international brigand, and then all the well-meaning + idiots will turn and shriek that this is inconsistent with what I did at + the Peace Conference, whereas in reality it will be exactly in line with + it." + </p> + <p> + To one of my political opponents, Mr. Schurz, who wrote me congratulating + me upon the outcome at Portsmouth, and suggesting that the time was + opportune for a move towards disarmament, I answered in a letter setting + forth views which I thought sound then, and think sound now. The letter + ran as follows: + </p> + <p> + OYSTER BAY, N. Y., September 8, 1905. + </p> + <p> + My dear Mr. Schurz: I thank you for your congratulations. As to what you + say about disarmament—which I suppose is the rough equivalent of + "the gradual diminution of the oppressive burdens imposed upon the world + by armed peace"—I am not clear either as to what can be done or what + ought to be done. If I had been known as one of the conventional type of + peace advocates I could have done nothing whatever in bringing about peace + now, I would be powerless in the future to accomplish anything, and I + would not have been able to help confer the boons upon Cuba, the + Philippines, Porto Rico and Panama, brought about by our action therein. + If the Japanese had not armed during the last twenty years, this would + indeed be a sorrowful century for Japan. If this country had not fought + the Spanish War; if we had failed to take the action we did about Panama; + all mankind would have been the loser. While the Turks were butchering the + Armenians the European powers kept the peace and thereby added a burden of + infamy to the Nineteenth Century, for in keeping that peace a greater + number of lives were lost than in any European war since the days of + Napoleon, and these lives were those of women and children as well as of + men; while the moral degradation, the brutality inflicted and endured, the + aggregate of hideous wrong done, surpassed that of any war of which we + have record in modern times. Until people get it firmly fixed in their + minds that peace is valuable chiefly as a means to righteousness, and that + it can only be considered as an end when it also coincides with + righteousness, we can do only a limited amount to advance its coming on + this earth. There is of course no analogy at present between international + law and private or municipal law, because there is no sanction of force + for the former, while there is for the latter. Inside our own nation the + law-abiding man does not have to arm himself against the lawless simply + because there is some armed force—the police, the sheriff's posse, + the national guard, the regulars—which can be called out to enforce + the laws. At present there is no similar international force to call on, + and I do not as yet see how it could at present be created. Hitherto peace + has often come only because some strong and on the whole just power has by + armed force, or the threat of armed force, put a stop to disorder. In a + very interesting French book the other day I was reading how the + Mediterranean was freed from pirates only by the "pax Britannica," + established by England's naval force. The hopeless and hideous bloodshed + and wickedness of Algiers and Turkestan was stopped, and could only be + stopped, when civilized nations in the shape of Russia and France took + possession of them. The same was true of Burma and the Malay States, as + well as Egypt, with regard to England. Peace has come only as the sequel + to the armed interference of a civilized power which, relatively to its + opponent, was a just and beneficent power. If England had disarmed to the + point of being unable to conquer the Sudan and protect Egypt, so that the + Mahdists had established their supremacy in northeastern Africa, the + result would have been a horrible and bloody calamity to mankind. It was + only the growth of the European powers in military efficiency that freed + eastern Europe from the dreadful scourge of the Tartar and partially freed + it from the dreadful scourge of the Turk. Unjust war is dreadful; a just + war may be the highest duty. To have the best nations, the free and + civilized nations, disarm and leave the despotisms and barbarisms with + great military force, would be a calamity compared to which the calamities + caused by all the wars of the nineteenth century would be trivial. Yet it + is not easy to see how we can by international agreement state exactly + which power ceases to be free and civilized and which comes near the line + of barbarism or despotism. For example, I suppose it would be very + difficult to get Russia and Japan to come to a common agreement on this + point; and there are at least some citizens of other nations, not to speak + of their governments, whom it would also be hard to get together. + </p> + <p> + This does not in the least mean that it is hopeless to make the effort. It + may be that some scheme will be developed. America, fortunately, can + cordially assist in such an effort, for no one in his senses would suggest + our disarmament; and though we should continue to perfect our small navy + and our minute army, I do not think it necessary to increase the number of + our ships—at any rate as things look now—nor the number of our + soldiers. Of course our navy must be kept up to the highest point of + efficiency, and the replacing of old and worthless vessels by first-class + new ones may involve an increase in the personnel; but not enough to + interfere with our action along the lines you have suggested. But before I + would know how to advocate such action, save in some such way as + commending it to the attention of The Hague Tribunal, I would have to have + a feasible and rational plan of action presented. + </p> + <p> + It seems to me that a general stop in the increase of the war navies of + the world <i>might</i> be a good thing; but I would not like to speak too + positively offhand. Of course it is only in continental Europe that the + armies are too large; and before advocating action as regards them I + should have to weigh matters carefully—including by the way such a + matter as the Turkish army. At any rate nothing useful can be done unless + with the clear recognition that we object to putting peace second to + righteousness. + </p> + <p> + Sincerely yours, THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + HON. CARL SCHURZ, Bolton Landing, Lake George, N. Y. + </p> + <p> + In my own judgment the most important service that I rendered to peace was + the voyage of the battle fleet round the world. I had become convinced + that for many reasons it was essential that we should have it clearly + understood, by our own people especially, but also by other peoples, that + the Pacific was as much our home waters as the Atlantic, and that our + fleet could and would at will pass from one to the other of the two great + oceans. It seemed to me evident that such a voyage would greatly benefit + the navy itself; would arouse popular interest in and enthusiasm for the + navy; and would make foreign nations accept as a matter of course that our + fleet should from time to time be gathered in the Pacific, just as from + time to time it was gathered in the Atlantic, and that its presence in one + ocean was no more to be accepted as a mark of hostility to any Asiatic + power than its presence in the Atlantic was to be accepted as a mark of + hostility to any European power. I determined on the move without + consulting the Cabinet, precisely as I took Panama without consulting the + Cabinet. A council of war never fights, and in a crisis the duty of a + leader is to lead and not to take refuge behind the generally timid wisdom + of a multitude of councillors. At that time, as I happen to know, neither + the English nor the German authorities believed it possible to take a + fleet of great battleships round the world. They did not believe that + their own fleets could perform the feat, and still less did they believe + that the American fleet could. I made up my mind that it was time to have + a show down in the matter; because if it was really true that our fleet + could not get from the Atlantic to the Pacific, it was much better to know + it and be able to shape our policy in view of the knowledge. Many persons + publicly and privately protested against the move on the ground that Japan + would accept it as a threat. To this I answered nothing in public. In + private I said that I did not believe Japan would so regard it because + Japan knew my sincere friendship and admiration for her and realized that + we could not as a Nation have any intention of attacking her; and that if + there were any such feeling on the part of Japan as was alleged that very + fact rendered it imperative that that fleet should go. When in the spring + of 1910 I was in Europe I was interested to find that high naval + authorities in both Germany and Italy had expected that war would come at + the time of the voyage. They asked me if I had not been afraid of it, and + if I had not expected that hostilities would begin at least by the time + that the fleet reached the Straits of Magellan? I answered that I did not + expect it; that I believed that Japan would feel as friendly in the matter + as we did; but that if my expectations had proved mistaken, it would have + been proof positive that we were going to be attacked anyhow, and that in + such event it would have been an enormous gain to have had the three + months' preliminary preparation which enabled the fleet to start perfectly + equipped. In a personal interview before they left I had explained to the + officers in command that I believed the trip would be one of absolute + peace, but that they were to take exactly the same precautions against + sudden attack of any kind as if we were at war with all the nations of the + earth; and that no excuse of any kind would be accepted if there were a + sudden attack of any kind and we were taken unawares. + </p> + <p> + My prime purpose was to impress the American people; and this purpose was + fully achieved. The cruise did make a very deep impression abroad; + boasting about what we have done does not impress foreign nations at all, + except unfavorably, but positive achievement does; and the two American + achievements that really impressed foreign peoples during the first dozen + years of this century were the digging of the Panama Canal and the cruise + of the battle fleet round the world. But the impression made on our own + people was of far greater consequence. No single thing in the history of + the new United States Navy has done as much to stimulate popular interest + and belief in it as the world cruise. This effect was forecast in a + well-informed and friendly English periodical, the London <i>Spectator</i>. + Writing in October, 1907, a month before the fleet sailed from Hampton + Roads, the <i>Spectator said</i>: + </p> + <p> + "All over America the people will follow the movements of the fleet; they + will learn something of the intricate details of the coaling and + commissariat work under warlike conditions; and in a word their attention + will be aroused. Next time Mr. Roosevelt or his representatives appeal to + the country for new battleships they will do so to people whose minds have + been influenced one way or the other. The naval programme will not have + stood still. We are sure that, apart from increasing the efficiency of the + existing fleet, this is the aim which Mr. Roosevelt has in mind. He has a + policy which projects itself far into the future, but it is an entire + misreading of it to suppose that it is aimed narrowly and definitely at + any single Power." + </p> + <p> + I first directed the fleet, of sixteen battleships, to go round through + the Straits of Magellan to San Francisco. From thence I ordered them to + New Zealand and Australia, then to the Philippines, China and Japan, and + home through Suez—they stopped in the Mediterranean to help the + sufferers from the earthquake at Messina, by the way, and did this work as + effectively as they had done all their other work. Admiral Evans commanded + the fleet to San Francisco; there Admiral Sperry took it; Admirals Thomas, + Wainwright and Schroeder rendered distinguished service under Evans and + Sperry. The coaling and other preparations were made in such excellent + shape by the Department that there was never a hitch, not so much as the + delay of an hour, in keeping every appointment made. All the repairs were + made without difficulty, the ship concerned merely falling out of column + for a few hours, and when the job was done steaming at speed until she + regained her position. Not a ship was left in any port; and there was + hardly a desertion. As soon as it was known that the voyage was to be + undertaken men crowded to enlist, just as freely from the Mississippi + Valley as from the seaboard, and for the first time since the Spanish War + the ships put to sea overmanned—and by as stalwart a set of + men-of-war's men as ever looked through a porthole, game for a fight or a + frolic, but withal so self-respecting and with such a sense of + responsibility that in all the ports in which they landed their conduct + was exemplary. The fleet practiced incessantly during the voyage, both + with the guns and in battle tactics, and came home a much more efficient + fighting instrument than when it started sixteen months before. + </p> + <p> + The best men of command rank in our own service were confident that the + fleet would go round in safety, in spite of the incredulity of foreign + critics. Even they, however, did not believe that it was wise to send the + torpedo craft around. I accordingly acquiesced in their views, as it did + not occur to me to consult the lieutenants. But shortly before the fleet + started, I went in the Government yacht Mayflower to inspect the target + practice off Provincetown. I was accompanied by two torpedo boat + destroyers, in charge of a couple of naval lieutenants, thorough + gamecocks; and I had the two lieutenants aboard to dine one evening. + Towards the end of the dinner they could not refrain from asking if the + torpedo flotilla was to go round with the big ships. I told them no, that + the admirals and captains did not believe that the torpedo boats could + stand it, and believed that the officers and crews aboard the cockle + shells would be worn out by the constant pitching and bouncing and the + everlasting need to make repairs. My two guests chorused an eager + assurance that the boats could stand it. They assured me that the enlisted + men were even more anxious to go than were the officers, mentioning that + on one of their boats the terms of enlistment of most of the crew were + out, and the men were waiting to see whether or not to reenlist, as they + did not care to do so unless the boats were to go on the cruise. I + answered that I was only too glad to accept the word of the men who were + to do the job, and that they should certainly go; and within half an hour + I sent out the order for the flotilla to be got ready. It went round in + fine shape, not a boat being laid up. I felt that the feat reflected even + more credit upon the navy than did the circumnavigation of the big ships, + and I wrote the flotilla commander the following letter: + </p> + <p> + May 18, 1908. + </p> + <p> + My dear Captain Cone: + </p> + <p> + A great deal of attention has been paid to the feat of our battleship + fleet in encircling South America and getting to San Francisco; and it + would be hard too highly to compliment the officers and enlisted men of + that fleet for what they have done. Yet if I should draw any distinction + at all it would be in favor of you and your associates who have taken out + the torpedo flotilla. Yours was an even more notable feat, and every + officer and every enlisted man in the torpedo boat flotilla has the right + to feel that he has rendered distinguished service to the United States + navy and therefore to the people of the United States; and I wish I could + thank each of them personally. Will you have this letter read by the + commanding officer of each torpedo boat to his officers and crew? + </p> + <p> + Sincerely yours, THEODORE ROOSEVELT. + </p> + <p> + LIEUTENANT COMMANDER HUTCH. I. CONE, U. S. N., Commanding Second Torpedo + Flotilla, Care Postmaster, San Francisco, Cal. + </p> + <p> + There were various amusing features connected with the trip. Most of the + wealthy people and "leaders of opinion" in the Eastern cities were + panic-struck at the proposal to take the fleet away from Atlantic waters. + The great New York dailies issued frantic appeals to Congress to stop the + fleet from going. The head of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs + announced that the fleet should not and could not go because Congress + would refuse to appropriate the money—he being from an Eastern + seaboard State. However, I announced in response that I had enough money + to take the fleet around to the Pacific anyhow, that the fleet would + certainly go, and that if Congress did not choose to appropriate enough + money to get the fleet back, why, it would stay in the Pacific. There was + no further difficulty about the money. + </p> + <p> + It was not originally my intention that the fleet should visit Australia, + but the Australian Government sent a most cordial invitation, which I + gladly accepted; for I have, as every American ought to have, a hearty + admiration for, and fellow feeling with, Australia, and I believe that + America should be ready to stand back of Australia in any serious + emergency. The reception accorded the fleet in Australia was wonderful, + and it showed the fundamental community of feeling between ourselves and + the great commonwealth of the South Seas. The considerate, generous, and + open-handed hospitality with which the entire Australian people treated + our officers and men could not have been surpassed had they been our own + countrymen. The fleet first visited Sydney, which has a singularly + beautiful harbor. The day after the arrival one of our captains noticed a + member of his crew trying to go to sleep on a bench in the park. He had + fixed above his head a large paper with some lines evidently designed to + forestall any questions from friendly would-be hosts: "I am delighted with + the Australian people. I think your harbor the finest in the world. I am + very tired and would like to go to sleep." + </p> + <p> + The most noteworthy incident of the cruise was the reception given to our + fleet in Japan. In courtesy and good breeding, the Japanese can certainly + teach much to the nations of the Western world. I had been very sure that + the people of Japan would understand aright what the cruise meant, and + would accept the visit of our fleet as the signal honor which it was meant + to be, a proof of the high regard and friendship I felt, and which I was + certain the American people felt, for the great Island Empire. The event + even surpassed my expectations. I cannot too strongly express my + appreciation of the generous courtesy the Japanese showed the officers and + crews of our fleet; and I may add that every man of them came back a + friend and admirer of the Japanese. Admiral Sperry wrote me a letter of + much interest, dealing not only with the reception in Tokyo but with the + work of our men at sea; I herewith give it almost in full: + </p> + <p> + 28 October, 1908. + </p> + <p> + Dear Mr. Roosevelt: + </p> + <p> + My official report of the visit to Japan goes forward in this mail, but + there are certain aspects of the affair so successfully concluded which + cannot well be included in the report. + </p> + <p> + You are perhaps aware that Mr. Denison of the Japanese Foreign Office was + one of my colleagues at The Hague, for whom I have a very high regard. + Desiring to avoid every possibility of trouble or misunderstanding, I + wrote to him last June explaining fully the character of our men, which + they have so well lived up to, the desirability of ample landing places, + guides, rest houses and places for changing money in order that there + might be no delay in getting the men away from the docks on the excursions + in which they delight. Very few of them go into a drinking place, except + to get a resting place not to be found elsewhere, paying for it by taking + a drink. + </p> + <p> + I also explained our system of landing with liberty men an unarmed patrol, + properly officered, to quietly take in charge and send off to their ships + any men who showed the slightest trace of disorderly conduct. This letter + he showed to the Minister of the Navy, who highly approved of all our + arrangements, including the patrol, of which I feared they might be + jealous. Mr. Denison's reply reached me in Manila, with a memorandum from + the Minister of the Navy which removed all doubts. Three temporary piers + were built for our boat landings, each 300 feet long, brilliantly lighted + and decorated. The sleeping accommodations did not permit two or three + thousand sailors to remain on shore, but the ample landings permitted them + to be handled night and day with perfect order and safety. + </p> + <p> + At the landings and railroad station in Yokohama there were rest houses or + booths, reputable money changers and as many as a thousand + English-speaking Japanese college students acted as volunteer guides, + besides Japanese sailors and petty officers detailed for the purpose. In + Tokyo there were a great many excellent refreshment places, where the men + got excellent meals and could rest, smoke, and write letters, and in none + of these places would they allow the men to pay anything, though they were + more than ready to do so. The arrangements were marvelously perfect. + </p> + <p> + As soon as your telegram of October 18, giving the address to be made to + the Emperor, was received, I gave copies of it to our Ambassador to be + sent to the Foreign Office. It seems that the Emperor had already prepared + a very cordial address to be forwarded through me to you, after delivery + at the audience, but your telegram reversed the situation and his reply + was prepared. I am convinced that your kind and courteous initiative on + this occasion helped cause the pleasant feeling which was so obvious in + the Emperor's bearing at the luncheon which followed the audience. X., who + is reticent and conservative, told me that not only the Emperor but all + the Ministers were profoundly gratified by the course of events. I am + confident that not even the most trifling incident has taken place which + could in any way mar the general satisfaction, and our Ambassador has + expressed to me his great satisfaction with all that has taken place. + </p> + <p> + Owing to heavy weather encountered on the passage up from Manila the fleet + was obliged to take about 3500 tons of coal. + </p> + <p> + The Yankton remained behind to keep up communication for a few days, and + yesterday she transmitted the Emperor's telegram to you, which was sent in + reply to your message through our Ambassador after the sailing of the + fleet. It must be profoundly gratifying to you to have the mission on + which you sent the fleet terminate so happily, and I am profoundly + thankful that, owing to the confidence which you displayed in giving me + this command, my active career draws to a close with such honorable + distinction. + </p> + <p> + As for the effect of the cruise upon the training, discipline and + effectiveness of the fleet, the good cannot be exaggerated. It is a war + game in every detail. The wireless communication has been maintained with + an efficiency hitherto unheard of. Between Honolulu and Auckland, 3850 + miles, we were out of communication with a cable station for only one + night, whereas three [non-American] men-of-war trying recently to maintain + a chain of only 1250 miles, between Auckland and Sydney, were only able to + do so for a few hours. + </p> + <p> + The officers and men as soon as we put to sea turn to their gunnery and + tactical work far more eagerly than they go to functions. Every morning + certain ships leave the column and move off seven or eight thousand yards + as targets for range measuring fire control and battery practice for the + others, and at night certain ships do the same thing for night battery + practice. I am sorry to say that this practice is unsatisfactory, and in + some points misleading, owing to the fact that the ships are painted + white. At Portland, in 1903, I saw Admiral Barker's white battleships + under the searchlights of the army at a distance of 14,000 yards, seven + sea miles, without glasses, while the Hartford, a black ship, was never + discovered at all, though she passed within a mile and a half. I have for + years, while a member of the General Board, advocated painting the ships + war color at all times, and by this mail I am asking the Department to + make the necessary change in the Regulations and paint the ships properly. + I do not know that any one now dissents from my view. Admiral Wainwright + strongly concurs, and the War College Conference recommended it year after + year without a dissenting voice. + </p> + <p> + In the afternoons the fleet has two or three hours' practice at battle + maneuvers, which excite as keen interest as gunnery exercises. + </p> + <p> + The competition in coal economy goes on automatically and reacts in a + hundred ways. It has reduced the waste in the use of electric light and + water, and certain chief engineers are said to keep men ranging over the + ships all night turning out every light not in actual and immediate use. + Perhaps the most important effect is the keen hunt for defects in the + machinery causing waste of power. The Yankton by resetting valves + increased her speed from 10 to 11 1/2 knots on the same expenditure. + </p> + <p> + All this has been done, but the field is widening, the work has only + begun. + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + C. S. SPERRY. + </p> + <p> + When I left the Presidency I finished seven and a half years of + administration, during which not one shot had been fired against a foreign + foe. We were at absolute peace, and there was no nation in the world with + whom a war cloud threatened, no nation in the world whom we had wronged, + or from whom we had anything to fear. The cruise of the battle fleet was + not the least of the causes which ensured so peaceful an outlook. + </p> + <p> + When the fleet returned after its sixteen months' voyage around the world + I went down to Hampton Roads to greet it. The day was Washington's + Birthday, February 22, 1907. Literally on the minute the homing + battlecraft came into view. On the flagship of the Admiral I spoke to the + officers and enlisted men, as follows: + </p> + <p> + "Admiral Sperry, Officers and Men of the Battle Fleet: + </p> + <p> + "Over a year has passed since you steamed out of this harbor, and over the + world's rim, and this morning the hearts of all who saw you thrilled with + pride as the hulls of the mighty warships lifted above the horizon. You + have been in the Northern and the Southern Hemispheres; four times you + have crossed the line; you have steamed through all the great oceans; you + have touched the coast of every continent. Ever your general course has + been westward; and now you come back to the port from which you set sail. + This is the first battle fleet that has ever circumnavigated the globe. + Those who perform the feat again can but follow in your footsteps. + </p> + <p> + "The little torpedo flotilla went with you around South America, through + the Straits of Magellan, to our own Pacific Coast. The armored cruiser + squadron met you, and left you again, when you were half way round the + world. You have falsified every prediction of the prophets of failure. In + all your long cruise not an accident worthy of mention has happened to a + single battleship, nor yet to the cruisers or torpedo boats. You left this + coast in a high state of battle efficiency, and you return with your + efficiency increased; better prepared than when you left, not only in + personnel but even in material. During your world cruise you have taken + your regular gunnery practice, and skilled though you were before with the + guns, you have grown more skilful still; and through practice you have + improved in battle tactics, though here there is more room for improvement + than in your gunnery. Incidentally, I suppose I need hardly say that one + measure of your fitness must be your clear recognition of the need always + steadily to strive to render yourselves more fit; if you ever grow to + think that you are fit enough, you can make up your minds that from that + moment you will begin to go backward. + </p> + <p> + "As a war-machine, the fleet comes back in better shape than it went out. + In addition, you, the officers and men of this formidable fighting force, + have shown yourselves the best of all possible ambassadors and heralds of + peace. Wherever you have landed you have borne yourselves so as to make us + at home proud of being your countrymen. You have shown that the best type + of fighting man of the sea knows how to appear to the utmost possible + advantage when his business is to behave himself on shore, and to make a + good impression in a foreign land. We are proud of all the ships and all + the men in this whole fleet, and we welcome you home to the country whose + good repute among nations has been raised by what you have done." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE7" id="link2H_APPE7"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX A + </h2> + <h3> + THE TRUSTS, THE PEOPLE, AND THE SQUARE DEAL + </h3> + <p> + [Written when Mr. Taft's administration brought suit to dissolve the steel + corporation, one of the grounds for the suit being the acquisition by the + Corporation of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company; this action was taken, + with my acquiescence, while I was President, and while Mr. Taft was a + member of my cabinet; at the time he never protested against, and as far + as I knew approved of my action in this case, as in the Harvester Trust + case, and all similar cases.] + </p> + <p> + The suit against the Steel Trust by the Government has brought vividly + before our people the need of reducing to order our chaotic Government + policy as regards business. As President, in Messages to Congress I + repeatedly called the attention of that body and of the public to the + inadequacy of the Anti-Trust Law by itself to meet business conditions and + secure justice to the people, and to the further fact that it might, if + left unsupplemented by additional legislation, work mischief, with no + compensating advantage; and I urged as strongly as I knew how that the + policy followed with relation to railways in connection with the + Inter-State Commerce Law should be followed by the National Government as + regards all great business concerns; and therefore that, as a first step, + the powers of the Bureau of Corporations should be greatly enlarged, or + else that there should be created a Governmental board or commission, with + powers somewhat similar to those of the Inter-State Commerce Commission, + but covering the whole field of inter-State business, exclusive of + transportation (which should, by law, be kept wholly separate from + ordinary industrial business, all common ownership of the industry and the + railway being forbidden). In the end I have always believed that it would + also be necessary to give the National Government complete power over the + organization and capitalization of all business concerns engaged in + inter-State commerce. + </p> + <p> + A member of my Cabinet with whom, even more than with the various + Attorneys-General, I went over every detail of the trust situation, was + the one time Secretary of the Interior, Mr. James R. Garfield. He writes + me as follows concerning the suit against the Steel Corporation: + </p> + <p> + "Nothing appeared before the House Committee that made me believe we were + deceived by Judge Gary. + </p> + <p> + "This, I think, is a case that shows clearly the difference between + destructive litigation and constructive legislation. I have not yet seen a + full copy of the Government's petition, but our papers give nothing that + indicates any kind of unfair or dishonest competition such as existed in + both the Standard Oil and Tobacco Cases. As I understand it, the + competitors of the Steel Company have steadily increased in strength + during the last six or seven years. Furthermore, the per cent of the + business done by the Steel Corporation has decreased during that time. As + you will remember, at our first conference with Judge Gary, the Judge + stated that it was the desire and purpose of the Company to conform to + what the Government wished, it being the purpose of the Company absolutely + to obey the law both in spirit and letter. Throughout the time that I had + charge of the investigation, and while we were in Washington, I do not + know of a single instance where the Steel Company refused any information + requested; but, on the contrary, aided in every possible way our + investigation. + </p> + <p> + "The position now taken by the Government is absolutely destructive of + legitimate business, because they outline no rule of conduct for business + of any magnitude. It is absurd to say that the courts can lay down such + rules. The most the courts can do is to find as legal or illegal the + particular transactions brought before them. Hence, after years of tedious + litigation there would be no clear-cut rule for future action. This method + of procedure is dealing with the device, not the result, and drives + business to the elaboration of clever devices, each of which must be + tested in the courts. + </p> + <p> + "I have yet to find a better method of dealing with the anti-trust + situation than that suggested by the bill which we agreed upon in the last + days of your Administration. That bill should be used as a basis for + legislation, and there could be incorporated upon it whatever may be + determined wise regarding the direct control and supervision of the + National Government, either through a commission similar to the + Inter-State Commerce Commission or otherwise." + </p> + <p> + Before taking up the matter in its large aspect, I wish to say one word as + to one feature of the Government suit against the Steel Corporation. One + of the grounds for the suit is the acquisition by the Steel Corporation of + the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company; and it has been alleged, on the + authority of the Government officials engaged in carrying on the suit, + that as regards this transaction I was misled by the representatives of + the Steel Corporation, and that the facts were not accurately or + truthfully laid before me. This statement is not correct. I believed at + the time that the facts in the case were as represented to me on behalf of + the Steel Corporation, and my further knowledge has convinced me that this + was true. I believed at the time that the representatives of the Steel + Corporation told me the truth as to the change that would be worked in the + percentage of the business which the proposed acquisition would give the + Steel Corporation, and further inquiry has convinced me that they did so. + I was not misled. The representatives of the Steel Corporation told me the + truth as to what the effect of the action at that time would be, and any + statement that I was misled or that the representatives of the Steel + Corporation did not thus tell me the truth as to the facts of the case is + itself not in accordance with the truth. In <i>The Outlook</i> of August + 19 last I gave in full the statement I had made to the Investigating + Committee of the House of Representatives on this matter. That statement + is accurate, and I reaffirm everything I therein said, not only as to what + occurred, but also as to my belief in the wisdom and propriety of my + action—indeed, the action not merely was wise and proper, but it + would have been a calamity from every standpoint had I failed to take it. + On page 137 of the printed report of the testimony before the Committee + will be found Judge Gary's account of the meeting between himself and Mr. + Frick and Mr. Root and myself. This account states the facts accurately. + It has been alleged that the purchase by the Steel Corporation of the + property of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company gave the Steel Corporation + practically a monopoly of the Southern iron ores—that is, of the + iron ores south of the Potomac and the Ohio. My information, which I have + every reason to believe is accurate and not successfully to be challenged, + is that, of these Southern iron ores the Steel Corporation has, including + the property gained from the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company, less than 20 + per cent—perhaps not over 16 per cent. This is a very much smaller + percentage than the percentage it holds of the Lake Superior ores, which + even after the surrender of the Hill lease will be slightly over 50 per + cent. According to my view, therefore, and unless—which I do not + believe possible—these figures can be successfully challenged, the + acquisition of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company's ores in no way + changed the situation as regards making the Steel Corporation a + monopoly.[*] The showing as to the percentage of production of all kinds + of steel ingots and steel castings in the United States by the Steel + Corporation and by all other manufacturers respectively makes an even + stronger case. It makes the case even stronger than I put it in my + testimony before the Investigating Committee, for I was scrupulously + careful to make statements that erred, if at all, against my own position. + It appears from the figures of production that in 1901 the Steel + Corporation had to its credit nearly 66 per cent of the total production + as against a little over 34 per cent by all other steel manufacturers. The + percentage then shrank steadily, until in 1906, the year before the + acquisition of the Tennessee Coal and Iron properties, the percentage was + a little under 58 per cent. In spite of the acquisition of these + properties, the following year, 1907, the total percentage shrank + slightly, and this shrinking has continued until in 1910 the total + percentage of the Steel Corporation is but a little over 54 per cent, and + the percentage by all other steel manufacturers but a fraction less than + 46 per cent. Of the 54 3<i>10 per cent produced by the Steel Corporation 1 + 9</i>10 per cent is produced by the former Tennessee Coal and Iron + Company. In other words, these figures show that the acquisition of the + Tennessee Coal and Iron Company did not in the slightest degree change the + situation, and that during the ten years which include the acquisition of + these properties by the Steel Corporation the percentage of total output + of steel manufacturers in this country by the Steel Corporation has shrunk + from nearly 66 per cent to but a trifle over 54 per cent. I do not believe + that these figures can be successfully controverted, and if not + successfully controverted they show clearly not only that the acquisition + of the Tennessee Coal and Iron properties wrought no change in the status + of the Steel Corporation, but that the Steel Corporation during the decade + has steadily lost, instead of gained, in monopolistic character. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [*] My own belief is that our Nation should long ago have + adopted the policy of merely leasing for a term of years + mineral-bearing land; but it is the fault of us ourselves, + of the people, not of the Steel Corporation, that this + policy has not been adopted. +</pre> + <p> + So much for the facts in this particular case. Now for the general + subject. When my Administration took office, I found, not only that there + had been little real enforcement of the Anti-Trust Law and but little more + effective enforcement of the Inter-State Commerce Law, but also that the + decisions were so chaotic and the laws themselves so vaguely drawn, or at + least interpreted in such widely varying fashions, that the biggest + business men tended to treat both laws as dead letters. The series of + actions by which we succeeded in making the Inter-State Commerce Law an + efficient and most useful instrument in regulating the transportation of + the country and exacting justice from the big railways without doing them + injustice—while, indeed, on the contrary, securing them against + injustice—need not here be related. The Anti-Trust Law it was also + necessary to enforce as it had never hitherto been enforced; both because + it was on the statute-books and because it was imperative to teach the + masters of the biggest corporations in the land that they were not, and + would not be permitted to regard themselves as, above the law. Moreover, + where the combination has really been guilty of misconduct the law serves + a useful purpose, and in such cases as those of the Standard Oil and + Tobacco Trusts, if effectively enforced, the law confers a real and great + good. + </p> + <p> + Suits were brought against the most powerful corporations in the land, + which we were convinced had clearly and beyond question violated the + Anti-Trust Law. These suits were brought with great care, and only where + we felt so sure of our facts that we could be fairly certain that there + was a likelihood of success. As a matter of fact, in most of the important + suits we were successful. It was imperative that these suits should be + brought, and very real good was achieved by bringing them, for it was only + these suits that made the great masters of corporate capital in America + fully realize that they were the servants and not the masters of the + people, that they were subject to the law, and that they would not be + permitted to be a law unto themselves; and the corporations against which + we proceeded had sinned, not merely by being big (which we did not regard + as in itself a sin), but by being guilty of unfair practices towards their + competitors, and by procuring fair advantages from the railways. But the + resulting situation has made it evident that the Anti-Trust Law is not + adequate to meet the situation that has grown up because of modern + business conditions and the accompanying tremendous increase in the + business use of vast quantities of corporate wealth. As I have said, this + was already evident to my mind when I was President, and in communications + to Congress I repeatedly stated the facts. But when I made these + communications there were still plenty of people who did not believe that + we would succeed in the suits that had been instituted against the + Standard Oil, the Tobacco, and other corporations, and it was impossible + to get the public as a whole to realize what the situation was. Sincere + zealots who believed that all combinations could be destroyed and the + old-time conditions of unregulated competition restored, insincere + politicians who knew better but made believe that they thought whatever + their constituents wished them to think, crafty reactionaries who wished + to see on the statute-books laws which they believed unenforceable, and + the almost solid "Wall Street crowd" or representatives of "big business" + who at that time opposed with equal violence both wise and necessary and + unwise and improper regulation of business-all fought against the adoption + of a sane, effective, and far-reaching policy. + </p> + <p> + It is a vitally necessary thing to have the persons in control of big + trusts of the character of the Standard Oil Trust and Tobacco Trust taught + that they are under the law, just as it was a necessary thing to have the + Sugar Trust taught the same lesson in drastic fashion by Mr. Henry L. + Stimson when he was United States District Attorney in the city of New + York. But to attempt to meet the whole problem not by administrative + governmental action but by a succession of lawsuits is hopeless from the + standpoint of working out a permanently satisfactory solution. Moreover, + the results sought to be achieved are achieved only in extremely + insufficient and fragmentary measure by breaking up all big corporations, + whether they have behaved well or ill, into a number of little + corporations which it is perfectly certain will be largely, and perhaps + altogether, under the same control. Such action is harsh and mischievous + if the corporation is guilty of nothing except its size; and where, as in + the case of the Standard Oil, and especially the Tobacco, trusts, the + corporation has been guilty of immoral and anti-social practices, there is + need for far more drastic and thoroughgoing action than any that has been + taken, under the recent decree of the Supreme Court. In the case of the + Tobacco Trust, for instance, the settlement in the Circuit Court, in which + the representatives of the Government seem inclined to concur, practically + leaves all of the companies still substantially under the control of the + twenty-nine original defendants. Such a result is lamentable from the + standpoint of justice. The decision of the Circuit Court, if allowed to + stand, means that the Tobacco Trust has merely been obliged to change its + clothes, that none of the real offenders have received any real + punishment, while, as the New York Times, a pro-trust paper, says, the + tobacco concerns, in their new clothes, are in positions of "ease and + luxury," and "immune from prosecution under the law." + </p> + <p> + Surely, miscarriage of justice is not too strong a term to apply to such a + result when considered in connection with what the Supreme Court said of + this Trust. That great Court in its decision used language which, in spite + of its habitual and severe self-restraint in stigmatizing wrong-doing, yet + unhesitatingly condemns the Tobacco Trust for moral turpitude, saying that + the case shows an "ever present manifestation . . . of conscious + wrong-doing" by the Trust, whose history is "replete with the doing of + acts which it was the obvious purpose of the statute to forbid, . . . + demonstrative of the existence from the beginning of a purpose to acquire + dominion and control of the tobacco trade, not by the mere exertion of the + ordinary right to contract and to trade, but by methods devised in order + to monopolize the trade by driving competitors out of business, which were + ruthlessly carried out upon the assumption that to work upon the fears or + play upon the cupidity of competitors would make success possible." The + letters from and to various officials of the Trust, which were put in + evidence, show a literally astounding and horrifying indulgence by the + Trust in wicked and depraved business methods—such as the "endeavor + to cause a strike in their [a rival business firm's] factory," or the + "shutting off the market" of an independent tobacco firm by "taking the + necessary steps to give them a warm reception," or forcing importers into + a price agreement by causing and continuing "a demoralization of the + business for such length of time as may be deemed desirable" (I quote from + the letters). A Trust guilty of such conduct should be absolutely + disbanded, and the only way to prevent the repetition of such conduct is + by strict Government supervision, and not merely by lawsuits. + </p> + <p> + The Anti-Trust Law cannot meet the whole situation, nor can any + modification of the principle of the Anti-Trust Law avail to meet the + whole situation. The fact is that many of the men who have called + themselves Progressives, and who certainly believe that they are + Progressives, represent in reality in this matter not progress at all but + a kind of sincere rural toryism. These men believe that it is possible by + strengthening the Anti-Trust Law to restore business to the competitive + conditions of the middle of the last century. Any such effort is + foredoomed to end in failure, and, if successful, would be mischievous to + the last degree. Business cannot be successfully conducted in accordance + with the practices and theories of sixty years ago unless we abolish + steam, electricity, big cities, and, in short, not only all modern + business and modern industrial conditions, but all the modern conditions + of our civilization. The effort to restore competition as it was sixty + years ago, and to trust for justice solely to this proposed restoration of + competition, is just as foolish as if we should go back to the flintlocks + of Washington's Continentals as a substitute for modern weapons of + precision. The effort to prohibit all combinations, good or bad, is bound + to fail, and ought to fail; when made, it merely means that some of the + worst combinations are not checked and that honest business is checked. + Our purpose should be, not to strangle business as an incident of + strangling combinations, but to regulate big corporations in thoroughgoing + and effective fashion, so as to help legitimate business as an incident to + thoroughly and completely safeguarding the interests of the people as a + whole. Against all such increase of Government regulation the argument is + raised that it would amount to a form of Socialism. This argument is + familiar; it is precisely the same as that which was raised against the + creation of the Inter-State Commerce Commission, and of all the different + utilities commissions in the different States, as I myself saw, thirty + years ago, when I was a legislator at Albany, and these questions came up + in connection with our State Government. Nor can action be effectively + taken by any one State. Congress alone has power under the Constitution + effectively and thoroughly and at all points to deal with inter-State + commerce, and where Congress, as it should do, provides laws that will + give the Nation full jurisdiction over the whole field, then that + jurisdiction becomes, of necessity, exclusive—although until + Congress does act affirmatively and thoroughly it is idle to expect that + the States will or ought to rest content with non-action on the part of + both Federal and State authorities. This statement, by the way, applies + also to the question of "usurpation" by any one branch of our Government + of the rights of another branch. It is contended that in these recent + decisions the Supreme Court legislated; so it did; and it had to; because + Congress had signally failed to do its duty by legislating. For the + Supreme Court to nullify an act of the Legislature as unconstitutional + except on the clearest grounds is usurpation; to interpret such an act in + an obviously wrong sense is usurpation; but where the legislative body + persistently leaves open a field which it is absolutely imperative, from + the public standpoint, to fill, then no possible blame attaches to the + official or officials who step in because they have to, and who then do + the needed work in the interest of the people. The blame in such cases + lies with the body which has been derelict, and not with the body which + reluctantly makes good the dereliction. + </p> + <p> + A quarter of a century ago, Senator Cushman K. Davis, a statesman who + amply deserved the title of statesman, a man of the highest courage, of + the sternest adherence to the principles laid down by an exacting sense of + duty, an unflinching believer in democracy, who was as little to be cowed + by a mob as by a plutocrat, and moreover a man who possessed the priceless + gift of imagination, a gift as important to a statesman as to a historian, + in an address delivered at the annual commencement of the University of + Michigan on July 1, 1886, spoke as follows of corporations: + </p> + <p> + "Feudalism, with its domains, its untaxed lords, their retainers, its + exemptions and privileges, made war upon the aspiring spirit of humanity, + and fell with all its grandeurs. Its spirit walks the earth and haunts the + institutions of to-day, in the great corporations, with the control of the + National highways, their occupation of great domains, their power to tax, + their cynical contempt for the law, their sorcery to debase most gifted + men to the capacity of splendid slaves, their pollution of the ermine of + the judge and the robe of the Senator, their aggregation in one man of + wealth so enormous as to make Croesus seem a pauper, their picked, paid, + and skilled retainers who are summoned by the message of electricity and + appear upon the wings of steam. If we look into the origin of feudalism + and of the modern corporations—those Dromios of history—we + find that the former originated in a strict paternalism, which is scouted + by modern economists, and that the latter has grown from an unrestrained + freedom of action, aggression, and development, which they commend as the + very ideal of political wisdom. <i>Laissez-faire</i>, says the professor, + when it often means bind and gag that the strongest may work his will. It + is a plea for the survival of the fittest—for the strongest male to + take possession of the herd by a process of extermination. If we examine + this battle cry of political polemics, we find that it is based upon the + conception of the divine right of property, and the preoccupation by older + or more favored or more alert or richer men or nations, of territory, of + the forces of nature, of machinery, of all the functions of what we call + civilization. Some of these men, who are really great, follow these + conceptions to their conclusions with dauntless intrepidity." + </p> + <p> + When Senator Davis spoke, few men of great power had the sympathy and the + vision necessary to perceive the menace contained in the growth of + corporations; and the men who did see the evil were struggling blindly to + get rid of it, not by frankly meeting the new situation with new methods, + but by insisting upon the entirely futile effort to abolish what modern + conditions had rendered absolutely inevitable. Senator Davis was under no + such illusion. He realized keenly that it was absolutely impossible to go + back to an outworn social status, and that we must abandon definitely the + <i>laissez-faire</i> theory of political economy, and fearlessly champion + a system of increased Governmental control, paying no heed to the cries of + the worthy people who denounce this as Socialistic. He saw that, in order + to meet the inevitable increase in the power of corporations produced by + modern industrial conditions, it would be necessary to increase in like + fashion the activity of the sovereign power which alone could control such + corporations. As has been aptly said, the only way to meet a + billion-dollar corporation is by invoking the protection of a + hundred-billion-dollar government; in other words, of the National + Government, for no State Government is strong enough both to do justice to + corporations and to exact justice from them. Said Senator Davis in this + admirable address, which should be reprinted and distributed broadcast: + </p> + <p> + "The liberty of the individual has been annihilated by the logical process + constructed to maintain it. We have come to a political deification of + Mammon. <i>Laissez-faire</i> is not utterly blameworthy. It begat modern + democracy, and made the modern republic possible. There can be no doubt of + that. But there it reached its limit of political benefaction, and began + to incline toward the point where extremes meet. . . . To every assertion + that the people in their collective capacity of a government ought to + exert their indefeasible right of self-defense, it is said you touch the + sacred rights of property." + </p> + <p> + The Senator then goes on to say that we now have to deal with an oligarchy + of wealth, and that the Government must develop power sufficient enough to + enable it to do the task. + </p> + <p> + Few will dispute the fact that the present situation is not satisfactory, + and cannot be put on a permanently satisfactory basis unless we put an end + to the period of groping and declare for a fixed policy, a policy which + shall clearly define and punish wrong-doing, which shall put a stop to the + iniquities done in the name of business, but which shall do strict equity + to business. We demand that big business give the people a square deal; in + return we must insist that when any one engaged in big business honestly + endeavors to do right he shall himself be given a square deal; and the + first, and most elementary, kind of square deal is to give him in advance + full information as to just what he can, and what he cannot, legally and + properly do. It is absurd, and much worse than absurd, to treat the + deliberate lawbreaker as on an exact par with the man eager to obey the + law, whose only desire is to find out from some competent Governmental + authority what the law is, and then to live up to it. Moreover, it is + absurd to treat the size of a corporation as in itself a crime. As Judge + Hook says in his opinion in the Standard Oil Case: "Magnitude of business + does not alone constitute a monopoly . . . the genius and industry of man + when kept to ethical standards still have full play, and what he achieves + is his . . . success and magnitude of business, the rewards of fair and + honorable endeavor [are not forbidden] . . . [the public welfare is + threatened only when success is attained] by wrongful or unlawful + methods." Size may, and in my opinion does, make a corporation fraught + with potential menace to the community; and may, and in my opinion should, + therefore make it incumbent upon the community to exercise through its + administrative (not merely through its judicial) officers a strict + supervision over that corporation in order to see that it does not go + wrong; but the size in itself does not signify wrong-doing, and should not + be held to signify wrong-doing. + </p> + <p> + Not only should any huge corporation which has gained its position by + unfair methods, and by interference with the rights of others, by + demoralizing and corrupt practices, in short, by sheer baseness and + wrong-doing, be broken up, but it should be made the business of some + administrative governmental body, by constant supervision, to see that it + does not come together again, save under such strict control as shall + insure the community against all repetition of the bad conduct—and + it should never be permitted thus to assemble its parts as long as these + parts are under the control of the original offenders, for actual + experience has shown that these men are, from the standpoint of the people + at large, unfit to be trusted with the power implied in the management of + a large corporation. But nothing of importance is gained by breaking up a + huge inter-State and international industrial organization <i>which has + not offended otherwise than by its size</i>, into a number of small + concerns without any attempt to regulate the way in which those concerns + as a whole shall do business. Nothing is gained by depriving the American + Nation of good weapons wherewith to fight in the great field of + international industrial competition. Those who would seek to restore the + days of unlimited and uncontrolled competition, and who believe that a + panacea for our industrial and economic ills is to be found in the mere + breaking up of all big corporations, simply because they are big, are + attempting not only the impossible, but what, if possible, would be + undesirable. They are acting as we should act if we tried to dam the + Mississippi, to stop its flow outright. The effort would be certain to + result in failure and disaster; we would have attempted the impossible, + and so would have achieved nothing, or worse than nothing. But by building + levees along the Mississippi, not seeking to dam the stream, but to + control it, we are able to achieve our object and to confer inestimable + good in the course of so doing. + </p> + <p> + This Nation should definitely adopt the policy of attacking, not the mere + fact of combination, but the evils and wrong-doing which so frequently + accompany combination. The fact that a combination is very big is ample + reason for exercising a close and jealous supervision over it, because its + size renders it potent for mischief; but it should not be punished unless + it actually does the mischief; it should merely be so supervised and + controlled as to guarantee us, the people, against its doing mischief. We + should not strive for a policy of unregulated competition and of the + destruction of all big corporations, that is, of all the most efficient + business industries in the land. Nor should we persevere in the hopeless + experiment of trying to regulate these industries by means only of + lawsuits, each lasting several years, and of uncertain result. We should + enter upon a course of supervision, control, and regulation of these great + corporations—a regulation which we should not fear, if necessary, to + bring to the point of control of monopoly prices, just as in exceptional + cases railway rates are now regulated. Either the Bureau of Corporations + should be authorized, or some other governmental body similar to the + Inter-State Commerce Commission should be created, to exercise this + supervision, this authoritative control. When once immoral business + practices have been eliminated by such control, competition will thereby + be again revived as a healthy factor, although not as formerly an + all-sufficient factor, in keeping the general business situation sound. + Wherever immoral business practices still obtain—as they obtained in + the cases of the Standard Oil Trust and Tobacco Trust—the Anti-Trust + Law can be invoked; and wherever such a prosecution is successful, and the + courts declare a corporation to possess a monopolistic character, then + that corporation should be completely dissolved, and the parts ought never + to be again assembled save on whatever terms and under whatever conditions + may be imposed by the governmental body in which is vested the regulatory + power. Methods can readily be devised by which corporations sincerely + desiring to act fairly and honestly can on their own initiative come under + this thoroughgoing administrative control by the Government and thereby be + free from the working of the Anti-Trust Law. But the law will remain to be + invoked against wrongdoers; and under such conditions it could be invoked + far more vigorously and successfully than at present. + </p> + <p> + It is not necessary in an article like this to attempt to work out such a + plan in detail. It can assuredly be worked out. Moreover, in my opinion, + substantially some such plan must be worked out or business chaos will + continue. Wrongdoing such as was perpetrated by the Standard Oil Trust, + and especially by the Tobacco Trust, should not only be punished, but if + possible punished in the persons of the chief authors and beneficiaries of + the wrong, far more severely than at present. But punishment should not be + the only, or indeed the main, end in view. Our aim should be a policy of + construction and not one of destruction. Our aim should not be to punish + the men who have made a big corporation successful merely because they + have made it big and successful, but to exercise such thoroughgoing + supervision and control over them as to insure their business skill being + exercised in the interest of the public and not against the public + interest. Ultimately, I believe that this control should undoubtedly + indirectly or directly extend to dealing with all questions connected with + their treatment of their employees, including the wages, the hours of + labor, and the like. Not only is the proper treatment of a corporation, + from the standpoint of the managers, shareholders, and employees, + compatible with securing from that corporation the best standard of public + service, but when the effort is wisely made it results in benefit both to + the corporation and to the public. The success of Wisconsin in dealing + with the corporations within her borders, so as both to do them justice + and to exact justice in return from them toward the public, has been + signal; and this Nation should adopt a progressive policy in substance + akin to the progressive policy not merely formulated in theory but reduced + to actual practice with such striking success in Wisconsin. + </p> + <p> + To sum up, then. It is practically impossible, and, if possible, it would + be mischievous and undesirable, to try to break up all combinations merely + because they are large and successful, and to put the business of the + country back into the middle of the eighteenth century conditions of + intense and unregulated competition between small and weak business + concerns. Such an effort represents not progressiveness but an + unintelligent though doubtless entirely well-meaning toryism. Moreover, + the effort to administer a law merely by lawsuits and court decisions is + bound to end in signal failure, and meanwhile to be attended with delays + and uncertainties, and to put a premium upon legal sharp practice. Such an + effort does not adequately punish the guilty, and yet works great harm to + the innocent. Moreover, it entirely fails to give the publicity which is + one of the best by-products of the system of control by administrative + officials; publicity, which is not only good in itself, but furnishes the + data for whatever further action may be necessary. We need to formulate + immediately and definitely a policy which, in dealing with big + corporations that behave themselves and which contain no menace save what + is necessarily potential in any corporation which is of great size and + very well managed, shall aim not at their destruction but at their + regulation and supervision, so that the Government shall control them in + such fashion as amply to safeguard the interests of the whole public, + including producers, consumers, and wage-workers. This control should, if + necessary, be pushed in extreme cases to the point of exercising control + over monopoly prices, as rates on railways are now controlled; although + this is not a power that should be used when it is possible to avoid it. + The law should be clear, unambiguous, certain, so that honest men may not + find that unwittingly they have violated it. In short, our aim should be, + not to destroy, but effectively and in thoroughgoing fashion to regulate + and control, in the public interest, the great instrumentalities of modern + business, which it is destructive of the general welfare of the community + to destroy, and which nevertheless it is vitally necessary to that general + welfare to regulate and control. Competition will remain as a very + important factor when once we have destroyed the unfair business methods, + the criminal interference with the rights of others, which alone enabled + certain swollen combinations to crush out their competitors—and, + incidentally, the "conservatives" will do well to remember that these + unfair and iniquitous methods by great masters of corporate capital have + done more to cause popular discontent with the propertied classes than all + the orations of all the Socialist orators in the country put together. + </p> + <p> + I have spoken above of Senator Davis's admirable address delivered a + quarter of a century ago. Senator Davis's one-time partner, Frank B. + Kellogg, the Government counsel who did so much to win success for the + Government in its prosecutions of the trusts, has recently delivered + before the Palimpsest Club of Omaha an excellent address on the subject; + Mr. Prouty, of the Inter-State Commerce Commission, has recently, in his + speech before the Congregational Club of Brooklyn, dealt with the subject + from the constructive side; and in the proceedings of the American Bar + Association for 1904 there is an admirable paper on the need of + thoroughgoing Federal control over corporations doing an inter-State + business, by Professor Horace L. Wilgus, of the University of Michigan. + The National Government exercises control over inter-State commerce + railways, and it can in similar fashion, through an appropriate + governmental body, exercise control over all industrial organizations + engaged in inter-State commerce. This control should be exercised, not by + the courts, but by an administrative bureau or board such as the Bureau of + Corporations or the Inter-State Commerce Commission; for the courts cannot + with advantage permanently perform executive and administrative functions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE8" id="link2H_APPE8"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX B + </h2> + <h3> + THE CONTROL OF CORPORATIONS AND "THE NEW FREEDOM" + </h3> + <p> + In his book "The New Freedom," and in the magazine articles of which it is + composed, which appeared just after he had been inaugurated as President, + Mr. Woodrow Wilson made an entirely unprovoked attack upon me and upon the + Progressive party in connection with what he asserts the policy of that + party to be concerning the trusts, and as regards my attitude while + President about the trusts. + </p> + <p> + I am reluctant to say anything whatever about President Wilson at the + outset of his Administration unless I can speak of him with praise. I have + scrupulously refrained from saying or doing one thing since election that + could put the slightest obstacle, even of misinterpretation, in his path. + It is to the interest of the country that he should succeed in his office. + I cordially wish him success, and I shall cordially support any policy of + his that I believe to be in the interests of the people of the United + States. But when Mr. Wilson, after being elected President, within the + first fortnight after he has been inaugurated into that high office, + permits himself to be betrayed into a public misstatement of what I have + said, and what I stand for, then he forces me to correct his statements. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson opens his article by saying that the Progressive "doctrine is + that monopoly is inevitable, and that the only course open to the people + of the United States is to submit to it." This statement is without one + particle of foundation in fact. I challenge him to point out a sentence in + the Progressive platform or in any speech of mine which bears him out. I + can point him out any number which flatly contradict him. We have never + made any such statement as he alleges about monopolies. We have said: "The + corporation is an essential part of modern business. The concentration of + modern business, in some degree, is both inevitable and necessary for + National and international business efficiency." Does Mr. Wilson deny + this? Let him answer yes or no, directly. It is easy for a politician + detected in a misstatement to take refuge in evasive rhetorical hyperbole. + But Mr. Wilson is President of the United States, and as such he is bound + to candid utterance on every subject of public interest which he himself + has broached. If he disagrees with us, let him be frank and consistent, + and recommend to Congress that all corporations be made illegal. Mr. + Wilson's whole attack is largely based on a deft but far from ingenuous + confounding of what we have said of monopoly, which we propose so far as + possible to abolish, and what we have said of big corporations, which we + propose to regulate; Mr. Wilson's own vaguely set forth proposals being to + attempt the destruction of both in ways that would harm neither. In our + platform we use the word "monopoly" but once, and then we speak of it as + an abuse of power, coupling it with stock-watering, unfair competition and + unfair privileges. Does Mr. Wilson deny this? If he does, then where else + will he assert that we speak of monopoly as he says we do? He certainly + owes the people of the United States a plain answer to the question. In my + speech of acceptance I said: "We favor strengthening the Sherman Law by + prohibiting agreements to divide territory or limit output; refusing to + sell to customers who buy from business rivals; to sell below cost in + certain areas while maintaining higher prices in other places; using the + power of transportation to aid or injure special business concerns; and + all other unfair trade practices." The platform pledges us to "guard and + keep open equally to all, the highways of American commerce." This is the + exact negation of monopoly. Unless Mr. Wilson is prepared to show the + contrary, surely he is bound in honor to admit frankly that he has been + betrayed into a misrepresentation, and to correct it. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson says that for sixteen years the National Administration has + "been virtually under the regulation of the trusts," and that the big + business men "have already captured the Government." Such a statement as + this might perhaps be pardoned as mere rhetoric in a candidate seeking + office—although it is the kind of statement that never under any + circumstances have I permitted myself to make, whether on the stump or off + the stump, about any opponent, unless I was prepared to back it up with + explicit facts. But there is an added seriousness to the charge when it is + made deliberately and in cold blood by a man who is at the time President. + In this volume I have set forth my relations with the trusts. I challenge + Mr. Wilson to controvert anything I have said, or to name any trusts or + any big business men who regulated, or in any shape or way controlled, or + captured, the Government during my term as President. He must furnish + specifications if his words are taken at their face value—and I + venture to say in advance that the absurdity of such a charge is patent to + all my fellow-citizens, not excepting Mr. Wilson. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson says that the new party was founded "under the leadership of + Mr. Roosevelt, with the conspicuous aid—I mention him with no + satirical intention, but merely to set the facts down accurately—of + Mr. George W. Perkins, organizer of the Steel Trust." Whether Mr. Wilson's + intention was satirical or not is of no concern; but I call his attention + to the fact that he has conspicuously and strikingly failed "to set the + facts down accurately." Mr. Perkins was not the organizer of the Steel + Trust, and when it was organized he had no connection with it or with the + Morgan people. This is well known, and it has again and again been + testified to before Congressional committees controlled by Mr. Wilson's + friends who were endeavoring to find out something against Mr. Perkins. If + Mr. Wilson does not know that my statement is correct, he ought to know + it, and he is not to be excused for making such a misstatement as he has + made when he has not a particle of evidence in support of it. Mr. Perkins + was from the beginning in the Harvester Trust but, when Mr. Wilson points + out this fact, why does he not add that he was the only man in that trust + who supported me, and that the President of the trust ardently supported + Mr. Wilson himself? It is disingenuous to endeavor to conceal these facts, + and to mislead ordinary citizens about them. Under the administrations of + both Mr. Taft and Mr. Wilson, Mr. Perkins has been singled out for special + attack, obviously not because he belonged to the Harvester and Steel + Trusts, but because he alone among the prominent men of the two + corporations, fearlessly supported the only party which afforded any real + hope of checking the evil of the trusts. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson states that the Progressives have "a programme perfectly + agreeable to monopolies." + </p> + <p> + The plain and unmistakable inference to be drawn from this and other + similar statements in his article, and the inference which he obviously + desired to have drawn, is that the big corporations approved the + Progressive plan and supported the Progressive candidate. If President + Wilson does not know perfectly well that this is not the case, he is the + only intelligent person in the United States who is thus ignorant. + Everybody knows that the overwhelming majority of the heads of the big + corporations supported him or Mr. Taft. It is equally well known that of + the corporations he mentions, the Steel and the Harvester Trusts, there + was but one man who took any part in the Progressive campaign, and that + almost all the others, some thirty in number, were against us, and some of + them, including the President of the Harvester Trust, openly and + enthusiastically for Mr. Wilson himself. If he reads the newspapers at + all, he must know that practically every man representing the great + financial interests of the country, and without exception every newspaper + controlled by Wall Street or State Street, actively supported either him + or Mr. Taft, and showed perfect willingness to accept either if only they + could prevent the Progressive party from coming into power and from + putting its platform into effect. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson says of the trust plank in that platform that it "did not + anywhere condemn monopoly except in words." Exactly of what else could a + platform consist? Does Mr. Wilson expect us to use algebraic signs? This + criticism is much as if he said the Constitution or the Declaration of + Independence contained nothing but words. The Progressive platform did + contain words, and the words were admirably designed to express thought + and meaning and purpose. Mr. Wilson says that I long ago "classified + trusts for us as good and bad," and said that I was "afraid only of the + bad ones." Mr. Wilson would do well to quote exactly what my language was, + and where it was used, for I am at a loss to know what statement of mine + it is to which he refers. But if he means that I say that corporations can + do well, and that corporations can also do ill, he is stating my position + correctly. I hold that a corporation does ill if it seeks profit in + restricting production and then by extorting high prices from the + community by reason of the scarcity of the product; through adulterating, + lyingly advertising, or over-driving the help; or replacing men workers + with children; or by rebates; or in any illegal or improper manner driving + competitors out of its way; or seeking to achieve monopoly by illegal or + unethical treatment of its competitors, or in any shape or way offending + against the moral law either in connection with the public or with its + employees or with its rivals. Any corporation which seeks its profit in + such fashion is acting badly. It is, in fact, a conspiracy against the + public welfare which the Government should use all its powers to suppress. + If, on the other hand, a corporation seeks profit solely by increasing its + products through eliminating waste, improving its processes, utilizing its + by-products, installing better machines, raising wages in the effort to + secure more efficient help, introducing the principle of cooperation and + mutual benefit, dealing fairly with labor unions, setting its face against + the underpayment of women and the employment of children; in a word, + treating the public fairly and its rivals fairly: then such a corporation + is behaving well. It is an instrumentality of civilization operating to + promote abundance by cheapening the cost of living so as to improve + conditions everywhere throughout the whole community. Does Mr. Wilson + controvert either of these statements? If so, let him answer directly. It + is a matter of capital importance to the country that his position in this + respect be stated directly, not by indirect suggestion. + </p> + <p> + Much of Mr. Wilson's article, although apparently aimed at the Progressive + party, is both so rhetorical and so vague as to need no answer. He does, + however, specifically assert (among other things equally without warrant + in fact) that the Progressive party says that it is "futile to undertake + to prevent monopoly," and only ventures to ask the trusts to be "kind" and + "pitiful"! It is a little difficult to answer a misrepresentation of the + facts so radical—not to say preposterous—with the respect that + one desires to use in speaking of or to the President of the United + States. I challenge President Wilson to point to one sentence of our + platform or of my speeches which affords the faintest justification for + these assertions. Having made this statement in the course of an + unprovoked attack on me, he cannot refuse to show that it is true. I deem + it necessary to emphasize here (but with perfect respect) that I am asking + for a plain statement of fact, not for a display of rhetoric. I ask him, + as is my right under the circumstances, to quote the exact language which + justifies him in attributing these views to us. If he cannot do this, then + a frank acknowledgment on his part is due to himself and to the people. I + quote from the Progressive platform: "Behind the ostensible Government + sits enthroned an invisible Government, owing no allegiance and + acknowledging no responsibility to the people. To destroy this invisible + Government, to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and + corrupt politics, is the first task of the statesmanship of the day. . . . + This country belongs to the people. Its resources, its business, its laws, + its institutions, should be utilized, maintained, or altered in whatever + manner will best promote the general interest." This assertion is + explicit. We say directly that "the people" are absolutely to control in + any way they see fit, the "business" of the country. I again challenge Mr. + Wilson to quote any words of the platform that justify the statements he + has made to the contrary. If he cannot do it—and of course he cannot + do it, and he must know that he cannot do it—surely he will not + hesitate to say so frankly. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson must know that every monopoly in the United States opposes the + Progressive party. If he challenges this statement, I challenge him in + return (as is clearly my right) to name the monopoly that did support the + Progressive party, whether it was the Sugar Trust, the Steel Trust, the + Harvester Trust, the Standard Oil Trust, the Tobacco Trust, or any other. + Every sane man in the country knows well that there is not one word of + justification that can truthfully be adduced for Mr. Wilson's statement + that the Progressive programme was agreeable to the monopolies. Ours was + the only programme to which they objected, and they supported either Mr. + Wilson or Mr. Taft against me, indifferent as to which of them might be + elected so long as I was defeated. Mr. Wilson says that I got my "idea + with regard to the regulation of monopoly from the gentlemen who form the + United States Steel Corporation." Does Mr. Wilson pretend that Mr. Van + Hise and Mr. Croly got their ideas from the Steel Corporation? Is Mr. + Wilson unaware of the elementary fact that most modern economists believe + that unlimited, unregulated competition is the source of evils which all + men now concede must be remedied if this civilization of ours is to + survive? Is he ignorant of the fact that the Socialist party has long been + against unlimited competition? This statement of Mr. Wilson cannot be + characterized properly with any degree of regard for the office Mr. Wilson + holds. Why, the ideas that I have championed as to controlling and + regulating both competition and combination in the interest of the people, + so that the people shall be masters over both, have been in the air in + this country for a quarter of a century. I was merely the first prominent + candidate for President who took them up. They are the progressive ideas, + and progressive business men must in the end come to them, for I firmly + believe that in the end all wise and honest business men, big and little, + will support our programme. Mr. Wilson in opposing them is the mere + apostle of reaction. He says that I got my "ideas from the gentlemen who + form the Steel Corporation." I did not. But I will point out to him + something in return. It was he himself, and Mr. Taft, who got the votes + and the money of these same gentlemen, and of those in the Harvester + Trust. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson has promised to break up all trusts. He can do so only by + proceeding at law. If he proceeds at law, he can hope for success only by + taking what I have done as a precedent. In fact, what I did as President + is the base of every action now taken or that can be now taken looking + toward the control of corporations, or the suppression of monopolies. The + decisions rendered in various cases brought by my direction constitute the + authority on which Mr. Wilson must base any action that he may bring to + curb monopolistic control. Will Mr. Wilson deny this, or question it in + any way? With what grace can he describe my Administration as satisfactory + to the trusts when he knows that he cannot redeem a single promise that he + has made to war upon the trusts unless he avails himself of weapons of + which the Federal Government had been deprived before I became President, + and which were restored to it during my Administration and through + proceedings which I directed? Without my action Mr. Wilson could not now + undertake or carry on a single suit against a monopoly, and, moreover, if + it had not been for my action and for the judicial decision in consequence + obtained, Congress would be helpless to pass a single law against + monopoly. + </p> + <p> + Let Mr. Wilson mark that the men who organized and directed the Northern + Securities Company were also the controlling forces in the very Steel + Corporation which Mr. Wilson makes believe to think was supporting me. I + challenge Mr. Wilson to deny this, and yet he well knew that it was my + successful suit against the Northern Securities Company which first + efficiently established the power of the people over the trusts. + </p> + <p> + After reading Mr. Wilson's book, I am still entirely in the dark as to + what he means by the "New Freedom." Mr. Wilson is an accomplished and + scholarly man, a master of rhetoric, and the sentences in the book are + well-phrased statements, usually inculcating a morality which is sound + although vague and ill defined. There are certain proposals (already long + set forth and practiced by me and by others who have recently formed the + Progressive party) made by Mr. Wilson with which I cordially agree. There + are, however, certain things he has said, even as regards matters of + abstract morality, with which I emphatically disagree. For example, in + arguing for proper business publicity, as to which I cordially agree with + Mr. Wilson, he commits himself to the following statement: + </p> + <p> + "You know there is temptation in loneliness and secrecy. Haven't you + experienced it? I have. We are never so proper in our conduct as when + everybody can look and see exactly what we are doing. If you are off in + some distant part of the world and suppose that nobody who lives within a + mile of your home is anywhere around, there are times when you adjourn + your ordinary standards. You say to yourself, 'Well, I'll have a fling + this time; nobody will know anything about it.' If you were on the Desert + of Sahara, you would feel that you might permit yourself—well, say, + some slight latitude of conduct; but if you saw one of your immediate + neighbors coming the other way on a camel, you would behave yourself until + he got out of sight. The most dangerous thing in the world is to get off + where nobody knows you. I advise you to stay around among the neighbors, + and then you may keep out of jail. That is the only way some of us can + keep out of jail." + </p> + <p> + I emphatically disagree with what seems to be the morality inculcated in + this statement, which is that a man is expected to do and is to be + pardoned for doing all kinds of immoral things if he does them alone and + does not expect to be found out. Surely it is not necessary, in insisting + upon proper publicity, to preach a morality of so basely material a + character. + </p> + <p> + There is much more that Mr. Wilson says as to which I do not understand + him clearly, and where I condemn what I do understand. In economic matters + the course he advocates as part of the "New Freedom" simply means the old, + old "freedom" of leaving the individual strong man at liberty, unchecked + by common action, to prey on the weak and the helpless. The "New Freedom" + in the abstract seems to be the freedom of the big to devour the little. + In the concrete I may add that Mr. Wilson's misrepresentations of what I + have said seem to indicate that he regards the new freedom as freedom from + all obligation to obey the Ninth Commandment. + </p> + <p> + But, after all, my views or the principles of the Progressive party are of + much less importance now than the purposes of Mr. Wilson. These are + wrapped in impenetrable mystery. His speeches and writings serve but to + make them more obscure. If these attempts to refute his misrepresentation + of my attitude towards the trusts should result in making his own clear, + then this discussion will have borne fruits of substantial value to the + country. If Mr. Wilson has any plan of his own for dealing with the + trusts, it is to suppress all great industrial organizations—presumably + on the principle proclaimed by his Secretary of State four years ago, that + every corporation which produced more than a certain percentage of a given + commodity—I think the amount specified was twenty-five per cent—no + matter how valuable its service, should be suppressed. The simple fact is + that such a plan is futile. In operation it would do far more damage than + it could remedy. The Progressive plan would give the people full control + of, and in masterful fashion prevent all wrongdoing by, the trusts, while + utilizing for the public welfare every industrial energy and ability that + operates to swell abundance, while obeying strictly the moral law and the + law of the land. Mr. Wilson's plan would ultimately benefit the trusts and + would permanently damage nobody but the people. For example, one of the + steel corporations which has been guilty of the worst practices towards + its employees is the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company. Mr. Wilson and Mr. + Bryan's plan would, if successful, merely mean permitting four such + companies, absolutely uncontrolled, to monopolize every big industry in + the country. To talk of such an accomplishment as being "The New Freedom" + is enough to make the term one of contemptuous derision. + </p> + <p> + President Wilson has made explicit promises, and the Democratic platform + has made explicit promises. Mr. Wilson is now in power, with a Democratic + Congress in both branches. He and the Democratic platform have promised to + destroy the trusts, to reduce the cost of living, and at the same time to + increase the well-being of the farmer and of the workingman—which of + course must mean to increase the profits of the farmer and the wages of + the workingman. He and his party won the election on this promise. We have + a right to expect that they will keep it. If Mr. Wilson's promises mean + anything except the very emptiest words, he is pledged to accomplish the + beneficent purposes he avows by breaking up all the trusts and + combinations and corporations so as to restore competition precisely as it + was fifty years ago. If he does not mean this, he means nothing. He cannot + do anything else under penalty of showing that his promise and his + performance do not square with each other. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson says that "the trusts are our masters now, but I for one do not + care to live in a country called free even under kind masters." Good! The + Progressives are opposed to having masters, kind or unkind, and they do + not believe that a "new freedom" which in practice would mean leaving four + Fuel and Iron Companies free to do what they like in every industry would + be of much benefit to the country. The Progressives have a clear and + definite programme by which the people would be the masters of the trusts + instead of the trusts being their masters, as Mr. Wilson says they are. + With practical unanimity the trusts supported the opponents of this + programme, Mr. Taft and Mr. Wilson, and they evidently dreaded our + programme infinitely more than anything that Mr. Wilson threatened. The + people have accepted Mr. Wilson's assurances. Now let him make his + promises good. He is committed, if his words mean anything, to the promise + to break up every trust, every big corporation—perhaps every small + corporation—in the United States—not to go through the motions + of breaking them up, but really to break them up. He is committed against + the policy (of efficient control and mastery of the big corporations both + by law and by administrative action in cooperation) proposed by the + Progressives. Let him keep faith with the people; let him in good faith + try to keep the promises he has thus repeatedly made. I believe that his + promise is futile and cannot be kept. I believe that any attempt sincerely + to keep it and in good faith to carry it out will end in either nothing at + all or in disaster. But my beliefs are of no consequence. Mr. Wilson is + President. It is his acts that are of consequence. He is bound in honor to + the people of the United States to keep his promise, and to break up, not + nominally but in reality, all big business, all trusts, all combinations + of every sort, kind, and description, and probably all corporations. What + he says is henceforth of little consequence. The important thing is what + he does, and how the results of what he does square with the promises and + prophecies he made when all he had to do was to speak, not to act. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE9" id="link2H_APPE9"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX C + </h2> + <h3> + THE BLAINE CAMPAIGN + </h3> + <p> + In "The House of Harper," written by J. Henry Harper, the following + passage occurs: "Curtis returned from the convention in company with young + Theodore Roosevelt and they discussed the situation thoroughly on their + trip to New York and came to the conclusion that it would be very + difficult to consistently support Blaine. Roosevelt, however, had a + conference afterward with Senator Lodge and eventually fell in line behind + Blaine. Curtis came to our office and found that we were unanimously + opposed to the support of Blaine, and with a hearty good-will he trained + his editorial guns on the 'Plumed Knight' of Mulligan letter fame. His + work was as effective and deadly as any fight he ever conducted in the <i>Weekly</i>." + This statement has no foundation whatever in fact. I did not return from + the convention in company with Mr. Curtis. He went back to New York from + the convention, whereas I went to my ranch in North Dakota. No such + conversation as that ever took place between me and Mr. Curtis. In my + presence, in speaking to a number of men at the time in Chicago, Mr. + Curtis said: "You younger men can, if you think right, refuse to support + Mr. Blaine, but I am too old a Republican, and have too long been + associated with the party, to break with it now." Not only did I never + entertain after the convention, but I never during the convention or at + any other time, entertained the intention alleged in the quotation in + question. I discussed the whole situation with Mr. Lodge before going to + the convention, and we had made up our minds that if the nomination of Mr. + Blaine was fairly made we would with equal good faith support him. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Theodore Roosevelt, by Theodore Roosevelt + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THEODORE ROOSEVELT *** + +***** This file should be named 3335-h.htm or 3335-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/3/3335/ + +Produced by Dagny; John Bickers; David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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