diff options
Diffstat (limited to '33059.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 33059.txt | 2537 |
1 files changed, 2537 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/33059.txt b/33059.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e196c2d --- /dev/null +++ b/33059.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2537 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Towns of Roman Britain, by James Oliver Bevan + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Towns of Roman Britain + +Author: James Oliver Bevan + +Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33059] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TOWNS OF ROMAN BRITAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Ron Swanson + + + + + +[Frontispiece: Roman Britain shewing the chief Roman Roads.] + + + + +THE TOWNS OF ROMAN BRITAIN + + +By the + +Rev. J. O. Bevan, +M.A., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.S.A.; +Fellow of the College of Preceptors and Examiner, Sometime Prizeman, +Exhibitioner and Foundation Scholar of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. + + +Author of +"_The Genesis and Evolution of the Individual Soul_" +"_Egypt and the Egyptians_" +"_University Life in the Middle Ages_" +"_Handbook of the History and Development of Philosophy_" +"_Archaeological Map of Herefordshire_" +and numerous other Works. + + + + +London +Chapman & Hall, Ltd. +1917 +[All Rights Reserved] + + + + +THE WESTMINSTER PRESS +411A HARROW ROAD +LONDON W + + + + +PREFACE + + +The Author writes the last line of this book with a sigh at the +incompleteness of his work. He is conscious he has touched but the +fringe of the mantle covering the form of the silent Muse of History, +but his efforts will be justified if he succeeds in persuading even a +single student to persevere and lead the fair Clio to disclose the +full story of which broken whispers are here recorded. No one can +doubt the fascination of this page of our nation's development, +dealing as it does with the dawn of that day of which, please God, +the complete effulgence will shine more and more to the perfect end. + +In this brochure attention has been chiefly directed to the _towns_ +of Roman Britain, as it would have required a volume of stupendous +size to formulate a record of sites associated with isolated +settlements, camps, burrows, "and bowers," or grounds whereon sports +were conducted. Again, there are spots of interest more or less +connected with Roman occupation, in tradition or in fact, such as +Alderney,[1] Porchester,[2] Glastonbury, Avebury, Arbow Low in +Derbyshire, Stripple Stones, on Bodmin Moor, in Cornwall, the +hill-fort in Parc-y-meirch Wood, Dinorben, Denbighshire. The line we +have been compelled to draw necessarily excludes such as these. The +present work is intended to furnish a compendious guide to readers +who desire to study the fruits of the Roman occupation, to trace out +the roads they laid down, and to possess themselves of the position +and essential features of the centres where they congregated for +commerce, pleasure, or defence. The Author has long been attracted to +the elucidation of the early history of Britain, and this feeling was +intensified by the work he undertook some years ago in connection +with the compilation of an Archaeological Map of Herefordshire, on +lines laid down by the Society of Antiquaries. His experience at that +time made him aware how such an undertaking might serve to quicken +the curiosity, and to whet the expectation of the student of old time +as to the wonderful secrets which await the skilful use of such +humble implements as the shovel and the pick in almost any quarter of +our island home. + +[Footnote 1: Alderney (Ald, _old_; Ey, _island_). This, the most +northerly of the four Channel Islands seems to have been known to the +Romans as _Riduna_. Remains of ancient dwellings have been found +there.] + +[Footnote 2: To the north of Portsmouth Harbour is situated +Porchester Castle, a ruined Norman fortress, occupying the site of +the _Portus Magnus_ of the Romans.] + +The Author desires to convey his acknowledgments to Messrs. Philip +and Son, Ltd., of Fleet Street, for their kindness in permitting him +to make use of the blocks for the two Maps which appear in this +volume. + +CHILLENDEN RECTORY, + CANTERBURY. + _Nov., 1916_. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + PAGE +Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v + +Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii + +Introduction + + Historical Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 + + Early History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 + + Main Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 + + Roman Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 + + Remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 + + Introduction of Christianity . . . . . . . . 10 + + Influence of Roman Occupation . . . . . . . . 11 + + Roman Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 + + Roman Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 + +List of Roman Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 + + Aldborough (_Isurium Brigantum_) . . . . . . 19 + + Aldeburgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 + + Bath (_Aquae Solis_, or _Sulis_) . . . . . . 19 + + Caerleon (_Isca Siluvum_) . . . . . . . . . . 22 + + Caerwent (_Venta Silurum_) . . . . . . . . . 24 + + Caistor Castle (_Venta_) . . . . . . . . . . 24 + + Canterbury (_Durovernum_) . . . . . . . . . . 24 + + Cardiff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 + + Chester (_Caerleon Vawr_) . . . . . . . . . . 28 + + Chesterford (_Iceanum_) . . . . . . . . . . . 28 + + Chichester (_Regnum_) . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 + + Cirencester (_Corininum_) . . . . . . . . . . 30 + + Colchester (_Camolodunum_) . . . . . . . . . 30 + + Corstopitum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 + + The Wall of Hadrian . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 + + The Wall of Antonine . . . . . . . . . . . 34 + + Dorchester (Dorsetshire) (_Durnovaria_) . . . 35 + + Dorchester (Oxfordshire) (_Dorcinia_) . . . . 36 + + Dover (_Dubris_) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 + + Exeter (_Caer Isca_; _Isca Damnoniorum_) . . 38 + + Gloucester (_Glevum_) . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 + + Isle of Wight (_Vectis_) . . . . . . . . . . 39 + + Kenchester (_Magni_) . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 + + Lancaster (_Castra ad Alaunam_) . . . . . . . 40 + + Leicester (_Ratae_) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 + + Lincoln (_Lindum Colonia_, or _Lindocolina_) 41 + + London (_Augusta_) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 + + Lympne (_Lemanae_) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 + + Maldon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 + + Manchester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 + + Portsmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 + + Reculver (_Regulbium_) . . . . . . . . . . . 49 + + Richborough (_Rutupiae_) . . . . . . . . . . 50 + + Rochester (_Durobrivae_) . . . . . . . . . . 51 + + Silchester (_Calleva Atre-batum_) . . . . . . 51 + + St. Albans (_Verulamium_) . . . . . . . . . . 52 + + Winchester (_Venta Belgarum_) . . . . . . . . 54 + + Wroxeter (_Uriconium_, or _Viroconium_) . . . 55 + + York (_Eboracum_) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 + +Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 + +Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 + +Appendix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 + +Appendix D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 + + +TABLE OF MAPS. + +Roman Britain showing the chief Roman Roads Frontispiece + +The Roman Wall To face page 31 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +HISTORICAL SKETCH. + +The earliest notice of Britain is in Herodotus (B.C. 480-408); but he +mentions the Tin Islands (Scilly Islands and Cornwall), only to +confess his ignorance about them. More important is a passage in +Aristotle (B.C. 384-322), who (writing a century later) is the +earliest author who mentions the British Isles by name, as he does in +the following passage: "Beyond the Pillars of Hercules (the Strait of +Gibraltar) the ocean flows round the earth, and in it are two very +large islands (Nesoi Britannikoi), called in British Albion and +Ierne, lying beyond the Keltoi." The application of the name +Britannia to denote the larger island, is due to Julius Caesar (B.C. +100-44), who is the first _Roman_ writer to mention Britain. The name +itself may be derived from Welsh, _brith_, mottled, tattooed, or from +_brithyn_, cloth, cloth-clad, as opposed to the skin-clad Celts. + +The history of Britain would be a very long one if we only knew it. +It is clear that a considerable interchange of commerce was carried +on between the south-eastern parts of the island and Gaul, and that +even the remoter regions of the Mediterranean were largely dependent +upon Britain for their supplies of tin from the Cornish mines, of +lead from Somerset, and of iron from Northumberland and the Forest of +Dean. + +Politically, Britain consisted of a number of independent bodies, +united in a federation of the loosest kind, in which the lead was +taken by that tribe which happened at the time to be the most +powerful or to have the bravest or most astute leader. + +About B.C. 56 Caius Volusenus was sent to this country by Julius +Caesar to examine the coast preparatory to an invasion. The step was +threatened, because it was alleged that the Britons had aided and +abetted some of the Gaulish tribes in their resistance to the Roman +domination. On August 26th, B.C. 55, Caesar himself set sail from +Portus Itius, near Boulogne, with two legions, and effected a +landing, presumably near Deal. A good deal of discussion has taken +place relative to this point, and much has been said as to the action +of the winds and tides in determining his landing place. Probably he +would have made a feint at Dover and one or two other places, under +cover of which the main body would land at a spot weakly defended. At +all events, the resistance offered by the British was soon overcome, +easy terms being imposed on their submission. Soon after, Caesar +left, but early in the following summer he again invaded these shores +with five legions and two thousand cavalry. He landed in the same +neighbourhood as before, and advanced 12 miles inland to the river +Stour before meeting with the islanders. Ultimately he decisively +defeated Cassivelaunus, the leader, either near London or his +capital, Verulamium. The conqueror departed at the fall of the year, +without leaving behind any garrison, but, at the same time, taking +away hostages to ensure the carrying out of the terms imposed. + +Then ensues a period during which direct Roman influence of a +dominant or military character fell into abeyance, so that one is +required to take up the tale at a much later period, viz., the +accession of Claudius, in A.D. 41. That emperor determined to carry +out the intention of Augustus to exact the promised tribute from +Britain. In 43 he despatched Aulus Plautius with four legions, who +obtained an easy victory. Claudius himself received the submission of +the tribes. In 42, Vespasian also--who afterwards became emperor in +69--was warring against the Silurian chief, Caradog, or Caractacus (a +son of Cunobelin). The latter was defeated in 50 by P. Ostorius +Scapula, and found refuge in the country of Cartismandua, queen of +the Brigantes, who, however, ultimately gave up her prisoner. + +There is a tradition embodied in the Welsh Triads that Caradog and +his wife were taken to Rome, and that three hostages accompanied +them, by name Bran, Llin, and Claudia, respectively the father, son, +and daughter of the brave British chieftain. It is further surmised +that Llin and Claudia were the Linus and Claudia referred to by St. +Paul in 2 Tim. iv, 21, and that Bran, after seven years banishment at +Rome--where he embraced Christianity under the influence of the great +Apostle of the Gentiles--returned to his native land to proclaim the +new religion to the people. + +In 61, Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, revolted against the Roman yoke, +sacked London and Colchester, but was defeated near the former city, +and took poison rather than fall into the hands of the victors. +Agricola became governor in 78, and subjected to his rule the +Ordovices Nivales. Not long after, he attacked the Brigantes and +Galgacus. In 120, Hadrian was engaged in building the Roman or Pict +wall between the Tyne and Solway Frith, which has for so long borne +his name. Nineteen years later, Tollius Urbicus constructed the +rampart, called the Wall of Antonine (Antoninus Pius 86-161), along +the line of Agricola's forts, built between the Forth and the Clyde, +to overawe the wild tribes to the north. This wall is now known by +the name of Graeme's Dyke. In 207 onwards, Severus built a new wall +along the line of Hadrian's rampart. He died at York in 211. The +years 287, 288, saw the reigns of Carausius and Allectus. In 296, +Constantius Chlorus regained Britain for Rome. He also died at York +in 306. In 307 the Picts and Scots overran the country as far as +London. The General Theodosius was sent to oppose them, and drove +them back beyond Valentia, the fifth Roman division northwards. The +title of Emperor was assumed by Maximus in 383, but he was put to +death in 388. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, transferred one +legion from Britain into Gaul. This weakened the defence of the land +against the northern tribes, as the legion never returned. At this +epoch ever-growing confusion and division manifested themselves +within the Roman Empire, whereupon its hold on distant provinces grew +weaker and weaker. At one period there were as many as six Emperors +contending with one another for the sole authority; and in 410, the +year in which Rome was sacked by the Goths under Alaric, the Roman +occupation was terminated according to the terms of a letter +addressed by Honorius to the cities of Britain. + + +EARLY HISTORY. + +Nothing very specific can be said about the settlements of the Celtic +inhabitants of these islands before the coming of Caesar. The country +must have been largely covered by forests and intersected by fens. +Different tribes occupied different centres and were nomadic +according to the season of the year. Barter was common, and there +must have been facilities for the distribution of those goods which +had their origin in Gaul. An export trade, too, was actively carried +on in regard to such metals as tin, which were borne in rude +conveyances along well-defined trackways wrought out along the +sheltered sides of hills. + +Certain spots--woods, hills, wells--from their size, shape, position, +or some accidental association, were regarded as sacred, and became +the centres of religious worship, of sacrifice, and of schools of +priests. Thus we have--then, or in somewhat later times--Bangor, +Mona, or the Isle of Augury, Stonehenge, Avebury, etc. + +The coming of the Romans led to the opening up of new roads, and +caused the building of walls of defence against predatory tribes. It +also accentuated the position of many of the camps, centres of +population, and strategic posts. + + +MAIN DIVISIONS. + +In the reign of Claudius (B.C. 41-A.D. 54), the country south of the +Solway Frith and the mouth of the Tyne formed one Roman province +under a consular legate and a procurator. Ptolemy (_fl._ 139-162) +(who flourished at Alexandria, and was one of the greatest of ancient +geographers) mentions 17 native tribes as inhabiting this district. +The Emperor Severus (146-211) divided the whole into two parts, +Britannia Inferior, the south, and Britannia Superior, the north. In +the division of the country under Diocletian, Britain was made a +diocese in the prefecture of Gaul, and was governed by a vicarius, +residing at York. It was split up into five provinces, of which the +boundaries, though somewhat uncertain, are supposed to have been as +follows: + +_Britannia Prima_--the country south of the Thames and of the Bristol +Channel. + +_Britannia Secunda_--Wales. + +_Flavia Caesariensis_--the country between the rivers Thames, Severn, +Mersey, and Humber. + +_Maxima Caesariensis_--the rest of England, up to the wall of +Hadrian. + +_Valentia_ (soon abandoned by the Romans), Scotland south of the Wall +of Antoninus. + +To ensure the obedience of the natives, various Roman legions, +composed of Gauls, Germans, Iberians, rather than of pure Romans, +were stationed in Britain, viz., at such places as Eboracum (York), +Deva (Chester), Isca (Caerleon), and Magni, or Magna (Kenchester).[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the _Itinerary_, as in the Ravenna Geographer, we +have only the form _Magnis_, presumably from a nominative _Magni_, or +_Magna_.] + + +ROMAN BRITAIN. + +The population of Roman Britain was, in the main Celtic; the Cymric +division predominating in the south and east, the Gaidhelic in the +north and west. There existed, besides these, remnants of two earlier +races--a small dark-haired race, akin to the Basques, or Euskarian +(found in S.W. England, S. Wales,[2] and parts of the Scotch +Highlands), and a tall, fairhaired race. + +[Footnote 2: See Appendices A & B.] + +Under the Romans, many towns (_coloniae_ and _municipia_) were +founded. In several cases their position had been occupied, as winter +or summer quarters, by the aboriginal inhabitants; the choice of the +site being determined by the contour of the hills, the convergence of +trackways, or the proximity to the sea or rivers. Fifty-six Roman +towns are enumerated by Claudius Ptolemy (_fl._ A.D. 139-162). They +formed centres of Roman authority, law, commerce, and civilization; +the conquerors, to a very limited extent, were able to introduce +their own literature. Amongst others, the free inhabitants of +Eboracum and Verulamium enjoyed the coveted rights of Roman +citizenship. The Ravenna Geographer gives a list of towns--the names +of some of which being difficult to identify. Principally to ensure +military dominance, the conquerors made many main roads, mostly +centering in London. They also developed the land into a corn-growing +country. + +The history of the towns that became Roman is known to us very +imperfectly and unevenly, in respect of elements earlier than the +conquest of A.D. 43; of the beginnings, whether official or personal; +of their size, original planning, character and composition of the +buildings, of the language, degree of civilization, and comparative +wealth of the inhabitants; of the relation of the town-life to the +life of the adjacent country-side. Further, great mystery shrouds the +particulars of their overthrow when the aegis of the Roman authority +was withdrawn. There are but few survivals of towns to the present +day, and parallels must be sought rather in Pannonia[3] and North +Africa than in the Western European Empire. + +[Footnote 3: Now Illyria, a part of Hungary; finally subdued by +Tiberius, A.D. 8.] + + +REMAINS. + +The site of a Roman town always occupied a commanding position as to +elevation, the confluence of roads, or the proximity of rivers. It +was surrounded with walls, which were pierced with gates defended by +towers and bastions. The houses of the well-off were unpretentious +outside, but were fitted inside with comfort and even elegance. The +rooms were built around a courtyard. In the villas at Brading and +Chedworth tesselated pavements have been found, and traces of baths. +Each city was furnished with a Forum, a Basilica, a Temple, and a +series of Public Baths. Outside the walls were a Theatre, an +Amphitheatre, and a Cemetery. + +A goodly proportion of articles recovered constitute treasure-trove +in its purest form--objects buried, perhaps, by the owners in +expectation of a raid, and never recovered owing to the incidence of +death. Many finds have been simply fortuitous, but tombs have been +the most valuable repositories. The objects recovered therefrom are +in very different states of preservation. Fashioned iron implements +have suffered the greatest from natural decay, often merely +suggesting the fine smith's work lavished upon them; bronze articles +are the less corroded. Gold, the purest of metals, has defied the +ravages of time, and ornaments can be reproduced in the form and +semblance they possessed when they left the hands of the maker. It is +tolerably certain that women formed a part of the early Saxon and +Danish raiders; and it is no less certain that a few women, at +various times, came over with Roman soldiers or immigrants. To the +graves of women especially we look for the recovery of numberless +articles of use and adornment. Probably, at the first, there were +also surface memorials over the graves so closely jumbled together in +the cemeteries, but the violence of man and the inroads of the +weather would combine to sweep them away at an early period. + +The Baths at Bath furnish the best example of the kind in England; +London also has the remains of a Bath of Roman times in the Strand. +It is stated that the church of St. Mary the Virgin at Dover is built +on the site of a Roman bath, and that the market square there +occupies the position of the Roman Agora. Pits used for tanning or +dyeing are to be seen at Silchester, and various other industrial +occupations are indicated from what may be seen at that city, at +Wroxeter, and at various other centres. + + +INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY. + +Before Christianity was planted in Britain, the religion of its +inhabitants was Druidism. Julius Caesar described this form of +devotion as it existed in Gaul. The history of the beginnings of +Christianity in this country is obscure. Most likely the faith was +originally proclaimed in Britain by various independent agents, in +different parts of the island. There are indistinct echoes of +apostolic origin--of contact with the East and with Spain; but +probably the new doctrine was introduced by merchants from Gaul or by +soldiers in the Roman legions who were sent into the island by +Claudius Caesar under Aulus Plautius in the year 43 A.D. In the +following pages mention will be made of the martyrdom of certain of +these early saints at St. Albans and Caerleon. + +It may be said that the first Christian institution in Britain, +_i.e._, the church of the garrison towns, was Roman in its origin and +atmosphere; and that the second was founded by the followers of S. +Germanus of Vienne, in France, whose Christianity was probably +derived from Ephesus. Also that the origins of Celtic Christendom +contained distinctively Greek elements. In the Romances,[4] too, +there are various obscure but significant indications of certain +influences derivable from Egyptian Christianity; but, vitally and +essentially, the Celtic Church constituted itself. Like that of +Ireland, it was tribal and monastic, not diocesan; and, in both +cases, this loose organization proved to be a source of great +weakness. + +[Footnote 4: Compiled by such men as Robert of Gloucester (_temp._ +Henry III).] + + +INFLUENCE OF ROMAN OCCUPATION. + +Roman remains found in different parts of the island include +foundations of towns (such as Silchester, Wroxeter), streets, +milliaria, parts of walls and gates; baths, furnaces, flues, wooden +and leaden water-pipes (London, Bath); villas with mosaic pavements, +painted walls (London, Chedworth, near Cheltenham, Brading, +Carisbrooke); altars, votive inscriptions, sculptures, bridges, +weapons, tools, implements, pottery, domestic utensils, gold, silver, +and bronze ornaments and toilet articles, and coins. + +The Romans laboured to render permanent their conquest of Britain. +They introduced their native refinement, and greatly improved British +arts. To this fact testimony is furnished by the tumuli, barrows, +earthworks, monoliths, cromlechs, cairns, and such like remains, +which are continually revealing secrets concealed ever since the +debacle which followed the departure of the Roman hosts from our +shores. Even as these words were being written, the Author read in +_The Times_ of the day an account of Nonsuch Palace at Ye Well, or +Ewell, in Surrey, in which it was stated that in the course of recent +excavations for the creation of a Japanese garden and lakes, Roman +silver coins and pottery were found, testifying to the fact that +Ewell was a Roman settlement, being, in fact, identified with +Noviomagus.[5] + +[Footnote 5: About the same time, the discovery of a Roman pavement +was recorded at Filey, and of coins and a Roman bath at Templeborough +Camp, Yorkshire.] + +So true is it that below us on every side there have been hidden for +centuries by the dull, heavy soil, innumerable traces of the life, +working, and death of the different races of men successively +inhabiting this island. What a wonderful story would not these +remains be able to disclose if each claimant were granted a voice, +and if each voice could unfold its own narrative! + + +ROMAN ROADS. + +The method of the construction of the Roman roads largely varied with +the nature of the country traversed; but they were uniformly raised +above the surface of the neighbouring land, and ran from station to +station in a straight course, almost regardless of hills. The more +important lines were elaborately constructed with a foundation of +hard earth, a bed of large stones, sometimes two more layers of rough +stones and mortar, then gravel, lime, and clay; and, above all, the +causeway was paved with flat stones. The width was generally about +fifteen feet, and at regular intervals were posting stations. The +distance was regularly marked off by milestones (_mille passuum_--a +thousand paces). The principal roads were four in number, viz., +Watling Street, the Fosse Way, Icknield Street, and Ermine Street. + +Originally, Watling Street probably ran from London to Wroxeter. Its +northward and westward continuations proceeded from Wroxeter into +Wales; its southern continuations between London, Canterbury and the +parts about Dover seem also to have received the same name. + +Drayton, in his Polyolbion, XIII (1613), says: + + "Those two mighty ways, the Watling and the Fosse ... the first + doth hold her way + From Dover to the furth'st of fruitful Anglesey; + The second, north and south, from Michael's utmost mount, + To Caithness, which the farth'st of Scotland we account." + +The Fosse ran from the sea-coast at Seaton, in Devonshire, (R. +Maridunum) to Leicester, with a continuation known as High Street, to +the Humber. + +The Icknield Way seems to have extended from east to west from +Icilgham, or Icklingham, near Bury St. Edmunds, underneath the chalk +ridge of the Chilterns and Berkshire Downs, to the neighbourhood of +Wantage, thence to Cirencester and Gloucester. + +The Ermine Street ran north and south through the Fenland from London +to Lincoln. + +Besides the four great lines there were many scarcely subordinate +ones. There were, _e.g._, several Icknield Streets. Akeman Street ran +from Bath, north-east by Cirencester, through Wych-wood Forest and +Blenheim to Alcester and Watling Street. A high-road ran from Exeter +to the Land's End in continuation of the Fosse. Another route ran +from Venta Silurum to St. David's Head; another to the Sarn Helen up +the western Welsh coast to Carnarvon (Welsh, _sarn_--a road). + + +ROMAN INFLUENCE. + +To a certain extent the conqueror enters into the entail of the +conquered. Nevertheless he must obey the conditions of life which the +natural features, or the climate of the country of which he has +possessed himself, have compelled the aborigines to adopt. +Occasionally, as in the case of Greece and Rome, the conquered +enslave their masters in regard, at all events, to literature and +art; but this did not obtain in the case before us, for the Roman +occupation of Britain was largely military, and the Britons had +little enough to impart either in literature or art. It is +observable, however, that the Romans either did not seek to impose, +or were unable to impose, their religious ideas on the Britons. In +this connection it must be remembered that the composition of the +Roman legions was largely cosmopolitan. + +The moral and religious influence brought to bear upon the native +Britons by reason of the Roman occupation of close on four centuries +can easily be overestimated. A section of the people in the vicinity +of Roman towns were humanized and civilized, but the sequel proved +that (to a certain extent) the fibre of the hardy and courageous +Briton deteriorated and his faculty of resource and fighting +diminished; so that when he was deserted by his Roman masters and +deprived of his leading strings, he fell a prey--though not until +after a protracted and sanguinary struggle--to the Pict and Scot and +Saxon, who were able to combine for the attack, and who were +regardless of ease and privation and love of life. Although the days +of this old time are far away, and the face of the land has changed, +this lesson is not without warning to the ignorant, indifferent, +pleasure-loving sections of our England of the twentieth century, and +this lesson is even now being brought home to us in no uncertain way +in our death-grip with a cruel and relentless foe. + + + + +LIST OF TOWNS + + +Here follows an alphabetical list of the Roman towns described in the +following pages: + +Aldborough (Yorkshire), Aldborough (Suffolk), Bath, Caerleon, +Caerwent, Caistor, Canterbury, Cardiff, Chester, Chesterford, +Chichester, Cirencester, Corstopitum, Dorchester, Dover, Exeter, +Gloucester, Isle of Wight, Kenchester, Lancaster, Leicester, Lincoln, +London, Lympne, Maldon, Manchester, Portsmouth, Reculver, +Richborough, Rochester, Silchester, St. Albans, Winchester, Wroxeter, +York. + + + + +LIST OF TOWNS + + + + +ALDBOROUGH--(A.S. burh, buruh, byrig--an earthwork) is situated in +the West Riding of Yorkshire, 16 miles W.N.W. of York. It is now +remarkable only for its numerous ancient remains. + + +It was the Isurium Brigantum (the capital of the Brigantes) of the +Romans, and here and there in the neighbourhood the remains of +aqueducts, spacious buildings, and tesselated pavements have been +found, as well as numerous implements, coins and urns. The Museum +Isurianum is in the grounds of the Manor House. + + + + +ALDEBURGH, or ALDBOROUGH--is situated in the county of Suffolk, 25 +miles E.N.E. of Ipswich. + + +The borough was incorporated by a charter of Edward VI, and in former +times was a place of considerable extent, but the old town known to +the Romans was gradually submerged by the encroachments of the sea. + + + + +BATH.--107-1/2 miles W. by S. of London. On the banks of the Avon. + + +Aquae Solis, corrupted by the Anglo-Saxons to Akemannes-ceaster--the +invalids' city--reached by the Akemannes Way. + +For many centuries it has been known by its truly descriptive name of +Bath. + +Tradition says it was founded by the British King Bladud, 863 B.C.; +but there is no real evidence of an early British settlement, though +the hot springs must have been known from the beginning. However, the +name of Aquae Solis is thought to point to a British goddess, Sol or +Solis, somewhat equivalent to the Roman Minerva. It was never a Roman +military station, being used apparently solely as a Spa. + +The remains of the Roman Baths were first uncovered in 1755, when the +Duke of Kingston pulled down the old priory to form the Kingston +Baths. The remains disclosed included a bath, hypocaust, channels and +pipes for the passage of water and hot air, and tesselated pavements. +But very little use was made of the discovery for, though some +antiquaries took an interest in it, and a few relics were removed and +preserved, the spot was filled in and the site covered with buildings +for another 120 years. In 1878, however, public interest was aroused, +a number of houses were removed, and a large area (of which that +opened in 1755 was only a small part) was cleared, with the result +that an extensive system of baths in a remarkable state of +preservation was laid bare. + +The great bath, some 70 feet long and 28 feet wide, was found to be +floored with lead two-thirds of an inch thick, in a perfectly sound +condition. The service-pipe being cleared out, the bath still held +water as it had done 1,500 years before. + +What a find this lead floor would have been to the builders of the +houses above it had they but laid their foundations a few inches +deeper! It would have gone the same way as Alfred's coffin at +Winchester. + +Several other baths--one circular--and hypocausts were opened out, +and--perhaps as interesting as anything--the culvert was discovered +for drawing off the waste water, an excellent piece of masonry, and +high enough for a man to stand upright in it. The remains of these +old Baths of the Romans are not mere traces of walls, intelligible +only to the antiquary, but are the actual basins, capable still of +use, and one can ascend by the same steps and tread the same pavement +as did the Roman bather of old. + +On the Romans leaving Britain, the baths were for a long time +deserted, and were soon buried under alluvium by the flooding of the +river; but the hot springs never ceased to pour forth their abundant +stream. The waters are impregnated with calcium and sodium sulphates +and sodium and magnesium chlorides, and we must not forget the metal +which called forth Mr. Weller's description: "I thought they'd a very +strong flavour o' warm flat-irons." They are in greater vogue than +ever now that radium has been found to be one of the constituents. + +Bath was a place of resort even in Saxon times; for our +forefathers--before the days of goloshes, mackintoshes and +umbrellas--must have been sad sufferers from rheumatic affections. + +It is also clear that the brine-springs, or _wyches_, of Droitwich, +in Worcestershire, were also known to the Romans, as well as Spas in +other parts of the country. That there was a Roman station at +Droitwich is evidenced by the remains of a villa, containing +interesting and valuable relics, discovered some years ago during the +construction of the Oxford and Wolverhampton Railway. + + + + +CAERLEON, IN MONMOUTHSHIRE. + + +This is the Isca Silurum of the Romans. It is situated on the right +bank of the Usk, and is the Old Port, in contradistinction to the New +Port, some 3-1/2 miles distant, lower down the river. Caerleon seems +to be a corruption of _Castrum Legionis_. The place was one of the +great fortresses of Roman Britain, and constituted the station of the +Second Augustan Legion in the first century A.D. It ranked as a +Colony, and as the capital of Britannia Secunda during the period of +Roman domination. Its position was favourable for the coercion of the +wild Silures. No civil life or municipality seems to have grown up +outside its boundaries; like Chester, it remained purely military. +There remain fragments of the walls, and outside these limits there +is a grass-grown amphitheatre, 222 ft. by 192 ft., in which the tiers +of seats are distinctly visible. The hamlet on the opposite bank +preserves in a modified form the Roman name of _Ultra Pontem_. It is +probable that the connecting bridge was a pontoon similar in +character to that which survived to the close of the last century. +The local Museum is rich in objects of archaeological interest. + +On the hill-side, which formed the burial place of the ancient city, +fragments of slabs and memorial urns are even now often exhumed. +Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald de Barry, Archdeacon of Brecknock +(1147-1220), borrowing from Geoffrey of Monmouth (1130-1140, Bishop +of St. Asaph, author of _Chronicon sive Historia Britonum_), says +that "its splendid palaces, with their gilded roofs, once emulated +the grandeur of Rome," which testimony we receive with a certain +amount of incredulity; nevertheless, it bears witness to the +reputation it enjoyed in his day. + +The city is connected with the romance of King Arthur and the Knights +of the Round Table. It is said that hither Arthur came at Pentecost +to be crowned, and that here he often took council with Dubric, or +Dubritius, "the high saint." + +The keep of a castle is mentioned in Domesday Book, the ruins of +which, now limited to a solitary bastion on the river's side, were +very extensive, even in Leland's time (1506-1552). Caerleon was a +place of great ecclesiastical importance and the seat of an +archbishopric. It is noticeable as the place of martyrdom, according +to Giraldus Cambrensis, of two saints, Aaron and Julius. Their bodies +were buried in the city, each afterwards having a church dedicated to +him. There is good reason for regarding these as historical +personages, but as Caerleon-upon-Dee was also called "the City of the +Legions," there is some doubt whether their martyrdom occurred at the +former, now called Chester, or at the latter, which still retains its +British name. + +Around the church of S. Cadoc there are abundant remains to show the +important centre Caerleon-upon-Usk constituted in Roman times. There +is a tradition that its bishop was one of three who attended the +Council held at Arles, in 314, to discuss the validity of +ecclesiastical orders conferred by such bishops as in time of +persecution had delivered up to be burnt their sacred writings. + + + + +CAERWENT.--This place is on the Chepstow side of Caerleon, near +Severn Tunnel Junction. + + +It was a military station, and important discoveries of Roman remains +have been made here. + + + + +CAISTOR CASTLE, or VENTA.--4-1/2 miles from Yarmouth. Caistor Village +is 3 miles distant. + + +This place occupies the site of a Roman camp, which, in conjunction +with Burgh Castle, guarded this part of the coast. No remains of the +camp now exist, but Roman urns, pottery, and coins have been found in +and near the village. A field west of the church, styled "East Bloody +Furlong" has been fixed upon as the site of the Castrum. + + + + +CANTERBURY.--Cant-wara-byrig--the burgh of the men of the headland. +(Hence, Archepiscopus Cantuariensis). + + +Before the invasion of Caesar, a tribe of the Belgae from Gaul had +taken possession of a large portion of South Britain, including Kent. + +The principal Roman road was the Watling Street, between Dover and +London, which followed much the same course as the modern highway. +This road was joined at Canterbury by two others, proceeding +respectively from Lympne and Reculver. Two other important Roman +stations may be distinguished, Durolevum and Vagniacae, the one +probably by Faversham, the other by Springhead, near Gravesend. The +important position of modern Canterbury is affirmed by the fact that +no fewer than 16 roads and railway routes now converge upon the city. +So, too, in the olden time, it was a great nerve-centre, and the +mid-point of the important Roman fortresses of Dover, Richborough, +Reculver, and Lympne. + +The Roman remains found throughout Kent are numerous and important. +There were potteries of purple or black ware at Upchurch, on the S. +bank of the Medway. Leaden coffins, elaborately ornamented glass and +bronze vessels, and gold and silver ornaments, have been found in +Roman cemeteries. The city itself occupies the site of the Roman +Durovernum (Celtic, _dwr_--water), and was established upon that ford +of the Stour at which the roads from the four harbour-fortresses +before mentioned became united into the one great military way +through Britain, which became known as Watling Street in later times. +The Romans do not seem (at least towards the end of their occupation) +to have made the city a military centre, or given it a permanent +garrison, but rather to have used it as a halting place for troops on +the march. In a commercial sense (lying, as it did, in the direct +path of all the south-eastern continental traffic of Britain) its +importance at this epoch must have been considerable. The Cathedral +stands on the site of a church founded in Roman times, and given by +King Ethelbert (together with his own palace adjacent) to Augustine +and his monks. St. Pancras (the foundations of which have now been +uncovered) was originally Ethelbert's "Idol-house"; and St. Martin's, +the sanctuary where the King's christian queen, Bertha, worshipped +under the tutelage of Bishop Luithard. The structures existing in +Ethelbert's day were destroyed, and ultimately the cathedral was +entirely rebuilt by Lanfranc (1005-1089); to this additions were made +by Anselm (1033-1109), and by succeeding builders even as late as +1495, when the addition of Goldstone's Central Tower left the +Cathedral as we have it to-day. + +St. Martin's Church cannot be dismissed in a summary manner. It is +said by Bede to have been built whilst the Romans still occupied +Britain. It is dedicated to the well-known Bishop of Tours (371-397). +Certainly the nave shows evidences of Roman workmanship and plaster. +A high arch has recently been discovered in the west wall, on each +side of which is a window, apparently Roman in its origin, but which +has been subsequently lengthened out by Saxon or Norman builders. The +chancel, originally but 20 feet long, is variously conjectured to be +Roman work or to have been built by St. Augustine. There is a +square-headed Roman doorway and a round-headed Saxon one, in the +south wall; also an early English sedile, bordered by Roman tiles on +the same side, eastward. + +The writer, the present Rector of Chillenden, feels a peculiar +pleasure in recalling the fact that two of the Priors took their +names from his parish, viz., Adam de Chillenden (_d._ 1274) and +Thomas de Chillenden (_d._ 1411). The name of the latter, in the +Diocesan Calendar, is distinguished by bold type, by reason of the +fact that between 1370 and 1410, the present nave and transepts of +Canterbury Cathedral, with the middle part of the present central +tower, were built upon Lanfranc's old foundations by the Convent +under his superintendence, assisted as he was by King Richard II and +Archbishops Courtenay and Arundel. The Chapel of St. Michael, the +Warriors' Chapel, was also added to by him. Moreover to him is due +the building of most of the cloisters, the great Dormitory windows, +the vaulting here and along the north alley, as also the foliated +window-like screens in the latter alley. + +The house in the precincts, known as Chillenden Chambers, was used in +mediaeval times for the reception of pilgrims. It has been occupied +for some years by Dr. Walsh, Bishop of Dover. + + + + +CARDIFF.--Castle on the Taff, in the County of Glamorgan. + + +The position between the rivers Taff and Rhymney, as also between the +mountains and the sea, marked out this site, probably to the Romans, +certainly to the Normans, as a favourable position for a fortified +station. The remains of the Keep of the Castle still exist, and the +church of St. John has venerable memories. The buildings of the +Blackfriars and Greyfriars have long ago disappeared. The old church +of St. Mary, too, was washed away by the sea. To the west, beyond the +suburb of Canton, the foundations of Roman buildings have been +uncovered and various objects of interest found and lodged in the +National Museum. + + + + +CHESTER.--Otherwise Caerleon Vawr, or Caerlleon ar Dyfyrdwy. + + +Here was situated the great camp of the renowned Twentieth Legion on +the Dee, the Deva of the Roman Itinerary. It stood at the head of the +then most important estuary on this part of the coast, and at a point +where several Roman roads converged. It is doubtful whether the city +constituted a Colonia. It boasted a fine Basilica. There may still be +seen the remains of a Roman arch impinging upon the Keep, or Caesar's +Tower, in the Castle. + + + + +CHESTERFORD.--In Essex, 47-1/2 miles N. of London. + + +To-day the Great Eastern Railway crosses the Cam, or Granta, near a +Roman station. Great Chesterford is the ancient Iceanum, once thought +to be Camboricum. The foundations of walls enclosing about 50 acres +are known to have existed a century and a half ago. The site was +thoroughly explored between 1846 and 1848, under the superintendence +of the Hon. R. C. Neville, afterwards Lord Braybrooke. Many Roman +remains were recovered and are preserved at his seat, Audley End--one +of the finest examples of Jacobean architecture now remaining in +England. In this neighbourhood, at Heydon, two miles N.W. of +Chrishall, and in the extreme angle of Essex, there was discovered, +in 1848, a chamber cut in the chalk. It contained a sort of altar and +an abundance of Roman fibulae. Its purpose has not been clearly made +out. + + + + +CHICHESTER. + + +This city is built on a Roman site, near a line of road now known as +Stane Street. It is usually identified with Regnum, a town of the +Belgae, mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. A slab of grey Sussex +marble, now at Goodwood, discovered in 1713, on the site of the +present Council House, bears an inscription which gives rise to an +hypothesis which represents Chichester as the seat of the native +king, Cogidubnus, mentioned by Tacitus as possessing independent +authority. It is further conjectured that this king was the father of +Claudia (2 Tim. iv, 21), whose husband seems to have been Pudens, +mentioned in the same verse (traditionally said to have been a Roman +Senator, who became a Governor of Britain). Cogidubnus appears to +have taken to himself the more euphonious name of his imperial +patron, Tiberius Claudius, hence, too, Claudia. It would appear from +this slab that Chichester was the abode of a considerable number of +craftsmen, and that they erected a temple to Neptune and Minerva +under the patronage of a certain Pudens--in his unregenerate days, +doubtless, if this be the same as St. Paul's Pudens. In the early +Saxon occupation, the town was destroyed by one Ella, but restored by +Cissa, hence Cissa's Castra, or Chichester; hence, also, the Bishop's +signature, Cicestriensis. + + + + +CIRENCESTER, or CORININUM.--In Gloucestershire, 93 miles W.N.W. of +London, on the river Churn, a tributary of the Thames. + + +This was a flourishing Romano-British town, a cavalry post, also a +civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 miles, N.E., there has been unearthed +one of the most interesting Roman villas in England. + + + + +COLCHESTER.--51 miles N.E. of London, on the right bank of the Colne, +12 miles from the sea. + +Colonia Victricensis, Camolodunum, or Camulodunum. (This colony is on +the River Colne, even as another stream of the same name flows by the +colony of Verulamium). + + +Before the Roman conquest it was the royal town of Cunobelin, the +Cymbeline of Shakespeare. When Claudius had conquered the +south-eastern part of the island, he founded a _colonia_ here, which +may be said to be the first in time of the Roman towns of Britain. +Even now, the walls of Colchester are the most perfect Roman walls in +England. There are other remains, including the guard-room at the +principal gate. A large cemetery has been disclosed along the main +road leading out of the town. A valuable collection of sepulchral +remains has been made and placed in the local museum. The city was +refounded and ultimately developed into a municipality, with +discharged Roman soldiers as citizens, to assist the Roman dominion +and spread Roman civilization. + +Under Boadicea, the Iceni burnt the town and massacred the colonists. + + + + +CORSTOPITUM, or CORCHESTER.--In Northumberland. + + +This important station lies half a mile west of the little town of +Corbridge, at the junction of the Cor with the Tyne, which is here +crossed by a fine bridge of seven arches, dating from 1674. It has +been suggested that the name Cor is associated with the Brigantian +tribe of Corionototae. In regard to building operations hereabouts +extensive use has been made of materials derived from Corstopitum. +This--in its day--occupied a commanding position as a Roman Station, +inasmuch as it furnished a storehouse for grain and a basis for the +northward operations carried on about the time of Antoninus Pius. +When these operations became unsuccessful, Corstopitum ceased to be a +military centre, though it still furnished a basis of civilian +occupation. The town was brought to desolation early in the fifth +century, and was never again occupied. It was only to be expected +that valuable finds should be unearthed from the remains. Many have +been found by accident, as _e.g._, in 1734, a silver dish was dug up +weighing 148 oz., and ornamented with figures of deities. Again, much +later, in 1908, there was recovered a hoard of gold coins, wrapped in +leadfoil, and thrust into the chink of a wall by a fugitive who was +fated never to return and recover his treasure. The first-rate +importance of the city in its relation to the Roman Wall, and +military operations based on Corstopitum as a centre, was only fully +revealed by systematic investigations begun in 1907. There were then +uncovered, the foundations of several structures fronting a broad +thoroughfare, one of which is the largest Roman building found to the +present in England, with the exception of the Baths at Bath. Two of +these warehouses were evidently granaries. All testified to the +importance attached to Corstopitum as a storehouse and distributing +centre. + +[Illustration: The Roman Wall.] + + +THE WALL OF HADRIAN. + +It may be of interest to insert here a few directions for any +investigator who wishes to track out the Roman Wall. Such a traveller +might profitably visit first the Museum at Newcastle, where many +memorials are preserved. There might be included the Castle Keep and +Chapel, with its richly-moulded Norman arches and the Black Gate, +with the collection of Roman inscribed and sculptured stones from the +eastern fortresses on the Wall between Bowness and Wallsend. The +numerous carved altars are especially noticeable. From Newcastle the +road can be taken alongside the Wall to Chollerford, by way of Denton +Burn, Wallbottle, Heddon on the Wall, Vindobala, Harlow Hill, +Wallhouses, Halton Shields Hunnum, Stagshaw Bank, and so, by a steep +descent, into Chollerford. If the train be taken, it is expedient to +break the journey at Prudhoe to view the ruins of the Castle, built +in the reign of Henry II. The curious old bridge over a ravine is one +of the oldest in the North. From Prudhoe to Corbridge is twenty +minutes or so by rail. The buried city of Corstopitum lies to the +west of Corbridge. There can be traced the Forum, streets, granaries, +baths, and fountain. The excavations conducted during 1908 and the +two following years are deeply interesting. There are Roman altars +and monuments to be seen at Hexham. Close to Chollerford are the +remains of the remarkable Roman bridge over the Tyne. Cilurnum +(Chesters), the largest station on the Wall, lies on the river bank. +In the Museum by the gates are deposited sculptured stones, vases, +etc., discovered hereabouts. Journeying from Brunton to Limestone +Bank, one finds the fosses and vallum exceptionally perfect. On the +whole there are said to have been about 23 important stations on the +Wall, named as follows:--Segedunum (Wallsend), Pons Aelii +(Newcastle), Condercum (Benwell Hill), Vindobala (Rutchester), Hunnum +(Halton Chester), Cilurnum (Chesters), Procolitia (Carrawburgh), +Borcovicus (House-steads), Vindolana (Chesterholm), Aesica (Great +Chesters), Magna (Carvoran), Amboglanna (Birdoswald), Petriana, +Aballaba, Congovata, Axelodunum, Gabrosentum, Tunocelum, Glannibanta, +Alionis, Bremetenracum, Olenacum, and Virosidum. It is noteworthy +that not a trace of the original names survives in the local +nomenclature of to-day, though the exact position of most of the +stations has been made out from other indications. + +It will be seen that one Wall extended from Wallsend on the Tyne to +Bowness on the Solway Firth, a distance of 73 miles. It would have +been about 12 feet high and 6 feet thick, in parts 9-1/2 feet thick. +Probably about 10 years were expended in the building. About 10,000 +men would be required adequately to garrison its stations. It is +difficult to believe that it was constructed _de novo_, or all at one +time. Probably a line of stations, suggested by the lie of the +country, existed here before Roman times, which line was extended and +consolidated by successive Roman generals and emperors. + +The Wall now bears the name of Hadrian, Emperor from 117 to 138, but +other names associated with it are Agricola (37-93), Severus +(193-211), Theodosius (346-395) and Stilicho (_d._ 408). + +To complete, or, rather round off, our account, a few words ought to +be added as to the Northern Wall. The Wall of Antoninus, or Graham's +Dyke (perhaps from C. _greim_--a place of strength, and that which is +_dug_--a rampart) extends across the island from the Firth of Clyde +to the Firth of Forth--a distance of about 36 miles. It consisted of +an immense ditch, behind which was raised a rampart of intermingled +stone and earth, surmounted by a parapet, behind which ran a level +platform for the accommodation of the defenders. South of the whole +ran the military way--a regular causeway about 20 feet wide. +Commencing in the west on a height called Chapel Hill, near the +village of Old Kilpatrick, in Dumbartonshire, it ran eastwards, +passing in succession Kirkintilloch, Crory, Castlecary, and Falkirk, +terminating at Bridgeness, a rocky promontory that projects into the +Firth of Forth, south of Borrowstonness in Linlithgowshire. A writer +of the life of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161) states that +Lollius Urbicus, a legate of that sovereign, erected, after several +victories over the Britons, "another rampart of turf" to check their +incursions, but what has been said with reference to the builders of +Hadrian's Wall may be repeated with reference to that of Antonine.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Appendix C.] + + + + +DORCHESTER (Dorsetshire).--130 miles S.W. from London. On the right +bank of the Frome. Dorcestre (Dwr--a portion of the name of the +Durotriges, or dwellers upon the _dwr_ or water). + + +Dorchester was a Romano-British town of considerable size, probably +successor to the British tribal centre of the Durotriges. The walls +can be traced in part, and many mosaics and other remains of houses +have been found. Near Dorchester may be seen at Maumbury Rings +remains of an amphitheatre. Maiden Castle, 2 miles S.W. of the town, +is a vast earthwork, considered to have been a stronghold of the +Durotriges.[2] Many other such remains are traceable in the vicinity. + +[Footnote 2: Mai-den = _Mai Dun_ = the stronghold of the plain. It is +clearly originally the work of men of the latest Stone Age--men who +lived their lives in round barrows, and who raised this entrenchment +with merely their primitive picks or "celts" as tools, for a defence +against their finally successful invaders, the Durotriges. In their +turn, the latter used the forts against the Romans--unless, as is +more probable, they submitted without fighting.] + + + + +DORCHESTER (Oxfordshire).--Situated at the junction of the Thames and +the Thame. + + +There is a Roman station near the present village, and (across the +Thames) the double isolated mound known as Wittenham Hills (Sinodum), +on the summit of which are strong early earthworks. In 655, this +place was the seat of a bishopric, the largest in England, including +the whole of Wessex and Mercia. In 1086, William the First and Bishop +Remigius removed the bishop's stool to Lincoln. + + + + +DOVER.--Roman _Dubris_, on the Dour (_dwr_--water), the principal +Cinque port, is situated close to the South Foreland, and is 72 miles +from London. + + +It is the eye of England, looking over to the nearest part of the +continent. It is also the gate of England, through which have come +and gone in all historic ages kings and queens and lesser folk on all +kinds of missions, relating both to war and peace. Geologically it is +knit to the French shore, by the existence both of _white_ and +_black_ rocks, _i.e._, chalk and coal. At a time when Britain was +joined to what is now Europe, when the cave bear devoured his prey in +Kent's cavern, and the monkey gambolled in the lofty trees, when the +Thames was a tributary of some great eastern stream, the Dour might +have been a considerable river, as it has worked for itself a deep +erosive valley. Even in early historic times its estuary must have +occupied a great part of the land on which stands modern Dover. +Originally wood fires were lighted on corresponding sites on the E. +and W. cliffs to guide vessels into the intermediate beach and +natural harbour during the darkness of a winter's night. Even when +the Pharos was reared, the primitive mode of illumination by means of +wood or coal was employed. The modern form of lighthouse, with glass +or metal reflectors, dates but from 1758, when the first Eddystone +lighthouse was built. A common coal fire-light was continued at St. +Bees Head, in Cumberland, as late as 1820. Architecturally, the Dover +Pharos (so called from one erected at Pharos, Alexandria, in 285 +B.C.--550 ft. high--said to have been visible 42 miles away) is +interesting from the fact that the stones from which it is built are +not native, but are supposed to have been brought over as ballast in +Roman galleys. In some places it would appear that they were built up +wall-shape, liquid cement being poured into the interstices. That the +ubiquitous King Arthur built the first castle on the cliffs, 300 ft. +above the sea, is a tradition--one we should like to believe. His +name is also associated with sites on the Western Heights and Barham +Downs. It is certain that the Roman invaders early took advantage of +the position of this "key" of the island, and that amongst their five +coast castles, under the control of "the Count of the Saxon Shore," +Dover held a position second only to Richborough. In the Watling +Street, the baths, now destroyed, the church within the Castle, the +Pharos, the Romans have left clear evidence of their occupation. St. +Mary's may be the first Christian church in Britain. To the beginning +of the eighteenth century it was used for worship; it was then +dismantled, and, after being filled with stores, at last became a +coal cellar. With the greatest difficulty it was saved from +destruction in 1860, and restored by Sir Gilbert Scott. + + + + +EXETER.--172 miles, W.S.W. from London. + +Caer Isca of the Britons (Keltic, _esk_--_exe_--_uisge_--water). In +Camden's time (1551-1623), the name was written Ex-cester. + + +Exeter is situated on a broad ridge of land, rising steeply from the +left bank of the Exe. At the head of the ridge is the Castle, +occupying the site of a strong British earth-work. Exeter was the +Romano-British country town of Isca Damnoniorum, the most westerly +town in the government of Roman Britain. Traces of Roman walls +survive in mediaeval walls, all the gates of which, however, have +disappeared. Exeter is the nexus of a considerable number of roads. + + + + +GLOUCESTER.--114 miles W.N.W. of London. On the east bank of the +Severn. + + +It is doubtful if it were a British settlement. The Roman +municipality, or colonia, of Glevum, was founded by Nerva between 96 +and 98. Part of the original walls of the town may still be traced. + + + + +ISLE OF WIGHT.--Called by the Romans, _Vectis_; Wight being a +corruption of this word. + + +This island was known in early times to the ancients, and appears to +have been used as a summer or sea-bathing resort. There are +interesting remains of Roman villas at Brading and Carisbrooke. + + + + +KENCHESTER, or Magni, or Magna, sometimes Magnis, is situated on the +Wye, about 4 miles west of the city of Hereford. + + +Discoveries of coins and other objects suggest that British villages +existed here. The Watling Street running from Wroxeter to Caerleon +passes near, communicating with Stoney Street, south of the Wye. The +site has yielded considerable evidence of Roman occupation. +Kenchester appears to have been a small town, in shape an irregular +hexagon, with an area of some seventeen acres, surrounded by a stone +wall pierced by four gates. The principal street, 15 ft. wide, ran +from east to west; the houses contained tesselated pavements, +hypocausts, leaden and tile drains; coins of various periods; fibulae +(some of silver), glass, pottery, and the like, abound; while two +inscriptions (one dated A.D. 283), lend a distinctive Roman +colouring. Suburbs lay outside; and there was a villa a mile to the +west at Bishopstone. The town, though small, had pretensions to +comfort and civilization; it is the only important Romano-British +site in Herefordshire. A legion was stationed here. + + + + +LANCASTER.--Castra ad alaunam--camp on the Lune, from Gaelic +_all_--white. Therefore we have _al_--white; _avn_, or _afon_--water; +which the Romans latinized into Alauna. + + + + +LEICESTER. + + +Before the Roman invasion, Leicester was inhabited by the Coritani. +Under the Romans it formed part of the province of Flavia +Caesariensis. Watling Street,[3] the Fosse Way and Via Devana +converge on Leicester. + +[Footnote 3: This does not actually pass through Leicester, but is +twelve miles away at nearest.] + +The principal Roman stations near were: + + Ratae --Leicester; + Verometum --Borough Hill; + Manducosedum--Mancetter; + Benones --High Cross. + +In this region Roman remains have been found at: Leicester,[4] +Rothley, Wanlip, Hasby, Bottesfold, Hinckley, Sapcote, and Melton +Mowbray. In 1771 a Roman milestone of the time of Hadrian (76-138) +was discovered at a spot two miles from Leicester. Near Blaby, over +the Soar, is a bridge locally known as the Roman Bridge. + +[Footnote 4: There is to be seen _in situ_ beneath the Great Central +Station here a beautiful and almost perfect tesselated pavement.] + + + + +LINCOLN.--_Llyn_--a deep pool, and _Colonia_. The Britons called it +_Lind-coit_. The name _Linn-dun_, of which _Lindum_ is the Romanised +version, means _The hill-fort of the pool_. + + +The territory hereabouts was first settled by Belgae; who, however, +at the time of Caesar's invasion, had become a mixed race with the +real Britons. The country was conquered by the Romans about 70 A.D., +and formed part of the province of Flavia Caesariensis. The tribe +which occupied Lincolnshire were the Coritani, who had Lindum and +Ratae for their tribal centres. In this territory remains of British +camps are found at Barrow, Folkingham, Ingoldsby, Revesby, and Wells. +Also traces of Roman camps are discoverable at Alkborough, Caistor, +Gainsborough, Gadney Hill, near Holbeach, Honington, near Grantham, +South Ormsby, and Yarborough. The Roman roads in this neighbourhood +are nearly perfect. There is Ermine Street on the eastern side of the +Cliff Hills and the Fosse Way, running S.W. from Lincoln. There is a +famous arch--the Newport--at Lincoln. It is one of the most perfect +specimens of Roman architecture in England. It is sunk fully eleven +feet below the present level of the street, and has two smaller +arches on each side, the one to the west being concealed by an +adjoining house. The Ermine Street passes through this gate, running +north from it for eleven or twelve miles as straight as an arrow. +Many Roman coins and ornaments have been found in the immediate +vicinity of this gate. In the Cloister garden of the Cathedral are +preserved a tesselated pavement and the sepulchral slab of a Roman +warrior. + + + + +LONDON.--Londonum, Londinium, the Augusta of the Romans. _Llyn +Din_--the Black Llyn or Lake, or perhaps from Celto-Saxon _dun_, or +_don_--a hill fort. This fort may have been situated where abouts St. +Paul's now stands, or, in a more extended form, it may have been +constituted by Tower Hill, Cornhill, and Ludgate Hill; bounded thus +by the Thames on the South, the Fleet on the West, and the Fen of +Moorfields and Finsbury (afterwards by Hounsditch and the Tower) on +the East. + + +It must be premised that the course of the Thames, the containing +bounds, the depth of the stream, the character of the rivulets--such +as the Lea, the Fleet, Wall-brook, West-Bourne, Tye-Bourne--presented +marked differences in early historic days from the appearance they +show to-day. The sites north and south of the line where London +Bridge now stands constituted firm ground, with a tendency to an +elevation in the north. These facts determined the position of the +British settlement. At that part of the river the Britons had, if not +a ford, at least a ferry, and finally a rough bridge--perhaps of +coracles or boats--the progenitor of the noble structure now +existing. The ferry went from what is now Dowgate to a similar +opening still existing to the west of St. Saviour's, Southwark. + +A British settlement of an early date would not now be thought to +deserve the name of town. No less an authority than Julius Caesar +tells us that it was nothing more than a thick wood, fortified with a +ditch and rampart, to serve as a place of retreat from the inroads of +enemies. At that time, we may, therefore, imagine a clearing carved +out of the forest, extending probably from the site of St. Paul's +Cathedral to that of the Bank of England, the dwellings of the +Britons being spread about the higher ground looking down upon the +river, including Tower Hill. At the time of the revolt of the Iceni, +the Roman governor, Paulinus Suetonius, being unable to make a stand, +abandoned London to Boadicea, who entirely destroyed the city, after +having massacred the inhabitants. We find London holding an important +place in the Antonine Itinerary, Londinium being a starting point for +nearly half the routes described in the portion devoted to Britain. +Traditionally, Constantine the Great walled the city, at the request +of his mother Helena, who is said to have been a native of Britain. +Probably we should place the northern wall somewhere along the course +of Cornhill[5] and Leadenhall Street; the eastern in the direction of +Billiter Street and Mark Lane; the southern in the line of Upper and +Lower Thames Streets; the western on the S.W. side of Walbrook. About +the centre of each side might be placed the four main gates, +corresponding with Bridge Gate, Ludgate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. + +[Footnote 5: Perhaps somewhat to the north of the modern street. A +portion is to be seen in the churchyard of St. Giles, Cripplegate.] + +The vision of Geoffrey of Monmouth of a great British city, Troy +Novant, founded by Brut, a descendant of Aeneas, must be relegated to +the limbo of myths. A more probable story is that one Belinus formed +a port or haven on the site of the present Billingsgate, though it +does not follow that he built a gate of wonderful structure, still +less that he built over it--as the story goes--a prodigiously large +tower. It should be noted that "gate" may not mean a gate at all in +the modern sense of the word, but only an opening or an entrance, +even as the "Yats" leading to the harbour of Yarmouth.[6] Mayhap this +settlement constituted the headquarters of Cassivellaunus, which were +taken and sacked by Julius Caesar. At all events, Tacitus (61-117 +A.D.) the first Roman author who mentions London by name, speaks of +it as an important commercial centre. It had not, up to A.D. 61, been +dignified by the name of a Colony. A temple, dedicated to Diana, +appears to have stood on the site of our Eastminster, S. Paul's, and +another, to Apollo, at Westminster. When Tacitus wrote, Verulamium +and Camulodunum possessed mints, whilst London did not. The earliest +Roman London must have been a comparatively small place, with a fort +to command the passage of the Thames. Perhaps to the Romans are due +the primitive embankments which were designed to restrain the +vagaries of the river at the times of tide and flood. London Stone, +built into another stone in Cannon Street, outside the wall of St. +Swithin's Church, is generally considered to be a milliarium (to mark +so many thousand paces) or central station from which to measure +distances, but it may conceivably have had some more ancient and +peculiar designation in connection with a public or sacred building. +Old London lies 20 feet or so below the present street level, so +that, when excavations are made for any purpose, Roman remains are +frequently found and parts of the Roman wall uncovered. + +[Footnote 6: In like manner we have Margate, Kingsgate, Westgate, +Ramsgate, Sandgate, &c., indicating probably sites where a passage +has been cut through the cliff by a stream or human agency.] + +Remains--pavements, etc.--are to be seen in abundance in the +Guildhall Museum. + +When the old General Post Office in St. Martin's-le-Grand was +demolished a large series of Roman rubbish pits was disclosed. The +lowest portions of 120 of these were carefully excavated. The "finds" +included a few whole pots and many thousands of fragments of Samian +and coarse pottery, besides building materials, whetstones, beads, +knives, coins, and other small articles. It has been possible to +assign dates to most of the holes--between A.D. 50 and 200. By the +association in the same hole of datable with undatable pottery, light +has been thrown upon many types of the latter. + +Not long ago, while the buildings 3-6 King William Street were being +demolished, another series of five large Roman pits was uncovered. +From the fragments obtained therefrom nine Samian vessels of the +first century have been pieced together, and are now in the Guildhall +Museum. These include a decorated vessel, finer than any previously +found in London, and two specimens of a shape unknown hitherto in +England. A lamp, two coins, and other objects of pottery and bronze +were also obtained from this source.[7] + +[Footnote 7: Besant's _London_ and his _Westminster_ convey a +fascinating account of what was a labour of love on the part of the +author to compile. All sorts of unexpected pleasures await the +wanderer in London's highways and byeways. One of these may be +noticed in respect of the Roman bath in the Strand. Turning down +Strand Lane (a narrow passage between King's College and Surrey +Street), a few yards bring one to the baths. The lane itself is as +ancient as anything in London, inasmuch as it must have been in very +early times a path by the side of the stream fed by the bath spring, +and perhaps by the Holy Well, which afterwards gave its name to the +notorious Holywell Street, this stream finally flowing into the +Thames.] + +It is a moot point whether the Saxon migration along the Thames +waterway was checked by the presence of London, which remained a city +stronghold since Roman times, but it is evident that a gap was made +in the history of the city just after the departure of the Romans, +and the theory of continuous occupation can hardly be maintained in +face of the fact that the mediaeval City streets in no case follow +the Roman roads traces of which lie beneath the mediaeval houses. + + + + +LYMPNE, or _Lemanae_.--Pevensey District, Anderida. + + +It is considered that Reculver was the earliest Roman coast-fortress +in Kent, that Richborough was founded somewhat later, and that Lympne +and Pevensey constituted the latest stations; also, that (probably +even before the time of Constantine) a division of the Romano-British +fleet was stationed at Lympne and a series of buildings erected by +their crews. When Romney Marshes were covered by an inland sea, and +many streams drained this eastern side of the Andred Forest, the +Romans established the military station Lemanae, at the estuary of +the chief of those streams, and defended it by the castrum, the ruins +of which are now known as Stutfall Castle. Some of the stones of this +castrum were used by Archbishop Lanfranc in the construction of a +church at Lympne. + + + + +MALDON, Essex.--Situated on an acclivity rising from the south side +of the Blackwater--44 miles E.N.E. of London, and 16 S.W. from +Colchester or Camulodunum, with which it has sometimes been +identified, or rather, confounded. + + +It is supposed to have received its name[8] (Cross Hill) from a cross +erected on the eminence. A large number of Roman remains have been +found in the neighbourhood, testifying to the importance of the place +during the time of their occupation. On the West side of the town +there are also traces of a large camp, which was doubtless utilized +by different bodies of invaders and settlers. The oldest historical +mention of Maldon is in 913, when Edward the Elder encamped near it +to oppose an incursion of the Danes. + +[Footnote 8: Maldon may be a shortened form of a second +Ca_mul_odunum. _Dun_ would be a _hill-fortress_, and a cross being +erected thereon would give rise to the appellation _Cross Hill_.] + + + + +MANCHESTER.--180 miles N.W. of London. (Celtic _man_--a district). + + +It is situated in the neighbourhood of four rivers, viz., the Irwell, +Medlock, Irk, and Tib. It has been conjectured that at Castlefield +there stood a British fortress, which was afterwards taken possession +of by the soldiers of Agricola; at all events, it would appear to be +certain that a Roman Station of some importance existed in this +locality, as a fragment of a wall still exists. Even up to the end of +the eighteenth century considerable evidences of Roman occupation +were visible in and around Manchester, and from time to time in the +course of excavation (especially during the digging for the +Bridgewater Canal) old-time remains have been found. The coins +recovered were those of Vespasian, Antoninus Pius, Trajan, Hadrian, +Nero, Domitian, Vitellius, and even as late as the time of +Constantine. The period immediately succeeding the Roman occupation +is largely legendary; but up to the seventeenth century there was a +floating tradition that Tarquin, an enemy of Arthur, kept the castle +of Manchester, but was subsequently killed by Launcelot of the Lake. +The town was probably one of the scenes of the preaching of Paulinus, +the celebrated Bishop of York and of Rochester (597-644), and is said +to have been the residence of Ina, King of Wessex, and his queen, +Ethelburga, after he had defeated Ivor, in the year 689. It suffered +greatly from the ravages of the Danes. In Domesday Book, Manchester, +Salford, Rochdale, and Radcliffe are the only places named in +South-east Lancashire. + + + + +PORTSMOUTH.--74 miles S.W. of London. + + +To the north of the harbour is situated Porchester Castle, a ruined +Norman fortress occupying the site of the _Portus Magnus_ of the +Romans. Portsmouth and Southampton must have been used by the Romans +as a passage way to the Isle of Wight, where the remains of villas +show that the island furnished a place of residence for rich and +distinguished Romans. + + + + +RECULVER. + + +At the time of the Roman occupation Thanet was an island, and to +guard the north-west end of the important channel of the "Wantsume," +which separated the island from the main part of Kent, the Romans +built Regulbium, corresponding to the greater Rutupiae of the +southern outlet.[9] The Roman fort was probably one of the earliest +in the country. It must have covered about eighty acres, and was +garrisoned by the first cohort of Vetasii from Brabant. In 670, +Bassa, a priest, erected a monastery and church here, which, nearly +three hundred years later, were annexed by the monks of Christ +Church, Canterbury. The greater part of these buildings was +ruthlessly destroyed by the villagers in 1809, but the intervention +of the Trinity House authorities in the following year saved the +towers of the church, to serve as landmarks to the mariner. The +churchyard is being slowly eroded by the sea. + +[Footnote 9: It is possible that works now proceeding, necessitated +by the Great War, may result in the regulation of the waterways close +to Sandwich and in its neighbourhood in such wise as to open up again +this channel, and constitute Thanet once more an island in fact as +well as in name.] + + + + +RICHBOROUGH.--Rutupiae. + + +This furnishes one of the finest remaining relics of Roman Britain. +Built somewhat later than Reculver--about the middle of the third +century A.D.--the castle guarded the principal and oldest port of +entry into Britain in the Roman period. The rectangular enclosure +still existing was the fortress of a considerable Roman settlement +which lay to the south and south-west. At a little distance is an +amphitheatre with three entrances. Out of the West or Decuman Gate, +the Roman road to London and the North started. In the centre of the +North wall is the opening of the Postern Gate, and there were +probably central gates on the east and south. The feature of greatest +interest remaining is the subterranean structure in the centre. This +consists of an overhanging platform on a concrete foundation. There +are traces of an encircling wall, and projecting upwards from the +centre is an extraordinary cruciform platform. An underground passage +runs round the whole. Some antiquaries consider that all this formed +part of some temporary or substitutional building raised in lieu of +an original more ambitious design; others think it may have been a +signal tower combined with a lighthouse. In the Liverpool Museum are +to be found many objects discovered here, including mural paintings, +pottery, toys, dice, a steelyard with weights, and bone spurs, used +for cock-fighting. + + + + +ROCHESTER.--Durobrivae; Horfcester, 33 miles E.S.E. of London. + + +Its situation on the Roman Way from the Kentish ports to the +metropolis, as well as its strategical position on the bend of the +Medway, gave Rochester and the adjacent places on the river early +importance. It was a walled Romano-British town, though of no great +size. The original bridge across the Medway to Strood probably dates +from the Roman period, taking the place of a ferry. + + + + +SILCHESTER.--In North Hampshire--Calleva, 10 miles south of Reading. + + +A Romano-British town, which was thoroughly explored under the +auspices of the Society of Antiquaries between 1890 and 1909. The +whole plan of the ancient town within the walls was disclosed as +successive portions were uncovered. The suburbs, and the cemeteries, +which, as usual, were located without the gates, have not yet been +excavated. The ruins of the Town Hall still remain. The Duke of +Wellington, whose residence is at Strathfieldsaye, is the owner of +the site. He has arranged that most of the objects found at +Silchester shall be deposited in the Museum at Reading. + + + + +ST. ALBANS.--Verulamium. + + +Originally within the limits of the territory of the tribe of which +Cassivellaunus was, at one time, the head. Before the Roman Conquest +it was a British capital. In Roman times it received the dignity of a +_municipium_--implying municipal status and Roman citizenship for its +free inhabitants. Tacitus informs us that the town was burnt by +Boadicea in 61 A.D., but it soon rose again to prosperity. The site +is still easily recognisable, its walls, of flint rubble, surviving +in stately fragments, enclosing an area of well-nigh 200 acres. Of +the buildings formerly occupying this area but little is now known. +The theatre was excavated in 1847, and parts of the forum in 1898. +The tower of the famous Abbey is largely built of bricks taken from +the Roman buildings! + +During the first three centuries ten distinct general persecutions +swept over the nascent Christian Church. Owing to the remote position +of Britain, it appears to have escaped these fiery trials until the +time of the Emperor Diocletian, about 304. Several names among the +Britons have been traditionally handed down to us as having received +the honour of martyrdom, but the premier place among them has always +been accorded to a young soldier who was stationed at Verulam. It +appears that he was converted by an evangelist named Amphibalus, to +whom, when the trial came, he gave shelter, and even facilitated his +escape by an exchange of garments. When brought before the judges and +charged with concealing "a blasphemer of the Roman gods," Alban +avowed himself a convert to the proscribed religion and refused, in +spite of torture, to burn incense upon the heathen altars. He was +therefore beheaded outside the city about the year 285 (although the +precise date is uncertain).[10] About A.D. 785, Offa, king of that +part of Britain which we call the Midland Counties, caused search to +be made for the bones of the proto-martyr, and built a noble +monastery and church where they were found, which possibly may be +identified with the older parts of the present structure.[11] +Eventually his shrine was reared up in the South transept of the +Cathedral. Behind and just above the shrine is the Watching Gallery, +where devotees offered continual prayer and guarded the relics from +fire and robbery. Close by is another shrine in memory of S. +Amphibalus. The monastery attained to great eminence--its head was +the premier Abbot of England--and the shrine was loaded with +ornaments of enormous value. The glory departed at the time of the +Dissolution under Henry VIII. The Monastic Church is now admitted to +the rank of a Cathedral. The building was restored (or deformed?) at +great cost by the first Lord Grimthorpe, who did things with all his +right, but, as in this case, as some say, with all his wrong. + +[Footnote 10: Appendix D.] + +[Footnote 11: These words are written within a mile of a site in Kent +which bears the name of St. Albans, inasmuch as a small +daughter-house was established there.] + +The church in the neighbourhood of old St. Albans, on the North side +of the chancel, contains a monument to the memory of Francis Bacon, +Viscount St. Albans, a great lawyer, an incisive thinker, the founder +of the school of inductive philosophers--a man who, unhappily, was +cast from his exalted legal position by the malice of his foes. How +far he himself contributed to his disgrace we will not say. + + + + +WINCHESTER.--Wynton, otherwise, Venta Belgarum (_Venta_, a Latin form +of _Win_, which is derived from the Celtic, _gwent_, a plain; hence +also _Venta Silurum_, and Bennaventa=Daventry); 66-1/2 miles S.W. +London. + + +The city is situated in and above the valley of the Itchen, mainly on +the left bank. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Tudor Rous +Hudibras, and dates it 99 years before the first building of Rome! +Earthworks and relics testify that the Itchen Valley was originally +occupied by Celts, and it is certain from its position at the centre +of six Roman roads, and from the relics found there, that the Caer +Gwent (White City of the Celts--_Ghwin_--white[12]) under the name of +Venta Belgarum, was an important Romano-British country town. Legends +accumulate here around the persons of Arthur and his knights. After +the conquest of Hampshire by Gervisus, the place became the capital +of Wessex, then of England, when the Kings of Wessex consolidated the +kingdom. Alfred and Canute resided here, amongst other English +sovereigns; and here were laid to rest Alfred's remains, until--at +the close of the eighteenth century--the coffin that contained them +was sold by a mercenary municipality for the sake of the lead in +which they were enclosed! Egbert, Edmund the Elder, and Canute were +also buried here. Edward the Confessor was crowned in the Minster in +1043. Being near the New Forest, and only 12 miles from Southampton, +Winchester was much frequented by the Norman Kings. William I wore +the crown there at Easter, even as at Westminster at Whitsuntide, and +at Gloucester at Christmas. + +[Footnote 12: The two words _gwent_ and _ghwin_ probably look to each +other in a common meaning. _Gwent_, that which is extended, as a +plain; _ghwin_, that which presents a uniform lightish tint, such as +a plain or a lake, as contrasted with dark patches or morass.] + + + + +WROXETER.--(Towards the Welsh border the _c._ or _ch._ of _chester_ +becomes an _x_, and the tendency to elision is very strong.) The +equivalent is Uriconium, properly Viroconium. The original Celtic +name survives in _Wroxeter_ and _Wrekin_, it being derived from +Celtic _rhos_--a moor. Wroxeter is situated on the Severn, 5 miles E. +of Shrewsbury. + + +It was a large Romano-British town, originally the chief town of the +Cornovii. At first (perhaps about 45-55 A.D.) it constituted a Roman +legionary fortress, held by Legio XIV (Gemina) against the Welsh hill +tribes. However, its garrison was soon removed, and it became a +flourishing town with stately Town Hall, Baths and other +appurtenances of a thoroughly Roman and civilised city. It was larger +and probably richer than Silchester. The lines of its walls can still +be traced, enclosing about 170 acres. Parts of important public +buildings have been disclosed by the excavations, which are still +progressing. They are carried on under the auspices of the Society of +Antiquaries.[13] + +[Footnote 13: See Appendix D.] + + + + +YORK.--(Celtic, contracted from _eure-wic_; _wic_, from L. vicus), +otherwise Eboracum. + + +It lies in a plain watered by the Ouse, at the junction of the Foss +stream with the main river, 188 miles N. by W. of London. + +In British times the city bore the name of Caer-Ebroc. It was chosen +by the Romans as an important _depot_ after the conquest of the +Brigantes by Agricola in 79. Ultimately it became the most important +Roman centre in North Britain. The fortress of Legio VI (Victrix) was +situated near the site of the present Minster, and a municipality or +colonia sprang up where now stands the railway station on the +opposite side of the Ouse. There is a large collection of remains to +be found in the hospitium of St. Mary's Abbey, derived from the +cemetery and the site of the railway station. The base of the +Multangular Tower, N.W. of the walls, is Roman, of mingled brick and +stone work. The present names of the Bars are Micklegate, Bootham, +Monk (Goodrum), and Walmgate. Of the Norman fortress erected by +William the Conqueror in 1068 some portions were probably +incorporated in Clifford's Tower, which was partly destroyed by fire +in 1684. The Cathedral, or Minster of St. Peter, if surpassed by some +other English fanes in certain special features, is on the whole the +most striking and imposing specimen of ecclesiastical architecture in +Britain. + +The Emperor Hadrian visited York in 120. The Emperor Severus died in +this city in 211, and his body was probably burnt on the hill which +now bears his name. After the death of Constantius Chlorus at York, +his son, Constantine the Great (who, according to an ancient but +incorrect tradition, was born at York), was inaugurated in this +imperial centre. The Romans withdrew in 410, and after that, scarcely +is anything known of the state of things hereabouts until 627, when +King Edwin was baptized and Paulinus consecrated in what then +constituted the metropolitan church. + + + + +APPENDIX A + + +Of late years measurements and records in regard to racial characters +have been made more or less thoroughly throughout Europe, partly by +individual enterprise, partly by Government officials, who have +mainly taken children and soldiers as the material of observation. It +is thus established that there is along the Mediterranean, throughout +the Spanish Peninsula, extending into the western borders of France, +and as far north as the West of England, parts of Wales and of +Scotland, and of Ireland (where dwell the descendants in the British +Isles of the ancient Picts or long-barrow men), a predominating race +which is called "the Mediterranean" or "Iberian" race, characterized +by a narrow, long, skull, dark colour of the hair, eyes, and skin, +and short stature. + +Fringing the north and north-west border of Europe, occupying +Scandinavia, and largely dominating Great Britain and Ireland (where +it has overrun the earlier Iberian, or Pictish people) is the second +great European race--the Nordic. It was formerly called the +"Teutonic," but, as this term has been misapplied in Germany for +political reasons, so as to include a large body of the last, or +third, race, it is better to use the word "Nordic." The Nordic race +is, like the Iberian, long-headed, but in contrast it is blond and +very tall. + +The third great European race occupies a vast wedge intruding between +the areas occupied by the Iberian race to the South and the Nordic +people to the North. It fills all but the northern border of Russia +and occupies Hungary (where there are also intrusive Huns of +Mongolian origin), Austria, Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria. It also +populates Germany (except its northernmost provinces) and occupies +the north and north-west of Italy, the west and centre of France and +half of Belgium. It is characterized by the round head, sturdy size, +and a colouration intermediate between that of the Iberians and +Nordics, a colouration which may tend to brunette or blond according +as either of these races is mixed with it. It is best called the +Alpine race, but is also styled the Celtic, on account of its +association with the Celtic culture and language; though it never +occupied Ireland, and does not exist at the present day in Cornwall +and Scotland, and is hardly recognisable in Wales. + +The Nordic element is predominant in Great Britain and Ireland, +associated with the earlier and partly absorbed Iberian, with hardly +a trace of the Alpine or Celtic race, in spite of the talk about +Celtic fringes and the ancient introduction and prevalence of Celtic +language and culture due to the influence of small groups of Celtic +immigrants. + + + + +APPENDIX B + + +In the course of an enquiry in Australia, having for its object the +fostering a love of the country districts and stemming the exodus to +the cities, which is a disquieting feature of life in the +Commonwealth, medical inspectors in the schools of Victoria have come +to the conclusion that blue-eyed people seek the land, and that the +city populations are recruited largely from the brown-eyed. If this +conclusion could be generally supported, it opens up interesting +questions as to the connection of eye-pigmentation with race, and its +possible modification by inter-marriage. From the uncertainty of our +knowledge as to the immediate cause of eye and hair pigmentation one +cannot but be faced with the alternative--either that little formal +attention has been paid to the subject, or that the elements of +investigation are uncertain and conflicting. What would Mendel have +said to this problem? + + + + +APPENDIX C + + +In the course of the compilation of this History, the Author +re-perused the _Handbook to the Roman Wall_, in the fifth edition, +put forth by Mr. Robert Blair, many years after the death of the +original compiler, Dr. Bruce. In the light of succeeding events it is +curious to note what is said of Corstopitum, a site noted in the text +as being near Hadrian's great line of wall and its defences. Thus the +record runs: + +This site, which lost its military importance with the retreat of the +Romans, apparently became a commercial emporium, and underwent very +various fortunes, culminating in its destruction by barbarians; so +that, from the fifth century, it ceased to be from that day to this; +no man dwelling on the site. + +Mr. Blair says of the place itself: + +Its form and extent gave it the aspect of a city rather than of a +camp. Remains of a bridge across the Tyne are to be seen when the +river is low. Excavations were made in the summer of 1906. Nothing of +account was found except a few walls, an intaglio, some fragments of +pottery and a few coins. + +How frigid and disappointing is not this record! But listen to the +story which Sir Arthur Evans related to the British Association for +the Advancement of Science in his Presidential address at Newcastle +last September: + +The work at Corbridge, the ancient Corstopitum, begun in 1906, and +continued down to the autumn of 1914, has already uncovered +throughout a great part of its area the largest urban centre--civil +as well as military in character--on the line of the Wall, and the +principal store-house of its stations. Here (together with well-built +granaries, workshops, and barracks, and other records of river life +as are supplied by sculptured stones and inscriptions, and the double +discovery of hoards of gold coins) has come to light a spacious and +massively constructed stone building, apparently a military +store-house, worthy to rank besides the bridge-piers of the North +Tyne among the most important monuments of Roman Britain. There is +much here, indeed, to carry our thoughts far beyond our insular +limits. On this, as on so many other sites along the Wall, the +inscriptions and reliefs take us very far afield. We mark the +gravestone of a man of Palmyra, an altar of the Tyrian Hercules--its +Phoenician Baal--a dedication to a pantheistic goddess of Syrian +religion and the raised effigy of the Persian Mithra. So, too, in the +neighbourhood of Newcastle itself, as elsewhere on the Wall, there +was found an altar of Jupiter Dolichenus, the old Anatolian God of +the Double Axe, the male form of the divinity once worshipped in the +prehistoric Labyrinth of Crete. Nowhere are we more struck than in +this remote extremity of the Empire with the heterogeneous religious +elements, often drawn from its far Eastern borders, that before the +days of the final advent of Christianity Roman dominion had been +instrumental in diffusing. The Orontes may be said to have flowed +into the Tyne as well as the Tiber. + +This quotation has been given at length in order to sustain the +contention--put forth more than once in this book--that treasures +associated with the Roman epoch lie around us in every part of our +island, and that all sorts of novel surprises mutely await the advent +and quest of the diligent investigator. + +But to return for a moment to Corstopitum. It has been realised that +the city was a centre of iron-work and pottery-making to supply the +needs of the troops. It furnished a base for the invasion of +Caledonia by Lollius Urbicus in A.D. 140, and for the great +expedition of Septimius Severus in A.D. 208. Much of the area +excavated during 1906 and the following years has been filled in, but +the most important buildings remain open--two large granaries, the +fountain or public water-pant, and a large unfinished building, which +may have been designed as a military storehouse, or as the praetorium +of a legionary fortress which never came into being. The most +remarkable finds made here have been the Corbridge lion in stone, +which now enjoys an European reputation, and two hoards of gold +coins, now in the British Museum.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Official Handbook to Newcastle and District, put +forth on the occasion of the last visit of the British Association to +that city.] + +The Map above gives the line of Hadrian's Wall through the two +counties of Northumberland and Cumberland, viz., from Wallsend to +Bowness, and indicates the principal places on the route. For further +details of this absorbing subject the reader is referred to such +works as the Proceedings and Transactions of learned societies, such +as the _Archaeologia Aeleana_, or the _Lapidarium Septentrionale_. +The _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, Vol. vii gives a full rendering +of the inscriptions. + + + + +APPENDIX D + + +"The Society of Antiquaries, in conjunction with the Shropshire +Archaeological Society, carried on extensive excavations at Wroxeter +during the years 1912, 1913, and 1914. + +"Wroxeter, the ancient Viroconium or Uriconium, is situated on the +east bank of the Severn, between five and six miles south-east of +Shrewsbury. The lines of its walls can still be traced, enclosing an +area of about 170 acres, and the town must have been an important +centre in Roman-Britain, as it stood at the junction of two of the +main roads, viz., the Watling Street from London and the south-east, +and the road from the legionary fortress of Caerleon in South Wales. +There were also other roads running from it into Wales and to +Chester. The town is referred to by the Ravenna Geographer as +Viroconium Cornoviorum, and was probably the chief town of that tribe +which inhabited a district including both Wroxeter and Chester. + +"That the site was inhabited soon after the invasion under Claudius +in 43 A.D. is evident. Coins and other objects of pre-Flavian date +have been met with in some quantities, and there are tombstones of +soldiers of the XIV Legion from the cemetery. This legion came over +with Claudius, and left Britain for good in the year 70 A.D. +Wroxeter, situated on the edge of the Welsh hills and protected from +attack on that side by the river Severn, would have formed an +admirable base for operations against the turbulent tribes of Wales, +and it is more than likely that it was used as such in the campaigns +undertaken by Ostorius Scapula in 50 A.D. and by Suetonius Paulinus +in 60 A.D. + +"The Welsh tribes were finally subdued before the end of the reign of +Vespasian, and the country became more settled. Wroxeter appears to +have ceased to be a military centre and to have grown into a large +and prosperous town. It is in this period--namely, the last quarter +of the first century A.D.--that the occupation began on the part of +the site recently excavated. Very little of the earlier buildings +remained, as they all appear to have been built of wood and +wattle-and-daub. + +"In the second century more substantial houses were erected, and in +the course of the excavations the following buildings were uncovered. +In 1912, four long shops, with rooms at the back and open fronts with +porticoes on the street. In 1913, a temple, which must have been of +some architectural pretensions, and contained life-sized statues, of +which several fragments were discovered. In 1914, a large dwelling +house, consisting of a number of rooms with a large portico on the +street and a small bath-house on the south side. The porticoes of all +these buildings formed a continuous colonnade by the side of the +street. At the back of the large dwelling-house another structure was +discovered. Unfortunately it could not be entirely explored, as its +west part was beyond the reserved area. It consisted of two parallel +walls, 13 ft. apart, which enclosed an oblong space with rounded +corners 144 ft. wide and 188 ft. long to the furthest point +excavated. No other building of this form appears to have been found +elsewhere, and it is difficult to say for what purpose it was used, +especially as part of it is still unexcavated. It is possible, +however, that it may have been a place of amusement for games, +bull-baiting, etc., and that the two parallel walls held tiers of +wooden seats. + +"The buildings that faced the street had been altered and rebuilt +several times, the mixed soil being from 8 ft. to 10 ft. deep in +places, making the work of excavation very slow and laborious. For +instance, in 1914 there was evidence of at least four different +periods of buildings on the same site. In the early period there were +wood and wattle-and-daub houses. Over the remains of these in the +first half of the second century three long buildings were erected +with open fronts or porticoes similar to those found in 1912. About +the middle of the second century these three buildings were +incorporated in one large house with corridors, two courtyards, many +rooms, some with mosaic floors, and others fitted with hypocausts. A +bath-house, with cold baths and hot rooms, was situated at the +south-west corner. At a later period this dwelling was considerably +altered, several of the rooms being swept away, and the central part +of the building turned into one large courtyard with corridors on +three sides. Two new hypocausts were inserted and extra rooms and a +long corridor or verandah built at the back. Water was supplied to +the houses by a water main at the side of the road. By shutting +sluice-gates it was possible to divert the water into side channels +which ran through the houses, flushing their drains, and discharging +at the back into the river. Eleven wells were found during the +excavations, varying from 10 ft. to 12 ft. in depth and stone-lined. + +"A number of crucibles and some unfinished bronze castings, etc., +have been met with, showing that metalworking was carried on on the +site. There was also evidence of other industrial processes, such as +enamelling and working in bone. A very large number of small objects +has been discovered during the excavations, such as cameos and +engraved gems (some still set in finger rings), many brooches of +different metals, enamelled ornaments, and a quantity of interesting +articles in different metals, bone, glass, etc. + +"The great quantity of pottery found may be judged by the fact that +upwards of 900 potters' stamps on Samian ware have been recorded. The +coins number between 1,200 and 1,300, among them being a few British +varieties. No coins later than the end of the fourth century have +been, as yet, met with, and the town does not appear to have been +inhabited after that date. What was the cause of its destruction or +desertion is, as yet, uncertain, but it is hoped that future +excavations will solve the problem. + +"Detailed accounts of the excavations are printed in the Reports of +the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London, Nos. +1, 2, and 4." + +The above has been extracted, by kind permission of the Council, from +the proceedings of the British Association for the Advancement of +Science for 1915; and is taken from the Report of the Committee on +"Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain," comprising the Special +Return made by J. P. Bushe-Fox, F.S.A. + + + + +WORKS BY REV. J. O. BEVAN, M.A., F.G.S., F.S.A. + +(_Rector of Chillenden, Canterbury; Sometime Prizeman, Exhibitioner, +and Foundation Scholar of Emmanuel College, Cambridge_). + + +THE GENESIS AND EVOLUTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL SOUL 2/6 +_Williams & Norgate_ + +EGYPT AND THE EGYPTIANS (With Preface by Sir George Darwin) 5/- + +BIRTH AND GROWTH OF TOLERATION, AND OTHER ESSAYS 5/- + +EXPOSITION OF THE COLLECTS, EPISTLES, AND GOSPELS 2/6 + +THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF RELIGION 2/6 + +OUR ENGLISH BIBLE 6d. + +WITS AND THEIR HUMOURS 2/6 + +WOOING AND WEDDING 1/- + +WOOED AND WEDDED (Sequel to the above) 1/- +_Allen & Unwin_ + +CHAUCER AND HIS TALES 3d. +_Goulden, Canterbury_ + +ST. PAUL IN THE LIGHT OF TO-DAY 1/6 +_Allenson & Co._ + +UNIVERSITY LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 5/- + +HANDBOOK OF THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY 5/- +_Chapman & Hall_ + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Towns of Roman Britain, by James Oliver Bevan + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TOWNS OF ROMAN BRITAIN *** + +***** This file should be named 33059.txt or 33059.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/5/33059/ + +Produced by Ron Swanson + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |