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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/33060-8.txt b/33060-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..224e92a --- /dev/null +++ b/33060-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5146 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Living from the Land, by William B. Duryee + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Living from the Land + +Author: William B. Duryee + +Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33060] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LIVING FROM THE LAND *** + + + + +Produced by David Clarke and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +A LIVING FROM THE LAND + + + + +[Illustration: (_Frontispiece_) + +Country homes backed by intensive types of agriculture serve modern human +needs.] + + + + + A LIVING + FROM THE LAND + + + BY + WILLIAM B. DURYEE, M.Sc. + + _Secretary of Agriculture, + State of New Jersey_ + + + WHITTLESEY HOUSE + McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. + NEW YORK AND LONDON + 1934 + + + + + _Copyright, 1934, by the_ MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. + + All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be + reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers. + + THIRD PRINTING + + + + PUBLISHED BY WHITTLESEY HOUSE + A division of the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. + + _Printed in the United States of America by The Maple Press Co., + York, Pa._ + + + + _To my friend_ + HENRY W. JEFFERS + + + + +PREFACE + + +Homesteading days are here again. The present movement of people back to +the land is of a different type and has different objectives from those +which prevailed when a continent was to be conquered and exploited. Today +we know that many urban industries will operate on a seasonal basis and we +know too that periods of unemployment and shorter working days will +provide more leisure and probably lower incomes for hundreds of thousands +of families. The utilization of this leisure time to supplement incomes, +to raise the standards of living and of health, and to attain some measure +of economic security will tend more and more to settlement on the land. + +In these days of rapid transportation and all the attributes and +conveniences of modern country life, the hardships of the earlier period +of land development are non-existent. Although urban industrial +development has reached a point which will not be exceeded for many years +to come, the individual who needs additional income may adjust himself to +such circumstances by establishing a country homestead. Industrial +activity is tending to decentralize, largely as the result of widespread +power distribution, and a home in the country accessible to some form of +manufacturing or business employment offers undeniable attractions. + +This book is prepared primarily for the family that is inexperienced in +country living and in soil culture. Such a family should know about the +nature of the soil on which it lives, how to make it serve the family's +needs and purposes, what to do, and what to avoid in order that success +may be attained and failure averted. Students of agriculture as a vocation +and practical farmers may find, beyond the elementary facts presented, +information of value and help to them. To know and to understand the +science and practice of agriculture is to have power to cope with and to +enjoy soil culture and animal husbandry. If this little volume helps to +answer clearly and definitely the many inquiries that are in the minds of +prospective and active homesteaders, it will have served its purpose. + +The knowledge of many practical people and the resources of agricultural +institutions and agencies have been drawn upon for this book. Grateful +acknowledgment is made to those who have contributed constructive +criticism and have helped in the preparation of material. Especial credit +is due to the personnel of the New Jersey and New York colleges of +agriculture and to my associates in the New Jersey Department of +Agriculture. + +WILLIAM B. DURYEE. + +TRENTON, N. J., + +_December, 1933_. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + +PREFACE ix + +CHAPTER + + I. TURNING FROM THE CITY TO THE COUNTRY 3 + + II. GETTING ESTABLISHED IN THE COUNTRY 12 + + III. FINANCING AND PROTECTING THE INVESTMENT 26 + + IV. ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE IN THE COUNTRY 40 + + V. SERVICING THE HOME 54 + + VI. MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS 73 + + VII. FOOD FROM THE GARDEN 95 + + VIII. HOME FRUITS AND BEES 110 + + IX. POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME 123 + + X. SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY 138 + + XI. THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY 159 + + XII. MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 170 + + + + +A LIVING FROM THE LAND + + + + +_Chapter_ I + +TURNING FROM THE CITY TO THE COUNTRY + + +America was founded on the rock base of agriculture. The early settlers +tilled the soil and derived from it the simple things that they needed. +Necessity compelled them to be self-reliant, courageous and resourceful. +The establishment of a home in early days meant the clearing of land, the +erection of a house for human habitation and the building of shelters for +a few farm animals. Each farm home became practically self-sufficient so +far as the family needs were concerned. Clothing was made there for each +member of the family. After clearing and subduing the land, the settlers +were able to produce their cereal foods. Animals were slaughtered and the +meat processed to provide sustenance throughout the year. Through the +exchange of commodities and ideas with neighbors, advances in living +conditions were made. + +The family that was not resourceful in those days failed to survive. +Neighbors were too busy working out their own existence problems to +succor the incompetent. Resourcefulness was called upon in meeting +onslaughts of beasts or human marauders. Thus there was built up a +tradition of seeking and utilizing resources that has gone on to make our +country great and the wonder of the rest of the world. + +Since pioneer days we have built a great industrial, commercial and +financial machine. American inventive genius, coupled with the best brains +of the civilized world, attracted by resources and opportunities on every +hand, has invaded every field and created a great industrial +superstructure. + +With the genesis and development of a great industrial era in the United +States there started a movement of population from farms to established +centers of population. The application of the sciences to the problems of +filling human wants gave this movement greater impetus. Mining and the +refining of metal ores, the exploiting of coal deposits, the building of +railroads, the construction of buildings for business and residential +purposes, as well as dozens of other great enterprises, served to draw +from the country the best of its human resources. + +Inventive genius began to concentrate on the solution of engineering and +construction problems created by congestion of population and successive +steps in industrialization. This same technical genius was applied also to +farm operations which required laborious effort by men and work animals. +That this development itself progressed rapidly is demonstrated by the +fact that while in 1810 the effort of nearly every person was required to +produce enough food to sustain the population, in 1910 the efforts of +one-third of the people were sufficient to provide food for the nation and +export vast quantities to other countries. + +While the nation continued to grow rapidly in population and sought to +apply to ordinary practices the newer labor-saving devices, all was well. +It was inevitable, however, that the great industrial machine should +become over-developed, at least temporarily. Instead of machinery being a +servant of mankind it became an octopus that could not be checked. +Individual initiative, the wellspring of earlier developments in the +process, became atrophied. There came about such a high degree of +specialization in human effort as to make men dependent upon others for +work to do. Consequently, even a slight throwing out of gear of the +machine created unemployment, which reduced buying power for the +machine-made products and started a vicious downward spiral accompanied by +every form of economic distress. + +When such partial or complete breakdown of the superstructure occurs, +thoughtful people are brought "down to earth," both collectively and very +intimately in thousands of individual cases. They begin to get back to +fundamentals and to seek means of becoming so reestablished as to avoid +future cataclysms. The family attracted to the city by the lure of high +industrial wages and by crowded avenues finds in such a breakdown that it +has lost its moorings. + +In seeking means of reestablishment free of the terrifying complications +of industrial life, the mind turns to the country, to the soil, to growing +things that are not visibly affected by economic cycles. The open country +seems ready to welcome back her errant children graciously and to enfold +them within her protecting bosom. We cannot go back, however, to pioneer +days. Free land is not available and we have not the arts or the patience +to practice the means of livelihood of those days. To make the new or +renewed relationship with the soil a success, it is necessary to +understand that country life, too, has changed during industrial +revolutions. Mother Earth is now, as ever, a generous but exacting parent. +To try to reestablish relationships in a blind and haphazard manner is +likely to lead to further disaster. Such a debacle is quite needless, +provided some fundamental principles and practices are understood and +followed. + +Unquestionably, the open country is now making the greatest appeal as a +place of residence that it has made at any time in the history of the +nation. To list the conveniences which now exist in the country is to +duplicate those which many people have considered as available only in +cities. In most areas of the country, for example, there are daily mail +delivery, telephone service, some measure of fire protection, and +transportation by automobile, bus or train. It is quite possible, for +example, to step into a bus at one's dooryard and be carried to any part +of the United States by the same method of transportation. + +The development of the radio has brought to the country home all the +surging activities of national life and varied educational and +entertainment programs. The spread of electric light and power lines +through the country constitutes a boon that makes possible the use of all +kinds of electrical appliances known in the city, including refrigerators, +cooking ranges, washing machines, water pumps, water heaters and hundreds +of other machines and appliances, some of which are in their infancy. No +great difficulty is experienced in locating in the open country where such +electrical facilities are available. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture_) + +An attractive farmstead offering requisites of a home in the open +country.] + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture_) + +Floor plan of house shown on opposite page.] + + +On the main highways in the northern sections of the country a heavy fall +of snow used to mean isolation for weeks. Today the snow is removed as +rapidly as it falls, and these highways are kept open. The problems and +perils of isolation are thus removed. + +Tradesmen of all kinds are directing their sales toward country homes, and +supplies of ice and all kinds of food can be obtained almost daily at the +farm doorstep. There is also a tendency to develop factories in the +country away from the high-rent areas of cities and to utilize the +services of persons living in the vicinity of the factory for full or +partial time in the plants. The cost of living can be reduced by living in +the country, and opportunities for purchasing foods and other products at +wholesale prices and storing them against the time of need make further +economies possible. + +The greatest asset that the country has to offer relates to the health and +character of those who live close to nature. It has long been recognized +by many European countries that the ownership of even a small tract of +land, no larger than a city lot, perhaps, is a definite asset in building +a nation and in building individual character. In Germany, in Denmark and +in many other nations, the government lends its aid toward the +establishment of people in the country and makes it possible for them to +acquire and retain small holdings of land which they may call "home." It +is on these small tracts that one sees veritable bowers of pastoral +industry and beauty. + +Residence in the open country, in contact with the soil, contributes to +physical strength and to mental health. When a man lives in the country, +his house, his way of living and his contribution to the community stand +out where all may see them. These latter assets have always been inherent +in country life. When to these are added the conveniences and the +opportunities for community enjoyment that are now a part of rural life, +its appeal is not difficult to understand. + +Anyone who intends to live in the country has his individual problems to +meet and to solve. In the solution of these problems there are many +resources and avenues to which he may turn in the present day for help and +for guidance. The tragic mistakes that have been made in the past can and +should be largely eliminated in the future. A clearer understanding should +be gained as to what one may obtain in the country in the form of a better +way of living, serving as an anchor to the windward even under favorable +economic conditions. + + + + +_Chapter_ II + +GETTING ESTABLISHED IN THE COUNTRY + + +In the selection of a residence in the country, the settler must decide +whether he wishes to locate on a farm of considerable acreage or whether +he wants to have a relatively small tract ranging from 2 to 15 acres. In +the latter case, he is thinking primarily of a place of residence with +sufficient acreage to make it possible to secure a partial living from the +land immediately surrounding the home. The trend in such purchases is +toward the smaller place for a number of reasons. + +A large farm acquired by a relatively inexperienced person means a very +considerable burden in the development and maintenance of the land itself +on a producing basis. Capital is required for the purchase of equipment +and power. Parts of the land may need to be drained, and taxes must be +paid whether the land is productive or not. A person acquiring a farm of +50 or more acres will find that the major portion of his time, thought and +capital will be called upon to make it a success. If he has definitely +cut off his city connections and the idea of having a job there, and has +had experience in farming, then he may be in a position to take over a +large acreage so that his full time and possibly that of other members of +his family can be spent on various projects on the land he acquires. + +We are here primarily concerned, not with those who desire to enter upon +farming on a large scale, but with the family which would like to live in +the country, secure a partial living from the land surrounding the home +and still have the opportunity of gaining a livelihood from some +industrial or commercial activity located in a near-by city or town. It is +quite likely that we shall have a shorter working week and probably +periods of unemployment for hundreds of thousands of ambitious people. +Therefore, a place in the country that is well located with respect to +hard-surfaced highways and accessible to urban centers offers +opportunities for combining the advantages and economic assets of country +life with urban employment. + +_Getting Started Right._--Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon getting +the right start, particularly with respect to location. This is not only +essential for the satisfaction of the present occupant of the premises, +but also gives definite sales value in case circumstances make a change +of location desirable or necessary. + +It will often appear that the best location is on the outskirts of a city +or town and from some angles this is good reasoning. There are some +factors, however, that make such a location undesirable. For one thing, +the tax rate is likely to be higher in such areas than in the open +country, thus adding to overhead without compensating advantages. In the +second place, urban centers develop without regard to soil type and this +is an essential factor to the family that expects to engage in some +agricultural pursuit. Again, the type of inhabitants that live on the +fringe of towns and cities may not make good neighbors or associates for +children, especially. None of these disadvantages may be present in +locations close to centers of population, but the prospective settler +should give all these factors full consideration. The sales argument +frequently advanced that such locations will grow in value due to growth +of population may be fallacious. + +Many have found that the higher costs of living in these areas often +prevent the owner from holding on until the slow growth of population +outward makes a worth-while profit possible from his real estate. +Furthermore, the growth of cities and towns is definitely slowing down. +The expansion of city areas is greatly curtailed and is not likely to be +resumed soon. + +The most important time to get expert opinion as to location is at the +beginning and not after purchasing. There are available in every locality +persons whose advice is useful in such matters. The county agricultural +agent located in nearly every county seat knows the countryside and his +advice on the subject of definite location should be sought once one has +decided upon the general area which seems attractive. In determining on +specific location the bank which has a clientele in the country will often +be found a helpful guide through suggestions or through ability to refer +the questioner to reputable and informed persons with more definite +knowledge. + +Another source of information is the local dealer in farm supplies. He +will be found to know general soil types in the vicinity, especially those +types which bring business to him because they are productive. Owners of +such land are able to buy and use to advantage the supplies he has to +offer to the grower. + +_Size of Tract._--There is the possibility that a person who goes back to +the land may acquire too little land as well as too much. Inadequate land +resources may seriously hinder possibilities of revenue from the place and +cramp facilities for his enterprises. In this connection it may be +helpful to point out that an acre of land comprises 43,560 square feet. A +city lot measuring 50 by 100 feet contains 5,000 square feet. An acre +therefore would comprise about eight and one-half such city lots. A 5-acre +tract is usually a minimum area for a small agricultural enterprise and +many have found it entirely adequate. + +The size of the tract to be acquired and the enterprises that can be +engaged in will depend in considerable measure upon the size of the +occupant's family--whether they can assist in its operation and whether +the owner himself intends to put in all or only a part of his time. The +possibility of securing extra labor should also be looked into before +larger operations are attempted. No definite formula can be set down for +desirable area and enterprises in relation to time available for +operating. However, the owner will realize that one pair of hands can do +only so much work. To try to operate beyond the capacity of his own time +and that of others available is to become involved in striving to keep up +with exigencies that may make country life a struggle instead of a +pleasurable existence. It may result, too, in losses due to inability to +get things done on time, and nature deals harshly with those who neglect +the seasonable operations that come in any agricultural enterprise. +"Bulling through" or skimping or cutting corners simply will not work when +one is dealing with plant and animal life and only failure will come to +him who undertakes to bluff nature. + +The successful operator of a farming endeavor must always be on top of his +work, that is, able to plan and direct his energies in the most productive +way at the right time. This is really managing and is likely to lead to +success and satisfaction. To have so much to do that one emergency after +another must be met brings the operator down under his farming projects. +He ceases to manage under these conditions and becomes driven by his own +creations. To avoid this unhappy state, which is entirely unnecessary, +planning must be effectively done and operations undertaken in a gradual +way up to one's capacity. + +_Cost of Land._--The price one should pay for land in a relatively small +tract cannot be arbitrarily fixed. Those who own large farms or tracts +expect to receive a bonus for the acres located along a highway as +compared with an average price for the entire place. It should be possible +to buy a 5- or 10-acre tract of land in the open country with highway +frontage for from $150 to $250 an acre, depending on location. If the land +is located near town or city where speculative operations have enhanced +values, the cost will be considerably more. Where an entire farm is +desired, the buildings are frequently given no value, the cost being the +price of the land only. As has been stated, it is quite possible to +acquire too much land as well as too little. A few acres selected from a +tract of good, productive soil will usually be found a better investment +than a large farm that has been abandoned because of lack of fertility. + +_Accessibility to Cities._--In deciding upon the location of a farm, +methods of transportation that are available are as important as nearness +to cities. A location near a railroad station offers the possibility of +low commutation rates to a point of industrial or commercial employment. A +location abutting upon an improved highway means that transportation by +bus or by personally owned automobile can be utilized at the least expense +and trouble the year round. The recent development of bus lines covering +almost every main artery of travel offers facilities for quick and +economical transportation unknown to country residents even a few years +ago. Furthermore, the selection of a place of residence accessible to +transportation to and from it is a factor to be borne in mind in +connection with the possible resale of the property, should that at any +time be desirable or necessary. + +_The Soil._--The type of soil is a highly important factor in determining +upon location; also important is its crop-producing capacity. For all +general purposes, a soil which is loamy in texture is desirable. Types to +be avoided are the extremes of clay and sand. A heavy clay soil, +particularly where the land is in a depression, not only inhibits plant +growth of all kinds but is often undesirable as a place of residence from +the standpoint of healthfulness. A condition of extreme muddiness in wet +weather creates an unpleasant reaction on those forced to live near it. On +the other hand, areas which are so sandy in character as to furnish no +fertility for the growth of plants will be found undesirable in making the +surroundings of the home attractive and in growing the vegetables and +fruits which should constitute a part of the living. + +One method of judging the soil consists of examining the vegetation that +is already growing upon it and determining on that basis whether it is +likely to be favorable for the growth of desirable plants. For this +reason, the selection of a site during the growing season is recommended, +rather than during a dormant season when it is difficult to form an +estimate of the vegetation that the soil will support. + +_Availability of Electricity._--While it is possible to secure individual +electrical generating plants, it is far preferable to establish a home +where electric lines may be tapped. The obtaining of electrical energy +from a commercial line is desirable because of its greater dependability, +generally lower cost and the fact that unlimited use of electricity may be +obtained without the overloading that frequently occurs where individual +plants are set up. Probably the availability of public utility lines is +the greatest asset of comfortable country life and one of the most +important factors in creating genuine resale value. These lines bring to +the country dweller most of the advantages that are enjoyed by city +residents. This is true not only because of the advantages of electric +lights, but also because electricity makes possible the use of such modern +appurtenances to the home as electric refrigerators, washers, radios, +water pumps and various devices and machines for use in connection with +poultry keeping and vegetable growing. + +_Type of Buildings._--Especial attention should be given to the +adaptability to the buyer's needs of the residence and the other buildings +that may already be in existence. If the plot being considered is on a +main highway, it is highly desirable to have the residence located back +from the highway a hundred feet or more as a means of eliminating noise +and promoting safety especially if children are in the family. The +location of a home directly on one of the main arteries of traffic +destroys many of the advantages of country life, owing to the distracting +noises that accompany intensive truck and passenger traffic. + +The age of buildings and their previous care have a direct relation to +their value, particularly if they are of frame construction. If the +buildings have been standing for a number of years, full allowance must be +made for depreciation and repairs incident to weathering and long usage. +The actual investment represented in a building erected under war or +post-war conditions may not be in line with present values. In measuring +the value of the principal buildings that are already on a tract, careful +consideration should be given to the cost of replacement. Consideration +should be given also to the outbuildings that may be on such a place. +Instead of being an asset to the property, they may be a distinct +liability if they are not directly useful to the intending purchaser. From +the standpoint of economy of maintenance and generally good appearance, it +is much better to have one building serve a number of purposes than to +have a number on different parts of the property, adding to the cost of +maintenance and multiplying steps. + +_Educational Facilities._--Where there are children in the family, the +location of schools and the facilities which they offer should be +investigated by the prospective buyer. It is desirable to locate as near +to schools as possible. In recent years there has been a strong tendency +throughout the country to do away with local schools and to consolidate +educational facilities in one building. Coupled with this trend is the +free transportation of pupils to consolidated schools. Therefore, it is +highly important to locate either near a school which will be kept in +operation or where transportation facilities are available to and from the +home and the school. It should be said that the trend toward consolidation +of schools has carried with it great benefits to children who live in the +open country by affording them educational facilities that are not +exceeded by most city schools. + +_Community Advantages._--The community, in addition to educational +facilities that are available, should include those opportunities that +appeal especially to the family. The accessibility of the church of one's +preference should not be overlooked, and the general type of community +life is highly important too. Some communities are known for the +law-abiding proclivities of their residents while others do not have a +savory reputation from the standpoint of the peace and security of their +more respectable inhabitants. One should establish a residence in the +community with the thought that he is to become a factor in the life of +that community. He should be sure that there is a genuine spirit of +healthy and cooperative activity which constantly tends to upbuild the +neighborhood, by keeping out or suppressing undesirable elements and by +developing a concerted feeling of responsibility for the welfare of all +who live within its boundaries. + +A resident of a city moving to the country frequently finds a difference +in his neighbors' viewpoint that surprises him. There is, and must be, in +the rural community a closer relationship between the people in that +community than ever exists in an apartment dwelling in the city. In the +country, one's neighbors are apt to show a surprising amount of friendly +interest in one's doings, since the whole trend of the community is based +upon the actions and attitude of the relatively few people who live within +it. It should be repeated, therefore, that the type of community and the +facilities which the people of that community have developed should be +given careful attention by the prospective resident and he should +determine for himself whether the particular community that he has in +mind is in accord with his ideas and ideals. To be out of step with the +community in which one lives is apt to create dissatisfactions and a +critical attitude on both sides that is not conducive to happiness. + +A home in the country has more of the attributes of genuine ownership than +has a home anywhere else. The country home must be established with an +idea of permanence and of becoming really rooted in the soil where one +locates, if the true benefits of rural home ownership are to be secured. + + +_Do's_ + +Decide either on large farm or on house and small acreage. + +Determine accessibility at all times of the year. + +Purchase soil of loam texture, mixture of sand and clay. + +Determine whether electricity is available. + +Locate back from highway. + +If present buildings are to be used, be sure of their condition and need +of repair. + +Find out type and accessibility of schools and other community buildings. + +Prepare to be _of_ the community as well as _in_ it. + +Remember there are advantages of small tract over large farm where +available time is an important element. + +Use local sources of information as to desirability of tract before +purchasing. + +Work out a plan of management that fits into the time available for the +farm duties. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't overlook intrinsic values of the location, such as soil, low tax +rate and good neighbors. + +Avoid excessive capital outlay. + +Avoid extra heavy or extra sandy soils or evidently unproductive ones. + +Don't overlook advantages of electric light and power. + +Don't buy a place just because it has buildings. They may not be adapted +to your needs. + +Don't buy too much land. It can be a burden. + +Don't let the farm become your master. + +Don't pay too much for land. There is plenty of it. + + + + +_Chapter_ III + +FINANCING AND PROTECTING THE INVESTMENT + + +Acquiring land for residence and for subsistence calls for the exercise of +good business judgment. Not only must the site and general location be +acceptable to the family, but the investment involved should be within the +capacity of the owner to finance without undue strain on his resources. It +should be recognized that there will be ordinary living expenses to be met +in the country and perhaps some extraordinary demands resulting from +emergencies. Consequently, adequate thought and preparation must be made +for financing the investment and making sure, as far as that is possible, +that the investment in a country home will not be lost through inability +to meet possible contingencies. + +It goes without saying that the capital investment should be kept as low +as possible. Wherever feasible, the cash available should take care of the +full investment without the necessity for additional financing. This +reduces the drain upon resources through obviating the necessity of +meeting interest payments on mortgages and makes possible the use of any +surplus funds for improvement, for education and for giving the family the +advantages which country life offers. If it is necessary to borrow funds +for financing the purchase, special attention should be given to the type +of mortgage which is obtained. + +_Mortgage Financing._--One of the most desirable types of financing is +through a financially sound building and loan association whereby the +interest and the amortization of the mortgage are taken care of through +monthly payments. Such building and loan mortgages are available in most +localities throughout the country. A series of monthly payments can be +made which will take care of the interest payments and the mortgage itself +so that within a period of from ten to twelve years, in most cases, the +mortgage is amortized and the owner has the advantages of a home that is +free of encumbrance. For example, if the mortgage amounts to $3,000, +subscription to fifteen shares of a building and loan association at $1 a +share per month would make it possible to clear off the mortgage in about +eleven years. This would call for the payment to the association of $15 +per month and interest. Through the compounding of interest, the mortgage +can be lifted at less expense than any other procedure. + +Another satisfactory plan is to place the mortgage with a bank or +financing company or insurance company that will not call the mortgage so +long as the payments are met, and at the same time start saving through a +building and loan association so as to complete the payments over a series +of years. + +There is a far greater sense of security in having no mortgage or in +setting up a definite and practical procedure for eliminating it than in +always having a mortgage encumbrance with its interest payments and the +possibility of having it called at an inopportune moment. A home that is +free from mortgage can be carried at small cost, especially where the +owner is willing to make most of the repairs and attend to the upkeep +himself. The demand for outlay of cash for mortgage interest may be +financially embarrassing, especially where income is not guaranteed or may +be jeopardized through a drastic reduction at critical periods or as the +result of emergency expenses in the family, such as are entailed by +serious illness. + +_Taxes._--One of the factors that is frequently overlooked in the purchase +of a residence in the country is the cost of meeting taxes. Since taxes +must be met if the property is to be held, it is highly important that +the location be one in which tax rates are not excessive. On the other +hand, an exceedingly low tax rate may indicate lack of progressiveness in +the community and lack of facilities which from many angles would lessen +the value of the tract as a place of residence. In most localities, the +tax rate is based principally upon the costs of building and maintaining +highways and schools. Good facilities in both of these respects are highly +desirable, and yet excessive expenditures in either direction may so +advance the tax rate as to make them expensive luxuries. + +In many rural communities, taxing districts are burdened with the costs of +building monumental schools or a very elaborate system of roads, +undertaken at some time through the flotation of bond issues. The +establishment of a sinking fund for payment of interest and amortization +of these bonds frequently constitutes a very heavy drain upon the +residents of the district. It is, therefore, necessary to determine not +only the tax rate in the locality under consideration, but also to know +definitely what are the current charges for maintenance of government. +Taxing methods vary so widely, even in adjoining districts, that the only +method of determining the annual charges for taxes is to secure from the +present owner or from the local tax assessor the definite payments that +must be made. + +As a means of saving trouble later, an investigation should be made of the +property under consideration to make sure that taxes have been paid to the +date of purchase. This is distinctly the obligation of the owner. Unpaid +taxes constitute a lien on the property, and an investigation of the +status of the tax payments is essential in protecting the proposed +investment. + +_The Title and Survey._--A great deal of possible trouble can be +eliminated by making sure that the title is clear. An investigation should +be made along this line by an attorney or agency equipped to secure +information from appropriate county offices. Very often the owner has had +a recent search made and is willing to pass this on to the purchaser, thus +saving expense and delay in tracing back the records over a long period of +years. Such study will show whether there are encumbrances or liens of any +kind on the property, and these, of course, must be cleared up before any +transaction is entered into. + +The potential buyer should also have a survey made by a competent engineer +to definitely fix the boundaries of the property. Stakes can then be +placed, indicating the corners and any irregularities in the outline of +the area under consideration, showing the new owner exactly where his +property extends. In many sections of the country the buyer is in a +position to demand of the owner that such a survey be made at the owner's +expense. This survey is particularly important where an area of +considerable size has been cut up into parcels for sale to individuals. + +The steps that have been outlined to protect the investment are only those +which a prudent purchaser will insist upon before transfer of ownership +takes place. Frequently a buyer becomes so enamored with a property that +he hopes nothing will interfere with his acquisition of it, and he is apt +to mentally minimize the possibilities of a cloud on the title or the +exactness of the property lines. So many people have suffered serious +losses from failure to look thoroughly before leaping that emphasis is +given to these points as a means of securing ample protection for the +buyer. + +_An Income from the Investment._--It is presumed that in most cases the +owner of even a small tract expects to secure some financial returns from +the land as a means of adding to his income. The plan that is proposed as +a means of securing an income from the land should not be too complicated +and should be of a type that can be carried on when the owner is +necessarily engaged in other work. This, of course, may run the gamut from +a small home garden to supply the vegetable needs of the household to the +operation of a larger tract on a commercial basis. Furthermore, as we get +into the commercial type of production, that may be planned as a means of +materially supplementing an income or eventually supplying the entire +family income. + +Especial attention has been given in recent years to the use of poultry as +a means of supplying an income to the family which is willing to use its +own resources for taking care of the flock. Another means of securing an +income is the growing of vegetables and the sale of these vegetables at a +stand erected near the house for the convenience of the traveling public. +Many who engage in vegetable growing or egg production on a relatively +small scale will find an outlet for their products through associates in +some other line of work, who will be glad to buy from their country +friends on the basis of quality and freshness that may not be obtainable +through their community stores. + +It should be pointed out that where the area under cultivation is small, +the production must be intensive. In other words, it would be uneconomic +for the owner of a small tract to try to supplement his income through the +growth of staple crops. He must specialize in some particular phase of +agriculture, horticulture or animal industry that will bring the largest +possible net returns per acre even though that implies a considerably +larger labor cost per unit of operation than would be the case in the +growing of the staple crops, such as the cereals. The successful +production of vegetable crops or poultry products, for example, and their +successful merchandizing, rest primarily on the interest and the +adaptability of the individual. + +_Avoiding Causes of Failure._--To know what procedures to avoid is to be +fortified against failure and to be prepared to take advantage of those +constructive measures which are conducive to success. A recent survey has +been made in an eastern state on the causes of failure in farming, +frequently followed by necessitous abandonment of the farm and home. This +survey shows that one of the principal causes of failure is the effort to +manage a farm that is too large for the operator's capacity; his +inexperience and lack of knowledge constitute too great a handicap on a +large acreage. Best results can be secured in farming only by seeding, +cultivating and harvesting at the proper time in each case. To a greater +extent than is usually realized, success depends upon good management, +which means doing the things that need to be done at the right time. + +If the farm is large there is a necessity for employing hired labor, and +the costs of this labor, especially under inexperienced management, are +likely to be out of line with the value of the products raised. In many +instances the lack of technical experience can be corrected by dependence +upon governmental agencies, such as experiment stations, county +agricultural agents and departments of agriculture. These services are +available to every farmer, in most cases without cost, and all that he +needs is the will to avail himself of such expert help. In the cases of +farms that have been abandoned, we find that the operators did not make +contacts with dependable sources of information, an indication of the +necessity of cooperating with the agricultural agencies or with +experienced and successful neighboring farmers. + +Still another cause of failure lies in the purchase of a farm at a price +which requires the assumption of a mortgage which is too high in relation +to the income from the farm. In short, an attempt to operate on an +overcapitalized basis will, sooner or later, lead to disaster. Failure to +locate on a productive type of soil may easily lead to loss of the +investment. If the local conditions, including good roads, school +advantages and a healthy community spirit, are lacking, there will develop +a feeling of discouragement and mental dissatisfaction which destroys +morale and creates the desire to get out from under at any cost. + +_The Stocked Farm._--The question is frequently raised as to whether a +farm should be bought already stocked with work and domestic animals and +with farm equipment or whether it should be stocked by the operator +himself. This will depend, of course, upon the type of equipment which may +be available in the individual case. Sometimes fairly good equipment will +be sold with the farm as a means of facilitating a sale, but the value of +each item should be determined by someone experienced in prices of such +livestock or commodities as may be sold with the farm. + +In many cases the buyer has loaded himself with animals or equipment that +are ill adapted to the farm or that are of no particular value, and in +struggling to get along with them he may seriously handicap the efficiency +of his labors. In most cases it will be found a better practice to add +stock and equipment as the need becomes definite and the finances of the +operator make it possible for him to add them to the farm. In this way he +will be fairly sure of acquiring only those items which will be of direct +use and benefit to him and will avoid an accumulation of worn-out or +antiquated articles which will not meet the requirements he must observe +in selecting tools for his work. + +_Avoiding Fire Loss._--Possibility of loss by fire is an ever-present +reality to the owner of a country place. There are two methods of +preventing loss, and the observance of both will contribute to the peace +of mind of the owner. + +In the first place, he should make sure that adequate insurance is carried +on his buildings and equipment so that in case of loss through fire there +will be sufficient indemnity to permit the rebuilding of the destroyed or +damaged structures. Lightning heads the list of the causes of farm fires +and is frequently not reckoned with by urban residents who have seen +little evidence of its destructiveness. In cities, points of electrical +concentration are avoided by diffusion through piping, metal poles and a +number of other conductors of electricity. The owner of a country home can +secure quite complete protection from damage through lightning by the use +of electrical conductors, usually called lightning rods, properly +installed. Such equipment does away with 90 per cent of the risk caused by +lightning. + +In installing a system of lightning rods, it is well to observe a few +simple precautions. The most exposed parts of a building should be +provided with rods and the rod points should extend 3 to 4 feet above the +structure. Conductors from the rod point should go in the most direct line +possible to the ground and sharp bends in the conductors should be +avoided. One of the most essential precautions is to thoroughly ground the +conductors. Water pipes on the buildings furnish excellent grounding. The +grounds for the conductors must be deep enough in the soil to reach +permanent moisture. Lightning rods that are not properly constructed or +properly grounded may be a worse menace than if no such protection is +attempted. Specific methods of protecting farm buildings from lightning +damage can be secured from state agricultural agencies or from reliable +commercial firms which make a practice of erecting them. + +Another cause of fires lies in unsound chimney construction. By using care +and the proper materials in the building of chimneys, fire may be avoided. +Chimney bricks should be laid flat rather than on edge, thereby +practically eliminating the development of chimney cracks through which +sparks can escape into floor spaces, attics and roofs. + +Fire risks to residences and other buildings can be reduced by building +the roof of fireproof or fire-resistant materials. Wooden shingles, while +attractive and inexpensive, may become so dry at certain seasons of the +year as to furnish tinder for sparks that may rise from a brush fire or +from burning buildings in the vicinity. The use of slate or asbestos +shingles is recommended for roofs and there are other materials now on the +market which have fire-resistant qualities and can be safely utilized. +Flying sparks carried along on high winds constitute little menace to +those who have equipped their roofs with non-inflammable materials. + +It is important to see that electrical wiring has been properly installed, +and for this purpose it is safest to secure expert help. If the menace of +fire is properly evaluated by the owner, he will naturally take suitable +precautions to cope with it, both through utilizing adequate preventive +measures and through having available equipment to make possible the +smothering of accidental fires which may develop. The application of these +available common-sense methods of fire prevention will practically +eliminate the fire risk. An ounce of such prevention effort is to be +stressed rather than placing dependence on means of fire suppression after +the combustion occurs. + + +_Do's_ + +Keep capital investment as low as possible. + +If part of capital must be borrowed, select type of mortgage that can be +paid off most conveniently. + +Determine tax rate before buying. + +Make sure that title is clear and the property lines definitely fixed. + +If some income is expected, check on possibilities of location with that +in mind. + +Plan to secure income from intensive crop and animal projects, _e.g._, +vegetables and poultry. + +Use governmental aids to the fullest extent. + +Carry adequate insurance on buildings, equipment and furniture as +protection against fire loss. + +Install protection against lightning. + +Be sure electrical wiring is properly installed. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't become heavily involved with fixed financial obligations at outset. + +Avoid localities with heavy bonded indebtedness, resulting in excessive +taxes. + +Don't expect to get an income from growing staple crops such as grains. + +Don't become dependent on hired labor if it can be avoided. + +Avoid unproductive soil and top-heavy investment of capital. + +Don't buy a stocked farm unless the stock is adapted to needs and properly +valued. + +Don't neglect to take every precaution against fire. + +Don't forget chimney flues are potential risks. + +Avoid roofs of inflammable materials. + + + + +_Chapter_ IV + +ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE IN THE COUNTRY + + +The problem of selecting a home is always a serious one. Success in +choosing a satisfactory location and home in the country calls for careful +study and good judgment throughout the procedure. In urban centers many +services are taken for granted, such as water supply, sewerage, public +utility connections and delivery systems. The establishment of a home in +the country calls for the consideration of all these services. Some may +not be available and preparations must be made to do without them or to +set up such procedures as will take care of the family's needs on the +basis of the individual home. + +_The Rural Home._--To give the elements of satisfactory living under +modest circumstances, the country home should be so located and serviced +as to give the maximum of comfort and convenience for the money invested. +The location, type of construction and interior arrangement of the home +are important factors in attaining these objectives. + +Unless the location selected already has buildings on it which meet the +needs of the purchaser and his family, there will be the immediate problem +of building the home or remodeling the structure already in existence. In +recent years a great deal of attention has been given to rural homes, +stimulated no doubt by the very evident trend of population from the city +to the country. These homes should have attributes distinctly their own +and should harmonize with the purpose and the location in mind. A house +with lines that look well in town or city may be only a blot on the +landscape when set in the open country. Many excellent recommendations +have been made for country houses by the United States Department of +Agriculture, the President's Conference on Home Building and Home +Ownership (December, 1931) and by architects who have given this problem +the specific attention it deserves. + +In general, we may say that the exterior of the house should have simple +lines and should not be ostentatious or covered with inappropriate +decorative effects. This is especially the case where the house is +comparatively small and is located in the open country where there is a +simple and pleasing natural background. The country house should be low +and broad, rather than tall and narrow. The windows and doors should be +of a size and shape that will meet utilitarian requirements and be so +situated as to give a pleasing and attractive appearance to the whole +structure. The materials used should be selected to meet the needs of +economy in the original construction and should be of long-lasting type, +assuring economy in maintenance. + +_Essential Requirements._--In planning the house there are certain minimum +requirements which should be kept in mind. For example, the sleeping +facilities should include at least one bedroom for every two persons and +should contain not less than 100 square feet per room. All sleeping rooms +should be provided with cross ventilation, that is, with a window on each +of two sides, and sufficient closet or wardrobe space should be provided, +equipped with shelves and hangers for taking care of clothing. Ordinary +lighting facilities for each room include at least one window, with the +kitchen, living room and sleeping areas preferably having two. Windows +should be so placed as to permit direct sunlight to enter at least +three-fourths of the rooms. There should be daylight and artificial lights +on all work surfaces such as the stove, the sink, work tables and in the +family reading center. + +Especial attention given in advance to the kitchen will be more than +repaid by the convenience and efficiencies secured. There should be ample +built-in kitchen equipment for small and large utensils, kitchen tools and +linens. Ample lighting devices should be employed and step-saving +arrangements provided so as to eliminate as much effort as possible in +carrying out the daily duties that are conducted in this important part of +the country home. + +Where the funds available for construction or remodeling are limited, it +is important to know what the cost will be before the job is started. This +procedure calls for a plan which will show the exterior appearance, the +interior arrangement, and the cost of the completed job. Plans can be +secured from many sources in addition to those already mentioned. Persons +with architectural experience and ability may often be employed directly +to plan the house and to supervise its construction. If the prospective +builder wishes to select his own plans and to know in advance the complete +cost, he can secure from processors of lumber a catalog of plans which are +accompanied by costs of every item needed. Such processors cut the +material to fit at the factory and identify each piece so that the +mechanically minded man can do much of the work himself with help he may +employ. These companies will also quote prices on the cost of erection by +their own employees in addition to the cost of materials. The outlay +needed for lighting, plumbing and heating facilities can also be obtained +from the same source. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture_) + +A modest country home.] + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture_) + +Floor plans of house shown on opposite page.] + + +Another method of procedure is to draw a plan of the house that contains +the rooms considered necessary, submit such plans to a lumber merchant and +get quotations on costs of various types of material necessary to +construct it. Such construction will usually require the services of a +skilled carpenter and mason but permits of more latitude in most cases +than is available under a set building arrangement. + +_Types of Country Houses._--Illustrations of small houses suitable for the +country are shown on pages 8 and 44. The floor plans of these houses are +shown on the facing pages. There are many other types of small houses +adapted to use in the country and the selection of any one is largely a +matter of individual preference and ability to finance. + +Because of the variation in prices of material in different locations, the +kind and quality of material that the owner may desire and also the amount +of labor that may be furnished by the owner, it is difficult to give in +definite terms the cost of various types of buildings. Estimates of costs +of materials and construction may easily be obtained from contractors in +the vicinity. + +Simply with the idea of giving approximate costs, the Conference on Home +Building gives the following cost bases for building frame dwellings, +obtained roughly by multiplying the volume by the cost per cubic foot. +Naturally the cost will vary in different sections of the country, and the +level of artistry that is set up by the builder himself will be a factor. + +APPROXIMATE COSTS PER CUBIC FOOT FOR FRAME DWELLINGS + + ----------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- + | Southern | Northern + ----------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- + First recommended level--2, 3 or 4 rooms with | | + masonry base, fire-resistive flue, both sides| | + of studs covered, painted exterior, interior | | + finish. | *10-15¢ | *12-18¢ + Second level--Bathroom space, better finish | 12-18 | 15-21 + Medium level--5-6 rooms, with plumbing | 16-23 | 20-26 + Fourth level--Adequate standard plumbing and | | + hardwood floors | 19-27 | 23-30 + Fifth level--Comparable to better type of | | + middle-class city home | 25-35 | 28-35 + ----------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- + * The cheapest type of shelter (shack) may be built for perhaps half + this cost. + +_Pre-fabricated Houses._--The field of house construction has been +occupied almost exclusively by the individual architect or builder who has +wrought according to the general ideas of the intending occupant or the +real estate developer. When the plans are completed and approved, the +contractor assembles the necessary materials from local sources, builds +and equips the house and turns it over to the buyer in completed +condition. Under such a procedure there is little application of mass +production measures which have reduced costs and raised quality standards +in many industries, notably in automobile construction, for example. + +Thousands of houses built to sell in the recent construction era of the +1920's have proved unsatisfactory and costly to the occupants as the +result of shoddy building methods. Such methods seem to be typically +American as distinguished from the far more solid and permanent Old World +procedure. It now seems likely that the problem of economical and +substantial housing will be met in the method that is also +American--namely, by the pre-fabricated house to which various natural +resources of the country contribute. The parts of such houses are made +under mass production methods and easily assembled on the owner's lot. The +same idea can be applied with ease to apartment house construction in any +location. The first step in this direction has already been mentioned in +the case of mail-order companies which cut the lumber to fit and supply +every needed accessory to the last detail. + +The next step, and the one that bids fair to inaugurate an entirely new +house-building procedure, is now in the making, although as yet it is in +the experimental and testing stage. Examples of such construction made +their first public appearance at the Century of Progress Exposition at +Chicago in 1933. + +Materials that enter into the construction of these new-type houses +include steel, asbestos, aluminum and cement. As a rule, the buildings +have a steel frame erected on cement foundations and without a cellar; the +walls and partitions are of asbestos composition and the roof constructed +of steel sheets with aluminum insulation. Such a building is fireproof and +proof also against vermin, lightning, wind and earthquake. The house is +also adapted to and equipped with heating, lighting, plumbing and air +conditioning facilities. The whole building is pre-planned and +pre-fabricated as a unit with its component parts constructed under +economical and interchangeable mass production methods. + +Modifications of the construction above mentioned include the use of +sound-proofed steel panels or insulation board for partitions and walls +with an exterior of painted steel. Many other modifications are being +developed to insure individuality, stability, insulation and economy in +first cost and maintenance. The lines of most of these houses are severe +and modernistic in design, although decorative and unique effects are +easily obtainable. + +The costs of the complete house unit range from $600 for a one-room type +to $3,500 to $6,000 for a complete home of modest size. The principal +fabricators of these houses and their addresses are: General Houses, Inc., +Chicago, Illinois; American Houses, Inc., New York City; American Rolling +Mill Company, Cleveland, Ohio; American Radiator and Standard Sanitary +Company, New York City; Columbian Steel Tank Company, Kansas City, +Missouri, and National Steel Homes, Inc., Los Angeles, California. +Information on types and costs can be obtained by addressing these +companies. + +_Rural Home Life._--To have a successful experience in country life, one +must become identified with one's surroundings and become a part of the +community. Those who seek to establish a country residence simply as a +place from which to commute to city attractions will not only miss the +greatest asset in country living but will probably find this existence +unsatisfactory. To become interested in the growing plants and animals at +home, to do with one's own hands the things that make the home more +attractive and to develop a contact with the community that helps to +increase its normal activities mean the attainment of pleasure and +satisfaction so far beyond that obtainable in congested urban quarters +that there is no comparison. In many cases this direct affinity with one's +surroundings will come gradually and not always easily. It can be +cultivated and should be a part of the plan of every family expecting to +reside in the country. + +_Trees as Assets._--One of the greatest assets that can be secured in the +country is well-developed shade. If the house under consideration is +already built and has around it trees that serve as a softening and +beautifying factor, as well as for shade purposes, the value is decidedly +enhanced. If the home is to be newly built and a site is available where +trees are already well grown, the house can often be placed in the midst +of such trees, thereby gaining a number of years in the benefits that +trees give and for which there is no substitute. + +Few persons can resist the charm of trees. That they also have a definite +economic value is shown by the added desirability we all attach to an +attractively landscaped home where trees of various kinds and sizes +furnish the motif. In acquiring a place in the country the newcomer will +at once wish to plant trees, shrubs and ornamentals to beautify his +holdings. If this is carefully planned at the beginning, succeeding years +and a little care will add to the attractiveness and intrinsic value of +the home. The saying, "a house is not a home until it is planted," has a +great deal of truth behind it. Most nurserymen will be glad to render +assistance in properly planning and setting the ornamental landscaping of +the home, helping the owner avoid mistakes and costly movings and +replacements later. + +_Commercial Horticulture._--In addition to the plantings around his home, +the owner of a few acres can at slight expense start small trees for later +ornamental use or for sale at a roadside stand, for example. Such small +trees and ornamental plants can often be purchased at wholesale prices +from nursery companies which have "laying out" stock, as it is called, for +sale. The standard large-growing evergreens and deciduous shade trees can +be thus transplanted to one's own acres, as can the popular dwarf types of +evergreens and flowering shrubs. These may be planted in one area where +they can be cared for as a growing crop, or they may be planted in groups +for beautifying the premises while they are growing. Again, single plants +may be set by themselves and given special attention, later becoming +"specimens" which are much in demand by admirers of the species. + +An appreciation of tree habits can be thus developed by all the members of +the family, and considerable income may be obtained in later years, as +the trees become "of age," through their sale. We are entering upon an era +of making homes attractive as places in which to live and not as houses to +go away from. All forms of plant life that contribute to this end will be +admired and sought after in the years to come. + + +_Do's_ + +Give special consideration to location, type of construction and interior +arrangement. + +If building a home, select a type that fits surroundings. + +Strive for simplicity of lines and full utilization of every cubic foot of +space. + +Remember pre-fabricated houses are practical and likely to supplant some +other types of construction. + +In buying a pre-fabricated house, be sure plans and construction fit needs +of family and materials used are adapted to the climatic conditions. + +Give special attention to convenience and cheerfulness of kitchen. + +Develop a plan of planting ornamental plants and trees to be carried out +in due course. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't try to build a city house in the country. + +Don't neglect windows in number or size. + +Don't overlook costs of completed job before commencing building or +improvements. + +Don't neglect the asset value of trees. + + + + +_Chapter_ V + +SERVICING THE HOME + + +Many types of services are available to the country home owner, including +rural mail delivery, the telephone and electricity. Rural mail delivery in +particular is so common that, on practically every highway, mail service +is secured by the placing of a mail box along the highway at the entrance +to the residence. Telephone service is available along practically all the +main-traveled highways and on a majority of the other types of roads. +Where the lines are not already installed, extensions may be obtained to +new locations, and this is facilitated when more than one residence is to +be served by the same line. The majority of families accustomed to city +conveniences will want to have electricity available so as to use electric +lights and the labor-saving devices that are operated by electric power. +With the expansion that has taken place in the development of rural +electric lines in recent years, there is not a great deal of difficulty in +getting a location which will give the housewife the advantages that +electricity offers. + +Telephone service and electrical facilities may fall into the class of +luxuries for those with limited resources. It may be pointed out in this +connection that millions of farm homes are still using petroleum products +for lighting purposes and are finding it no hardship. Practically all +would, of course, use electricity if it were available and financially +possible. The new home owner in the country will find it advantageous to +locate where electric service is obtainable. + +Other services for the country residents are pretty largely up to the +owner as to their utilization and type. It is necessary, of course, to +have an ample water supply, to maintain sanitary conditions through +sewerage of some description, to provide a method of heating the home +during cold weather and to provide storage facilities for food during the +dormant season. + +_The Water Supply._--Perhaps the most important attribute of the country +home is an adequate supply of water. This is particularly true where +families have been accustomed to utilizing municipal water supplies which +are safe and pure as to quality and unlimited in amount. In most country +homes it is necessary to construct a water-supply system, which means +reaching a supply of underground water, pumping it to the surface and +piping it to locations where it is wanted. Higher standards of living +create new and increased demands for water. + +Water for domestic use should be clear, colorless, odorless, soft, neither +strongly acid nor alkaline, with a temperature averaging 50 degrees +Fahrenheit. Such water supplies can be obtained in nearly every section of +the country. Hot water is necessary in every home and there must be a +heater of some type, using coal, petroleum products, natural or artificial +gas or electricity for fuel. For this purpose a hot-water storage boiler +or tank must be installed. + +_The Dug Well._--A dug well is one of the older types of wells. It should +be large enough in diameter to permit ingress and egress to all parts of +it for repairs or for cleaning. Most dug wells require cleaning +occasionally, due to the entrance of dirt at the top and to the washing in +of clay and silt with the ground water. Many of these wells contain +harmful gases which have proved fatal to those entering them. Before an +attempt is made to clean such a well or to make any repairs, a lighted +candle should be lowered into it. If the candle is extinguished, it will +be dangerous to enter until the well has been thoroughly ventilated. + +A dug well will vary in depth from 20 to 60 feet, depending upon the +distance it is necessary to dig for an adequate supply of water. Types +of pumping apparatus are on the market to cope with any depth in digging +such a well. If dug wells are shallow, the water supply depends very +largely upon current rainfall and in times of prolonged drouth there may +be a serious shortage. Fairly deep wells of this type are usually very +satisfactory and will supply surprisingly large amounts of water when the +demand is made upon them. + + +[Illustration: Well drilling--an early step in locating in the country. In +the foreground may be seen part of the excavation for the house.] + + +_Artesian Water Supply._--Artesian wells have distinct advantages over dug +wells although they are more expensive to construct. The water from such +wells is absolutely pure and it never fails. This is because subterranean +streams have been tapped which are not subject to possible surface +contamination, nor are they dependent upon showers for replenishment. + +Special power apparatus is necessary for constructing an artesian or +drilled well. The drilling costs from $3 per foot up, depending upon the +nature of the subsoil and whether rock is encountered. Unless such a well +has been drilled in the immediate vicinity it is not possible to hazard +even a guess as to when water will be struck. The consolation that such an +undertaking has for the owner is in knowing there will be no doubt as to +quantity or purity when the strike occurs. + +_Water Pumps._--Pumps are now available which operate automatically by +electricity and constantly supply the home with fresh water drawn from the +earth as needed. The requirements for the pump and the motor will vary +with the depth of the well and the water requirements of the family. In +all such cases, therefore, it is desirable to call in for consultation +engineers or competent representatives of pump manufacturers or +distributors. It should be borne in mind that adequacy of supply is most +important and that economy in first cost, achieved at the sacrifice of an +adequate supply, may be a definite handicap to necessary home services. + +_Heating Facilities._--The type of heating apparatus that is used will +depend upon the size of the house and its arrangement as well as upon the +funds available. The simplest type of heaters are those which do not have +a complete system of extending radiation through the home but depend upon +circulation of the air within the house to equalize the temperature. In +deciding upon the type of apparatus, it is necessary to make sure that the +system is as low in original cost as possible; that it will probably have +a long life, thereby spreading the first cost over a period of years; that +it be economical in operation through efficient consumption of fuel, and +that the system be easily controlled. The health of the family and the +ability to live in a satisfactory manner will depend to a considerable +extent upon the method of heating the home, especially in cold climates. + +Particular care should be taken to make sure that whatever type of heating +is employed is adequate in size. It is more economical to operate a heater +that is somewhat oversized than to "rush" one which cannot easily maintain +a comfortable temperature in cold weather. Heating engineers and +contractors are available to furnish information on heating costs in every +locality. The generally used types of heating include stoves, circulator +heaters, warm air, hot water and steam systems, and fireplaces. +Specialists of the United States Department of Agriculture have developed +a great deal of information to enable the home owner to cope with the +heating problems in a practical manner. It is estimated by the department +that if a two-pipe hot-water system for a six-room house costs $500, the +other systems for the same house ordinarily would cost about as follows: + + Two-pipe vapor system $600 + One-pipe steam system $400 + A piped warm air furnace $260 + Pipeless furnace $140 + Circulator heater or stove $ 60 + +Of course, these systems vary in efficiency and in providing comfort as +much as they vary in cost, but these estimates will provide the home +owner with an idea of the outlay for taking care of the heating problem. + +The ability to maintain a satisfactory temperature depends as much upon +the construction of the house as upon the heating apparatus itself. Heat +is readily lost through walls, roofs and windows. Most houses can be made +more comfortable at small cost by applying insulation or by correcting +defects in construction. The use of storm doors or storm vestibules where +doors are frequently opened to the out-of-doors will prevent drafts and +conserve heat. Metal weather stripping is the most effective means of +preventing air leaks around windows and doors and making the entire house +weather-tight. + +The fuel that is used will depend upon the type of furnace and the +relative prices prevailing for different kinds. Recent developments in oil +heating bring this fuel in close competition from the standpoint of +economy with coal or coke. Oil is particularly adaptable as a source of +fuel in homes in the country since tank trucks can readily deliver oil to +the home owner. Improvements in securing the maximum efficiency from all +types of fuel are being developed continually; and there are now on the +market furnaces, using anthracite or bituminous coal as fuel, which offer +many advantages that were unknown to older types. + +_Fireplace Construction._--An open fireplace where wood can be used as +fuel is a great source of satisfaction and pleasure, as well as a comfort, +in country homes. Wood of proper length for fireplace burning can be +readily secured in the country and there is ample room for storing it. +Where the house is small in size, such wood fires can be used for heating +the house satisfactorily in spring and fall and can be used to supplement +other types of heating when desired. + +No country home can be considered complete without a fireplace. The +comfort and homelike atmosphere that it gives make it a general asset for +the enjoyment of the family circle. Fireplaces should be constructed so as +to insure a good draft with a maximum of heat radiation. It is desirable +to build in the fireplace flue a damper which can be open when the fire is +burning and can be shut when it is desired to keep heat from escaping from +the room via the chimney. It is also a convenience to have a trap opening +placed in the back of the fireplace on the floor so that ashes may be +removed in this manner, eliminating the labor of carrying them from the +fireplace. + +_Sewerage of Farm Homes._--All wastes from the farm home coming under the +term of sewage should go direct to a septic tank. Here the sewage is held +in a quiet state for a period of time, and through bacterial processes, +the organic matter is destroyed. A septic-tank installation consists of +four parts: first, the house sewer from house to tank; second, the sewage +tank, consisting of one or more chambers; third, the sewer from tank to +distribution field; fourth, the distribution field where the sewage is +distributed, sometimes called the absorption field. Plans for sewerage +construction may be obtained from state and local boards of health and +from federal health and agricultural agencies. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_) + +An adequate sewage disposal plant is essential and inexpensive. A +practical one is shown here.] + + +The Rural Engineering Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment +Station recommends that the septic tank have a capacity adequate to hold +all the water used by the family for two entire days. For a family of six +persons the inside dimensions of the tank should be 4 feet in width with a +length of 4 feet in the first chamber and 3 feet in the second chamber. +The depth of water should be 4 feet, giving the tank a capacity of over +600 gallons, thus allowing 100 gallons for each person during the +forty-eight-hour period. The entire tank will be 4 feet wide, 8-1/2 feet +long and 6-1/2 feet deep. + +Septic tanks are usually built of solid concrete, concrete blocks or +brick, waterproofed on the inside to prevent escape of the contents except +through the outlets described. These outlets should be 100 to 150 feet +away from any source of water supply to prevent contamination of potable +water. + +Leading from the outlet of the second chamber, several lines of tile 10 to +14 inches in depth should be laid at a gentle slope away from the tank, +permitting escape of the effluent at each joint. For a family of six +persons a total length of 150 feet of tile pipe will be sufficient in most +types of soil. + +_Food Storage._--Every country home should have a basement in which a room +can be set apart for cold storage. Such a place is suitable for keeping +supplies of potatoes and other root crops, as well as commodities that +deteriorate under conditions of warmth. Surplus supplies of food from the +garden can be placed in such storages and be readily available for use +during the winter. With the surplus of perishable food products in cans +and with a good supply of non-perishable products in such a type of +storage room, economies in food purchase can be effected and the +healthfulness of the family maintained through their use when fresh +products are difficult to secure or are unseasonable and expensive. + +If a basement is not available for food storage, root crops can be stored +outside the house and kept during the winter. These products should be +piled in a heap, covered with straw or other clean, loose material and +the mound then covered with earth. In this manner, potatoes and similar +crops can be kept throughout the winter and until late in the spring +without serious deterioration. It is important to select a site for such +outdoor storage that is well drained so that water will not collect and +freeze in the storage area. + +_Services Available to the Country Resident._--Public agencies are +available for help in solving the problems of country residents, varying +from agricultural and horticultural practices to building construction, +water supply and sewage disposal. As a rule, these services are of advice +and suggestion, are free of cost and may be utilized freely by those +living in the country. + +Most of the counties in the United States have a county agricultural +agent, who is located at the county seat and whose territory covers only +the county in which he resides. The costs of such service are paid by +federal and state appropriations, frequently supplemented by county +appropriations, and also frequently through annual individual +subscriptions. The county agricultural agent is really a field +representative of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the +state agricultural college in the state where he works. There is hardly a +problem of the country resident for which he cannot obtain aid from the +county agricultural agent. In many of the more thickly populated areas the +problems of the family getting a location on the land for a home are +already well known to the agricultural agent and he is therefore in a +position to guide the newcomer and help him to prevent mistakes. + +In many counties there is also a home economics service connected with the +office of the county agricultural agent and supported in the same general +manner. This service, along the lines which the name implies, is available +to the country home maker. Groups of women are organized and meet at +intervals for discussions on food preparation, canning and storage and the +making of clothing for the family. + +In nearly every state there is a state department of agriculture with +regulatory and promotional activities and dealing especially with law +enforcement provisions passed by the respective legislatures. These +agencies are also concerned with development of marketing facilities in +many states. They are supported by state and federal funds and carry on +such projects as the testing of cattle for tuberculosis, treatment in +prevention of communicable animal diseases and the control of insect and +fungous pests through quarantine and inspection activities. These +departments are located at the state capitols and information on the +services available can be secured by addressing the department in the +state where one resides. + +Because there is a lack of understanding among newcomers to the country of +the services that are available through these agencies without cost, this +particular mention of them is made. It is recommended that each family get +in touch with the county agricultural agent, the college of agriculture +and the department of agriculture and learn definitely of the help that +can be secured without cost in meeting the problems of country life. + +_Electric Wiring Principles._--Public utilities are organized to furnish +electric service and it will be found that they are ready to assist +customers in securing the most satisfactory use of electricity. Such +knowledge, based on experience, will be valuable in helping owners to +avoid costly mistakes and to provide for a wiring system that will be +economical and yet complete. When the plans and specifications of the +wiring system have been worked out, it is important to secure bids from +reliable contractors. Only those contractors who can do the work in a +capable manner should be employed and it should be determined in advance +that the installation will be in strict compliance with the National +Electrical Code. For wiring work it is necessary to know the number of +amperes the wire is to carry. This may be determined by dividing the load +in watts by the voltage which is to be used. + +The service lateral is a system of wires which form a path over which +electricity is carried from the main line to the house. This is generally +built by the utility company and its cost will depend upon the distance of +the residence from the main line and whether the owner furnishes poles, +labor, etc. + +Wires should be of such size as to give sufficient mechanical strength to +stand up under sleet conditions. Usually three entrance wires are used to +carry the electric energy from the utility connection to the house. The +lateral is the electrical doorway to the farm and is the most essential +part of the wiring system. The wires should be of adequate size so as to +provide proper voltage and give complete electrical service for all +ordinary requirements of current. + +It is important to see that the electrical equipment is properly +"grounded," that is, the connecting to earth of certain metallic objects +which are near power conductors. The purpose is to carry to the earth any +heavy electrical charge which might exist on such objects and cause +electrical shocks when they are touched. Grounding may be secured by +connecting with water pipes that reach some depth under ground, or driven +pipe may be used as a means of securing intimate contact with moist earth. + +Recommendations for outlets from the electrical wires in the house call +for centering ceiling lighting outlets, and placing wall brackets about +5-1/2 feet above the floor. Convenient outlets in the kitchen and bathroom +should be about 33 inches above the floor. In other locations they are +usually best placed in the baseboard. Wall switches are usually located 4 +feet above the floor. A switch should be located at each door to a room or +entrance to a hall and in many cases three-way switches can be used to +advantage, since these afford control over the same lighting from two +separate locations. + +With these general observations on a rather complicated subject, most of +which are based on the excellent recommendations of the National Committee +on the Relation of Electricity to Agriculture, the home owner should be in +a position to take care of his needs properly, bearing in mind that the +system of wiring should be adequate in every respect and the number of +outlets sufficiently numerous to provide easy and convenient service +throughout the house. An official check-up should be made of all +installations after completion. The method of securing such inspection +can be obtained through a local electrical contractor. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_) + +Ground floor plan of a house, showing the number, the type, and the +location of electrical current outlets.] + + +_Tank Gas Supply._--A service of supplying compressed gas in portable +tanks has recently been developed for country homes located away from +public gas lines. This gas can be used either with a specially adapted +range which is supplied as part of the service or in some cases with an +ordinary gas range. Companies offering this service are located in most +cities and are understood to be willing to supply residences anywhere with +gas. The cost of first installation of the system is about $40. Renewals +cost approximately $12 per cylinder of gas. Each cylinder will supply a +family of four with gas for three to four months, making a monthly bill of +from $3 to $4, which compares favorably with artificial gas supply through +a meter from pipe lines. This gas may be used for any purpose for which +any other gas is adapted. The gas and the servicing of it constitute a +boon to country residents from the standpoint of utility and economy. It +is especially desirable for those previously accustomed to city gas +supplies and to whom the use of any other type of fuel is strange and +somewhat of a problem. + + +_Do's_ + +Remember that important service factors include mail delivery, telephone, +electricity, water supply and sewage disposal. + +Be sure of adequate water supply of good quality. + +Obtain artesian water supply wherever possible. + +Provide for such heating facilities as the budget can stand. + +Select the heating system in relation to fuel costs. + +Make sure that the sewerage system is adequate for waste disposal. + +Use fully such governmental agencies as county agents, home demonstration +agents, experiment stations and agricultural colleges, state and federal +departments of agriculture. + +Provide storage space for surplus food products. + +Remember electric wiring requires skilled workmanship. + +Investigate advantages and costs of tank gas as a cooking fuel. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't forget that services automatically available to urban residents must +be planned for in the country. + +Don't neglect construction defects that prevent full benefits from heating +system. + +Don't overlook the advantages of a well-built fireplace. + +Don't install electrical service without full attention to principles of +convenience, safety and economy involved. + + + + +_Chapter_ VI + +MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS + + +There are many treatises available that deal with the soil, its +composition and its treatment. No attempt will be made here to go +exhaustively into that subject. There are a few fundamental factors, +however, which the potential owner should know regarding soil treatment, +for that is the base upon which he will build his income-producing +operations. + +The particles of soil have had their genesis in rock. The rock has become +disintegrated and decomposed through natural processes. The action of the +weather is the most important factor in creating soil. Water falling on +rock not only wears it away mechanically, but through certain mild acid +elements which it acquires, disintegrates the binding materials that hold +rock segments together. In addition, there is the action of frost and +freezing, too, making the moisture in rock expand and contract and thereby +causing the breaking down of the segments. With this action is coupled +that of hot suns which cause expansion and breaking up of the rock as it +becomes heated and cooled under atmospheric influence. + +A great deal of the soil surface in many sections of the country is the +result of glacial action. These glaciers not only eroded the surface, +thereby creating millions of rock particles, but they also carried large +deposits of the rock particles to more distant areas and deposited them +over a subsoil that may be totally different in character from the surface +soil thus deposited. + +_How Tillable Soil Is Made._--The action of plants themselves has a great +effect in adding to our supply of tillable soil. Seeds of plants or seeds +of trees become established in some slightly weathered rock areas and +begin to grow. The roots penetrate wherever there is any loose soil, and +partly by their pressure and partly through the acidity accompanying +decomposing plant tissue, complete a further breaking down of the rock. +There is a continuous process of destruction of rocks and leveling off of +mountains and hills to fill the valleys below. + +Many groups of deep-rooted plants tend to increase the depth of the +surface soil by growth of the roots in the subsoil and by creating therein +a condition approaching that which already exists on the surface. The +action of earth worms and similar forms of life in bringing subsoil to +the top and in opening channels through which water and surface air can +penetrate constitutes another continually operating force in the creation +of a productive soil. A deeper layer of productive soil can also be +created through a plan of consistently deeper plowing, bringing up with +each annual plowing operation a small portion of subsoil which, when mixed +with the surface soil, tends to become like it. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Department of Conservation and +Development_) + +Soil is created from rock by nature's weathering processes and by plant +growth. At the bottom may be seen solid rock; just above are +disintegrating rock fragments, and at the top, the soil.] + + +Every type of real soil contains all the elements of plant growth. This +plant food results from a breaking down of soil particles and the setting +free of chemical elements which, either singly or in combination, serve as +food for plants. + +Whatever the type of soil may be, it will be found that certain crops will +make better growth in it than others. As a general rule, it may be said +that the only way to determine which plants will grow best on a given soil +is by the trial-and-error method. However, by observation of the growth on +similar types of soil we can learn something of a soil's crop +adaptability. There are some crops that will grow in almost any soil and +there are others that need an exactness of texture, moisture and plant +food which makes them highly specialized products. The operator must learn +how to work in harmony with the peculiarities of his own soil before he +can hope to get the best results. + +In acquiring a tract for the growing of plants of any kind it is desirable +to get a soil type that will meet the requirements of most plants. As a +general rule, this type contains enough clay to be retentive of moisture, +enough sand to be easily worked and is generally suitable for bacterial +growth. In other words, what is commonly called a loam is the ideal type +for general agricultural and horticultural purposes. This may be a heavy +loam, in which clay predominates, or a so-called light loam, in which sand +particles predominate. An examination of a handful of soil by a person +experienced in farming will indicate its nature and its adaptability to +ordinary crop production. + +_Essential Elements of Plant Food._--Countless scientific experiments in +plant growth show that potassium, lime, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, +sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are essential to normal +development. The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements make up nearly 99 +per cent of the entire composition of the plant and are derived from the +atmosphere. All of the other elements are derived from the soil except in +the case of peas, beans, clovers and other legumes which secure most of +their nitrogen from the air. + +The mineral elements are not needed in large amounts but well-balanced +plant growth is strictly dependent upon their presence in available form. +Of these elements, those most likely to be deficient either in total +amount or in availability are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. +It is entirely feasible and economical to apply concentrated chemical +fertilizers containing the first three elements so that their lack will +not constitute a limit to size of crops harvested. In many cases it is +necessary to apply chemical fertilizers to get satisfactory yields, even +where natural manures are available and can be applied as well. + +In addition to supplying essential plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus and +potassium perform specific functions in plant growth. The application of +nitrogen in one of its readily available forms (e.g., nitrate of soda and +sulphate of ammonia) will stimulate vegetative growth. If too much of this +one element is applied, leaf and branch development may occur at the +expense of the crop. Good results follow the use of nitrogen on grass sods +and on leafy vegetables like spinach. On the other hand, corn, peas, beans +and other seed-forming crops need to have the nitrogen balanced with +phosphorus. Potatoes, in common with other tuber and root crops, will +utilize plenty of potassium in the development of starch. + +_Sources of Plant Food._--Chemical fertilizers can be purchased at supply +stores in ready mixed condition and of analyses that will meet general +crop needs. A good formula for such a general purpose fertilizer is 4 to 5 +per cent nitrogen, 7 to 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 to 10 per cent +potash to the ton. It is known that such a mixture will supply the food +needs of a large variety of plants in balanced amounts. Highly +concentrated mixtures are now on the market providing double the amount of +plant food in the example quoted, costing nearly twice as much but +effecting a saving by cutting in half the material handled to get the same +result. Care should be taken, in using these highly concentrated +fertilizers, to avoid contact with tender roots. A mixture for general +farm and garden purposes may contain the following ingredients: + + 100 pounds nitrate of soda + 230 pounds sulphate of ammonia + 250 pounds animal tankage (7 per cent nitrogen) + 1,140 pounds superphosphate (16 per cent phosphoric acid) + 280 pounds muriate of potash (50 per cent potash) + ----- + 2,000 pounds. + +This mixture will have a formula of 4-9-7 (4 per cent nitrogen, 9 per cent +phosphoric acid and 7 per cent potassium). The individual who wishes to +mix his own fertilizer may do so by purchasing the finely ground +ingredients separately, and by means of a shovel, integrate them all into +a mixture. Home mixing will not be found profitable where small amounts of +fertilizer are used. Those who practice home mixing for the first time +should realize that most combinations of ingredients will "set" or harden +if not used immediately, necessitating the breaking up and pulverizing of +the mass. When it is broken up after curing, no further difficulty should +be experienced with "setting" if the mixture is kept in a dry place. The +advantages of home mixing for the large user lie in lower cost per ton of +plant food as a rule; confidence in the quality of the ingredients which +he should purchase on the basis of guaranteed analysis; and the setting up +of a mixture which study of his soil and the plant requirements has +convinced him is best suited for his individual case. + +_Chemical Soil Analysis Not Helpful._--There is a mistaken notion that it +is necessary to analyze soils chemically in order to fertilize them +intelligently. Such an analysis of a reasonably fertile soil will show the +presence of the essential elements of plant food, though perhaps not all +in sufficient amounts, to produce ordinary crops for centuries to come. +Only a small amount of the elements become available for root absorption +each year and a chemical analysis will not bring out this most important +factor--availability. The use of a few simple tests, mainly of a physical +nature by a competent soils specialist, will prove of some assistance in +the treatment of the soil. Such tests will show the presence of adequate +amounts of humus, and indicate the acidity content. The soil texture will +give some index of its crop adaptability and thereby serve as a basis for +fertilizing treatment that will meet the needs of both soil and crop. The +practical man will not expect any considerable aid from a highly technical +and costly chemical analysis of his soil. + +Another factor that militates against worth-while benefits of chemical +soil analysis is the great variation in soil types frequently occurring in +the same field. To attempt to draw a representative sample by mixing soil +from several areas might result in a specimen that would not be really +typical of any area. For the purpose of ordinary physical examination and +testing for acidity, representative soil samples should be taken from +several parts of the same soil type, mixed together and a composite sample +for testing drawn from the mixture, weighing not less than a pound in each +case. If the soil is quite apparently variable it may be necessary to draw +two or more composite samples from the same area. Very helpful service in +intelligent soil treatment may be secured from the county agricultural +agent and the state college of agriculture in the county or state of +residence. + +_Legumes as Soil Improvers._--A means of soil improvement that is well +understood by progressive farmers is the use of legumes to improve the +soil. The legumes include a large family of plants of which the bean, the +pea and the clovers are outstanding examples. Such plants have on their +roots nodules which house nitrogen-gathering bacteria. These bacteria +absorb nitrogen from the air in the soil and, in the ordinary process of +growth, death and decay, make this nitrogen available to the host plants, +leaving a residue in the soil for the roots of plants that are to follow. +Thus this group of plants, known as legumes, have been used for +generations as a method of increasing the nitrogen content of soils. +Nitrogen, incidentally, is the most costly element to buy in commercial +fertilizers. The soil-improving benefits of legumes may be secured by +growing them either for harvest as a source of animal food or for plowing +under as a means of utilizing them entirely for the development of soil +fertility. + +In reading of the studies of soil fertility that were made by George +Washington at Mount Vernon, we learn of the improvement that he made in +the relatively poor soils of that area by growing plants of the legume +family. The actual reason why such improvement was brought about was not +known in Washington's time, but the results were apparent. Today, the +value of legumes as soil builders is well recognized and we understand +much more definitely than Washington did the reasons for their being so +helpful in increasing crop production. + +Many soil areas do not contain the particular type of bacteria necessary +to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes. This is frequently the +cause of failure in growing alfalfa, soybeans, cowpeas and less well known +members of the legume family. Each legume has its own type of +nodule-forming bacteria. In order to assure the presence of the proper +bacterial family, means often must be employed to add them to the soil +where the specific crop is to be grown. This may be accomplished by adding +soil from an area where the legume does well to the new area, or the seed +may be inoculated with commercial cultures before seeding. Either method +is effective. If soil is used it should be drilled in or spread on a +cloudy day to prevent the destructive action of the sun's rays on the +exposed minute forms of plant life we call bacteria. + +If it is not known that the legume to be planted has been grown +successfully in a given field within the previous several years, the +precaution of adding the proper bacteria should be taken. In some +sections, such legumes as red, alsike, crimson and white clovers have been +grown for many years and the bacteria for these plants are well +distributed. There, inoculation is not necessary for these crops, but it +probably should be practiced if other legumes such as alfalfa, cowpeas or +soybeans are to be grown on land for the first time. + +_The Value of Humus._--In addition to the chemical elements of plant food, +all productive soils contain decaying vegetable matter, generally +classified under the term "humus." Humus serves as a source of +acid-generating material which further breaks down soil particles and, +most important of all, serves as a food for millions of microscopic plants +which develop and die quite beyond the scope of human vision. These +constitute a type of bacteria which are distinctly beneficial and +essential to human life since they make possible the growth of larger +plants that serve as human food. + +Green plants, straw or leaves, when plowed under or spaded in the soil, +are attacked by bacterial agencies which gradually turn these products +into humus. The same process occurs when a "compost" is set up. This is +made of leaves, manure, soil, straw and other materials thrown into a +heap and allowed to decay. Such compost is excellent for placing around +plants when setting them out, since it holds moisture, supplies fertility +and creates optimum conditions for young root growth. Under practical +field conditions, humus may be added to soils by spreading animal manures, +followed by plowing them down, or by the growing of heavy green crops such +as wheat, rye, cowpeas or vetch and turning the entire mass under with the +plow when they are at their height. + +_Lime and Its Application._--Reference has been made to the fact that +calcium is an essential plant food and is frequently deficient in soils. +As a matter of fact, the great majority of soils are deficient in calcium +and their productiveness is inhibited thereby. Lime supplies calcium and +also magnesium as food for plants. Its application accomplishes many other +desirable things such as correcting soil acidity. The growth of beneficial +bacteria is greatly stimulated in a soil that has had its acidity +neutralized by the application of lime. This product, therefore, creates a +more congenial condition for the growth of bacteria, which, in turn, make +for better crop production. Lime is also beneficial through furnishing the +element calcium with which other plant foods combine chemically and +thereby become soluble in the soil water. Unless plant foods are in a +state of solution, they cannot be absorbed by plant roots. Lime is a +potent force in creating chemical reactions in the soil, resulting in the +stimulation of growth through increased absorption of essential elements +in solution. + +Lime also benefits soils of a clayey nature through its ability to cement +together the fine clay particles and in that way create air spaces so +greatly needed in tight clay soils. Lime is beneficial, too, in the case +of soils which have a large proportion of sand or large particles, and +serves as an agent in creating a better condition of tilth and of moisture +retention. + +It makes little difference in what form lime is applied. It may be +purchased and applied in the form of ground limestone, a rock rich in +calcium which has been mechanically ground to a very great degree of +fineness. It can also be applied in the form of hydrated lime. This is +obtained by heating ground limestone and slaking it by adding water. A +common example of this is the slaking of lime for whitewashing purposes. +Another good source of lime is finely ground shells of oysters or other +forms of sea life which collect the calcium from sea water and deposit it +in their shells. + +_Adjusting the Water Content of Soils._--Aside from the supplying of water +by irrigation, a rather costly process under most conditions, the water +resources of most soils can be greatly increased by adding to their humus +content. Humus, which, it has been pointed out, is decaying vegetable +matter, serves as a sponge for the absorption of soil water and for +underground water supplies. Therefore, the more humus that can be plowed +into the soil, other conditions being equal, the greater is the ability of +the plants growing in that soil to withstand drouth. As soils are +cultivated, the tendency is for the humus to become "burned out" and to +have a reduced moisture-holding capacity. To overcome this tendency, it is +necessary to add vegetable matter to the soil whenever it is possible. +Incidentally, the incorporation of large quantities of humus in the soil +creates a condition of acidity which may call for the application of lime +as a corrective. + +There are many acres of land which contain too much water in the area that +roots should penetrate to permit of optimum plant growth. Roots of most +plants will not penetrate where there is an excess of water, and air +cannot circulate where moisture is superabundant. Usually these conditions +exist where the soil is of a clayey nature. The abundance of water may be +caused by the inability of surface water to percolate through the soil. It +may take so long, due to the nature of the soil, for this water to pass +through the lower depths of subsoil that the roots of plants are destroyed +by lack of oxygen. In such cases the application of lime, increasing the +humus content, and deeper plowing will be found helpful. Occasionally, the +discharge of dynamite or blasting powder in the area, if it appears to be +in the form of a pocket, will break up the hard pan subsoil and permit the +water to escape. Less dependence is now being placed on this means of +correcting a wet condition of the soil than was the case some years ago. + +A similar condition of overabundant water in soil may be due to the +presence of springs or to a high water table. Little can be done to +correct a condition where the water table itself is so close to the +surface as to inhibit plant growth and this is assuredly one of the +factors to be looked into before a tract is purchased. Where the surplus +water is evidently being supplied by a spring, an underdrain made of tile +pipe, 3 or 4 inches in diameter, can be laid as a means of conducting the +water into a ditch or adjoining drain. In laying such a drain, it should +be placed above the area where the wet soil surface is most evident. If +such a drain is laid 18 inches to 3 feet deep above the wet area, it will +cut off the water seeping down underground and carry it away. Good results +cannot be secured if the drain is laid directly in the area of extreme +wetness or if it does not cut off the flow of water before it reaches the +area that is consistently too wet for plant growth. + +From what has been said in this brief description of soil treatment and +soil improvement, it is evident that one must live with his soil for some +time in order to understand it and to be able intelligently to correct its +deficiencies, overcome its weaknesses and make it capable of supporting +plants which are desirable from the owner's point of view. In the great +majority of cases, the improvement process, while a slow one, is far from +hopeless and almost any soil that is not extremely sandy or clayey can be +so intelligently treated as to make it productive. + +_Cultivation._--Any discussion of soil treatment is not complete without +mention of cultivation. Intelligent cultivation is an essential factor in +securing adequate crops. It is interesting to recall that the word +"manure," which has come to mean fertilization or fertilizer, is derived +from the Latin word "_manus_" meaning "hand" and implying "manipulation" +of the soil, which we now call cultivation. Cultivation has been most +frequently practiced as a method of destroying weeds, thereby making all +of the available plant food subject to absorption by the roots of the +desired plants and not by the intruders we call weeds. Cultivation does +more than destroy weeds, however. It opens up the soil so that air +containing atmospheric nitrogen can penetrate it and so that the bacteria +requiring air for their best growth may have it available. Furthermore, +cultivation conserves moisture and is more essential during dry periods in +the growing season than at any other time. + +We know that in entering the soil the rain water follows certain channels +in and around the soil particles on its way to the subsoil. When the rain +has ceased and the top layer of soil becomes dry, the tendency is for the +water to work up through these same channels to the surface, where it +evaporates. Cultivation, by breaking up these channels, or capillary +tubes, checks the escape of moisture into the air. It creates a blanket of +dry surface soil which insulates the soil moisture from the air above. The +tendency of soil moisture to reestablish capillary methods of escape makes +recultivation necessary from time to time in dry weather. Care must, of +course, be taken that the cultivation is not harmful to roots of growing +plants. If these roots are disturbed or destroyed through cultivation, +more harm than good may result because of the damage to the root systems. + +_Farm Power and Equipment._--Where the land area to be cultivated is +larger than the family garden some type of equipment for working the land, +propelled by horse or motor, will be found desirable and in larger areas +essential. One or more horses may be used where there are stabling +facilities and where arrangements can be made for the daily care and +feeding that these animals require. A horse suitable for work purposes may +be obtained for less than $200. The price will, of course, depend upon the +age and physical soundness of the animal, but should not exceed $150 for a +physically sound animal under ten years old. A person unskilled in the +assessing of animal values should obtain the services of a veterinarian or +an experienced horseman in making a selection. A horse for this purpose +should be of quiet, tractable disposition, bred and broken for work +purposes. The cost of caring for a horse for one year will approximate +$125, including feed and bedding, but without labor charge. + +Leather harness costing $25 to $50 will be required and in addition tools, +including a plow, a harrow, and a cultivator costing about $15 each. Other +special equipment such as a mower will cost considerably more, depending +upon the type used. + +If the members of the family are fond of animals and willing to assume the +responsibility for their daily care, the horse will be found an efficient +and useful source of power for tilling the land. In this connection it +should be pointed out that flies breed with great rapidity in the strawy +manure of the stable, and such wastes should be spread upon the land +almost daily or treated to prevent fly-breeding. + +_Tractor Power._--Just as large tractors have supplanted horses and +horse-drawn equipment on thousands of farms in the United States, the +so-called garden tractor has become increasingly popular for the tilling +of small acreages. The tractor requires "feed" only when it is working, is +not subject to the ills that beset animals, and may be used for +twenty-four hours a day if necessary. It makes an appeal to the +mechanically minded members of the household and, if properly cared for, +will give economical and lasting service. + +The usual type of garden tractor consists of two large wheels with lugs on +them to give traction and is driven by a one- or two-cylinder motor. A +plow, a cultivator, or mower may be attached to the drawbar, the operator +walking behind and regulating the speed and guiding the outfit by handles +provided for the purpose. Earlier types of these machines were not always +satisfactory owing to construction weaknesses and occasionally balky +motors. Those now on the market, however, are greatly improved, require +less attention, and rival their big brothers, the powerful farm tractors, +in dependability. + +There are a number of types and makes of garden tractors now on the +market, ranging in price from $175 or less to $400, the cost depending +largely upon the size and capacity of the motor. In selecting a +satisfactory garden tractor attention should be directed to the simplicity +and power of the motor, the type of bearings, the method of lubrication of +all moving parts, the working speed and the economy of fuel. Bearings +ought to be of standard, long-wearing type since these are subject to hard +service. Two speeds are desirable, a slow one for heavy duty and a faster +one for lighter work. The tractor should operate all day on about 2 +gallons of gasoline and a quart of oil. In addition to power applied at +the drawbar where special tools are attached, a pulley will be found a +desirable accessory for operating belt machinery such as small feed mills, +pumps, and cream separators. The rating of the motor should be not less +than 3 horsepower at the drawbar for the ordinary tasks it will be called +upon to perform. + +All types of attachments are available for the garden tractor. These +include plows, disks, harrows, cultivators, mowers, fertilizer +distributors, planters, sowers and seeding accessories. The prices of +these vary according to make and quality. Levers are provided for +adjusting the depth of plowing, cultivating and seeding. Some of the large +type garden tractors are equipped with a seat on a sulky attached to the +machine so that the operator can ride and have complete control over speed +and the type of work he wishes to do. A modern garden tractor will be +found very useful in taking care of a lawn or garden. In the case of +larger areas under cultivation, but not of field size, this type of +machine is rapidly gaining popularity for performing efficiently and +economically the numerous jobs that are to be done on every small farm. + + +_Do's_ + +Select a soil type that is inherently productive, fertile, retentive of +moisture and easily cultivated. + +Supplement soil fertility by adding chemical fertilizers either singly or +in combination. + +Buy mixed fertilizers on the basis of guaranteed analyses. + +Use legumes (peas, beans, etc.) to add nitrogen to soils and increase +humus content. + +Add specific bacteria for the production of various legumes. + +Use manure and green crops to supply humus. + +Apply lime when soil test shows need for it as plant food and general soil +improver. + +Practice methods that make soils absorptive of moisture and permit escape +of excess water. + +Cultivate the soil to check escape of moisture and to kill weeds. + +Use a horse or garden tractor for cultivation of areas larger than the +family garden. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't buy land that is continually wet and swampy. + +Don't expect to produce satisfactory crops on soils that are extremely +heavy or clayey or so sandy as to quickly lose moisture and fertility. + +Don't try to produce crops without maintaining the humus supply in the +soil. + +Don't neglect cultivation as a means of conserving moisture, destroying +weeds and stimulating root growth. + + + + +_Chapter_ VII + +FOOD FROM THE GARDEN + + +The home vegetable garden should supply an important part of the food for +every family living in the country. Vegetables that are of the right +varieties and that are fresh and properly prepared are nutritious, +wholesome and economical. Not only does the well-organized home garden +reduce the cost of feeding the family, but it constitutes an effective +method of maintaining better health among all members of the household. +Even common vegetables that are grown from the best varieties and served +fresh will be a revelation to those accustomed to buying them in stores. +Deterioration in quality and palatability begins immediately in vegetables +when they are harvested. The more perishable the commodity, the greater is +the rate of deterioration. + +The commercial vegetable grower usually inclines toward varieties that are +capable of producing a heavy yield per acre or that stand shipment and +temporary storage with the least apparent loss from deterioration. In +order to have his products reach the consumer in an attractive condition, +the commercial grower usually must harvest them before they are at their +best. The channels through which vegetables and fruits pass on their way +to the city consumer are devious, slow and costly. Such a consumer +therefore usually receives so-called fresh products that have been removed +from the plant or the soil before maturity is attained and after such +already poor quality has deteriorated through aging processes. + +All these disadvantages of vegetables purchased in the city are eliminated +by the possessor of a garden where he may produce his family's needs (and +they are genuine needs) in the way of fresh vegetables. These products are +essential in supplying such necessary elements as minerals, vitamins, +acids, and cellulose. Dietary authorities advise that leafy vegetables, +sometimes called "greens," contain food elements not found in root +vegetables. For the maintenance of health, the diet should include a +variety of vegetables besides potatoes. + +_Assets of a Garden._--A garden is a source of recreation, pleasure and +satisfaction to every member of the family. Real enjoyment can be had by +working in it a little time each day. To those whose work may be sedentary +and of a routine nature, the garden furnishes a source of inspiration +and adventure. Daily evidences of plant growth and the novelty of having +vegetables of one's own growing stimulate interest in it. The garden is an +aid in maintaining health through physical exercise and the liberal +consumption of the fruits of labor. There is no other avenue of activity +that can afford so much in the way of health, economical recreation and +pleasure as a well-planned garden. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_) + +The well-planned garden furnishes food throughout the year for the entire +family.] + + +Having decided on a garden, the question immediately arises as to the +procedure to be followed to get the most out of it. Special attention has +been given to this problem by experts throughout the country and specific +recommendations are now available on the subject at state agricultural +colleges. These cover varieties, planting dates, adequate area, +fertilization, rotation of crops and storage. Typical recommendations +along these lines are given here for the north-central and eastern states. +Readers living elsewhere may wish to check them with the practices +recommended by authorities in their home states. + +_Vegetable Growing by Rule._--The most effective method of presenting the +story of recommended vegetables, desirable varieties, seed required, +average yields and other pertinent data is in tabular form, such as that +used in Table I, which has been prepared for the aid of home vegetable +gardeners by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, and which is +based on years of study of the subject. Table II, prepared by the Michigan +State College of Agriculture, shows the amount of seed that should be +purchased to supply an adequate quantity and variety of important +vegetables for a family of six persons. + +Examination of the planting table will show that the setting of plants or +roots is occasionally recommended instead of the use of seed. This is +desirable in some cases to get quicker results and in other cases is +essential if a crop is to be secured during a normal growing season. While +it is possible for the grower to raise these plants, or sets, himself, +usually more satisfactory results can be obtained through buying them from +a capable plant grower. The growing of sets is a specialized business +requiring conditions of heat, moisture, fertility and skill, frequently +beyond the patience and capacity of the amateur. There are plant growers +in nearly every neighborhood who will grow the needed plants at small +cost. Arrangements should be made in advance for growing the varieties or +strains that are wanted, and usually the grower can furnish his own seed +for the plants if that seems desirable to him. One desiring to grow one's +own plants from seed can secure full information from a practical grower +or from state and county agricultural agencies. + + +TABLE I + +PLANTING TABLE FOR VEGETABLES[1] + + -----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------------+ + | | | | Distance | + | | | | between | + | | Seed | Depth | rows for | + Name of | Variety | for |to sow |cultivation,| + vegetable | | 100- | seed, | inches | + | | row |inches | | + | | | +------+-----+ + | | | |Horse | Hand| + -----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------+-----+ + Asparagus |Washington, Palmetto |1-yr.- |8-10 | 5 ft.|4 ft.| + | |old |roots | | | + | |roots | | | | + Beans | | | | | | + Green bush |Stringless Green Pod, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 18 | + |Bountiful | | | | | + | | | | | | + Yellow bush |Currie's Rust Proof, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 18 | + |Davis' White Wax | | | | | + | | | | | | + Pole green |Kentucky Wonder, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 36 | 30 | + |Old Homestead | | | | | + Bush lima |Fordhook |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 30 | + | | | | | | + Pole lima |King of the Garden |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 48 | 36 | + Beets--early |Crosby's Egyptian |1 oz. | 1 | 28 | 15 | + Late |Detroit Dark Red | | | | | + Cabbage--early |Jersey Wakefield, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30 | 30 | + |Copenhagen Market | | | | | + Cabbage--late |Danish Ball Head, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 36 | 30 | + |Succession, | | | | | + Cantaloupe |Early Knight, |1/2 oz.| 1 |54-60 | 40 | + |Fordhook | | | | | + Carrots |Chantenay, |1 oz. | 1/2| 30 | 15 | + |Oxheart | | | | | + Celery |Golden Self-blanching,|1 pkt. | 1/4| 36 | 30 | + |Easy Blanching | | | | | + Corn--early |Golden Bantam, |1/4 lb.| 1 | 36| 30| + |Howling Mob | | | | | + Corn--late |Golden Bantam, |1/4 lb.| 1 | 36| 30| + |Evergreen | | | | | + Cucumber |White Spine, |1/2 oz.|1/2-1 | 48-60| 48| + |Davis Perfect | | | | | + | | | | | | + Eggplant |New York Improved, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 48| 48| + |Black Beauty | | | | | + Endive |Green Curled, Broad |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 18| + |Leaved Batavian | | | | | + Kale |Scotch Curled, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 18| + |Siberian (over winter)| | | | | + Kohlrabi |White Vienna |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 15| + Lettuce | | | | | | + Spring and fall|Green-leaved Big Bos. |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15| + Summer | N. Y. Salamander |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15| + Romaine | G. R. Exp., Trianon |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15| + Okra |Perkins Long Pod |1 oz. | 1 | 36| 30| + Onion sets |Yellow Strasburg, |1 qt. | 1 | 18| 14| + |Japanese (Eberheser) | | | | | + Onion seed |Yellow Globe Danvers, |1 oz. | 1/2| 18| 14| + |Southport Globe | | | | | + Parsnips |Hollow Crown |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 18| 15| + | | | | | | + Peas |Little Marvel, |1 pt. |1-1-1/2| 30| 30| + |Laxtonian, Telephone | | | | | + Peppers |Ruby King, Pimento |1 pkt. | 1/2| 36 | 30 | + | | | | | | + Potatoes |Irish Cob., Green Mts.|1/2 pk.|3-4 | 36 | 36 | + Pumpkins |Cheese, Small Sugar |1 oz. | 1/2| 60 | 60 | + | | | | | | + Radish |Scarlet Globe, Icicle |1/2 oz.| 12 | 15 | 5 | + | | | | | | + Rhubarb |Victoria |Roots |5-6 | 48 | 48 | + | | | | | | + Spinach--spring |Bloomsdale, Savoy |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 20 | 15 | + Spinach--summer |New Zealand |1 oz. | 1 | 48 | 36 | + | | | | | | + Spinach--fall |Va. Dis., Resist. |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 20 | 15 | + |Savoy | | | | | + Squash--summer |Gold. Sum. Crookneck, |1 oz. |1-1-1/2| 48 | 48 | + |White Bush Scallop | | | | | + Squash--winter |Boston Marrow, |1 oz. |1-1-1/2| 72 | 72 | + |Warted Hubbard | | | | | + Sweet potatoes |Yel. Jersey |Plants | -- | 36 | 36 | + Swiss chard |Lucullus |1 oz. | 1/2| 30 | 30 | + | | | | | | + Tomatoes--early |Chalk's Early |Plants | 1/2| 48 | 36 | + |Jewel, Bonny Best | | | | | + Tomatoes--late |Matchless, Stone |Plants | 1/2| 48 | 36 | + Turnips |Purple Top Strap. Leaf|1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 | + Rutabagas |Golden Ball, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 | + |Lg. Island Improved |1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 | + -----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------+-----+ + + --------+--------+------------+-------------+------- + | | | | + | | | |Average + Distance|Time of | | Average | days + between |planting| Time of | yield | from + plants |seed | harvest | 100-foot | seed + in row, |outdoors| | row | to + inches | | | |harvest + | | | | + --------+--------+------------+-------------+------- + 16 | -- |Spring- |15 2-lb. |2 yr. + | |July 1 |bunches | + | | | | + | | | | + 3 |Apr 15 |June 20 |2 bu. | 40-65 + |July 15 |Sept. 15- | | + | | Frost | | + 3 |Apr. 15 |June 20 |2 bu. | 50-70 + |July 15 |Sept. 15- |2-2-1/2 bu. | 95-100 + | | Frost | | + 10-30 |May 1-20|Aug. 15 |2-2-1/2 bu. | 95-100 + | | | | + 10 |May 1- |Aug. 1-Frost|2 bu. |110-120 + |July | | | + 36 |May 15 |Aug. 1-Frost|2 bu. |110-120 + 2-3 |Apr. 1 |July 15 |2-2/1/2 bu. | 45-60 + |July 20 |Nov. 15 | | + 18 |Apr. 15 |July-Sept. |45-55 heads |100-120 + | | | | + 18 |July 1 |Oct.-Nov. |45-55 heads |120-150 + | | | | + 48 hill |May 15 |Aug. 10 |6-8 fruits | 90-1l0 + | | |per hill | + 1-1-1/2 |Apr. 1 |Aug. 1 |2 bu. | 65-90 + |July 1 |Nov. | | + 6 |June 1 |Sept. 15 |200 stalks |120-150 + | | | | + 15 or 30|May 1 |July 12 |4 doz. ears | 60-75 + hill | | | | + 18 or 30|June 15 |Aug. 20- |4 doz. ears | 75-90 + hill |July 1 | Frost | | + 48 hill |May 15 |July 10 |200 cucumbers| 60-75 + | |Aug. 20 |1-1/2 bu. | + | | | pickles | + 48|June 1 | Aug. 20- |125 fruits |140-160 + | | Frost | | + 56|Apr. 15 |June 15 |65 plants | 60-90 + |July 15 |Oct.-Nov. | | + 18|Apr. 1 |June 1 |60 bu. | 55-65 + |Sept. 1 |Apr. | | + 3-4|Apr. 15 |June 15 |2 bu. | 50-70 + |Apr. 15-|Aug. 15-Oct.| | + 14-18|June 1 |Oct. |70 head | 70-90 + 14-18|May 15 |June 1 |70 head | 70-90 + 14-18|Aug. 1 |July-Aug. |70 head | 70-90 + 10-15|May 15 |Aug. 10 |900-1000 pod | 90-140 + 1|Apr 1 |May 15 |140 bunches | 45-75 + | | | | + 1|Apr. 1 |Aug. 20 |1-1/2-2 bu. |110-130 + | | | | + 3-4|Apr. 1- |Sept.-Nov. |2 bu. |140-160 + | May 15 | | | + 2|Apr. 1- |June 10-July|2 bu. | 45-70 + | 15 | | (in pods) | + 18-20 |May 15 |Aug. 15- |5 bu. |125-150 + | | Frost |(6 per plant)| + 14 |Apr. 15 |July 1 |3 bu. | 90-120 + 48 |May 15 |Sept. 1- |75 pumpkins | 70- 90 + | | Frost | | + 1 |Apr. 15 |June 1 |100 bunches | 30-65 + |Sept. 1 |Oct. 25 | | + 48 |Mar.-Apr|May-Nov. |8-10 stalks | 1 yr. + | | |plant | + 2 |Mar. |May |3 bu. | 45 + 36 |Apr. 15 |June 15 |Cut all | 65-120 + | | |summer | + 2 |Aug. 15-|Oct.-Nov. |3 bu. | 50-60 + |Sept. 15| | | + 48 |May 1 |July 10 |136 squash | 60-70 + | | | | + 48 |June 1 |Oct. |75 squash |120-130 + | | | | + 18 |May 15 |Oct. 1-10 |3 bu. |140-150 + 6 |Apr. 15 |June 5- |Pull until | 50 + | | Frost | frost | + 36 |May 15 |July 10-Aug.|4 bu. |120-150 + | | | | + 36 |June 1 |Aug. l-Frost|4 bu. |150-170 + 2 |Apr. 1 |June 1 |2 bu. | 45-70 + 2 |Aug. 1 |Oct.-Nov. |2 bu. | 45-70 + 2 |Aug. 1 |Oct.-Nov. |2 bu. | 45-70 + --------+--------+------------+-------------+------- + + +TABLE II + +AMOUNT OF SEED TO PURCHASE FOR FAMILY OF SIX[2] + + -------------------------+------------------------ + Vegetable | Amount to purchase + -------------------------+------------------------ + | + Asparagus | 66 plants + Beans, snap (in variety) | 2 to 3 pounds + Beans, bush lima | 1 pound + Beet | 4 ounces + Cabbage: | + Early | 1 packet + Late | 1/2 ounce + Carrot | 1 ounce + Cauliflower | 1 packet + Celery | 1 packet + Corn, sweet | 2 pounds + Cucumber | 1 ounce + Eggplant | 1 packet + Kale | 1 ounce + Lettuce | 1/2 ounce + Muskmelon | 1 ounce + Onion sets | 4 quarts + Onion seed | 1 ounce + Peas | 2 to 4 pounds + Parsley | 1 packet + Parsnip | 1 ounce + Radish (in variety) | 2 ounces + Rhubarb | 20 plants + Salsify | 1 ounce + Spinach | 1 pound + New Zealand spinach | 1 ounce + Summer pumpkin | 1 ounce + Winter pumpkin | 2 ounces + Squash | 2 ounces + Tomatoes | 1 packet or 50 plants + Turnip | 4 ounces + Rutabaga | 1 ounce + Watermelon | 2 ounces + -------------------------+------------------------ + +_Planning and Operating a Home Garden._--In planning the home vegetable +garden there are a few essential points to be kept in mind. The time to +plan the garden is in winter when adequate consideration can be given to +the selection of those vegetables that the family likes best and can use +in large amounts. Seeds required should be ordered early for the entire +garden. By drawing the plan of the garden on paper and following it, the +procedure is simplified and the most efficient results attained. + +Vegetables should be planted in rows rather than in beds, and those +maturing at about the same time should be grouped together to facilitate +succession planting. After the early-maturing crops have been harvested, +other crops can be sown on the same area, thus fully utilizing the land +throughout the growing season. Perennial crops, including asparagus and +rhubarb, should be kept by themselves. + +A practical farmer wanting to express perfection in soil preparation is +apt to say, "It is just like a garden." This implies good fertility, +optimum moisture conditions and proper tilth. To attain these conditions +in garden soil it is desirable to cover it with strawy manure some time +previous to plowing, in order that rains may carry the soluble fertility +elements into the surface inches of the soil. In the early spring a +thorough job of plowing or spading should be done to reasonable depth, +completely covering the surface straw or dead plants. Every two or three +years lime should be applied after plowing and worked into the top soil at +the rate of 1 pound of hydrated lime to every 25 square feet of soil. + +_Fertilizing and Culture._--The fertility supplied through application of +manure should be supplemented by the use of commercial fertilizer. This +can be purchased in burlap bags from local supply agencies and should +contain about 5 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 per +cent potash. Moderate variations in analysis from 5-8-7, as above, are not +important so long as the amounts of each element are well balanced. The +fertilizer should be broadcast over the garden after plowing, at the rate +of 1 pound to every 25 square feet and worked into the soil before +planting. Poultry or sheep manure may be used as top dressing to alternate +with commercial fertilizer. It should be borne in mind that such animal +manures are richer in nitrogen than in other elements and if used to +excess may stimulate leaf growth at the expense of yield and quality. + +Frequent shallow cultivations are desirable. The ordinary wheel hoe will +be found helpful in the cultivating procedure. It should be well +understood that cultivation is essential to prevent weed growth and +conserve moisture. + +If watering or irrigating is necessary in dry weather, it should be +thoroughly done. One soaking of the soil to a depth of 4 to 6 inches is +far more effective than frequent light sprinklings. The latter may be more +harmful than beneficial through reestablishing capillary movement, +permitting the escape of subsoil moisture. Water should be applied under +the same conditions that apply when rain falls--on cloudy days or after +sunset to prevent "baking" or encrusting of the surface soil as well as to +conserve the amount of water needed. + +_Meeting the Insect Problem._--The sponsor of a garden in which +diversified vegetables are grown must be prepared to meet the onslaught of +equally diversified insect species. While it is true that insects are +multiplying as to species and voraciousness, it is equally true that +methods of control are becoming available to cope adequately with most of +them. One unfamiliar with our insect infestations will be amazed to find +that certain species apparently have had advance notice of his intentions +and are sitting about the planted rows awaiting the appearance of the +tender shoots. + +One of the best methods of combating insects is to create ideal conditions +for plant growth. Plants that are underfed through inadequate soil +fertility or are weakened by other causes suffer severely from insect +attack, while vigorous plants will come through with much less damage. It +is advisable to insure rapid germination of seed through careful soil +preparation, to seed at the proper time for a quick and vigorous start and +to have sufficient available fertility to stimulate growth once the plants +have started. + +There are two distinct classes of insects, the division being based upon +their feeding habits. The larger group, both in the size of the insects +themselves and in the number of species, is the leaf-chewing group. These +can be destroyed by the application of stomach poisons to the plants under +attack. The other group consists of the sucking insects, which penetrate +the veins carrying nourishment to the leaves and appropriate it for +themselves. Such insects multiply with extreme rapidity, generally feed on +the underside of the leaves and may cause complete wilting of the plant +before their presence is suspected. In such cases a "contact" spray or +dust must be used. This is based on the principle of causing the insect to +"inhale" the material through breathing pores along its body. The +insecticide must be composed of extremely fine particles or must be of +such an oily nature that it will readily penetrate such pores. In +addition to these, certain repellent materials are being developed which +cause the insect to seek food where the disagreeable conditions do not +prevail. + + +TABLE III + +PRINCIPAL INSECTS AND REMEDIES[3] + + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + Plants attacked | Chewing | Character | Treatment + | insects | of damage | + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + Tomato, pepper, |Flea Beetles |They gnaw or |Dust or spray with + eggplant, turnip,| |eat small holes|a prepared nicotine + cabbage, etc. | |in the leaves. |or pyrethrum mixture. + | | |Bordeaux mixture + | | |sprayed, or dusting + | | |for disease is also + | | |effective as + | | |a repellent. + | | | + | | | + Asparagus |Asparagus |Feeds on the |Dust with either + |Beetle |shoots and |arsenate of lead or + | |brush. |calcium arsenate, + | | |mixed with 1 part of + | | |wheat flour. Spray + | | |with arsenate of lead + | | |or calcium arsenate, + | | |1 tablespoonful if a + | | |paste or 1/2 + | | |tablespoonful if a + | | |powder, and 1 + | | |tablespoonful of lime + | | |to 1 gallon of water. + | | | + | | | + All kinds of |Mexican Bean |Eats the under |Dust with 1 part of + beans |Beetle |side of leaves |magnesium arsenate + | | |mixed with 3 parts of + | | |lime, or dust the + | | |yellow larva under + | | |the leaves with a + | | |pyrethrum dust. + | | | + | | | + {|Cabbage Maggot| |Keep the ground + {| | |thoroughly cultivated + {| | |around the base of + Early cabbage {| | |the plant or use tar + and cauliflower {| | |paper discs for + {| | |larger plantings. + {| | | + {|Common Cabbage|Feed on the |Same as for asparagus + {|Worm |shoots and |beetle. Pyrethrum + {|and Cabbage |brush. |dust is also very + {|Looper | |effective. + | | | + | | | + Cucumber, squash,|Striped |Eats the leaves|Protect with a + and melons. |Cucumber |and the stem of|cheesecloth or do the + |Beetle |the very young |same as for the + | |plants. |asparagus beetle. + | | | + | | | + Pumpkins and |Squash Vine |Kills the vines|Take a sharp + squashes |Borer |by eating in |thin-bladed penknife + | |the stem. |and slit the stem + | | |lengthwise, opening + | | |it and killing the + | | |borer. Then bank the + | | |ground around the + | | |stem of the plant. + | | | + | | | + Tomato, eggplant,|Potato Beetle |Eats the |Same as for Cabbage + potato | |leaves. |Worm. + | | | + | | | + Tomato |Tomato Horn |Eats the |Same as for Common + |Worm |leaves. |Cabbage Worm. + | | | + | | | + Tomato fruits |Tomato Fruit |Eats the tomato|Same as for Cabbage + |Worm |fruits. |Worm. + | | | + Tomato, eggplant,|Cutworms |Cut the plants |Protect with paper + pepper, cabbage, | |off near |collars placed + and other crops. | |the surface |around the stem of + | |of the ground. |the plant, extending + | | |2 or 3 inches above + | | |the ground, or + | | |distribute poisoned + | | |bran mash, placing + | | |it near the plant. + | | |Thoroughly mix + | | |2 level + | | |tablespoonfuls of + | | |paris green in + | | |5 pounds of dry bran, + | | |then add from 4 to 6 + | | |quarts of water in + | | |which 1/2 pint of + | | |cheap molasses has + | | |been mixed. Cutworms + | | |work at night, + | | |therefore apply the + | | |mash in the late + | | |afternoon or + | | |evening. + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + Plants attacked | Sucking | Character | Treatment + | insects | of damage | + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + Tomato, potato, |Leaf Hopper |Feeds under the|Dust or spray with + strawberries, | |leaf, causing |a prepared nicotine + and beans. | |a whitening and|or pyrethrum mixture. + | |curve of the |Bordeaux mixture is + | |leaves with |also effective as + | |a dying of the |a repellent. + | |edges. | + | | | + | | | + Practically all |Aphis |Sucks the |Either dust or spray + garden vegetable |(plant lice) |juices on the |with a nicotine or + plants. | |under side of |pyrethrum mixture as + | |the leaves and |recommended on the + | |on the stems. |package. Be sure to + | | |hit the insects on + | | |the under side of the + | | |leaves. + | | | + | | | + Cabbage group, |Red Spider |Sucks the |Apply a dusting + strawberries, | |juices from the|sulfur. + and beans. | |under side of | + | |the leaves, | + | |producing | + | |a whitish cast | + | |on the cabbage | + | |group and | + | |a brownish cast| + | |on the other | + | |groups. | + | |Especially | + | |prevalent | + | |during | + | |prolonged dry | + | |hot spells. | + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + +Table III (pages 107-108) describes the character of damage done by both +groups of insects, the plants attacked and the most effective methods of +control. + + +_Do's_ + +Grow vegetables for health, recreation and economy. + +Organize the vegetable garden for a maximum of output, variety of foods +and to facilitate its care. + +Use lime and chemical fertilizer or manure liberally for intensive +culture. + +Combat insects by stimulating plant growth and by using appropriate lethal +products. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't plant a garden in hit-or-miss fashion, if maximum food return is +expected. + +Don't neglect first appearances of insect damage. Find out the cause of +injury and use recommended measures for control. + + + + +_Chapter_ VIII + +HOME FRUITS AND BEES + + +A wide variety of fruits may be grown satisfactorily for home use. Where +no fruit trees are growing the best plan is to set out individual trees or +bush fruits of the standard types and varieties, adding to the collection +later as the needs of the family develop and the adaptability of the area +for varieties manifests itself through crop production. + +All fruits thrive best on a deep, well-drained soil. It is difficult to +secure good results where the area is depressed and air drainage is poor. +Elevation of the area planted is desirable therefore from the standpoint +of both water and air drainage. + +A number of questions confront the prospective grower of fruits. He needs +to know, among other things, the kind of fruit to plant, the necessary +distance between the trees or plants and the probable yield. The following +planting guide will be found helpful in answering these questions. + + +HOME FRUITS AND BEES + +PLANTING GUIDE[4] + + -------+----------------+--------+--------+------------------------- + Average| | | | + number | | | | Estimated yield + of | |Distance|Distance| at maturity + plants | Kind of fruit |between |between +------------+------------ + to | | rows, | plants,| Average | Average + the | | feet | feet | per acre | per plant + acre | | | | | + -------+----------------+--------+--------+------------+------------ + 27 |Apples | 40 | 40 |135 bushels | 5 bushels + 90 |Pears | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 200 |Quinces | 16 | 16 |100 bushels |1/2 bushel + 90 |Peaches | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 90 |Nectarines | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 90 |Plums | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 90 |Cherries (sour) | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 48 |Cherries (sweet)| 30 | 30 |50 bushels | 1 bushel + 6,000 |Strawberries | 3-1/2 | 2 |2,250 quarts| 3/4 pint + | (matted row) | | | | per stool + 1,800 |Raspberries | 8 | 3 |2,000 quarts| 1 quart + 1,800 |Blackberries | 8 | 3 |2,400 quarts|1-1/4 quarts + 1,200 |Dewberries | 6 | 6 |1,800 quarts| 1 quart + | (hill system) | | | | + 1,800 |Gooseberries | 8 | 3 |5,400 quarts| 3 quarts + 1,800 |Currants | 8 | 3 |3,600 quarts| 2 quarts + 680 |Grapes | 8 | 8 |4,000 pounds| 6 pounds + -------+----------------+--------+--------+------------+------------ + +The selection of varieties of tree fruits is highly important. Some sorts +are preeminently adapted to home use because of their high quality of +edibility while others are preferred for commercial production on account +of their good shipping qualities and high yields per acre. It is advisable +for the grower to inquire of his state agricultural college regarding +varieties to plant. Responsible nursery firms will also advise on +varieties that will best meet the needs of the purchaser from the +standpoint of family use and adaptability to soil and climatic +conditions. + +The following varieties are recommended for general home use in +north-central areas of the United States, subject to check by local +authorities. The apple and peach varieties are given in the order of +ripening. + + Apples: + William + Wealthy + McIntosh + Rome + Stayman + Peaches (all freestone): + Golden Jubilee + Georgia Belle + Elberta + J. H. Hale + Pears: + Bartlett + Seckel + Cherries: + Montmorency or Early Richmond (sour) + Black Tartarian (sweet) + Plums: + Damson (blue) + Burbank (red) + +About fifty strawberry plants will be needed for a row 100 feet long. +Because of weed infestations in old beds, it will be more satisfactory to +set a new row each year and destroy the old one. The plants during the +season of setting should be trained to form a matted row about 2 feet +wide. Mulching the plants after a freeze in the fall with straw or other +similar material will prevent injury caused by "heaving" of the soil. + +Currants and gooseberries should be pruned annually and only the one- or +two-year-old wood retained for production. Thinning out in this manner +will give better size and quality. Where the currant worm is troublesome +the foliage should be dusted with arsenate of lead or Paris green as soon +as it is well developed and before the fruit is started. About thirty +currant or gooseberry plants will be needed for a 100-foot row, and they +can be planted along a fence or other boundary line. + +Blackberries and raspberries should be set 3 feet apart in the row, 100 +feet requiring thirty to thirty-five plants. Old canes should be pruned +out after fruiting and the weaker new canes should be removed when +dormant, leaving 6 or 8 inches between the standing canes. Lateral +branches should be cut back in early spring to about 1 foot in length and +the upright canes cut back to uninjured wood, thus removing about +two-thirds of the growth. + +Grapes need severe pruning to produce satisfactory yields of good quality. +This is best done in late winter. It is a good plan to prune so that from +15 to 30 or possibly 40 buds are left on each mature vine, depending upon +the vitality of the plant. Two or three clusters of fruit will develop on +the shoot that grows from each bud. A 100-foot row of grapes will require +twelve plants. There are many fine varieties of grapes and several can be +used in a single row. + +In ordering stock for planting, care should be exercised in making sure of +the reliability of the nursery. As a general rule it is better to order +from a nursery in the vicinity, thus eliminating losses due to shipping +great distances and also making sure that the varieties or strains were +grown for use in the area in question. Upon the arrival of the stock from +the nursery, it should be "heeled in" at once. That is, the roots should +be covered in a trench so that they will not dry out before they can be +planted in the desired location. In the case of a few trees that can be +set immediately, this is not necessary. + +Nearly all country places have sufficient area for planting small fruits +and, as is the case with vegetables, freshness and fine-flavored varieties +will compensate for the labor involved in growing them. Strawberries, +currants, gooseberries, blackberries, red and black raspberries and grapes +are especially desirable for home plantings. Some high-quality varieties +are given for the choice of the home owner, subject to confirmation by +authorities acquainted with specific conditions and intended primarily for +home use. + + Strawberries (in order of ripening): + Howard 17 + Fairfax + Aberdeen + Joe + Chesapeake + Mastodon is recommended for the everbearing type. + Currants: + Fay + Wilder + Gooseberries: + Chautauqua + Poorman + Blackberries: + Russell + Ward + Eldorado for bush types + Black Diamond for the trailing type requiring a trellis and + ripening late in the season. + Red Raspberries (in order of ripening): + Ranere + Viking + Latham + Black Raspberries: + Cumberland + Quillen + Grapes (general list, in order of ripening): + Ontario (white) + Fredonia (black) + Delaware (red) + Brighton (red) + Golden Muscat (white) + Concord (blue) + Sheridan (black) + For those desiring a succession of blue-black varieties, + Fredonia, Concord and Sheridan are recommended. + +_Controlling Insect and Fungous Pests._--Plant pests of various kinds +infest tree fruits and small fruits. In general, the best method of +controlling leaf-chewing insects is by applying arsenate of lead on the +foliage. Care must be taken to avoid staining the fruit with poisonous +spray or thorough washing will be necessary before it is safe to consume. +The control of other insect pests and fungous plant diseases has been well +worked out by agricultural experiment stations throughout the country, and +these methods should be sought before attempting any campaign of +suppression. A barrel spray pump, mounted on a hand truck or on a vehicle, +equipped with plenty of hose will be found satisfactory for spraying +plantings of modest size. + +_Rejuvenating an Old Orchard._--The purchaser of an old-established farm +will usually find he has acquired some apple trees of uncertain age and +health. In many instances these trees can be renovated and rejuvenated so +that they will again bear fruit. If the trees have several sound limbs and +are making some growth each year, they may be considered worth saving. On +the other hand, broken tops and limbs accompanied by large rotted cavities +will create too great an expense if an attempt is made to restore them to +usefulness. The varieties should be determined before serious efforts at +renovation are undertaken, so that the strenuous work necessary for +restoration may not be wasted on undesirable fruit. + +_Steps in Renovation._--The first operation in renovation is pruning. Most +of this should be done in early spring during the dormant season and +supplemented in June or July when the trees are in leaf. Large broken +limbs and dead wood should be removed, together with interfering branches, +and those reaching too high should be headed back. At about the same time +that pruning is started the loose bark should be thoroughly scraped off +and burned, thus destroying insects and fungi that attack the fruit. +Harboring places for further infestations are also thus removed. If the +trees are badly in need of pruning, it is best to do the job over a period +of two or three years rather than all at one time, due to the tendency of +trees to "sucker" and develop a multiplicity of small non-bearing +branches. + +Spraying, fertilizing and cultivation, where that is possible, should +follow the pruning and scraping jobs. Spray schedules and cultural +practices best adapted to the region can be obtained without cost by +applying to state or county agricultural agencies. Ordinarily two or three +years are required to rejuvenate these trees and begin to secure a crop. +Production will then increase in quantity and quality during succeeding +years. + +_Bees as Pollinators._--The production of fruits of all kinds is dependent +upon pollination of their blossoms by bees and other winged insects. Bees +of many species are useful in pollen distribution, but the most important +is the honey bee, which is available in larger numbers just at flowering +time, seeking nectar from the flowers. In large commercial orchards +colonies of honey bees are set at regular intervals to insure adequate +pollination, usually one hive per acre. + +A practical method of adding to county life enjoyment and adding to income +as well is the keeping of bees for honey production. + +_Securing a Honey Crop._--Bee husbandry can be carried on successfully as +a specialized side line where only small areas of land are available. +Colonies can be located at one side of the garden or placed under trees +where they will not be disturbed either through accident or by cultivation +of the plot immediately surrounding them. The activity of the bees during +the nectar-gathering season, accompanied by the well-known hum as they +dart in and out of the hive, makes a genuine appeal to the country +dweller. This appeal is heightened by the fact that they are working for +him, in part at least, and without his having to pay for their raiding the +nectar from the flowers around. He knows that his efforts in providing +favorable working conditions for the bees will be repaid by a harvest of +salable honey. A colony at full strength just at the right time will +invariably gather a surplus. + +_First Principles in Beekeeping._--The beginner in bee husbandry should +purchase established colonies from a reputable business concern or from +beekeepers in the neighborhood of his home. He should begin in a small way +with a few colonies, learn the business with a small investment and then +increase as his liking for the work develops and the market for the +product expands. Being able to read the signs at the entrance to the hive +is the surest way to success. Too much manipulation is just as harmful as +neglect. The novice in beekeeping who is really interested and follows +carefully a few details gained from a reliable bee book should harvest at +least 30 pounds of honey a year from each colony. Experts get much larger +yields and have been known to secure 200 pounds per colony and 200 +sections of comb honey from one hive. The deciding factor in producing +honey is the skill of the watchful beekeeper, assuming of course that +there is a sufficient supply of nectar-secreting blossoms in the area. + +The cost of engaging in bee husbandry is nominal. An established colony of +the preferred Italian bees should cost about $8. The equipment should +include two fitted supers for each colony in which the bees may store the +honey, costing about $3 each; a veil to protect the head and face, +linseed-oil-soaked canvas gloves, a bee smoker, a hive tool and a bee +escape (needed for removing the bees from filled supers), each item +costing less than a dollar. An additional piece of apparatus, a queen +"excluder," is needed for each hive, to keep the queen in the lower +chamber and prevent the mixing of stored honey surplus and developing +bees. + +The principal nectar-secreting plants are the clovers, sumac, buckwheat, +cranberry and blueberry blossoms, goldenrod, asters and mallows. Since +these plants bloom at varying periods during the growing season, the +beekeeper will find it necessary to adjust his operations in accordance +with the nectar-producing capacity of his own region. The experience of +successful beekeepers will be found helpful as a guide in taking the +successive and orderly steps necessary to secure maximum honey crops. In +many states there are associations of beekeepers formed for mutual +advantage and the promotion of the industry. The novice can hardly expect +to learn unless he affiliates himself with such groups and attends their +meetings. Subscription to a good bee journal is also desirable. + + +[Illustration: Colonies of honey bees located near the source of nectar +supply.] + + +_Selling the Product._--Honey can be marketed in the comb or in glass jars +in the extracted or crystal form. Many suburban beekeepers dispose of +their crop in their own neighborhood or at roadside stands. Many food +products are being promoted which contain honey as one ingredient, and +this opens an attractive field to the resourceful beekeeper. The healthful +qualities of honey for human consumption are being given greater +recognition and it appears that the market for locally produced honey of +high quality is steadily expanding. + + +_Do's_ + +Fruit trees should be included in every country homeowner's plan. + +Be sure varieties are such as will yield, plentifully, good quality fruit. + +Use bush fruits as ornamentals and sources of food to be put in cans. + +Seek advice on fruit problems from the state agricultural college. + +Old orchards may be rejuvenated under proper systems of management. + +Use colonies of bees to pollinate fruit blossoms and to produce honey. + +Begin bee husbandry in a small way at first and get advice from +experienced bee culturists. + +Sell surplus honey in home markets. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't plant varieties of fruits that are ill adapted to climatic +conditions. + +Don't overlook the necessity of preparing for insect attacks in advance of +appearance. + +Don't establish bee colonies without making sure that proper care of them +can be taken. + +Don't try to practice horticulture or bee husbandry without frequently +obtaining expert advice. + + + + +_Chapter_ IX + +POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME + + +The majority of the owners of small farm properties are interested in the +possibilities of poultry keeping as a means of adding to the family +income. Efforts in this direction are logical from a number of angles. For +example, the keeping of poultry appeals to them as an interesting line of +work for the sake of the activity itself. Furthermore, the cost of housing +a comparatively large number of laying hens is not expensive, as compared +with the investment required in other agricultural enterprises. Again, +there is a ready market for the eggs and for the poultry in the +neighborhood where the enterprise is carried on. No doubt, too, the more +or less fabulous stories of easy profits have stimulated a desire to get +into this business and to make it a rather important source of income. +Again, there is the thought that the work involved in feeding and caring +for the flock can be carried on by another member of the family when the +owner or principal bread-winner is engaged in some other activity +temporarily. + +All these factors have tended to develop in the mind of the settler in the +country a pretty definite idea that he can supplement the family income +with poultry. Sometimes this idea is erroneous and there is apt to be +little definite knowledge on the part of the new owner as to costs, +problems and profits that are likely to accrue. It is the thought of the +writer to outline some definite recommendations for the prospective +poultryman which will enable him to safeguard his investment and prevent +the very serious losses that have occurred to many who have not taken into +consideration all of the factors involved. + +_Soil Type._--The prospective poultryman will, if he is wise, make sure +that the soil is adapted to the project. The ideal soil for poultry +raising is sufficiently porous to furnish good water drainage and yet not +so open or sandy as to be incapable of crop production. A porous soil is +warmer than a clay soil and is more conducive to good sanitation through +permitting moisture and debris to be carried quickly to the subsoil. If +the subsoil is of a gravelly nature the natural condition will be +improved. Presumably the same type of soil that will bear the poultry +plant should be capable of producing garden crops, growing shade or fruit +trees satisfactorily and producing grass and short-rooted crops that can +be used in conjunction with the poultry plant or the beautification of the +home surroundings. Consequently, the soil type must be productive and +capable of improvement while being well drained and conducive to good +sanitation. Heavy clay soils or those with rock strata close to the +surface are to be avoided. + +Successful poultry farms are operated on both level and rolling lands. +Extremely flat topography should be avoided and also precipitous slopes. +If the site is on rolling land the poultry plant should be located on a +slope with southern exposure to secure warmth, quicker drying conditions +and protection from cold north winds. + +_Breeds of Poultry._--Fowls have been domesticated and bred for ages all +over the world. As the result of various crossings a large number of types +or breeds of poultry are available for present-day use and propagation. +Some of these breeds are maintained for show or novelty purposes only and +furnish an interesting field for the fancier. + +For the person who is engaging in the commercial poultry business the +choice of breed narrows to a very few utility types. For purely +egg-producing purposes or for broilers weighing slightly over a pound at +killing time, the light Mediterranean breeds are the most efficient. Less +feed is needed for maintaining the egg machine itself and less room per +bird required. Of these so-called egg breeds, the White Leghorn is in a +class by itself. This breed is noted for its large white-shelled eggs +which top the markets where this color egg is in demand. In the most +intensive egg-producing areas of the country the White Leghorn +predominates. On the other hand, this breed is not a good meat producer, +the mature birds being light in weight. + +For the dual purpose of egg and meat production the American breeds are +the most popular. The principal commercial types of this general purpose +group are Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. In some +instances crosses of these breeds are proving good layers and highly +efficient meat producers. + +The Rocks, Wyandottes and Reds have bright yellow skin, shanks and beak +which are desired in market poultry. They are good winter layers, +particularly, and some strains have been developed that rival the Leghorn +in the number of eggs per bird. Both the White and the Barred Plymouth +Rocks are popular among those seeking a dual purpose breed, and being +slightly heavier than White Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds they are +preferred by many poultrymen. The latter two breeds are rapidly increasing +in popularity and their best qualities are being brought out more +uniformly by careful selection of breeding stock in each case. All of +these American breeds lay brown eggs. + +In addition to the egg and the dual purpose types of poultry epitomized by +the Leghorn and the Plymouth Rock, respectively, there are breeds which +are primarily meat producers. Less attention is paid to the egg-producing +ability of these than is the case with the others mentioned. The Brahmas, +Cochins and Langshans stand in high regard as economical meat producers. +The Jersey Black Giant is a more recent addition to the popular heavy +breeds, especially for the capon trade. + +These Asiatic types grow slowly and are phlegmatic in movement so that +they utilize feed for the economical development of high quality meat and +attain great weight. For broilers of more than 1-1/2 pounds each, for +roasting chickens and for capons, the dual purpose breeds are becoming +more popular than the extremely heavy breeds due to their more rapid +growth and more popular weight average at marketing time. + +_Buying Stock._--The advantages of buying and maintaining definite breeds +of poultry are now so well understood that the mixed or mongrel flock is +fast disappearing. Having decided which type of fowl is best adapted to +one's market and ideas, there is no difficulty in finding a breed that +will fit the need. As has been pointed out, the attributes of high egg +production or fine quality of meat are inherent in certain breeds. A +single breed means uniformity in color, size and shape of the eggs which +increases their marketability. More attractive appearance of the flock and +greater efficiency from feeding without additional cost are other +advantages pertaining to standardizing the flock as to breed. + +Stock may be acquired as day-old chicks, as ten- to twelve-week-old +pullets or as adult birds ready to lay. Hatching eggs may also be bought +if desired, but it will be found more satisfactory and just as economical +for the inexperienced person to buy the hatched chick or the more mature +birds. The hatching and brooding processes are fraught with difficulties +which may be especially acute for the amateur. The greatest demand at the +present time, and properly so, is for day-old chicks. A highly specialized +industry has been developed for the purpose of supplying this demand and a +reputation for reliability has been established by many concerns catering +to this trade. + +_Poultry House Construction._--Where flocks of poultry are to be kept for +egg production, special laying houses must be provided in addition to +brooder houses that will be needed in any case. + +One of the best types of brooder house is the two-room type developed by +Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Such a house should be about 8 by 14 +feet, and mounted on skids for convenience in moving. A movable partition +divides the house into two rooms. Thus a cold room is provided for +exercising and a warm room for sleeping. The marked difference in +temperature between the two rooms helps to harden the chicks, while the +reduced space about the hover conserves the heat. + +A great deal of study has been given to the construction of laying houses +for poultry. The purposes in mind have been to obtain maximum sunlight +throughout the day, protection from storms and from dampness, and adequate +ventilation. + +In the construction of a modern laying house, 1 square foot of glass +should be provided for every 20 square feet of floor space. The windows +should be hinged so that they may be opened in warm weather. One of the +commercial glass substitutes that are now on the market may be used +instead of ordinary glass to allow violet light rays to reach the +birds. The other openings permit free circulation of air through the +house. They should be equipped with muslin curtains to be used during +storms and in extremely cold weather. Such a house can be used the year +round. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy of Poultry Tribune_) + +This sketch shows an end view of a practical and inexpensive shed-roof +laying house. Detailed blue prints for use in constructing such a house +can usually be obtained from county agricultural agents or state +agricultural colleges.] + + +[Illustration: A fine flock of layers. The hoppers furnish laying mash and +the fountains supply drinking water. Scratch grain is thrown in the +litter.] + + +The floor of the laying house must be dry at all times if vigor and health +are to be maintained. During the winter there should be about 10 inches of +dry litter in the form of straw, peat moss or shavings mixed with the +straw. Small windows in the rear wall will make for better distribution of +the litter, since the birds scratch away from the light. + +_Equipment and Appliances._--A great deal of hand labor and daily drudgery +can be eliminated by equipping the house with properly constructed +appliances. These will not only save labor but will also supply the birds +with their needs at the time the need for certain materials is felt and +thus contribute to health and flock efficiency. + +The best method of feeding dry mash is from a hopper. This should be so +constructed as to hold a reserve supply at all times that will run into +the feed trough as it is consumed. Care should be taken in construction to +prevent the birds from throwing out the mash with their beaks and thus +wasting it. + +Water fountains of a standard type that will furnish the birds with a +constant amount of fresh water are available at poultry supply houses. +Receptacles should also be provided for grit, ground oyster shell and +charcoal which can be easily filled. A sloping board should be placed over +these receptacles to prevent the birds from roosting on them and soiling +the contents. + +Bins so constructed as to be vermin-proof and moisture-proof should be +available for storing the scratch grain and other concentrated feeds. +Provision for storing litter where it can be kept clean and dry will be +necessary. If long straw is to be used, a cutter operated by hand or by a +motor will prove useful in fining the straw. The scratch grain will be +spread through the litter on the floor, compelling the birds to scratch +for it and thus obtain needed exercise. + +_Artificial Lighting._--Modern laying houses are equipped with electric +lights that are turned on and off automatically. Artificial lighting +prolongs the hen's working day when the days are short, resulting in +greater food consumption and more exercise which will increase egg +production and give better health and stamina at seasons when more eggs +augment profits. A 40-watt bulb should be placed in one receptacle with +reflector for each 200 square feet of floor space, located midway between +the front wall and the front line of perches. + +_Investment Needed for the Start._--The prospective poultryman should be +familiar with the principal items of cost before engaging in the business. +To be thus forewarned is to be forearmed. The scale upon which one takes +up commercial poultry production should depend upon experience in coping +with the industry's peculiar problems and upon the amount of capital +available. Success depends, of course, both upon skill in handling the +poultry and upon the capitalization of the plant. It should be recognized +that costs can be only approximate and are usable as guides only. They +will vary according to geographical location, general economic conditions, +labor costs and the bargaining power of the individual. The figures here +given are for a plant comprised of 1,500 laying hens--the minimum number +from which a living can be obtained and probably the maximum number that +can be cared for by one person. + +The houses for the flock will necessarily include a laying house of the +multiple unit or other similar type, which should cost about $1,000. In +addition, eight brooder houses will be needed to care for the chicks and +growing stock, costing about $100 each, or a total of $800. The growing +stock when on range will need shelters for protection against hot sun and +rain, and these should be built for about $25 each, or a total of $200, +making a total cost for buildings and the necessary interior equipment +about $2,000. In addition to this item, there will be needed about $1,500 +for the purchase of pullets at $1.00 each, making a grand total of $3,500. + +If baby chicks are purchased, it will be necessary to buy not less than +4,000 of these if the operator is to obtain 1,500 desirable laying birds. +The cost of these chicks will depend upon the breeding that is behind +them, upon whether they are blood-tested to eliminate bacillary white +diarrhea (a scourge of young chicks) and the general care that has been +taken in the hatchery to produce good, livable chicks. This care, +incidentally, must extend to flocks from which the hatching eggs are +secured, as well as to the final incubating process. Chicks sold at +extremely low prices are rarely bargains. Quality is far more important +than low first cost. Assuming a cost of 14 cents per chick as an average +for chicks that will produce virile, productive layers, the initial +investment for this item will be between $500 and $600. Therefore, if +chicks are purchased, it will reduce the item for stock from the amount of +$1,500 given above, which would represent the cost of partly grown +pullets. + +Assuming that the complete poultry plant already stocked will cost $3,500, +we must add to the budget of the prospective poultryman a sum for the +purchase of a farm of from 5 acres upward, including a residence. In most +localities a small tract with a modest house can be purchased for about +$4,000. If only the land is purchased, that should be available at $200 an +acre as a subdivision of a larger tract. Assuming that a house costing +$3,000 will be suitable for the operator and his family, the total outlay +will be in the neighborhood of $7,500. Experienced poultrymen estimate +that a modest poultry farm of the type above described can be put into +operation for an investment of $5 per bird. If it is planned to begin with +a smaller flock than 1,500 individual layers, the same figures can be +applied in proportion to the number of birds to be kept. In short, the +poultry house and equipment should be estimated on the basis of not less +than $1.50 per bird and the cost of the farm, residence and stock will be +in addition to such a charge. The allowance of $1.50 per bird provides +only for simple housing facilities for the flock. + +Using these figures, it will be easy to understand the reason for the +general recommendation that a total investment of $10,000 is a requisite +for a poultry establishment from which a modest living can be obtained. +While the investment in housing, land, residence and stock may not exceed +$7,500, there will need to be sufficient capital for paying the living +expenses of the family until the flock begins laying and to enable the +operator to purchase feed and other necessary adjuncts to his +establishment before an income is obtained. + +For a flock of smaller size than the so-called maximum one-man type above +described, the costs per bird for the various items will apply in most +cases. It is, in fact, advisable to begin with a smaller flock if the +owner is inexperienced. + + +_Do's_ + +Poultry keeping must be efficiently carried on to yield returns to the +country home owner. + +Select well-drained soil that is free of infection. + +For egg production, use the Leghorn; for both meat and egg purposes, the +American breeds are best. + +Standardize on one breed if possible. + +Buy the best chicks or mature stock available. + +Use a brooder house for the young birds. + +The laying house must be well ventilated, fully lighted and easily +cleaned. + +Use latest mechanical feeding and watering devices to save labor. + +Employ artificial lighting to lengthen the hen's working day. + +Work toward the "one-man plant"--a total of 1,500 laying hens--for most +efficient results. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't try to raise poultry in buildings that may still carry infection. + +Don't economize by buying cheap chicks or breeding stock. + +Don't overlook importance of health factors and productive qualities in +determining value of stock purchased. + +Don't try to operate a poultry plant with ill-adapted buildings and +equipment. + + + + +_Chapter_ X + +SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY + + +The successful poultryman will have set up his establishment with due +attention to adequate housing, good stock, facilities for maintaining +sanitation and for creating generally favorable conditions for egg +production. His next problem will be that of adopting successful methods +of management so that he may obtain a satisfactory net income from the +investment. + +_Feeds and Feeding._--There are two groups of materials that are essential +in food rations for all ages of poultry. The organic feeds include grains +and grain by-products, hays, grasses and vegetables. The inorganic feeds +include salt to increase palatability and digestibility of the ration; +lime, to aid in building bone and body tissue as well as to furnish the +shell material; bone ash, especially for growing chicks, and water in +liberal amounts supplied by a fountain as well as from succulent green +foods. The fact that a dozen eggs contain approximately one pint of water +demonstrates the necessity of having drinking water before the flock at +all times. + +The feeding of baby chicks, young stock and laying hens has been +scientifically worked out by research and practical experience over a +period of many years. The poultryman, especially if he is a novice, will +do well if he carefully observes the recommendations of competent +authorities. The ration for each of the three ages will consist of a grain +feed and a dry mash composed of grain by-products reinforced with +materials that supply the birds' daily nutrition requirements. + +The following rations and recommendations for management have been +prepared by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, +New Jersey: + + CHICK RATION + + Baby Chick Grain + + 200 pounds finely cracked yellow corn + 100 pounds cracked wheat + + Fed morning and evening, beginning when chicks are 36 hours old. + + Baby Chick Mash + + 20 pounds ground yellow corn + 20 pounds wheat bran + 20 pounds flour middlings + 20 pounds pinhead oats + 10 pounds meat scrap (50 per cent protein) + 5 pounds dried buttermilk or skim-milk + 2 pounds oyster shell meal or limestone flour or bone meal + 2 pounds cod liver oil (mixed with the pinhead oats) + 1 pound table salt + + This mash is fed to the chicks as soon as they are placed under the + brooder stove. It may be placed in hoppers. Let the chicks have all + they want to eat; some of the mash should be before them at all + times. + + Teach the chicks where to find the warmth by enclosing them for a few + days with a 1/2 inch mesh wire one foot high and set from 10 to 12 + inches from the edge of the hover. + + Put some clean grit on bits of cardboard in several places around the + hover when the chicks are first brought from the incubator. + + A little sour skim-milk or semi-solid buttermilk, diluted 1 to 7 in + founts should be available from the beginning. + + After the chicks are 60 hours old or when you are sure they are + hungry, begin to feed, using cardboard in the same manner as before. + Follow the feeding chart. + + Feed little and often. Keep the chicks slightly hungry. + + Watch for dead chicks and remove them as soon as they are noticed. + + Attend to heaters early and late; be sure at all times that they are + in good working order. + + Clean out litter, particularly beneath the hover as often as it + becomes soiled. + + Induce exercise and keep the youngsters occupied. + + Get them out-of-doors as early as possible, even if only for a few + minutes in the warmer part of the day. + + Feed green feed. Feed early and late. Keep the chicks growing. + +_Growing Stock Ration._--The baby chick mash can be used for feeding the +growing birds, omitting the cod liver oil if they are on range. The baby +chick grain ration can be used also during this period but it need not be +so finely cracked. Plenty of grain should be available at all times. + +_Laying Ration._--When the birds are getting ready to lay, the ration +should be changed so that during the winter laying season the mash will +include equal amounts of yellow corn meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, +ground heavy oats and meat scrap. Twenty-five per cent of dried buttermilk +or skim-milk may be substituted for an equal amount of meat scrap. + +The grain ration should consist of equal amounts of cracked or whole +yellow corn and wheat. This should be fed in the late afternoon, giving +sufficient to satisfy the appetites of the birds between the time of going +to roost and a light morning meal. It should be fully consumed by eight +o'clock in the morning. Adequate consumption of mash is a prime requisite +in egg production. The feeding of semi-solid buttermilk at the rate of 3 +to 5 pounds to 100 hens daily is recommended. Ten pounds of mangel beets +per 100 hens or 1 square inch of well-sprouted oats per bird will supply +needed green food during the winter. + +In many cases it will be found more satisfactory to purchase ready mixed +rations from a local dealer who handles reliable and scientifically +compounded feeds for poultry. This is particularly applicable where the +number of birds is of ordinary proportions. Little, if any, economy will +be found in purchasing small quantities of each ingredient and attempting +to thoroughly mix them at home. If the flock is very large there may be +worth-while economy in home-mixing of the ration. The efficient poultryman +will compare the cost of branded feeds with ingredient costs to guard +against being overcharged. + +In addition to the standard rations the growing stock and laying birds +should have access at all times to grit, shell and charcoal, kept in +suitable containers. These may be obtained of the local dealer. + +_Sanitation._--When growing stock and laying hens are kept under modern +intensive conditions the observance of the rules of sanitation is +essential. Failure to observe them is likely to result in loss of +production, serious sickness of the flock and the nullifying of all other +constructive factors. + +Dropping boards beneath the roosts must be cleaned frequently and +regularly to prevent accumulation of filth. If the dropping boards are +constructed of matched lumber with the boards running in the direction in +which they are to be scraped it will facilitate the cleaning process. + +Before the birds are placed in winter quarters the laying house should be +thoroughly cleaned of all litter and debris. The interior may then be +thoroughly sprayed with a disinfectant composed of some good coal tar +preparation, and this repeated in the spring. The surface will need to be +painted with a good disinfectant, of which there are a number of +commercial preparations on the market. A close watch should be made for +vermin in the house and on the birds, and if lice or similar parasites are +discovered, immediate action should be taken to destroy both the adults +and the eggs, since these parasites will debilitate the flock and prevent +their development and may seriously check their ability to lay. + +_Management of Artificial Lights._--The electric lights mentioned in the +previous chapter should be turned on about four-thirty in the morning and +kept on until daylight or used for an hour in the late evening. When +lights are used there should be plenty of food and water available to +enable the birds to take advantage of the additional feeding period. The +scratch grain should be increased by 2 pounds daily for each hundred birds +when lights are used. Many poultrymen find it advantageous to have a low +wattage light burning all night so that hungry individuals may get a meal +and return to the perches at all times. Three to five kilowatt hours per +month for each hundred birds represents the average current consumption +where lights are used. + +_Practical Suggestions for Efficient Management._--A number of successful +poultrymen were recently asked to state the requisites for success in the +poultry industry, with particular reference to what is known as the +one-man poultry flock. Such a flock is of adequate size to take +practically the full time of one person in its operation. As the result of +the development of standardized feeding practices, improved equipment and +better methods of management, the maximum number of birds that can be +successfully managed by one person has greatly increased in recent years. +Likewise, the problems of proper feeding, adequate disease control and +successful selling have increased as the size of the unit has grown and as +greater intensiveness is practiced. + +All of the successful men questioned advised that the keeping of poultry +should be begun in a small way in order that experience can be gained +without the risk of losing the initial investment, or that the intending +operator should gain practical knowledge of the business by working on a +poultry farm for a year. Valuable knowledge can also be gained by +attending short courses in poultry husbandry that are being offered at +most agricultural colleges with a very moderate expenditure of funds. + +One of these successful men writes as follows: "We are working with a man +now who was let out of a position recently but who has some savings and +who desires to go into the poultry business. He has purchased six acres of +ground, has built a bungalow on it and has the foundations in for three +laying houses of 500 birds' capacity each. He will have ample range for a +two-yards system for each laying house, and, in addition, will have two +ranges to alternate yearly for growing his young stock. His program calls +for putting out about 2,400 chicks yearly from which he should have at +least 1,000 pullets, which he will house in two of the laying houses. The +following year he will carry over about 500 of these birds and can fill up +with 1,000 pullets. This is to be a one-man plant with possibly some +assistance in the spring. + +"I feel that 1,500 birds is the minimum required from which one man can +make a living, and five acres devoted to poultry, properly laid out, is +sufficient area for this purpose. If more land is available, so much the +better. These are minimum requirements, as I see it, and with regular feed +deliveries directly to the poultry house, running water and other +labor-saving devices, there is no reason why one man cannot successfully +take care of this number of birds, particularly where a man is starting on +new ground where there have never been any chickens and therefore less +chance of disease. We advise buying baby chicks rather than partly grown +or mature stock. If he follows a definite economic and sanitary program +right from the start, there is no reason why his plant should not carry on +profitably, indefinitely." + +This practical man says further: "It is our experience that the majority +of the people going into the poultry business go in 'blind.' Their chicken +houses are put up irrespective of range facilities and then after two or +three years when they begin to run into trouble they find their mistakes. +I would suggest that you point out to prospective poultrymen the +advisability of first, buying land and developing their own poultry plant +rather than trying to make over someone else's plant; second, buying in a +location where buying and selling facilities have been developed; third, +getting in touch with a reliable local poultryman for guidance in laying +out his plant and following only one advisor. By hooking up with only one +poultryman he is presented with one way of doing things which this +poultryman has found successful in his own business." + +Another successful man states that the most economical time to start the +business is in the spring when day-old chicks can be secured and purchased +at a lower cost than is possible in the buying of laying stock at other +seasons of the year. He further advises that the greatest mistake made by +many starting in the poultry business is the lack of adequate capital. Too +many invest all of their money before any income can be secured, according +to this man. Should there be a set-back during the first year or two, +there is no way of continuing and the whole investment may be lost. + +Still another practical man states that "Site is, in my opinion, the most +important factor to be considered after the decision is made that a person +wishes to go into the poultry business. Successful poultry keeping +probably requires more careful selection of a farm than any other +agricultural industry. There should be light soil with good air and water +drainage and an area of sufficient size to permit shifting the poultry on +different areas as a means of preventing disease infection and as a means +of securing vigor in the birds." He, too, points out that old poultry +farms should not be considered by prospective poultrymen unless they have +been approved by an expert in these lines, for the reason that these farms +are frequently offered for sale because of persistent disease infection +which it is very difficult to eliminate, or because of some fundamental +difficulty, such as poor soil drainage. + +"In the construction of buildings," continues this experienced poultryman, +"sufficient housing should be provided to prevent overcrowding and the +difficulties that come in the train of that condition. About three square +feet of floor space per bird is required for the lighter breeds such as +Leghorns, and four to five square feet per bird for the heavier breeds. +For the one-man plant, the recommendation is for a maximum of about 1,500 +birds. This would require from 4,500 to 5,250 square feet of floor space +suitably arranged for the lighter breeds of the Leghorn type. For the +young stock to be used as replacements, seven to ten brooder houses, 10 by +12 feet in size, would be required and about the same number of range +shelters, usually 6 by 8 feet, for the purpose of sheltering growing young +stock from hot sun and heavy rains when they are out on range." + +_Probable Net Income._--Many persons who have started in the poultry +business have been misled as to the amount of net income they will be +likely to receive from a one-man plant. It is pretty well established that +in normal times a net income of from $1,500 to $2,500 annually can be +secured from a plant housing 1,500 birds. A great deal depends, of course, +upon the skill of the operator, and a plant of this size requires the full +time of one competent person. It should be borne in mind that this net +income is in addition to the residence and such food as would be taken in +the form of poultry products and from the garden. + +_Sales Management._--Every prospective poultry keeper should determine the +marketing possibilities for the product in the area under consideration +before he makes a choice of location. There are at least four methods of +marketing eggs and poultry meat, any one of which can be used exclusively +or two or more used in combination as a means of disposing of the product +to the best advantage. The system that he will adopt will depend largely +upon his location, as well as upon his individual preference, and upon the +facilities that are available in the area where he operates. + +In many sections of the country there are cooperative egg marketing +associations where the eggs are received in bulk from the producers, are +graded and marketed in large quantities, the producer receiving the full +selling value less, of course, the costs of operating the distributing +agency. In the northeastern states, egg auctions have been very +successfully developed. Under this system the individual producer brings +his eggs to the auction market where they are graded and sold on the basis +of weight, size and other factors pertaining to quality. In this method of +selling the producer receives a definite price for his eggs less a small +charge per case made by the selling agency. + +A successful type of direct marketing is through roadside stands. This is +especially successful in or near large centers of population where eggs +can be purchased, together with other farm commodities, at the same stand. +Another method is the operation of a retail route in which the producer +sells the eggs by the door-to-door method in a near-by city. This method +is followed successfully by many poultrymen who deliver eggs as regularly +as the milk distributor or the baker deliver their products. + +Still another method is the use of mail or express as a means of +transporting the eggs to consumers in urban centers. This method, while +largely in use some years ago, has not proved so generally successful as +have some of the other methods previously given. + +A well-organized program of work is essential in successful poultry +keeping. The following schedule is followed by many successful poultrymen +as a means of distributing their time to the best advantage during the +day. + +A POULTRYMAN'S DAILY TIME TABLE + + Based on a One-man 1,500-bird Farm Producing Market Eggs + 7:00-8:00 A.M.--Feed and water all stock. + 8:00-9:00 A.M.--Fill mash hoppers and clean dropping boards. + 9:00-11:00 A.M.--Two hours for cleaning houses, cultivating yards, + repairing of buildings, preparation of egg cases, + packing eggs and miscellaneous jobs. + 11:00-12:00 M.--Feed green feed and collect eggs. + 12:00-1:00 P.M.--Lunch hour. + 1:00-2:00 P.M.--Water all stock. + 2:00-4:00 P.M.--Same work as from 9:00 to 11:00 A.M. + 4:00-5:00 P.M.--Feed and collect eggs. + +_Ducks, Geese, Turkeys and Other Fowl._--While the raising and keeping of +chickens occupy the largest and most important part of the general +operation of poultry keeping, there is a growing interest in the +production of other types of fowl, including ducks, geese, turkeys, and in +some instances, guinea fowl and pheasants. Each of these really +constitutes a separate and distinct poultry industry, requiring specific +feeding, breeding and management practices. Some of the fundamental +factors in the care of these types of poultry are given for the beginner. +In the case of these fowl, as in chickens, it is essential to start in a +small way and develop as experience dictates. + +_Ducks._--From a rather obscure and unknown source of poultry meat, the +duck and the duckling have become common to restaurants and the home +table. This has been accomplished through the operations of large +commercial duck farms which sell hundreds of thousands of birds annually. +The selection of breed types, proper feeding and management and skillful +marketing have made it possible to attract a wide public interest and an +appetite for these fowls on a permanent basis. + +The best known varieties of ducks are the Indian Runner, a small type and +primarily an egg producer; the Muscovy and the Pekin, both of which are +used for meat purposes, the former being best adapted to general farm use +and the latter to intensive breeding on large establishments devoted +solely to the purpose of duck raising. The old simile, "Like a duck takes +to water," implies the fondness of ducks for the aquatic element. However, +ducks will do well without swimming facilities. + +Incubation of duck eggs can be carried on in the same manner as chicken +eggs, except that more moisture is essential to good hatches. The period +of incubation is 28 days for all types, except for the Muscovy, for which +it is 33 to 35 days. The growing birds, like mature ducks, are hardy and +ordinarily show a much lower mortality percentage than chickens. If only a +few ducks are kept, they will follow the habits of a flock of chickens and +need be given no special attention. When they are raised without other +poultry an open shed is all that is necessary for winter quarters and +some shade arrangement for protection against hot summer sun. + +The feed rations that have been given for baby chicks and growing stock +can be used for ducks, or any standard commercial feed for the respective +ages. It is recommended that the chick and growing mashes be mixed with +fine, chopped greens such as cabbage or lawn clippings, and sufficient +water added to the mixture to make it moist. One pound of sand or grit may +be added to furnish the duck with grinding material. Fresh water in +shallow dishes should be available during the feeding periods which ought +to be three times a day. For the mature birds, the laying mash, previously +given, and moistened, will be found satisfactory with fresh greens added, +unless grass is available on range. Hoppers containing sand or grit should +be available if a number of ducks are kept. + +_Geese._--Geese can be raised successfully wherever other types of poultry +will grow. That they are not so popular as ducks is shown by the fact that +only about one-third as many geese as ducks are raised in this country. +The most popular breeds, in order of popularity, are Toulouse, Embden, +African and Chinese. The Toulouse is the largest and most favored, the +mature gander weighing 26 pounds and the adult goose about 20 pounds. + +Geese are usually kept in small numbers in areas where there is an +abundance of grass and a supply of water for swimming. They, like ducks, +are hardy and are rarely affected with diseases or parasites. A plentiful +supply of grass is sufficient feed for the growing goslings. The demand +and prices for geese are lower than for most other types of poultry. For +housing, only a shed in winter and a sun-shade in summer are required. + +The period of incubation varies from 30 to 35 days, depending upon the +size of the breed. The young goslings are easily killed by excessive +moisture or may become lost and therefore they require considerable +attention during the early stages. A good food for the goslings is stale +bread soaked in milk or water, fed after they are 48 hours old. Scalded +cracked corn may also be given or a mash made of four parts corn meal and +one part grain middlings. Plenty of drinking water is essential. Whole +grain may be fed after the goslings are well feathered. When the geese +near the marketing period they should be kept in confinement and fed a +moist mash made of one part grain shorts and two parts corn meal. A +bedding of short straw will keep the fattening pens clean and provide +roughage. Best prices are obtainable during the late fall and early winter +months. + +_Turkeys._--Because the turkey is such a popular form of meat during the +holidays and so much attention is directed to it as an indigenous native +bird, it rivals the American eagle as a national emblem. Turkey raising on +a commercial scale has had its ups and downs for a great many years. One +of the principal scourges has been the so-called black-head disease and +this has destroyed the industry in many areas. It is now known that this +disease is carried by a small parasitic worm common to chickens, which, +however, it apparently does not seriously injure. The black-head germ, +carried by this worm, clogs the blood in the head of the turkey and causes +quick death. For this reason, it has been found impracticable to raise +turkeys where chickens are present, unless they are kept entirely separate +by confinement. + +The principal varieties of domesticated turkeys are the Bronze, White +Holland, Bourbon Red, Black, Narragansett and Slate. All are large, +handsome birds, each breed having a following of admirers. The Bronze is +the largest and heaviest and most popular, the mature adult male weighing +36 pounds and the mature hen 20 pounds. Under ordinary conditions turkeys +do not require much in the way of housing, except in cold weather when +covered roosting sheds should be available. The period of incubation is +28 days and they may be hatched under the same conditions as chickens. The +day-old young birds, or poults as they are called, can be shipped in the +same manner as day-old chicks. + +For feeding the poults, the United States Department of Agriculture +recommends fine-chopped hard-boiled eggs, including the shell, mixed with +green feed for the first ten days. This may be followed by feeding the +chick ration previously mentioned. Milk, especially buttermilk, is +excellent for the poults, and grit must be provided if it is not available +on range. Cod liver oil will be found helpful if added to the ration. +Turkeys are great rangers and travelers if they have the opportunity and +will pick up enough insects to keep them going through the day. A grain +ration should be fed just before they go to roost. Where they are raised +in confinement, or semi-confinement, more food must be given and under +these conditions the strictest sanitation must be practiced. + +Both old and young turkeys should be protected from dampness, and the +growing birds, especially, kept free from lice. The turkey grower who +practices the best systems of management and feeding will be successful +and will find a ready market for his product at Thanksgiving and during +the Christmas holidays. A few birds may be successfully kept in +confinement and used as a home-raised source of high quality meat during a +considerable portion of the year. + +_Guinea Fowl._--The guinea is known for its watch-dog proclivities, making +a characteristic raucous noise when strangers appear; for the rich quality +of the eggs which are produced in good quantity; and for the delectability +of the breast meat when properly prepared. The young guinea may be fed as +has been recommended for young chicks. The older birds are excellent +foragers and require little attention. The country home owner, if he does +not object to their noise, will find a few of these unusual birds an +interesting and valuable asset. + +_Pheasants._--Many persons with a flair for the new and unusual are +successfully raising pheasants, the Ring Neck variety being the most +popular. While they are not so hardy as chickens and must be given some +added care for that reason, they may be fed in the same manner and kept +successfully in confinement. Pheasants may be used as an additional source +of income since they are nearly always in demand for meat. The eggs may be +hatched in incubators or by hens and the young pheasants brooded like +chicks. The period of incubation is 21 days. Shelter is not necessary +except in extremely cold weather and not then if trees or shrubs are +available. Detailed information on game bird production can be obtained +from More Game Birds in America, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York City. + + +_Do's_ + +Net income depends upon efficient management and each phase of the latter +must be mastered. + +Feed a well-balanced chick ration to the very young and growing stock. + +Be sure the ration fed to laying stock is adapted to their needs in egg +production. + +Sanitation measures are fundamental in good management and their neglect +may be fatal. + +Follow the management recommendations of practical and successful +poultrymen. + +Use the marketing system best adapted to the locality and the personal +factor of sales ability. + +Determine possibilities of selling ducks, geese, turkeys and other fowl as +a means of supplementing income from chickens. + +Remember each type of poultry requires specific management. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't neglect scientific feeding of the poultry flock. + +Don't go into poultry production on a large scale without experience. + +Don't neglect local markets as outlets for the sale of eggs and poultry +and don't make shipment of eggs and stock to commission houses of unknown +rating. + +Don't over-extend in poultry investment to the point where temporary +reversal would be disastrous. + + + + +_Chapter_ XI + +THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY + + +Living in the country should make possible an adequate and safe milk +supply for the family. The transportation of milk from the farm and its +distribution in the city constitute a costly process under present +methods, and this limits consumption. Furthermore, the ordering in advance +of a definite quantity each day means as a rule that only the milk +delivered will be consumed. A maximum amount of milk is thereby set, based +upon factors that may be alien to real needs of the family for this food +beverage. Using milk and dairy products freely from a near-by supply will +contribute much to the health of the entire family and especially of the +children. The term "family" is used in this case to denote two or three +adults and the same number of children. + +Nutritional experts declare that milk is the most important of the +"protective" foods. Scientists agree that milk protects by providing in +the best form those necessities which are often lacking in other foods. +Milk supplies calcium so necessary for sound bones and teeth, phosphorus, +easily digested protein, butter fat and milk sugar. Most important of all +are the vitamins found in milk. Milk acquires these properties from the +cow, a living factory manufacturing milk from raw products, which are the +foods the cow eats--the pasture grasses and the cured hay, supplemented +with carefully blended grain rations. Nutrition authorities recommend at +least a quart of milk daily for every child and ample amounts for adults +as well. + +_Sources of Milk Supply._--The country resident will have little +difficulty in securing an adequate supply of wholesome milk at low cost. +He may obtain it from a neighbor who is in the dairy business or he may +maintain a cow or two where the area is large enough to provide some +pasturage and where a building for stabling is available. + +If the milk is bought from some near-by farm it is important that the +purchaser assure himself of the health of the cows producing the milk and +of the sanitary conditions surrounding production and handling. Quality in +milk is much more than cream content. Cleanliness in production and +handling is far more important, and this the country resident can +personally determine by occasional visits to the source of supply, an +advantage difficult for the urban resident to attain. Quality in milk is +not necessarily measured by the investment in the milking barn or the +showy external features of the producing and handling plant. + +The essential factors in the production of clean, wholesome milk are +healthy, clean cows; healthy milkers; clean, sterile utensils; and +sanitary stables and premises. These conditions can be attained by any +careful dairyman and can be checked by any layman interested in securing a +dependable supply of safe milk. The purchaser should insist that the cows +be tested regularly under government supervision for tuberculosis and the +reactors to the test removed from the herd. This is important in all +circumstances and particularly so where the milk is consumed in the +unprocessed state by children. + +_Producing Milk at Home._--It is entirely feasible for the rural family to +produce at home an ample supply of milk at low cost. To do this it is only +necessary to have stabling facilities for one or two cows and to have a +member of the family sufficiently interested to feed, care for and milk +the cow or cows. If this plan is to be followed the owner, if he is +inexperienced, should enlist the aid of a neighbor or friend in making the +purchase. The animal should be fresh, that is, just starting the period of +lactation, and preferably not more than four or five years of age. A cow +that is fresh can be judged as to ability to produce good milk from all +four quarters of the udder in adequate amount. + +_Selecting the Family Cow._--The breed to be selected is not important, +except that for family use a cow of the so-called Channel breeds (Guernsey +or Jersey) is considered better adapted because of the higher butter fat +content of the milk as compared with the Holstein-Friesian, for example, +which usually produces a larger total quantity of milk with less butter +fat. It is not necessary to purchase a pure-bred animal of any of the +breeds, so far as milk production is concerned. On the other hand, a +pure-bred registered cow may often be purchased at moderate cost. The +owner will undoubtedly take greater pride in such an animal and her +offspring will have higher selling value. + +In making a purchase the new owner should insist upon having a tuberculin +test chart delivered with the animal, and certification as to freedom from +contagious abortion (B. abortus) should also be obtained if possible. If +production records have been kept during the animal's previous lactation +periods, these should be secured, as they will definitely indicate +milk-producing ability over a considerable period of time. For family use +a cow that produces milk steadily in uniform amounts over eight or ten +months is far more desirable than one which produces a large volume +following freshening and then slumps off rapidly. + + +[Illustration: Desirable types of utensils for a small dairy. _A._ Crock +for temporary milk storage or for gravity separation of cream. _B._ +Milking stool. _C._ Twenty-quart milk can and cover. _D._ Strainer. _E._ +Stirrer. _F._ Circulating water cooler for freshly drawn milk (not +essential for a one- or two-cow dairy if other cooling practices are +followed). _G._ Sanitary covered-top milk pail. _H._ Measuring rod. _I._ +Small churn for family butter making.] + + +_Importance of Pasture._--Pasturage plays so important a part in +economical milk production and in contributing to the health of the animal +that it is unwise to consider keeping one's own cow unless 3 or 4 acres of +pasture land per animal are available. When the cow is on pasture from May +until November no other roughage is required, provided of course the +grasses and clovers are plentiful. Plenty of water is essential, and if +this is not made available by a stream in the pasture, it will be +necessary to furnish drinking water three times daily. + +_Stabling and Feeding._--From early November until May it will be +necessary to provide stabling facilities, roughage in the form of hay, +ensilage or beet pulp, and concentrated feed to keep the animal producing. +About 3 tons of good timothy-and-clover hay or alfalfa will be needed per +animal during these six months. Storage room will be needed in the +building for the hay and for the concentrated feed. A good practice is to +keep the cow in a box stall 12 by 14 feet in size. Ample bedding should be +provided, consisting of straw, wood shavings, shredded corn stalks, peat +moss or dried leaves. These will absorb the liquid manure and after such +use should be applied to the garden or other land areas for fertilizing +purposes. + +The daily ration of the cow when stabled will consist of from 15 to 25 +pounds of hay daily and 1 pound of concentrated feed for each 3-1/2 pounds +of milk being produced. (A quart of milk weighs about 2.2 pounds.) Milk +flow can be stimulated and the health of the cow conserved by feeding +moistened beet pulp, where silage is not available. This may be purchased +locally at the feed store, where the grain concentrate may also be +obtained. The latter can be bought in bags and a mixture analyzing about +20 per cent protein is recommended. When the cow is on pasture the grain +ration may be reduced by one-third or one-half, depending upon the quality +of the pasture available. + +_Cost of Milk Production._--Where all of the feed mentioned above is +purchased, the cost per quart of the milk will approximate 3 cents, +excluding labor and overhead costs of buildings, etc. This cost can be +reduced if pasture does not have to be rented and if some of the other +food requirements are raised at home. + +_Management._--Feeding the cow twice daily and milking at the same +interval will give the best results. Morning and evening are usually the +most convenient times for milking and the same hourly routine should be +observed daily. Feeding the grain ration after milking is desirable. A +good practice is to furnish hay and beet pulp between milkings. + +To insure cleanliness of the milk, the udder and teats may be wiped with a +damp cloth before milking. Flanks and the udder should be clipped of hair, +thus facilitating a clean condition of the animal at all times. Soiled +bedding should be removed and clean material substituted as required. + +The normal cow should produce an average of 10 quarts of milk daily over a +period of ten months. In the remaining two months the cow will not be +producing milk but will be resting and building up body reserves for the +coming period of lactation. The cow should be bred about nine months +before it is desired to have her bear a calf. The time of year when such +freshening should occur is not important, although either spring or fall +months are considered best, to avoid weather and temperature extremes at +the critical calving period. Under this plan it will be noted that the +family will not have milk from home sources for two months during the +year. The alternative is to have two cows, one freshening in April and the +other in October, ensuring a continuous supply, or to purchase milk during +the "dry" period. + +_Utilizing a Large Supply of Milk._--The urban consumer of milk accustomed +to 1 or 2 quarts daily may wonder how an average of 10 quarts or more per +day can be utilized. Plenty of uses will be found for the product. Milk +will be used more often as a beverage; cream will be found delightful in +many ways, in the form of butter and home-made ice cream, for example; and +cheeses will provide an outlet for surplus whole or skimmed milk. Milk of +good quality can be disposed of readily to neighbors. If two families own +one cow each, a plan may be worked out for furnishing each other with milk +when one cow or the other is not producing. Wherever facilities are +available and there is a willingness to care for a family cow or two, the +availability of large amounts of milk will compensate for the trouble and +bring health and vigor to the rural family. + +_The Goat as a Source of Milk Supply._--The milk goat is especially useful +to those who desire a smaller quantity of milk than that produced by a cow +and where the space is inadequate for keeping a larger milk-producing +animal. In composition, goat's milk closely resembles that of the cow, the +butter fat ranging from 3.2 per cent to 4.4 per cent with total solids of +nearly 12 per cent. The average production of a good milk goat is about 2 +quarts of milk daily, sufficient for many a family. The milk is pure +white in color and the cream rises very slowly. If goat's milk is properly +produced and handled, the bad odor, associated with the animal in the +public mind, should not be present. Keeping dirt or hair out of the milk +when it is being drawn, and clean quarters, are essential in eliminating +odor in the milk. It has been proved that goat's milk is especially +valuable for children and invalids and exceeds cow's milk in ease of +digestibility. + +Goats are in their prime at about five years of age, but will continue to +produce milk for several years after that. They should be bred twice a +year. The usual number of kids is two, although occasionally four are born +at one time. The period between breeding and giving birth is about five +months. Goats may be successfully fed with the same rations as the dairy +cow. Although they consume only about one-seventh as much feed as the cow, +the common impression that the goat can produce milk on practically no +feed is erroneous. A ration for winter feeding, suggested by the United +States Department of Agriculture, consists of 2 pounds of alfalfa or +clover hay, 1-1/2 pounds of silage or roots and from 1 to 2 pounds of a +concentrated grain ration, composed of 100 pounds of corn, 100 pounds of +oats, 50 pounds of bran and 25 pounds of linseed meal. In the summer when +pasture is available they should be fed 1 to 1-1/2 pounds of the grain +mixture. Data from experiment stations indicate that the annual feed cost +of a milk goat is about $11 and the feed cost per quart of milk produced, +about 1-1/2 cents. + +Good milk goats bring good prices and in most instances will cost almost +as much as a cow. They are much more prolific, however, permitting more +rapid additions and offering greater revenue from the sales of young +animals, wherever there is a market for them. The two principal breeds are +the Toggenburg and the Saanen, both originating in Switzerland, and the +Spanish Maltese whose original home was in the island of Malta. Goats are +thoroughly domesticated, are contented with a small grazing area and may +be easily handled. They are subject to stomach worms, indicated by loss of +flesh and weakness, and to Malta fever, which can be transmitted to man, +in whom it is evidenced by recurring high temperatures. The former can be +controlled by using, as a drench, a copper sulfate solution of 1 ounce to +3 quarts of water. Where the latter trouble is present the milk should be +pasteurized or scalded before it is consumed. As an economical source of +easily digested milk, the goat is recommended, especially to those +families with rather small acreage. They can make the most of poorer +pasturage, are clean in habits and docile. + + +_Do's_ + +Use milk freely for its food value to every member of the family. + +Make sure of the quality of the milk purchased. + +Acquiring a family cow is the best and cheapest source of an adequate milk +supply. + +Management of the right kind will make the family cow an invaluable asset. + +Learn to use surplus milk in nutritious and palatable ways. + +Determine the possibilities of securing from the goat an adequate milk +supply for a small family. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't use canned milk except as supplement to liberal, fresh supply. + +Don't overlook the need of pasturage for economical milk production. + +Don't supply family with milk of doubtful sanitary quality. + +Don't neglect to have a veterinarian make health tests of the cow or +goat. + + + + +_Chapter_ XII + +MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS + + +The distribution of farm products on an efficient basis is one of the most +difficult problems in agriculture. Because of the demand of the consumer +for small quantities of products at each purchase, the breaking up of +wholesale packages, involving additional labor and containers and the +elimination of unfit specimens, increases handling costs and delays the +arrival of the product from the farm to the consumer. In recent years the +producer has sought various means of eliminating some of these costs of +distribution so that he could get a larger share of the consumer's dollar, +and the consumer has welcomed the opportunity of buying products direct +from the producer. + +Unquestionably, one of the best means of selling farm commodities is +through the medium of roadside markets that have now become so common +along the principal highways of the country. These range in type from the +display of a few baskets of farm commodities on the ground or on a table, +with sales of $100 a year or less, to those of a more pretentious nature +in which buildings and equipment are erected suitable to the purpose. That +there are great possibilities of developing a successful business in +selling products in this manner is evidenced by some of the more elaborate +markets, transacting an annual business of $30,000 or more. In most cases +these have been developed from small beginnings and the facilities have +increased as the good reputation of the market has spread. + +_Advantages of Roadside Marketing._--From the standpoint of the producer +or the operator of the roadside stand, there are certain advantages that +have contributed to the growth of the movement. For example, there is no +expense or time involved in delivering the products to a distant market, +since the produce is sold by a member of the household, or by the +operator's employees in the larger types of markets. It is possible +through such a market to build up a clientele of buyers who will return +for further purchases. They will tell their friends about the good +quality, dependable produce which they have been able to purchase at some +particular stand. Furthermore, a wide variety of products can be sold in +this way at one stand, which might have to be segregated and shipped to +different markets if some other method of marketing were being followed. +This would add considerably to the expense of selling, especially where +the volume of each commodity is small. Furthermore, in such a method of +selling, the producer comes in direct contact with the consumer. Ideas are +exchanged, mutual confidence is developed and both should share +financially in the advantages accruing from eliminating ordinary means of +distribution. + +_Problems in Roadside Marketing._--On the other hand, there are certain +disadvantages of roadside selling which operate against successful +merchandising in such a manner. These should be fully considered in +deciding how the surplus farm products are to be disposed of. Due to the +difficulty experienced by many potential buyers in getting satisfactory +produce, they have become discouraged and will often drive by all roadside +markets rather than take a chance on buying commodities that may be +misrepresented. Naturally, this works against the development of adequate +business and makes it necessary for the individual to spend considerable +time and effort in selling himself and his market to the public and in +creating confidence and good will. + +There is necessarily some loss due to depreciation in the quality of +perishable commodities. In many cases it is necessary to expose these +commodities to the sun and weather, and if they are not sold promptly +they will not long maintain the standard of quality which the operator +must have identified with his market. The operator has no knowledge of the +number of customers he will have when he displays his products, nor does +he know the whims of the individuals who may patronize his market that +day. To avoid the losses resulting from unsold products it is desirable to +have some other outlet which will absorb unused quantities, even though +the price is not so good as would be secured from ordinary sales at the +market. Many of the commodities can be delivered to some wholesale market +to be sold for what they will bring. Another outlet that is available is +through canning or preserving the commodities and selling them later in +the season under the label carried by the roadside stand. + +It should be borne in mind that the business of operating a roadside +market has its own peculiar problems and success in it depends upon +following good merchandising principles, to which are added those finer +points which pertain to direct selling. The attitude of the public must be +studied and plans for promoting sales must be adopted which will result in +attracting and holding customers. Beyond doubt, the two most important +factors in the operation of a successful roadside market are +attractiveness of the stand itself and the quality of the products that +are offered for sale. + +_Plans for a Roadside Market._--A roadside market need not be expensive to +be attractive. The thought motivating the whole project should be to +create in the buyer's mind a farm scene, laying emphasis upon such factors +as are easily associated in the public mind with farming. These include +neatness of the establishment, cleanliness and honesty in every phase of +the operation. One should not undertake to run a roadside market in +competition, so far as appearance goes, with the corner grocery store in +the city. It should have an individuality of its own and be _of_ the +country as well as _in_ the country. + +The location of the market has a great deal to do with its attractiveness. +It is well to locate it a short distance from the house, so that it stands +out as a market, and it should be placed back from the highway to permit +motorists to drive off the highway in making stops for purchases. In some +states, highway regulations require that such stands be located far enough +from the highway to permit all four wheels of a standing vehicle to be off +the road surface. If the stand can be located under some good shade trees, +that in itself constitutes an invitation to the sun-blinded traveler to +stop and partake of the commodities offered for sale. + + +[Illustration: A wayside market that meets every need and attracts +buyers.] + + +So far as the design of the market itself is concerned, there are endless +opportunities for one's genius to be brought into operation. It should be +borne in mind that, while there are certain standard requirements in the +way of display shelves and facilities for keeping reserve stocks +immediately available, as well as a safe container for funds, originality +in design attracts attention. Here again, the design should not be +obtrusive, but one that blends with the atmosphere of the place where the +stand is set up. It must convey the impression that the owner of the +property is himself the operator of the stand and has transferred to the +stand the same interest which is manifested in his home and its immediate +surroundings. + +Most purchasers at roadside stands want to see the whole display without +having to stumble over baskets and other articles to find out what is +offered, and they expect prompt attention. As a general rule, the more +nearly the stand can supply the complete needs of the purchaser in that +field, the more likely are buyers to stop and become regular patrons. In +addition to the display of seasonable fruits and vegetables, it is +desirable to have eggs and dairy products, including butter, cottage +cheese, canned fruits or jellies that have the home-made farm atmosphere +about them. + +In most cases, ice is available or electric refrigeration can be utilized +for keeping cold milk, buttermilk, cider and other products available for +immediate consumption for the hot and thirsty traveler in the summertime. +Hot coffee or hot chocolate can be made available for service in colder +weather. Very often the road-stand operator destroys the genuine sales +appeal that such stands have by specializing in manufactured concoctions +that have no relation whatever to the location where they are sold. Too +often the stands are covered with advertisements of such commodities, and +this immediately creates sales resistance so far as the promotion of fresh +farm products is concerned. + +_Origin of Products Offered._--The ordinary purchaser at a roadside market +likes to think that he is buying products raised or processed on the place +where they are sold, and believes that he is thereby securing fresher and +better commodities in which the seller has had an interest from planting +time to harvest. Certainly some of the commodities sold should come +directly from the tract where the market is located, and visual evidence +should be given of that fact. On the other hand, there is no objection to +the addition of other commodities so long as they are in accord with what +a producer might be expected to have for sale at that season of the year. +Many operators have found that the sale of gasoline and lubricating oil +and tobacco in various forms can be offered for sale to good advantage +simply as a part of the service being offered by the market to the public. + +_Quality the Keystone._--The fundamental basis for success in the +operation of any roadside market lies in the quality of the products that +are offered for sale. This is a rather difficult condition for the +operator to maintain consistently, but it is fundamental in securing +customers and in keeping them. Products that have become stale, +unattractive or unpalatable for any reason should never be offered for +sale and should be discarded, made into some by-product or sold through +some channel which will not identify the article with the stand itself. A +satisfied customer who develops confidence in the integrity and good faith +of the stand operator is a decided asset, and no effort spent in +cultivating such confidence is wasted. + +Every successful roadside stand operator has built his business on honest +dealing and a personal interest in seeing that the buyer is satisfied. +This contact between the owner of a small business and a buyer is one that +can be capitalized to a very great extent. It is one of the handicaps +which a chain-store organization has to face and one that must be +developed by the person who wishes to establish a permanent and +satisfactory business in this merchandising field. Very often the sale of +farm products can be supplemented to the advantage of the stand by +offering small ornamental plants or by the display of pet animals, +particularly for the younger members of the traveling public. + +_Success Factors._--A definite program of advertising can be developed +with many original features that apply directly to the type of business. +If the operator has pride in his products he will be glad to have his name +on every package of commodities that he sells. This is good sales +propaganda even if it only indicates the confidence of the seller in his +products and his willingness to stand behind them. Besides that, however, +it creates a knowledge of his name or the designation of his farm or stand +among purchasers who will then have a means of identifying it to their +friends. A small leaflet, describing the products that are offered for +sale and the intention of the operator to give the customer service, can +be put in each package at very small cost with good results. It is also +possible to prepare leaflets dealing with methods of cooking or of +preparation of the commodities sold that will build good will on the part +of customers. + +The most successful operators, again, are those who do not depend upon +casual visitors for their trade but who make of the casual visitor a +regular customer and one who will speak a good word to others. In other +words, genuine effort must be made to identify the location as a place to +which buyers will wish to return as they do to any other place of business +that gives satisfactory service. In this way the operator distinguishes +himself from his fly-by-night competitors who exist during a week or two +when surpluses of commodities are available at low prices and who have no +thought beyond that of the immediate sale. + +Wherever possible, the attention of the passing consumer should be +directed to the stand before he reaches it so that he will be prepared to +stop when he comes upon it. Signs of this type on either side of the +stand, but some distance each way from it, are more important than is +generally recognized. They constitute invitation cards and should be so +worded as to excite curiosity and create a feeling in the intending +purchaser's mind that he will make no mistake in stopping to fill his +wants at the stand. It goes without saying that both the advertising and +the stand itself must be so planned as to attract the purchaser, and every +effort should be concentrated on the psychology of such an appeal, +avoiding any appearance of slouchiness, which would be more repellent than +attractive. The purchaser forms a quick opinion of the stand from the way +in which it is conducted and from the appearance of the one who is there +to make sales. An attitude of cordial cooperation on the part of the +attendant, who is, of course, appropriately dressed and in the right +mental attitude, is a factor that must not be overlooked in the effort to +create a favorable impression. + +_Meal Service Amid Farm Surroundings._--Many operators, located at +strategic points near main highways, have found that maximum profits are +obtained by serving meals prepared from the vegetables supplemented by +poultry or other products of the little farm. These meals may be served in +a booth or building adjoining the roadside stand or in a room of the house +turned into a seasonal dining room. Persons who are city residents quickly +learn to appreciate the virtues of fresh vegetables and freshly killed +poultry that may be thus served. A schedule of reasonable prices must be +maintained if trade is to be built up. Usually special dinners or lunches +can be prepared from available products in season, thereby giving the +customer more for his money at the least cost and trouble to the operator. + +This small home restaurant business can be handled frequently by members +of the operator's household and countless examples can be given of real +financial success following such ventures. Expansion can take place as +consumer demand develops. Cleanliness, good home cooking, generous +portions and prompt and courteous service will work wonders in such a +project. + +_Tourist Guest Houses._--A large number of country homes are now open to +the public as tourist guest houses, their owners finding that they can +obtain a modest but worth while supplement to other forms of income from +them. These tourist guest houses are largely a development of the past +several years. Their popularity with automobile travelers appears to be +increasing, and there is genuine opportunity for the housewife on a small +farm to operate one of these establishments. + +It should be kept in mind by the housewife who thinks of opening her home +to tourists that the proposition has its drawbacks as well as its +advantages. Only a modest fee, often $1.00 for a room and 30 or 35 cents +for breakfast, is obtained from each tourist guest. However, a great +number of American women have found that the work and trouble occasioned +by taking in tourists are worth while and actually enjoy their contacts +with the traveling public. + +The tourist guest house, obviously, should be located on a road that is +well traveled by tourists. A simple and attractive "Tourists +Accommodated" sign and a neat and pleasing front yard are needed to +interest passers-by in the place. The porch should be neat and attractive +and the interior of the house should give the appearance of restfulness, +simplicity and comfort. + +Tourists usually inquire about prices and look over a place before +deciding to stop there; if there are women in the party, one of them +usually makes the inquiry. The family should be courteous in answering +questions and showing the prospective customers about. They should not be +indifferent, and yet must not seem to be too anxious for business. When +the travelers decide to stay, the family should endeavor at once to make +them feel at home. The guests will frequently ask questions about roads, +local resorts and near-by recreational facilities, and the family will +find it useful to be informed on these matters. + +_Dog Breeding as a Source of Income._--Many persons who have located in +the country, and who have a liking for domestic animals, have found dog +breeding an interesting and frequently profitable enterprise. By placing a +wire cage along the highway the attention of the traveling public is +attracted to the puppies. Some of the more popular breeds of dogs include +the Airedale; the Boston, Fox and Irish Terriers; the Chow Chow; the +Collie, and the English and Irish Setters. + +The breeding of dogs is a highly specialized activity, particularly where +it is carried on under intensive conditions and with little range. Dogs +are subject to external and internal parasites requiring preventive and +curative measures. As in the case of all other animals, sanitation is an +essential factor to success and feeding methods must be adjusted to the +age and the breed. + +The beginner in dog raising should consult a recognized veterinarian who +specializes in small animal practice, and observe his recommendations. +Such professional men are located in most communities and their advice +will be found most helpful. + +The prices obtainable for male and female young animals vary with the +locality. There is usually an established scale of prices which may easily +be obtained and which it will pay to observe. Dog shows are growing in +popularity and exhibitions at these expositions will serve to advertise +the breeder's stock. Advertising in local papers is effective in bringing +to the public the availability of stock of distinctive breeds. Fashions in +dog breeds change with the times and the public must be catered to along +the lines of current interest. + + +_Do's_ + +Use the roadside market or near-by outlets for disposing of excess farm +products. + +Fully utilize the possibilities of roadside stands in building a permanent +business. + +Road stands, as well as the products on display, must have sales appeal. + +Produce at home all farm products offered for sale, if possible, and make +the growing area the background of the market. + +Stress quality of products and the responsibility of the operator. + +Advertising of the right type will multiply sales. + +Offer meal service with farm surroundings wherever possible. + +If considerable traffic passes the premises, try out possibilities of +accommodating tourists. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't try to dispose of miscellaneous surplus of farm commodities by +shipment to market if a roadside market can be set up. + +Don't ruin standing of roadside market by selling inferior or stale +products. + +Don't try to run a city fruit stand with a farm background. + +Don't destroy country home life by over-commercialization. + + + + +SUGGESTED REFERENCE LIST + + +Timely and valuable publications of the United States Department of +Agriculture, state departments of agriculture and state agricultural +colleges and experiment stations are available to country residents. +Copies of them may be obtained by writing to the agencies mentioned. To +supplement them and also to supplement advice received from county +agricultural agents, a number of useful books are listed below. Those +interested in them may, in many cases, obtain them from local libraries, +or may find it useful to own certain of them themselves. + + + Author Title Year Publisher + + Agee, Alva "First Steps in Farming" 1923 Harper + + Arnold, Schuyler "Wayside Marketing" 1929 De La Mare + + Auchter, E. C., "Orchard and Small 1929 Wiley + and Knapp, H. B. Fruit Culture" + + Ayres, Q. C., and "Land Drainage and Reclamation" 1928 McGraw-Hill + Scoates, D. + + Bailey, L. H. "Manual of Gardening," 1925 Macmillan + Rev. ed. + + Bear, E. "Soil Management" 1927 Wiley + + "Theory and Practice in 1929 Wiley + the Use of Fertilizers" + + Bottomley, M. E. "Design of Small Properties; 1926 Macmillan + a Book for the Home-Owner in + City and Country." + + Bush-Brown, Mrs. "Flowers for Every Garden" 1927 Little + Louise (Carter) + + Chenoweth, W. W. "Food Preservation; a 1930 Wiley + Textbook for Student, + Teacher, Homemaker and + Home Factory Operator" + + + Chupp, C. "Manual of Vegetable 1925 Macmillan + Garden Diseases" + + "Manual of Vegetable 1925 Macmillan + Garden Insects" + + Cline, L. E. "Turkey Production" 1933 Orange Judd + + Cox, J. F. "Crop Production and 1930 Wiley + Management" + + Crosby, C. R., and "Manual of Vegetable 1918 Macmillan + Leonard, M. D. Garden Insects" + + Davenport, Eugene "The Farm" 1927 Macmillan + + Foster, W. H., and "Farm Buildings" 1928 Wiley + Carter, D. G. + + Fraser, Samuel "American Fruits; Their 1927 Judd + Propagation, Cultivation, + Harvesting and Distribution" + + Fraser, W. J. "Dairy Farming" 1930 Wiley + + Galpin, C. J. "Rural Social Problems" 1924 Century + + Gustafson, A. F. "Handbook of Fertilizers" 1932 Orange Judd + + Hottes, A. C. "1001 Garden Questions 1930 De La Mare + Answered" + + Hurd, L. M. "Practical Poultry Farming" 1931 Macmillan + + Jull, M. A. "Poultry Husbandry" 1930 McGraw-Hill + + Knott, J. E. "Vegetable Growing" 1930 Lea + + Langstroth, L. L., "Honey Bee," Rev. by 1927 American Bee + and Dadant, C. P. Dadant, Ed. 23 Journal + Charles + + Larson, C. W., and "Dairy Cattle Feeding 1928 Wiley + Putney, F. S. and Management" + + Lewis, H. R. "Productive Poultry 1928 Lippincott + Husbandry" + + Lippincott, W. A. "Poultry Production" 1927 Lea & Febiger + + Millar, C. E. "Soils and Soil Management" 1929 Webb Pub. Co. + + Murray, P. "Planning and Planting 1932 Orange Judd + the Home Garden" + + Pellett, F. C. "Productive Bee-Keeping" 1923 Lippincott + + Phillips, E. F. "Bee Keeping; a Discussion 1928 Macmillan + of the Honey Bee + and of the Production + of Honey," Rev. ed. + + Powers, W. L., and "Land Drainage 1922 Wiley + Teeter, T. A. H. for Farmers" + + Rice, J. E. "Practical Poultry Management" 1930 Wiley + + Rice, J. E., and "Practical Poultry Management" 1925 Wiley + Botsford, H. E. + + Root, A. I., and "ABC and XYZ of Bee 1923 Root + Root, E. R. Culture" + + Rose, M. S. "Feeding the Family" 1928 Macmillan + + Rowe, H. G. "Starting Right With Bees" 1922 A. I. Root Co. + + Sanderson, E. D. "Insects Pests of Farm, 1921 Wiley + Garden and Orchard," + Ed. 2, rev. and enl. by + L. M. Peairs + + Sears, F. C. "Productive Orcharding; 1927 Lippincott + Modern Methods of Growing + and Marketing Fruit" + + "Productive Small Fruit 1925 Lippincott + Culture" + + Sharp, M. A. "Principles of Farm Mechanics" 1930 Wiley + + Smith, R. H. "Agricultural Mechanics" 1925 Lippincott + + Thompson, H. C. "Vegetable Crops" 1931 McGraw-Hill + + Thorne, C. E. "Maintenance of Soil 1930 Orange Judd + Fertility" + + Watts, R. L. "Vegetable Gardening" 1921 Orange Judd + + Worthen, E. L. "Farm Soils, Their Management 1927 Wiley + and Fertilization" + + +SOME FARM AND GARDEN MAGAZINES + +_General_ + + American Agriculturist New York, N. Y. + + Country Gentleman Philadelphia, Pa. + + Farm Journal Philadelphia, Pa. + + New England Homestead Springfield, Mass. + + New Jersey Farm and Garden Sea Isle City, N. J. + + Pennsylvania Farmer Pittsburgh, Pa. + + Rural New Yorker New York, N. Y. + + +_Beekeeping_ + + American Bee Journal Hamilton, Ill. + + American Honey Producer Producers' League, Fargo, N. D. + + Bee-Cause Watertown, Wis. + + Gleanings in Bee Culture Medina, Ohio + + +_Dairying_ + + Ayrshire Digest Spencer, Mass. + + Dairy Farmer Des Moines, Iowa + + Guernsey Breeders' Journal Peterboro, N. H. + + Hoard's Dairyman Fort Atkinson, Wis. + + Holstein-Friesian World Laconia, N. Y. + + Jersey Bulletin Indianapolis, Ind. + + +_Flower Gardening_ + + American Home Garden City, N. Y. + + Better Homes and Gardens Des Moines, Iowa + + Flower Grower Calcium, N. Y. + + Gardener's Chronicle of America New York, N. Y. + + Horticulture Boston, Mass. + + +_Fruit Growing_ + + American Fruit Grower Chicago, Ill. + + Better Fruit Portland, Ore. + + +_Livestock_ + + Breeders' Gazette Chicago, Ill. + + +_Market Gardening_ + + Market Growers' Journal Louisville, Ky. + + +_Poultry_ + + American Poultry Journal Chicago, Ill. + + Everybody's Poultry Magazine Hanover, Pa. + + New England Poultryman Boston, Mass. + + Poultry Garden and Home Dayton, Ohio + + Poultry Item Sellersville, Pa. + + Poultry Success Springfield, Ohio + + Poultry Tribune Mt. Morris, Ill. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] Prepared by New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. + +[2] Prepared by Michigan State College of Agriculture. + +[3] Prepared by New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. + +[4] New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New +York. + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Living from the Land, by William B. 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Duryee + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Living from the Land + +Author: William B. Duryee + +Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33060] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LIVING FROM THE LAND *** + + + + +Produced by David Clarke and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<h1>A LIVING FROM THE LAND</h1> +<p> </p><p> </p><p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/frontistmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/frontis.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><span style="margin-left: 26em;"><small>(<i>Frontispiece</i>)</small></span><br /> +Country homes backed by intensive types of agriculture serve modern human needs.</p> + +<p> </p><p> </p><p> </p> +<h1>A LIVING<br />FROM THE LAND</h1> +<p> </p> +<h4>BY</h4> +<h3>WILLIAM B. DURYEE, M.Sc.</h3> +<p class="center"><i>Secretary of Agriculture,<br />State of New Jersey</i></p> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center">WHITTLESEY HOUSE<br />McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.<br />NEW YORK AND LONDON<br />1934</p> +<p> </p><p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center"><i>Copyright, 1934, by the</i> <span class="smcap">Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.</span></p> +<p class="center">All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be<br /> +reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers.</p> +<p class="center">THIRD PRINTING</p> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center">PUBLISHED BY WHITTLESEY HOUSE<br /> +A division of the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.</p> +<p class="center"><i>Printed in the United States of America by The Maple Press Co., York, Pa.</i></p> +<p> </p><p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center"><i>To my friend</i><br /><span class="smcap">Henry W. Jeffers</span></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Homesteading</span> days are here again. The present movement of people back to +the land is of a different type and has different objectives from those +which prevailed when a continent was to be conquered and exploited. Today +we know that many urban industries will operate on a seasonal basis and we +know too that periods of unemployment and shorter working days will +provide more leisure and probably lower incomes for hundreds of thousands +of families. The utilization of this leisure time to supplement incomes, +to raise the standards of living and of health, and to attain some measure +of economic security will tend more and more to settlement on the land.</p> + +<p>In these days of rapid transportation and all the attributes and +conveniences of modern country life, the hardships of the earlier period +of land development are non-existent. Although urban industrial +development has reached a point which will not be exceeded for many years +to come, the individual who needs additional income may adjust himself to +such circumstances by establishing a country homestead.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> Industrial +activity is tending to decentralize, largely as the result of widespread +power distribution, and a home in the country accessible to some form of +manufacturing or business employment offers undeniable attractions.</p> + +<p>This book is prepared primarily for the family that is inexperienced in +country living and in soil culture. Such a family should know about the +nature of the soil on which it lives, how to make it serve the family’s +needs and purposes, what to do, and what to avoid in order that success +may be attained and failure averted. Students of agriculture as a vocation +and practical farmers may find, beyond the elementary facts presented, +information of value and help to them. To know and to understand the +science and practice of agriculture is to have power to cope with and to +enjoy soil culture and animal husbandry. If this little volume helps to +answer clearly and definitely the many inquiries that are in the minds of +prospective and active homesteaders, it will have served its purpose.</p> + +<p>The knowledge of many practical people and the resources of agricultural +institutions and agencies have been drawn upon for this book. Grateful +acknowledgment is made to those who have contributed constructive +criticism and have helped in the preparation of material.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> Especial credit +is due to the personnel of the New Jersey and New York colleges of +agriculture and to my associates in the New Jersey Department of +Agriculture.</p> + +<p class="right"><span class="smcap">William B. Duryee.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trenton, N. J.</span>,<br /> +<i>December, 1933</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="contents"> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td align="right"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_ix">ix</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><small><span class="smcap">Chapter</span></small></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_I">I.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Turning from the City to the Country</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_II">II.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Getting Established in the Country</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_III">III.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Financing and Protecting the Investment</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_IV">IV.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Attributes of a House in the Country</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_V">V.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Servicing the Home</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_VI">VI.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Making the Soil Produce Crops</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_VII">VII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Food from the Garden</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Home Fruits and Bees</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_IX">IX.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Poultry as a Source of Income</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_X">X.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Successful Management of Poultry</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_XI">XI.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Family Milk Supply</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Chapter_XII">XII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Marketing Farm Products</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr></table> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h1>A LIVING FROM THE LAND</h1> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_I" id="Chapter_I"></a><i>Chapter</i> I</h2> +<h3>TURNING FROM THE CITY TO THE COUNTRY</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">America</span> was founded on the rock base of agriculture. The early settlers +tilled the soil and derived from it the simple things that they needed. +Necessity compelled them to be self-reliant, courageous and resourceful. +The establishment of a home in early days meant the clearing of land, the +erection of a house for human habitation and the building of shelters for +a few farm animals. Each farm home became practically self-sufficient so +far as the family needs were concerned. Clothing was made there for each +member of the family. After clearing and subduing the land, the settlers +were able to produce their cereal foods. Animals were slaughtered and the +meat processed to provide sustenance throughout the year. Through the +exchange of commodities and ideas with neighbors, advances in living +conditions were made.</p> + +<p>The family that was not resourceful in those days failed to survive. +Neighbors were too busy working out their own existence problems to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +succor the incompetent. Resourcefulness was called upon in meeting +onslaughts of beasts or human marauders. Thus there was built up a +tradition of seeking and utilizing resources that has gone on to make our +country great and the wonder of the rest of the world.</p> + +<p>Since pioneer days we have built a great industrial, commercial and +financial machine. American inventive genius, coupled with the best brains +of the civilized world, attracted by resources and opportunities on every +hand, has invaded every field and created a great industrial +superstructure.</p> + +<p>With the genesis and development of a great industrial era in the United +States there started a movement of population from farms to established +centers of population. The application of the sciences to the problems of +filling human wants gave this movement greater impetus. Mining and the +refining of metal ores, the exploiting of coal deposits, the building of +railroads, the construction of buildings for business and residential +purposes, as well as dozens of other great enterprises, served to draw +from the country the best of its human resources.</p> + +<p>Inventive genius began to concentrate on the solution of engineering and +construction problems created by congestion of population<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> and successive +steps in industrialization. This same technical genius was applied also to +farm operations which required laborious effort by men and work animals. +That this development itself progressed rapidly is demonstrated by the +fact that while in 1810 the effort of nearly every person was required to +produce enough food to sustain the population, in 1910 the efforts of +one-third of the people were sufficient to provide food for the nation and +export vast quantities to other countries.</p> + +<p>While the nation continued to grow rapidly in population and sought to +apply to ordinary practices the newer labor-saving devices, all was well. +It was inevitable, however, that the great industrial machine should +become over-developed, at least temporarily. Instead of machinery being a +servant of mankind it became an octopus that could not be checked. +Individual initiative, the wellspring of earlier developments in the +process, became atrophied. There came about such a high degree of +specialization in human effort as to make men dependent upon others for +work to do. Consequently, even a slight throwing out of gear of the +machine created unemployment, which reduced buying power for the +machine-made products and started a vicious downward spiral accompanied by +every form of economic distress.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>When such partial or complete breakdown of the superstructure occurs, +thoughtful people are brought “down to earth,” both collectively and very +intimately in thousands of individual cases. They begin to get back to +fundamentals and to seek means of becoming so reestablished as to avoid +future cataclysms. The family attracted to the city by the lure of high +industrial wages and by crowded avenues finds in such a breakdown that it +has lost its moorings.</p> + +<p>In seeking means of reestablishment free of the terrifying complications +of industrial life, the mind turns to the country, to the soil, to growing +things that are not visibly affected by economic cycles. The open country +seems ready to welcome back her errant children graciously and to enfold +them within her protecting bosom. We cannot go back, however, to pioneer +days. Free land is not available and we have not the arts or the patience +to practice the means of livelihood of those days. To make the new or +renewed relationship with the soil a success, it is necessary to +understand that country life, too, has changed during industrial +revolutions. Mother Earth is now, as ever, a generous but exacting parent. +To try to reestablish relationships in a blind and haphazard manner is +likely to lead to further disaster. Such a debacle is quite needless, +provided some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> fundamental principles and practices are understood and +followed.</p> + +<p>Unquestionably, the open country is now making the greatest appeal as a +place of residence that it has made at any time in the history of the +nation. To list the conveniences which now exist in the country is to +duplicate those which many people have considered as available only in +cities. In most areas of the country, for example, there are daily mail +delivery, telephone service, some measure of fire protection, and +transportation by automobile, bus or train. It is quite possible, for +example, to step into a bus at one’s dooryard and be carried to any part +of the United States by the same method of transportation.</p> + +<p>The development of the radio has brought to the country home all the +surging activities of national life and varied educational and +entertainment programs. The spread of electric light and power lines +through the country constitutes a boon that makes possible the use of all +kinds of electrical appliances known in the city, including refrigerators, +cooking ranges, washing machines, water pumps, water heaters and hundreds +of other machines and appliances, some of which are in their infancy. No +great difficulty is experienced in locating in the open country where such +electrical facilities are available.</p> + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/p8tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/p8.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture</i>)</small><br /> +An attractive farmstead offering requisites of a home in the open country.</p> + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/p9tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/p9.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture</i>)</small><br /> +Floor plan of house shown on opposite page.</p> +<p> </p><p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>On the main highways in the northern sections of the country a heavy fall +of snow used to mean isolation for weeks. Today the snow is removed as +rapidly as it falls, and these highways are kept open. The problems and +perils of isolation are thus removed.</p> + +<p>Tradesmen of all kinds are directing their sales toward country homes, and +supplies of ice and all kinds of food can be obtained almost daily at the +farm doorstep. There is also a tendency to develop factories in the +country away from the high-rent areas of cities and to utilize the +services of persons living in the vicinity of the factory for full or +partial time in the plants. The cost of living can be reduced by living in +the country, and opportunities for purchasing foods and other products at +wholesale prices and storing them against the time of need make further +economies possible.</p> + +<p>The greatest asset that the country has to offer relates to the health and +character of those who live close to nature. It has long been recognized +by many European countries that the ownership of even a small tract of +land, no larger than a city lot, perhaps, is a definite asset in building +a nation and in building individual character. In Germany, in Denmark and +in many other nations, the government lends its aid toward the +establishment of people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> in the country and makes it possible for them to +acquire and retain small holdings of land which they may call “home.” It +is on these small tracts that one sees veritable bowers of pastoral +industry and beauty.</p> + +<p>Residence in the open country, in contact with the soil, contributes to +physical strength and to mental health. When a man lives in the country, +his house, his way of living and his contribution to the community stand +out where all may see them. These latter assets have always been inherent +in country life. When to these are added the conveniences and the +opportunities for community enjoyment that are now a part of rural life, +its appeal is not difficult to understand.</p> + +<p>Anyone who intends to live in the country has his individual problems to +meet and to solve. In the solution of these problems there are many +resources and avenues to which he may turn in the present day for help and +for guidance. The tragic mistakes that have been made in the past can and +should be largely eliminated in the future. A clearer understanding should +be gained as to what one may obtain in the country in the form of a better +way of living, serving as an anchor to the windward even under favorable +economic conditions.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_II" id="Chapter_II"></a><i>Chapter</i> II</h2> +<h3>GETTING ESTABLISHED IN THE COUNTRY</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">In the</span> selection of a residence in the country, the settler must decide +whether he wishes to locate on a farm of considerable acreage or whether +he wants to have a relatively small tract ranging from 2 to 15 acres. In +the latter case, he is thinking primarily of a place of residence with +sufficient acreage to make it possible to secure a partial living from the +land immediately surrounding the home. The trend in such purchases is +toward the smaller place for a number of reasons.</p> + +<p>A large farm acquired by a relatively inexperienced person means a very +considerable burden in the development and maintenance of the land itself +on a producing basis. Capital is required for the purchase of equipment +and power. Parts of the land may need to be drained, and taxes must be +paid whether the land is productive or not. A person acquiring a farm of +50 or more acres will find that the major portion of his time, thought and +capital will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> be called upon to make it a success. If he has definitely +cut off his city connections and the idea of having a job there, and has +had experience in farming, then he may be in a position to take over a +large acreage so that his full time and possibly that of other members of +his family can be spent on various projects on the land he acquires.</p> + +<p>We are here primarily concerned, not with those who desire to enter upon +farming on a large scale, but with the family which would like to live in +the country, secure a partial living from the land surrounding the home +and still have the opportunity of gaining a livelihood from some +industrial or commercial activity located in a near-by city or town. It is +quite likely that we shall have a shorter working week and probably +periods of unemployment for hundreds of thousands of ambitious people. +Therefore, a place in the country that is well located with respect to +hard-surfaced highways and accessible to urban centers offers +opportunities for combining the advantages and economic assets of country +life with urban employment.</p> + +<p><i>Getting Started Right.</i>—Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon getting +the right start, particularly with respect to location. This is not only +essential for the satisfaction of the present occupant of the premises, +but also gives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> definite sales value in case circumstances make a change +of location desirable or necessary.</p> + +<p>It will often appear that the best location is on the outskirts of a city +or town and from some angles this is good reasoning. There are some +factors, however, that make such a location undesirable. For one thing, +the tax rate is likely to be higher in such areas than in the open +country, thus adding to overhead without compensating advantages. In the +second place, urban centers develop without regard to soil type and this +is an essential factor to the family that expects to engage in some +agricultural pursuit. Again, the type of inhabitants that live on the +fringe of towns and cities may not make good neighbors or associates for +children, especially. None of these disadvantages may be present in +locations close to centers of population, but the prospective settler +should give all these factors full consideration. The sales argument +frequently advanced that such locations will grow in value due to growth +of population may be fallacious.</p> + +<p>Many have found that the higher costs of living in these areas often +prevent the owner from holding on until the slow growth of population +outward makes a worth-while profit possible from his real estate. +Furthermore, the growth of cities and towns is definitely slowing down.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +The expansion of city areas is greatly curtailed and is not likely to be +resumed soon.</p> + +<p>The most important time to get expert opinion as to location is at the +beginning and not after purchasing. There are available in every locality +persons whose advice is useful in such matters. The county agricultural +agent located in nearly every county seat knows the countryside and his +advice on the subject of definite location should be sought once one has +decided upon the general area which seems attractive. In determining on +specific location the bank which has a clientele in the country will often +be found a helpful guide through suggestions or through ability to refer +the questioner to reputable and informed persons with more definite +knowledge.</p> + +<p>Another source of information is the local dealer in farm supplies. He +will be found to know general soil types in the vicinity, especially those +types which bring business to him because they are productive. Owners of +such land are able to buy and use to advantage the supplies he has to +offer to the grower.</p> + +<p><i>Size of Tract.</i>—There is the possibility that a person who goes back to +the land may acquire too little land as well as too much. Inadequate land +resources may seriously hinder possibilities of revenue from the place and +cramp facilities for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> his enterprises. In this connection it may be +helpful to point out that an acre of land comprises 43,560 square feet. A +city lot measuring 50 by 100 feet contains 5,000 square feet. An acre +therefore would comprise about eight and one-half such city lots. A 5-acre +tract is usually a minimum area for a small agricultural enterprise and +many have found it entirely adequate.</p> + +<p>The size of the tract to be acquired and the enterprises that can be +engaged in will depend in considerable measure upon the size of the +occupant’s family—whether they can assist in its operation and whether +the owner himself intends to put in all or only a part of his time. The +possibility of securing extra labor should also be looked into before +larger operations are attempted. No definite formula can be set down for +desirable area and enterprises in relation to time available for +operating. However, the owner will realize that one pair of hands can do +only so much work. To try to operate beyond the capacity of his own time +and that of others available is to become involved in striving to keep up +with exigencies that may make country life a struggle instead of a +pleasurable existence. It may result, too, in losses due to inability to +get things done on time, and nature deals harshly with those who neglect +the seasonable operations that come in any agricultural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> enterprise. +“Bulling through” or skimping or cutting corners simply will not work when +one is dealing with plant and animal life and only failure will come to +him who undertakes to bluff nature.</p> + +<p>The successful operator of a farming endeavor must always be on top of his +work, that is, able to plan and direct his energies in the most productive +way at the right time. This is really managing and is likely to lead to +success and satisfaction. To have so much to do that one emergency after +another must be met brings the operator down under his farming projects. +He ceases to manage under these conditions and becomes driven by his own +creations. To avoid this unhappy state, which is entirely unnecessary, +planning must be effectively done and operations undertaken in a gradual +way up to one’s capacity.</p> + +<p><i>Cost of Land.</i>—The price one should pay for land in a relatively small +tract cannot be arbitrarily fixed. Those who own large farms or tracts +expect to receive a bonus for the acres located along a highway as +compared with an average price for the entire place. It should be possible +to buy a 5- or 10-acre tract of land in the open country with highway +frontage for from $150 to $250 an acre, depending on location. If the land +is located near town or city where speculative operations have enhanced +values,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> the cost will be considerably more. Where an entire farm is +desired, the buildings are frequently given no value, the cost being the +price of the land only. As has been stated, it is quite possible to +acquire too much land as well as too little. A few acres selected from a +tract of good, productive soil will usually be found a better investment +than a large farm that has been abandoned because of lack of fertility.</p> + +<p><i>Accessibility to Cities.</i>—In deciding upon the location of a farm, +methods of transportation that are available are as important as nearness +to cities. A location near a railroad station offers the possibility of +low commutation rates to a point of industrial or commercial employment. A +location abutting upon an improved highway means that transportation by +bus or by personally owned automobile can be utilized at the least expense +and trouble the year round. The recent development of bus lines covering +almost every main artery of travel offers facilities for quick and +economical transportation unknown to country residents even a few years +ago. Furthermore, the selection of a place of residence accessible to +transportation to and from it is a factor to be borne in mind in +connection with the possible resale of the property, should that at any +time be desirable or necessary.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span><i>The Soil.</i>—The type of soil is a highly important factor in determining +upon location; also important is its crop-producing capacity. For all +general purposes, a soil which is loamy in texture is desirable. Types to +be avoided are the extremes of clay and sand. A heavy clay soil, +particularly where the land is in a depression, not only inhibits plant +growth of all kinds but is often undesirable as a place of residence from +the standpoint of healthfulness. A condition of extreme muddiness in wet +weather creates an unpleasant reaction on those forced to live near it. On +the other hand, areas which are so sandy in character as to furnish no +fertility for the growth of plants will be found undesirable in making the +surroundings of the home attractive and in growing the vegetables and +fruits which should constitute a part of the living.</p> + +<p>One method of judging the soil consists of examining the vegetation that +is already growing upon it and determining on that basis whether it is +likely to be favorable for the growth of desirable plants. For this +reason, the selection of a site during the growing season is recommended, +rather than during a dormant season when it is difficult to form an +estimate of the vegetation that the soil will support.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span><i>Availability of Electricity.</i>—While it is possible to secure individual +electrical generating plants, it is far preferable to establish a home +where electric lines may be tapped. The obtaining of electrical energy +from a commercial line is desirable because of its greater dependability, +generally lower cost and the fact that unlimited use of electricity may be +obtained without the overloading that frequently occurs where individual +plants are set up. Probably the availability of public utility lines is +the greatest asset of comfortable country life and one of the most +important factors in creating genuine resale value. These lines bring to +the country dweller most of the advantages that are enjoyed by city +residents. This is true not only because of the advantages of electric +lights, but also because electricity makes possible the use of such modern +appurtenances to the home as electric refrigerators, washers, radios, +water pumps and various devices and machines for use in connection with +poultry keeping and vegetable growing.</p> + +<p><i>Type of Buildings.</i>—Especial attention should be given to the +adaptability to the buyer’s needs of the residence and the other buildings +that may already be in existence. If the plot being considered is on a +main highway, it is highly desirable to have the residence located<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> back +from the highway a hundred feet or more as a means of eliminating noise +and promoting safety especially if children are in the family. The +location of a home directly on one of the main arteries of traffic +destroys many of the advantages of country life, owing to the distracting +noises that accompany intensive truck and passenger traffic.</p> + +<p>The age of buildings and their previous care have a direct relation to +their value, particularly if they are of frame construction. If the +buildings have been standing for a number of years, full allowance must be +made for depreciation and repairs incident to weathering and long usage. +The actual investment represented in a building erected under war or +post-war conditions may not be in line with present values. In measuring +the value of the principal buildings that are already on a tract, careful +consideration should be given to the cost of replacement. Consideration +should be given also to the outbuildings that may be on such a place. +Instead of being an asset to the property, they may be a distinct +liability if they are not directly useful to the intending purchaser. From +the standpoint of economy of maintenance and generally good appearance, it +is much better to have one building serve a number of purposes than to +have a number on different parts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> property, adding to the cost of +maintenance and multiplying steps.</p> + +<p><i>Educational Facilities.</i>—Where there are children in the family, the +location of schools and the facilities which they offer should be +investigated by the prospective buyer. It is desirable to locate as near +to schools as possible. In recent years there has been a strong tendency +throughout the country to do away with local schools and to consolidate +educational facilities in one building. Coupled with this trend is the +free transportation of pupils to consolidated schools. Therefore, it is +highly important to locate either near a school which will be kept in +operation or where transportation facilities are available to and from the +home and the school. It should be said that the trend toward consolidation +of schools has carried with it great benefits to children who live in the +open country by affording them educational facilities that are not +exceeded by most city schools.</p> + +<p><i>Community Advantages.</i>—The community, in addition to educational +facilities that are available, should include those opportunities that +appeal especially to the family. The accessibility of the church of one’s +preference should not be overlooked, and the general type of community +life is highly important too. Some communities are known for the +law-abiding proclivities of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> residents while others do not have a +savory reputation from the standpoint of the peace and security of their +more respectable inhabitants. One should establish a residence in the +community with the thought that he is to become a factor in the life of +that community. He should be sure that there is a genuine spirit of +healthy and cooperative activity which constantly tends to upbuild the +neighborhood, by keeping out or suppressing undesirable elements and by +developing a concerted feeling of responsibility for the welfare of all +who live within its boundaries.</p> + +<p>A resident of a city moving to the country frequently finds a difference +in his neighbors’ viewpoint that surprises him. There is, and must be, in +the rural community a closer relationship between the people in that +community than ever exists in an apartment dwelling in the city. In the +country, one’s neighbors are apt to show a surprising amount of friendly +interest in one’s doings, since the whole trend of the community is based +upon the actions and attitude of the relatively few people who live within +it. It should be repeated, therefore, that the type of community and the +facilities which the people of that community have developed should be +given careful attention by the prospective resident and he should +determine for himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> whether the particular community that he has in +mind is in accord with his ideas and ideals. To be out of step with the +community in which one lives is apt to create dissatisfactions and a +critical attitude on both sides that is not conducive to happiness.</p> + +<p>A home in the country has more of the attributes of genuine ownership than +has a home anywhere else. The country home must be established with an +idea of permanence and of becoming really rooted in the soil where one +locates, if the true benefits of rural home ownership are to be secured.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Decide either on large farm or on house and small acreage.</p> + +<p class="hang">Determine accessibility at all times of the year.</p> + +<p class="hang">Purchase soil of loam texture, mixture of sand and clay.</p> + +<p class="hang">Determine whether electricity is available.</p> + +<p class="hang">Locate back from highway.</p> + +<p class="hang">If present buildings are to be used, be sure of their condition and need of repair.</p> + +<p class="hang">Find out type and accessibility of schools and other community buildings.</p> + +<p class="hang">Prepare to be <i>of</i> the community as well as <i>in</i> it.</p> + +<p class="hang">Remember there are advantages of small tract over large farm where available time is an important element.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use local sources of information as to desirability of tract before purchasing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang">Work out a plan of management that fits into the time available for the farm duties.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t overlook intrinsic values of the location, such as soil, low tax rate and good neighbors.</p> + +<p class="hang">Avoid excessive capital outlay.</p> + +<p class="hang">Avoid extra heavy or extra sandy soils or evidently unproductive ones.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t overlook advantages of electric light and power.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t buy a place just because it has buildings. They may not be adapted to your needs.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t buy too much land. It can be a burden.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t let the farm become your master.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t pay too much for land. There is plenty of it.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_III" id="Chapter_III"></a><i>Chapter</i> III</h2> +<h3>FINANCING AND PROTECTING THE INVESTMENT</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Acquiring</span> land for residence and for subsistence calls for the exercise of +good business judgment. Not only must the site and general location be +acceptable to the family, but the investment involved should be within the +capacity of the owner to finance without undue strain on his resources. It +should be recognized that there will be ordinary living expenses to be met +in the country and perhaps some extraordinary demands resulting from +emergencies. Consequently, adequate thought and preparation must be made +for financing the investment and making sure, as far as that is possible, +that the investment in a country home will not be lost through inability +to meet possible contingencies.</p> + +<p>It goes without saying that the capital investment should be kept as low +as possible. Wherever feasible, the cash available should take care of the +full investment without the necessity for additional financing. This +reduces the drain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> upon resources through obviating the necessity of +meeting interest payments on mortgages and makes possible the use of any +surplus funds for improvement, for education and for giving the family the +advantages which country life offers. If it is necessary to borrow funds +for financing the purchase, special attention should be given to the type +of mortgage which is obtained.</p> + +<p><i>Mortgage Financing.</i>—One of the most desirable types of financing is +through a financially sound building and loan association whereby the +interest and the amortization of the mortgage are taken care of through +monthly payments. Such building and loan mortgages are available in most +localities throughout the country. A series of monthly payments can be +made which will take care of the interest payments and the mortgage itself +so that within a period of from ten to twelve years, in most cases, the +mortgage is amortized and the owner has the advantages of a home that is +free of encumbrance. For example, if the mortgage amounts to $3,000, +subscription to fifteen shares of a building and loan association at $1 a +share per month would make it possible to clear off the mortgage in about +eleven years. This would call for the payment to the association of $15 +per month and interest. Through the compounding of interest, the mortgage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +can be lifted at less expense than any other procedure.</p> + +<p>Another satisfactory plan is to place the mortgage with a bank or +financing company or insurance company that will not call the mortgage so +long as the payments are met, and at the same time start saving through a +building and loan association so as to complete the payments over a series +of years.</p> + +<p>There is a far greater sense of security in having no mortgage or in +setting up a definite and practical procedure for eliminating it than in +always having a mortgage encumbrance with its interest payments and the +possibility of having it called at an inopportune moment. A home that is +free from mortgage can be carried at small cost, especially where the +owner is willing to make most of the repairs and attend to the upkeep +himself. The demand for outlay of cash for mortgage interest may be +financially embarrassing, especially where income is not guaranteed or may +be jeopardized through a drastic reduction at critical periods or as the +result of emergency expenses in the family, such as are entailed by +serious illness.</p> + +<p><i>Taxes.</i>—One of the factors that is frequently overlooked in the purchase +of a residence in the country is the cost of meeting taxes. Since taxes +must be met if the property is to be held,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> it is highly important that +the location be one in which tax rates are not excessive. On the other +hand, an exceedingly low tax rate may indicate lack of progressiveness in +the community and lack of facilities which from many angles would lessen +the value of the tract as a place of residence. In most localities, the +tax rate is based principally upon the costs of building and maintaining +highways and schools. Good facilities in both of these respects are highly +desirable, and yet excessive expenditures in either direction may so +advance the tax rate as to make them expensive luxuries.</p> + +<p>In many rural communities, taxing districts are burdened with the costs of +building monumental schools or a very elaborate system of roads, +undertaken at some time through the flotation of bond issues. The +establishment of a sinking fund for payment of interest and amortization +of these bonds frequently constitutes a very heavy drain upon the +residents of the district. It is, therefore, necessary to determine not +only the tax rate in the locality under consideration, but also to know +definitely what are the current charges for maintenance of government. +Taxing methods vary so widely, even in adjoining districts, that the only +method of determining the annual charges for taxes is to secure from the +present owner or from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> local tax assessor the definite payments that +must be made.</p> + +<p>As a means of saving trouble later, an investigation should be made of the +property under consideration to make sure that taxes have been paid to the +date of purchase. This is distinctly the obligation of the owner. Unpaid +taxes constitute a lien on the property, and an investigation of the +status of the tax payments is essential in protecting the proposed +investment.</p> + +<p><i>The Title and Survey.</i>—A great deal of possible trouble can be +eliminated by making sure that the title is clear. An investigation should +be made along this line by an attorney or agency equipped to secure +information from appropriate county offices. Very often the owner has had +a recent search made and is willing to pass this on to the purchaser, thus +saving expense and delay in tracing back the records over a long period of +years. Such study will show whether there are encumbrances or liens of any +kind on the property, and these, of course, must be cleared up before any +transaction is entered into.</p> + +<p>The potential buyer should also have a survey made by a competent engineer +to definitely fix the boundaries of the property. Stakes can then be +placed, indicating the corners and any irregularities in the outline<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> of +the area under consideration, showing the new owner exactly where his +property extends. In many sections of the country the buyer is in a +position to demand of the owner that such a survey be made at the owner’s +expense. This survey is particularly important where an area of +considerable size has been cut up into parcels for sale to individuals.</p> + +<p>The steps that have been outlined to protect the investment are only those +which a prudent purchaser will insist upon before transfer of ownership +takes place. Frequently a buyer becomes so enamored with a property that +he hopes nothing will interfere with his acquisition of it, and he is apt +to mentally minimize the possibilities of a cloud on the title or the +exactness of the property lines. So many people have suffered serious +losses from failure to look thoroughly before leaping that emphasis is +given to these points as a means of securing ample protection for the +buyer.</p> + +<p><i>An Income from the Investment.</i>—It is presumed that in most cases the +owner of even a small tract expects to secure some financial returns from +the land as a means of adding to his income. The plan that is proposed as +a means of securing an income from the land should not be too complicated +and should be of a type that can be carried on when the owner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> is +necessarily engaged in other work. This, of course, may run the gamut from +a small home garden to supply the vegetable needs of the household to the +operation of a larger tract on a commercial basis. Furthermore, as we get +into the commercial type of production, that may be planned as a means of +materially supplementing an income or eventually supplying the entire +family income.</p> + +<p>Especial attention has been given in recent years to the use of poultry as +a means of supplying an income to the family which is willing to use its +own resources for taking care of the flock. Another means of securing an +income is the growing of vegetables and the sale of these vegetables at a +stand erected near the house for the convenience of the traveling public. +Many who engage in vegetable growing or egg production on a relatively +small scale will find an outlet for their products through associates in +some other line of work, who will be glad to buy from their country +friends on the basis of quality and freshness that may not be obtainable +through their community stores.</p> + +<p>It should be pointed out that where the area under cultivation is small, +the production must be intensive. In other words, it would be uneconomic +for the owner of a small tract to try to supplement his income through the +growth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> of staple crops. He must specialize in some particular phase of +agriculture, horticulture or animal industry that will bring the largest +possible net returns per acre even though that implies a considerably +larger labor cost per unit of operation than would be the case in the +growing of the staple crops, such as the cereals. The successful +production of vegetable crops or poultry products, for example, and their +successful merchandizing, rest primarily on the interest and the +adaptability of the individual.</p> + +<p><i>Avoiding Causes of Failure.</i>—To know what procedures to avoid is to be +fortified against failure and to be prepared to take advantage of those +constructive measures which are conducive to success. A recent survey has +been made in an eastern state on the causes of failure in farming, +frequently followed by necessitous abandonment of the farm and home. This +survey shows that one of the principal causes of failure is the effort to +manage a farm that is too large for the operator’s capacity; his +inexperience and lack of knowledge constitute too great a handicap on a +large acreage. Best results can be secured in farming only by seeding, +cultivating and harvesting at the proper time in each case. To a greater +extent than is usually realized, success depends upon good management, +which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> means doing the things that need to be done at the right time.</p> + +<p>If the farm is large there is a necessity for employing hired labor, and +the costs of this labor, especially under inexperienced management, are +likely to be out of line with the value of the products raised. In many +instances the lack of technical experience can be corrected by dependence +upon governmental agencies, such as experiment stations, county +agricultural agents and departments of agriculture. These services are +available to every farmer, in most cases without cost, and all that he +needs is the will to avail himself of such expert help. In the cases of +farms that have been abandoned, we find that the operators did not make +contacts with dependable sources of information, an indication of the +necessity of cooperating with the agricultural agencies or with +experienced and successful neighboring farmers.</p> + +<p>Still another cause of failure lies in the purchase of a farm at a price +which requires the assumption of a mortgage which is too high in relation +to the income from the farm. In short, an attempt to operate on an +overcapitalized basis will, sooner or later, lead to disaster. Failure to +locate on a productive type of soil may easily lead to loss of the +investment. If the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> local conditions, including good roads, school +advantages and a healthy community spirit, are lacking, there will develop +a feeling of discouragement and mental dissatisfaction which destroys +morale and creates the desire to get out from under at any cost.</p> + +<p><i>The Stocked Farm.</i>—The question is frequently raised as to whether a +farm should be bought already stocked with work and domestic animals and +with farm equipment or whether it should be stocked by the operator +himself. This will depend, of course, upon the type of equipment which may +be available in the individual case. Sometimes fairly good equipment will +be sold with the farm as a means of facilitating a sale, but the value of +each item should be determined by someone experienced in prices of such +livestock or commodities as may be sold with the farm.</p> + +<p>In many cases the buyer has loaded himself with animals or equipment that +are ill adapted to the farm or that are of no particular value, and in +struggling to get along with them he may seriously handicap the efficiency +of his labors. In most cases it will be found a better practice to add +stock and equipment as the need becomes definite and the finances of the +operator make it possible for him to add them to the farm. In this way he +will be fairly sure of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> acquiring only those items which will be of direct +use and benefit to him and will avoid an accumulation of worn-out or +antiquated articles which will not meet the requirements he must observe +in selecting tools for his work.</p> + +<p><i>Avoiding Fire Loss.</i>—Possibility of loss by fire is an ever-present +reality to the owner of a country place. There are two methods of +preventing loss, and the observance of both will contribute to the peace +of mind of the owner.</p> + +<p>In the first place, he should make sure that adequate insurance is carried +on his buildings and equipment so that in case of loss through fire there +will be sufficient indemnity to permit the rebuilding of the destroyed or +damaged structures. Lightning heads the list of the causes of farm fires +and is frequently not reckoned with by urban residents who have seen +little evidence of its destructiveness. In cities, points of electrical +concentration are avoided by diffusion through piping, metal poles and a +number of other conductors of electricity. The owner of a country home can +secure quite complete protection from damage through lightning by the use +of electrical conductors, usually called lightning rods, properly +installed. Such equipment does away with 90 per cent of the risk caused by +lightning.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>In installing a system of lightning rods, it is well to observe a few +simple precautions. The most exposed parts of a building should be +provided with rods and the rod points should extend 3 to 4 feet above the +structure. Conductors from the rod point should go in the most direct line +possible to the ground and sharp bends in the conductors should be +avoided. One of the most essential precautions is to thoroughly ground the +conductors. Water pipes on the buildings furnish excellent grounding. The +grounds for the conductors must be deep enough in the soil to reach +permanent moisture. Lightning rods that are not properly constructed or +properly grounded may be a worse menace than if no such protection is +attempted. Specific methods of protecting farm buildings from lightning +damage can be secured from state agricultural agencies or from reliable +commercial firms which make a practice of erecting them.</p> + +<p>Another cause of fires lies in unsound chimney construction. By using care +and the proper materials in the building of chimneys, fire may be avoided. +Chimney bricks should be laid flat rather than on edge, thereby +practically eliminating the development of chimney cracks through which +sparks can escape into floor spaces, attics and roofs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>Fire risks to residences and other buildings can be reduced by building +the roof of fireproof or fire-resistant materials. Wooden shingles, while +attractive and inexpensive, may become so dry at certain seasons of the +year as to furnish tinder for sparks that may rise from a brush fire or +from burning buildings in the vicinity. The use of slate or asbestos +shingles is recommended for roofs and there are other materials now on the +market which have fire-resistant qualities and can be safely utilized. +Flying sparks carried along on high winds constitute little menace to +those who have equipped their roofs with non-inflammable materials.</p> + +<p>It is important to see that electrical wiring has been properly installed, +and for this purpose it is safest to secure expert help. If the menace of +fire is properly evaluated by the owner, he will naturally take suitable +precautions to cope with it, both through utilizing adequate preventive +measures and through having available equipment to make possible the +smothering of accidental fires which may develop. The application of these +available common-sense methods of fire prevention will practically +eliminate the fire risk. An ounce of such prevention effort is to be +stressed rather than placing dependence on means of fire suppression after +the combustion occurs.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Keep capital investment as low as possible.</p> + +<p class="hang">If part of capital must be borrowed, select type of mortgage that can be paid off most conveniently.</p> + +<p class="hang">Determine tax rate before buying.</p> + +<p class="hang">Make sure that title is clear and the property lines definitely fixed.</p> + +<p class="hang">If some income is expected, check on possibilities of location with that in mind.</p> + +<p class="hang">Plan to secure income from intensive crop and animal projects, <i>e.g.</i>, vegetables and poultry.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use governmental aids to the fullest extent.</p> + +<p class="hang">Carry adequate insurance on buildings, equipment and furniture as protection against fire loss.</p> + +<p class="hang">Install protection against lightning.</p> + +<p class="hang">Be sure electrical wiring is properly installed.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t become heavily involved with fixed financial obligations at outset.</p> + +<p class="hang">Avoid localities with heavy bonded indebtedness, resulting in excessive taxes.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t expect to get an income from growing staple crops such as grains.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t become dependent on hired labor if it can be avoided.</p> + +<p class="hang">Avoid unproductive soil and top-heavy investment of capital.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t buy a stocked farm unless the stock is adapted to needs and properly valued.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect to take every precaution against fire.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t forget chimney flues are potential risks.</p> + +<p class="hang">Avoid roofs of inflammable materials.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_IV" id="Chapter_IV"></a><i>Chapter</i> IV</h2> +<h3>ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE IN THE COUNTRY</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The problem</span> of selecting a home is always a serious one. Success in +choosing a satisfactory location and home in the country calls for careful +study and good judgment throughout the procedure. In urban centers many +services are taken for granted, such as water supply, sewerage, public +utility connections and delivery systems. The establishment of a home in +the country calls for the consideration of all these services. Some may +not be available and preparations must be made to do without them or to +set up such procedures as will take care of the family’s needs on the +basis of the individual home.</p> + +<p><i>The Rural Home.</i>—To give the elements of satisfactory living under +modest circumstances, the country home should be so located and serviced +as to give the maximum of comfort and convenience for the money invested. +The location, type of construction and interior arrangement of the home +are important factors in attaining these objectives.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>Unless the location selected already has buildings on it which meet the +needs of the purchaser and his family, there will be the immediate problem +of building the home or remodeling the structure already in existence. In +recent years a great deal of attention has been given to rural homes, +stimulated no doubt by the very evident trend of population from the city +to the country. These homes should have attributes distinctly their own +and should harmonize with the purpose and the location in mind. A house +with lines that look well in town or city may be only a blot on the +landscape when set in the open country. Many excellent recommendations +have been made for country houses by the United States Department of +Agriculture, the President’s Conference on Home Building and Home +Ownership (December, 1931) and by architects who have given this problem +the specific attention it deserves.</p> + +<p>In general, we may say that the exterior of the house should have simple +lines and should not be ostentatious or covered with inappropriate +decorative effects. This is especially the case where the house is +comparatively small and is located in the open country where there is a +simple and pleasing natural background. The country house should be low +and broad, rather than tall and narrow. The windows and doors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> should be +of a size and shape that will meet utilitarian requirements and be so +situated as to give a pleasing and attractive appearance to the whole +structure. The materials used should be selected to meet the needs of +economy in the original construction and should be of long-lasting type, +assuring economy in maintenance.</p> + +<p><i>Essential Requirements.</i>—In planning the house there are certain minimum +requirements which should be kept in mind. For example, the sleeping +facilities should include at least one bedroom for every two persons and +should contain not less than 100 square feet per room. All sleeping rooms +should be provided with cross ventilation, that is, with a window on each +of two sides, and sufficient closet or wardrobe space should be provided, +equipped with shelves and hangers for taking care of clothing. Ordinary +lighting facilities for each room include at least one window, with the +kitchen, living room and sleeping areas preferably having two. Windows +should be so placed as to permit direct sunlight to enter at least +three-fourths of the rooms. There should be daylight and artificial lights +on all work surfaces such as the stove, the sink, work tables and in the +family reading center.</p> + +<p>Especial attention given in advance to the kitchen will be more than +repaid by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> convenience and efficiencies secured. There should be ample +built-in kitchen equipment for small and large utensils, kitchen tools and +linens. Ample lighting devices should be employed and step-saving +arrangements provided so as to eliminate as much effort as possible in +carrying out the daily duties that are conducted in this important part of +the country home.</p> + +<p>Where the funds available for construction or remodeling are limited, it +is important to know what the cost will be before the job is started. This +procedure calls for a plan which will show the exterior appearance, the +interior arrangement, and the cost of the completed job. Plans can be +secured from many sources in addition to those already mentioned. Persons +with architectural experience and ability may often be employed directly +to plan the house and to supervise its construction. If the prospective +builder wishes to select his own plans and to know in advance the complete +cost, he can secure from processors of lumber a catalog of plans which are +accompanied by costs of every item needed. Such processors cut the +material to fit at the factory and identify each piece so that the +mechanically minded man can do much of the work himself with help he may +employ. These companies will also quote prices on the cost of erection by +their own employees in addition to the cost of materials. The outlay +needed for lighting, plumbing and heating facilities can also be obtained +from the same source.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/p44tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/p44.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture</i>)</small><br />A modest country home.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/p45tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/p45.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture</i>)</small><br />Floor plans of house shown on opposite page.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>Another method of procedure is to draw a plan of the house that contains +the rooms considered necessary, submit such plans to a lumber merchant and +get quotations on costs of various types of material necessary to +construct it. Such construction will usually require the services of a +skilled carpenter and mason but permits of more latitude in most cases +than is available under a set building arrangement.</p> + +<p><i>Types of Country Houses.</i>—Illustrations of small houses suitable for the +country are shown on pages 8 and 44. The floor plans of these houses are +shown on the facing pages. There are many other types of small houses +adapted to use in the country and the selection of any one is largely a +matter of individual preference and ability to finance.</p> + +<p>Because of the variation in prices of material in different locations, the +kind and quality of material that the owner may desire and also the amount +of labor that may be furnished by the owner, it is difficult to give in +definite terms the cost of various types of buildings. Estimates of costs +of materials and construction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> may easily be obtained from contractors in +the vicinity.</p> + +<p>Simply with the idea of giving approximate costs, the Conference on Home +Building gives the following cost bases for building frame dwellings, +obtained roughly by multiplying the volume by the cost per cubic foot. +Naturally the cost will vary in different sections of the country, and the +level of artistry that is set up by the builder himself will be a factor.</p> + +<p class="center">APPROXIMATE COSTS PER CUBIC FOOT FOR FRAME DWELLINGS</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="dwellings"> +<tr><td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Southern</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Northern</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">First recommended level—2, 3 or 4 rooms with masonry base,<br /><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">fire-resistive flue, both sides of studs covered, painted exterior,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">interior finish.</span></td> + <td class="btr" valign="bottom" align="center">*10-15¢</td> + <td class="bt" valign="bottom">*12-18¢</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Second level—Bathroom space, better finish</td> + <td class="br" align="center">12-18</td> + <td align="center">15-21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Medium level—5-6 rooms, with plumbing</td> + <td class="br" align="center">16-23</td> + <td align="center">20-26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Fourth level—Adequate standard plumbing and hardwood floors</td> + <td class="br" align="center">19-27</td> + <td align="center">23-30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">Fifth level—Comparable to better type of middle-class city home</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">25-35</td> + <td class="bb" align="center">28-35</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">* The cheapest type of shelter (shack) may be built for perhaps half this cost.</p> + +<p><i>Pre-fabricated Houses.</i>—The field of house construction has been +occupied almost exclusively by the individual architect or builder who has +wrought according to the general ideas of the intending occupant or the +real estate developer. When the plans are completed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> and approved, the +contractor assembles the necessary materials from local sources, builds +and equips the house and turns it over to the buyer in completed +condition. Under such a procedure there is little application of mass +production measures which have reduced costs and raised quality standards +in many industries, notably in automobile construction, for example.</p> + +<p>Thousands of houses built to sell in the recent construction era of the +1920’s have proved unsatisfactory and costly to the occupants as the +result of shoddy building methods. Such methods seem to be typically +American as distinguished from the far more solid and permanent Old World +procedure. It now seems likely that the problem of economical and +substantial housing will be met in the method that is also +American—namely, by the pre-fabricated house to which various natural +resources of the country contribute. The parts of such houses are made +under mass production methods and easily assembled on the owner’s lot. The +same idea can be applied with ease to apartment house construction in any +location. The first step in this direction has already been mentioned in +the case of mail-order companies which cut the lumber to fit and supply +every needed accessory to the last detail.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>The next step, and the one that bids fair to inaugurate an entirely new +house-building procedure, is now in the making, although as yet it is in +the experimental and testing stage. Examples of such construction made +their first public appearance at the Century of Progress Exposition at +Chicago in 1933.</p> + +<p>Materials that enter into the construction of these new-type houses +include steel, asbestos, aluminum and cement. As a rule, the buildings +have a steel frame erected on cement foundations and without a cellar; the +walls and partitions are of asbestos composition and the roof constructed +of steel sheets with aluminum insulation. Such a building is fireproof and +proof also against vermin, lightning, wind and earthquake. The house is +also adapted to and equipped with heating, lighting, plumbing and air +conditioning facilities. The whole building is pre-planned and +pre-fabricated as a unit with its component parts constructed under +economical and interchangeable mass production methods.</p> + +<p>Modifications of the construction above mentioned include the use of +sound-proofed steel panels or insulation board for partitions and walls +with an exterior of painted steel. Many other modifications are being +developed to insure individuality, stability, insulation and economy in +first cost and maintenance. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> lines of most of these houses are severe +and modernistic in design, although decorative and unique effects are +easily obtainable.</p> + +<p>The costs of the complete house unit range from $600 for a one-room type +to $3,500 to $6,000 for a complete home of modest size. The principal +fabricators of these houses and their addresses are: General Houses, Inc., +Chicago, Illinois; American Houses, Inc., New York City; American Rolling +Mill Company, Cleveland, Ohio; American Radiator and Standard Sanitary +Company, New York City; Columbian Steel Tank Company, Kansas City, +Missouri, and National Steel Homes, Inc., Los Angeles, California. +Information on types and costs can be obtained by addressing these +companies.</p> + +<p><i>Rural Home Life.</i>—To have a successful experience in country life, one +must become identified with one’s surroundings and become a part of the +community. Those who seek to establish a country residence simply as a +place from which to commute to city attractions will not only miss the +greatest asset in country living but will probably find this existence +unsatisfactory. To become interested in the growing plants and animals at +home, to do with one’s own hands the things that make the home more +attractive and to develop a contact with the community that helps to +increase<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> its normal activities mean the attainment of pleasure and +satisfaction so far beyond that obtainable in congested urban quarters +that there is no comparison. In many cases this direct affinity with one’s +surroundings will come gradually and not always easily. It can be +cultivated and should be a part of the plan of every family expecting to +reside in the country.</p> + +<p><i>Trees as Assets.</i>—One of the greatest assets that can be secured in the +country is well-developed shade. If the house under consideration is +already built and has around it trees that serve as a softening and +beautifying factor, as well as for shade purposes, the value is decidedly +enhanced. If the home is to be newly built and a site is available where +trees are already well grown, the house can often be placed in the midst +of such trees, thereby gaining a number of years in the benefits that +trees give and for which there is no substitute.</p> + +<p>Few persons can resist the charm of trees. That they also have a definite +economic value is shown by the added desirability we all attach to an +attractively landscaped home where trees of various kinds and sizes +furnish the motif. In acquiring a place in the country the newcomer will +at once wish to plant trees, shrubs and ornamentals to beautify his +holdings. If this is carefully planned at the beginning, succeeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> years +and a little care will add to the attractiveness and intrinsic value of +the home. The saying, “a house is not a home until it is planted,” has a +great deal of truth behind it. Most nurserymen will be glad to render +assistance in properly planning and setting the ornamental landscaping of +the home, helping the owner avoid mistakes and costly movings and +replacements later.</p> + +<p><i>Commercial Horticulture.</i>—In addition to the plantings around his home, +the owner of a few acres can at slight expense start small trees for later +ornamental use or for sale at a roadside stand, for example. Such small +trees and ornamental plants can often be purchased at wholesale prices +from nursery companies which have “laying out” stock, as it is called, for +sale. The standard large-growing evergreens and deciduous shade trees can +be thus transplanted to one’s own acres, as can the popular dwarf types of +evergreens and flowering shrubs. These may be planted in one area where +they can be cared for as a growing crop, or they may be planted in groups +for beautifying the premises while they are growing. Again, single plants +may be set by themselves and given special attention, later becoming +“specimens” which are much in demand by admirers of the species.</p> + +<p>An appreciation of tree habits can be thus developed by all the members of +the family,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> and considerable income may be obtained in later years, as +the trees become “of age,” through their sale. We are entering upon an era +of making homes attractive as places in which to live and not as houses to +go away from. All forms of plant life that contribute to this end will be +admired and sought after in the years to come.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Give special consideration to location, type of construction and interior arrangement.</p> + +<p class="hang">If building a home, select a type that fits surroundings.</p> + +<p class="hang">Strive for simplicity of lines and full utilization of every cubic foot of space.</p> + +<p class="hang">Remember pre-fabricated houses are practical and likely to supplant some other types of construction.</p> + +<p class="hang">In buying a pre-fabricated house, be sure plans and construction fit needs +of family and materials used are adapted to the climatic conditions.</p> + +<p class="hang">Give special attention to convenience and cheerfulness of kitchen.</p> + +<p class="hang">Develop a plan of planting ornamental plants and trees to be carried out in due course.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t try to build a city house in the country.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect windows in number or size.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t overlook costs of completed job before commencing building or improvements.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect the asset value of trees.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_V" id="Chapter_V"></a><i>Chapter</i> V</h2> +<h3>SERVICING THE HOME</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Many types</span> of services are available to the country home owner, including +rural mail delivery, the telephone and electricity. Rural mail delivery in +particular is so common that, on practically every highway, mail service +is secured by the placing of a mail box along the highway at the entrance +to the residence. Telephone service is available along practically all the +main-traveled highways and on a majority of the other types of roads. +Where the lines are not already installed, extensions may be obtained to +new locations, and this is facilitated when more than one residence is to +be served by the same line. The majority of families accustomed to city +conveniences will want to have electricity available so as to use electric +lights and the labor-saving devices that are operated by electric power. +With the expansion that has taken place in the development of rural +electric lines in recent years, there is not a great deal of difficulty in +getting a location which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> will give the housewife the advantages that +electricity offers.</p> + +<p>Telephone service and electrical facilities may fall into the class of +luxuries for those with limited resources. It may be pointed out in this +connection that millions of farm homes are still using petroleum products +for lighting purposes and are finding it no hardship. Practically all +would, of course, use electricity if it were available and financially +possible. The new home owner in the country will find it advantageous to +locate where electric service is obtainable.</p> + +<p>Other services for the country residents are pretty largely up to the +owner as to their utilization and type. It is necessary, of course, to +have an ample water supply, to maintain sanitary conditions through +sewerage of some description, to provide a method of heating the home +during cold weather and to provide storage facilities for food during the +dormant season.</p> + +<p><i>The Water Supply.</i>—Perhaps the most important attribute of the country +home is an adequate supply of water. This is particularly true where +families have been accustomed to utilizing municipal water supplies which +are safe and pure as to quality and unlimited in amount. In most country +homes it is necessary to construct a water-supply system, which means +reaching a supply of underground water, pumping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> it to the surface and +piping it to locations where it is wanted. Higher standards of living +create new and increased demands for water.</p> + +<p>Water for domestic use should be clear, colorless, odorless, soft, neither +strongly acid nor alkaline, with a temperature averaging 50 degrees +Fahrenheit. Such water supplies can be obtained in nearly every section of +the country. Hot water is necessary in every home and there must be a +heater of some type, using coal, petroleum products, natural or artificial +gas or electricity for fuel. For this purpose a hot-water storage boiler +or tank must be installed.</p> + +<p><i>The Dug Well.</i>—A dug well is one of the older types of wells. It should +be large enough in diameter to permit ingress and egress to all parts of +it for repairs or for cleaning. Most dug wells require cleaning +occasionally, due to the entrance of dirt at the top and to the washing in +of clay and silt with the ground water. Many of these wells contain +harmful gases which have proved fatal to those entering them. Before an +attempt is made to clean such a well or to make any repairs, a lighted +candle should be lowered into it. If the candle is extinguished, it will +be dangerous to enter until the well has been thoroughly ventilated.</p> + +<p>A dug well will vary in depth from 20 to 60 feet, depending upon the +distance it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> necessary to dig for an adequate supply of water. Types +of pumping apparatus are on the market to cope with any depth in digging +such a well. If dug wells are shallow, the water supply depends very +largely upon current rainfall and in times of prolonged drouth there may +be a serious shortage. Fairly deep wells of this type are usually very +satisfactory and will supply surprisingly large amounts of water when the +demand is made upon them.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fp56tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/fp56.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center">Well drilling—an early step in locating in the country.<br />In +the foreground may be seen part of the excavation for the house.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Artesian Water Supply.</i>—Artesian wells have distinct advantages over dug +wells although they are more expensive to construct. The water from such +wells is absolutely pure and it never fails. This is because subterranean +streams have been tapped which are not subject to possible surface +contamination, nor are they dependent upon showers for replenishment.</p> + +<p>Special power apparatus is necessary for constructing an artesian or +drilled well. The drilling costs from $3 per foot up, depending upon the +nature of the subsoil and whether rock is encountered. Unless such a well +has been drilled in the immediate vicinity it is not possible to hazard +even a guess as to when water will be struck. The consolation that such an +undertaking has for the owner is in knowing there will be no doubt as to +quantity or purity when the strike occurs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span><i>Water Pumps.</i>—Pumps are now available which operate automatically by +electricity and constantly supply the home with fresh water drawn from the +earth as needed. The requirements for the pump and the motor will vary +with the depth of the well and the water requirements of the family. In +all such cases, therefore, it is desirable to call in for consultation +engineers or competent representatives of pump manufacturers or +distributors. It should be borne in mind that adequacy of supply is most +important and that economy in first cost, achieved at the sacrifice of an +adequate supply, may be a definite handicap to necessary home services.</p> + +<p><i>Heating Facilities.</i>—The type of heating apparatus that is used will +depend upon the size of the house and its arrangement as well as upon the +funds available. The simplest type of heaters are those which do not have +a complete system of extending radiation through the home but depend upon +circulation of the air within the house to equalize the temperature. In +deciding upon the type of apparatus, it is necessary to make sure that the +system is as low in original cost as possible; that it will probably have +a long life, thereby spreading the first cost over a period of years; that +it be economical in operation through efficient consumption of fuel, and +that the system be easily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> controlled. The health of the family and the +ability to live in a satisfactory manner will depend to a considerable +extent upon the method of heating the home, especially in cold climates.</p> + +<p>Particular care should be taken to make sure that whatever type of heating +is employed is adequate in size. It is more economical to operate a heater +that is somewhat oversized than to “rush” one which cannot easily maintain +a comfortable temperature in cold weather. Heating engineers and +contractors are available to furnish information on heating costs in every +locality. The generally used types of heating include stoves, circulator +heaters, warm air, hot water and steam systems, and fireplaces. +Specialists of the United States Department of Agriculture have developed +a great deal of information to enable the home owner to cope with the +heating problems in a practical manner. It is estimated by the department +that if a two-pipe hot-water system for a six-room house costs $500, the +other systems for the same house ordinarily would cost about as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="pipes"> +<tr><td>Two-pipe vapor system</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="left">$600</td></tr> +<tr><td>One-pipe steam system</td><td> </td><td align="left">$400</td></tr> +<tr><td>A piped warm air furnace</td><td> </td><td align="left">$260</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pipeless furnace</td><td> </td><td align="left">$140</td></tr> +<tr><td>Circulator heater or stove</td><td> </td><td align="left">$ 60</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of course, these systems vary in efficiency and in providing comfort as +much as they vary in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> cost, but these estimates will provide the home +owner with an idea of the outlay for taking care of the heating problem.</p> + +<p>The ability to maintain a satisfactory temperature depends as much upon +the construction of the house as upon the heating apparatus itself. Heat +is readily lost through walls, roofs and windows. Most houses can be made +more comfortable at small cost by applying insulation or by correcting +defects in construction. The use of storm doors or storm vestibules where +doors are frequently opened to the out-of-doors will prevent drafts and +conserve heat. Metal weather stripping is the most effective means of +preventing air leaks around windows and doors and making the entire house +weather-tight.</p> + +<p>The fuel that is used will depend upon the type of furnace and the +relative prices prevailing for different kinds. Recent developments in oil +heating bring this fuel in close competition from the standpoint of +economy with coal or coke. Oil is particularly adaptable as a source of +fuel in homes in the country since tank trucks can readily deliver oil to +the home owner. Improvements in securing the maximum efficiency from all +types of fuel are being developed continually; and there are now on the +market furnaces, using anthracite or bituminous coal as fuel, which offer +many advantages that were unknown to older types.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span><i>Fireplace Construction.</i>—An open fireplace where wood can be used as +fuel is a great source of satisfaction and pleasure, as well as a comfort, +in country homes. Wood of proper length for fireplace burning can be +readily secured in the country and there is ample room for storing it. +Where the house is small in size, such wood fires can be used for heating +the house satisfactorily in spring and fall and can be used to supplement +other types of heating when desired.</p> + +<p>No country home can be considered complete without a fireplace. The +comfort and homelike atmosphere that it gives make it a general asset for +the enjoyment of the family circle. Fireplaces should be constructed so as +to insure a good draft with a maximum of heat radiation. It is desirable +to build in the fireplace flue a damper which can be open when the fire is +burning and can be shut when it is desired to keep heat from escaping from +the room via the chimney. It is also a convenience to have a trap opening +placed in the back of the fireplace on the floor so that ashes may be +removed in this manner, eliminating the labor of carrying them from the +fireplace.</p> + +<p><i>Sewerage of Farm Homes.</i>—All wastes from the farm home coming under the +term of sewage should go direct to a septic tank. Here the sewage is held +in a quiet state for a period of time, and through bacterial processes, +the organic matter is destroyed. A septic-tank installation consists of +four parts: first, the house sewer from house to tank; second, the sewage +tank, consisting of one or more chambers; third, the sewer from tank to +distribution field; fourth, the distribution field where the sewage is +distributed, sometimes called the absorption field. Plans for sewerage +construction may be obtained from state and local boards of health and +from federal health and agricultural agencies.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/p62tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/p62.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service</i>)</small><br /> +An adequate sewage disposal plant is essential and inexpensive. A practical one is shown here.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>The Rural Engineering Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment +Station recommends that the septic tank have a capacity adequate to hold +all the water used by the family for two entire days. For a family of six +persons the inside dimensions of the tank should be 4 feet in width with a +length of 4 feet in the first chamber and 3 feet in the second chamber. +The depth of water should be 4 feet, giving the tank a capacity of over +600 gallons, thus allowing 100 gallons for each person during the +forty-eight-hour period. The entire tank will be 4 feet wide, 8½ feet +long and 6½ feet deep.</p> + +<p>Septic tanks are usually built of solid concrete, concrete blocks or +brick, waterproofed on the inside to prevent escape of the contents except +through the outlets described. These outlets should be 100 to 150 feet +away from any source<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> of water supply to prevent contamination of potable +water.</p> + +<p>Leading from the outlet of the second chamber, several lines of tile 10 to +14 inches in depth should be laid at a gentle slope away from the tank, +permitting escape of the effluent at each joint. For a family of six +persons a total length of 150 feet of tile pipe will be sufficient in most +types of soil.</p> + +<p><i>Food Storage.</i>—Every country home should have a basement in which a room +can be set apart for cold storage. Such a place is suitable for keeping +supplies of potatoes and other root crops, as well as commodities that +deteriorate under conditions of warmth. Surplus supplies of food from the +garden can be placed in such storages and be readily available for use +during the winter. With the surplus of perishable food products in cans +and with a good supply of non-perishable products in such a type of +storage room, economies in food purchase can be effected and the +healthfulness of the family maintained through their use when fresh +products are difficult to secure or are unseasonable and expensive.</p> + +<p>If a basement is not available for food storage, root crops can be stored +outside the house and kept during the winter. These products should be +piled in a heap, covered with straw or other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> clean, loose material and +the mound then covered with earth. In this manner, potatoes and similar +crops can be kept throughout the winter and until late in the spring +without serious deterioration. It is important to select a site for such +outdoor storage that is well drained so that water will not collect and +freeze in the storage area.</p> + +<p><i>Services Available to the Country Resident.</i>—Public agencies are +available for help in solving the problems of country residents, varying +from agricultural and horticultural practices to building construction, +water supply and sewage disposal. As a rule, these services are of advice +and suggestion, are free of cost and may be utilized freely by those +living in the country.</p> + +<p>Most of the counties in the United States have a county agricultural +agent, who is located at the county seat and whose territory covers only +the county in which he resides. The costs of such service are paid by +federal and state appropriations, frequently supplemented by county +appropriations, and also frequently through annual individual +subscriptions. The county agricultural agent is really a field +representative of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the +state agricultural college in the state where he works. There is hardly a +problem of the country resident for which he cannot obtain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> aid from the +county agricultural agent. In many of the more thickly populated areas the +problems of the family getting a location on the land for a home are +already well known to the agricultural agent and he is therefore in a +position to guide the newcomer and help him to prevent mistakes.</p> + +<p>In many counties there is also a home economics service connected with the +office of the county agricultural agent and supported in the same general +manner. This service, along the lines which the name implies, is available +to the country home maker. Groups of women are organized and meet at +intervals for discussions on food preparation, canning and storage and the +making of clothing for the family.</p> + +<p>In nearly every state there is a state department of agriculture with +regulatory and promotional activities and dealing especially with law +enforcement provisions passed by the respective legislatures. These +agencies are also concerned with development of marketing facilities in +many states. They are supported by state and federal funds and carry on +such projects as the testing of cattle for tuberculosis, treatment in +prevention of communicable animal diseases and the control of insect and +fungous pests through quarantine and inspection activities. These +departments are located at the state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> capitols and information on the +services available can be secured by addressing the department in the +state where one resides.</p> + +<p>Because there is a lack of understanding among newcomers to the country of +the services that are available through these agencies without cost, this +particular mention of them is made. It is recommended that each family get +in touch with the county agricultural agent, the college of agriculture +and the department of agriculture and learn definitely of the help that +can be secured without cost in meeting the problems of country life.</p> + +<p><i>Electric Wiring Principles.</i>—Public utilities are organized to furnish +electric service and it will be found that they are ready to assist +customers in securing the most satisfactory use of electricity. Such +knowledge, based on experience, will be valuable in helping owners to +avoid costly mistakes and to provide for a wiring system that will be +economical and yet complete. When the plans and specifications of the +wiring system have been worked out, it is important to secure bids from +reliable contractors. Only those contractors who can do the work in a +capable manner should be employed and it should be determined in advance +that the installation will be in strict compliance with the National +Electrical Code. For wiring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> work it is necessary to know the number of +amperes the wire is to carry. This may be determined by dividing the load +in watts by the voltage which is to be used.</p> + +<p>The service lateral is a system of wires which form a path over which +electricity is carried from the main line to the house. This is generally +built by the utility company and its cost will depend upon the distance of +the residence from the main line and whether the owner furnishes poles, +labor, etc.</p> + +<p>Wires should be of such size as to give sufficient mechanical strength to +stand up under sleet conditions. Usually three entrance wires are used to +carry the electric energy from the utility connection to the house. The +lateral is the electrical doorway to the farm and is the most essential +part of the wiring system. The wires should be of adequate size so as to +provide proper voltage and give complete electrical service for all +ordinary requirements of current.</p> + +<p>It is important to see that the electrical equipment is properly +“grounded,” that is, the connecting to earth of certain metallic objects +which are near power conductors. The purpose is to carry to the earth any +heavy electrical charge which might exist on such objects and cause +electrical shocks when they are touched.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> Grounding may be secured by +connecting with water pipes that reach some depth under ground, or driven +pipe may be used as a means of securing intimate contact with moist earth.</p> + +<p>Recommendations for outlets from the electrical wires in the house call +for centering ceiling lighting outlets, and placing wall brackets about +5½ feet above the floor. Convenient outlets in the kitchen and bathroom +should be about 33 inches above the floor. In other locations they are +usually best placed in the baseboard. Wall switches are usually located 4 +feet above the floor. A switch should be located at each door to a room or +entrance to a hall and in many cases three-way switches can be used to +advantage, since these afford control over the same lighting from two +separate locations.</p> + +<p>With these general observations on a rather complicated subject, most of +which are based on the excellent recommendations of the National Committee +on the Relation of Electricity to Agriculture, the home owner should be in +a position to take care of his needs properly, bearing in mind that the +system of wiring should be adequate in every respect and the number of +outlets sufficiently numerous to provide easy and convenient service +throughout the house. An official check-up should be made of all +installations after completion. The method of securing such inspection +can be obtained through a local electrical contractor.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/p70tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/p70.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service</i>)</small><br /> +Ground floor plan of a house, showing the number, the type, and the location of electrical current outlets.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span><i>Tank Gas Supply.</i>—A service of supplying compressed gas in portable +tanks has recently been developed for country homes located away from +public gas lines. This gas can be used either with a specially adapted +range which is supplied as part of the service or in some cases with an +ordinary gas range. Companies offering this service are located in most +cities and are understood to be willing to supply residences anywhere with +gas. The cost of first installation of the system is about $40. Renewals +cost approximately $12 per cylinder of gas. Each cylinder will supply a +family of four with gas for three to four months, making a monthly bill of +from $3 to $4, which compares favorably with artificial gas supply through +a meter from pipe lines. This gas may be used for any purpose for which +any other gas is adapted. The gas and the servicing of it constitute a +boon to country residents from the standpoint of utility and economy. It +is especially desirable for those previously accustomed to city gas +supplies and to whom the use of any other type of fuel is strange and +somewhat of a problem.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Remember that important service factors include mail delivery, telephone, electricity, water supply and sewage disposal.</p> + +<p class="hang">Be sure of adequate water supply of good quality.</p> + +<p class="hang">Obtain artesian water supply wherever possible.</p> + +<p class="hang">Provide for such heating facilities as the budget can stand.</p> + +<p class="hang">Select the heating system in relation to fuel costs.</p> + +<p class="hang">Make sure that the sewerage system is adequate for waste disposal.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use fully such governmental agencies as county agents, home demonstration +agents, experiment stations and agricultural colleges, state and federal departments of agriculture.</p> + +<p class="hang">Provide storage space for surplus food products.</p> + +<p class="hang">Remember electric wiring requires skilled workmanship.</p> + +<p class="hang">Investigate advantages and costs of tank gas as a cooking fuel.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t forget that services automatically available to urban residents must be planned for in the country.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect construction defects that prevent full benefits from heating system.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t overlook the advantages of a well-built fireplace.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t install electrical service without full attention to principles of convenience, safety and economy involved.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VI" id="Chapter_VI"></a><i>Chapter</i> VI</h2> +<h3>MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">There</span> are many treatises available that deal with the soil, its +composition and its treatment. No attempt will be made here to go +exhaustively into that subject. There are a few fundamental factors, +however, which the potential owner should know regarding soil treatment, +for that is the base upon which he will build his income-producing +operations.</p> + +<p>The particles of soil have had their genesis in rock. The rock has become +disintegrated and decomposed through natural processes. The action of the +weather is the most important factor in creating soil. Water falling on +rock not only wears it away mechanically, but through certain mild acid +elements which it acquires, disintegrates the binding materials that hold +rock segments together. In addition, there is the action of frost and +freezing, too, making the moisture in rock expand and contract and thereby +causing the breaking down of the segments. With this action is coupled +that of hot suns which cause expansion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> and breaking up of the rock as it +becomes heated and cooled under atmospheric influence.</p> + +<p>A great deal of the soil surface in many sections of the country is the +result of glacial action. These glaciers not only eroded the surface, +thereby creating millions of rock particles, but they also carried large +deposits of the rock particles to more distant areas and deposited them +over a subsoil that may be totally different in character from the surface +soil thus deposited.</p> + +<p><i>How Tillable Soil Is Made.</i>—The action of plants themselves has a great +effect in adding to our supply of tillable soil. Seeds of plants or seeds +of trees become established in some slightly weathered rock areas and +begin to grow. The roots penetrate wherever there is any loose soil, and +partly by their pressure and partly through the acidity accompanying +decomposing plant tissue, complete a further breaking down of the rock. +There is a continuous process of destruction of rocks and leveling off of +mountains and hills to fill the valleys below.</p> + +<p>Many groups of deep-rooted plants tend to increase the depth of the +surface soil by growth of the roots in the subsoil and by creating therein +a condition approaching that which already exists on the surface. The +action of earth worms and similar forms of life in bringing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> subsoil to +the top and in opening channels through which water and surface air can +penetrate constitutes another continually operating force in the creation +of a productive soil. A deeper layer of productive soil can also be +created through a plan of consistently deeper plowing, bringing up with +each annual plowing operation a small portion of subsoil which, when mixed +with the surface soil, tends to become like it.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fp74tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/fp74.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy New Jersey Department of Conservation and Development</i>)</small><br /> +Soil is created from rock by nature’s weathering processes and by plant growth.<br /> +At the bottom may be seen solid rock; just above are disintegrating rock fragments, and at the top, the soil.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Every type of real soil contains all the elements of plant growth. This +plant food results from a breaking down of soil particles and the setting +free of chemical elements which, either singly or in combination, serve as +food for plants.</p> + +<p>Whatever the type of soil may be, it will be found that certain crops will +make better growth in it than others. As a general rule, it may be said +that the only way to determine which plants will grow best on a given soil +is by the trial-and-error method. However, by observation of the growth on +similar types of soil we can learn something of a soil’s crop +adaptability. There are some crops that will grow in almost any soil and +there are others that need an exactness of texture, moisture and plant +food which makes them highly specialized products. The operator must learn +how to work in harmony with the peculiarities of his own soil before he +can hope to get the best results.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>In acquiring a tract for the growing of plants of any kind it is desirable +to get a soil type that will meet the requirements of most plants. As a +general rule, this type contains enough clay to be retentive of moisture, +enough sand to be easily worked and is generally suitable for bacterial +growth. In other words, what is commonly called a loam is the ideal type +for general agricultural and horticultural purposes. This may be a heavy +loam, in which clay predominates, or a so-called light loam, in which sand +particles predominate. An examination of a handful of soil by a person +experienced in farming will indicate its nature and its adaptability to +ordinary crop production.</p> + +<p><i>Essential Elements of Plant Food.</i>—Countless scientific experiments in +plant growth show that potassium, lime, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, +sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are essential to normal +development. The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements make up nearly 99 +per cent of the entire composition of the plant and are derived from the +atmosphere. All of the other elements are derived from the soil except in +the case of peas, beans, clovers and other legumes which secure most of +their nitrogen from the air.</p> + +<p>The mineral elements are not needed in large amounts but well-balanced +plant growth is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> strictly dependent upon their presence in available form. +Of these elements, those most likely to be deficient either in total +amount or in availability are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. +It is entirely feasible and economical to apply concentrated chemical +fertilizers containing the first three elements so that their lack will +not constitute a limit to size of crops harvested. In many cases it is +necessary to apply chemical fertilizers to get satisfactory yields, even +where natural manures are available and can be applied as well.</p> + +<p>In addition to supplying essential plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus and +potassium perform specific functions in plant growth. The application of +nitrogen in one of its readily available forms (e.g., nitrate of soda and +sulphate of ammonia) will stimulate vegetative growth. If too much of this +one element is applied, leaf and branch development may occur at the +expense of the crop. Good results follow the use of nitrogen on grass sods +and on leafy vegetables like spinach. On the other hand, corn, peas, beans +and other seed-forming crops need to have the nitrogen balanced with +phosphorus. Potatoes, in common with other tuber and root crops, will +utilize plenty of potassium in the development of starch.</p> + +<p><i>Sources of Plant Food.</i>—Chemical fertilizers can be purchased at supply +stores in ready<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> mixed condition and of analyses that will meet general +crop needs. A good formula for such a general purpose fertilizer is 4 to 5 +per cent nitrogen, 7 to 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 to 10 per cent +potash to the ton. It is known that such a mixture will supply the food +needs of a large variety of plants in balanced amounts. Highly +concentrated mixtures are now on the market providing double the amount of +plant food in the example quoted, costing nearly twice as much but +effecting a saving by cutting in half the material handled to get the same +result. Care should be taken, in using these highly concentrated +fertilizers, to avoid contact with tender roots. A mixture for general +farm and garden purposes may contain the following ingredients:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="pounds"> +<tr><td align="right">100</td><td>pounds nitrate of soda</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">230</td><td>pounds sulphate of ammonia</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">250</td><td>pounds animal tankage (7 per cent nitrogen)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1,140</td><td>pounds superphosphate (16 per cent phosphoric acid)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bb" align="right">280</td><td>pounds muriate of potash (50 per cent potash)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2,000</td><td>pounds.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This mixture will have a formula of 4-9-7 (4 per cent nitrogen, 9 per cent +phosphoric acid and 7 per cent potassium). The individual who wishes to +mix his own fertilizer may do so by purchasing the finely ground +ingredients separately, and by means of a shovel, integrate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> them all into +a mixture. Home mixing will not be found profitable where small amounts of +fertilizer are used. Those who practice home mixing for the first time +should realize that most combinations of ingredients will “set” or harden +if not used immediately, necessitating the breaking up and pulverizing of +the mass. When it is broken up after curing, no further difficulty should +be experienced with “setting” if the mixture is kept in a dry place. The +advantages of home mixing for the large user lie in lower cost per ton of +plant food as a rule; confidence in the quality of the ingredients which +he should purchase on the basis of guaranteed analysis; and the setting up +of a mixture which study of his soil and the plant requirements has +convinced him is best suited for his individual case.</p> + +<p><i>Chemical Soil Analysis Not Helpful.</i>—There is a mistaken notion that it +is necessary to analyze soils chemically in order to fertilize them +intelligently. Such an analysis of a reasonably fertile soil will show the +presence of the essential elements of plant food, though perhaps not all +in sufficient amounts, to produce ordinary crops for centuries to come. +Only a small amount of the elements become available for root absorption +each year and a chemical analysis will not bring out this most important +factor—availability. The use of a few simple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> tests, mainly of a physical +nature by a competent soils specialist, will prove of some assistance in +the treatment of the soil. Such tests will show the presence of adequate +amounts of humus, and indicate the acidity content. The soil texture will +give some index of its crop adaptability and thereby serve as a basis for +fertilizing treatment that will meet the needs of both soil and crop. The +practical man will not expect any considerable aid from a highly technical +and costly chemical analysis of his soil.</p> + +<p>Another factor that militates against worth-while benefits of chemical +soil analysis is the great variation in soil types frequently occurring in +the same field. To attempt to draw a representative sample by mixing soil +from several areas might result in a specimen that would not be really +typical of any area. For the purpose of ordinary physical examination and +testing for acidity, representative soil samples should be taken from +several parts of the same soil type, mixed together and a composite sample +for testing drawn from the mixture, weighing not less than a pound in each +case. If the soil is quite apparently variable it may be necessary to draw +two or more composite samples from the same area. Very helpful service in +intelligent soil treatment may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> secured from the county agricultural +agent and the state college of agriculture in the county or state of +residence.</p> + +<p><i>Legumes as Soil Improvers.</i>—A means of soil improvement that is well +understood by progressive farmers is the use of legumes to improve the +soil. The legumes include a large family of plants of which the bean, the +pea and the clovers are outstanding examples. Such plants have on their +roots nodules which house nitrogen-gathering bacteria. These bacteria +absorb nitrogen from the air in the soil and, in the ordinary process of +growth, death and decay, make this nitrogen available to the host plants, +leaving a residue in the soil for the roots of plants that are to follow. +Thus this group of plants, known as legumes, have been used for +generations as a method of increasing the nitrogen content of soils. +Nitrogen, incidentally, is the most costly element to buy in commercial +fertilizers. The soil-improving benefits of legumes may be secured by +growing them either for harvest as a source of animal food or for plowing +under as a means of utilizing them entirely for the development of soil +fertility.</p> + +<p>In reading of the studies of soil fertility that were made by George +Washington at Mount Vernon, we learn of the improvement that he made in +the relatively poor soils of that area by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> growing plants of the legume +family. The actual reason why such improvement was brought about was not +known in Washington’s time, but the results were apparent. Today, the +value of legumes as soil builders is well recognized and we understand +much more definitely than Washington did the reasons for their being so +helpful in increasing crop production.</p> + +<p>Many soil areas do not contain the particular type of bacteria necessary +to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes. This is frequently the +cause of failure in growing alfalfa, soybeans, cowpeas and less well known +members of the legume family. Each legume has its own type of +nodule-forming bacteria. In order to assure the presence of the proper +bacterial family, means often must be employed to add them to the soil +where the specific crop is to be grown. This may be accomplished by adding +soil from an area where the legume does well to the new area, or the seed +may be inoculated with commercial cultures before seeding. Either method +is effective. If soil is used it should be drilled in or spread on a +cloudy day to prevent the destructive action of the sun’s rays on the +exposed minute forms of plant life we call bacteria.</p> + +<p>If it is not known that the legume to be planted has been grown +successfully in a given field<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> within the previous several years, the +precaution of adding the proper bacteria should be taken. In some +sections, such legumes as red, alsike, crimson and white clovers have been +grown for many years and the bacteria for these plants are well +distributed. There, inoculation is not necessary for these crops, but it +probably should be practiced if other legumes such as alfalfa, cowpeas or +soybeans are to be grown on land for the first time.</p> + +<p><i>The Value of Humus.</i>—In addition to the chemical elements of plant food, +all productive soils contain decaying vegetable matter, generally +classified under the term “humus.” Humus serves as a source of +acid-generating material which further breaks down soil particles and, +most important of all, serves as a food for millions of microscopic plants +which develop and die quite beyond the scope of human vision. These +constitute a type of bacteria which are distinctly beneficial and +essential to human life since they make possible the growth of larger +plants that serve as human food.</p> + +<p>Green plants, straw or leaves, when plowed under or spaded in the soil, +are attacked by bacterial agencies which gradually turn these products +into humus. The same process occurs when a “compost” is set up. This is +made of leaves, manure, soil, straw and other materials<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> thrown into a +heap and allowed to decay. Such compost is excellent for placing around +plants when setting them out, since it holds moisture, supplies fertility +and creates optimum conditions for young root growth. Under practical +field conditions, humus may be added to soils by spreading animal manures, +followed by plowing them down, or by the growing of heavy green crops such +as wheat, rye, cowpeas or vetch and turning the entire mass under with the +plow when they are at their height.</p> + +<p><i>Lime and Its Application.</i>—Reference has been made to the fact that +calcium is an essential plant food and is frequently deficient in soils. +As a matter of fact, the great majority of soils are deficient in calcium +and their productiveness is inhibited thereby. Lime supplies calcium and +also magnesium as food for plants. Its application accomplishes many other +desirable things such as correcting soil acidity. The growth of beneficial +bacteria is greatly stimulated in a soil that has had its acidity +neutralized by the application of lime. This product, therefore, creates a +more congenial condition for the growth of bacteria, which, in turn, make +for better crop production. Lime is also beneficial through furnishing the +element calcium with which other plant foods combine chemically and +thereby become soluble in the soil water. Unless plant foods are in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +state of solution, they cannot be absorbed by plant roots. Lime is a +potent force in creating chemical reactions in the soil, resulting in the +stimulation of growth through increased absorption of essential elements +in solution.</p> + +<p>Lime also benefits soils of a clayey nature through its ability to cement +together the fine clay particles and in that way create air spaces so +greatly needed in tight clay soils. Lime is beneficial, too, in the case +of soils which have a large proportion of sand or large particles, and +serves as an agent in creating a better condition of tilth and of moisture +retention.</p> + +<p>It makes little difference in what form lime is applied. It may be +purchased and applied in the form of ground limestone, a rock rich in +calcium which has been mechanically ground to a very great degree of +fineness. It can also be applied in the form of hydrated lime. This is +obtained by heating ground limestone and slaking it by adding water. A +common example of this is the slaking of lime for whitewashing purposes. +Another good source of lime is finely ground shells of oysters or other +forms of sea life which collect the calcium from sea water and deposit it +in their shells.</p> + +<p><i>Adjusting the Water Content of Soils.</i>—Aside from the supplying of water +by irrigation, a rather costly process under most conditions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> the water +resources of most soils can be greatly increased by adding to their humus +content. Humus, which, it has been pointed out, is decaying vegetable +matter, serves as a sponge for the absorption of soil water and for +underground water supplies. Therefore, the more humus that can be plowed +into the soil, other conditions being equal, the greater is the ability of +the plants growing in that soil to withstand drouth. As soils are +cultivated, the tendency is for the humus to become “burned out” and to +have a reduced moisture-holding capacity. To overcome this tendency, it is +necessary to add vegetable matter to the soil whenever it is possible. +Incidentally, the incorporation of large quantities of humus in the soil +creates a condition of acidity which may call for the application of lime +as a corrective.</p> + +<p>There are many acres of land which contain too much water in the area that +roots should penetrate to permit of optimum plant growth. Roots of most +plants will not penetrate where there is an excess of water, and air +cannot circulate where moisture is superabundant. Usually these conditions +exist where the soil is of a clayey nature. The abundance of water may be +caused by the inability of surface water to percolate through the soil. It +may take so long, due to the nature of the soil, for this water to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> pass +through the lower depths of subsoil that the roots of plants are destroyed +by lack of oxygen. In such cases the application of lime, increasing the +humus content, and deeper plowing will be found helpful. Occasionally, the +discharge of dynamite or blasting powder in the area, if it appears to be +in the form of a pocket, will break up the hard pan subsoil and permit the +water to escape. Less dependence is now being placed on this means of +correcting a wet condition of the soil than was the case some years ago.</p> + +<p>A similar condition of overabundant water in soil may be due to the +presence of springs or to a high water table. Little can be done to +correct a condition where the water table itself is so close to the +surface as to inhibit plant growth and this is assuredly one of the +factors to be looked into before a tract is purchased. Where the surplus +water is evidently being supplied by a spring, an underdrain made of tile +pipe, 3 or 4 inches in diameter, can be laid as a means of conducting the +water into a ditch or adjoining drain. In laying such a drain, it should +be placed above the area where the wet soil surface is most evident. If +such a drain is laid 18 inches to 3 feet deep above the wet area, it will +cut off the water seeping down underground and carry it away. Good results +cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> be secured if the drain is laid directly in the area of extreme +wetness or if it does not cut off the flow of water before it reaches the +area that is consistently too wet for plant growth.</p> + +<p>From what has been said in this brief description of soil treatment and +soil improvement, it is evident that one must live with his soil for some +time in order to understand it and to be able intelligently to correct its +deficiencies, overcome its weaknesses and make it capable of supporting +plants which are desirable from the owner’s point of view. In the great +majority of cases, the improvement process, while a slow one, is far from +hopeless and almost any soil that is not extremely sandy or clayey can be +so intelligently treated as to make it productive.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation.</i>—Any discussion of soil treatment is not complete without +mention of cultivation. Intelligent cultivation is an essential factor in +securing adequate crops. It is interesting to recall that the word +“manure,” which has come to mean fertilization or fertilizer, is derived +from the Latin word “<i>manus</i>” meaning “hand” and implying “manipulation” +of the soil, which we now call cultivation. Cultivation has been most +frequently practiced as a method of destroying weeds, thereby making all +of the available plant food subject to absorption by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> the roots of the +desired plants and not by the intruders we call weeds. Cultivation does +more than destroy weeds, however. It opens up the soil so that air +containing atmospheric nitrogen can penetrate it and so that the bacteria +requiring air for their best growth may have it available. Furthermore, +cultivation conserves moisture and is more essential during dry periods in +the growing season than at any other time.</p> + +<p>We know that in entering the soil the rain water follows certain channels +in and around the soil particles on its way to the subsoil. When the rain +has ceased and the top layer of soil becomes dry, the tendency is for the +water to work up through these same channels to the surface, where it +evaporates. Cultivation, by breaking up these channels, or capillary +tubes, checks the escape of moisture into the air. It creates a blanket of +dry surface soil which insulates the soil moisture from the air above. The +tendency of soil moisture to reestablish capillary methods of escape makes +recultivation necessary from time to time in dry weather. Care must, of +course, be taken that the cultivation is not harmful to roots of growing +plants. If these roots are disturbed or destroyed through cultivation, +more harm than good may result because of the damage to the root systems.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span><i>Farm Power and Equipment.</i>—Where the land area to be cultivated is +larger than the family garden some type of equipment for working the land, +propelled by horse or motor, will be found desirable and in larger areas +essential. One or more horses may be used where there are stabling +facilities and where arrangements can be made for the daily care and +feeding that these animals require. A horse suitable for work purposes may +be obtained for less than $200. The price will, of course, depend upon the +age and physical soundness of the animal, but should not exceed $150 for a +physically sound animal under ten years old. A person unskilled in the +assessing of animal values should obtain the services of a veterinarian or +an experienced horseman in making a selection. A horse for this purpose +should be of quiet, tractable disposition, bred and broken for work +purposes. The cost of caring for a horse for one year will approximate +$125, including feed and bedding, but without labor charge.</p> + +<p>Leather harness costing $25 to $50 will be required and in addition tools, +including a plow, a harrow, and a cultivator costing about $15 each. Other +special equipment such as a mower will cost considerably more, depending +upon the type used.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>If the members of the family are fond of animals and willing to assume the +responsibility for their daily care, the horse will be found an efficient +and useful source of power for tilling the land. In this connection it +should be pointed out that flies breed with great rapidity in the strawy +manure of the stable, and such wastes should be spread upon the land +almost daily or treated to prevent fly-breeding.</p> + +<p><i>Tractor Power.</i>—Just as large tractors have supplanted horses and +horse-drawn equipment on thousands of farms in the United States, the +so-called garden tractor has become increasingly popular for the tilling +of small acreages. The tractor requires “feed” only when it is working, is +not subject to the ills that beset animals, and may be used for +twenty-four hours a day if necessary. It makes an appeal to the +mechanically minded members of the household and, if properly cared for, +will give economical and lasting service.</p> + +<p>The usual type of garden tractor consists of two large wheels with lugs on +them to give traction and is driven by a one- or two-cylinder motor. A +plow, a cultivator, or mower may be attached to the drawbar, the operator +walking behind and regulating the speed and guiding the outfit by handles +provided for the purpose. Earlier types of these machines were not always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +satisfactory owing to construction weaknesses and occasionally balky +motors. Those now on the market, however, are greatly improved, require +less attention, and rival their big brothers, the powerful farm tractors, +in dependability.</p> + +<p>There are a number of types and makes of garden tractors now on the +market, ranging in price from $175 or less to $400, the cost depending +largely upon the size and capacity of the motor. In selecting a +satisfactory garden tractor attention should be directed to the simplicity +and power of the motor, the type of bearings, the method of lubrication of +all moving parts, the working speed and the economy of fuel. Bearings +ought to be of standard, long-wearing type since these are subject to hard +service. Two speeds are desirable, a slow one for heavy duty and a faster +one for lighter work. The tractor should operate all day on about 2 +gallons of gasoline and a quart of oil. In addition to power applied at +the drawbar where special tools are attached, a pulley will be found a +desirable accessory for operating belt machinery such as small feed mills, +pumps, and cream separators. The rating of the motor should be not less +than 3 horsepower at the drawbar for the ordinary tasks it will be called +upon to perform.</p> + +<p>All types of attachments are available for the garden tractor. These +include plows, disks,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> harrows, cultivators, mowers, fertilizer +distributors, planters, sowers and seeding accessories. The prices of +these vary according to make and quality. Levers are provided for +adjusting the depth of plowing, cultivating and seeding. Some of the large +type garden tractors are equipped with a seat on a sulky attached to the +machine so that the operator can ride and have complete control over speed +and the type of work he wishes to do. A modern garden tractor will be +found very useful in taking care of a lawn or garden. In the case of +larger areas under cultivation, but not of field size, this type of +machine is rapidly gaining popularity for performing efficiently and +economically the numerous jobs that are to be done on every small farm.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Select a soil type that is inherently productive, fertile, retentive of moisture and easily cultivated.</p> + +<p class="hang">Supplement soil fertility by adding chemical fertilizers either singly or in combination.</p> + +<p class="hang">Buy mixed fertilizers on the basis of guaranteed analyses.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use legumes (peas, beans, etc.) to add nitrogen to soils and increase humus content.</p> + +<p class="hang">Add specific bacteria for the production of various legumes.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use manure and green crops to supply humus.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang">Apply lime when soil test shows need for it as plant food and general soil improver.</p> + +<p class="hang">Practice methods that make soils absorptive of moisture and permit escape of excess water.</p> + +<p class="hang">Cultivate the soil to check escape of moisture and to kill weeds.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use a horse or garden tractor for cultivation of areas larger than the family garden.</p> + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t buy land that is continually wet and swampy.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t expect to produce satisfactory crops on soils that are extremely +heavy or clayey or so sandy as to quickly lose moisture and fertility.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t try to produce crops without maintaining the humus supply in the soil.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect cultivation as a means of conserving moisture, destroying weeds and stimulating root growth.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VII" id="Chapter_VII"></a><i>Chapter</i> VII</h2> +<h3>FOOD FROM THE GARDEN</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The home</span> vegetable garden should supply an important part of the food for +every family living in the country. Vegetables that are of the right +varieties and that are fresh and properly prepared are nutritious, +wholesome and economical. Not only does the well-organized home garden +reduce the cost of feeding the family, but it constitutes an effective +method of maintaining better health among all members of the household. +Even common vegetables that are grown from the best varieties and served +fresh will be a revelation to those accustomed to buying them in stores. +Deterioration in quality and palatability begins immediately in vegetables +when they are harvested. The more perishable the commodity, the greater is +the rate of deterioration.</p> + +<p>The commercial vegetable grower usually inclines toward varieties that are +capable of producing a heavy yield per acre or that stand shipment and +temporary storage with the least apparent loss from deterioration. In +order to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> have his products reach the consumer in an attractive condition, +the commercial grower usually must harvest them before they are at their +best. The channels through which vegetables and fruits pass on their way +to the city consumer are devious, slow and costly. Such a consumer +therefore usually receives so-called fresh products that have been removed +from the plant or the soil before maturity is attained and after such +already poor quality has deteriorated through aging processes.</p> + +<p>All these disadvantages of vegetables purchased in the city are eliminated +by the possessor of a garden where he may produce his family’s needs (and +they are genuine needs) in the way of fresh vegetables. These products are +essential in supplying such necessary elements as minerals, vitamins, +acids, and cellulose. Dietary authorities advise that leafy vegetables, +sometimes called “greens,” contain food elements not found in root +vegetables. For the maintenance of health, the diet should include a +variety of vegetables besides potatoes.</p> + +<p><i>Assets of a Garden.</i>—A garden is a source of recreation, pleasure and +satisfaction to every member of the family. Real enjoyment can be had by +working in it a little time each day. To those whose work may be sedentary +and of a routine nature, the garden furnishes a source <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>of inspiration +and adventure. Daily evidences of plant growth and the novelty of having +vegetables of one’s own growing stimulate interest in it. The garden is an +aid in maintaining health through physical exercise and the liberal +consumption of the fruits of labor. There is no other avenue of activity +that can afford so much in the way of health, economical recreation and +pleasure as a well-planned garden.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fp96tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/fp96.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service</i>)</small><br /> +The well-planned garden furnishes food throughout the year for the entire family.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Having decided on a garden, the question immediately arises as to the +procedure to be followed to get the most out of it. Special attention has +been given to this problem by experts throughout the country and specific +recommendations are now available on the subject at state agricultural +colleges. These cover varieties, planting dates, adequate area, +fertilization, rotation of crops and storage. Typical recommendations +along these lines are given here for the north-central and eastern states. +Readers living elsewhere may wish to check them with the practices +recommended by authorities in their home states.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Growing by Rule.</i>—The most effective method of presenting the +story of recommended vegetables, desirable varieties, seed required, +average yields and other pertinent data is in tabular form, such as that +used in Table I, which has been prepared for the aid of home<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> vegetable +gardeners by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, and which is +based on years of study of the subject. Table II, prepared by the Michigan +State College of Agriculture, shows the amount of seed that should be +purchased to supply an adequate quantity and variety of important +vegetables for a family of six persons.</p> + +<p>Examination of the planting table will show that the setting of plants or +roots is occasionally recommended instead of the use of seed. This is +desirable in some cases to get quicker results and in other cases is +essential if a crop is to be secured during a normal growing season. While +it is possible for the grower to raise these plants, or sets, himself, +usually more satisfactory results can be obtained through buying them from +a capable plant grower. The growing of sets is a specialized business +requiring conditions of heat, moisture, fertility and skill, frequently +beyond the patience and capacity of the amateur. There are plant growers +in nearly every neighborhood who will grow the needed plants at small +cost. Arrangements should be made in advance for growing the varieties or +strains that are wanted, and usually the grower can furnish his own seed +for the plants if that seems desirable to him. One desiring to grow one’s +own plants from seed can secure full information from a practical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> grower +or from state and county agricultural agencies.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table I</span></p> + +<p class="center">PLANTING TABLE FOR VEGETABLES<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="vegetables"> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Name of<br />vegetable</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Variety</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Seed for<br />100-row</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Depth<br />to sow<br />seed,<br />inches</td> + <td colspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Distance<br />between<br />rows for<br />cultivation,<br />inches</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Distance<br />between<br />plants<br />in row,<br />inches</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Time of<br />planting<br />seed<br />outdoors</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Time of<br />harvest</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Average yield<br />100-foot<br />row</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Average<br />days from<br />seed to<br />harvest</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Horse</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Hand</td> + <td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Asparagus</td> + <td class="btr">Washington, Palmetto</td> + <td class="btr">1-yr.-old roots</td> + <td class="btr">8-10 roots</td> + <td class="btr">5 ft.</td> + <td class="btr">4 ft.</td> + <td class="btr">16</td> + <td align="center" class="btr">—</td> + <td class="btr">Spring-July 1</td> + <td class="btr">15 2-lb. bunches</td> + <td class="bt">2 yr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Beans</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Green bush</span></td> + <td class="br">Stringless Green Pod</td> + <td class="br">½ pt.</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">3</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">June 20</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">40-65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Bountiful</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">July 15</td> + <td class="br">Sept. 15-Frost</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Yellow bush</span></td> + <td class="br">Currie’s Rust Proof,</td> + <td class="br">½ pt.</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">3</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">June 20</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">50-70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Davis’ White Wax</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">July 15</td> + <td class="br">Sept. 15-Frost</td> + <td class="br">2-2½ bu.</td> + <td class="dent">95-100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pole Green</span></td> + <td class="br">Kentucky Wonder, Old Homestead</td> + <td class="br">½ pt.</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">10-30</td> + <td class="br">May 1-20</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 5</td> + <td class="br">2-2½ bu.</td> + <td class="dent">95-100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bush Lima</span></td> + <td class="br">Fordhook</td> + <td class="br">½ pt.</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">10</td> + <td class="br">May 1-July</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 1-Frost</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">110-120</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pole Lima</span></td> + <td class="br">King of the Garden</td> + <td class="br">½ pt.</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 1-Frost</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">110-120</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Beets—early</td> + <td class="br">Crosby’s Egyptian</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">28</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">2-3</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 1</td> + <td class="br">July 15</td> + <td class="br">2-2½ bu.</td> + <td class="dent">45-60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Late</span></td> + <td class="br">Detroit Dark Red</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">July 20</td> + <td class="br">Nov. 15</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cabbage—early</td> + <td class="br">Jersey Wakefield, Copenhagen Market</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">July-Sept.</td> + <td class="br">45-55 heads</td> + <td class="dent">100-120</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cabbage—late</td> + <td class="br">Danish Ball Head, Succession</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">July 1</td> + <td class="br">Oct.-Nov.</td> + <td class="br">45-55 heads</td> + <td class="dent">120-150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cantaloupe</td> + <td class="br">Early Knight, Fordhook</td> + <td class="br">½ oz.</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">54-60</td> + <td class="br">40</td> + <td class="br">48 hill</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 10</td> + <td class="br">6-8 fruits per hill</td> + <td class="dent">90-110</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Carrots</td> + <td class="br">Chantenay,</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 1</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 1</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">65-90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Oxheart</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">July 1</td> + <td class="br">Nov.</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Celery</td> + <td class="br">Golden Self-blanching, Easy Blanching</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">¼</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">6</td> + <td class="br">June 1</td> + <td class="br">Sept. 15</td> + <td class="br">200 stalks</td> + <td class="dent">120-150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>Corn–early</td> + <td class="br">Golden Bantam, Howling Mob</td> + <td class="br">¼ lb.</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">15 or 30 hill</td> + <td class="br">May 1</td> + <td class="br">July 12</td> + <td class="br">4 doz. ears</td> + <td class="dent">60-75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Corn–early</td> + <td class="br">Golden Bantam, Howling Mob</td> + <td class="br">¼ lb.</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">15 or 30 hill</td> + <td class="br">May 1</td> + <td class="br">July 12</td> + <td class="br">4 doz. ears</td> + <td class="dent">60-75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Corn–late</td> + <td class="br">Golden Bantam,</td> + <td class="br">¼ lb.</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">18 or 30 hill</td> + <td class="br">June 15</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 20-Frost</td> + <td class="br">4 doz. ears</td> + <td class="dent">75-90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Evergreen</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">July 1</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cucumber</td> + <td class="br">White Spine,</td> + <td class="br">½ oz.</td> + <td class="br">½-1</td> + <td class="br">48-60</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">48 hill</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">July 10</td> + <td class="br">200 cucumbers</td> + <td class="dent">60-75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Davis Perfect</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Aug. 20</td> + <td class="br">1½ bu. pickles</td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Eggplant</td> + <td class="br">New York Improved, Black Beauty</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">June 1</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 20-Frost</td> + <td class="br">125 fruits</td> + <td class="dent">140-160</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Endive</td> + <td class="br">Green Curled, Broad Leaved Batavian</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">56</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">June 15</td> + <td class="br">65 plants</td> + <td class="dent">60-90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">July 15</td> + <td class="br">Oct.-Nov.</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Kale</td> + <td class="br">Scotch Curled,</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 1</td> + <td class="br">June 1</td> + <td class="br">60 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">55-65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Siberian (over winter)</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Sept. 1</td> + <td class="br">Apr.</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Kohlrabi</td> + <td class="br">White Vienna</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">3-4</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">June 15</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">50-70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Lettuce</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Spring and fall</span></td> + <td class="br">Green-leaved Big Bos.</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">18-20</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">14-18</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15-June 1</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 15-Oct.</td> + <td class="br">70 head</td> + <td class="dent">70-90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Summer</span></td> + <td class="br">N. Y. Salamander</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">18-20</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">14-18</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">June 1</td> + <td class="br">70 head</td> + <td class="dent">70-90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Romaine</span></td> + <td class="br">G. R. Exp., Trianon</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">18-20</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">14-18</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 1</td> + <td class="br">July-Aug.</td> + <td class="br">70 head</td> + <td class="dent">70-90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Okra</td> + <td class="br">Perkins Long Pod</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">10-15</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 10</td> + <td class="br">900-1000 pod</td> + <td class="dent">90-140</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Onion sets</td> + <td class="br">Yellow Strasburg, Japanese (Eberheser)</td> + <td class="br">1 qt.</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">14</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 1</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">140 bunches</td> + <td class="dent">45-75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Onion seed</td> + <td class="br">Yellow Globe Danvers, Southport Globe</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">14</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 1</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 20</td> + <td class="br">1½-2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">110-130</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Parsnips</td> + <td class="br">Hollow Crown</td> + <td class="br">½ oz.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">3-4</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 1-May 15</td> + <td class="br">Sept.-Nov.</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">140-160</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Peas</td> + <td class="br">Little Marvel, Laxtonian, Telephone</td> + <td class="br">1 pt.</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">2</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 1-15</td> + <td class="br">June 10-July</td> + <td class="br">2 bu. (in pods)</td> + <td class="dent">45-70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>Peppers</td> + <td class="br">Ruby King, Pimento</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">18-20</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 15-Frost</td> + <td class="br">5 bu. (6 per plant)</td> + <td class="dent">125-150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Potatoes</td> + <td class="br">Irish Cob., Green Mts.</td> + <td class="br">½ pkt.</td> + <td class="br">3-4</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">14</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">July 1</td> + <td class="br">3 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">90-120</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Pumpkins</td> + <td class="br">Cheese, Small Sugar</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">60</td> + <td class="br">60</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">Sept. 1-Frost</td> + <td class="br">75 pumpkins</td> + <td class="dent">70-90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Radish</td> + <td class="br">Scarlet Globe, Icicle</td> + <td class="br">½ oz.</td> + <td class="br">12</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">5</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">June 1</td> + <td class="br">100 bunches</td> + <td class="dent">30-65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Sept. 1</td> + <td class="br">Oct. 25</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Rhubarb</td> + <td class="br">Victoria</td> + <td class="br">Roots</td> + <td class="br">5-6</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">Mar.-Apr.</td> + <td class="br">May-Nov.</td> + <td class="br">8-10 stalks plant</td> + <td class="dent">1 yr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Spinach—spring</td> + <td class="br">Bloomsdale, Savoy</td> + <td class="br">½ oz.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">20</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">2</td> + <td class="br">Mar.</td> + <td class="br">May</td> + <td class="br">3 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">45</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Spinach—summer</td> + <td class="br">New Zealand</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">1</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">June 15</td> + <td class="br">Cut all summer</td> + <td class="dent">65-120</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Spinach—fall</td> + <td class="br">Va. Dis., Resist. Savoy</td> + <td class="br">½ oz.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">20</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">2</td> + <td class="br">Aug.15-Sept. 15</td> + <td class="br">Oct.-Nov.</td> + <td class="br">3 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">50-60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Squash—summer</td> + <td class="br">Gold. Sum. Crookneck, White Bush Scallop</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">July 10</td> + <td class="br">136 squash</td> + <td class="dent">60-70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Squash—winter</td> + <td class="br">Boston Marrow, Warted Hubbard</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">1-1½</td> + <td class="br">72</td> + <td class="br">72</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">June 1</td> + <td class="br">Oct.</td> + <td class="br">75 squash</td> + <td class="dent">120-130</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Sweet potatoes</td> + <td class="br">Yel. Jersey</td> + <td class="br">Plants</td> + <td class="br" align="center">—</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">18</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">Oct. 1-10</td> + <td class="br">3 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">140-150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Swiss chard</td> + <td class="br">Lucullus</td> + <td class="br">1 oz.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">30</td> + <td class="br">6</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 15</td> + <td class="br">June 5-Frost</td> + <td class="br">Pull until frost</td> + <td class="dent">50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Tomatoes—early</td> + <td class="br">Chalk’s Early Jewel, Bonny Best</td> + <td class="br">Plants</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">May 15</td> + <td class="br">July 10-Aug.</td> + <td class="br">4 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">120-150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Tomatoes—late</td> + <td class="br">Matchless, Stone</td> + <td class="br">Plants</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">48</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">36</td> + <td class="br">June 1</td> + <td class="br">Aug.l-Frost</td> + <td class="br">4 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">150-170</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Turnips</td> + <td class="br">Purple Top Strap. Leaf</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">24</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">2</td> + <td class="br">Apr. 1</td> + <td class="br">June l</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">45-70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Rutabagas</td> + <td class="br">Golden Ball,</td> + <td class="br">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="br">½</td> + <td class="br">24</td> + <td class="br">15</td> + <td class="br">2</td> + <td class="br">Aug. 1</td> + <td class="br">Oct.-Nov.</td> + <td class="br">2 bu.</td> + <td class="dent">45-70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr"> </td> + <td class="bbr">Lg. Island Improved</td> + <td class="bbr">1 pkt.</td> + <td class="bbr">½</td> + <td class="bbr">24</td> + <td class="bbr">15</td> + <td class="bbr">2</td> + <td class="bbr">Aug. 1</td> + <td class="bbr">Oct.-Nov.</td> + <td class="bbr">2 bu.</td> + <td class="bb">45-70</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table II</span></p> + +<p class="center">AMOUNT OF SEED TO PURCHASE FOR FAMILY OF SIX<small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="seed"> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Vegetable</td><td class="bt" align="center">Amount to purchase</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Asparagus</td><td class="bt">66 plants</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Beans, snap (in variety)</td><td class="dent">2 to 3 pounds</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Beans, bush lima</td><td class="dent">1 pound</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Beet</td><td class="dent">4 ounces</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cabbage:</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early</span></td><td class="dent">1 packet</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Late</span></td><td class="dent">½ ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Carrot</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cauliflower</td><td class="dent">1 packet</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Celery</td><td class="dent">1 packet</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Corn, sweet</td><td class="dent">2 pounds</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cucumber</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Eggplant</td><td class="dent">1 packet</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Kale</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Lettuce</td><td class="dent">½ ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Muskmelon</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Onion sets</td><td class="dent">4 quarts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Onion seed</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Peas</td><td class="dent">2 to 4 pounds</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Parsley</td><td class="dent">1 packet</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Parsnip</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Radish (in variety)</td><td class="dent">2 ounces</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Rhubarb</td><td class="dent">20 plants</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Salsify</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Spinach</td><td class="dent">1 pound</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">New Zealand spinach</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Summer pumpkin</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Winter pumpkin</td><td class="dent">2 ounces</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Squash</td><td class="dent">2 ounces</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Tomatoes</td><td class="dent">1 packet or 50 plants</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Turnip</td><td class="dent">4 ounces</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Rutabaga</td><td class="dent">1 ounce</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">Watermelon</td><td class="bb">2 ounces</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span><i>Planning and Operating a Home Garden.</i>—In planning the home vegetable +garden there are a few essential points to be kept in mind. The time to +plan the garden is in winter when adequate consideration can be given to +the selection of those vegetables that the family likes best and can use +in large amounts. Seeds required should be ordered early for the entire +garden. By drawing the plan of the garden on paper and following it, the +procedure is simplified and the most efficient results attained.</p> + +<p>Vegetables should be planted in rows rather than in beds, and those +maturing at about the same time should be grouped together to facilitate +succession planting. After the early-maturing crops have been harvested, +other crops can be sown on the same area, thus fully utilizing the land +throughout the growing season. Perennial crops, including asparagus and +rhubarb, should be kept by themselves.</p> + +<p>A practical farmer wanting to express perfection in soil preparation is +apt to say, “It is just like a garden.” This implies good fertility, +optimum moisture conditions and proper tilth. To attain these conditions +in garden soil it is desirable to cover it with strawy manure some time +previous to plowing, in order that rains may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> carry the soluble fertility +elements into the surface inches of the soil. In the early spring a +thorough job of plowing or spading should be done to reasonable depth, +completely covering the surface straw or dead plants. Every two or three +years lime should be applied after plowing and worked into the top soil at +the rate of 1 pound of hydrated lime to every 25 square feet of soil.</p> + +<p><i>Fertilizing and Culture.</i>—The fertility supplied through application of +manure should be supplemented by the use of commercial fertilizer. This +can be purchased in burlap bags from local supply agencies and should +contain about 5 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 per +cent potash. Moderate variations in analysis from 5-8-7, as above, are not +important so long as the amounts of each element are well balanced. The +fertilizer should be broadcast over the garden after plowing, at the rate +of 1 pound to every 25 square feet and worked into the soil before +planting. Poultry or sheep manure may be used as top dressing to alternate +with commercial fertilizer. It should be borne in mind that such animal +manures are richer in nitrogen than in other elements and if used to +excess may stimulate leaf growth at the expense of yield and quality.</p> + +<p>Frequent shallow cultivations are desirable. The ordinary wheel hoe will +be found helpful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> in the cultivating procedure. It should be well +understood that cultivation is essential to prevent weed growth and +conserve moisture.</p> + +<p>If watering or irrigating is necessary in dry weather, it should be +thoroughly done. One soaking of the soil to a depth of 4 to 6 inches is +far more effective than frequent light sprinklings. The latter may be more +harmful than beneficial through reestablishing capillary movement, +permitting the escape of subsoil moisture. Water should be applied under +the same conditions that apply when rain falls—on cloudy days or after +sunset to prevent “baking” or encrusting of the surface soil as well as to +conserve the amount of water needed.</p> + +<p><i>Meeting the Insect Problem.</i>—The sponsor of a garden in which +diversified vegetables are grown must be prepared to meet the onslaught of +equally diversified insect species. While it is true that insects are +multiplying as to species and voraciousness, it is equally true that +methods of control are becoming available to cope adequately with most of +them. One unfamiliar with our insect infestations will be amazed to find +that certain species apparently have had advance notice of his intentions +and are sitting about the planted rows awaiting the appearance of the +tender shoots.</p> + +<p>One of the best methods of combating insects is to create ideal conditions +for plant growth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> Plants that are underfed through inadequate soil +fertility or are weakened by other causes suffer severely from insect +attack, while vigorous plants will come through with much less damage. It +is advisable to insure rapid germination of seed through careful soil +preparation, to seed at the proper time for a quick and vigorous start and +to have sufficient available fertility to stimulate growth once the plants +have started.</p> + +<p>There are two distinct classes of insects, the division being based upon +their feeding habits. The larger group, both in the size of the insects +themselves and in the number of species, is the leaf-chewing group. These +can be destroyed by the application of stomach poisons to the plants under +attack. The other group consists of the sucking insects, which penetrate +the veins carrying nourishment to the leaves and appropriate it for +themselves. Such insects multiply with extreme rapidity, generally feed on +the underside of the leaves and may cause complete wilting of the plant +before their presence is suspected. In such cases a “contact” spray or +dust must be used. This is based on the principle of causing the insect to +“inhale” the material through breathing pores along its body. The +insecticide must be composed of extremely fine particles or must be of +such an oily nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> that it will readily penetrate such pores. In +addition to these, certain repellent materials are being developed which +cause the insect to seek food where the disagreeable conditions do not +prevail.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table III</span></p> + +<p class="center">PRINCIPAL INSECTS AND REMEDIES<small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small></p> + +<table width="80%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="insects"> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Plants attacked</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Chewing insects</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Character of damage</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Treatment</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Tomato, pepper, eggplant, turnip, cabbage, etc.</td> + <td class="btr">Flea Beetles</td> + <td class="btr">They gnaw or eat small holes in the leaves.</td> + <td class="bt">Dust or spray with a prepared nicotine or pyrethrum mixture. Bordeaux mixture sprayed, or dusting for disease is also effective as a repellent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Asparagus</td> + <td class="br">Asparagus Beetle</td> + <td class="br">Feeds on the shoots and brush.</td> + <td class="dent">Dust with either arsenate of lead or calcium arsenate, mixed with 1 part of wheat flour. Spray with arsenate of lead or calcium arsenate, 1 tablespoonful if a paste or ½ tablespoonful if a powder, and 1 tablespoonful of lime to 1 gallon of water.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">All kinds of beans</td> + <td class="br">Mexican Bean Beetle</td> + <td class="br">Eats the under side of leaves</td> + <td class="dent">Dust with 1 part of magnesium arsenate mixed with 3 parts of lime, or dust the yellow larva under the leaves with a pyrethrum dust.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Early cabbage and cauliflower</td> + <td class="br">Cabbage Maggot</td> + <td class="br" align="center">........................</td> + <td class="dent">Keep the ground thoroughly cultivated around the base of the plant or use tar paper discs for larger plantings.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br">Common Cabbage Worm and Cabbage Looper</td> + <td class="br">Feed on the shoots and brush.</td> + <td class="dent">Same as for asparagus beetle. Pyrethrum dust is also very effective.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cucumber, squash, and melons.</td> + <td class="br">Striped Cucumber Beetle</td> + <td class="br">Eats the leaves and the stem of the very young plants.</td> + <td class="dent">Protect with a cheesecloth or do the same as for the asparagus beetle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Pumpkins and squashes</td> + <td class="br">Squash Vine Borer</td> + <td class="br">Kills the vines by eating in the stem.</td> + <td class="dent">Take a sharp thin-bladed penknife and slit the stem lengthwise, opening it and killing the borer. Then bank the ground around the stem of the plant.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Tomato, eggplant, potato</td> + <td class="br">Potato Beetle</td> + <td class="br">Eats the leaves.</td> + <td class="dent">Same as for Cabbage Worm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Tomato</td> + <td class="br">Tomato Horn Worm</td> + <td class="br">Eats the leaves.</td> + <td class="dent">Same as for Common Cabbage Worm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Tomato fruits</td> + <td class="br">Tomato Fruit Worm</td> + <td class="br">Eats the tomato fruits.</td> + <td class="dent">Same as for Cabbage Worm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>Tomato, eggplant, pepper, cabbage, and other crops.</td> + <td class="br">Cutworms</td> + <td class="br">Cut the plants off near the surface of the ground.</td> + <td class="dent">Protect with paper collars placed around the stem of the plant, extending 2 or 3 inches above the ground, or distribute poisoned bran mash, placing it near the plant. Thoroughly mix 2 level tablespoonfuls of paris green in 5 pounds of dry bran, then add from 4 to 6 quarts of water in which ½ pint of cheap molasses has been mixed. Cutworms work at night, therefore apply the mash in the late afternoon or evening.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Plants attacked</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Sucking insects</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Character of damage</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Treatment</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Tomato, potato, strawberries, and beans.</td> + <td class="btr">Leaf Hopper</td> + <td class="btr">Feeds under the leaf, causing a whitening and curve of the leaves with a dying of the edges.</td> + <td class="bt">Dust or spray with a prepared nicotine or pyrethrum mixture. Bordeaux mixture is also effective as a repellent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Practically all garden vegetable plants.</td> + <td class="br">Aphis (plant lice)</td> + <td class="br">Sucks the juices on the under side of the leaves and on the stems.</td> + <td class="dent">Either dust or spray with a nicotine or pyrethrum mixture as recommended on the package. Be sure to hit the insects on the under side of the leaves.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">Cabbage group, strawberries, and beans.</td> + <td class="bbr">Red Spider</td> + <td class="bbr">Sucks the juices from the under side of the leaves, producing a whitish cast on the cabbage group and a brownish cast on the other groups. Especially prevalent during prolonged dry hot spells.</td> + <td class="bb">Apply a dusting sulfur.</td></tr></table> + + +<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>Table III (pages 107-108) describes the character of damage done by both +groups of insects, the plants attacked and the most effective methods of +control.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Grow vegetables for health, recreation and economy.</p> + +<p class="hang">Organize the vegetable garden for a maximum of output, variety of foods and to facilitate its care.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use lime and chemical fertilizer or manure liberally for intensive culture.</p> + +<p class="hang">Combat insects by stimulating plant growth and by using appropriate lethal products.</p> + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t plant a garden in hit-or-miss fashion, if maximum food return is expected.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect first appearances of insect damage. Find out the cause of +injury and use recommended measures for control.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VIII" id="Chapter_VIII"></a><i>Chapter</i> VIII</h2> +<h3>HOME FRUITS AND BEES</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">A wide</span> variety of fruits may be grown satisfactorily for home use. Where +no fruit trees are growing the best plan is to set out individual trees or +bush fruits of the standard types and varieties, adding to the collection +later as the needs of the family develop and the adaptability of the area +for varieties manifests itself through crop production.</p> + +<p>All fruits thrive best on a deep, well-drained soil. It is difficult to +secure good results where the area is depressed and air drainage is poor. +Elevation of the area planted is desirable therefore from the standpoint +of both water and air drainage.</p> + +<p>A number of questions confront the prospective grower of fruits. He needs +to know, among other things, the kind of fruit to plant, the necessary +distance between the trees or plants and the probable yield. The following +planting guide will be found helpful in answering these questions.</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">HOME FRUITS AND BEES</p> + +<p class="center">PLANTING GUIDE<small><a name="f4.1" id="f4.1" href="#f4">[4]</a></small></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="planting"> +<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Average<br />number<br />of plants<br />to the acre</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Kind of fruit</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Distance<br />between<br />rows,<br />feet</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Distance<br />between<br />plants,<br />feet</td> + <td colspan="4" class="bt" align="center">Estimated yield<br />at maturity</td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Average<br />per acre</td> + <td colspan="2" class="bt" align="center">Average<br />per plant</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="right">27</td> + <td class="btr">Apples</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">40</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">40</td> + <td class="bt" align="right">135</td> + <td class="btr">bushels</td> + <td class="bt" align="right">5</td> + <td class="bt">bushels</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">Pears</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">bushels</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td class="dent">bushel</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">200</td> + <td class="br">Quinces</td> + <td class="br" align="center">16</td> + <td class="br" align="center">16</td> + <td align="right">100</td> + <td class="br">bushels</td> + <td align="right">½</td> + <td class="dent">bushel</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">Peaches</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">bushels</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td class="dent">bushel</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">Nectarines</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">bushels</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td class="dent">bushel</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">Plums</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">bushels</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td class="dent">bushel</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">Cherries (sour)</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22</td> + <td align="right">90</td> + <td class="br">bushels</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td class="dent">bushel</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">48</td> + <td class="br">Cherries (sweet)</td> + <td class="br" align="center">30</td> + <td class="br" align="center">30</td> + <td align="right">50</td> + <td class="br">bushels</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td class="dent">bushel</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">6,000</td> + <td class="br">Strawberries (matted row)</td> + <td class="br" align="center">3½</td> + <td class="br" align="center">2</td> + <td align="right">2,250</td> + <td class="br">quarts</td> + <td align="right">¾</td> + <td class="dent">pint per stool</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">1,800</td> + <td class="br">Raspberries</td> + <td class="br" align="center">8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">3</td> + <td align="right">2,000</td> + <td class="br">quarts</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td class="dent">quart</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">1,800</td> + <td class="br">Blackberries</td> + <td class="br" align="center">8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">3</td> + <td align="right">2,400</td> + <td class="br">quarts</td> + <td align="right">1¼</td> + <td class="dent">quarts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">1,200</td> + <td class="br">Dewberries (hill system)</td> + <td class="br" align="center">6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">6</td> + <td align="right">1,800</td> + <td class="br">quarts</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td class="dent">quart</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">1,800</td> + <td class="br">Gooseberries</td> + <td class="br" align="center">8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">3</td> + <td align="right">5,400</td> + <td class="br">quarts</td> + <td align="right">3</td> + <td class="dent">quarts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br" align="right">1,800</td> + <td class="br">Currants</td> + <td class="br" align="center">8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">3</td> + <td align="right">3,600</td> + <td class="br">quarts</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td class="dent">quarts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr" align="right">680</td> + <td class="bbr">Grapes</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">8</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">8</td> + <td class="bb" align="right">4,000</td> + <td class="bbr">pounds</td> + <td class="bb" align="right">6</td> + <td class="bb">pounds</td></tr></table> + +<p>The selection of varieties of tree fruits is highly important. Some sorts +are preeminently adapted to home use because of their high quality of +edibility while others are preferred for commercial production on account +of their good shipping qualities and high yields per acre. It is advisable +for the grower to inquire of his state agricultural college regarding +varieties to plant. Responsible nursery firms will also advise on +varieties that will best meet the needs of the purchaser from the +standpoint<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> of family use and adaptability to soil and climatic +conditions.</p> + +<p>The following varieties are recommended for general home use in +north-central areas of the United States, subject to check by local +authorities. The apple and peach varieties are given in the order of +ripening.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">Apples:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">William</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wealthy</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">McIntosh</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rome</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stayman</span><br /> +Peaches (all freestone):<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Golden Jubilee</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Georgia Belle</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Elberta</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">J. H. Hale</span><br /> +Pears:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bartlett</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Seckel</span><br /> +Cherries:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montmorency or Early Richmond (sour)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Black Tartarian (sweet)</span><br /> +Plums:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Damson (blue)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burbank (red)</span></p> + +<p>About fifty strawberry plants will be needed for a row 100 feet long. +Because of weed infestations in old beds, it will be more satisfactory to +set a new row each year and destroy the old one. The plants during the +season of setting should be trained to form a matted row about 2 feet +wide. Mulching the plants after a freeze<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> in the fall with straw or other +similar material will prevent injury caused by “heaving” of the soil.</p> + +<p>Currants and gooseberries should be pruned annually and only the one- or +two-year-old wood retained for production. Thinning out in this manner +will give better size and quality. Where the currant worm is troublesome +the foliage should be dusted with arsenate of lead or Paris green as soon +as it is well developed and before the fruit is started. About thirty +currant or gooseberry plants will be needed for a 100-foot row, and they +can be planted along a fence or other boundary line.</p> + +<p>Blackberries and raspberries should be set 3 feet apart in the row, 100 +feet requiring thirty to thirty-five plants. Old canes should be pruned +out after fruiting and the weaker new canes should be removed when +dormant, leaving 6 or 8 inches between the standing canes. Lateral +branches should be cut back in early spring to about 1 foot in length and +the upright canes cut back to uninjured wood, thus removing about +two-thirds of the growth.</p> + +<p>Grapes need severe pruning to produce satisfactory yields of good quality. +This is best done in late winter. It is a good plan to prune so that from +15 to 30 or possibly 40 buds are left on each mature vine, depending upon +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> vitality of the plant. Two or three clusters of fruit will develop on +the shoot that grows from each bud. A 100-foot row of grapes will require +twelve plants. There are many fine varieties of grapes and several can be +used in a single row.</p> + +<p>In ordering stock for planting, care should be exercised in making sure of +the reliability of the nursery. As a general rule it is better to order +from a nursery in the vicinity, thus eliminating losses due to shipping +great distances and also making sure that the varieties or strains were +grown for use in the area in question. Upon the arrival of the stock from +the nursery, it should be “heeled in” at once. That is, the roots should +be covered in a trench so that they will not dry out before they can be +planted in the desired location. In the case of a few trees that can be +set immediately, this is not necessary.</p> + +<p>Nearly all country places have sufficient area for planting small fruits +and, as is the case with vegetables, freshness and fine-flavored varieties +will compensate for the labor involved in growing them. Strawberries, +currants, gooseberries, blackberries, red and black raspberries and grapes +are especially desirable for home plantings. Some high-quality varieties +are given for the choice of the home owner, subject to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> confirmation by +authorities acquainted with specific conditions and intended primarily for +home use.</p> + +<p class="blockquot"> +Strawberries (in order of ripening):<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Howard 17</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fairfax</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aberdeen</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joe</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chesapeake</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mastodon is recommended for the everbearing type.</span><br /> +Currants:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fay</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wilder</span><br /> +Gooseberries:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chautauqua</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Poorman</span><br /> +Blackberries:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russell</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ward</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eldorado for bush types</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Black Diamond for the trailing type requiring a trellis and</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ripening late in the season.</span><br /> +Red Raspberries (in order of ripening):<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ranere</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Viking</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Latham</span><br /> +Black Raspberries:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cumberland</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quillen</span><br /> +Grapes (general list, in order of ripening):<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ontario (white)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fredonia (black)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Delaware (red)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brighton (red)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Golden Muscat (white)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Concord (blue)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sheridan (black)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For those desiring a succession of blue-black varieties,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fredonia, Concord and Sheridan are recommended.</span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span><i>Controlling Insect and Fungous Pests.</i>—Plant pests of various kinds +infest tree fruits and small fruits. In general, the best method of +controlling leaf-chewing insects is by applying arsenate of lead on the +foliage. Care must be taken to avoid staining the fruit with poisonous +spray or thorough washing will be necessary before it is safe to consume. +The control of other insect pests and fungous plant diseases has been well +worked out by agricultural experiment stations throughout the country, and +these methods should be sought before attempting any campaign of +suppression. A barrel spray pump, mounted on a hand truck or on a vehicle, +equipped with plenty of hose will be found satisfactory for spraying +plantings of modest size.</p> + +<p><i>Rejuvenating an Old Orchard.</i>—The purchaser of an old-established farm +will usually find he has acquired some apple trees of uncertain age and +health. In many instances these trees can be renovated and rejuvenated so +that they will again bear fruit. If the trees have several sound limbs and +are making some growth each year, they may be considered worth saving. On +the other hand, broken tops and limbs accompanied by large rotted cavities +will create too great an expense if an attempt is made to restore them to +usefulness. The varieties should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> be determined before serious efforts at +renovation are undertaken, so that the strenuous work necessary for +restoration may not be wasted on undesirable fruit.</p> + +<p><i>Steps in Renovation.</i>—The first operation in renovation is pruning. Most +of this should be done in early spring during the dormant season and +supplemented in June or July when the trees are in leaf. Large broken +limbs and dead wood should be removed, together with interfering branches, +and those reaching too high should be headed back. At about the same time +that pruning is started the loose bark should be thoroughly scraped off +and burned, thus destroying insects and fungi that attack the fruit. +Harboring places for further infestations are also thus removed. If the +trees are badly in need of pruning, it is best to do the job over a period +of two or three years rather than all at one time, due to the tendency of +trees to “sucker” and develop a multiplicity of small non-bearing +branches.</p> + +<p>Spraying, fertilizing and cultivation, where that is possible, should +follow the pruning and scraping jobs. Spray schedules and cultural +practices best adapted to the region can be obtained without cost by +applying to state or county agricultural agencies. Ordinarily two or three +years are required to rejuvenate these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> trees and begin to secure a crop. +Production will then increase in quantity and quality during succeeding +years.</p> + +<p><i>Bees as Pollinators.</i>—The production of fruits of all kinds is dependent +upon pollination of their blossoms by bees and other winged insects. Bees +of many species are useful in pollen distribution, but the most important +is the honey bee, which is available in larger numbers just at flowering +time, seeking nectar from the flowers. In large commercial orchards +colonies of honey bees are set at regular intervals to insure adequate +pollination, usually one hive per acre.</p> + +<p>A practical method of adding to county life enjoyment and adding to income +as well is the keeping of bees for honey production.</p> + +<p><i>Securing a Honey Crop.</i>—Bee husbandry can be carried on successfully as +a specialized side line where only small areas of land are available. +Colonies can be located at one side of the garden or placed under trees +where they will not be disturbed either through accident or by cultivation +of the plot immediately surrounding them. The activity of the bees during +the nectar-gathering season, accompanied by the well-known hum as they +dart in and out of the hive, makes a genuine appeal to the country +dweller. This appeal is heightened by the fact that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> they are working for +him, in part at least, and without his having to pay for their raiding the +nectar from the flowers around. He knows that his efforts in providing +favorable working conditions for the bees will be repaid by a harvest of +salable honey. A colony at full strength just at the right time will +invariably gather a surplus.</p> + +<p><i>First Principles in Beekeeping.</i>—The beginner in bee husbandry should +purchase established colonies from a reputable business concern or from +beekeepers in the neighborhood of his home. He should begin in a small way +with a few colonies, learn the business with a small investment and then +increase as his liking for the work develops and the market for the +product expands. Being able to read the signs at the entrance to the hive +is the surest way to success. Too much manipulation is just as harmful as +neglect. The novice in beekeeping who is really interested and follows +carefully a few details gained from a reliable bee book should harvest at +least 30 pounds of honey a year from each colony. Experts get much larger +yields and have been known to secure 200 pounds per colony and 200 +sections of comb honey from one hive. The deciding factor in producing +honey is the skill of the watchful beekeeper, assuming of course that +there is a sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> supply of nectar-secreting blossoms in the area.</p> + +<p>The cost of engaging in bee husbandry is nominal. An established colony of +the preferred Italian bees should cost about $8. The equipment should +include two fitted supers for each colony in which the bees may store the +honey, costing about $3 each; a veil to protect the head and face, +linseed-oil-soaked canvas gloves, a bee smoker, a hive tool and a bee +escape (needed for removing the bees from filled supers), each item +costing less than a dollar. An additional piece of apparatus, a queen +“excluder,” is needed for each hive, to keep the queen in the lower +chamber and prevent the mixing of stored honey surplus and developing +bees.</p> + +<p>The principal nectar-secreting plants are the clovers, sumac, buckwheat, +cranberry and blueberry blossoms, goldenrod, asters and mallows. Since +these plants bloom at varying periods during the growing season, the +beekeeper will find it necessary to adjust his operations in accordance +with the nectar-producing capacity of his own region. The experience of +successful beekeepers will be found helpful as a guide in taking the +successive and orderly steps necessary to secure maximum honey crops. In +many states there are associations of beekeepers formed for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> mutual +advantage and the promotion of the industry. The novice can hardly expect +to learn unless he affiliates himself with such groups and attends their +meetings. Subscription to a good bee journal is also desirable.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fp120tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/fp120.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center">Colonies of honey bees located near the source of nectar supply.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Selling the Product.</i>—Honey can be marketed in the comb or in glass jars +in the extracted or crystal form. Many suburban beekeepers dispose of +their crop in their own neighborhood or at roadside stands. Many food +products are being promoted which contain honey as one ingredient, and +this opens an attractive field to the resourceful beekeeper. The healthful +qualities of honey for human consumption are being given greater +recognition and it appears that the market for locally produced honey of +high quality is steadily expanding.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Fruit trees should be included in every country homeowner’s plan.</p> + +<p class="hang">Be sure varieties are such as will yield, plentifully, good quality fruit.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use bush fruits as ornamentals and sources of food to be put in cans.</p> + +<p class="hang">Seek advice on fruit problems from the state agricultural college.</p> + +<p class="hang">Old orchards may be rejuvenated under proper systems of management.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang">Use colonies of bees to pollinate fruit blossoms and to produce honey.</p> + +<p class="hang">Begin bee husbandry in a small way at first and get advice from experienced bee culturists.</p> + +<p class="hang">Sell surplus honey in home markets.</p> + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t plant varieties of fruits that are ill adapted to climatic conditions.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t overlook the necessity of preparing for insect attacks in advance of appearance.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t establish bee colonies without making sure that proper care of them can be taken.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t try to practice horticulture or bee husbandry without frequently obtaining expert advice.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_IX" id="Chapter_IX"></a><i>Chapter</i> IX</h2> +<h3>POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The majority</span> of the owners of small farm properties are interested in the +possibilities of poultry keeping as a means of adding to the family +income. Efforts in this direction are logical from a number of angles. For +example, the keeping of poultry appeals to them as an interesting line of +work for the sake of the activity itself. Furthermore, the cost of housing +a comparatively large number of laying hens is not expensive, as compared +with the investment required in other agricultural enterprises. Again, +there is a ready market for the eggs and for the poultry in the +neighborhood where the enterprise is carried on. No doubt, too, the more +or less fabulous stories of easy profits have stimulated a desire to get +into this business and to make it a rather important source of income. +Again, there is the thought that the work involved in feeding and caring +for the flock can be carried on by another member of the family when the +owner or principal bread-winner is engaged in some other activity +temporarily.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>All these factors have tended to develop in the mind of the settler in the +country a pretty definite idea that he can supplement the family income +with poultry. Sometimes this idea is erroneous and there is apt to be +little definite knowledge on the part of the new owner as to costs, +problems and profits that are likely to accrue. It is the thought of the +writer to outline some definite recommendations for the prospective +poultryman which will enable him to safeguard his investment and prevent +the very serious losses that have occurred to many who have not taken into +consideration all of the factors involved.</p> + +<p><i>Soil Type.</i>—The prospective poultryman will, if he is wise, make sure +that the soil is adapted to the project. The ideal soil for poultry +raising is sufficiently porous to furnish good water drainage and yet not +so open or sandy as to be incapable of crop production. A porous soil is +warmer than a clay soil and is more conducive to good sanitation through +permitting moisture and debris to be carried quickly to the subsoil. If +the subsoil is of a gravelly nature the natural condition will be +improved. Presumably the same type of soil that will bear the poultry +plant should be capable of producing garden crops, growing shade or fruit +trees satisfactorily and producing grass and short-rooted crops that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> can +be used in conjunction with the poultry plant or the beautification of the +home surroundings. Consequently, the soil type must be productive and +capable of improvement while being well drained and conducive to good +sanitation. Heavy clay soils or those with rock strata close to the +surface are to be avoided.</p> + +<p>Successful poultry farms are operated on both level and rolling lands. +Extremely flat topography should be avoided and also precipitous slopes. +If the site is on rolling land the poultry plant should be located on a +slope with southern exposure to secure warmth, quicker drying conditions +and protection from cold north winds.</p> + +<p><i>Breeds of Poultry.</i>—Fowls have been domesticated and bred for ages all +over the world. As the result of various crossings a large number of types +or breeds of poultry are available for present-day use and propagation. +Some of these breeds are maintained for show or novelty purposes only and +furnish an interesting field for the fancier.</p> + +<p>For the person who is engaging in the commercial poultry business the +choice of breed narrows to a very few utility types. For purely +egg-producing purposes or for broilers weighing slightly over a pound at +killing time, the light Mediterranean breeds are the most efficient.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> Less +feed is needed for maintaining the egg machine itself and less room per +bird required. Of these so-called egg breeds, the White Leghorn is in a +class by itself. This breed is noted for its large white-shelled eggs +which top the markets where this color egg is in demand. In the most +intensive egg-producing areas of the country the White Leghorn +predominates. On the other hand, this breed is not a good meat producer, +the mature birds being light in weight.</p> + +<p>For the dual purpose of egg and meat production the American breeds are +the most popular. The principal commercial types of this general purpose +group are Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. In some +instances crosses of these breeds are proving good layers and highly +efficient meat producers.</p> + +<p>The Rocks, Wyandottes and Reds have bright yellow skin, shanks and beak +which are desired in market poultry. They are good winter layers, +particularly, and some strains have been developed that rival the Leghorn +in the number of eggs per bird. Both the White and the Barred Plymouth +Rocks are popular among those seeking a dual purpose breed, and being +slightly heavier than White Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds they are +preferred by many poultrymen. The latter two breeds are rapidly increasing +in popularity and their best qualities are being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> brought out more +uniformly by careful selection of breeding stock in each case. All of +these American breeds lay brown eggs.</p> + +<p>In addition to the egg and the dual purpose types of poultry epitomized by +the Leghorn and the Plymouth Rock, respectively, there are breeds which +are primarily meat producers. Less attention is paid to the egg-producing +ability of these than is the case with the others mentioned. The Brahmas, +Cochins and Langshans stand in high regard as economical meat producers. +The Jersey Black Giant is a more recent addition to the popular heavy +breeds, especially for the capon trade.</p> + +<p>These Asiatic types grow slowly and are phlegmatic in movement so that +they utilize feed for the economical development of high quality meat and +attain great weight. For broilers of more than 1½ pounds each, for +roasting chickens and for capons, the dual purpose breeds are becoming +more popular than the extremely heavy breeds due to their more rapid +growth and more popular weight average at marketing time.</p> + +<p><i>Buying Stock.</i>—The advantages of buying and maintaining definite breeds +of poultry are now so well understood that the mixed or mongrel flock is +fast disappearing. Having decided which type of fowl is best adapted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +one’s market and ideas, there is no difficulty in finding a breed that +will fit the need. As has been pointed out, the attributes of high egg +production or fine quality of meat are inherent in certain breeds. A +single breed means uniformity in color, size and shape of the eggs which +increases their marketability. More attractive appearance of the flock and +greater efficiency from feeding without additional cost are other +advantages pertaining to standardizing the flock as to breed.</p> + +<p>Stock may be acquired as day-old chicks, as ten- to twelve-week-old +pullets or as adult birds ready to lay. Hatching eggs may also be bought +if desired, but it will be found more satisfactory and just as economical +for the inexperienced person to buy the hatched chick or the more mature +birds. The hatching and brooding processes are fraught with difficulties +which may be especially acute for the amateur. The greatest demand at the +present time, and properly so, is for day-old chicks. A highly specialized +industry has been developed for the purpose of supplying this demand and a +reputation for reliability has been established by many concerns catering +to this trade.</p> + +<p><i>Poultry House Construction.</i>—Where flocks of poultry are to be kept for +egg production,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> special laying houses must be provided in addition to +brooder houses that will be needed in any case.</p> + +<p>One of the best types of brooder house is the two-room type developed by +Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Such a house should be about 8 by 14 +feet, and mounted on skids for convenience in moving. A movable partition +divides the house into two rooms. Thus a cold room is provided for +exercising and a warm room for sleeping. The marked difference in +temperature between the two rooms helps to harden the chicks, while the +reduced space about the hover conserves the heat.</p> + +<p>A great deal of study has been given to the construction of laying houses +for poultry. The purposes in mind have been to obtain maximum sunlight +throughout the day, protection from storms and from dampness, and adequate +ventilation.</p> + +<p>In the construction of a modern laying house, 1 square foot of glass +should be provided for every 20 square feet of floor space. The windows +should be hinged so that they may be opened in warm weather. One of the +commercial glass substitutes that are now on the market may be used +instead of ordinary glass to allow violet light rays to reach the +birds. The other openings permit free circulation of air through the +house. They should be equipped with muslin curtains to be used during +storms and in extremely cold weather. Such a house can be used the year +round.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/p130tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/p130.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><small>(<i>Courtesy of Poultry Tribune</i>)</small><br /> +This sketch shows an end view of a practical and inexpensive shed-roof laying house.<br /> +Detailed blue prints for use in constructing such a house can usually be obtained<br />from county agricultural agents or state agricultural colleges.</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fp130tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/fp130.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center">A fine flock of layers. The hoppers furnish laying mash and<br />the fountains supply drinking water. Scratch grain is thrown in the litter.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>The floor of the laying house must be dry at all times if vigor and health +are to be maintained. During the winter there should be about 10 inches of +dry litter in the form of straw, peat moss or shavings mixed with the +straw. Small windows in the rear wall will make for better distribution of +the litter, since the birds scratch away from the light.</p> + +<p><i>Equipment and Appliances.</i>—A great deal of hand labor and daily drudgery +can be eliminated by equipping the house with properly constructed +appliances. These will not only save labor but will also supply the birds +with their needs at the time the need for certain materials is felt and +thus contribute to health and flock efficiency.</p> + +<p>The best method of feeding dry mash is from a hopper. This should be so +constructed as to hold a reserve supply at all times that will run into +the feed trough as it is consumed. Care should be taken in construction to +prevent the birds from throwing out the mash with their beaks and thus +wasting it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>Water fountains of a standard type that will furnish the birds with a +constant amount of fresh water are available at poultry supply houses. +Receptacles should also be provided for grit, ground oyster shell and +charcoal which can be easily filled. A sloping board should be placed over +these receptacles to prevent the birds from roosting on them and soiling +the contents.</p> + +<p>Bins so constructed as to be vermin-proof and moisture-proof should be +available for storing the scratch grain and other concentrated feeds. +Provision for storing litter where it can be kept clean and dry will be +necessary. If long straw is to be used, a cutter operated by hand or by a +motor will prove useful in fining the straw. The scratch grain will be +spread through the litter on the floor, compelling the birds to scratch +for it and thus obtain needed exercise.</p> + +<p><i>Artificial Lighting.</i>—Modern laying houses are equipped with electric +lights that are turned on and off automatically. Artificial lighting +prolongs the hen’s working day when the days are short, resulting in +greater food consumption and more exercise which will increase egg +production and give better health and stamina at seasons when more eggs +augment profits. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> 40-watt bulb should be placed in one receptacle with +reflector for each 200 square feet of floor space, located midway between +the front wall and the front line of perches.</p> + +<p><i>Investment Needed for the Start.</i>—The prospective poultryman should be +familiar with the principal items of cost before engaging in the business. +To be thus forewarned is to be forearmed. The scale upon which one takes +up commercial poultry production should depend upon experience in coping +with the industry’s peculiar problems and upon the amount of capital +available. Success depends, of course, both upon skill in handling the +poultry and upon the capitalization of the plant. It should be recognized +that costs can be only approximate and are usable as guides only. They +will vary according to geographical location, general economic conditions, +labor costs and the bargaining power of the individual. The figures here +given are for a plant comprised of 1,500 laying hens—the minimum number +from which a living can be obtained and probably the maximum number that +can be cared for by one person.</p> + +<p>The houses for the flock will necessarily include a laying house of the +multiple unit or other similar type, which should cost about $1,000. In +addition, eight brooder houses will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> be needed to care for the chicks and +growing stock, costing about $100 each, or a total of $800. The growing +stock when on range will need shelters for protection against hot sun and +rain, and these should be built for about $25 each, or a total of $200, +making a total cost for buildings and the necessary interior equipment +about $2,000. In addition to this item, there will be needed about $1,500 +for the purchase of pullets at $1.00 each, making a grand total of $3,500.</p> + +<p>If baby chicks are purchased, it will be necessary to buy not less than +4,000 of these if the operator is to obtain 1,500 desirable laying birds. +The cost of these chicks will depend upon the breeding that is behind +them, upon whether they are blood-tested to eliminate bacillary white +diarrhea (a scourge of young chicks) and the general care that has been +taken in the hatchery to produce good, livable chicks. This care, +incidentally, must extend to flocks from which the hatching eggs are +secured, as well as to the final incubating process. Chicks sold at +extremely low prices are rarely bargains. Quality is far more important +than low first cost. Assuming a cost of 14 cents per chick as an average +for chicks that will produce virile, productive layers, the initial +investment for this item will be between $500 and $600.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> Therefore, if +chicks are purchased, it will reduce the item for stock from the amount of +$1,500 given above, which would represent the cost of partly grown +pullets.</p> + +<p>Assuming that the complete poultry plant already stocked will cost $3,500, +we must add to the budget of the prospective poultryman a sum for the +purchase of a farm of from 5 acres upward, including a residence. In most +localities a small tract with a modest house can be purchased for about +$4,000. If only the land is purchased, that should be available at $200 an +acre as a subdivision of a larger tract. Assuming that a house costing +$3,000 will be suitable for the operator and his family, the total outlay +will be in the neighborhood of $7,500. Experienced poultrymen estimate +that a modest poultry farm of the type above described can be put into +operation for an investment of $5 per bird. If it is planned to begin with +a smaller flock than 1,500 individual layers, the same figures can be +applied in proportion to the number of birds to be kept. In short, the +poultry house and equipment should be estimated on the basis of not less +than $1.50 per bird and the cost of the farm, residence and stock will be +in addition to such a charge. The allowance of $1.50 per bird provides +only for simple housing facilities for the flock.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>Using these figures, it will be easy to understand the reason for the +general recommendation that a total investment of $10,000 is a requisite +for a poultry establishment from which a modest living can be obtained. +While the investment in housing, land, residence and stock may not exceed +$7,500, there will need to be sufficient capital for paying the living +expenses of the family until the flock begins laying and to enable the +operator to purchase feed and other necessary adjuncts to his +establishment before an income is obtained.</p> + +<p>For a flock of smaller size than the so-called maximum one-man type above +described, the costs per bird for the various items will apply in most +cases. It is, in fact, advisable to begin with a smaller flock if the +owner is inexperienced.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Poultry keeping must be efficiently carried on to yield returns to the country home owner.</p> + +<p class="hang">Select well-drained soil that is free of infection.</p> + +<p class="hang">For egg production, use the Leghorn; for both meat and egg purposes, the American breeds are best.</p> + +<p class="hang">Standardize on one breed if possible.</p> + +<p class="hang">Buy the best chicks or mature stock available.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use a brooder house for the young birds.</p> + +<p class="hang">The laying house must be well ventilated, fully lighted and easily cleaned.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang">Use latest mechanical feeding and watering devices to save labor.</p> + +<p class="hang">Employ artificial lighting to lengthen the hen’s working day.</p> + +<p class="hang">Work toward the “one-man plant”—a total of 1,500 laying hens—for mostefficient results.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t try to raise poultry in buildings that may still carry infection.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t economize by buying cheap chicks or breeding stock.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t overlook importance of health factors and productive qualities in determining value of stock purchased.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t try to operate a poultry plant with ill-adapted buildings and equipment.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_X" id="Chapter_X"></a><i>Chapter</i> X</h2> +<h3>SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The successful</span> poultryman will have set up his establishment with due +attention to adequate housing, good stock, facilities for maintaining +sanitation and for creating generally favorable conditions for egg +production. His next problem will be that of adopting successful methods +of management so that he may obtain a satisfactory net income from the +investment.</p> + +<p><i>Feeds and Feeding.</i>—There are two groups of materials that are essential +in food rations for all ages of poultry. The organic feeds include grains +and grain by-products, hays, grasses and vegetables. The inorganic feeds +include salt to increase palatability and digestibility of the ration; +lime, to aid in building bone and body tissue as well as to furnish the +shell material; bone ash, especially for growing chicks, and water in +liberal amounts supplied by a fountain as well as from succulent green +foods. The fact that a dozen eggs contain approximately one pint of water +demonstrates the necessity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> having drinking water before the flock at +all times.</p> + +<p>The feeding of baby chicks, young stock and laying hens has been +scientifically worked out by research and practical experience over a +period of many years. The poultryman, especially if he is a novice, will +do well if he carefully observes the recommendations of competent +authorities. The ration for each of the three ages will consist of a grain +feed and a dry mash composed of grain by-products reinforced with +materials that supply the birds’ daily nutrition requirements.</p> + +<p>The following rations and recommendations for management have been +prepared by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, +New Jersey:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chick Ration</span></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="ration"> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">Baby Chick Grain</td></tr> +<tr><td>200</td><td>pounds finely cracked yellow corn</td></tr> +<tr><td>100</td><td>pounds cracked wheat</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fed morning and evening, beginning when chicks are 36 hours old.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="mash"> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">Baby Chick Mash</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>pounds ground yellow corn</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>pounds wheat bran</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>pounds flour middlings</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">20</td><td>pounds pinhead oats</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10</td><td>pounds meat scrap (50 per cent protein)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">5</td><td>pounds dried buttermilk or skim-milk</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>pounds oyster shell meal or limestone flour or bone meal</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2</td><td>pounds cod liver oil (mixed with the pinhead oats)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1</td><td>pound table salt</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>This mash is fed to the chicks as soon as they are placed under the +brooder stove. It may be placed in hoppers. Let the chicks have all +they want to eat; some of the mash should be before them at all times.</p> + +<p>Teach the chicks where to find the warmth by enclosing them for a few +days with a ½ inch mesh wire one foot high and set from 10 to 12 +inches from the edge of the hover.</p> + +<p>Put some clean grit on bits of cardboard in several places around the +hover when the chicks are first brought from the incubator.</p> + +<p>A little sour skim-milk or semi-solid buttermilk, diluted 1 to 7 in +founts should be available from the beginning.</p> + +<p>After the chicks are 60 hours old or when you are sure they are +hungry, begin to feed, using cardboard in the same manner as before. Follow the feeding chart.</p> + +<p>Feed little and often. Keep the chicks slightly hungry.</p> + +<p>Watch for dead chicks and remove them as soon as they are noticed.</p> + +<p>Attend to heaters early and late; be sure at all times that they are in good working order.</p> + +<p>Clean out litter, particularly beneath the hover as often as it becomes soiled.</p> + +<p>Induce exercise and keep the youngsters occupied.</p> + +<p>Get them out-of-doors as early as possible, even if only for a few minutes in the warmer part of the day.</p> + +<p>Feed green feed. Feed early and late. Keep the chicks growing.</p></div> + +<p><i>Growing Stock Ration.</i>—The baby chick mash can be used for feeding the +growing birds, omitting the cod liver oil if they are on range. The baby +chick grain ration can be used also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> during this period but it need not be +so finely cracked. Plenty of grain should be available at all times.</p> + +<p><i>Laying Ration.</i>—When the birds are getting ready to lay, the ration +should be changed so that during the winter laying season the mash will +include equal amounts of yellow corn meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, +ground heavy oats and meat scrap. Twenty-five per cent of dried buttermilk +or skim-milk may be substituted for an equal amount of meat scrap.</p> + +<p>The grain ration should consist of equal amounts of cracked or whole +yellow corn and wheat. This should be fed in the late afternoon, giving +sufficient to satisfy the appetites of the birds between the time of going +to roost and a light morning meal. It should be fully consumed by eight +o’clock in the morning. Adequate consumption of mash is a prime requisite +in egg production. The feeding of semi-solid buttermilk at the rate of 3 +to 5 pounds to 100 hens daily is recommended. Ten pounds of mangel beets +per 100 hens or 1 square inch of well-sprouted oats per bird will supply +needed green food during the winter.</p> + +<p>In many cases it will be found more satisfactory to purchase ready mixed +rations from a local dealer who handles reliable and scientifically +compounded feeds for poultry. This is particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> applicable where the +number of birds is of ordinary proportions. Little, if any, economy will +be found in purchasing small quantities of each ingredient and attempting +to thoroughly mix them at home. If the flock is very large there may be +worth-while economy in home-mixing of the ration. The efficient poultryman +will compare the cost of branded feeds with ingredient costs to guard +against being overcharged.</p> + +<p>In addition to the standard rations the growing stock and laying birds +should have access at all times to grit, shell and charcoal, kept in +suitable containers. These may be obtained of the local dealer.</p> + +<p><i>Sanitation.</i>—When growing stock and laying hens are kept under modern +intensive conditions the observance of the rules of sanitation is +essential. Failure to observe them is likely to result in loss of +production, serious sickness of the flock and the nullifying of all other +constructive factors.</p> + +<p>Dropping boards beneath the roosts must be cleaned frequently and +regularly to prevent accumulation of filth. If the dropping boards are +constructed of matched lumber with the boards running in the direction in +which they are to be scraped it will facilitate the cleaning process.</p> + +<p>Before the birds are placed in winter quarters the laying house should be +thoroughly cleaned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> of all litter and debris. The interior may then be +thoroughly sprayed with a disinfectant composed of some good coal tar +preparation, and this repeated in the spring. The surface will need to be +painted with a good disinfectant, of which there are a number of +commercial preparations on the market. A close watch should be made for +vermin in the house and on the birds, and if lice or similar parasites are +discovered, immediate action should be taken to destroy both the adults +and the eggs, since these parasites will debilitate the flock and prevent +their development and may seriously check their ability to lay.</p> + +<p><i>Management of Artificial Lights.</i>—The electric lights mentioned in the +previous chapter should be turned on about four-thirty in the morning and +kept on until daylight or used for an hour in the late evening. When +lights are used there should be plenty of food and water available to +enable the birds to take advantage of the additional feeding period. The +scratch grain should be increased by 2 pounds daily for each hundred birds +when lights are used. Many poultrymen find it advantageous to have a low +wattage light burning all night so that hungry individuals may get a meal +and return to the perches at all times. Three to five kilowatt hours per +month for each hundred birds represents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> the average current consumption +where lights are used.</p> + +<p><i>Practical Suggestions for Efficient Management.</i>—A number of successful +poultrymen were recently asked to state the requisites for success in the +poultry industry, with particular reference to what is known as the +one-man poultry flock. Such a flock is of adequate size to take +practically the full time of one person in its operation. As the result of +the development of standardized feeding practices, improved equipment and +better methods of management, the maximum number of birds that can be +successfully managed by one person has greatly increased in recent years. +Likewise, the problems of proper feeding, adequate disease control and +successful selling have increased as the size of the unit has grown and as +greater intensiveness is practiced.</p> + +<p>All of the successful men questioned advised that the keeping of poultry +should be begun in a small way in order that experience can be gained +without the risk of losing the initial investment, or that the intending +operator should gain practical knowledge of the business by working on a +poultry farm for a year. Valuable knowledge can also be gained by +attending short courses in poultry husbandry that are being offered at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +most agricultural colleges with a very moderate expenditure of funds.</p> + +<p>One of these successful men writes as follows: “We are working with a man +now who was let out of a position recently but who has some savings and +who desires to go into the poultry business. He has purchased six acres of +ground, has built a bungalow on it and has the foundations in for three +laying houses of 500 birds’ capacity each. He will have ample range for a +two-yards system for each laying house, and, in addition, will have two +ranges to alternate yearly for growing his young stock. His program calls +for putting out about 2,400 chicks yearly from which he should have at +least 1,000 pullets, which he will house in two of the laying houses. The +following year he will carry over about 500 of these birds and can fill up +with 1,000 pullets. This is to be a one-man plant with possibly some +assistance in the spring.</p> + +<p>“I feel that 1,500 birds is the minimum required from which one man can +make a living, and five acres devoted to poultry, properly laid out, is +sufficient area for this purpose. If more land is available, so much the +better. These are minimum requirements, as I see it, and with regular feed +deliveries directly to the poultry house, running water and other +labor-saving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> devices, there is no reason why one man cannot successfully +take care of this number of birds, particularly where a man is starting on +new ground where there have never been any chickens and therefore less +chance of disease. We advise buying baby chicks rather than partly grown +or mature stock. If he follows a definite economic and sanitary program +right from the start, there is no reason why his plant should not carry on +profitably, indefinitely.”</p> + +<p>This practical man says further: “It is our experience that the majority +of the people going into the poultry business go in ‘blind.’ Their chicken +houses are put up irrespective of range facilities and then after two or +three years when they begin to run into trouble they find their mistakes. +I would suggest that you point out to prospective poultrymen the +advisability of first, buying land and developing their own poultry plant +rather than trying to make over someone else’s plant; second, buying in a +location where buying and selling facilities have been developed; third, +getting in touch with a reliable local poultryman for guidance in laying +out his plant and following only one advisor. By hooking up with only one +poultryman he is presented with one way of doing things which this +poultryman has found successful in his own business.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>Another successful man states that the most economical time to start the +business is in the spring when day-old chicks can be secured and purchased +at a lower cost than is possible in the buying of laying stock at other +seasons of the year. He further advises that the greatest mistake made by +many starting in the poultry business is the lack of adequate capital. Too +many invest all of their money before any income can be secured, according +to this man. Should there be a set-back during the first year or two, +there is no way of continuing and the whole investment may be lost.</p> + +<p>Still another practical man states that “Site is, in my opinion, the most +important factor to be considered after the decision is made that a person +wishes to go into the poultry business. Successful poultry keeping +probably requires more careful selection of a farm than any other +agricultural industry. There should be light soil with good air and water +drainage and an area of sufficient size to permit shifting the poultry on +different areas as a means of preventing disease infection and as a means +of securing vigor in the birds.” He, too, points out that old poultry +farms should not be considered by prospective poultrymen unless they have +been approved by an expert in these lines, for the reason that these farms +are frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> offered for sale because of persistent disease infection +which it is very difficult to eliminate, or because of some fundamental +difficulty, such as poor soil drainage.</p> + +<p>“In the construction of buildings,” continues this experienced poultryman, +“sufficient housing should be provided to prevent overcrowding and the +difficulties that come in the train of that condition. About three square +feet of floor space per bird is required for the lighter breeds such as +Leghorns, and four to five square feet per bird for the heavier breeds. +For the one-man plant, the recommendation is for a maximum of about 1,500 +birds. This would require from 4,500 to 5,250 square feet of floor space +suitably arranged for the lighter breeds of the Leghorn type. For the +young stock to be used as replacements, seven to ten brooder houses, 10 by +12 feet in size, would be required and about the same number of range +shelters, usually 6 by 8 feet, for the purpose of sheltering growing young +stock from hot sun and heavy rains when they are out on range.”</p> + +<p><i>Probable Net Income.</i>—Many persons who have started in the poultry +business have been misled as to the amount of net income they will be +likely to receive from a one-man plant. It is pretty well established that +in normal times a net income of from $1,500 to $2,500 annually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> can be +secured from a plant housing 1,500 birds. A great deal depends, of course, +upon the skill of the operator, and a plant of this size requires the full +time of one competent person. It should be borne in mind that this net +income is in addition to the residence and such food as would be taken in +the form of poultry products and from the garden.</p> + +<p><i>Sales Management.</i>—Every prospective poultry keeper should determine the +marketing possibilities for the product in the area under consideration +before he makes a choice of location. There are at least four methods of +marketing eggs and poultry meat, any one of which can be used exclusively +or two or more used in combination as a means of disposing of the product +to the best advantage. The system that he will adopt will depend largely +upon his location, as well as upon his individual preference, and upon the +facilities that are available in the area where he operates.</p> + +<p>In many sections of the country there are cooperative egg marketing +associations where the eggs are received in bulk from the producers, are +graded and marketed in large quantities, the producer receiving the full +selling value less, of course, the costs of operating the distributing +agency. In the northeastern states, egg auctions have been very +successfully developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> Under this system the individual producer brings +his eggs to the auction market where they are graded and sold on the basis +of weight, size and other factors pertaining to quality. In this method of +selling the producer receives a definite price for his eggs less a small +charge per case made by the selling agency.</p> + +<p>A successful type of direct marketing is through roadside stands. This is +especially successful in or near large centers of population where eggs +can be purchased, together with other farm commodities, at the same stand. +Another method is the operation of a retail route in which the producer +sells the eggs by the door-to-door method in a near-by city. This method +is followed successfully by many poultrymen who deliver eggs as regularly +as the milk distributor or the baker deliver their products.</p> + +<p>Still another method is the use of mail or express as a means of +transporting the eggs to consumers in urban centers. This method, while +largely in use some years ago, has not proved so generally successful as +have some of the other methods previously given.</p> + +<p>A well-organized program of work is essential in successful poultry +keeping. The following schedule is followed by many successful poultrymen +as a means of distributing their time to the best advantage during the day.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span><span class="smcap">A Poultryman’s Daily Time Table</span></p> +<p class="center">Based on a One-man 1,500-bird Farm Producing Market Eggs</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="timetable"> +<tr><td align="right">7:00-8:00</td><td><span class="smcaplc">A.M.</span>—</td><td>Feed and water all stock.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8:00-9:00</td><td><span class="smcaplc">A.M.</span>—</td><td>Fill mash hoppers and clean dropping boards.</td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top" align="right">9:00-11:00</td><td valign="top"><span class="smcaplc">A.M.</span>—</td><td>Two hours for cleaning houses, cultivating yards, repairing of buildings,<br />preparation of egg cases, packing eggs and miscellaneous jobs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">11:00-12:00</td><td align="right"><span class="smcaplc">M.</span>—</td><td>Feed green feed and collect eggs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">12:00-1:00</td><td><span class="smcaplc">P.M.</span>—</td><td>Lunch hour.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1:00-2:00</td><td><span class="smcaplc">P.M.</span>—</td><td>Water all stock.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2:00-4:00</td><td><span class="smcaplc">P.M.</span>—</td><td>Same work as from 9:00 to 11:00 <span class="smcaplc">A.M.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4:00-5:00</td><td><span class="smcaplc">P.M.</span>—</td><td>Feed and collect eggs.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Ducks, Geese, Turkeys and Other Fowl.</i>—While the raising and keeping of +chickens occupy the largest and most important part of the general +operation of poultry keeping, there is a growing interest in the +production of other types of fowl, including ducks, geese, turkeys, and in +some instances, guinea fowl and pheasants. Each of these really +constitutes a separate and distinct poultry industry, requiring specific +feeding, breeding and management practices. Some of the fundamental +factors in the care of these types of poultry are given for the beginner. +In the case of these fowl, as in chickens, it is essential to start in a +small way and develop as experience dictates.</p> + +<p><i>Ducks.</i>—From a rather obscure and unknown source of poultry meat, the +duck and the duckling have become common to restaurants and the home +table. This has been accomplished through the operations of large +commercial duck<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> farms which sell hundreds of thousands of birds annually. +The selection of breed types, proper feeding and management and skillful +marketing have made it possible to attract a wide public interest and an +appetite for these fowls on a permanent basis.</p> + +<p>The best known varieties of ducks are the Indian Runner, a small type and +primarily an egg producer; the Muscovy and the Pekin, both of which are +used for meat purposes, the former being best adapted to general farm use +and the latter to intensive breeding on large establishments devoted +solely to the purpose of duck raising. The old simile, “Like a duck takes +to water,” implies the fondness of ducks for the aquatic element. However, +ducks will do well without swimming facilities.</p> + +<p>Incubation of duck eggs can be carried on in the same manner as chicken +eggs, except that more moisture is essential to good hatches. The period +of incubation is 28 days for all types, except for the Muscovy, for which +it is 33 to 35 days. The growing birds, like mature ducks, are hardy and +ordinarily show a much lower mortality percentage than chickens. If only a +few ducks are kept, they will follow the habits of a flock of chickens and +need be given no special attention. When they are raised without other +poultry an open shed is all that is necessary for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> winter quarters and +some shade arrangement for protection against hot summer sun.</p> + +<p>The feed rations that have been given for baby chicks and growing stock +can be used for ducks, or any standard commercial feed for the respective +ages. It is recommended that the chick and growing mashes be mixed with +fine, chopped greens such as cabbage or lawn clippings, and sufficient +water added to the mixture to make it moist. One pound of sand or grit may +be added to furnish the duck with grinding material. Fresh water in +shallow dishes should be available during the feeding periods which ought +to be three times a day. For the mature birds, the laying mash, previously +given, and moistened, will be found satisfactory with fresh greens added, +unless grass is available on range. Hoppers containing sand or grit should +be available if a number of ducks are kept.</p> + +<p><i>Geese.</i>—Geese can be raised successfully wherever other types of poultry +will grow. That they are not so popular as ducks is shown by the fact that +only about one-third as many geese as ducks are raised in this country. +The most popular breeds, in order of popularity, are Toulouse, Embden, +African and Chinese. The Toulouse is the largest and most favored, the +mature gander weighing 26 pounds and the adult goose about 20 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>Geese are usually kept in small numbers in areas where there is an +abundance of grass and a supply of water for swimming. They, like ducks, +are hardy and are rarely affected with diseases or parasites. A plentiful +supply of grass is sufficient feed for the growing goslings. The demand +and prices for geese are lower than for most other types of poultry. For +housing, only a shed in winter and a sun-shade in summer are required.</p> + +<p>The period of incubation varies from 30 to 35 days, depending upon the +size of the breed. The young goslings are easily killed by excessive +moisture or may become lost and therefore they require considerable +attention during the early stages. A good food for the goslings is stale +bread soaked in milk or water, fed after they are 48 hours old. Scalded +cracked corn may also be given or a mash made of four parts corn meal and +one part grain middlings. Plenty of drinking water is essential. Whole +grain may be fed after the goslings are well feathered. When the geese +near the marketing period they should be kept in confinement and fed a +moist mash made of one part grain shorts and two parts corn meal. A +bedding of short straw will keep the fattening pens clean and provide +roughage. Best prices are obtainable during the late fall and early winter months.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span><i>Turkeys.</i>—Because the turkey is such a popular form of meat during the +holidays and so much attention is directed to it as an indigenous native +bird, it rivals the American eagle as a national emblem. Turkey raising on +a commercial scale has had its ups and downs for a great many years. One +of the principal scourges has been the so-called black-head disease and +this has destroyed the industry in many areas. It is now known that this +disease is carried by a small parasitic worm common to chickens, which, +however, it apparently does not seriously injure. The black-head germ, +carried by this worm, clogs the blood in the head of the turkey and causes +quick death. For this reason, it has been found impracticable to raise +turkeys where chickens are present, unless they are kept entirely separate +by confinement.</p> + +<p>The principal varieties of domesticated turkeys are the Bronze, White +Holland, Bourbon Red, Black, Narragansett and Slate. All are large, +handsome birds, each breed having a following of admirers. The Bronze is +the largest and heaviest and most popular, the mature adult male weighing +36 pounds and the mature hen 20 pounds. Under ordinary conditions turkeys +do not require much in the way of housing, except in cold weather when +covered roosting sheds should be available. The period<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> of incubation is +28 days and they may be hatched under the same conditions as chickens. The +day-old young birds, or poults as they are called, can be shipped in the +same manner as day-old chicks.</p> + +<p>For feeding the poults, the United States Department of Agriculture +recommends fine-chopped hard-boiled eggs, including the shell, mixed with +green feed for the first ten days. This may be followed by feeding the +chick ration previously mentioned. Milk, especially buttermilk, is +excellent for the poults, and grit must be provided if it is not available +on range. Cod liver oil will be found helpful if added to the ration. +Turkeys are great rangers and travelers if they have the opportunity and +will pick up enough insects to keep them going through the day. A grain +ration should be fed just before they go to roost. Where they are raised +in confinement, or semi-confinement, more food must be given and under +these conditions the strictest sanitation must be practiced.</p> + +<p>Both old and young turkeys should be protected from dampness, and the +growing birds, especially, kept free from lice. The turkey grower who +practices the best systems of management and feeding will be successful +and will find a ready market for his product at Thanksgiving and during +the Christmas holidays. A few birds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> may be successfully kept in +confinement and used as a home-raised source of high quality meat during a +considerable portion of the year.</p> + +<p><i>Guinea Fowl.</i>—The guinea is known for its watch-dog proclivities, making +a characteristic raucous noise when strangers appear; for the rich quality +of the eggs which are produced in good quantity; and for the delectability +of the breast meat when properly prepared. The young guinea may be fed as +has been recommended for young chicks. The older birds are excellent +foragers and require little attention. The country home owner, if he does +not object to their noise, will find a few of these unusual birds an +interesting and valuable asset.</p> + +<p><i>Pheasants.</i>—Many persons with a flair for the new and unusual are +successfully raising pheasants, the Ring Neck variety being the most +popular. While they are not so hardy as chickens and must be given some +added care for that reason, they may be fed in the same manner and kept +successfully in confinement. Pheasants may be used as an additional source +of income since they are nearly always in demand for meat. The eggs may be +hatched in incubators or by hens and the young pheasants brooded like +chicks. The period of incubation is 21 days. Shelter is not necessary +except in extremely cold weather and not then if trees or shrubs are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +available. Detailed information on game bird production can be obtained +from More Game Birds in America, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York City.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Net income depends upon efficient management and each phase of the latter must be mastered.</p> + +<p class="hang">Feed a well-balanced chick ration to the very young and growing stock.</p> + +<p class="hang">Be sure the ration fed to laying stock is adapted to their needs in egg production.</p> + +<p class="hang">Sanitation measures are fundamental in good management and their neglect may be fatal.</p> + +<p class="hang">Follow the management recommendations of practical and successful poultrymen.</p> + +<p class="hang">Use the marketing system best adapted to the locality and the personal factor of sales ability.</p> + +<p class="hang">Determine possibilities of selling ducks, geese, turkeys and other fowl as a means of supplementing income from chickens.</p> + +<p class="hang">Remember each type of poultry requires specific management.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect scientific feeding of the poultry flock.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t go into poultry production on a large scale without experience.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect local markets as outlets for the sale of eggs and poultry +and don’t make shipment of eggs and stock to commission houses of unknown rating.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t over-extend in poultry investment to the point where temporary reversal would be disastrous.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XI" id="Chapter_XI"></a><i>Chapter</i> XI</h2> +<h3>THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Living</span> in the country should make possible an adequate and safe milk +supply for the family. The transportation of milk from the farm and its +distribution in the city constitute a costly process under present +methods, and this limits consumption. Furthermore, the ordering in advance +of a definite quantity each day means as a rule that only the milk +delivered will be consumed. A maximum amount of milk is thereby set, based +upon factors that may be alien to real needs of the family for this food +beverage. Using milk and dairy products freely from a near-by supply will +contribute much to the health of the entire family and especially of the +children. The term “family” is used in this case to denote two or three +adults and the same number of children.</p> + +<p>Nutritional experts declare that milk is the most important of the +“protective” foods. Scientists agree that milk protects by providing in +the best form those necessities which are often lacking in other foods. +Milk supplies calcium so necessary for sound bones and teeth, phosphorus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +easily digested protein, butter fat and milk sugar. Most important of all +are the vitamins found in milk. Milk acquires these properties from the +cow, a living factory manufacturing milk from raw products, which are the +foods the cow eats—the pasture grasses and the cured hay, supplemented +with carefully blended grain rations. Nutrition authorities recommend at +least a quart of milk daily for every child and ample amounts for adults +as well.</p> + +<p><i>Sources of Milk Supply.</i>—The country resident will have little +difficulty in securing an adequate supply of wholesome milk at low cost. +He may obtain it from a neighbor who is in the dairy business or he may +maintain a cow or two where the area is large enough to provide some +pasturage and where a building for stabling is available.</p> + +<p>If the milk is bought from some near-by farm it is important that the +purchaser assure himself of the health of the cows producing the milk and +of the sanitary conditions surrounding production and handling. Quality in +milk is much more than cream content. Cleanliness in production and +handling is far more important, and this the country resident can +personally determine by occasional visits to the source of supply, an +advantage difficult for the urban resident to attain. Quality in milk is +not necessarily measured by the investment in the milking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> barn or the +showy external features of the producing and handling plant.</p> + +<p>The essential factors in the production of clean, wholesome milk are +healthy, clean cows; healthy milkers; clean, sterile utensils; and +sanitary stables and premises. These conditions can be attained by any +careful dairyman and can be checked by any layman interested in securing a +dependable supply of safe milk. The purchaser should insist that the cows +be tested regularly under government supervision for tuberculosis and the +reactors to the test removed from the herd. This is important in all +circumstances and particularly so where the milk is consumed in the +unprocessed state by children.</p> + +<p><i>Producing Milk at Home.</i>—It is entirely feasible for the rural family to +produce at home an ample supply of milk at low cost. To do this it is only +necessary to have stabling facilities for one or two cows and to have a +member of the family sufficiently interested to feed, care for and milk +the cow or cows. If this plan is to be followed the owner, if he is +inexperienced, should enlist the aid of a neighbor or friend in making the +purchase. The animal should be fresh, that is, just starting the period of +lactation, and preferably not more than four or five years of age. A cow +that is fresh can be judged as to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> ability to produce good milk from all +four quarters of the udder in adequate amount.</p> + +<p><i>Selecting the Family Cow.</i>—The breed to be selected is not important, +except that for family use a cow of the so-called Channel breeds (Guernsey +or Jersey) is considered better adapted because of the higher butter fat +content of the milk as compared with the Holstein-Friesian, for example, +which usually produces a larger total quantity of milk with less butter +fat. It is not necessary to purchase a pure-bred animal of any of the +breeds, so far as milk production is concerned. On the other hand, a +pure-bred registered cow may often be purchased at moderate cost. The +owner will undoubtedly take greater pride in such an animal and her +offspring will have higher selling value.</p> + +<p>In making a purchase the new owner should insist upon having a tuberculin +test chart delivered with the animal, and certification as to freedom from +contagious abortion (B. abortus) should also be obtained if possible. If +production records have been kept during the animal’s previous lactation +periods, these should be secured, as they will definitely indicate +milk-producing ability over a considerable period of time. For family use +a cow that produces milk steadily in uniform amounts over eight or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>ten +months is far more desirable than one which produces a large volume +following freshening and then slumps off rapidly.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fp162tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/fp162.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="note">Desirable types of utensils for a small dairy. <i>A.</i> Crock +for temporary milk storage or for gravity separation of cream. <i>B.</i> +Milking stool. <i>C.</i> Twenty-quart milk can and cover. <i>D.</i> Strainer. <i>E.</i> +Stirrer. <i>F.</i> Circulating water cooler for freshly drawn milk (not +essential for a one- or two-cow dairy if other cooling practices are +followed). <i>G.</i> Sanitary covered-top milk pail. <i>H.</i> Measuring rod. <i>I.</i> Small churn for family butter making.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Importance of Pasture.</i>—Pasturage plays so important a part in +economical milk production and in contributing to the health of the animal +that it is unwise to consider keeping one’s own cow unless 3 or 4 acres of +pasture land per animal are available. When the cow is on pasture from May +until November no other roughage is required, provided of course the +grasses and clovers are plentiful. Plenty of water is essential, and if +this is not made available by a stream in the pasture, it will be +necessary to furnish drinking water three times daily.</p> + +<p><i>Stabling and Feeding.</i>—From early November until May it will be +necessary to provide stabling facilities, roughage in the form of hay, +ensilage or beet pulp, and concentrated feed to keep the animal producing. +About 3 tons of good timothy-and-clover hay or alfalfa will be needed per +animal during these six months. Storage room will be needed in the +building for the hay and for the concentrated feed. A good practice is to +keep the cow in a box stall 12 by 14 feet in size. Ample bedding should be +provided, consisting of straw, wood shavings, shredded corn stalks, peat +moss or dried leaves. These will absorb the liquid manure and after such +use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> should be applied to the garden or other land areas for fertilizing +purposes.</p> + +<p>The daily ration of the cow when stabled will consist of from 15 to 25 +pounds of hay daily and 1 pound of concentrated feed for each 3½ pounds +of milk being produced. (A quart of milk weighs about 2.2 pounds.) Milk +flow can be stimulated and the health of the cow conserved by feeding +moistened beet pulp, where silage is not available. This may be purchased +locally at the feed store, where the grain concentrate may also be +obtained. The latter can be bought in bags and a mixture analyzing about +20 per cent protein is recommended. When the cow is on pasture the grain +ration may be reduced by one-third or one-half, depending upon the quality +of the pasture available.</p> + +<p><i>Cost of Milk Production.</i>—Where all of the feed mentioned above is +purchased, the cost per quart of the milk will approximate 3 cents, +excluding labor and overhead costs of buildings, etc. This cost can be +reduced if pasture does not have to be rented and if some of the other +food requirements are raised at home.</p> + +<p><i>Management.</i>—Feeding the cow twice daily and milking at the same +interval will give the best results. Morning and evening are usually the +most convenient times for milking and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> same hourly routine should be +observed daily. Feeding the grain ration after milking is desirable. A +good practice is to furnish hay and beet pulp between milkings.</p> + +<p>To insure cleanliness of the milk, the udder and teats may be wiped with a +damp cloth before milking. Flanks and the udder should be clipped of hair, +thus facilitating a clean condition of the animal at all times. Soiled +bedding should be removed and clean material substituted as required.</p> + +<p>The normal cow should produce an average of 10 quarts of milk daily over a +period of ten months. In the remaining two months the cow will not be +producing milk but will be resting and building up body reserves for the +coming period of lactation. The cow should be bred about nine months +before it is desired to have her bear a calf. The time of year when such +freshening should occur is not important, although either spring or fall +months are considered best, to avoid weather and temperature extremes at +the critical calving period. Under this plan it will be noted that the +family will not have milk from home sources for two months during the +year. The alternative is to have two cows, one freshening in April and the +other in October, ensuring a continuous supply, or to purchase milk during +the “dry” period.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span><i>Utilizing a Large Supply of Milk.</i>—The urban consumer of milk accustomed +to 1 or 2 quarts daily may wonder how an average of 10 quarts or more per +day can be utilized. Plenty of uses will be found for the product. Milk +will be used more often as a beverage; cream will be found delightful in +many ways, in the form of butter and home-made ice cream, for example; and +cheeses will provide an outlet for surplus whole or skimmed milk. Milk of +good quality can be disposed of readily to neighbors. If two families own +one cow each, a plan may be worked out for furnishing each other with milk +when one cow or the other is not producing. Wherever facilities are +available and there is a willingness to care for a family cow or two, the +availability of large amounts of milk will compensate for the trouble and +bring health and vigor to the rural family.</p> + +<p><i>The Goat as a Source of Milk Supply.</i>—The milk goat is especially useful +to those who desire a smaller quantity of milk than that produced by a cow +and where the space is inadequate for keeping a larger milk-producing +animal. In composition, goat’s milk closely resembles that of the cow, the +butter fat ranging from 3.2 per cent to 4.4 per cent with total solids of +nearly 12 per cent. The average production of a good milk goat is about 2 +quarts of milk daily, sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> for many a family. The milk is pure +white in color and the cream rises very slowly. If goat’s milk is properly +produced and handled, the bad odor, associated with the animal in the +public mind, should not be present. Keeping dirt or hair out of the milk +when it is being drawn, and clean quarters, are essential in eliminating +odor in the milk. It has been proved that goat’s milk is especially +valuable for children and invalids and exceeds cow’s milk in ease of +digestibility.</p> + +<p>Goats are in their prime at about five years of age, but will continue to +produce milk for several years after that. They should be bred twice a +year. The usual number of kids is two, although occasionally four are born +at one time. The period between breeding and giving birth is about five +months. Goats may be successfully fed with the same rations as the dairy +cow. Although they consume only about one-seventh as much feed as the cow, +the common impression that the goat can produce milk on practically no +feed is erroneous. A ration for winter feeding, suggested by the United +States Department of Agriculture, consists of 2 pounds of alfalfa or +clover hay, 1½ pounds of silage or roots and from 1 to 2 pounds of a +concentrated grain ration, composed of 100 pounds of corn, 100 pounds of +oats, 50 pounds of bran and 25 pounds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> linseed meal. In the summer when +pasture is available they should be fed 1 to 1½ pounds of the grain +mixture. Data from experiment stations indicate that the annual feed cost +of a milk goat is about $11 and the feed cost per quart of milk produced, +about 1½ cents.</p> + +<p>Good milk goats bring good prices and in most instances will cost almost +as much as a cow. They are much more prolific, however, permitting more +rapid additions and offering greater revenue from the sales of young +animals, wherever there is a market for them. The two principal breeds are +the Toggenburg and the Saanen, both originating in Switzerland, and the +Spanish Maltese whose original home was in the island of Malta. Goats are +thoroughly domesticated, are contented with a small grazing area and may +be easily handled. They are subject to stomach worms, indicated by loss of +flesh and weakness, and to Malta fever, which can be transmitted to man, +in whom it is evidenced by recurring high temperatures. The former can be +controlled by using, as a drench, a copper sulfate solution of 1 ounce to +3 quarts of water. Where the latter trouble is present the milk should be +pasteurized or scalded before it is consumed. As an economical source of +easily digested milk, the goat is recommended, especially to those +families with rather small acreage.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> They can make the most of poorer +pasturage, are clean in habits and docile.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Use milk freely for its food value to every member of the family.</p> + +<p class="hang">Make sure of the quality of the milk purchased.</p> + +<p class="hang">Acquiring a family cow is the best and cheapest source of an adequate milk supply.</p> + +<p class="hang">Management of the right kind will make the family cow an invaluable asset.</p> + +<p class="hang">Learn to use surplus milk in nutritious and palatable ways.</p> + +<p class="hang">Determine the possibilities of securing from the goat an adequate milk supply for a small family.</p> + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t use canned milk except as supplement to liberal, fresh supply.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t overlook the need of pasturage for economical milk production.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t supply family with milk of doubtful sanitary quality.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t neglect to have a veterinarian make health tests of the cow or goat.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XII" id="Chapter_XII"></a><i>Chapter</i> XII</h2> +<h3>MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS</h3> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The distribution</span> of farm products on an efficient basis is one of the most +difficult problems in agriculture. Because of the demand of the consumer +for small quantities of products at each purchase, the breaking up of +wholesale packages, involving additional labor and containers and the +elimination of unfit specimens, increases handling costs and delays the +arrival of the product from the farm to the consumer. In recent years the +producer has sought various means of eliminating some of these costs of +distribution so that he could get a larger share of the consumer’s dollar, +and the consumer has welcomed the opportunity of buying products direct +from the producer.</p> + +<p>Unquestionably, one of the best means of selling farm commodities is +through the medium of roadside markets that have now become so common +along the principal highways of the country. These range in type from the +display of a few baskets of farm commodities on the ground or on a table, +with sales of $100 a year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> or less, to those of a more pretentious nature +in which buildings and equipment are erected suitable to the purpose. That +there are great possibilities of developing a successful business in +selling products in this manner is evidenced by some of the more elaborate +markets, transacting an annual business of $30,000 or more. In most cases +these have been developed from small beginnings and the facilities have +increased as the good reputation of the market has spread.</p> + +<p><i>Advantages of Roadside Marketing.</i>—From the standpoint of the producer +or the operator of the roadside stand, there are certain advantages that +have contributed to the growth of the movement. For example, there is no +expense or time involved in delivering the products to a distant market, +since the produce is sold by a member of the household, or by the +operator’s employees in the larger types of markets. It is possible +through such a market to build up a clientele of buyers who will return +for further purchases. They will tell their friends about the good +quality, dependable produce which they have been able to purchase at some +particular stand. Furthermore, a wide variety of products can be sold in +this way at one stand, which might have to be segregated and shipped to +different markets if some other method of marketing were being followed. +This would add<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> considerably to the expense of selling, especially where +the volume of each commodity is small. Furthermore, in such a method of +selling, the producer comes in direct contact with the consumer. Ideas are +exchanged, mutual confidence is developed and both should share +financially in the advantages accruing from eliminating ordinary means of +distribution.</p> + +<p><i>Problems in Roadside Marketing.</i>—On the other hand, there are certain +disadvantages of roadside selling which operate against successful +merchandising in such a manner. These should be fully considered in +deciding how the surplus farm products are to be disposed of. Due to the +difficulty experienced by many potential buyers in getting satisfactory +produce, they have become discouraged and will often drive by all roadside +markets rather than take a chance on buying commodities that may be +misrepresented. Naturally, this works against the development of adequate +business and makes it necessary for the individual to spend considerable +time and effort in selling himself and his market to the public and in +creating confidence and good will.</p> + +<p>There is necessarily some loss due to depreciation in the quality of +perishable commodities. In many cases it is necessary to expose these +commodities to the sun and weather, and if they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> are not sold promptly +they will not long maintain the standard of quality which the operator +must have identified with his market. The operator has no knowledge of the +number of customers he will have when he displays his products, nor does +he know the whims of the individuals who may patronize his market that +day. To avoid the losses resulting from unsold products it is desirable to +have some other outlet which will absorb unused quantities, even though +the price is not so good as would be secured from ordinary sales at the +market. Many of the commodities can be delivered to some wholesale market +to be sold for what they will bring. Another outlet that is available is +through canning or preserving the commodities and selling them later in +the season under the label carried by the roadside stand.</p> + +<p>It should be borne in mind that the business of operating a roadside +market has its own peculiar problems and success in it depends upon +following good merchandising principles, to which are added those finer +points which pertain to direct selling. The attitude of the public must be +studied and plans for promoting sales must be adopted which will result in +attracting and holding customers. Beyond doubt, the two most important +factors in the operation of a successful roadside market are +attractiveness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> of the stand itself and the quality of the products that +are offered for sale.</p> + +<p><i>Plans for a Roadside Market.</i>—A roadside market need not be expensive to +be attractive. The thought motivating the whole project should be to +create in the buyer’s mind a farm scene, laying emphasis upon such factors +as are easily associated in the public mind with farming. These include +neatness of the establishment, cleanliness and honesty in every phase of +the operation. One should not undertake to run a roadside market in +competition, so far as appearance goes, with the corner grocery store in +the city. It should have an individuality of its own and be <i>of</i> the +country as well as <i>in</i> the country.</p> + +<p>The location of the market has a great deal to do with its attractiveness. +It is well to locate it a short distance from the house, so that it stands +out as a market, and it should be placed back from the highway to permit +motorists to drive off the highway in making stops for purchases. In some +states, highway regulations require that such stands be located far enough +from the highway to permit all four wheels of a standing vehicle to be off +the road surface. If the stand can be located under some good shade trees, +that in itself constitutes an invitation to the sun-blinded traveler to +stop and partake of the commodities offered for sale.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fp174tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/fp174.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center">A wayside market that meets every need and attracts buyers.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>So far as the design of the market itself is concerned, there are endless +opportunities for one’s genius to be brought into operation. It should be +borne in mind that, while there are certain standard requirements in the +way of display shelves and facilities for keeping reserve stocks +immediately available, as well as a safe container for funds, originality +in design attracts attention. Here again, the design should not be +obtrusive, but one that blends with the atmosphere of the place where the +stand is set up. It must convey the impression that the owner of the +property is himself the operator of the stand and has transferred to the +stand the same interest which is manifested in his home and its immediate +surroundings.</p> + +<p>Most purchasers at roadside stands want to see the whole display without +having to stumble over baskets and other articles to find out what is +offered, and they expect prompt attention. As a general rule, the more +nearly the stand can supply the complete needs of the purchaser in that +field, the more likely are buyers to stop and become regular patrons. In +addition to the display of seasonable fruits and vegetables, it is +desirable to have eggs and dairy products, including butter, cottage +cheese, canned fruits or jellies that have the home-made farm atmosphere +about them.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>In most cases, ice is available or electric refrigeration can be utilized +for keeping cold milk, buttermilk, cider and other products available for +immediate consumption for the hot and thirsty traveler in the summertime. +Hot coffee or hot chocolate can be made available for service in colder +weather. Very often the road-stand operator destroys the genuine sales +appeal that such stands have by specializing in manufactured concoctions +that have no relation whatever to the location where they are sold. Too +often the stands are covered with advertisements of such commodities, and +this immediately creates sales resistance so far as the promotion of fresh +farm products is concerned.</p> + +<p><i>Origin of Products Offered.</i>—The ordinary purchaser at a roadside market +likes to think that he is buying products raised or processed on the place +where they are sold, and believes that he is thereby securing fresher and +better commodities in which the seller has had an interest from planting +time to harvest. Certainly some of the commodities sold should come +directly from the tract where the market is located, and visual evidence +should be given of that fact. On the other hand, there is no objection to +the addition of other commodities so long as they are in accord with what +a producer might be expected to have for sale at that season of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> year. +Many operators have found that the sale of gasoline and lubricating oil +and tobacco in various forms can be offered for sale to good advantage +simply as a part of the service being offered by the market to the public.</p> + +<p><i>Quality the Keystone.</i>—The fundamental basis for success in the +operation of any roadside market lies in the quality of the products that +are offered for sale. This is a rather difficult condition for the +operator to maintain consistently, but it is fundamental in securing +customers and in keeping them. Products that have become stale, +unattractive or unpalatable for any reason should never be offered for +sale and should be discarded, made into some by-product or sold through +some channel which will not identify the article with the stand itself. A +satisfied customer who develops confidence in the integrity and good faith +of the stand operator is a decided asset, and no effort spent in +cultivating such confidence is wasted.</p> + +<p>Every successful roadside stand operator has built his business on honest +dealing and a personal interest in seeing that the buyer is satisfied. +This contact between the owner of a small business and a buyer is one that +can be capitalized to a very great extent. It is one of the handicaps +which a chain-store organization has to face and one that must be +developed by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> person who wishes to establish a permanent and +satisfactory business in this merchandising field. Very often the sale of +farm products can be supplemented to the advantage of the stand by +offering small ornamental plants or by the display of pet animals, +particularly for the younger members of the traveling public.</p> + +<p><i>Success Factors.</i>—A definite program of advertising can be developed +with many original features that apply directly to the type of business. +If the operator has pride in his products he will be glad to have his name +on every package of commodities that he sells. This is good sales +propaganda even if it only indicates the confidence of the seller in his +products and his willingness to stand behind them. Besides that, however, +it creates a knowledge of his name or the designation of his farm or stand +among purchasers who will then have a means of identifying it to their +friends. A small leaflet, describing the products that are offered for +sale and the intention of the operator to give the customer service, can +be put in each package at very small cost with good results. It is also +possible to prepare leaflets dealing with methods of cooking or of +preparation of the commodities sold that will build good will on the part +of customers.</p> + +<p>The most successful operators, again, are those who do not depend upon +casual visitors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> for their trade but who make of the casual visitor a +regular customer and one who will speak a good word to others. In other +words, genuine effort must be made to identify the location as a place to +which buyers will wish to return as they do to any other place of business +that gives satisfactory service. In this way the operator distinguishes +himself from his fly-by-night competitors who exist during a week or two +when surpluses of commodities are available at low prices and who have no +thought beyond that of the immediate sale.</p> + +<p>Wherever possible, the attention of the passing consumer should be +directed to the stand before he reaches it so that he will be prepared to +stop when he comes upon it. Signs of this type on either side of the +stand, but some distance each way from it, are more important than is +generally recognized. They constitute invitation cards and should be so +worded as to excite curiosity and create a feeling in the intending +purchaser’s mind that he will make no mistake in stopping to fill his +wants at the stand. It goes without saying that both the advertising and +the stand itself must be so planned as to attract the purchaser, and every +effort should be concentrated on the psychology of such an appeal, +avoiding any appearance of slouchiness, which would be more repellent than +attractive.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> The purchaser forms a quick opinion of the stand from the way +in which it is conducted and from the appearance of the one who is there +to make sales. An attitude of cordial cooperation on the part of the +attendant, who is, of course, appropriately dressed and in the right +mental attitude, is a factor that must not be overlooked in the effort to +create a favorable impression.</p> + +<p><i>Meal Service Amid Farm Surroundings.</i>—Many operators, located at +strategic points near main highways, have found that maximum profits are +obtained by serving meals prepared from the vegetables supplemented by +poultry or other products of the little farm. These meals may be served in +a booth or building adjoining the roadside stand or in a room of the house +turned into a seasonal dining room. Persons who are city residents quickly +learn to appreciate the virtues of fresh vegetables and freshly killed +poultry that may be thus served. A schedule of reasonable prices must be +maintained if trade is to be built up. Usually special dinners or lunches +can be prepared from available products in season, thereby giving the +customer more for his money at the least cost and trouble to the operator.</p> + +<p>This small home restaurant business can be handled frequently by members +of the operator’s household and countless examples can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> be given of real +financial success following such ventures. Expansion can take place as +consumer demand develops. Cleanliness, good home cooking, generous +portions and prompt and courteous service will work wonders in such a +project.</p> + +<p><i>Tourist Guest Houses.</i>—A large number of country homes are now open to +the public as tourist guest houses, their owners finding that they can +obtain a modest but worth while supplement to other forms of income from +them. These tourist guest houses are largely a development of the past +several years. Their popularity with automobile travelers appears to be +increasing, and there is genuine opportunity for the housewife on a small +farm to operate one of these establishments.</p> + +<p>It should be kept in mind by the housewife who thinks of opening her home +to tourists that the proposition has its drawbacks as well as its +advantages. Only a modest fee, often $1.00 for a room and 30 or 35 cents +for breakfast, is obtained from each tourist guest. However, a great +number of American women have found that the work and trouble occasioned +by taking in tourists are worth while and actually enjoy their contacts +with the traveling public.</p> + +<p>The tourist guest house, obviously, should be located on a road that is +well traveled by tourists. A simple and attractive “Tourists +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>Accommodated” sign and a neat and pleasing front yard are needed to +interest passers-by in the place. The porch should be neat and attractive +and the interior of the house should give the appearance of restfulness, +simplicity and comfort.</p> + +<p>Tourists usually inquire about prices and look over a place before +deciding to stop there; if there are women in the party, one of them +usually makes the inquiry. The family should be courteous in answering +questions and showing the prospective customers about. They should not be +indifferent, and yet must not seem to be too anxious for business. When +the travelers decide to stay, the family should endeavor at once to make +them feel at home. The guests will frequently ask questions about roads, +local resorts and near-by recreational facilities, and the family will +find it useful to be informed on these matters.</p> + +<p><i>Dog Breeding as a Source of Income.</i>—Many persons who have located in +the country, and who have a liking for domestic animals, have found dog +breeding an interesting and frequently profitable enterprise. By placing a +wire cage along the highway the attention of the traveling public is +attracted to the puppies. Some of the more popular breeds of dogs include +the Airedale; the Boston, Fox and Irish Terriers; the Chow Chow; the +Collie, and the English and Irish Setters.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>The breeding of dogs is a highly specialized activity, particularly where +it is carried on under intensive conditions and with little range. Dogs +are subject to external and internal parasites requiring preventive and +curative measures. As in the case of all other animals, sanitation is an +essential factor to success and feeding methods must be adjusted to the +age and the breed.</p> + +<p>The beginner in dog raising should consult a recognized veterinarian who +specializes in small animal practice, and observe his recommendations. +Such professional men are located in most communities and their advice +will be found most helpful.</p> + +<p>The prices obtainable for male and female young animals vary with the +locality. There is usually an established scale of prices which may easily +be obtained and which it will pay to observe. Dog shows are growing in +popularity and exhibitions at these expositions will serve to advertise +the breeder’s stock. Advertising in local papers is effective in bringing +to the public the availability of stock of distinctive breeds. Fashions in +dog breeds change with the times and the public must be catered to along +the lines of current interest.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><i>Do’s</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Use the roadside market or near-by outlets for disposing of excess farm products.</p> + +<p class="hang">Fully utilize the possibilities of roadside stands in building a permanent business.</p> + +<p class="hang">Road stands, as well as the products on display, must have sales appeal.</p> + +<p class="hang">Produce at home all farm products offered for sale, if possible, and make the growing area the background of the market.</p> + +<p class="hang">Stress quality of products and the responsibility of the operator.</p> + +<p class="hang">Advertising of the right type will multiply sales.</p> + +<p class="hang">Offer meal service with farm surroundings wherever possible.</p> + +<p class="hang">If considerable traffic passes the premises, try out possibilities of accommodating tourists.</p> + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Don’ts</i></p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t try to dispose of miscellaneous surplus of farm commodities by shipment to market if a roadside market can be set up.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t ruin standing of roadside market by selling inferior or stale products.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t try to run a city fruit stand with a farm background.</p> + +<p class="hang">Don’t destroy country home life by over-commercialization.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p> +<h2>SUGGESTED REFERENCE LIST</h2> + +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Timely</span> and valuable publications of the United States Department of +Agriculture, state departments of agriculture and state agricultural +colleges and experiment stations are available to country residents. +Copies of them may be obtained by writing to the agencies mentioned. To +supplement them and also to supplement advice received from county +agricultural agents, a number of useful books are listed below. Those +interested in them may, in many cases, obtain them from local libraries, +or may find it useful to own certain of them themselves.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="reference list"> +<tr><td align="center">Author</td> + <td align="center">Title</td> + <td align="center">Year</td><td> </td> + <td align="center">Publisher</td></tr> +<tr><td>Agee, Alva</td> + <td>“First Steps in Farming”</td> + <td>1923</td><td> </td> + <td>Harper</td></tr> +<tr><td>Arnold, Schuyler</td> + <td>“Wayside Marketing”</td> + <td>1929</td><td> </td> + <td>De La Mare</td></tr> +<tr><td>Auchter, E. C., and Knapp, H. B.</td> + <td>“Orchard and Small Fruit Culture”</td> + <td>1929</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ayres, Q. C., and Scoates, D.</td> + <td>“Land Drainage and Reclamation”</td> + <td>1928</td><td> </td> + <td>McGraw-Hill</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bailey, L. H.</td> + <td>“Manual of Gardening,” Rev. ed.</td> + <td>1925</td><td> </td> + <td>Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bear, E.</td> + <td>“Soil Management”</td> + <td>1927</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>“Theory and Practice in the Use of Fertilizers”</td> + <td>1929</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bottomley, M. E.</td> + <td>“Design of Small Properties; a Book for the Home-Owner in City and Country.”</td> + <td>1926</td><td> </td> + <td>Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>Bush-Brown, Mrs. Louise (Carter)</td> + <td>“Flowers for Every Garden”</td> + <td>1927</td><td> </td> + <td>Little</td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">Chenoweth, W. W.</td> + <td>“Food Preservation; a Textbook for Student, Teacher, Homemaker and<br />Home Factory Operator”</td> + <td valign="top">1930</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Chupp, C.</td> + <td>“Manual of Vegetable Garden Diseases”</td> + <td>1925</td><td> </td> + <td>Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>“Manual of Vegetable Garden Insects”</td> + <td>1925</td><td> </td> + <td>Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cline, L. E.</td> + <td>“Turkey Production”</td> + <td>1933</td><td> </td> + <td>Orange Judd</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cox, J. F.</td> + <td>“Crop Production and Management”</td> + <td>1930</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Crosby, C. R., and Leonard, M. D.</td> + <td>“Manual of Vegetable Garden Insects”</td> + <td>1918</td><td> </td> + <td>Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td>Davenport, Eugene</td> + <td>“The Farm”</td> + <td>1927</td><td> </td> + <td>Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td>Foster, W. H., and Carter, D. G.</td> + <td>“Farm Buildings”</td> + <td>1928</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fraser, Samuel</td> + <td>“American Fruits; Their Propagation, Cultivation, Harvesting and Distribution”</td> + <td>1927</td><td> </td> + <td>Judd</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fraser, W. J.</td> + <td>“Dairy Farming”</td> + <td>1930</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Galpin, C. J.</td> + <td>“Rural Social Problems”</td> + <td>1924</td><td> </td> + <td>Century</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gustafson, A. F.</td> + <td>“Handbook of Fertilizers”</td> + <td>1932</td><td> </td> + <td>Orange Judd</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hottes, A. C.</td> + <td>“1001 Garden Questions Answered”</td> + <td>1930</td><td> </td> + <td>De La Mare</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hurd, L. M.</td> + <td>“Practical Poultry Farming”</td> + <td>1931</td><td> </td> + <td>Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td>Jull, M. A.</td> + <td>“Poultry Husbandry”</td> + <td>1930</td><td> </td> + <td>McGraw-Hill</td></tr> +<tr><td>Knott, J. E.</td> + <td>“Vegetable Growing”</td> + <td>1930</td><td> </td> + <td>Lea</td></tr> +<tr><td>Langstroth, L. L., and Dadant, Charles</td> + <td>“Honey Bee,” Rev. by C. P. Dadant, Ed. 23</td> + <td>1927</td><td> </td> + <td>American Bee Journal</td></tr> +<tr><td>Larson, C. W., and Putney, F. S.</td> + <td>“Dairy Cattle Feeding and Management”</td> + <td>1928</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>Lewis, H. R.</td> + <td>“Productive Poultry Husbandry”</td> + <td>1928</td><td> </td> + <td>Lippincott</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lippincott, W. A.</td> + <td>“Poultry Production”</td> + <td>1927</td><td> </td> + <td>Lea & Febiger</td></tr> +<tr><td>Millar, C. E.</td> + <td>“Soils and Soil Management”</td> + <td>1929</td><td> </td> + <td>Webb Pub. Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Murray, P.</td> + <td>“Planning and Planting the Home Garden”</td> + <td>1932</td><td> </td> + <td>Orange Judd</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pellett, F. C.</td> + <td>“Productive Bee-Keeping”</td> + <td>1923</td><td> </td> + <td>Lippincott</td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">Phillips, E. F.</td> + <td>“Bee Keeping; a Discussion of the Honey Bee and of the Production<br />of Honey,” Rev. ed.</td> + <td valign="top">1928</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td>Powers, W. L., and Teeter, T. A. H.</td> + <td>“Land Drainage for Farmers”</td> + <td>1922</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rice, J. E.</td> + <td>“Practical Poultry Management”</td> + <td>1930</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rice, J. E., and Botsford, H. E.</td> + <td>“Practical Poultry Management”</td> + <td>1925</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Root, A. I., and Root, E. R.</td> + <td>“<span class="gesp">ABC</span> and <span class="gesp">XYZ</span> of Bee Culture”</td> + <td>1923</td><td> </td> + <td>Root</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rose, M. S.</td> + <td>“Feeding the Family”</td> + <td>1928</td><td> </td> + <td>Macmillan</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rowe, H. G.</td> + <td>“Starting Right With Bees”</td> + <td>1922</td><td> </td> + <td>A. I. Root Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">Sanderson, E. D.</td> + <td>“Insects Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard,” Ed. 2, rev. and enl. by L. M. Peairs</td> + <td valign="top">1921</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sears, F. C.</td> + <td>“Productive Orcharding; Modern Methods of Growing and Marketing Fruit”</td> + <td>1927</td><td> </td> + <td>Lippincott</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>“Productive Small Fruit Culture”</td> + <td>1925</td><td> </td> + <td>Lippincott</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sharp, M. A.</td> + <td>“Principles of Farm Mechanics”</td> + <td>1930</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr> +<tr><td>Smith, R. H.</td> + <td>“Agricultural Mechanics”</td> + <td>1925</td><td> </td> + <td>Lippincott</td></tr> +<tr><td>Thompson, H. C.</td> + <td>“Vegetable Crops”</td> + <td>1931</td><td> </td> + <td>McGraw-Hill</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>Thorne, C. E.</td> + <td>“Maintenance of Soil Fertility”</td> + <td>1930</td><td> </td> + <td>Orange Judd</td></tr> +<tr><td>Watts, R. L.</td> + <td>“Vegetable Gardening”</td> + <td>1921</td><td> </td> + <td>Orange Judd</td></tr> +<tr><td>Worthen, E. L.</td> + <td>“Farm Soils, Their Management and Fertilization”</td> + <td>1927</td><td> </td> + <td>Wiley</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">SOME FARM AND GARDEN MAGAZINES</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="magazines"> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><i>General</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>American Agriculturist</td><td> </td><td>New York, N. Y.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Country Gentleman</td><td> </td><td>Philadelphia, Pa.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Farm Journal</td><td> </td><td>Philadelphia, Pa.</td></tr> +<tr><td>New England Homestead</td><td> </td><td>Springfield, Mass.</td></tr> +<tr><td>New Jersey Farm and Garden</td><td> </td><td>Sea Isle City, N. J.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pennsylvania Farmer</td><td> </td><td>Pittsburgh, Pa.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rural New Yorker</td><td> </td><td>New York, N. Y.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><i>Beekeeping</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>American Bee Journal</td><td> </td><td>Hamilton, Ill.</td></tr> +<tr><td>American Honey Producer</td><td> </td><td>Producers’ League, Fargo, N. D.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bee-Cause</td><td> </td><td>Watertown, Wis.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gleanings in Bee Culture</td><td> </td><td>Medina, Ohio</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><i>Dairying</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Ayrshire Digest</td><td> </td><td>Spencer, Mass.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dairy Farmer</td><td> </td><td>Des Moines, Iowa</td></tr> +<tr><td>Guernsey Breeders’ Journal</td><td> </td><td>Peterboro, N. H.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hoard’s Dairyman</td><td> </td><td>Fort Atkinson, Wis.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Holstein-Friesian World</td><td> </td><td>Laconia, N. Y.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Jersey Bulletin</td><td> </td><td>Indianapolis, Ind.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><i>Flower Gardening</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>American Home</td><td> </td><td>Garden City, N. Y.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Better Homes and Gardens</td><td> </td><td>Des Moines, Iowa</td></tr> +<tr><td>Flower Grower</td><td> </td><td>Calcium, N. Y.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gardener’s Chronicle of America</td><td>New York, N. Y.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Horticulture</td><td> </td><td>Boston, Mass.</td></tr> +<tr><td> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><i>Fruit Growing</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>American Fruit Grower</td><td> </td><td>Chicago, Ill.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Better Fruit</td><td> </td><td>Portland, Ore.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><i>Livestock</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Breeders’ Gazette</td><td> </td><td>Chicago, Ill.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><i>Market Gardening</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Market Growers’ Journal</td><td> </td><td>Louisville, Ky.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><i>Poultry</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>American Poultry Journal</td><td> </td><td>Chicago, Ill.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Everybody’s Poultry Magazine</td><td> </td><td>Hanover, Pa.</td></tr> +<tr><td>New England Poultryman</td><td> </td><td>Boston, Mass.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Poultry Garden and Home</td><td> </td><td>Dayton, Ohio</td></tr> +<tr><td>Poultry Item</td><td> </td><td>Sellersville, Pa.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Poultry Success</td><td> </td><td>Springfield, Ohio</td></tr> +<tr><td>Poultry Tribune</td><td> </td><td>Mt. Morris, Ill.</td></tr></table> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><b>Footnotes:</b></p> + +<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> Prepared by New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station.</p> + +<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> Prepared by Michigan State College of Agriculture.</p> + +<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> Prepared by New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station.</p> + +<p><a name="f4" id="f4" href="#f4.1">[4]</a> New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.</p> + + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Living from the Land, by William B. 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Duryee + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Living from the Land + +Author: William B. Duryee + +Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33060] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LIVING FROM THE LAND *** + + + + +Produced by David Clarke and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +A LIVING FROM THE LAND + + + + +[Illustration: (_Frontispiece_) + +Country homes backed by intensive types of agriculture serve modern human +needs.] + + + + + A LIVING + FROM THE LAND + + + BY + WILLIAM B. DURYEE, M.Sc. + + _Secretary of Agriculture, + State of New Jersey_ + + + WHITTLESEY HOUSE + McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. + NEW YORK AND LONDON + 1934 + + + + + _Copyright, 1934, by the_ MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. + + All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be + reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers. + + THIRD PRINTING + + + + PUBLISHED BY WHITTLESEY HOUSE + A division of the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. + + _Printed in the United States of America by The Maple Press Co., + York, Pa._ + + + + _To my friend_ + HENRY W. JEFFERS + + + + +PREFACE + + +Homesteading days are here again. The present movement of people back to +the land is of a different type and has different objectives from those +which prevailed when a continent was to be conquered and exploited. Today +we know that many urban industries will operate on a seasonal basis and we +know too that periods of unemployment and shorter working days will +provide more leisure and probably lower incomes for hundreds of thousands +of families. The utilization of this leisure time to supplement incomes, +to raise the standards of living and of health, and to attain some measure +of economic security will tend more and more to settlement on the land. + +In these days of rapid transportation and all the attributes and +conveniences of modern country life, the hardships of the earlier period +of land development are non-existent. Although urban industrial +development has reached a point which will not be exceeded for many years +to come, the individual who needs additional income may adjust himself to +such circumstances by establishing a country homestead. Industrial +activity is tending to decentralize, largely as the result of widespread +power distribution, and a home in the country accessible to some form of +manufacturing or business employment offers undeniable attractions. + +This book is prepared primarily for the family that is inexperienced in +country living and in soil culture. Such a family should know about the +nature of the soil on which it lives, how to make it serve the family's +needs and purposes, what to do, and what to avoid in order that success +may be attained and failure averted. Students of agriculture as a vocation +and practical farmers may find, beyond the elementary facts presented, +information of value and help to them. To know and to understand the +science and practice of agriculture is to have power to cope with and to +enjoy soil culture and animal husbandry. If this little volume helps to +answer clearly and definitely the many inquiries that are in the minds of +prospective and active homesteaders, it will have served its purpose. + +The knowledge of many practical people and the resources of agricultural +institutions and agencies have been drawn upon for this book. Grateful +acknowledgment is made to those who have contributed constructive +criticism and have helped in the preparation of material. Especial credit +is due to the personnel of the New Jersey and New York colleges of +agriculture and to my associates in the New Jersey Department of +Agriculture. + +WILLIAM B. DURYEE. + +TRENTON, N. J., + +_December, 1933_. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + +PREFACE ix + +CHAPTER + + I. TURNING FROM THE CITY TO THE COUNTRY 3 + + II. GETTING ESTABLISHED IN THE COUNTRY 12 + + III. FINANCING AND PROTECTING THE INVESTMENT 26 + + IV. ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE IN THE COUNTRY 40 + + V. SERVICING THE HOME 54 + + VI. MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS 73 + + VII. FOOD FROM THE GARDEN 95 + + VIII. HOME FRUITS AND BEES 110 + + IX. POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME 123 + + X. SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY 138 + + XI. THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY 159 + + XII. MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 170 + + + + +A LIVING FROM THE LAND + + + + +_Chapter_ I + +TURNING FROM THE CITY TO THE COUNTRY + + +America was founded on the rock base of agriculture. The early settlers +tilled the soil and derived from it the simple things that they needed. +Necessity compelled them to be self-reliant, courageous and resourceful. +The establishment of a home in early days meant the clearing of land, the +erection of a house for human habitation and the building of shelters for +a few farm animals. Each farm home became practically self-sufficient so +far as the family needs were concerned. Clothing was made there for each +member of the family. After clearing and subduing the land, the settlers +were able to produce their cereal foods. Animals were slaughtered and the +meat processed to provide sustenance throughout the year. Through the +exchange of commodities and ideas with neighbors, advances in living +conditions were made. + +The family that was not resourceful in those days failed to survive. +Neighbors were too busy working out their own existence problems to +succor the incompetent. Resourcefulness was called upon in meeting +onslaughts of beasts or human marauders. Thus there was built up a +tradition of seeking and utilizing resources that has gone on to make our +country great and the wonder of the rest of the world. + +Since pioneer days we have built a great industrial, commercial and +financial machine. American inventive genius, coupled with the best brains +of the civilized world, attracted by resources and opportunities on every +hand, has invaded every field and created a great industrial +superstructure. + +With the genesis and development of a great industrial era in the United +States there started a movement of population from farms to established +centers of population. The application of the sciences to the problems of +filling human wants gave this movement greater impetus. Mining and the +refining of metal ores, the exploiting of coal deposits, the building of +railroads, the construction of buildings for business and residential +purposes, as well as dozens of other great enterprises, served to draw +from the country the best of its human resources. + +Inventive genius began to concentrate on the solution of engineering and +construction problems created by congestion of population and successive +steps in industrialization. This same technical genius was applied also to +farm operations which required laborious effort by men and work animals. +That this development itself progressed rapidly is demonstrated by the +fact that while in 1810 the effort of nearly every person was required to +produce enough food to sustain the population, in 1910 the efforts of +one-third of the people were sufficient to provide food for the nation and +export vast quantities to other countries. + +While the nation continued to grow rapidly in population and sought to +apply to ordinary practices the newer labor-saving devices, all was well. +It was inevitable, however, that the great industrial machine should +become over-developed, at least temporarily. Instead of machinery being a +servant of mankind it became an octopus that could not be checked. +Individual initiative, the wellspring of earlier developments in the +process, became atrophied. There came about such a high degree of +specialization in human effort as to make men dependent upon others for +work to do. Consequently, even a slight throwing out of gear of the +machine created unemployment, which reduced buying power for the +machine-made products and started a vicious downward spiral accompanied by +every form of economic distress. + +When such partial or complete breakdown of the superstructure occurs, +thoughtful people are brought "down to earth," both collectively and very +intimately in thousands of individual cases. They begin to get back to +fundamentals and to seek means of becoming so reestablished as to avoid +future cataclysms. The family attracted to the city by the lure of high +industrial wages and by crowded avenues finds in such a breakdown that it +has lost its moorings. + +In seeking means of reestablishment free of the terrifying complications +of industrial life, the mind turns to the country, to the soil, to growing +things that are not visibly affected by economic cycles. The open country +seems ready to welcome back her errant children graciously and to enfold +them within her protecting bosom. We cannot go back, however, to pioneer +days. Free land is not available and we have not the arts or the patience +to practice the means of livelihood of those days. To make the new or +renewed relationship with the soil a success, it is necessary to +understand that country life, too, has changed during industrial +revolutions. Mother Earth is now, as ever, a generous but exacting parent. +To try to reestablish relationships in a blind and haphazard manner is +likely to lead to further disaster. Such a debacle is quite needless, +provided some fundamental principles and practices are understood and +followed. + +Unquestionably, the open country is now making the greatest appeal as a +place of residence that it has made at any time in the history of the +nation. To list the conveniences which now exist in the country is to +duplicate those which many people have considered as available only in +cities. In most areas of the country, for example, there are daily mail +delivery, telephone service, some measure of fire protection, and +transportation by automobile, bus or train. It is quite possible, for +example, to step into a bus at one's dooryard and be carried to any part +of the United States by the same method of transportation. + +The development of the radio has brought to the country home all the +surging activities of national life and varied educational and +entertainment programs. The spread of electric light and power lines +through the country constitutes a boon that makes possible the use of all +kinds of electrical appliances known in the city, including refrigerators, +cooking ranges, washing machines, water pumps, water heaters and hundreds +of other machines and appliances, some of which are in their infancy. No +great difficulty is experienced in locating in the open country where such +electrical facilities are available. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture_) + +An attractive farmstead offering requisites of a home in the open +country.] + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture_) + +Floor plan of house shown on opposite page.] + + +On the main highways in the northern sections of the country a heavy fall +of snow used to mean isolation for weeks. Today the snow is removed as +rapidly as it falls, and these highways are kept open. The problems and +perils of isolation are thus removed. + +Tradesmen of all kinds are directing their sales toward country homes, and +supplies of ice and all kinds of food can be obtained almost daily at the +farm doorstep. There is also a tendency to develop factories in the +country away from the high-rent areas of cities and to utilize the +services of persons living in the vicinity of the factory for full or +partial time in the plants. The cost of living can be reduced by living in +the country, and opportunities for purchasing foods and other products at +wholesale prices and storing them against the time of need make further +economies possible. + +The greatest asset that the country has to offer relates to the health and +character of those who live close to nature. It has long been recognized +by many European countries that the ownership of even a small tract of +land, no larger than a city lot, perhaps, is a definite asset in building +a nation and in building individual character. In Germany, in Denmark and +in many other nations, the government lends its aid toward the +establishment of people in the country and makes it possible for them to +acquire and retain small holdings of land which they may call "home." It +is on these small tracts that one sees veritable bowers of pastoral +industry and beauty. + +Residence in the open country, in contact with the soil, contributes to +physical strength and to mental health. When a man lives in the country, +his house, his way of living and his contribution to the community stand +out where all may see them. These latter assets have always been inherent +in country life. When to these are added the conveniences and the +opportunities for community enjoyment that are now a part of rural life, +its appeal is not difficult to understand. + +Anyone who intends to live in the country has his individual problems to +meet and to solve. In the solution of these problems there are many +resources and avenues to which he may turn in the present day for help and +for guidance. The tragic mistakes that have been made in the past can and +should be largely eliminated in the future. A clearer understanding should +be gained as to what one may obtain in the country in the form of a better +way of living, serving as an anchor to the windward even under favorable +economic conditions. + + + + +_Chapter_ II + +GETTING ESTABLISHED IN THE COUNTRY + + +In the selection of a residence in the country, the settler must decide +whether he wishes to locate on a farm of considerable acreage or whether +he wants to have a relatively small tract ranging from 2 to 15 acres. In +the latter case, he is thinking primarily of a place of residence with +sufficient acreage to make it possible to secure a partial living from the +land immediately surrounding the home. The trend in such purchases is +toward the smaller place for a number of reasons. + +A large farm acquired by a relatively inexperienced person means a very +considerable burden in the development and maintenance of the land itself +on a producing basis. Capital is required for the purchase of equipment +and power. Parts of the land may need to be drained, and taxes must be +paid whether the land is productive or not. A person acquiring a farm of +50 or more acres will find that the major portion of his time, thought and +capital will be called upon to make it a success. If he has definitely +cut off his city connections and the idea of having a job there, and has +had experience in farming, then he may be in a position to take over a +large acreage so that his full time and possibly that of other members of +his family can be spent on various projects on the land he acquires. + +We are here primarily concerned, not with those who desire to enter upon +farming on a large scale, but with the family which would like to live in +the country, secure a partial living from the land surrounding the home +and still have the opportunity of gaining a livelihood from some +industrial or commercial activity located in a near-by city or town. It is +quite likely that we shall have a shorter working week and probably +periods of unemployment for hundreds of thousands of ambitious people. +Therefore, a place in the country that is well located with respect to +hard-surfaced highways and accessible to urban centers offers +opportunities for combining the advantages and economic assets of country +life with urban employment. + +_Getting Started Right._--Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon getting +the right start, particularly with respect to location. This is not only +essential for the satisfaction of the present occupant of the premises, +but also gives definite sales value in case circumstances make a change +of location desirable or necessary. + +It will often appear that the best location is on the outskirts of a city +or town and from some angles this is good reasoning. There are some +factors, however, that make such a location undesirable. For one thing, +the tax rate is likely to be higher in such areas than in the open +country, thus adding to overhead without compensating advantages. In the +second place, urban centers develop without regard to soil type and this +is an essential factor to the family that expects to engage in some +agricultural pursuit. Again, the type of inhabitants that live on the +fringe of towns and cities may not make good neighbors or associates for +children, especially. None of these disadvantages may be present in +locations close to centers of population, but the prospective settler +should give all these factors full consideration. The sales argument +frequently advanced that such locations will grow in value due to growth +of population may be fallacious. + +Many have found that the higher costs of living in these areas often +prevent the owner from holding on until the slow growth of population +outward makes a worth-while profit possible from his real estate. +Furthermore, the growth of cities and towns is definitely slowing down. +The expansion of city areas is greatly curtailed and is not likely to be +resumed soon. + +The most important time to get expert opinion as to location is at the +beginning and not after purchasing. There are available in every locality +persons whose advice is useful in such matters. The county agricultural +agent located in nearly every county seat knows the countryside and his +advice on the subject of definite location should be sought once one has +decided upon the general area which seems attractive. In determining on +specific location the bank which has a clientele in the country will often +be found a helpful guide through suggestions or through ability to refer +the questioner to reputable and informed persons with more definite +knowledge. + +Another source of information is the local dealer in farm supplies. He +will be found to know general soil types in the vicinity, especially those +types which bring business to him because they are productive. Owners of +such land are able to buy and use to advantage the supplies he has to +offer to the grower. + +_Size of Tract._--There is the possibility that a person who goes back to +the land may acquire too little land as well as too much. Inadequate land +resources may seriously hinder possibilities of revenue from the place and +cramp facilities for his enterprises. In this connection it may be +helpful to point out that an acre of land comprises 43,560 square feet. A +city lot measuring 50 by 100 feet contains 5,000 square feet. An acre +therefore would comprise about eight and one-half such city lots. A 5-acre +tract is usually a minimum area for a small agricultural enterprise and +many have found it entirely adequate. + +The size of the tract to be acquired and the enterprises that can be +engaged in will depend in considerable measure upon the size of the +occupant's family--whether they can assist in its operation and whether +the owner himself intends to put in all or only a part of his time. The +possibility of securing extra labor should also be looked into before +larger operations are attempted. No definite formula can be set down for +desirable area and enterprises in relation to time available for +operating. However, the owner will realize that one pair of hands can do +only so much work. To try to operate beyond the capacity of his own time +and that of others available is to become involved in striving to keep up +with exigencies that may make country life a struggle instead of a +pleasurable existence. It may result, too, in losses due to inability to +get things done on time, and nature deals harshly with those who neglect +the seasonable operations that come in any agricultural enterprise. +"Bulling through" or skimping or cutting corners simply will not work when +one is dealing with plant and animal life and only failure will come to +him who undertakes to bluff nature. + +The successful operator of a farming endeavor must always be on top of his +work, that is, able to plan and direct his energies in the most productive +way at the right time. This is really managing and is likely to lead to +success and satisfaction. To have so much to do that one emergency after +another must be met brings the operator down under his farming projects. +He ceases to manage under these conditions and becomes driven by his own +creations. To avoid this unhappy state, which is entirely unnecessary, +planning must be effectively done and operations undertaken in a gradual +way up to one's capacity. + +_Cost of Land._--The price one should pay for land in a relatively small +tract cannot be arbitrarily fixed. Those who own large farms or tracts +expect to receive a bonus for the acres located along a highway as +compared with an average price for the entire place. It should be possible +to buy a 5- or 10-acre tract of land in the open country with highway +frontage for from $150 to $250 an acre, depending on location. If the land +is located near town or city where speculative operations have enhanced +values, the cost will be considerably more. Where an entire farm is +desired, the buildings are frequently given no value, the cost being the +price of the land only. As has been stated, it is quite possible to +acquire too much land as well as too little. A few acres selected from a +tract of good, productive soil will usually be found a better investment +than a large farm that has been abandoned because of lack of fertility. + +_Accessibility to Cities._--In deciding upon the location of a farm, +methods of transportation that are available are as important as nearness +to cities. A location near a railroad station offers the possibility of +low commutation rates to a point of industrial or commercial employment. A +location abutting upon an improved highway means that transportation by +bus or by personally owned automobile can be utilized at the least expense +and trouble the year round. The recent development of bus lines covering +almost every main artery of travel offers facilities for quick and +economical transportation unknown to country residents even a few years +ago. Furthermore, the selection of a place of residence accessible to +transportation to and from it is a factor to be borne in mind in +connection with the possible resale of the property, should that at any +time be desirable or necessary. + +_The Soil._--The type of soil is a highly important factor in determining +upon location; also important is its crop-producing capacity. For all +general purposes, a soil which is loamy in texture is desirable. Types to +be avoided are the extremes of clay and sand. A heavy clay soil, +particularly where the land is in a depression, not only inhibits plant +growth of all kinds but is often undesirable as a place of residence from +the standpoint of healthfulness. A condition of extreme muddiness in wet +weather creates an unpleasant reaction on those forced to live near it. On +the other hand, areas which are so sandy in character as to furnish no +fertility for the growth of plants will be found undesirable in making the +surroundings of the home attractive and in growing the vegetables and +fruits which should constitute a part of the living. + +One method of judging the soil consists of examining the vegetation that +is already growing upon it and determining on that basis whether it is +likely to be favorable for the growth of desirable plants. For this +reason, the selection of a site during the growing season is recommended, +rather than during a dormant season when it is difficult to form an +estimate of the vegetation that the soil will support. + +_Availability of Electricity._--While it is possible to secure individual +electrical generating plants, it is far preferable to establish a home +where electric lines may be tapped. The obtaining of electrical energy +from a commercial line is desirable because of its greater dependability, +generally lower cost and the fact that unlimited use of electricity may be +obtained without the overloading that frequently occurs where individual +plants are set up. Probably the availability of public utility lines is +the greatest asset of comfortable country life and one of the most +important factors in creating genuine resale value. These lines bring to +the country dweller most of the advantages that are enjoyed by city +residents. This is true not only because of the advantages of electric +lights, but also because electricity makes possible the use of such modern +appurtenances to the home as electric refrigerators, washers, radios, +water pumps and various devices and machines for use in connection with +poultry keeping and vegetable growing. + +_Type of Buildings._--Especial attention should be given to the +adaptability to the buyer's needs of the residence and the other buildings +that may already be in existence. If the plot being considered is on a +main highway, it is highly desirable to have the residence located back +from the highway a hundred feet or more as a means of eliminating noise +and promoting safety especially if children are in the family. The +location of a home directly on one of the main arteries of traffic +destroys many of the advantages of country life, owing to the distracting +noises that accompany intensive truck and passenger traffic. + +The age of buildings and their previous care have a direct relation to +their value, particularly if they are of frame construction. If the +buildings have been standing for a number of years, full allowance must be +made for depreciation and repairs incident to weathering and long usage. +The actual investment represented in a building erected under war or +post-war conditions may not be in line with present values. In measuring +the value of the principal buildings that are already on a tract, careful +consideration should be given to the cost of replacement. Consideration +should be given also to the outbuildings that may be on such a place. +Instead of being an asset to the property, they may be a distinct +liability if they are not directly useful to the intending purchaser. From +the standpoint of economy of maintenance and generally good appearance, it +is much better to have one building serve a number of purposes than to +have a number on different parts of the property, adding to the cost of +maintenance and multiplying steps. + +_Educational Facilities._--Where there are children in the family, the +location of schools and the facilities which they offer should be +investigated by the prospective buyer. It is desirable to locate as near +to schools as possible. In recent years there has been a strong tendency +throughout the country to do away with local schools and to consolidate +educational facilities in one building. Coupled with this trend is the +free transportation of pupils to consolidated schools. Therefore, it is +highly important to locate either near a school which will be kept in +operation or where transportation facilities are available to and from the +home and the school. It should be said that the trend toward consolidation +of schools has carried with it great benefits to children who live in the +open country by affording them educational facilities that are not +exceeded by most city schools. + +_Community Advantages._--The community, in addition to educational +facilities that are available, should include those opportunities that +appeal especially to the family. The accessibility of the church of one's +preference should not be overlooked, and the general type of community +life is highly important too. Some communities are known for the +law-abiding proclivities of their residents while others do not have a +savory reputation from the standpoint of the peace and security of their +more respectable inhabitants. One should establish a residence in the +community with the thought that he is to become a factor in the life of +that community. He should be sure that there is a genuine spirit of +healthy and cooperative activity which constantly tends to upbuild the +neighborhood, by keeping out or suppressing undesirable elements and by +developing a concerted feeling of responsibility for the welfare of all +who live within its boundaries. + +A resident of a city moving to the country frequently finds a difference +in his neighbors' viewpoint that surprises him. There is, and must be, in +the rural community a closer relationship between the people in that +community than ever exists in an apartment dwelling in the city. In the +country, one's neighbors are apt to show a surprising amount of friendly +interest in one's doings, since the whole trend of the community is based +upon the actions and attitude of the relatively few people who live within +it. It should be repeated, therefore, that the type of community and the +facilities which the people of that community have developed should be +given careful attention by the prospective resident and he should +determine for himself whether the particular community that he has in +mind is in accord with his ideas and ideals. To be out of step with the +community in which one lives is apt to create dissatisfactions and a +critical attitude on both sides that is not conducive to happiness. + +A home in the country has more of the attributes of genuine ownership than +has a home anywhere else. The country home must be established with an +idea of permanence and of becoming really rooted in the soil where one +locates, if the true benefits of rural home ownership are to be secured. + + +_Do's_ + +Decide either on large farm or on house and small acreage. + +Determine accessibility at all times of the year. + +Purchase soil of loam texture, mixture of sand and clay. + +Determine whether electricity is available. + +Locate back from highway. + +If present buildings are to be used, be sure of their condition and need +of repair. + +Find out type and accessibility of schools and other community buildings. + +Prepare to be _of_ the community as well as _in_ it. + +Remember there are advantages of small tract over large farm where +available time is an important element. + +Use local sources of information as to desirability of tract before +purchasing. + +Work out a plan of management that fits into the time available for the +farm duties. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't overlook intrinsic values of the location, such as soil, low tax +rate and good neighbors. + +Avoid excessive capital outlay. + +Avoid extra heavy or extra sandy soils or evidently unproductive ones. + +Don't overlook advantages of electric light and power. + +Don't buy a place just because it has buildings. They may not be adapted +to your needs. + +Don't buy too much land. It can be a burden. + +Don't let the farm become your master. + +Don't pay too much for land. There is plenty of it. + + + + +_Chapter_ III + +FINANCING AND PROTECTING THE INVESTMENT + + +Acquiring land for residence and for subsistence calls for the exercise of +good business judgment. Not only must the site and general location be +acceptable to the family, but the investment involved should be within the +capacity of the owner to finance without undue strain on his resources. It +should be recognized that there will be ordinary living expenses to be met +in the country and perhaps some extraordinary demands resulting from +emergencies. Consequently, adequate thought and preparation must be made +for financing the investment and making sure, as far as that is possible, +that the investment in a country home will not be lost through inability +to meet possible contingencies. + +It goes without saying that the capital investment should be kept as low +as possible. Wherever feasible, the cash available should take care of the +full investment without the necessity for additional financing. This +reduces the drain upon resources through obviating the necessity of +meeting interest payments on mortgages and makes possible the use of any +surplus funds for improvement, for education and for giving the family the +advantages which country life offers. If it is necessary to borrow funds +for financing the purchase, special attention should be given to the type +of mortgage which is obtained. + +_Mortgage Financing._--One of the most desirable types of financing is +through a financially sound building and loan association whereby the +interest and the amortization of the mortgage are taken care of through +monthly payments. Such building and loan mortgages are available in most +localities throughout the country. A series of monthly payments can be +made which will take care of the interest payments and the mortgage itself +so that within a period of from ten to twelve years, in most cases, the +mortgage is amortized and the owner has the advantages of a home that is +free of encumbrance. For example, if the mortgage amounts to $3,000, +subscription to fifteen shares of a building and loan association at $1 a +share per month would make it possible to clear off the mortgage in about +eleven years. This would call for the payment to the association of $15 +per month and interest. Through the compounding of interest, the mortgage +can be lifted at less expense than any other procedure. + +Another satisfactory plan is to place the mortgage with a bank or +financing company or insurance company that will not call the mortgage so +long as the payments are met, and at the same time start saving through a +building and loan association so as to complete the payments over a series +of years. + +There is a far greater sense of security in having no mortgage or in +setting up a definite and practical procedure for eliminating it than in +always having a mortgage encumbrance with its interest payments and the +possibility of having it called at an inopportune moment. A home that is +free from mortgage can be carried at small cost, especially where the +owner is willing to make most of the repairs and attend to the upkeep +himself. The demand for outlay of cash for mortgage interest may be +financially embarrassing, especially where income is not guaranteed or may +be jeopardized through a drastic reduction at critical periods or as the +result of emergency expenses in the family, such as are entailed by +serious illness. + +_Taxes._--One of the factors that is frequently overlooked in the purchase +of a residence in the country is the cost of meeting taxes. Since taxes +must be met if the property is to be held, it is highly important that +the location be one in which tax rates are not excessive. On the other +hand, an exceedingly low tax rate may indicate lack of progressiveness in +the community and lack of facilities which from many angles would lessen +the value of the tract as a place of residence. In most localities, the +tax rate is based principally upon the costs of building and maintaining +highways and schools. Good facilities in both of these respects are highly +desirable, and yet excessive expenditures in either direction may so +advance the tax rate as to make them expensive luxuries. + +In many rural communities, taxing districts are burdened with the costs of +building monumental schools or a very elaborate system of roads, +undertaken at some time through the flotation of bond issues. The +establishment of a sinking fund for payment of interest and amortization +of these bonds frequently constitutes a very heavy drain upon the +residents of the district. It is, therefore, necessary to determine not +only the tax rate in the locality under consideration, but also to know +definitely what are the current charges for maintenance of government. +Taxing methods vary so widely, even in adjoining districts, that the only +method of determining the annual charges for taxes is to secure from the +present owner or from the local tax assessor the definite payments that +must be made. + +As a means of saving trouble later, an investigation should be made of the +property under consideration to make sure that taxes have been paid to the +date of purchase. This is distinctly the obligation of the owner. Unpaid +taxes constitute a lien on the property, and an investigation of the +status of the tax payments is essential in protecting the proposed +investment. + +_The Title and Survey._--A great deal of possible trouble can be +eliminated by making sure that the title is clear. An investigation should +be made along this line by an attorney or agency equipped to secure +information from appropriate county offices. Very often the owner has had +a recent search made and is willing to pass this on to the purchaser, thus +saving expense and delay in tracing back the records over a long period of +years. Such study will show whether there are encumbrances or liens of any +kind on the property, and these, of course, must be cleared up before any +transaction is entered into. + +The potential buyer should also have a survey made by a competent engineer +to definitely fix the boundaries of the property. Stakes can then be +placed, indicating the corners and any irregularities in the outline of +the area under consideration, showing the new owner exactly where his +property extends. In many sections of the country the buyer is in a +position to demand of the owner that such a survey be made at the owner's +expense. This survey is particularly important where an area of +considerable size has been cut up into parcels for sale to individuals. + +The steps that have been outlined to protect the investment are only those +which a prudent purchaser will insist upon before transfer of ownership +takes place. Frequently a buyer becomes so enamored with a property that +he hopes nothing will interfere with his acquisition of it, and he is apt +to mentally minimize the possibilities of a cloud on the title or the +exactness of the property lines. So many people have suffered serious +losses from failure to look thoroughly before leaping that emphasis is +given to these points as a means of securing ample protection for the +buyer. + +_An Income from the Investment._--It is presumed that in most cases the +owner of even a small tract expects to secure some financial returns from +the land as a means of adding to his income. The plan that is proposed as +a means of securing an income from the land should not be too complicated +and should be of a type that can be carried on when the owner is +necessarily engaged in other work. This, of course, may run the gamut from +a small home garden to supply the vegetable needs of the household to the +operation of a larger tract on a commercial basis. Furthermore, as we get +into the commercial type of production, that may be planned as a means of +materially supplementing an income or eventually supplying the entire +family income. + +Especial attention has been given in recent years to the use of poultry as +a means of supplying an income to the family which is willing to use its +own resources for taking care of the flock. Another means of securing an +income is the growing of vegetables and the sale of these vegetables at a +stand erected near the house for the convenience of the traveling public. +Many who engage in vegetable growing or egg production on a relatively +small scale will find an outlet for their products through associates in +some other line of work, who will be glad to buy from their country +friends on the basis of quality and freshness that may not be obtainable +through their community stores. + +It should be pointed out that where the area under cultivation is small, +the production must be intensive. In other words, it would be uneconomic +for the owner of a small tract to try to supplement his income through the +growth of staple crops. He must specialize in some particular phase of +agriculture, horticulture or animal industry that will bring the largest +possible net returns per acre even though that implies a considerably +larger labor cost per unit of operation than would be the case in the +growing of the staple crops, such as the cereals. The successful +production of vegetable crops or poultry products, for example, and their +successful merchandizing, rest primarily on the interest and the +adaptability of the individual. + +_Avoiding Causes of Failure._--To know what procedures to avoid is to be +fortified against failure and to be prepared to take advantage of those +constructive measures which are conducive to success. A recent survey has +been made in an eastern state on the causes of failure in farming, +frequently followed by necessitous abandonment of the farm and home. This +survey shows that one of the principal causes of failure is the effort to +manage a farm that is too large for the operator's capacity; his +inexperience and lack of knowledge constitute too great a handicap on a +large acreage. Best results can be secured in farming only by seeding, +cultivating and harvesting at the proper time in each case. To a greater +extent than is usually realized, success depends upon good management, +which means doing the things that need to be done at the right time. + +If the farm is large there is a necessity for employing hired labor, and +the costs of this labor, especially under inexperienced management, are +likely to be out of line with the value of the products raised. In many +instances the lack of technical experience can be corrected by dependence +upon governmental agencies, such as experiment stations, county +agricultural agents and departments of agriculture. These services are +available to every farmer, in most cases without cost, and all that he +needs is the will to avail himself of such expert help. In the cases of +farms that have been abandoned, we find that the operators did not make +contacts with dependable sources of information, an indication of the +necessity of cooperating with the agricultural agencies or with +experienced and successful neighboring farmers. + +Still another cause of failure lies in the purchase of a farm at a price +which requires the assumption of a mortgage which is too high in relation +to the income from the farm. In short, an attempt to operate on an +overcapitalized basis will, sooner or later, lead to disaster. Failure to +locate on a productive type of soil may easily lead to loss of the +investment. If the local conditions, including good roads, school +advantages and a healthy community spirit, are lacking, there will develop +a feeling of discouragement and mental dissatisfaction which destroys +morale and creates the desire to get out from under at any cost. + +_The Stocked Farm._--The question is frequently raised as to whether a +farm should be bought already stocked with work and domestic animals and +with farm equipment or whether it should be stocked by the operator +himself. This will depend, of course, upon the type of equipment which may +be available in the individual case. Sometimes fairly good equipment will +be sold with the farm as a means of facilitating a sale, but the value of +each item should be determined by someone experienced in prices of such +livestock or commodities as may be sold with the farm. + +In many cases the buyer has loaded himself with animals or equipment that +are ill adapted to the farm or that are of no particular value, and in +struggling to get along with them he may seriously handicap the efficiency +of his labors. In most cases it will be found a better practice to add +stock and equipment as the need becomes definite and the finances of the +operator make it possible for him to add them to the farm. In this way he +will be fairly sure of acquiring only those items which will be of direct +use and benefit to him and will avoid an accumulation of worn-out or +antiquated articles which will not meet the requirements he must observe +in selecting tools for his work. + +_Avoiding Fire Loss._--Possibility of loss by fire is an ever-present +reality to the owner of a country place. There are two methods of +preventing loss, and the observance of both will contribute to the peace +of mind of the owner. + +In the first place, he should make sure that adequate insurance is carried +on his buildings and equipment so that in case of loss through fire there +will be sufficient indemnity to permit the rebuilding of the destroyed or +damaged structures. Lightning heads the list of the causes of farm fires +and is frequently not reckoned with by urban residents who have seen +little evidence of its destructiveness. In cities, points of electrical +concentration are avoided by diffusion through piping, metal poles and a +number of other conductors of electricity. The owner of a country home can +secure quite complete protection from damage through lightning by the use +of electrical conductors, usually called lightning rods, properly +installed. Such equipment does away with 90 per cent of the risk caused by +lightning. + +In installing a system of lightning rods, it is well to observe a few +simple precautions. The most exposed parts of a building should be +provided with rods and the rod points should extend 3 to 4 feet above the +structure. Conductors from the rod point should go in the most direct line +possible to the ground and sharp bends in the conductors should be +avoided. One of the most essential precautions is to thoroughly ground the +conductors. Water pipes on the buildings furnish excellent grounding. The +grounds for the conductors must be deep enough in the soil to reach +permanent moisture. Lightning rods that are not properly constructed or +properly grounded may be a worse menace than if no such protection is +attempted. Specific methods of protecting farm buildings from lightning +damage can be secured from state agricultural agencies or from reliable +commercial firms which make a practice of erecting them. + +Another cause of fires lies in unsound chimney construction. By using care +and the proper materials in the building of chimneys, fire may be avoided. +Chimney bricks should be laid flat rather than on edge, thereby +practically eliminating the development of chimney cracks through which +sparks can escape into floor spaces, attics and roofs. + +Fire risks to residences and other buildings can be reduced by building +the roof of fireproof or fire-resistant materials. Wooden shingles, while +attractive and inexpensive, may become so dry at certain seasons of the +year as to furnish tinder for sparks that may rise from a brush fire or +from burning buildings in the vicinity. The use of slate or asbestos +shingles is recommended for roofs and there are other materials now on the +market which have fire-resistant qualities and can be safely utilized. +Flying sparks carried along on high winds constitute little menace to +those who have equipped their roofs with non-inflammable materials. + +It is important to see that electrical wiring has been properly installed, +and for this purpose it is safest to secure expert help. If the menace of +fire is properly evaluated by the owner, he will naturally take suitable +precautions to cope with it, both through utilizing adequate preventive +measures and through having available equipment to make possible the +smothering of accidental fires which may develop. The application of these +available common-sense methods of fire prevention will practically +eliminate the fire risk. An ounce of such prevention effort is to be +stressed rather than placing dependence on means of fire suppression after +the combustion occurs. + + +_Do's_ + +Keep capital investment as low as possible. + +If part of capital must be borrowed, select type of mortgage that can be +paid off most conveniently. + +Determine tax rate before buying. + +Make sure that title is clear and the property lines definitely fixed. + +If some income is expected, check on possibilities of location with that +in mind. + +Plan to secure income from intensive crop and animal projects, _e.g._, +vegetables and poultry. + +Use governmental aids to the fullest extent. + +Carry adequate insurance on buildings, equipment and furniture as +protection against fire loss. + +Install protection against lightning. + +Be sure electrical wiring is properly installed. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't become heavily involved with fixed financial obligations at outset. + +Avoid localities with heavy bonded indebtedness, resulting in excessive +taxes. + +Don't expect to get an income from growing staple crops such as grains. + +Don't become dependent on hired labor if it can be avoided. + +Avoid unproductive soil and top-heavy investment of capital. + +Don't buy a stocked farm unless the stock is adapted to needs and properly +valued. + +Don't neglect to take every precaution against fire. + +Don't forget chimney flues are potential risks. + +Avoid roofs of inflammable materials. + + + + +_Chapter_ IV + +ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE IN THE COUNTRY + + +The problem of selecting a home is always a serious one. Success in +choosing a satisfactory location and home in the country calls for careful +study and good judgment throughout the procedure. In urban centers many +services are taken for granted, such as water supply, sewerage, public +utility connections and delivery systems. The establishment of a home in +the country calls for the consideration of all these services. Some may +not be available and preparations must be made to do without them or to +set up such procedures as will take care of the family's needs on the +basis of the individual home. + +_The Rural Home._--To give the elements of satisfactory living under +modest circumstances, the country home should be so located and serviced +as to give the maximum of comfort and convenience for the money invested. +The location, type of construction and interior arrangement of the home +are important factors in attaining these objectives. + +Unless the location selected already has buildings on it which meet the +needs of the purchaser and his family, there will be the immediate problem +of building the home or remodeling the structure already in existence. In +recent years a great deal of attention has been given to rural homes, +stimulated no doubt by the very evident trend of population from the city +to the country. These homes should have attributes distinctly their own +and should harmonize with the purpose and the location in mind. A house +with lines that look well in town or city may be only a blot on the +landscape when set in the open country. Many excellent recommendations +have been made for country houses by the United States Department of +Agriculture, the President's Conference on Home Building and Home +Ownership (December, 1931) and by architects who have given this problem +the specific attention it deserves. + +In general, we may say that the exterior of the house should have simple +lines and should not be ostentatious or covered with inappropriate +decorative effects. This is especially the case where the house is +comparatively small and is located in the open country where there is a +simple and pleasing natural background. The country house should be low +and broad, rather than tall and narrow. The windows and doors should be +of a size and shape that will meet utilitarian requirements and be so +situated as to give a pleasing and attractive appearance to the whole +structure. The materials used should be selected to meet the needs of +economy in the original construction and should be of long-lasting type, +assuring economy in maintenance. + +_Essential Requirements._--In planning the house there are certain minimum +requirements which should be kept in mind. For example, the sleeping +facilities should include at least one bedroom for every two persons and +should contain not less than 100 square feet per room. All sleeping rooms +should be provided with cross ventilation, that is, with a window on each +of two sides, and sufficient closet or wardrobe space should be provided, +equipped with shelves and hangers for taking care of clothing. Ordinary +lighting facilities for each room include at least one window, with the +kitchen, living room and sleeping areas preferably having two. Windows +should be so placed as to permit direct sunlight to enter at least +three-fourths of the rooms. There should be daylight and artificial lights +on all work surfaces such as the stove, the sink, work tables and in the +family reading center. + +Especial attention given in advance to the kitchen will be more than +repaid by the convenience and efficiencies secured. There should be ample +built-in kitchen equipment for small and large utensils, kitchen tools and +linens. Ample lighting devices should be employed and step-saving +arrangements provided so as to eliminate as much effort as possible in +carrying out the daily duties that are conducted in this important part of +the country home. + +Where the funds available for construction or remodeling are limited, it +is important to know what the cost will be before the job is started. This +procedure calls for a plan which will show the exterior appearance, the +interior arrangement, and the cost of the completed job. Plans can be +secured from many sources in addition to those already mentioned. Persons +with architectural experience and ability may often be employed directly +to plan the house and to supervise its construction. If the prospective +builder wishes to select his own plans and to know in advance the complete +cost, he can secure from processors of lumber a catalog of plans which are +accompanied by costs of every item needed. Such processors cut the +material to fit at the factory and identify each piece so that the +mechanically minded man can do much of the work himself with help he may +employ. These companies will also quote prices on the cost of erection by +their own employees in addition to the cost of materials. The outlay +needed for lighting, plumbing and heating facilities can also be obtained +from the same source. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture_) + +A modest country home.] + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture_) + +Floor plans of house shown on opposite page.] + + +Another method of procedure is to draw a plan of the house that contains +the rooms considered necessary, submit such plans to a lumber merchant and +get quotations on costs of various types of material necessary to +construct it. Such construction will usually require the services of a +skilled carpenter and mason but permits of more latitude in most cases +than is available under a set building arrangement. + +_Types of Country Houses._--Illustrations of small houses suitable for the +country are shown on pages 8 and 44. The floor plans of these houses are +shown on the facing pages. There are many other types of small houses +adapted to use in the country and the selection of any one is largely a +matter of individual preference and ability to finance. + +Because of the variation in prices of material in different locations, the +kind and quality of material that the owner may desire and also the amount +of labor that may be furnished by the owner, it is difficult to give in +definite terms the cost of various types of buildings. Estimates of costs +of materials and construction may easily be obtained from contractors in +the vicinity. + +Simply with the idea of giving approximate costs, the Conference on Home +Building gives the following cost bases for building frame dwellings, +obtained roughly by multiplying the volume by the cost per cubic foot. +Naturally the cost will vary in different sections of the country, and the +level of artistry that is set up by the builder himself will be a factor. + +APPROXIMATE COSTS PER CUBIC FOOT FOR FRAME DWELLINGS + + ----------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- + | Southern | Northern + ----------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- + First recommended level--2, 3 or 4 rooms with | | + masonry base, fire-resistive flue, both sides| | + of studs covered, painted exterior, interior | | + finish. | *10-15c | *12-18c + Second level--Bathroom space, better finish | 12-18 | 15-21 + Medium level--5-6 rooms, with plumbing | 16-23 | 20-26 + Fourth level--Adequate standard plumbing and | | + hardwood floors | 19-27 | 23-30 + Fifth level--Comparable to better type of | | + middle-class city home | 25-35 | 28-35 + ----------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- + * The cheapest type of shelter (shack) may be built for perhaps half + this cost. + +_Pre-fabricated Houses._--The field of house construction has been +occupied almost exclusively by the individual architect or builder who has +wrought according to the general ideas of the intending occupant or the +real estate developer. When the plans are completed and approved, the +contractor assembles the necessary materials from local sources, builds +and equips the house and turns it over to the buyer in completed +condition. Under such a procedure there is little application of mass +production measures which have reduced costs and raised quality standards +in many industries, notably in automobile construction, for example. + +Thousands of houses built to sell in the recent construction era of the +1920's have proved unsatisfactory and costly to the occupants as the +result of shoddy building methods. Such methods seem to be typically +American as distinguished from the far more solid and permanent Old World +procedure. It now seems likely that the problem of economical and +substantial housing will be met in the method that is also +American--namely, by the pre-fabricated house to which various natural +resources of the country contribute. The parts of such houses are made +under mass production methods and easily assembled on the owner's lot. The +same idea can be applied with ease to apartment house construction in any +location. The first step in this direction has already been mentioned in +the case of mail-order companies which cut the lumber to fit and supply +every needed accessory to the last detail. + +The next step, and the one that bids fair to inaugurate an entirely new +house-building procedure, is now in the making, although as yet it is in +the experimental and testing stage. Examples of such construction made +their first public appearance at the Century of Progress Exposition at +Chicago in 1933. + +Materials that enter into the construction of these new-type houses +include steel, asbestos, aluminum and cement. As a rule, the buildings +have a steel frame erected on cement foundations and without a cellar; the +walls and partitions are of asbestos composition and the roof constructed +of steel sheets with aluminum insulation. Such a building is fireproof and +proof also against vermin, lightning, wind and earthquake. The house is +also adapted to and equipped with heating, lighting, plumbing and air +conditioning facilities. The whole building is pre-planned and +pre-fabricated as a unit with its component parts constructed under +economical and interchangeable mass production methods. + +Modifications of the construction above mentioned include the use of +sound-proofed steel panels or insulation board for partitions and walls +with an exterior of painted steel. Many other modifications are being +developed to insure individuality, stability, insulation and economy in +first cost and maintenance. The lines of most of these houses are severe +and modernistic in design, although decorative and unique effects are +easily obtainable. + +The costs of the complete house unit range from $600 for a one-room type +to $3,500 to $6,000 for a complete home of modest size. The principal +fabricators of these houses and their addresses are: General Houses, Inc., +Chicago, Illinois; American Houses, Inc., New York City; American Rolling +Mill Company, Cleveland, Ohio; American Radiator and Standard Sanitary +Company, New York City; Columbian Steel Tank Company, Kansas City, +Missouri, and National Steel Homes, Inc., Los Angeles, California. +Information on types and costs can be obtained by addressing these +companies. + +_Rural Home Life._--To have a successful experience in country life, one +must become identified with one's surroundings and become a part of the +community. Those who seek to establish a country residence simply as a +place from which to commute to city attractions will not only miss the +greatest asset in country living but will probably find this existence +unsatisfactory. To become interested in the growing plants and animals at +home, to do with one's own hands the things that make the home more +attractive and to develop a contact with the community that helps to +increase its normal activities mean the attainment of pleasure and +satisfaction so far beyond that obtainable in congested urban quarters +that there is no comparison. In many cases this direct affinity with one's +surroundings will come gradually and not always easily. It can be +cultivated and should be a part of the plan of every family expecting to +reside in the country. + +_Trees as Assets._--One of the greatest assets that can be secured in the +country is well-developed shade. If the house under consideration is +already built and has around it trees that serve as a softening and +beautifying factor, as well as for shade purposes, the value is decidedly +enhanced. If the home is to be newly built and a site is available where +trees are already well grown, the house can often be placed in the midst +of such trees, thereby gaining a number of years in the benefits that +trees give and for which there is no substitute. + +Few persons can resist the charm of trees. That they also have a definite +economic value is shown by the added desirability we all attach to an +attractively landscaped home where trees of various kinds and sizes +furnish the motif. In acquiring a place in the country the newcomer will +at once wish to plant trees, shrubs and ornamentals to beautify his +holdings. If this is carefully planned at the beginning, succeeding years +and a little care will add to the attractiveness and intrinsic value of +the home. The saying, "a house is not a home until it is planted," has a +great deal of truth behind it. Most nurserymen will be glad to render +assistance in properly planning and setting the ornamental landscaping of +the home, helping the owner avoid mistakes and costly movings and +replacements later. + +_Commercial Horticulture._--In addition to the plantings around his home, +the owner of a few acres can at slight expense start small trees for later +ornamental use or for sale at a roadside stand, for example. Such small +trees and ornamental plants can often be purchased at wholesale prices +from nursery companies which have "laying out" stock, as it is called, for +sale. The standard large-growing evergreens and deciduous shade trees can +be thus transplanted to one's own acres, as can the popular dwarf types of +evergreens and flowering shrubs. These may be planted in one area where +they can be cared for as a growing crop, or they may be planted in groups +for beautifying the premises while they are growing. Again, single plants +may be set by themselves and given special attention, later becoming +"specimens" which are much in demand by admirers of the species. + +An appreciation of tree habits can be thus developed by all the members of +the family, and considerable income may be obtained in later years, as +the trees become "of age," through their sale. We are entering upon an era +of making homes attractive as places in which to live and not as houses to +go away from. All forms of plant life that contribute to this end will be +admired and sought after in the years to come. + + +_Do's_ + +Give special consideration to location, type of construction and interior +arrangement. + +If building a home, select a type that fits surroundings. + +Strive for simplicity of lines and full utilization of every cubic foot of +space. + +Remember pre-fabricated houses are practical and likely to supplant some +other types of construction. + +In buying a pre-fabricated house, be sure plans and construction fit needs +of family and materials used are adapted to the climatic conditions. + +Give special attention to convenience and cheerfulness of kitchen. + +Develop a plan of planting ornamental plants and trees to be carried out +in due course. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't try to build a city house in the country. + +Don't neglect windows in number or size. + +Don't overlook costs of completed job before commencing building or +improvements. + +Don't neglect the asset value of trees. + + + + +_Chapter_ V + +SERVICING THE HOME + + +Many types of services are available to the country home owner, including +rural mail delivery, the telephone and electricity. Rural mail delivery in +particular is so common that, on practically every highway, mail service +is secured by the placing of a mail box along the highway at the entrance +to the residence. Telephone service is available along practically all the +main-traveled highways and on a majority of the other types of roads. +Where the lines are not already installed, extensions may be obtained to +new locations, and this is facilitated when more than one residence is to +be served by the same line. The majority of families accustomed to city +conveniences will want to have electricity available so as to use electric +lights and the labor-saving devices that are operated by electric power. +With the expansion that has taken place in the development of rural +electric lines in recent years, there is not a great deal of difficulty in +getting a location which will give the housewife the advantages that +electricity offers. + +Telephone service and electrical facilities may fall into the class of +luxuries for those with limited resources. It may be pointed out in this +connection that millions of farm homes are still using petroleum products +for lighting purposes and are finding it no hardship. Practically all +would, of course, use electricity if it were available and financially +possible. The new home owner in the country will find it advantageous to +locate where electric service is obtainable. + +Other services for the country residents are pretty largely up to the +owner as to their utilization and type. It is necessary, of course, to +have an ample water supply, to maintain sanitary conditions through +sewerage of some description, to provide a method of heating the home +during cold weather and to provide storage facilities for food during the +dormant season. + +_The Water Supply._--Perhaps the most important attribute of the country +home is an adequate supply of water. This is particularly true where +families have been accustomed to utilizing municipal water supplies which +are safe and pure as to quality and unlimited in amount. In most country +homes it is necessary to construct a water-supply system, which means +reaching a supply of underground water, pumping it to the surface and +piping it to locations where it is wanted. Higher standards of living +create new and increased demands for water. + +Water for domestic use should be clear, colorless, odorless, soft, neither +strongly acid nor alkaline, with a temperature averaging 50 degrees +Fahrenheit. Such water supplies can be obtained in nearly every section of +the country. Hot water is necessary in every home and there must be a +heater of some type, using coal, petroleum products, natural or artificial +gas or electricity for fuel. For this purpose a hot-water storage boiler +or tank must be installed. + +_The Dug Well._--A dug well is one of the older types of wells. It should +be large enough in diameter to permit ingress and egress to all parts of +it for repairs or for cleaning. Most dug wells require cleaning +occasionally, due to the entrance of dirt at the top and to the washing in +of clay and silt with the ground water. Many of these wells contain +harmful gases which have proved fatal to those entering them. Before an +attempt is made to clean such a well or to make any repairs, a lighted +candle should be lowered into it. If the candle is extinguished, it will +be dangerous to enter until the well has been thoroughly ventilated. + +A dug well will vary in depth from 20 to 60 feet, depending upon the +distance it is necessary to dig for an adequate supply of water. Types +of pumping apparatus are on the market to cope with any depth in digging +such a well. If dug wells are shallow, the water supply depends very +largely upon current rainfall and in times of prolonged drouth there may +be a serious shortage. Fairly deep wells of this type are usually very +satisfactory and will supply surprisingly large amounts of water when the +demand is made upon them. + + +[Illustration: Well drilling--an early step in locating in the country. In +the foreground may be seen part of the excavation for the house.] + + +_Artesian Water Supply._--Artesian wells have distinct advantages over dug +wells although they are more expensive to construct. The water from such +wells is absolutely pure and it never fails. This is because subterranean +streams have been tapped which are not subject to possible surface +contamination, nor are they dependent upon showers for replenishment. + +Special power apparatus is necessary for constructing an artesian or +drilled well. The drilling costs from $3 per foot up, depending upon the +nature of the subsoil and whether rock is encountered. Unless such a well +has been drilled in the immediate vicinity it is not possible to hazard +even a guess as to when water will be struck. The consolation that such an +undertaking has for the owner is in knowing there will be no doubt as to +quantity or purity when the strike occurs. + +_Water Pumps._--Pumps are now available which operate automatically by +electricity and constantly supply the home with fresh water drawn from the +earth as needed. The requirements for the pump and the motor will vary +with the depth of the well and the water requirements of the family. In +all such cases, therefore, it is desirable to call in for consultation +engineers or competent representatives of pump manufacturers or +distributors. It should be borne in mind that adequacy of supply is most +important and that economy in first cost, achieved at the sacrifice of an +adequate supply, may be a definite handicap to necessary home services. + +_Heating Facilities._--The type of heating apparatus that is used will +depend upon the size of the house and its arrangement as well as upon the +funds available. The simplest type of heaters are those which do not have +a complete system of extending radiation through the home but depend upon +circulation of the air within the house to equalize the temperature. In +deciding upon the type of apparatus, it is necessary to make sure that the +system is as low in original cost as possible; that it will probably have +a long life, thereby spreading the first cost over a period of years; that +it be economical in operation through efficient consumption of fuel, and +that the system be easily controlled. The health of the family and the +ability to live in a satisfactory manner will depend to a considerable +extent upon the method of heating the home, especially in cold climates. + +Particular care should be taken to make sure that whatever type of heating +is employed is adequate in size. It is more economical to operate a heater +that is somewhat oversized than to "rush" one which cannot easily maintain +a comfortable temperature in cold weather. Heating engineers and +contractors are available to furnish information on heating costs in every +locality. The generally used types of heating include stoves, circulator +heaters, warm air, hot water and steam systems, and fireplaces. +Specialists of the United States Department of Agriculture have developed +a great deal of information to enable the home owner to cope with the +heating problems in a practical manner. It is estimated by the department +that if a two-pipe hot-water system for a six-room house costs $500, the +other systems for the same house ordinarily would cost about as follows: + + Two-pipe vapor system $600 + One-pipe steam system $400 + A piped warm air furnace $260 + Pipeless furnace $140 + Circulator heater or stove $ 60 + +Of course, these systems vary in efficiency and in providing comfort as +much as they vary in cost, but these estimates will provide the home +owner with an idea of the outlay for taking care of the heating problem. + +The ability to maintain a satisfactory temperature depends as much upon +the construction of the house as upon the heating apparatus itself. Heat +is readily lost through walls, roofs and windows. Most houses can be made +more comfortable at small cost by applying insulation or by correcting +defects in construction. The use of storm doors or storm vestibules where +doors are frequently opened to the out-of-doors will prevent drafts and +conserve heat. Metal weather stripping is the most effective means of +preventing air leaks around windows and doors and making the entire house +weather-tight. + +The fuel that is used will depend upon the type of furnace and the +relative prices prevailing for different kinds. Recent developments in oil +heating bring this fuel in close competition from the standpoint of +economy with coal or coke. Oil is particularly adaptable as a source of +fuel in homes in the country since tank trucks can readily deliver oil to +the home owner. Improvements in securing the maximum efficiency from all +types of fuel are being developed continually; and there are now on the +market furnaces, using anthracite or bituminous coal as fuel, which offer +many advantages that were unknown to older types. + +_Fireplace Construction._--An open fireplace where wood can be used as +fuel is a great source of satisfaction and pleasure, as well as a comfort, +in country homes. Wood of proper length for fireplace burning can be +readily secured in the country and there is ample room for storing it. +Where the house is small in size, such wood fires can be used for heating +the house satisfactorily in spring and fall and can be used to supplement +other types of heating when desired. + +No country home can be considered complete without a fireplace. The +comfort and homelike atmosphere that it gives make it a general asset for +the enjoyment of the family circle. Fireplaces should be constructed so as +to insure a good draft with a maximum of heat radiation. It is desirable +to build in the fireplace flue a damper which can be open when the fire is +burning and can be shut when it is desired to keep heat from escaping from +the room via the chimney. It is also a convenience to have a trap opening +placed in the back of the fireplace on the floor so that ashes may be +removed in this manner, eliminating the labor of carrying them from the +fireplace. + +_Sewerage of Farm Homes._--All wastes from the farm home coming under the +term of sewage should go direct to a septic tank. Here the sewage is held +in a quiet state for a period of time, and through bacterial processes, +the organic matter is destroyed. A septic-tank installation consists of +four parts: first, the house sewer from house to tank; second, the sewage +tank, consisting of one or more chambers; third, the sewer from tank to +distribution field; fourth, the distribution field where the sewage is +distributed, sometimes called the absorption field. Plans for sewerage +construction may be obtained from state and local boards of health and +from federal health and agricultural agencies. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_) + +An adequate sewage disposal plant is essential and inexpensive. A +practical one is shown here.] + + +The Rural Engineering Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment +Station recommends that the septic tank have a capacity adequate to hold +all the water used by the family for two entire days. For a family of six +persons the inside dimensions of the tank should be 4 feet in width with a +length of 4 feet in the first chamber and 3 feet in the second chamber. +The depth of water should be 4 feet, giving the tank a capacity of over +600 gallons, thus allowing 100 gallons for each person during the +forty-eight-hour period. The entire tank will be 4 feet wide, 8-1/2 feet +long and 6-1/2 feet deep. + +Septic tanks are usually built of solid concrete, concrete blocks or +brick, waterproofed on the inside to prevent escape of the contents except +through the outlets described. These outlets should be 100 to 150 feet +away from any source of water supply to prevent contamination of potable +water. + +Leading from the outlet of the second chamber, several lines of tile 10 to +14 inches in depth should be laid at a gentle slope away from the tank, +permitting escape of the effluent at each joint. For a family of six +persons a total length of 150 feet of tile pipe will be sufficient in most +types of soil. + +_Food Storage._--Every country home should have a basement in which a room +can be set apart for cold storage. Such a place is suitable for keeping +supplies of potatoes and other root crops, as well as commodities that +deteriorate under conditions of warmth. Surplus supplies of food from the +garden can be placed in such storages and be readily available for use +during the winter. With the surplus of perishable food products in cans +and with a good supply of non-perishable products in such a type of +storage room, economies in food purchase can be effected and the +healthfulness of the family maintained through their use when fresh +products are difficult to secure or are unseasonable and expensive. + +If a basement is not available for food storage, root crops can be stored +outside the house and kept during the winter. These products should be +piled in a heap, covered with straw or other clean, loose material and +the mound then covered with earth. In this manner, potatoes and similar +crops can be kept throughout the winter and until late in the spring +without serious deterioration. It is important to select a site for such +outdoor storage that is well drained so that water will not collect and +freeze in the storage area. + +_Services Available to the Country Resident._--Public agencies are +available for help in solving the problems of country residents, varying +from agricultural and horticultural practices to building construction, +water supply and sewage disposal. As a rule, these services are of advice +and suggestion, are free of cost and may be utilized freely by those +living in the country. + +Most of the counties in the United States have a county agricultural +agent, who is located at the county seat and whose territory covers only +the county in which he resides. The costs of such service are paid by +federal and state appropriations, frequently supplemented by county +appropriations, and also frequently through annual individual +subscriptions. The county agricultural agent is really a field +representative of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the +state agricultural college in the state where he works. There is hardly a +problem of the country resident for which he cannot obtain aid from the +county agricultural agent. In many of the more thickly populated areas the +problems of the family getting a location on the land for a home are +already well known to the agricultural agent and he is therefore in a +position to guide the newcomer and help him to prevent mistakes. + +In many counties there is also a home economics service connected with the +office of the county agricultural agent and supported in the same general +manner. This service, along the lines which the name implies, is available +to the country home maker. Groups of women are organized and meet at +intervals for discussions on food preparation, canning and storage and the +making of clothing for the family. + +In nearly every state there is a state department of agriculture with +regulatory and promotional activities and dealing especially with law +enforcement provisions passed by the respective legislatures. These +agencies are also concerned with development of marketing facilities in +many states. They are supported by state and federal funds and carry on +such projects as the testing of cattle for tuberculosis, treatment in +prevention of communicable animal diseases and the control of insect and +fungous pests through quarantine and inspection activities. These +departments are located at the state capitols and information on the +services available can be secured by addressing the department in the +state where one resides. + +Because there is a lack of understanding among newcomers to the country of +the services that are available through these agencies without cost, this +particular mention of them is made. It is recommended that each family get +in touch with the county agricultural agent, the college of agriculture +and the department of agriculture and learn definitely of the help that +can be secured without cost in meeting the problems of country life. + +_Electric Wiring Principles._--Public utilities are organized to furnish +electric service and it will be found that they are ready to assist +customers in securing the most satisfactory use of electricity. Such +knowledge, based on experience, will be valuable in helping owners to +avoid costly mistakes and to provide for a wiring system that will be +economical and yet complete. When the plans and specifications of the +wiring system have been worked out, it is important to secure bids from +reliable contractors. Only those contractors who can do the work in a +capable manner should be employed and it should be determined in advance +that the installation will be in strict compliance with the National +Electrical Code. For wiring work it is necessary to know the number of +amperes the wire is to carry. This may be determined by dividing the load +in watts by the voltage which is to be used. + +The service lateral is a system of wires which form a path over which +electricity is carried from the main line to the house. This is generally +built by the utility company and its cost will depend upon the distance of +the residence from the main line and whether the owner furnishes poles, +labor, etc. + +Wires should be of such size as to give sufficient mechanical strength to +stand up under sleet conditions. Usually three entrance wires are used to +carry the electric energy from the utility connection to the house. The +lateral is the electrical doorway to the farm and is the most essential +part of the wiring system. The wires should be of adequate size so as to +provide proper voltage and give complete electrical service for all +ordinary requirements of current. + +It is important to see that the electrical equipment is properly +"grounded," that is, the connecting to earth of certain metallic objects +which are near power conductors. The purpose is to carry to the earth any +heavy electrical charge which might exist on such objects and cause +electrical shocks when they are touched. Grounding may be secured by +connecting with water pipes that reach some depth under ground, or driven +pipe may be used as a means of securing intimate contact with moist earth. + +Recommendations for outlets from the electrical wires in the house call +for centering ceiling lighting outlets, and placing wall brackets about +5-1/2 feet above the floor. Convenient outlets in the kitchen and bathroom +should be about 33 inches above the floor. In other locations they are +usually best placed in the baseboard. Wall switches are usually located 4 +feet above the floor. A switch should be located at each door to a room or +entrance to a hall and in many cases three-way switches can be used to +advantage, since these afford control over the same lighting from two +separate locations. + +With these general observations on a rather complicated subject, most of +which are based on the excellent recommendations of the National Committee +on the Relation of Electricity to Agriculture, the home owner should be in +a position to take care of his needs properly, bearing in mind that the +system of wiring should be adequate in every respect and the number of +outlets sufficiently numerous to provide easy and convenient service +throughout the house. An official check-up should be made of all +installations after completion. The method of securing such inspection +can be obtained through a local electrical contractor. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_) + +Ground floor plan of a house, showing the number, the type, and the +location of electrical current outlets.] + + +_Tank Gas Supply._--A service of supplying compressed gas in portable +tanks has recently been developed for country homes located away from +public gas lines. This gas can be used either with a specially adapted +range which is supplied as part of the service or in some cases with an +ordinary gas range. Companies offering this service are located in most +cities and are understood to be willing to supply residences anywhere with +gas. The cost of first installation of the system is about $40. Renewals +cost approximately $12 per cylinder of gas. Each cylinder will supply a +family of four with gas for three to four months, making a monthly bill of +from $3 to $4, which compares favorably with artificial gas supply through +a meter from pipe lines. This gas may be used for any purpose for which +any other gas is adapted. The gas and the servicing of it constitute a +boon to country residents from the standpoint of utility and economy. It +is especially desirable for those previously accustomed to city gas +supplies and to whom the use of any other type of fuel is strange and +somewhat of a problem. + + +_Do's_ + +Remember that important service factors include mail delivery, telephone, +electricity, water supply and sewage disposal. + +Be sure of adequate water supply of good quality. + +Obtain artesian water supply wherever possible. + +Provide for such heating facilities as the budget can stand. + +Select the heating system in relation to fuel costs. + +Make sure that the sewerage system is adequate for waste disposal. + +Use fully such governmental agencies as county agents, home demonstration +agents, experiment stations and agricultural colleges, state and federal +departments of agriculture. + +Provide storage space for surplus food products. + +Remember electric wiring requires skilled workmanship. + +Investigate advantages and costs of tank gas as a cooking fuel. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't forget that services automatically available to urban residents must +be planned for in the country. + +Don't neglect construction defects that prevent full benefits from heating +system. + +Don't overlook the advantages of a well-built fireplace. + +Don't install electrical service without full attention to principles of +convenience, safety and economy involved. + + + + +_Chapter_ VI + +MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS + + +There are many treatises available that deal with the soil, its +composition and its treatment. No attempt will be made here to go +exhaustively into that subject. There are a few fundamental factors, +however, which the potential owner should know regarding soil treatment, +for that is the base upon which he will build his income-producing +operations. + +The particles of soil have had their genesis in rock. The rock has become +disintegrated and decomposed through natural processes. The action of the +weather is the most important factor in creating soil. Water falling on +rock not only wears it away mechanically, but through certain mild acid +elements which it acquires, disintegrates the binding materials that hold +rock segments together. In addition, there is the action of frost and +freezing, too, making the moisture in rock expand and contract and thereby +causing the breaking down of the segments. With this action is coupled +that of hot suns which cause expansion and breaking up of the rock as it +becomes heated and cooled under atmospheric influence. + +A great deal of the soil surface in many sections of the country is the +result of glacial action. These glaciers not only eroded the surface, +thereby creating millions of rock particles, but they also carried large +deposits of the rock particles to more distant areas and deposited them +over a subsoil that may be totally different in character from the surface +soil thus deposited. + +_How Tillable Soil Is Made._--The action of plants themselves has a great +effect in adding to our supply of tillable soil. Seeds of plants or seeds +of trees become established in some slightly weathered rock areas and +begin to grow. The roots penetrate wherever there is any loose soil, and +partly by their pressure and partly through the acidity accompanying +decomposing plant tissue, complete a further breaking down of the rock. +There is a continuous process of destruction of rocks and leveling off of +mountains and hills to fill the valleys below. + +Many groups of deep-rooted plants tend to increase the depth of the +surface soil by growth of the roots in the subsoil and by creating therein +a condition approaching that which already exists on the surface. The +action of earth worms and similar forms of life in bringing subsoil to +the top and in opening channels through which water and surface air can +penetrate constitutes another continually operating force in the creation +of a productive soil. A deeper layer of productive soil can also be +created through a plan of consistently deeper plowing, bringing up with +each annual plowing operation a small portion of subsoil which, when mixed +with the surface soil, tends to become like it. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Department of Conservation and +Development_) + +Soil is created from rock by nature's weathering processes and by plant +growth. At the bottom may be seen solid rock; just above are +disintegrating rock fragments, and at the top, the soil.] + + +Every type of real soil contains all the elements of plant growth. This +plant food results from a breaking down of soil particles and the setting +free of chemical elements which, either singly or in combination, serve as +food for plants. + +Whatever the type of soil may be, it will be found that certain crops will +make better growth in it than others. As a general rule, it may be said +that the only way to determine which plants will grow best on a given soil +is by the trial-and-error method. However, by observation of the growth on +similar types of soil we can learn something of a soil's crop +adaptability. There are some crops that will grow in almost any soil and +there are others that need an exactness of texture, moisture and plant +food which makes them highly specialized products. The operator must learn +how to work in harmony with the peculiarities of his own soil before he +can hope to get the best results. + +In acquiring a tract for the growing of plants of any kind it is desirable +to get a soil type that will meet the requirements of most plants. As a +general rule, this type contains enough clay to be retentive of moisture, +enough sand to be easily worked and is generally suitable for bacterial +growth. In other words, what is commonly called a loam is the ideal type +for general agricultural and horticultural purposes. This may be a heavy +loam, in which clay predominates, or a so-called light loam, in which sand +particles predominate. An examination of a handful of soil by a person +experienced in farming will indicate its nature and its adaptability to +ordinary crop production. + +_Essential Elements of Plant Food._--Countless scientific experiments in +plant growth show that potassium, lime, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, +sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are essential to normal +development. The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements make up nearly 99 +per cent of the entire composition of the plant and are derived from the +atmosphere. All of the other elements are derived from the soil except in +the case of peas, beans, clovers and other legumes which secure most of +their nitrogen from the air. + +The mineral elements are not needed in large amounts but well-balanced +plant growth is strictly dependent upon their presence in available form. +Of these elements, those most likely to be deficient either in total +amount or in availability are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. +It is entirely feasible and economical to apply concentrated chemical +fertilizers containing the first three elements so that their lack will +not constitute a limit to size of crops harvested. In many cases it is +necessary to apply chemical fertilizers to get satisfactory yields, even +where natural manures are available and can be applied as well. + +In addition to supplying essential plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus and +potassium perform specific functions in plant growth. The application of +nitrogen in one of its readily available forms (e.g., nitrate of soda and +sulphate of ammonia) will stimulate vegetative growth. If too much of this +one element is applied, leaf and branch development may occur at the +expense of the crop. Good results follow the use of nitrogen on grass sods +and on leafy vegetables like spinach. On the other hand, corn, peas, beans +and other seed-forming crops need to have the nitrogen balanced with +phosphorus. Potatoes, in common with other tuber and root crops, will +utilize plenty of potassium in the development of starch. + +_Sources of Plant Food._--Chemical fertilizers can be purchased at supply +stores in ready mixed condition and of analyses that will meet general +crop needs. A good formula for such a general purpose fertilizer is 4 to 5 +per cent nitrogen, 7 to 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 to 10 per cent +potash to the ton. It is known that such a mixture will supply the food +needs of a large variety of plants in balanced amounts. Highly +concentrated mixtures are now on the market providing double the amount of +plant food in the example quoted, costing nearly twice as much but +effecting a saving by cutting in half the material handled to get the same +result. Care should be taken, in using these highly concentrated +fertilizers, to avoid contact with tender roots. A mixture for general +farm and garden purposes may contain the following ingredients: + + 100 pounds nitrate of soda + 230 pounds sulphate of ammonia + 250 pounds animal tankage (7 per cent nitrogen) + 1,140 pounds superphosphate (16 per cent phosphoric acid) + 280 pounds muriate of potash (50 per cent potash) + ----- + 2,000 pounds. + +This mixture will have a formula of 4-9-7 (4 per cent nitrogen, 9 per cent +phosphoric acid and 7 per cent potassium). The individual who wishes to +mix his own fertilizer may do so by purchasing the finely ground +ingredients separately, and by means of a shovel, integrate them all into +a mixture. Home mixing will not be found profitable where small amounts of +fertilizer are used. Those who practice home mixing for the first time +should realize that most combinations of ingredients will "set" or harden +if not used immediately, necessitating the breaking up and pulverizing of +the mass. When it is broken up after curing, no further difficulty should +be experienced with "setting" if the mixture is kept in a dry place. The +advantages of home mixing for the large user lie in lower cost per ton of +plant food as a rule; confidence in the quality of the ingredients which +he should purchase on the basis of guaranteed analysis; and the setting up +of a mixture which study of his soil and the plant requirements has +convinced him is best suited for his individual case. + +_Chemical Soil Analysis Not Helpful._--There is a mistaken notion that it +is necessary to analyze soils chemically in order to fertilize them +intelligently. Such an analysis of a reasonably fertile soil will show the +presence of the essential elements of plant food, though perhaps not all +in sufficient amounts, to produce ordinary crops for centuries to come. +Only a small amount of the elements become available for root absorption +each year and a chemical analysis will not bring out this most important +factor--availability. The use of a few simple tests, mainly of a physical +nature by a competent soils specialist, will prove of some assistance in +the treatment of the soil. Such tests will show the presence of adequate +amounts of humus, and indicate the acidity content. The soil texture will +give some index of its crop adaptability and thereby serve as a basis for +fertilizing treatment that will meet the needs of both soil and crop. The +practical man will not expect any considerable aid from a highly technical +and costly chemical analysis of his soil. + +Another factor that militates against worth-while benefits of chemical +soil analysis is the great variation in soil types frequently occurring in +the same field. To attempt to draw a representative sample by mixing soil +from several areas might result in a specimen that would not be really +typical of any area. For the purpose of ordinary physical examination and +testing for acidity, representative soil samples should be taken from +several parts of the same soil type, mixed together and a composite sample +for testing drawn from the mixture, weighing not less than a pound in each +case. If the soil is quite apparently variable it may be necessary to draw +two or more composite samples from the same area. Very helpful service in +intelligent soil treatment may be secured from the county agricultural +agent and the state college of agriculture in the county or state of +residence. + +_Legumes as Soil Improvers._--A means of soil improvement that is well +understood by progressive farmers is the use of legumes to improve the +soil. The legumes include a large family of plants of which the bean, the +pea and the clovers are outstanding examples. Such plants have on their +roots nodules which house nitrogen-gathering bacteria. These bacteria +absorb nitrogen from the air in the soil and, in the ordinary process of +growth, death and decay, make this nitrogen available to the host plants, +leaving a residue in the soil for the roots of plants that are to follow. +Thus this group of plants, known as legumes, have been used for +generations as a method of increasing the nitrogen content of soils. +Nitrogen, incidentally, is the most costly element to buy in commercial +fertilizers. The soil-improving benefits of legumes may be secured by +growing them either for harvest as a source of animal food or for plowing +under as a means of utilizing them entirely for the development of soil +fertility. + +In reading of the studies of soil fertility that were made by George +Washington at Mount Vernon, we learn of the improvement that he made in +the relatively poor soils of that area by growing plants of the legume +family. The actual reason why such improvement was brought about was not +known in Washington's time, but the results were apparent. Today, the +value of legumes as soil builders is well recognized and we understand +much more definitely than Washington did the reasons for their being so +helpful in increasing crop production. + +Many soil areas do not contain the particular type of bacteria necessary +to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes. This is frequently the +cause of failure in growing alfalfa, soybeans, cowpeas and less well known +members of the legume family. Each legume has its own type of +nodule-forming bacteria. In order to assure the presence of the proper +bacterial family, means often must be employed to add them to the soil +where the specific crop is to be grown. This may be accomplished by adding +soil from an area where the legume does well to the new area, or the seed +may be inoculated with commercial cultures before seeding. Either method +is effective. If soil is used it should be drilled in or spread on a +cloudy day to prevent the destructive action of the sun's rays on the +exposed minute forms of plant life we call bacteria. + +If it is not known that the legume to be planted has been grown +successfully in a given field within the previous several years, the +precaution of adding the proper bacteria should be taken. In some +sections, such legumes as red, alsike, crimson and white clovers have been +grown for many years and the bacteria for these plants are well +distributed. There, inoculation is not necessary for these crops, but it +probably should be practiced if other legumes such as alfalfa, cowpeas or +soybeans are to be grown on land for the first time. + +_The Value of Humus._--In addition to the chemical elements of plant food, +all productive soils contain decaying vegetable matter, generally +classified under the term "humus." Humus serves as a source of +acid-generating material which further breaks down soil particles and, +most important of all, serves as a food for millions of microscopic plants +which develop and die quite beyond the scope of human vision. These +constitute a type of bacteria which are distinctly beneficial and +essential to human life since they make possible the growth of larger +plants that serve as human food. + +Green plants, straw or leaves, when plowed under or spaded in the soil, +are attacked by bacterial agencies which gradually turn these products +into humus. The same process occurs when a "compost" is set up. This is +made of leaves, manure, soil, straw and other materials thrown into a +heap and allowed to decay. Such compost is excellent for placing around +plants when setting them out, since it holds moisture, supplies fertility +and creates optimum conditions for young root growth. Under practical +field conditions, humus may be added to soils by spreading animal manures, +followed by plowing them down, or by the growing of heavy green crops such +as wheat, rye, cowpeas or vetch and turning the entire mass under with the +plow when they are at their height. + +_Lime and Its Application._--Reference has been made to the fact that +calcium is an essential plant food and is frequently deficient in soils. +As a matter of fact, the great majority of soils are deficient in calcium +and their productiveness is inhibited thereby. Lime supplies calcium and +also magnesium as food for plants. Its application accomplishes many other +desirable things such as correcting soil acidity. The growth of beneficial +bacteria is greatly stimulated in a soil that has had its acidity +neutralized by the application of lime. This product, therefore, creates a +more congenial condition for the growth of bacteria, which, in turn, make +for better crop production. Lime is also beneficial through furnishing the +element calcium with which other plant foods combine chemically and +thereby become soluble in the soil water. Unless plant foods are in a +state of solution, they cannot be absorbed by plant roots. Lime is a +potent force in creating chemical reactions in the soil, resulting in the +stimulation of growth through increased absorption of essential elements +in solution. + +Lime also benefits soils of a clayey nature through its ability to cement +together the fine clay particles and in that way create air spaces so +greatly needed in tight clay soils. Lime is beneficial, too, in the case +of soils which have a large proportion of sand or large particles, and +serves as an agent in creating a better condition of tilth and of moisture +retention. + +It makes little difference in what form lime is applied. It may be +purchased and applied in the form of ground limestone, a rock rich in +calcium which has been mechanically ground to a very great degree of +fineness. It can also be applied in the form of hydrated lime. This is +obtained by heating ground limestone and slaking it by adding water. A +common example of this is the slaking of lime for whitewashing purposes. +Another good source of lime is finely ground shells of oysters or other +forms of sea life which collect the calcium from sea water and deposit it +in their shells. + +_Adjusting the Water Content of Soils._--Aside from the supplying of water +by irrigation, a rather costly process under most conditions, the water +resources of most soils can be greatly increased by adding to their humus +content. Humus, which, it has been pointed out, is decaying vegetable +matter, serves as a sponge for the absorption of soil water and for +underground water supplies. Therefore, the more humus that can be plowed +into the soil, other conditions being equal, the greater is the ability of +the plants growing in that soil to withstand drouth. As soils are +cultivated, the tendency is for the humus to become "burned out" and to +have a reduced moisture-holding capacity. To overcome this tendency, it is +necessary to add vegetable matter to the soil whenever it is possible. +Incidentally, the incorporation of large quantities of humus in the soil +creates a condition of acidity which may call for the application of lime +as a corrective. + +There are many acres of land which contain too much water in the area that +roots should penetrate to permit of optimum plant growth. Roots of most +plants will not penetrate where there is an excess of water, and air +cannot circulate where moisture is superabundant. Usually these conditions +exist where the soil is of a clayey nature. The abundance of water may be +caused by the inability of surface water to percolate through the soil. It +may take so long, due to the nature of the soil, for this water to pass +through the lower depths of subsoil that the roots of plants are destroyed +by lack of oxygen. In such cases the application of lime, increasing the +humus content, and deeper plowing will be found helpful. Occasionally, the +discharge of dynamite or blasting powder in the area, if it appears to be +in the form of a pocket, will break up the hard pan subsoil and permit the +water to escape. Less dependence is now being placed on this means of +correcting a wet condition of the soil than was the case some years ago. + +A similar condition of overabundant water in soil may be due to the +presence of springs or to a high water table. Little can be done to +correct a condition where the water table itself is so close to the +surface as to inhibit plant growth and this is assuredly one of the +factors to be looked into before a tract is purchased. Where the surplus +water is evidently being supplied by a spring, an underdrain made of tile +pipe, 3 or 4 inches in diameter, can be laid as a means of conducting the +water into a ditch or adjoining drain. In laying such a drain, it should +be placed above the area where the wet soil surface is most evident. If +such a drain is laid 18 inches to 3 feet deep above the wet area, it will +cut off the water seeping down underground and carry it away. Good results +cannot be secured if the drain is laid directly in the area of extreme +wetness or if it does not cut off the flow of water before it reaches the +area that is consistently too wet for plant growth. + +From what has been said in this brief description of soil treatment and +soil improvement, it is evident that one must live with his soil for some +time in order to understand it and to be able intelligently to correct its +deficiencies, overcome its weaknesses and make it capable of supporting +plants which are desirable from the owner's point of view. In the great +majority of cases, the improvement process, while a slow one, is far from +hopeless and almost any soil that is not extremely sandy or clayey can be +so intelligently treated as to make it productive. + +_Cultivation._--Any discussion of soil treatment is not complete without +mention of cultivation. Intelligent cultivation is an essential factor in +securing adequate crops. It is interesting to recall that the word +"manure," which has come to mean fertilization or fertilizer, is derived +from the Latin word "_manus_" meaning "hand" and implying "manipulation" +of the soil, which we now call cultivation. Cultivation has been most +frequently practiced as a method of destroying weeds, thereby making all +of the available plant food subject to absorption by the roots of the +desired plants and not by the intruders we call weeds. Cultivation does +more than destroy weeds, however. It opens up the soil so that air +containing atmospheric nitrogen can penetrate it and so that the bacteria +requiring air for their best growth may have it available. Furthermore, +cultivation conserves moisture and is more essential during dry periods in +the growing season than at any other time. + +We know that in entering the soil the rain water follows certain channels +in and around the soil particles on its way to the subsoil. When the rain +has ceased and the top layer of soil becomes dry, the tendency is for the +water to work up through these same channels to the surface, where it +evaporates. Cultivation, by breaking up these channels, or capillary +tubes, checks the escape of moisture into the air. It creates a blanket of +dry surface soil which insulates the soil moisture from the air above. The +tendency of soil moisture to reestablish capillary methods of escape makes +recultivation necessary from time to time in dry weather. Care must, of +course, be taken that the cultivation is not harmful to roots of growing +plants. If these roots are disturbed or destroyed through cultivation, +more harm than good may result because of the damage to the root systems. + +_Farm Power and Equipment._--Where the land area to be cultivated is +larger than the family garden some type of equipment for working the land, +propelled by horse or motor, will be found desirable and in larger areas +essential. One or more horses may be used where there are stabling +facilities and where arrangements can be made for the daily care and +feeding that these animals require. A horse suitable for work purposes may +be obtained for less than $200. The price will, of course, depend upon the +age and physical soundness of the animal, but should not exceed $150 for a +physically sound animal under ten years old. A person unskilled in the +assessing of animal values should obtain the services of a veterinarian or +an experienced horseman in making a selection. A horse for this purpose +should be of quiet, tractable disposition, bred and broken for work +purposes. The cost of caring for a horse for one year will approximate +$125, including feed and bedding, but without labor charge. + +Leather harness costing $25 to $50 will be required and in addition tools, +including a plow, a harrow, and a cultivator costing about $15 each. Other +special equipment such as a mower will cost considerably more, depending +upon the type used. + +If the members of the family are fond of animals and willing to assume the +responsibility for their daily care, the horse will be found an efficient +and useful source of power for tilling the land. In this connection it +should be pointed out that flies breed with great rapidity in the strawy +manure of the stable, and such wastes should be spread upon the land +almost daily or treated to prevent fly-breeding. + +_Tractor Power._--Just as large tractors have supplanted horses and +horse-drawn equipment on thousands of farms in the United States, the +so-called garden tractor has become increasingly popular for the tilling +of small acreages. The tractor requires "feed" only when it is working, is +not subject to the ills that beset animals, and may be used for +twenty-four hours a day if necessary. It makes an appeal to the +mechanically minded members of the household and, if properly cared for, +will give economical and lasting service. + +The usual type of garden tractor consists of two large wheels with lugs on +them to give traction and is driven by a one- or two-cylinder motor. A +plow, a cultivator, or mower may be attached to the drawbar, the operator +walking behind and regulating the speed and guiding the outfit by handles +provided for the purpose. Earlier types of these machines were not always +satisfactory owing to construction weaknesses and occasionally balky +motors. Those now on the market, however, are greatly improved, require +less attention, and rival their big brothers, the powerful farm tractors, +in dependability. + +There are a number of types and makes of garden tractors now on the +market, ranging in price from $175 or less to $400, the cost depending +largely upon the size and capacity of the motor. In selecting a +satisfactory garden tractor attention should be directed to the simplicity +and power of the motor, the type of bearings, the method of lubrication of +all moving parts, the working speed and the economy of fuel. Bearings +ought to be of standard, long-wearing type since these are subject to hard +service. Two speeds are desirable, a slow one for heavy duty and a faster +one for lighter work. The tractor should operate all day on about 2 +gallons of gasoline and a quart of oil. In addition to power applied at +the drawbar where special tools are attached, a pulley will be found a +desirable accessory for operating belt machinery such as small feed mills, +pumps, and cream separators. The rating of the motor should be not less +than 3 horsepower at the drawbar for the ordinary tasks it will be called +upon to perform. + +All types of attachments are available for the garden tractor. These +include plows, disks, harrows, cultivators, mowers, fertilizer +distributors, planters, sowers and seeding accessories. The prices of +these vary according to make and quality. Levers are provided for +adjusting the depth of plowing, cultivating and seeding. Some of the large +type garden tractors are equipped with a seat on a sulky attached to the +machine so that the operator can ride and have complete control over speed +and the type of work he wishes to do. A modern garden tractor will be +found very useful in taking care of a lawn or garden. In the case of +larger areas under cultivation, but not of field size, this type of +machine is rapidly gaining popularity for performing efficiently and +economically the numerous jobs that are to be done on every small farm. + + +_Do's_ + +Select a soil type that is inherently productive, fertile, retentive of +moisture and easily cultivated. + +Supplement soil fertility by adding chemical fertilizers either singly or +in combination. + +Buy mixed fertilizers on the basis of guaranteed analyses. + +Use legumes (peas, beans, etc.) to add nitrogen to soils and increase +humus content. + +Add specific bacteria for the production of various legumes. + +Use manure and green crops to supply humus. + +Apply lime when soil test shows need for it as plant food and general soil +improver. + +Practice methods that make soils absorptive of moisture and permit escape +of excess water. + +Cultivate the soil to check escape of moisture and to kill weeds. + +Use a horse or garden tractor for cultivation of areas larger than the +family garden. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't buy land that is continually wet and swampy. + +Don't expect to produce satisfactory crops on soils that are extremely +heavy or clayey or so sandy as to quickly lose moisture and fertility. + +Don't try to produce crops without maintaining the humus supply in the +soil. + +Don't neglect cultivation as a means of conserving moisture, destroying +weeds and stimulating root growth. + + + + +_Chapter_ VII + +FOOD FROM THE GARDEN + + +The home vegetable garden should supply an important part of the food for +every family living in the country. Vegetables that are of the right +varieties and that are fresh and properly prepared are nutritious, +wholesome and economical. Not only does the well-organized home garden +reduce the cost of feeding the family, but it constitutes an effective +method of maintaining better health among all members of the household. +Even common vegetables that are grown from the best varieties and served +fresh will be a revelation to those accustomed to buying them in stores. +Deterioration in quality and palatability begins immediately in vegetables +when they are harvested. The more perishable the commodity, the greater is +the rate of deterioration. + +The commercial vegetable grower usually inclines toward varieties that are +capable of producing a heavy yield per acre or that stand shipment and +temporary storage with the least apparent loss from deterioration. In +order to have his products reach the consumer in an attractive condition, +the commercial grower usually must harvest them before they are at their +best. The channels through which vegetables and fruits pass on their way +to the city consumer are devious, slow and costly. Such a consumer +therefore usually receives so-called fresh products that have been removed +from the plant or the soil before maturity is attained and after such +already poor quality has deteriorated through aging processes. + +All these disadvantages of vegetables purchased in the city are eliminated +by the possessor of a garden where he may produce his family's needs (and +they are genuine needs) in the way of fresh vegetables. These products are +essential in supplying such necessary elements as minerals, vitamins, +acids, and cellulose. Dietary authorities advise that leafy vegetables, +sometimes called "greens," contain food elements not found in root +vegetables. For the maintenance of health, the diet should include a +variety of vegetables besides potatoes. + +_Assets of a Garden._--A garden is a source of recreation, pleasure and +satisfaction to every member of the family. Real enjoyment can be had by +working in it a little time each day. To those whose work may be sedentary +and of a routine nature, the garden furnishes a source of inspiration +and adventure. Daily evidences of plant growth and the novelty of having +vegetables of one's own growing stimulate interest in it. The garden is an +aid in maintaining health through physical exercise and the liberal +consumption of the fruits of labor. There is no other avenue of activity +that can afford so much in the way of health, economical recreation and +pleasure as a well-planned garden. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service_) + +The well-planned garden furnishes food throughout the year for the entire +family.] + + +Having decided on a garden, the question immediately arises as to the +procedure to be followed to get the most out of it. Special attention has +been given to this problem by experts throughout the country and specific +recommendations are now available on the subject at state agricultural +colleges. These cover varieties, planting dates, adequate area, +fertilization, rotation of crops and storage. Typical recommendations +along these lines are given here for the north-central and eastern states. +Readers living elsewhere may wish to check them with the practices +recommended by authorities in their home states. + +_Vegetable Growing by Rule._--The most effective method of presenting the +story of recommended vegetables, desirable varieties, seed required, +average yields and other pertinent data is in tabular form, such as that +used in Table I, which has been prepared for the aid of home vegetable +gardeners by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, and which is +based on years of study of the subject. Table II, prepared by the Michigan +State College of Agriculture, shows the amount of seed that should be +purchased to supply an adequate quantity and variety of important +vegetables for a family of six persons. + +Examination of the planting table will show that the setting of plants or +roots is occasionally recommended instead of the use of seed. This is +desirable in some cases to get quicker results and in other cases is +essential if a crop is to be secured during a normal growing season. While +it is possible for the grower to raise these plants, or sets, himself, +usually more satisfactory results can be obtained through buying them from +a capable plant grower. The growing of sets is a specialized business +requiring conditions of heat, moisture, fertility and skill, frequently +beyond the patience and capacity of the amateur. There are plant growers +in nearly every neighborhood who will grow the needed plants at small +cost. Arrangements should be made in advance for growing the varieties or +strains that are wanted, and usually the grower can furnish his own seed +for the plants if that seems desirable to him. One desiring to grow one's +own plants from seed can secure full information from a practical grower +or from state and county agricultural agencies. + + +TABLE I + +PLANTING TABLE FOR VEGETABLES[1] + + -----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------------+ + | | | | Distance | + | | | | between | + | | Seed | Depth | rows for | + Name of | Variety | for |to sow |cultivation,| + vegetable | | 100- | seed, | inches | + | | row |inches | | + | | | +------+-----+ + | | | |Horse | Hand| + -----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------+-----+ + Asparagus |Washington, Palmetto |1-yr.- |8-10 | 5 ft.|4 ft.| + | |old |roots | | | + | |roots | | | | + Beans | | | | | | + Green bush |Stringless Green Pod, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 18 | + |Bountiful | | | | | + | | | | | | + Yellow bush |Currie's Rust Proof, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 18 | + |Davis' White Wax | | | | | + | | | | | | + Pole green |Kentucky Wonder, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 36 | 30 | + |Old Homestead | | | | | + Bush lima |Fordhook |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 30 | + | | | | | | + Pole lima |King of the Garden |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 48 | 36 | + Beets--early |Crosby's Egyptian |1 oz. | 1 | 28 | 15 | + Late |Detroit Dark Red | | | | | + Cabbage--early |Jersey Wakefield, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30 | 30 | + |Copenhagen Market | | | | | + Cabbage--late |Danish Ball Head, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 36 | 30 | + |Succession, | | | | | + Cantaloupe |Early Knight, |1/2 oz.| 1 |54-60 | 40 | + |Fordhook | | | | | + Carrots |Chantenay, |1 oz. | 1/2| 30 | 15 | + |Oxheart | | | | | + Celery |Golden Self-blanching,|1 pkt. | 1/4| 36 | 30 | + |Easy Blanching | | | | | + Corn--early |Golden Bantam, |1/4 lb.| 1 | 36| 30| + |Howling Mob | | | | | + Corn--late |Golden Bantam, |1/4 lb.| 1 | 36| 30| + |Evergreen | | | | | + Cucumber |White Spine, |1/2 oz.|1/2-1 | 48-60| 48| + |Davis Perfect | | | | | + | | | | | | + Eggplant |New York Improved, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 48| 48| + |Black Beauty | | | | | + Endive |Green Curled, Broad |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 18| + |Leaved Batavian | | | | | + Kale |Scotch Curled, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 18| + |Siberian (over winter)| | | | | + Kohlrabi |White Vienna |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 15| + Lettuce | | | | | | + Spring and fall|Green-leaved Big Bos. |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15| + Summer | N. Y. Salamander |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15| + Romaine | G. R. Exp., Trianon |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15| + Okra |Perkins Long Pod |1 oz. | 1 | 36| 30| + Onion sets |Yellow Strasburg, |1 qt. | 1 | 18| 14| + |Japanese (Eberheser) | | | | | + Onion seed |Yellow Globe Danvers, |1 oz. | 1/2| 18| 14| + |Southport Globe | | | | | + Parsnips |Hollow Crown |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 18| 15| + | | | | | | + Peas |Little Marvel, |1 pt. |1-1-1/2| 30| 30| + |Laxtonian, Telephone | | | | | + Peppers |Ruby King, Pimento |1 pkt. | 1/2| 36 | 30 | + | | | | | | + Potatoes |Irish Cob., Green Mts.|1/2 pk.|3-4 | 36 | 36 | + Pumpkins |Cheese, Small Sugar |1 oz. | 1/2| 60 | 60 | + | | | | | | + Radish |Scarlet Globe, Icicle |1/2 oz.| 12 | 15 | 5 | + | | | | | | + Rhubarb |Victoria |Roots |5-6 | 48 | 48 | + | | | | | | + Spinach--spring |Bloomsdale, Savoy |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 20 | 15 | + Spinach--summer |New Zealand |1 oz. | 1 | 48 | 36 | + | | | | | | + Spinach--fall |Va. Dis., Resist. |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 20 | 15 | + |Savoy | | | | | + Squash--summer |Gold. Sum. Crookneck, |1 oz. |1-1-1/2| 48 | 48 | + |White Bush Scallop | | | | | + Squash--winter |Boston Marrow, |1 oz. |1-1-1/2| 72 | 72 | + |Warted Hubbard | | | | | + Sweet potatoes |Yel. Jersey |Plants | -- | 36 | 36 | + Swiss chard |Lucullus |1 oz. | 1/2| 30 | 30 | + | | | | | | + Tomatoes--early |Chalk's Early |Plants | 1/2| 48 | 36 | + |Jewel, Bonny Best | | | | | + Tomatoes--late |Matchless, Stone |Plants | 1/2| 48 | 36 | + Turnips |Purple Top Strap. Leaf|1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 | + Rutabagas |Golden Ball, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 | + |Lg. Island Improved |1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 | + -----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------+-----+ + + --------+--------+------------+-------------+------- + | | | | + | | | |Average + Distance|Time of | | Average | days + between |planting| Time of | yield | from + plants |seed | harvest | 100-foot | seed + in row, |outdoors| | row | to + inches | | | |harvest + | | | | + --------+--------+------------+-------------+------- + 16 | -- |Spring- |15 2-lb. |2 yr. + | |July 1 |bunches | + | | | | + | | | | + 3 |Apr 15 |June 20 |2 bu. | 40-65 + |July 15 |Sept. 15- | | + | | Frost | | + 3 |Apr. 15 |June 20 |2 bu. | 50-70 + |July 15 |Sept. 15- |2-2-1/2 bu. | 95-100 + | | Frost | | + 10-30 |May 1-20|Aug. 15 |2-2-1/2 bu. | 95-100 + | | | | + 10 |May 1- |Aug. 1-Frost|2 bu. |110-120 + |July | | | + 36 |May 15 |Aug. 1-Frost|2 bu. |110-120 + 2-3 |Apr. 1 |July 15 |2-2/1/2 bu. | 45-60 + |July 20 |Nov. 15 | | + 18 |Apr. 15 |July-Sept. |45-55 heads |100-120 + | | | | + 18 |July 1 |Oct.-Nov. |45-55 heads |120-150 + | | | | + 48 hill |May 15 |Aug. 10 |6-8 fruits | 90-1l0 + | | |per hill | + 1-1-1/2 |Apr. 1 |Aug. 1 |2 bu. | 65-90 + |July 1 |Nov. | | + 6 |June 1 |Sept. 15 |200 stalks |120-150 + | | | | + 15 or 30|May 1 |July 12 |4 doz. ears | 60-75 + hill | | | | + 18 or 30|June 15 |Aug. 20- |4 doz. ears | 75-90 + hill |July 1 | Frost | | + 48 hill |May 15 |July 10 |200 cucumbers| 60-75 + | |Aug. 20 |1-1/2 bu. | + | | | pickles | + 48|June 1 | Aug. 20- |125 fruits |140-160 + | | Frost | | + 56|Apr. 15 |June 15 |65 plants | 60-90 + |July 15 |Oct.-Nov. | | + 18|Apr. 1 |June 1 |60 bu. | 55-65 + |Sept. 1 |Apr. | | + 3-4|Apr. 15 |June 15 |2 bu. | 50-70 + |Apr. 15-|Aug. 15-Oct.| | + 14-18|June 1 |Oct. |70 head | 70-90 + 14-18|May 15 |June 1 |70 head | 70-90 + 14-18|Aug. 1 |July-Aug. |70 head | 70-90 + 10-15|May 15 |Aug. 10 |900-1000 pod | 90-140 + 1|Apr 1 |May 15 |140 bunches | 45-75 + | | | | + 1|Apr. 1 |Aug. 20 |1-1/2-2 bu. |110-130 + | | | | + 3-4|Apr. 1- |Sept.-Nov. |2 bu. |140-160 + | May 15 | | | + 2|Apr. 1- |June 10-July|2 bu. | 45-70 + | 15 | | (in pods) | + 18-20 |May 15 |Aug. 15- |5 bu. |125-150 + | | Frost |(6 per plant)| + 14 |Apr. 15 |July 1 |3 bu. | 90-120 + 48 |May 15 |Sept. 1- |75 pumpkins | 70- 90 + | | Frost | | + 1 |Apr. 15 |June 1 |100 bunches | 30-65 + |Sept. 1 |Oct. 25 | | + 48 |Mar.-Apr|May-Nov. |8-10 stalks | 1 yr. + | | |plant | + 2 |Mar. |May |3 bu. | 45 + 36 |Apr. 15 |June 15 |Cut all | 65-120 + | | |summer | + 2 |Aug. 15-|Oct.-Nov. |3 bu. | 50-60 + |Sept. 15| | | + 48 |May 1 |July 10 |136 squash | 60-70 + | | | | + 48 |June 1 |Oct. |75 squash |120-130 + | | | | + 18 |May 15 |Oct. 1-10 |3 bu. |140-150 + 6 |Apr. 15 |June 5- |Pull until | 50 + | | Frost | frost | + 36 |May 15 |July 10-Aug.|4 bu. |120-150 + | | | | + 36 |June 1 |Aug. l-Frost|4 bu. |150-170 + 2 |Apr. 1 |June 1 |2 bu. | 45-70 + 2 |Aug. 1 |Oct.-Nov. |2 bu. | 45-70 + 2 |Aug. 1 |Oct.-Nov. |2 bu. | 45-70 + --------+--------+------------+-------------+------- + + +TABLE II + +AMOUNT OF SEED TO PURCHASE FOR FAMILY OF SIX[2] + + -------------------------+------------------------ + Vegetable | Amount to purchase + -------------------------+------------------------ + | + Asparagus | 66 plants + Beans, snap (in variety) | 2 to 3 pounds + Beans, bush lima | 1 pound + Beet | 4 ounces + Cabbage: | + Early | 1 packet + Late | 1/2 ounce + Carrot | 1 ounce + Cauliflower | 1 packet + Celery | 1 packet + Corn, sweet | 2 pounds + Cucumber | 1 ounce + Eggplant | 1 packet + Kale | 1 ounce + Lettuce | 1/2 ounce + Muskmelon | 1 ounce + Onion sets | 4 quarts + Onion seed | 1 ounce + Peas | 2 to 4 pounds + Parsley | 1 packet + Parsnip | 1 ounce + Radish (in variety) | 2 ounces + Rhubarb | 20 plants + Salsify | 1 ounce + Spinach | 1 pound + New Zealand spinach | 1 ounce + Summer pumpkin | 1 ounce + Winter pumpkin | 2 ounces + Squash | 2 ounces + Tomatoes | 1 packet or 50 plants + Turnip | 4 ounces + Rutabaga | 1 ounce + Watermelon | 2 ounces + -------------------------+------------------------ + +_Planning and Operating a Home Garden._--In planning the home vegetable +garden there are a few essential points to be kept in mind. The time to +plan the garden is in winter when adequate consideration can be given to +the selection of those vegetables that the family likes best and can use +in large amounts. Seeds required should be ordered early for the entire +garden. By drawing the plan of the garden on paper and following it, the +procedure is simplified and the most efficient results attained. + +Vegetables should be planted in rows rather than in beds, and those +maturing at about the same time should be grouped together to facilitate +succession planting. After the early-maturing crops have been harvested, +other crops can be sown on the same area, thus fully utilizing the land +throughout the growing season. Perennial crops, including asparagus and +rhubarb, should be kept by themselves. + +A practical farmer wanting to express perfection in soil preparation is +apt to say, "It is just like a garden." This implies good fertility, +optimum moisture conditions and proper tilth. To attain these conditions +in garden soil it is desirable to cover it with strawy manure some time +previous to plowing, in order that rains may carry the soluble fertility +elements into the surface inches of the soil. In the early spring a +thorough job of plowing or spading should be done to reasonable depth, +completely covering the surface straw or dead plants. Every two or three +years lime should be applied after plowing and worked into the top soil at +the rate of 1 pound of hydrated lime to every 25 square feet of soil. + +_Fertilizing and Culture._--The fertility supplied through application of +manure should be supplemented by the use of commercial fertilizer. This +can be purchased in burlap bags from local supply agencies and should +contain about 5 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 per +cent potash. Moderate variations in analysis from 5-8-7, as above, are not +important so long as the amounts of each element are well balanced. The +fertilizer should be broadcast over the garden after plowing, at the rate +of 1 pound to every 25 square feet and worked into the soil before +planting. Poultry or sheep manure may be used as top dressing to alternate +with commercial fertilizer. It should be borne in mind that such animal +manures are richer in nitrogen than in other elements and if used to +excess may stimulate leaf growth at the expense of yield and quality. + +Frequent shallow cultivations are desirable. The ordinary wheel hoe will +be found helpful in the cultivating procedure. It should be well +understood that cultivation is essential to prevent weed growth and +conserve moisture. + +If watering or irrigating is necessary in dry weather, it should be +thoroughly done. One soaking of the soil to a depth of 4 to 6 inches is +far more effective than frequent light sprinklings. The latter may be more +harmful than beneficial through reestablishing capillary movement, +permitting the escape of subsoil moisture. Water should be applied under +the same conditions that apply when rain falls--on cloudy days or after +sunset to prevent "baking" or encrusting of the surface soil as well as to +conserve the amount of water needed. + +_Meeting the Insect Problem._--The sponsor of a garden in which +diversified vegetables are grown must be prepared to meet the onslaught of +equally diversified insect species. While it is true that insects are +multiplying as to species and voraciousness, it is equally true that +methods of control are becoming available to cope adequately with most of +them. One unfamiliar with our insect infestations will be amazed to find +that certain species apparently have had advance notice of his intentions +and are sitting about the planted rows awaiting the appearance of the +tender shoots. + +One of the best methods of combating insects is to create ideal conditions +for plant growth. Plants that are underfed through inadequate soil +fertility or are weakened by other causes suffer severely from insect +attack, while vigorous plants will come through with much less damage. It +is advisable to insure rapid germination of seed through careful soil +preparation, to seed at the proper time for a quick and vigorous start and +to have sufficient available fertility to stimulate growth once the plants +have started. + +There are two distinct classes of insects, the division being based upon +their feeding habits. The larger group, both in the size of the insects +themselves and in the number of species, is the leaf-chewing group. These +can be destroyed by the application of stomach poisons to the plants under +attack. The other group consists of the sucking insects, which penetrate +the veins carrying nourishment to the leaves and appropriate it for +themselves. Such insects multiply with extreme rapidity, generally feed on +the underside of the leaves and may cause complete wilting of the plant +before their presence is suspected. In such cases a "contact" spray or +dust must be used. This is based on the principle of causing the insect to +"inhale" the material through breathing pores along its body. The +insecticide must be composed of extremely fine particles or must be of +such an oily nature that it will readily penetrate such pores. In +addition to these, certain repellent materials are being developed which +cause the insect to seek food where the disagreeable conditions do not +prevail. + + +TABLE III + +PRINCIPAL INSECTS AND REMEDIES[3] + + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + Plants attacked | Chewing | Character | Treatment + | insects | of damage | + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + Tomato, pepper, |Flea Beetles |They gnaw or |Dust or spray with + eggplant, turnip,| |eat small holes|a prepared nicotine + cabbage, etc. | |in the leaves. |or pyrethrum mixture. + | | |Bordeaux mixture + | | |sprayed, or dusting + | | |for disease is also + | | |effective as + | | |a repellent. + | | | + | | | + Asparagus |Asparagus |Feeds on the |Dust with either + |Beetle |shoots and |arsenate of lead or + | |brush. |calcium arsenate, + | | |mixed with 1 part of + | | |wheat flour. Spray + | | |with arsenate of lead + | | |or calcium arsenate, + | | |1 tablespoonful if a + | | |paste or 1/2 + | | |tablespoonful if a + | | |powder, and 1 + | | |tablespoonful of lime + | | |to 1 gallon of water. + | | | + | | | + All kinds of |Mexican Bean |Eats the under |Dust with 1 part of + beans |Beetle |side of leaves |magnesium arsenate + | | |mixed with 3 parts of + | | |lime, or dust the + | | |yellow larva under + | | |the leaves with a + | | |pyrethrum dust. + | | | + | | | + {|Cabbage Maggot| |Keep the ground + {| | |thoroughly cultivated + {| | |around the base of + Early cabbage {| | |the plant or use tar + and cauliflower {| | |paper discs for + {| | |larger plantings. + {| | | + {|Common Cabbage|Feed on the |Same as for asparagus + {|Worm |shoots and |beetle. Pyrethrum + {|and Cabbage |brush. |dust is also very + {|Looper | |effective. + | | | + | | | + Cucumber, squash,|Striped |Eats the leaves|Protect with a + and melons. |Cucumber |and the stem of|cheesecloth or do the + |Beetle |the very young |same as for the + | |plants. |asparagus beetle. + | | | + | | | + Pumpkins and |Squash Vine |Kills the vines|Take a sharp + squashes |Borer |by eating in |thin-bladed penknife + | |the stem. |and slit the stem + | | |lengthwise, opening + | | |it and killing the + | | |borer. Then bank the + | | |ground around the + | | |stem of the plant. + | | | + | | | + Tomato, eggplant,|Potato Beetle |Eats the |Same as for Cabbage + potato | |leaves. |Worm. + | | | + | | | + Tomato |Tomato Horn |Eats the |Same as for Common + |Worm |leaves. |Cabbage Worm. + | | | + | | | + Tomato fruits |Tomato Fruit |Eats the tomato|Same as for Cabbage + |Worm |fruits. |Worm. + | | | + Tomato, eggplant,|Cutworms |Cut the plants |Protect with paper + pepper, cabbage, | |off near |collars placed + and other crops. | |the surface |around the stem of + | |of the ground. |the plant, extending + | | |2 or 3 inches above + | | |the ground, or + | | |distribute poisoned + | | |bran mash, placing + | | |it near the plant. + | | |Thoroughly mix + | | |2 level + | | |tablespoonfuls of + | | |paris green in + | | |5 pounds of dry bran, + | | |then add from 4 to 6 + | | |quarts of water in + | | |which 1/2 pint of + | | |cheap molasses has + | | |been mixed. Cutworms + | | |work at night, + | | |therefore apply the + | | |mash in the late + | | |afternoon or + | | |evening. + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + Plants attacked | Sucking | Character | Treatment + | insects | of damage | + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + Tomato, potato, |Leaf Hopper |Feeds under the|Dust or spray with + strawberries, | |leaf, causing |a prepared nicotine + and beans. | |a whitening and|or pyrethrum mixture. + | |curve of the |Bordeaux mixture is + | |leaves with |also effective as + | |a dying of the |a repellent. + | |edges. | + | | | + | | | + Practically all |Aphis |Sucks the |Either dust or spray + garden vegetable |(plant lice) |juices on the |with a nicotine or + plants. | |under side of |pyrethrum mixture as + | |the leaves and |recommended on the + | |on the stems. |package. Be sure to + | | |hit the insects on + | | |the under side of the + | | |leaves. + | | | + | | | + Cabbage group, |Red Spider |Sucks the |Apply a dusting + strawberries, | |juices from the|sulfur. + and beans. | |under side of | + | |the leaves, | + | |producing | + | |a whitish cast | + | |on the cabbage | + | |group and | + | |a brownish cast| + | |on the other | + | |groups. | + | |Especially | + | |prevalent | + | |during | + | |prolonged dry | + | |hot spells. | + -----------------+--------------+---------------+--------------------- + +Table III (pages 107-108) describes the character of damage done by both +groups of insects, the plants attacked and the most effective methods of +control. + + +_Do's_ + +Grow vegetables for health, recreation and economy. + +Organize the vegetable garden for a maximum of output, variety of foods +and to facilitate its care. + +Use lime and chemical fertilizer or manure liberally for intensive +culture. + +Combat insects by stimulating plant growth and by using appropriate lethal +products. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't plant a garden in hit-or-miss fashion, if maximum food return is +expected. + +Don't neglect first appearances of insect damage. Find out the cause of +injury and use recommended measures for control. + + + + +_Chapter_ VIII + +HOME FRUITS AND BEES + + +A wide variety of fruits may be grown satisfactorily for home use. Where +no fruit trees are growing the best plan is to set out individual trees or +bush fruits of the standard types and varieties, adding to the collection +later as the needs of the family develop and the adaptability of the area +for varieties manifests itself through crop production. + +All fruits thrive best on a deep, well-drained soil. It is difficult to +secure good results where the area is depressed and air drainage is poor. +Elevation of the area planted is desirable therefore from the standpoint +of both water and air drainage. + +A number of questions confront the prospective grower of fruits. He needs +to know, among other things, the kind of fruit to plant, the necessary +distance between the trees or plants and the probable yield. The following +planting guide will be found helpful in answering these questions. + + +HOME FRUITS AND BEES + +PLANTING GUIDE[4] + + -------+----------------+--------+--------+------------------------- + Average| | | | + number | | | | Estimated yield + of | |Distance|Distance| at maturity + plants | Kind of fruit |between |between +------------+------------ + to | | rows, | plants,| Average | Average + the | | feet | feet | per acre | per plant + acre | | | | | + -------+----------------+--------+--------+------------+------------ + 27 |Apples | 40 | 40 |135 bushels | 5 bushels + 90 |Pears | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 200 |Quinces | 16 | 16 |100 bushels |1/2 bushel + 90 |Peaches | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 90 |Nectarines | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 90 |Plums | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 90 |Cherries (sour) | 22 | 22 |90 bushels | 1 bushel + 48 |Cherries (sweet)| 30 | 30 |50 bushels | 1 bushel + 6,000 |Strawberries | 3-1/2 | 2 |2,250 quarts| 3/4 pint + | (matted row) | | | | per stool + 1,800 |Raspberries | 8 | 3 |2,000 quarts| 1 quart + 1,800 |Blackberries | 8 | 3 |2,400 quarts|1-1/4 quarts + 1,200 |Dewberries | 6 | 6 |1,800 quarts| 1 quart + | (hill system) | | | | + 1,800 |Gooseberries | 8 | 3 |5,400 quarts| 3 quarts + 1,800 |Currants | 8 | 3 |3,600 quarts| 2 quarts + 680 |Grapes | 8 | 8 |4,000 pounds| 6 pounds + -------+----------------+--------+--------+------------+------------ + +The selection of varieties of tree fruits is highly important. Some sorts +are preeminently adapted to home use because of their high quality of +edibility while others are preferred for commercial production on account +of their good shipping qualities and high yields per acre. It is advisable +for the grower to inquire of his state agricultural college regarding +varieties to plant. Responsible nursery firms will also advise on +varieties that will best meet the needs of the purchaser from the +standpoint of family use and adaptability to soil and climatic +conditions. + +The following varieties are recommended for general home use in +north-central areas of the United States, subject to check by local +authorities. The apple and peach varieties are given in the order of +ripening. + + Apples: + William + Wealthy + McIntosh + Rome + Stayman + Peaches (all freestone): + Golden Jubilee + Georgia Belle + Elberta + J. H. Hale + Pears: + Bartlett + Seckel + Cherries: + Montmorency or Early Richmond (sour) + Black Tartarian (sweet) + Plums: + Damson (blue) + Burbank (red) + +About fifty strawberry plants will be needed for a row 100 feet long. +Because of weed infestations in old beds, it will be more satisfactory to +set a new row each year and destroy the old one. The plants during the +season of setting should be trained to form a matted row about 2 feet +wide. Mulching the plants after a freeze in the fall with straw or other +similar material will prevent injury caused by "heaving" of the soil. + +Currants and gooseberries should be pruned annually and only the one- or +two-year-old wood retained for production. Thinning out in this manner +will give better size and quality. Where the currant worm is troublesome +the foliage should be dusted with arsenate of lead or Paris green as soon +as it is well developed and before the fruit is started. About thirty +currant or gooseberry plants will be needed for a 100-foot row, and they +can be planted along a fence or other boundary line. + +Blackberries and raspberries should be set 3 feet apart in the row, 100 +feet requiring thirty to thirty-five plants. Old canes should be pruned +out after fruiting and the weaker new canes should be removed when +dormant, leaving 6 or 8 inches between the standing canes. Lateral +branches should be cut back in early spring to about 1 foot in length and +the upright canes cut back to uninjured wood, thus removing about +two-thirds of the growth. + +Grapes need severe pruning to produce satisfactory yields of good quality. +This is best done in late winter. It is a good plan to prune so that from +15 to 30 or possibly 40 buds are left on each mature vine, depending upon +the vitality of the plant. Two or three clusters of fruit will develop on +the shoot that grows from each bud. A 100-foot row of grapes will require +twelve plants. There are many fine varieties of grapes and several can be +used in a single row. + +In ordering stock for planting, care should be exercised in making sure of +the reliability of the nursery. As a general rule it is better to order +from a nursery in the vicinity, thus eliminating losses due to shipping +great distances and also making sure that the varieties or strains were +grown for use in the area in question. Upon the arrival of the stock from +the nursery, it should be "heeled in" at once. That is, the roots should +be covered in a trench so that they will not dry out before they can be +planted in the desired location. In the case of a few trees that can be +set immediately, this is not necessary. + +Nearly all country places have sufficient area for planting small fruits +and, as is the case with vegetables, freshness and fine-flavored varieties +will compensate for the labor involved in growing them. Strawberries, +currants, gooseberries, blackberries, red and black raspberries and grapes +are especially desirable for home plantings. Some high-quality varieties +are given for the choice of the home owner, subject to confirmation by +authorities acquainted with specific conditions and intended primarily for +home use. + + Strawberries (in order of ripening): + Howard 17 + Fairfax + Aberdeen + Joe + Chesapeake + Mastodon is recommended for the everbearing type. + Currants: + Fay + Wilder + Gooseberries: + Chautauqua + Poorman + Blackberries: + Russell + Ward + Eldorado for bush types + Black Diamond for the trailing type requiring a trellis and + ripening late in the season. + Red Raspberries (in order of ripening): + Ranere + Viking + Latham + Black Raspberries: + Cumberland + Quillen + Grapes (general list, in order of ripening): + Ontario (white) + Fredonia (black) + Delaware (red) + Brighton (red) + Golden Muscat (white) + Concord (blue) + Sheridan (black) + For those desiring a succession of blue-black varieties, + Fredonia, Concord and Sheridan are recommended. + +_Controlling Insect and Fungous Pests._--Plant pests of various kinds +infest tree fruits and small fruits. In general, the best method of +controlling leaf-chewing insects is by applying arsenate of lead on the +foliage. Care must be taken to avoid staining the fruit with poisonous +spray or thorough washing will be necessary before it is safe to consume. +The control of other insect pests and fungous plant diseases has been well +worked out by agricultural experiment stations throughout the country, and +these methods should be sought before attempting any campaign of +suppression. A barrel spray pump, mounted on a hand truck or on a vehicle, +equipped with plenty of hose will be found satisfactory for spraying +plantings of modest size. + +_Rejuvenating an Old Orchard._--The purchaser of an old-established farm +will usually find he has acquired some apple trees of uncertain age and +health. In many instances these trees can be renovated and rejuvenated so +that they will again bear fruit. If the trees have several sound limbs and +are making some growth each year, they may be considered worth saving. On +the other hand, broken tops and limbs accompanied by large rotted cavities +will create too great an expense if an attempt is made to restore them to +usefulness. The varieties should be determined before serious efforts at +renovation are undertaken, so that the strenuous work necessary for +restoration may not be wasted on undesirable fruit. + +_Steps in Renovation._--The first operation in renovation is pruning. Most +of this should be done in early spring during the dormant season and +supplemented in June or July when the trees are in leaf. Large broken +limbs and dead wood should be removed, together with interfering branches, +and those reaching too high should be headed back. At about the same time +that pruning is started the loose bark should be thoroughly scraped off +and burned, thus destroying insects and fungi that attack the fruit. +Harboring places for further infestations are also thus removed. If the +trees are badly in need of pruning, it is best to do the job over a period +of two or three years rather than all at one time, due to the tendency of +trees to "sucker" and develop a multiplicity of small non-bearing +branches. + +Spraying, fertilizing and cultivation, where that is possible, should +follow the pruning and scraping jobs. Spray schedules and cultural +practices best adapted to the region can be obtained without cost by +applying to state or county agricultural agencies. Ordinarily two or three +years are required to rejuvenate these trees and begin to secure a crop. +Production will then increase in quantity and quality during succeeding +years. + +_Bees as Pollinators._--The production of fruits of all kinds is dependent +upon pollination of their blossoms by bees and other winged insects. Bees +of many species are useful in pollen distribution, but the most important +is the honey bee, which is available in larger numbers just at flowering +time, seeking nectar from the flowers. In large commercial orchards +colonies of honey bees are set at regular intervals to insure adequate +pollination, usually one hive per acre. + +A practical method of adding to county life enjoyment and adding to income +as well is the keeping of bees for honey production. + +_Securing a Honey Crop._--Bee husbandry can be carried on successfully as +a specialized side line where only small areas of land are available. +Colonies can be located at one side of the garden or placed under trees +where they will not be disturbed either through accident or by cultivation +of the plot immediately surrounding them. The activity of the bees during +the nectar-gathering season, accompanied by the well-known hum as they +dart in and out of the hive, makes a genuine appeal to the country +dweller. This appeal is heightened by the fact that they are working for +him, in part at least, and without his having to pay for their raiding the +nectar from the flowers around. He knows that his efforts in providing +favorable working conditions for the bees will be repaid by a harvest of +salable honey. A colony at full strength just at the right time will +invariably gather a surplus. + +_First Principles in Beekeeping._--The beginner in bee husbandry should +purchase established colonies from a reputable business concern or from +beekeepers in the neighborhood of his home. He should begin in a small way +with a few colonies, learn the business with a small investment and then +increase as his liking for the work develops and the market for the +product expands. Being able to read the signs at the entrance to the hive +is the surest way to success. Too much manipulation is just as harmful as +neglect. The novice in beekeeping who is really interested and follows +carefully a few details gained from a reliable bee book should harvest at +least 30 pounds of honey a year from each colony. Experts get much larger +yields and have been known to secure 200 pounds per colony and 200 +sections of comb honey from one hive. The deciding factor in producing +honey is the skill of the watchful beekeeper, assuming of course that +there is a sufficient supply of nectar-secreting blossoms in the area. + +The cost of engaging in bee husbandry is nominal. An established colony of +the preferred Italian bees should cost about $8. The equipment should +include two fitted supers for each colony in which the bees may store the +honey, costing about $3 each; a veil to protect the head and face, +linseed-oil-soaked canvas gloves, a bee smoker, a hive tool and a bee +escape (needed for removing the bees from filled supers), each item +costing less than a dollar. An additional piece of apparatus, a queen +"excluder," is needed for each hive, to keep the queen in the lower +chamber and prevent the mixing of stored honey surplus and developing +bees. + +The principal nectar-secreting plants are the clovers, sumac, buckwheat, +cranberry and blueberry blossoms, goldenrod, asters and mallows. Since +these plants bloom at varying periods during the growing season, the +beekeeper will find it necessary to adjust his operations in accordance +with the nectar-producing capacity of his own region. The experience of +successful beekeepers will be found helpful as a guide in taking the +successive and orderly steps necessary to secure maximum honey crops. In +many states there are associations of beekeepers formed for mutual +advantage and the promotion of the industry. The novice can hardly expect +to learn unless he affiliates himself with such groups and attends their +meetings. Subscription to a good bee journal is also desirable. + + +[Illustration: Colonies of honey bees located near the source of nectar +supply.] + + +_Selling the Product._--Honey can be marketed in the comb or in glass jars +in the extracted or crystal form. Many suburban beekeepers dispose of +their crop in their own neighborhood or at roadside stands. Many food +products are being promoted which contain honey as one ingredient, and +this opens an attractive field to the resourceful beekeeper. The healthful +qualities of honey for human consumption are being given greater +recognition and it appears that the market for locally produced honey of +high quality is steadily expanding. + + +_Do's_ + +Fruit trees should be included in every country homeowner's plan. + +Be sure varieties are such as will yield, plentifully, good quality fruit. + +Use bush fruits as ornamentals and sources of food to be put in cans. + +Seek advice on fruit problems from the state agricultural college. + +Old orchards may be rejuvenated under proper systems of management. + +Use colonies of bees to pollinate fruit blossoms and to produce honey. + +Begin bee husbandry in a small way at first and get advice from +experienced bee culturists. + +Sell surplus honey in home markets. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't plant varieties of fruits that are ill adapted to climatic +conditions. + +Don't overlook the necessity of preparing for insect attacks in advance of +appearance. + +Don't establish bee colonies without making sure that proper care of them +can be taken. + +Don't try to practice horticulture or bee husbandry without frequently +obtaining expert advice. + + + + +_Chapter_ IX + +POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME + + +The majority of the owners of small farm properties are interested in the +possibilities of poultry keeping as a means of adding to the family +income. Efforts in this direction are logical from a number of angles. For +example, the keeping of poultry appeals to them as an interesting line of +work for the sake of the activity itself. Furthermore, the cost of housing +a comparatively large number of laying hens is not expensive, as compared +with the investment required in other agricultural enterprises. Again, +there is a ready market for the eggs and for the poultry in the +neighborhood where the enterprise is carried on. No doubt, too, the more +or less fabulous stories of easy profits have stimulated a desire to get +into this business and to make it a rather important source of income. +Again, there is the thought that the work involved in feeding and caring +for the flock can be carried on by another member of the family when the +owner or principal bread-winner is engaged in some other activity +temporarily. + +All these factors have tended to develop in the mind of the settler in the +country a pretty definite idea that he can supplement the family income +with poultry. Sometimes this idea is erroneous and there is apt to be +little definite knowledge on the part of the new owner as to costs, +problems and profits that are likely to accrue. It is the thought of the +writer to outline some definite recommendations for the prospective +poultryman which will enable him to safeguard his investment and prevent +the very serious losses that have occurred to many who have not taken into +consideration all of the factors involved. + +_Soil Type._--The prospective poultryman will, if he is wise, make sure +that the soil is adapted to the project. The ideal soil for poultry +raising is sufficiently porous to furnish good water drainage and yet not +so open or sandy as to be incapable of crop production. A porous soil is +warmer than a clay soil and is more conducive to good sanitation through +permitting moisture and debris to be carried quickly to the subsoil. If +the subsoil is of a gravelly nature the natural condition will be +improved. Presumably the same type of soil that will bear the poultry +plant should be capable of producing garden crops, growing shade or fruit +trees satisfactorily and producing grass and short-rooted crops that can +be used in conjunction with the poultry plant or the beautification of the +home surroundings. Consequently, the soil type must be productive and +capable of improvement while being well drained and conducive to good +sanitation. Heavy clay soils or those with rock strata close to the +surface are to be avoided. + +Successful poultry farms are operated on both level and rolling lands. +Extremely flat topography should be avoided and also precipitous slopes. +If the site is on rolling land the poultry plant should be located on a +slope with southern exposure to secure warmth, quicker drying conditions +and protection from cold north winds. + +_Breeds of Poultry._--Fowls have been domesticated and bred for ages all +over the world. As the result of various crossings a large number of types +or breeds of poultry are available for present-day use and propagation. +Some of these breeds are maintained for show or novelty purposes only and +furnish an interesting field for the fancier. + +For the person who is engaging in the commercial poultry business the +choice of breed narrows to a very few utility types. For purely +egg-producing purposes or for broilers weighing slightly over a pound at +killing time, the light Mediterranean breeds are the most efficient. Less +feed is needed for maintaining the egg machine itself and less room per +bird required. Of these so-called egg breeds, the White Leghorn is in a +class by itself. This breed is noted for its large white-shelled eggs +which top the markets where this color egg is in demand. In the most +intensive egg-producing areas of the country the White Leghorn +predominates. On the other hand, this breed is not a good meat producer, +the mature birds being light in weight. + +For the dual purpose of egg and meat production the American breeds are +the most popular. The principal commercial types of this general purpose +group are Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. In some +instances crosses of these breeds are proving good layers and highly +efficient meat producers. + +The Rocks, Wyandottes and Reds have bright yellow skin, shanks and beak +which are desired in market poultry. They are good winter layers, +particularly, and some strains have been developed that rival the Leghorn +in the number of eggs per bird. Both the White and the Barred Plymouth +Rocks are popular among those seeking a dual purpose breed, and being +slightly heavier than White Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds they are +preferred by many poultrymen. The latter two breeds are rapidly increasing +in popularity and their best qualities are being brought out more +uniformly by careful selection of breeding stock in each case. All of +these American breeds lay brown eggs. + +In addition to the egg and the dual purpose types of poultry epitomized by +the Leghorn and the Plymouth Rock, respectively, there are breeds which +are primarily meat producers. Less attention is paid to the egg-producing +ability of these than is the case with the others mentioned. The Brahmas, +Cochins and Langshans stand in high regard as economical meat producers. +The Jersey Black Giant is a more recent addition to the popular heavy +breeds, especially for the capon trade. + +These Asiatic types grow slowly and are phlegmatic in movement so that +they utilize feed for the economical development of high quality meat and +attain great weight. For broilers of more than 1-1/2 pounds each, for +roasting chickens and for capons, the dual purpose breeds are becoming +more popular than the extremely heavy breeds due to their more rapid +growth and more popular weight average at marketing time. + +_Buying Stock._--The advantages of buying and maintaining definite breeds +of poultry are now so well understood that the mixed or mongrel flock is +fast disappearing. Having decided which type of fowl is best adapted to +one's market and ideas, there is no difficulty in finding a breed that +will fit the need. As has been pointed out, the attributes of high egg +production or fine quality of meat are inherent in certain breeds. A +single breed means uniformity in color, size and shape of the eggs which +increases their marketability. More attractive appearance of the flock and +greater efficiency from feeding without additional cost are other +advantages pertaining to standardizing the flock as to breed. + +Stock may be acquired as day-old chicks, as ten- to twelve-week-old +pullets or as adult birds ready to lay. Hatching eggs may also be bought +if desired, but it will be found more satisfactory and just as economical +for the inexperienced person to buy the hatched chick or the more mature +birds. The hatching and brooding processes are fraught with difficulties +which may be especially acute for the amateur. The greatest demand at the +present time, and properly so, is for day-old chicks. A highly specialized +industry has been developed for the purpose of supplying this demand and a +reputation for reliability has been established by many concerns catering +to this trade. + +_Poultry House Construction._--Where flocks of poultry are to be kept for +egg production, special laying houses must be provided in addition to +brooder houses that will be needed in any case. + +One of the best types of brooder house is the two-room type developed by +Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Such a house should be about 8 by 14 +feet, and mounted on skids for convenience in moving. A movable partition +divides the house into two rooms. Thus a cold room is provided for +exercising and a warm room for sleeping. The marked difference in +temperature between the two rooms helps to harden the chicks, while the +reduced space about the hover conserves the heat. + +A great deal of study has been given to the construction of laying houses +for poultry. The purposes in mind have been to obtain maximum sunlight +throughout the day, protection from storms and from dampness, and adequate +ventilation. + +In the construction of a modern laying house, 1 square foot of glass +should be provided for every 20 square feet of floor space. The windows +should be hinged so that they may be opened in warm weather. One of the +commercial glass substitutes that are now on the market may be used +instead of ordinary glass to allow violet light rays to reach the +birds. The other openings permit free circulation of air through the +house. They should be equipped with muslin curtains to be used during +storms and in extremely cold weather. Such a house can be used the year +round. + + +[Illustration: (_Courtesy of Poultry Tribune_) + +This sketch shows an end view of a practical and inexpensive shed-roof +laying house. Detailed blue prints for use in constructing such a house +can usually be obtained from county agricultural agents or state +agricultural colleges.] + + +[Illustration: A fine flock of layers. The hoppers furnish laying mash and +the fountains supply drinking water. Scratch grain is thrown in the +litter.] + + +The floor of the laying house must be dry at all times if vigor and health +are to be maintained. During the winter there should be about 10 inches of +dry litter in the form of straw, peat moss or shavings mixed with the +straw. Small windows in the rear wall will make for better distribution of +the litter, since the birds scratch away from the light. + +_Equipment and Appliances._--A great deal of hand labor and daily drudgery +can be eliminated by equipping the house with properly constructed +appliances. These will not only save labor but will also supply the birds +with their needs at the time the need for certain materials is felt and +thus contribute to health and flock efficiency. + +The best method of feeding dry mash is from a hopper. This should be so +constructed as to hold a reserve supply at all times that will run into +the feed trough as it is consumed. Care should be taken in construction to +prevent the birds from throwing out the mash with their beaks and thus +wasting it. + +Water fountains of a standard type that will furnish the birds with a +constant amount of fresh water are available at poultry supply houses. +Receptacles should also be provided for grit, ground oyster shell and +charcoal which can be easily filled. A sloping board should be placed over +these receptacles to prevent the birds from roosting on them and soiling +the contents. + +Bins so constructed as to be vermin-proof and moisture-proof should be +available for storing the scratch grain and other concentrated feeds. +Provision for storing litter where it can be kept clean and dry will be +necessary. If long straw is to be used, a cutter operated by hand or by a +motor will prove useful in fining the straw. The scratch grain will be +spread through the litter on the floor, compelling the birds to scratch +for it and thus obtain needed exercise. + +_Artificial Lighting._--Modern laying houses are equipped with electric +lights that are turned on and off automatically. Artificial lighting +prolongs the hen's working day when the days are short, resulting in +greater food consumption and more exercise which will increase egg +production and give better health and stamina at seasons when more eggs +augment profits. A 40-watt bulb should be placed in one receptacle with +reflector for each 200 square feet of floor space, located midway between +the front wall and the front line of perches. + +_Investment Needed for the Start._--The prospective poultryman should be +familiar with the principal items of cost before engaging in the business. +To be thus forewarned is to be forearmed. The scale upon which one takes +up commercial poultry production should depend upon experience in coping +with the industry's peculiar problems and upon the amount of capital +available. Success depends, of course, both upon skill in handling the +poultry and upon the capitalization of the plant. It should be recognized +that costs can be only approximate and are usable as guides only. They +will vary according to geographical location, general economic conditions, +labor costs and the bargaining power of the individual. The figures here +given are for a plant comprised of 1,500 laying hens--the minimum number +from which a living can be obtained and probably the maximum number that +can be cared for by one person. + +The houses for the flock will necessarily include a laying house of the +multiple unit or other similar type, which should cost about $1,000. In +addition, eight brooder houses will be needed to care for the chicks and +growing stock, costing about $100 each, or a total of $800. The growing +stock when on range will need shelters for protection against hot sun and +rain, and these should be built for about $25 each, or a total of $200, +making a total cost for buildings and the necessary interior equipment +about $2,000. In addition to this item, there will be needed about $1,500 +for the purchase of pullets at $1.00 each, making a grand total of $3,500. + +If baby chicks are purchased, it will be necessary to buy not less than +4,000 of these if the operator is to obtain 1,500 desirable laying birds. +The cost of these chicks will depend upon the breeding that is behind +them, upon whether they are blood-tested to eliminate bacillary white +diarrhea (a scourge of young chicks) and the general care that has been +taken in the hatchery to produce good, livable chicks. This care, +incidentally, must extend to flocks from which the hatching eggs are +secured, as well as to the final incubating process. Chicks sold at +extremely low prices are rarely bargains. Quality is far more important +than low first cost. Assuming a cost of 14 cents per chick as an average +for chicks that will produce virile, productive layers, the initial +investment for this item will be between $500 and $600. Therefore, if +chicks are purchased, it will reduce the item for stock from the amount of +$1,500 given above, which would represent the cost of partly grown +pullets. + +Assuming that the complete poultry plant already stocked will cost $3,500, +we must add to the budget of the prospective poultryman a sum for the +purchase of a farm of from 5 acres upward, including a residence. In most +localities a small tract with a modest house can be purchased for about +$4,000. If only the land is purchased, that should be available at $200 an +acre as a subdivision of a larger tract. Assuming that a house costing +$3,000 will be suitable for the operator and his family, the total outlay +will be in the neighborhood of $7,500. Experienced poultrymen estimate +that a modest poultry farm of the type above described can be put into +operation for an investment of $5 per bird. If it is planned to begin with +a smaller flock than 1,500 individual layers, the same figures can be +applied in proportion to the number of birds to be kept. In short, the +poultry house and equipment should be estimated on the basis of not less +than $1.50 per bird and the cost of the farm, residence and stock will be +in addition to such a charge. The allowance of $1.50 per bird provides +only for simple housing facilities for the flock. + +Using these figures, it will be easy to understand the reason for the +general recommendation that a total investment of $10,000 is a requisite +for a poultry establishment from which a modest living can be obtained. +While the investment in housing, land, residence and stock may not exceed +$7,500, there will need to be sufficient capital for paying the living +expenses of the family until the flock begins laying and to enable the +operator to purchase feed and other necessary adjuncts to his +establishment before an income is obtained. + +For a flock of smaller size than the so-called maximum one-man type above +described, the costs per bird for the various items will apply in most +cases. It is, in fact, advisable to begin with a smaller flock if the +owner is inexperienced. + + +_Do's_ + +Poultry keeping must be efficiently carried on to yield returns to the +country home owner. + +Select well-drained soil that is free of infection. + +For egg production, use the Leghorn; for both meat and egg purposes, the +American breeds are best. + +Standardize on one breed if possible. + +Buy the best chicks or mature stock available. + +Use a brooder house for the young birds. + +The laying house must be well ventilated, fully lighted and easily +cleaned. + +Use latest mechanical feeding and watering devices to save labor. + +Employ artificial lighting to lengthen the hen's working day. + +Work toward the "one-man plant"--a total of 1,500 laying hens--for most +efficient results. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't try to raise poultry in buildings that may still carry infection. + +Don't economize by buying cheap chicks or breeding stock. + +Don't overlook importance of health factors and productive qualities in +determining value of stock purchased. + +Don't try to operate a poultry plant with ill-adapted buildings and +equipment. + + + + +_Chapter_ X + +SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY + + +The successful poultryman will have set up his establishment with due +attention to adequate housing, good stock, facilities for maintaining +sanitation and for creating generally favorable conditions for egg +production. His next problem will be that of adopting successful methods +of management so that he may obtain a satisfactory net income from the +investment. + +_Feeds and Feeding._--There are two groups of materials that are essential +in food rations for all ages of poultry. The organic feeds include grains +and grain by-products, hays, grasses and vegetables. The inorganic feeds +include salt to increase palatability and digestibility of the ration; +lime, to aid in building bone and body tissue as well as to furnish the +shell material; bone ash, especially for growing chicks, and water in +liberal amounts supplied by a fountain as well as from succulent green +foods. The fact that a dozen eggs contain approximately one pint of water +demonstrates the necessity of having drinking water before the flock at +all times. + +The feeding of baby chicks, young stock and laying hens has been +scientifically worked out by research and practical experience over a +period of many years. The poultryman, especially if he is a novice, will +do well if he carefully observes the recommendations of competent +authorities. The ration for each of the three ages will consist of a grain +feed and a dry mash composed of grain by-products reinforced with +materials that supply the birds' daily nutrition requirements. + +The following rations and recommendations for management have been +prepared by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, +New Jersey: + + CHICK RATION + + Baby Chick Grain + + 200 pounds finely cracked yellow corn + 100 pounds cracked wheat + + Fed morning and evening, beginning when chicks are 36 hours old. + + Baby Chick Mash + + 20 pounds ground yellow corn + 20 pounds wheat bran + 20 pounds flour middlings + 20 pounds pinhead oats + 10 pounds meat scrap (50 per cent protein) + 5 pounds dried buttermilk or skim-milk + 2 pounds oyster shell meal or limestone flour or bone meal + 2 pounds cod liver oil (mixed with the pinhead oats) + 1 pound table salt + + This mash is fed to the chicks as soon as they are placed under the + brooder stove. It may be placed in hoppers. Let the chicks have all + they want to eat; some of the mash should be before them at all + times. + + Teach the chicks where to find the warmth by enclosing them for a few + days with a 1/2 inch mesh wire one foot high and set from 10 to 12 + inches from the edge of the hover. + + Put some clean grit on bits of cardboard in several places around the + hover when the chicks are first brought from the incubator. + + A little sour skim-milk or semi-solid buttermilk, diluted 1 to 7 in + founts should be available from the beginning. + + After the chicks are 60 hours old or when you are sure they are + hungry, begin to feed, using cardboard in the same manner as before. + Follow the feeding chart. + + Feed little and often. Keep the chicks slightly hungry. + + Watch for dead chicks and remove them as soon as they are noticed. + + Attend to heaters early and late; be sure at all times that they are + in good working order. + + Clean out litter, particularly beneath the hover as often as it + becomes soiled. + + Induce exercise and keep the youngsters occupied. + + Get them out-of-doors as early as possible, even if only for a few + minutes in the warmer part of the day. + + Feed green feed. Feed early and late. Keep the chicks growing. + +_Growing Stock Ration._--The baby chick mash can be used for feeding the +growing birds, omitting the cod liver oil if they are on range. The baby +chick grain ration can be used also during this period but it need not be +so finely cracked. Plenty of grain should be available at all times. + +_Laying Ration._--When the birds are getting ready to lay, the ration +should be changed so that during the winter laying season the mash will +include equal amounts of yellow corn meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, +ground heavy oats and meat scrap. Twenty-five per cent of dried buttermilk +or skim-milk may be substituted for an equal amount of meat scrap. + +The grain ration should consist of equal amounts of cracked or whole +yellow corn and wheat. This should be fed in the late afternoon, giving +sufficient to satisfy the appetites of the birds between the time of going +to roost and a light morning meal. It should be fully consumed by eight +o'clock in the morning. Adequate consumption of mash is a prime requisite +in egg production. The feeding of semi-solid buttermilk at the rate of 3 +to 5 pounds to 100 hens daily is recommended. Ten pounds of mangel beets +per 100 hens or 1 square inch of well-sprouted oats per bird will supply +needed green food during the winter. + +In many cases it will be found more satisfactory to purchase ready mixed +rations from a local dealer who handles reliable and scientifically +compounded feeds for poultry. This is particularly applicable where the +number of birds is of ordinary proportions. Little, if any, economy will +be found in purchasing small quantities of each ingredient and attempting +to thoroughly mix them at home. If the flock is very large there may be +worth-while economy in home-mixing of the ration. The efficient poultryman +will compare the cost of branded feeds with ingredient costs to guard +against being overcharged. + +In addition to the standard rations the growing stock and laying birds +should have access at all times to grit, shell and charcoal, kept in +suitable containers. These may be obtained of the local dealer. + +_Sanitation._--When growing stock and laying hens are kept under modern +intensive conditions the observance of the rules of sanitation is +essential. Failure to observe them is likely to result in loss of +production, serious sickness of the flock and the nullifying of all other +constructive factors. + +Dropping boards beneath the roosts must be cleaned frequently and +regularly to prevent accumulation of filth. If the dropping boards are +constructed of matched lumber with the boards running in the direction in +which they are to be scraped it will facilitate the cleaning process. + +Before the birds are placed in winter quarters the laying house should be +thoroughly cleaned of all litter and debris. The interior may then be +thoroughly sprayed with a disinfectant composed of some good coal tar +preparation, and this repeated in the spring. The surface will need to be +painted with a good disinfectant, of which there are a number of +commercial preparations on the market. A close watch should be made for +vermin in the house and on the birds, and if lice or similar parasites are +discovered, immediate action should be taken to destroy both the adults +and the eggs, since these parasites will debilitate the flock and prevent +their development and may seriously check their ability to lay. + +_Management of Artificial Lights._--The electric lights mentioned in the +previous chapter should be turned on about four-thirty in the morning and +kept on until daylight or used for an hour in the late evening. When +lights are used there should be plenty of food and water available to +enable the birds to take advantage of the additional feeding period. The +scratch grain should be increased by 2 pounds daily for each hundred birds +when lights are used. Many poultrymen find it advantageous to have a low +wattage light burning all night so that hungry individuals may get a meal +and return to the perches at all times. Three to five kilowatt hours per +month for each hundred birds represents the average current consumption +where lights are used. + +_Practical Suggestions for Efficient Management._--A number of successful +poultrymen were recently asked to state the requisites for success in the +poultry industry, with particular reference to what is known as the +one-man poultry flock. Such a flock is of adequate size to take +practically the full time of one person in its operation. As the result of +the development of standardized feeding practices, improved equipment and +better methods of management, the maximum number of birds that can be +successfully managed by one person has greatly increased in recent years. +Likewise, the problems of proper feeding, adequate disease control and +successful selling have increased as the size of the unit has grown and as +greater intensiveness is practiced. + +All of the successful men questioned advised that the keeping of poultry +should be begun in a small way in order that experience can be gained +without the risk of losing the initial investment, or that the intending +operator should gain practical knowledge of the business by working on a +poultry farm for a year. Valuable knowledge can also be gained by +attending short courses in poultry husbandry that are being offered at +most agricultural colleges with a very moderate expenditure of funds. + +One of these successful men writes as follows: "We are working with a man +now who was let out of a position recently but who has some savings and +who desires to go into the poultry business. He has purchased six acres of +ground, has built a bungalow on it and has the foundations in for three +laying houses of 500 birds' capacity each. He will have ample range for a +two-yards system for each laying house, and, in addition, will have two +ranges to alternate yearly for growing his young stock. His program calls +for putting out about 2,400 chicks yearly from which he should have at +least 1,000 pullets, which he will house in two of the laying houses. The +following year he will carry over about 500 of these birds and can fill up +with 1,000 pullets. This is to be a one-man plant with possibly some +assistance in the spring. + +"I feel that 1,500 birds is the minimum required from which one man can +make a living, and five acres devoted to poultry, properly laid out, is +sufficient area for this purpose. If more land is available, so much the +better. These are minimum requirements, as I see it, and with regular feed +deliveries directly to the poultry house, running water and other +labor-saving devices, there is no reason why one man cannot successfully +take care of this number of birds, particularly where a man is starting on +new ground where there have never been any chickens and therefore less +chance of disease. We advise buying baby chicks rather than partly grown +or mature stock. If he follows a definite economic and sanitary program +right from the start, there is no reason why his plant should not carry on +profitably, indefinitely." + +This practical man says further: "It is our experience that the majority +of the people going into the poultry business go in 'blind.' Their chicken +houses are put up irrespective of range facilities and then after two or +three years when they begin to run into trouble they find their mistakes. +I would suggest that you point out to prospective poultrymen the +advisability of first, buying land and developing their own poultry plant +rather than trying to make over someone else's plant; second, buying in a +location where buying and selling facilities have been developed; third, +getting in touch with a reliable local poultryman for guidance in laying +out his plant and following only one advisor. By hooking up with only one +poultryman he is presented with one way of doing things which this +poultryman has found successful in his own business." + +Another successful man states that the most economical time to start the +business is in the spring when day-old chicks can be secured and purchased +at a lower cost than is possible in the buying of laying stock at other +seasons of the year. He further advises that the greatest mistake made by +many starting in the poultry business is the lack of adequate capital. Too +many invest all of their money before any income can be secured, according +to this man. Should there be a set-back during the first year or two, +there is no way of continuing and the whole investment may be lost. + +Still another practical man states that "Site is, in my opinion, the most +important factor to be considered after the decision is made that a person +wishes to go into the poultry business. Successful poultry keeping +probably requires more careful selection of a farm than any other +agricultural industry. There should be light soil with good air and water +drainage and an area of sufficient size to permit shifting the poultry on +different areas as a means of preventing disease infection and as a means +of securing vigor in the birds." He, too, points out that old poultry +farms should not be considered by prospective poultrymen unless they have +been approved by an expert in these lines, for the reason that these farms +are frequently offered for sale because of persistent disease infection +which it is very difficult to eliminate, or because of some fundamental +difficulty, such as poor soil drainage. + +"In the construction of buildings," continues this experienced poultryman, +"sufficient housing should be provided to prevent overcrowding and the +difficulties that come in the train of that condition. About three square +feet of floor space per bird is required for the lighter breeds such as +Leghorns, and four to five square feet per bird for the heavier breeds. +For the one-man plant, the recommendation is for a maximum of about 1,500 +birds. This would require from 4,500 to 5,250 square feet of floor space +suitably arranged for the lighter breeds of the Leghorn type. For the +young stock to be used as replacements, seven to ten brooder houses, 10 by +12 feet in size, would be required and about the same number of range +shelters, usually 6 by 8 feet, for the purpose of sheltering growing young +stock from hot sun and heavy rains when they are out on range." + +_Probable Net Income._--Many persons who have started in the poultry +business have been misled as to the amount of net income they will be +likely to receive from a one-man plant. It is pretty well established that +in normal times a net income of from $1,500 to $2,500 annually can be +secured from a plant housing 1,500 birds. A great deal depends, of course, +upon the skill of the operator, and a plant of this size requires the full +time of one competent person. It should be borne in mind that this net +income is in addition to the residence and such food as would be taken in +the form of poultry products and from the garden. + +_Sales Management._--Every prospective poultry keeper should determine the +marketing possibilities for the product in the area under consideration +before he makes a choice of location. There are at least four methods of +marketing eggs and poultry meat, any one of which can be used exclusively +or two or more used in combination as a means of disposing of the product +to the best advantage. The system that he will adopt will depend largely +upon his location, as well as upon his individual preference, and upon the +facilities that are available in the area where he operates. + +In many sections of the country there are cooperative egg marketing +associations where the eggs are received in bulk from the producers, are +graded and marketed in large quantities, the producer receiving the full +selling value less, of course, the costs of operating the distributing +agency. In the northeastern states, egg auctions have been very +successfully developed. Under this system the individual producer brings +his eggs to the auction market where they are graded and sold on the basis +of weight, size and other factors pertaining to quality. In this method of +selling the producer receives a definite price for his eggs less a small +charge per case made by the selling agency. + +A successful type of direct marketing is through roadside stands. This is +especially successful in or near large centers of population where eggs +can be purchased, together with other farm commodities, at the same stand. +Another method is the operation of a retail route in which the producer +sells the eggs by the door-to-door method in a near-by city. This method +is followed successfully by many poultrymen who deliver eggs as regularly +as the milk distributor or the baker deliver their products. + +Still another method is the use of mail or express as a means of +transporting the eggs to consumers in urban centers. This method, while +largely in use some years ago, has not proved so generally successful as +have some of the other methods previously given. + +A well-organized program of work is essential in successful poultry +keeping. The following schedule is followed by many successful poultrymen +as a means of distributing their time to the best advantage during the +day. + +A POULTRYMAN'S DAILY TIME TABLE + + Based on a One-man 1,500-bird Farm Producing Market Eggs + 7:00-8:00 A.M.--Feed and water all stock. + 8:00-9:00 A.M.--Fill mash hoppers and clean dropping boards. + 9:00-11:00 A.M.--Two hours for cleaning houses, cultivating yards, + repairing of buildings, preparation of egg cases, + packing eggs and miscellaneous jobs. + 11:00-12:00 M.--Feed green feed and collect eggs. + 12:00-1:00 P.M.--Lunch hour. + 1:00-2:00 P.M.--Water all stock. + 2:00-4:00 P.M.--Same work as from 9:00 to 11:00 A.M. + 4:00-5:00 P.M.--Feed and collect eggs. + +_Ducks, Geese, Turkeys and Other Fowl._--While the raising and keeping of +chickens occupy the largest and most important part of the general +operation of poultry keeping, there is a growing interest in the +production of other types of fowl, including ducks, geese, turkeys, and in +some instances, guinea fowl and pheasants. Each of these really +constitutes a separate and distinct poultry industry, requiring specific +feeding, breeding and management practices. Some of the fundamental +factors in the care of these types of poultry are given for the beginner. +In the case of these fowl, as in chickens, it is essential to start in a +small way and develop as experience dictates. + +_Ducks._--From a rather obscure and unknown source of poultry meat, the +duck and the duckling have become common to restaurants and the home +table. This has been accomplished through the operations of large +commercial duck farms which sell hundreds of thousands of birds annually. +The selection of breed types, proper feeding and management and skillful +marketing have made it possible to attract a wide public interest and an +appetite for these fowls on a permanent basis. + +The best known varieties of ducks are the Indian Runner, a small type and +primarily an egg producer; the Muscovy and the Pekin, both of which are +used for meat purposes, the former being best adapted to general farm use +and the latter to intensive breeding on large establishments devoted +solely to the purpose of duck raising. The old simile, "Like a duck takes +to water," implies the fondness of ducks for the aquatic element. However, +ducks will do well without swimming facilities. + +Incubation of duck eggs can be carried on in the same manner as chicken +eggs, except that more moisture is essential to good hatches. The period +of incubation is 28 days for all types, except for the Muscovy, for which +it is 33 to 35 days. The growing birds, like mature ducks, are hardy and +ordinarily show a much lower mortality percentage than chickens. If only a +few ducks are kept, they will follow the habits of a flock of chickens and +need be given no special attention. When they are raised without other +poultry an open shed is all that is necessary for winter quarters and +some shade arrangement for protection against hot summer sun. + +The feed rations that have been given for baby chicks and growing stock +can be used for ducks, or any standard commercial feed for the respective +ages. It is recommended that the chick and growing mashes be mixed with +fine, chopped greens such as cabbage or lawn clippings, and sufficient +water added to the mixture to make it moist. One pound of sand or grit may +be added to furnish the duck with grinding material. Fresh water in +shallow dishes should be available during the feeding periods which ought +to be three times a day. For the mature birds, the laying mash, previously +given, and moistened, will be found satisfactory with fresh greens added, +unless grass is available on range. Hoppers containing sand or grit should +be available if a number of ducks are kept. + +_Geese._--Geese can be raised successfully wherever other types of poultry +will grow. That they are not so popular as ducks is shown by the fact that +only about one-third as many geese as ducks are raised in this country. +The most popular breeds, in order of popularity, are Toulouse, Embden, +African and Chinese. The Toulouse is the largest and most favored, the +mature gander weighing 26 pounds and the adult goose about 20 pounds. + +Geese are usually kept in small numbers in areas where there is an +abundance of grass and a supply of water for swimming. They, like ducks, +are hardy and are rarely affected with diseases or parasites. A plentiful +supply of grass is sufficient feed for the growing goslings. The demand +and prices for geese are lower than for most other types of poultry. For +housing, only a shed in winter and a sun-shade in summer are required. + +The period of incubation varies from 30 to 35 days, depending upon the +size of the breed. The young goslings are easily killed by excessive +moisture or may become lost and therefore they require considerable +attention during the early stages. A good food for the goslings is stale +bread soaked in milk or water, fed after they are 48 hours old. Scalded +cracked corn may also be given or a mash made of four parts corn meal and +one part grain middlings. Plenty of drinking water is essential. Whole +grain may be fed after the goslings are well feathered. When the geese +near the marketing period they should be kept in confinement and fed a +moist mash made of one part grain shorts and two parts corn meal. A +bedding of short straw will keep the fattening pens clean and provide +roughage. Best prices are obtainable during the late fall and early winter +months. + +_Turkeys._--Because the turkey is such a popular form of meat during the +holidays and so much attention is directed to it as an indigenous native +bird, it rivals the American eagle as a national emblem. Turkey raising on +a commercial scale has had its ups and downs for a great many years. One +of the principal scourges has been the so-called black-head disease and +this has destroyed the industry in many areas. It is now known that this +disease is carried by a small parasitic worm common to chickens, which, +however, it apparently does not seriously injure. The black-head germ, +carried by this worm, clogs the blood in the head of the turkey and causes +quick death. For this reason, it has been found impracticable to raise +turkeys where chickens are present, unless they are kept entirely separate +by confinement. + +The principal varieties of domesticated turkeys are the Bronze, White +Holland, Bourbon Red, Black, Narragansett and Slate. All are large, +handsome birds, each breed having a following of admirers. The Bronze is +the largest and heaviest and most popular, the mature adult male weighing +36 pounds and the mature hen 20 pounds. Under ordinary conditions turkeys +do not require much in the way of housing, except in cold weather when +covered roosting sheds should be available. The period of incubation is +28 days and they may be hatched under the same conditions as chickens. The +day-old young birds, or poults as they are called, can be shipped in the +same manner as day-old chicks. + +For feeding the poults, the United States Department of Agriculture +recommends fine-chopped hard-boiled eggs, including the shell, mixed with +green feed for the first ten days. This may be followed by feeding the +chick ration previously mentioned. Milk, especially buttermilk, is +excellent for the poults, and grit must be provided if it is not available +on range. Cod liver oil will be found helpful if added to the ration. +Turkeys are great rangers and travelers if they have the opportunity and +will pick up enough insects to keep them going through the day. A grain +ration should be fed just before they go to roost. Where they are raised +in confinement, or semi-confinement, more food must be given and under +these conditions the strictest sanitation must be practiced. + +Both old and young turkeys should be protected from dampness, and the +growing birds, especially, kept free from lice. The turkey grower who +practices the best systems of management and feeding will be successful +and will find a ready market for his product at Thanksgiving and during +the Christmas holidays. A few birds may be successfully kept in +confinement and used as a home-raised source of high quality meat during a +considerable portion of the year. + +_Guinea Fowl._--The guinea is known for its watch-dog proclivities, making +a characteristic raucous noise when strangers appear; for the rich quality +of the eggs which are produced in good quantity; and for the delectability +of the breast meat when properly prepared. The young guinea may be fed as +has been recommended for young chicks. The older birds are excellent +foragers and require little attention. The country home owner, if he does +not object to their noise, will find a few of these unusual birds an +interesting and valuable asset. + +_Pheasants._--Many persons with a flair for the new and unusual are +successfully raising pheasants, the Ring Neck variety being the most +popular. While they are not so hardy as chickens and must be given some +added care for that reason, they may be fed in the same manner and kept +successfully in confinement. Pheasants may be used as an additional source +of income since they are nearly always in demand for meat. The eggs may be +hatched in incubators or by hens and the young pheasants brooded like +chicks. The period of incubation is 21 days. Shelter is not necessary +except in extremely cold weather and not then if trees or shrubs are +available. Detailed information on game bird production can be obtained +from More Game Birds in America, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York City. + + +_Do's_ + +Net income depends upon efficient management and each phase of the latter +must be mastered. + +Feed a well-balanced chick ration to the very young and growing stock. + +Be sure the ration fed to laying stock is adapted to their needs in egg +production. + +Sanitation measures are fundamental in good management and their neglect +may be fatal. + +Follow the management recommendations of practical and successful +poultrymen. + +Use the marketing system best adapted to the locality and the personal +factor of sales ability. + +Determine possibilities of selling ducks, geese, turkeys and other fowl as +a means of supplementing income from chickens. + +Remember each type of poultry requires specific management. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't neglect scientific feeding of the poultry flock. + +Don't go into poultry production on a large scale without experience. + +Don't neglect local markets as outlets for the sale of eggs and poultry +and don't make shipment of eggs and stock to commission houses of unknown +rating. + +Don't over-extend in poultry investment to the point where temporary +reversal would be disastrous. + + + + +_Chapter_ XI + +THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY + + +Living in the country should make possible an adequate and safe milk +supply for the family. The transportation of milk from the farm and its +distribution in the city constitute a costly process under present +methods, and this limits consumption. Furthermore, the ordering in advance +of a definite quantity each day means as a rule that only the milk +delivered will be consumed. A maximum amount of milk is thereby set, based +upon factors that may be alien to real needs of the family for this food +beverage. Using milk and dairy products freely from a near-by supply will +contribute much to the health of the entire family and especially of the +children. The term "family" is used in this case to denote two or three +adults and the same number of children. + +Nutritional experts declare that milk is the most important of the +"protective" foods. Scientists agree that milk protects by providing in +the best form those necessities which are often lacking in other foods. +Milk supplies calcium so necessary for sound bones and teeth, phosphorus, +easily digested protein, butter fat and milk sugar. Most important of all +are the vitamins found in milk. Milk acquires these properties from the +cow, a living factory manufacturing milk from raw products, which are the +foods the cow eats--the pasture grasses and the cured hay, supplemented +with carefully blended grain rations. Nutrition authorities recommend at +least a quart of milk daily for every child and ample amounts for adults +as well. + +_Sources of Milk Supply._--The country resident will have little +difficulty in securing an adequate supply of wholesome milk at low cost. +He may obtain it from a neighbor who is in the dairy business or he may +maintain a cow or two where the area is large enough to provide some +pasturage and where a building for stabling is available. + +If the milk is bought from some near-by farm it is important that the +purchaser assure himself of the health of the cows producing the milk and +of the sanitary conditions surrounding production and handling. Quality in +milk is much more than cream content. Cleanliness in production and +handling is far more important, and this the country resident can +personally determine by occasional visits to the source of supply, an +advantage difficult for the urban resident to attain. Quality in milk is +not necessarily measured by the investment in the milking barn or the +showy external features of the producing and handling plant. + +The essential factors in the production of clean, wholesome milk are +healthy, clean cows; healthy milkers; clean, sterile utensils; and +sanitary stables and premises. These conditions can be attained by any +careful dairyman and can be checked by any layman interested in securing a +dependable supply of safe milk. The purchaser should insist that the cows +be tested regularly under government supervision for tuberculosis and the +reactors to the test removed from the herd. This is important in all +circumstances and particularly so where the milk is consumed in the +unprocessed state by children. + +_Producing Milk at Home._--It is entirely feasible for the rural family to +produce at home an ample supply of milk at low cost. To do this it is only +necessary to have stabling facilities for one or two cows and to have a +member of the family sufficiently interested to feed, care for and milk +the cow or cows. If this plan is to be followed the owner, if he is +inexperienced, should enlist the aid of a neighbor or friend in making the +purchase. The animal should be fresh, that is, just starting the period of +lactation, and preferably not more than four or five years of age. A cow +that is fresh can be judged as to ability to produce good milk from all +four quarters of the udder in adequate amount. + +_Selecting the Family Cow._--The breed to be selected is not important, +except that for family use a cow of the so-called Channel breeds (Guernsey +or Jersey) is considered better adapted because of the higher butter fat +content of the milk as compared with the Holstein-Friesian, for example, +which usually produces a larger total quantity of milk with less butter +fat. It is not necessary to purchase a pure-bred animal of any of the +breeds, so far as milk production is concerned. On the other hand, a +pure-bred registered cow may often be purchased at moderate cost. The +owner will undoubtedly take greater pride in such an animal and her +offspring will have higher selling value. + +In making a purchase the new owner should insist upon having a tuberculin +test chart delivered with the animal, and certification as to freedom from +contagious abortion (B. abortus) should also be obtained if possible. If +production records have been kept during the animal's previous lactation +periods, these should be secured, as they will definitely indicate +milk-producing ability over a considerable period of time. For family use +a cow that produces milk steadily in uniform amounts over eight or ten +months is far more desirable than one which produces a large volume +following freshening and then slumps off rapidly. + + +[Illustration: Desirable types of utensils for a small dairy. _A._ Crock +for temporary milk storage or for gravity separation of cream. _B._ +Milking stool. _C._ Twenty-quart milk can and cover. _D._ Strainer. _E._ +Stirrer. _F._ Circulating water cooler for freshly drawn milk (not +essential for a one- or two-cow dairy if other cooling practices are +followed). _G._ Sanitary covered-top milk pail. _H._ Measuring rod. _I._ +Small churn for family butter making.] + + +_Importance of Pasture._--Pasturage plays so important a part in +economical milk production and in contributing to the health of the animal +that it is unwise to consider keeping one's own cow unless 3 or 4 acres of +pasture land per animal are available. When the cow is on pasture from May +until November no other roughage is required, provided of course the +grasses and clovers are plentiful. Plenty of water is essential, and if +this is not made available by a stream in the pasture, it will be +necessary to furnish drinking water three times daily. + +_Stabling and Feeding._--From early November until May it will be +necessary to provide stabling facilities, roughage in the form of hay, +ensilage or beet pulp, and concentrated feed to keep the animal producing. +About 3 tons of good timothy-and-clover hay or alfalfa will be needed per +animal during these six months. Storage room will be needed in the +building for the hay and for the concentrated feed. A good practice is to +keep the cow in a box stall 12 by 14 feet in size. Ample bedding should be +provided, consisting of straw, wood shavings, shredded corn stalks, peat +moss or dried leaves. These will absorb the liquid manure and after such +use should be applied to the garden or other land areas for fertilizing +purposes. + +The daily ration of the cow when stabled will consist of from 15 to 25 +pounds of hay daily and 1 pound of concentrated feed for each 3-1/2 pounds +of milk being produced. (A quart of milk weighs about 2.2 pounds.) Milk +flow can be stimulated and the health of the cow conserved by feeding +moistened beet pulp, where silage is not available. This may be purchased +locally at the feed store, where the grain concentrate may also be +obtained. The latter can be bought in bags and a mixture analyzing about +20 per cent protein is recommended. When the cow is on pasture the grain +ration may be reduced by one-third or one-half, depending upon the quality +of the pasture available. + +_Cost of Milk Production._--Where all of the feed mentioned above is +purchased, the cost per quart of the milk will approximate 3 cents, +excluding labor and overhead costs of buildings, etc. This cost can be +reduced if pasture does not have to be rented and if some of the other +food requirements are raised at home. + +_Management._--Feeding the cow twice daily and milking at the same +interval will give the best results. Morning and evening are usually the +most convenient times for milking and the same hourly routine should be +observed daily. Feeding the grain ration after milking is desirable. A +good practice is to furnish hay and beet pulp between milkings. + +To insure cleanliness of the milk, the udder and teats may be wiped with a +damp cloth before milking. Flanks and the udder should be clipped of hair, +thus facilitating a clean condition of the animal at all times. Soiled +bedding should be removed and clean material substituted as required. + +The normal cow should produce an average of 10 quarts of milk daily over a +period of ten months. In the remaining two months the cow will not be +producing milk but will be resting and building up body reserves for the +coming period of lactation. The cow should be bred about nine months +before it is desired to have her bear a calf. The time of year when such +freshening should occur is not important, although either spring or fall +months are considered best, to avoid weather and temperature extremes at +the critical calving period. Under this plan it will be noted that the +family will not have milk from home sources for two months during the +year. The alternative is to have two cows, one freshening in April and the +other in October, ensuring a continuous supply, or to purchase milk during +the "dry" period. + +_Utilizing a Large Supply of Milk._--The urban consumer of milk accustomed +to 1 or 2 quarts daily may wonder how an average of 10 quarts or more per +day can be utilized. Plenty of uses will be found for the product. Milk +will be used more often as a beverage; cream will be found delightful in +many ways, in the form of butter and home-made ice cream, for example; and +cheeses will provide an outlet for surplus whole or skimmed milk. Milk of +good quality can be disposed of readily to neighbors. If two families own +one cow each, a plan may be worked out for furnishing each other with milk +when one cow or the other is not producing. Wherever facilities are +available and there is a willingness to care for a family cow or two, the +availability of large amounts of milk will compensate for the trouble and +bring health and vigor to the rural family. + +_The Goat as a Source of Milk Supply._--The milk goat is especially useful +to those who desire a smaller quantity of milk than that produced by a cow +and where the space is inadequate for keeping a larger milk-producing +animal. In composition, goat's milk closely resembles that of the cow, the +butter fat ranging from 3.2 per cent to 4.4 per cent with total solids of +nearly 12 per cent. The average production of a good milk goat is about 2 +quarts of milk daily, sufficient for many a family. The milk is pure +white in color and the cream rises very slowly. If goat's milk is properly +produced and handled, the bad odor, associated with the animal in the +public mind, should not be present. Keeping dirt or hair out of the milk +when it is being drawn, and clean quarters, are essential in eliminating +odor in the milk. It has been proved that goat's milk is especially +valuable for children and invalids and exceeds cow's milk in ease of +digestibility. + +Goats are in their prime at about five years of age, but will continue to +produce milk for several years after that. They should be bred twice a +year. The usual number of kids is two, although occasionally four are born +at one time. The period between breeding and giving birth is about five +months. Goats may be successfully fed with the same rations as the dairy +cow. Although they consume only about one-seventh as much feed as the cow, +the common impression that the goat can produce milk on practically no +feed is erroneous. A ration for winter feeding, suggested by the United +States Department of Agriculture, consists of 2 pounds of alfalfa or +clover hay, 1-1/2 pounds of silage or roots and from 1 to 2 pounds of a +concentrated grain ration, composed of 100 pounds of corn, 100 pounds of +oats, 50 pounds of bran and 25 pounds of linseed meal. In the summer when +pasture is available they should be fed 1 to 1-1/2 pounds of the grain +mixture. Data from experiment stations indicate that the annual feed cost +of a milk goat is about $11 and the feed cost per quart of milk produced, +about 1-1/2 cents. + +Good milk goats bring good prices and in most instances will cost almost +as much as a cow. They are much more prolific, however, permitting more +rapid additions and offering greater revenue from the sales of young +animals, wherever there is a market for them. The two principal breeds are +the Toggenburg and the Saanen, both originating in Switzerland, and the +Spanish Maltese whose original home was in the island of Malta. Goats are +thoroughly domesticated, are contented with a small grazing area and may +be easily handled. They are subject to stomach worms, indicated by loss of +flesh and weakness, and to Malta fever, which can be transmitted to man, +in whom it is evidenced by recurring high temperatures. The former can be +controlled by using, as a drench, a copper sulfate solution of 1 ounce to +3 quarts of water. Where the latter trouble is present the milk should be +pasteurized or scalded before it is consumed. As an economical source of +easily digested milk, the goat is recommended, especially to those +families with rather small acreage. They can make the most of poorer +pasturage, are clean in habits and docile. + + +_Do's_ + +Use milk freely for its food value to every member of the family. + +Make sure of the quality of the milk purchased. + +Acquiring a family cow is the best and cheapest source of an adequate milk +supply. + +Management of the right kind will make the family cow an invaluable asset. + +Learn to use surplus milk in nutritious and palatable ways. + +Determine the possibilities of securing from the goat an adequate milk +supply for a small family. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't use canned milk except as supplement to liberal, fresh supply. + +Don't overlook the need of pasturage for economical milk production. + +Don't supply family with milk of doubtful sanitary quality. + +Don't neglect to have a veterinarian make health tests of the cow or +goat. + + + + +_Chapter_ XII + +MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS + + +The distribution of farm products on an efficient basis is one of the most +difficult problems in agriculture. Because of the demand of the consumer +for small quantities of products at each purchase, the breaking up of +wholesale packages, involving additional labor and containers and the +elimination of unfit specimens, increases handling costs and delays the +arrival of the product from the farm to the consumer. In recent years the +producer has sought various means of eliminating some of these costs of +distribution so that he could get a larger share of the consumer's dollar, +and the consumer has welcomed the opportunity of buying products direct +from the producer. + +Unquestionably, one of the best means of selling farm commodities is +through the medium of roadside markets that have now become so common +along the principal highways of the country. These range in type from the +display of a few baskets of farm commodities on the ground or on a table, +with sales of $100 a year or less, to those of a more pretentious nature +in which buildings and equipment are erected suitable to the purpose. That +there are great possibilities of developing a successful business in +selling products in this manner is evidenced by some of the more elaborate +markets, transacting an annual business of $30,000 or more. In most cases +these have been developed from small beginnings and the facilities have +increased as the good reputation of the market has spread. + +_Advantages of Roadside Marketing._--From the standpoint of the producer +or the operator of the roadside stand, there are certain advantages that +have contributed to the growth of the movement. For example, there is no +expense or time involved in delivering the products to a distant market, +since the produce is sold by a member of the household, or by the +operator's employees in the larger types of markets. It is possible +through such a market to build up a clientele of buyers who will return +for further purchases. They will tell their friends about the good +quality, dependable produce which they have been able to purchase at some +particular stand. Furthermore, a wide variety of products can be sold in +this way at one stand, which might have to be segregated and shipped to +different markets if some other method of marketing were being followed. +This would add considerably to the expense of selling, especially where +the volume of each commodity is small. Furthermore, in such a method of +selling, the producer comes in direct contact with the consumer. Ideas are +exchanged, mutual confidence is developed and both should share +financially in the advantages accruing from eliminating ordinary means of +distribution. + +_Problems in Roadside Marketing._--On the other hand, there are certain +disadvantages of roadside selling which operate against successful +merchandising in such a manner. These should be fully considered in +deciding how the surplus farm products are to be disposed of. Due to the +difficulty experienced by many potential buyers in getting satisfactory +produce, they have become discouraged and will often drive by all roadside +markets rather than take a chance on buying commodities that may be +misrepresented. Naturally, this works against the development of adequate +business and makes it necessary for the individual to spend considerable +time and effort in selling himself and his market to the public and in +creating confidence and good will. + +There is necessarily some loss due to depreciation in the quality of +perishable commodities. In many cases it is necessary to expose these +commodities to the sun and weather, and if they are not sold promptly +they will not long maintain the standard of quality which the operator +must have identified with his market. The operator has no knowledge of the +number of customers he will have when he displays his products, nor does +he know the whims of the individuals who may patronize his market that +day. To avoid the losses resulting from unsold products it is desirable to +have some other outlet which will absorb unused quantities, even though +the price is not so good as would be secured from ordinary sales at the +market. Many of the commodities can be delivered to some wholesale market +to be sold for what they will bring. Another outlet that is available is +through canning or preserving the commodities and selling them later in +the season under the label carried by the roadside stand. + +It should be borne in mind that the business of operating a roadside +market has its own peculiar problems and success in it depends upon +following good merchandising principles, to which are added those finer +points which pertain to direct selling. The attitude of the public must be +studied and plans for promoting sales must be adopted which will result in +attracting and holding customers. Beyond doubt, the two most important +factors in the operation of a successful roadside market are +attractiveness of the stand itself and the quality of the products that +are offered for sale. + +_Plans for a Roadside Market._--A roadside market need not be expensive to +be attractive. The thought motivating the whole project should be to +create in the buyer's mind a farm scene, laying emphasis upon such factors +as are easily associated in the public mind with farming. These include +neatness of the establishment, cleanliness and honesty in every phase of +the operation. One should not undertake to run a roadside market in +competition, so far as appearance goes, with the corner grocery store in +the city. It should have an individuality of its own and be _of_ the +country as well as _in_ the country. + +The location of the market has a great deal to do with its attractiveness. +It is well to locate it a short distance from the house, so that it stands +out as a market, and it should be placed back from the highway to permit +motorists to drive off the highway in making stops for purchases. In some +states, highway regulations require that such stands be located far enough +from the highway to permit all four wheels of a standing vehicle to be off +the road surface. If the stand can be located under some good shade trees, +that in itself constitutes an invitation to the sun-blinded traveler to +stop and partake of the commodities offered for sale. + + +[Illustration: A wayside market that meets every need and attracts +buyers.] + + +So far as the design of the market itself is concerned, there are endless +opportunities for one's genius to be brought into operation. It should be +borne in mind that, while there are certain standard requirements in the +way of display shelves and facilities for keeping reserve stocks +immediately available, as well as a safe container for funds, originality +in design attracts attention. Here again, the design should not be +obtrusive, but one that blends with the atmosphere of the place where the +stand is set up. It must convey the impression that the owner of the +property is himself the operator of the stand and has transferred to the +stand the same interest which is manifested in his home and its immediate +surroundings. + +Most purchasers at roadside stands want to see the whole display without +having to stumble over baskets and other articles to find out what is +offered, and they expect prompt attention. As a general rule, the more +nearly the stand can supply the complete needs of the purchaser in that +field, the more likely are buyers to stop and become regular patrons. In +addition to the display of seasonable fruits and vegetables, it is +desirable to have eggs and dairy products, including butter, cottage +cheese, canned fruits or jellies that have the home-made farm atmosphere +about them. + +In most cases, ice is available or electric refrigeration can be utilized +for keeping cold milk, buttermilk, cider and other products available for +immediate consumption for the hot and thirsty traveler in the summertime. +Hot coffee or hot chocolate can be made available for service in colder +weather. Very often the road-stand operator destroys the genuine sales +appeal that such stands have by specializing in manufactured concoctions +that have no relation whatever to the location where they are sold. Too +often the stands are covered with advertisements of such commodities, and +this immediately creates sales resistance so far as the promotion of fresh +farm products is concerned. + +_Origin of Products Offered._--The ordinary purchaser at a roadside market +likes to think that he is buying products raised or processed on the place +where they are sold, and believes that he is thereby securing fresher and +better commodities in which the seller has had an interest from planting +time to harvest. Certainly some of the commodities sold should come +directly from the tract where the market is located, and visual evidence +should be given of that fact. On the other hand, there is no objection to +the addition of other commodities so long as they are in accord with what +a producer might be expected to have for sale at that season of the year. +Many operators have found that the sale of gasoline and lubricating oil +and tobacco in various forms can be offered for sale to good advantage +simply as a part of the service being offered by the market to the public. + +_Quality the Keystone._--The fundamental basis for success in the +operation of any roadside market lies in the quality of the products that +are offered for sale. This is a rather difficult condition for the +operator to maintain consistently, but it is fundamental in securing +customers and in keeping them. Products that have become stale, +unattractive or unpalatable for any reason should never be offered for +sale and should be discarded, made into some by-product or sold through +some channel which will not identify the article with the stand itself. A +satisfied customer who develops confidence in the integrity and good faith +of the stand operator is a decided asset, and no effort spent in +cultivating such confidence is wasted. + +Every successful roadside stand operator has built his business on honest +dealing and a personal interest in seeing that the buyer is satisfied. +This contact between the owner of a small business and a buyer is one that +can be capitalized to a very great extent. It is one of the handicaps +which a chain-store organization has to face and one that must be +developed by the person who wishes to establish a permanent and +satisfactory business in this merchandising field. Very often the sale of +farm products can be supplemented to the advantage of the stand by +offering small ornamental plants or by the display of pet animals, +particularly for the younger members of the traveling public. + +_Success Factors._--A definite program of advertising can be developed +with many original features that apply directly to the type of business. +If the operator has pride in his products he will be glad to have his name +on every package of commodities that he sells. This is good sales +propaganda even if it only indicates the confidence of the seller in his +products and his willingness to stand behind them. Besides that, however, +it creates a knowledge of his name or the designation of his farm or stand +among purchasers who will then have a means of identifying it to their +friends. A small leaflet, describing the products that are offered for +sale and the intention of the operator to give the customer service, can +be put in each package at very small cost with good results. It is also +possible to prepare leaflets dealing with methods of cooking or of +preparation of the commodities sold that will build good will on the part +of customers. + +The most successful operators, again, are those who do not depend upon +casual visitors for their trade but who make of the casual visitor a +regular customer and one who will speak a good word to others. In other +words, genuine effort must be made to identify the location as a place to +which buyers will wish to return as they do to any other place of business +that gives satisfactory service. In this way the operator distinguishes +himself from his fly-by-night competitors who exist during a week or two +when surpluses of commodities are available at low prices and who have no +thought beyond that of the immediate sale. + +Wherever possible, the attention of the passing consumer should be +directed to the stand before he reaches it so that he will be prepared to +stop when he comes upon it. Signs of this type on either side of the +stand, but some distance each way from it, are more important than is +generally recognized. They constitute invitation cards and should be so +worded as to excite curiosity and create a feeling in the intending +purchaser's mind that he will make no mistake in stopping to fill his +wants at the stand. It goes without saying that both the advertising and +the stand itself must be so planned as to attract the purchaser, and every +effort should be concentrated on the psychology of such an appeal, +avoiding any appearance of slouchiness, which would be more repellent than +attractive. The purchaser forms a quick opinion of the stand from the way +in which it is conducted and from the appearance of the one who is there +to make sales. An attitude of cordial cooperation on the part of the +attendant, who is, of course, appropriately dressed and in the right +mental attitude, is a factor that must not be overlooked in the effort to +create a favorable impression. + +_Meal Service Amid Farm Surroundings._--Many operators, located at +strategic points near main highways, have found that maximum profits are +obtained by serving meals prepared from the vegetables supplemented by +poultry or other products of the little farm. These meals may be served in +a booth or building adjoining the roadside stand or in a room of the house +turned into a seasonal dining room. Persons who are city residents quickly +learn to appreciate the virtues of fresh vegetables and freshly killed +poultry that may be thus served. A schedule of reasonable prices must be +maintained if trade is to be built up. Usually special dinners or lunches +can be prepared from available products in season, thereby giving the +customer more for his money at the least cost and trouble to the operator. + +This small home restaurant business can be handled frequently by members +of the operator's household and countless examples can be given of real +financial success following such ventures. Expansion can take place as +consumer demand develops. Cleanliness, good home cooking, generous +portions and prompt and courteous service will work wonders in such a +project. + +_Tourist Guest Houses._--A large number of country homes are now open to +the public as tourist guest houses, their owners finding that they can +obtain a modest but worth while supplement to other forms of income from +them. These tourist guest houses are largely a development of the past +several years. Their popularity with automobile travelers appears to be +increasing, and there is genuine opportunity for the housewife on a small +farm to operate one of these establishments. + +It should be kept in mind by the housewife who thinks of opening her home +to tourists that the proposition has its drawbacks as well as its +advantages. Only a modest fee, often $1.00 for a room and 30 or 35 cents +for breakfast, is obtained from each tourist guest. However, a great +number of American women have found that the work and trouble occasioned +by taking in tourists are worth while and actually enjoy their contacts +with the traveling public. + +The tourist guest house, obviously, should be located on a road that is +well traveled by tourists. A simple and attractive "Tourists +Accommodated" sign and a neat and pleasing front yard are needed to +interest passers-by in the place. The porch should be neat and attractive +and the interior of the house should give the appearance of restfulness, +simplicity and comfort. + +Tourists usually inquire about prices and look over a place before +deciding to stop there; if there are women in the party, one of them +usually makes the inquiry. The family should be courteous in answering +questions and showing the prospective customers about. They should not be +indifferent, and yet must not seem to be too anxious for business. When +the travelers decide to stay, the family should endeavor at once to make +them feel at home. The guests will frequently ask questions about roads, +local resorts and near-by recreational facilities, and the family will +find it useful to be informed on these matters. + +_Dog Breeding as a Source of Income._--Many persons who have located in +the country, and who have a liking for domestic animals, have found dog +breeding an interesting and frequently profitable enterprise. By placing a +wire cage along the highway the attention of the traveling public is +attracted to the puppies. Some of the more popular breeds of dogs include +the Airedale; the Boston, Fox and Irish Terriers; the Chow Chow; the +Collie, and the English and Irish Setters. + +The breeding of dogs is a highly specialized activity, particularly where +it is carried on under intensive conditions and with little range. Dogs +are subject to external and internal parasites requiring preventive and +curative measures. As in the case of all other animals, sanitation is an +essential factor to success and feeding methods must be adjusted to the +age and the breed. + +The beginner in dog raising should consult a recognized veterinarian who +specializes in small animal practice, and observe his recommendations. +Such professional men are located in most communities and their advice +will be found most helpful. + +The prices obtainable for male and female young animals vary with the +locality. There is usually an established scale of prices which may easily +be obtained and which it will pay to observe. Dog shows are growing in +popularity and exhibitions at these expositions will serve to advertise +the breeder's stock. Advertising in local papers is effective in bringing +to the public the availability of stock of distinctive breeds. Fashions in +dog breeds change with the times and the public must be catered to along +the lines of current interest. + + +_Do's_ + +Use the roadside market or near-by outlets for disposing of excess farm +products. + +Fully utilize the possibilities of roadside stands in building a permanent +business. + +Road stands, as well as the products on display, must have sales appeal. + +Produce at home all farm products offered for sale, if possible, and make +the growing area the background of the market. + +Stress quality of products and the responsibility of the operator. + +Advertising of the right type will multiply sales. + +Offer meal service with farm surroundings wherever possible. + +If considerable traffic passes the premises, try out possibilities of +accommodating tourists. + + +_Don'ts_ + +Don't try to dispose of miscellaneous surplus of farm commodities by +shipment to market if a roadside market can be set up. + +Don't ruin standing of roadside market by selling inferior or stale +products. + +Don't try to run a city fruit stand with a farm background. + +Don't destroy country home life by over-commercialization. + + + + +SUGGESTED REFERENCE LIST + + +Timely and valuable publications of the United States Department of +Agriculture, state departments of agriculture and state agricultural +colleges and experiment stations are available to country residents. +Copies of them may be obtained by writing to the agencies mentioned. To +supplement them and also to supplement advice received from county +agricultural agents, a number of useful books are listed below. Those +interested in them may, in many cases, obtain them from local libraries, +or may find it useful to own certain of them themselves. + + + Author Title Year Publisher + + Agee, Alva "First Steps in Farming" 1923 Harper + + Arnold, Schuyler "Wayside Marketing" 1929 De La Mare + + Auchter, E. C., "Orchard and Small 1929 Wiley + and Knapp, H. B. Fruit Culture" + + Ayres, Q. C., and "Land Drainage and Reclamation" 1928 McGraw-Hill + Scoates, D. + + Bailey, L. H. "Manual of Gardening," 1925 Macmillan + Rev. ed. + + Bear, E. "Soil Management" 1927 Wiley + + "Theory and Practice in 1929 Wiley + the Use of Fertilizers" + + Bottomley, M. E. "Design of Small Properties; 1926 Macmillan + a Book for the Home-Owner in + City and Country." + + Bush-Brown, Mrs. "Flowers for Every Garden" 1927 Little + Louise (Carter) + + Chenoweth, W. W. "Food Preservation; a 1930 Wiley + Textbook for Student, + Teacher, Homemaker and + Home Factory Operator" + + + Chupp, C. "Manual of Vegetable 1925 Macmillan + Garden Diseases" + + "Manual of Vegetable 1925 Macmillan + Garden Insects" + + Cline, L. E. "Turkey Production" 1933 Orange Judd + + Cox, J. F. "Crop Production and 1930 Wiley + Management" + + Crosby, C. R., and "Manual of Vegetable 1918 Macmillan + Leonard, M. D. Garden Insects" + + Davenport, Eugene "The Farm" 1927 Macmillan + + Foster, W. H., and "Farm Buildings" 1928 Wiley + Carter, D. G. + + Fraser, Samuel "American Fruits; Their 1927 Judd + Propagation, Cultivation, + Harvesting and Distribution" + + Fraser, W. J. "Dairy Farming" 1930 Wiley + + Galpin, C. J. "Rural Social Problems" 1924 Century + + Gustafson, A. F. "Handbook of Fertilizers" 1932 Orange Judd + + Hottes, A. C. "1001 Garden Questions 1930 De La Mare + Answered" + + Hurd, L. M. "Practical Poultry Farming" 1931 Macmillan + + Jull, M. A. "Poultry Husbandry" 1930 McGraw-Hill + + Knott, J. E. "Vegetable Growing" 1930 Lea + + Langstroth, L. L., "Honey Bee," Rev. by 1927 American Bee + and Dadant, C. P. Dadant, Ed. 23 Journal + Charles + + Larson, C. W., and "Dairy Cattle Feeding 1928 Wiley + Putney, F. S. and Management" + + Lewis, H. R. "Productive Poultry 1928 Lippincott + Husbandry" + + Lippincott, W. A. "Poultry Production" 1927 Lea & Febiger + + Millar, C. E. "Soils and Soil Management" 1929 Webb Pub. Co. + + Murray, P. "Planning and Planting 1932 Orange Judd + the Home Garden" + + Pellett, F. C. "Productive Bee-Keeping" 1923 Lippincott + + Phillips, E. F. "Bee Keeping; a Discussion 1928 Macmillan + of the Honey Bee + and of the Production + of Honey," Rev. ed. + + Powers, W. L., and "Land Drainage 1922 Wiley + Teeter, T. A. H. for Farmers" + + Rice, J. E. "Practical Poultry Management" 1930 Wiley + + Rice, J. E., and "Practical Poultry Management" 1925 Wiley + Botsford, H. E. + + Root, A. I., and "ABC and XYZ of Bee 1923 Root + Root, E. R. Culture" + + Rose, M. S. "Feeding the Family" 1928 Macmillan + + Rowe, H. G. "Starting Right With Bees" 1922 A. I. Root Co. + + Sanderson, E. D. "Insects Pests of Farm, 1921 Wiley + Garden and Orchard," + Ed. 2, rev. and enl. by + L. M. Peairs + + Sears, F. C. "Productive Orcharding; 1927 Lippincott + Modern Methods of Growing + and Marketing Fruit" + + "Productive Small Fruit 1925 Lippincott + Culture" + + Sharp, M. A. "Principles of Farm Mechanics" 1930 Wiley + + Smith, R. H. "Agricultural Mechanics" 1925 Lippincott + + Thompson, H. C. "Vegetable Crops" 1931 McGraw-Hill + + Thorne, C. E. "Maintenance of Soil 1930 Orange Judd + Fertility" + + Watts, R. L. "Vegetable Gardening" 1921 Orange Judd + + Worthen, E. L. "Farm Soils, Their Management 1927 Wiley + and Fertilization" + + +SOME FARM AND GARDEN MAGAZINES + +_General_ + + American Agriculturist New York, N. Y. + + Country Gentleman Philadelphia, Pa. + + Farm Journal Philadelphia, Pa. + + New England Homestead Springfield, Mass. + + New Jersey Farm and Garden Sea Isle City, N. J. + + Pennsylvania Farmer Pittsburgh, Pa. + + Rural New Yorker New York, N. Y. + + +_Beekeeping_ + + American Bee Journal Hamilton, Ill. + + American Honey Producer Producers' League, Fargo, N. D. + + Bee-Cause Watertown, Wis. + + Gleanings in Bee Culture Medina, Ohio + + +_Dairying_ + + Ayrshire Digest Spencer, Mass. + + Dairy Farmer Des Moines, Iowa + + Guernsey Breeders' Journal Peterboro, N. H. + + Hoard's Dairyman Fort Atkinson, Wis. + + Holstein-Friesian World Laconia, N. Y. + + Jersey Bulletin Indianapolis, Ind. + + +_Flower Gardening_ + + American Home Garden City, N. Y. + + Better Homes and Gardens Des Moines, Iowa + + Flower Grower Calcium, N. Y. + + Gardener's Chronicle of America New York, N. Y. + + Horticulture Boston, Mass. + + +_Fruit Growing_ + + American Fruit Grower Chicago, Ill. + + Better Fruit Portland, Ore. + + +_Livestock_ + + Breeders' Gazette Chicago, Ill. + + +_Market Gardening_ + + Market Growers' Journal Louisville, Ky. + + +_Poultry_ + + American Poultry Journal Chicago, Ill. + + Everybody's Poultry Magazine Hanover, Pa. + + New England Poultryman Boston, Mass. + + Poultry Garden and Home Dayton, Ohio + + Poultry Item Sellersville, Pa. + + Poultry Success Springfield, Ohio + + Poultry Tribune Mt. Morris, Ill. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] Prepared by New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. + +[2] Prepared by Michigan State College of Agriculture. + +[3] Prepared by New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. + +[4] New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New +York. + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Living from the Land, by William B. 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