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+Project Gutenberg's The Towns of Roman Britain, by James Oliver Bevan
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Towns of Roman Britain
+
+Author: James Oliver Bevan
+
+Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33059]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TOWNS OF ROMAN BRITAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ron Swanson
+
+
+
+
+
+[Frontispiece: Roman Britain shewing the chief Roman Roads.]
+
+
+
+
+THE TOWNS OF ROMAN BRITAIN
+
+
+By the
+
+Rev. J. O. Bevan,
+M.A., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.S.A.;
+Fellow of the College of Preceptors and Examiner, Sometime Prizeman,
+Exhibitioner and Foundation Scholar of Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
+
+
+Author of
+"_The Genesis and Evolution of the Individual Soul_"
+"_Egypt and the Egyptians_"
+"_University Life in the Middle Ages_"
+"_Handbook of the History and Development of Philosophy_"
+"_Archæological Map of Herefordshire_"
+and numerous other Works.
+
+
+
+
+London
+Chapman & Hall, Ltd.
+1917
+[All Rights Reserved]
+
+
+
+
+THE WESTMINSTER PRESS
+411A HARROW ROAD
+LONDON W
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The Author writes the last line of this book with a sigh at the
+incompleteness of his work. He is conscious he has touched but the
+fringe of the mantle covering the form of the silent Muse of History,
+but his efforts will be justified if he succeeds in persuading even a
+single student to persevere and lead the fair Clio to disclose the
+full story of which broken whispers are here recorded. No one can
+doubt the fascination of this page of our nation's development,
+dealing as it does with the dawn of that day of which, please God,
+the complete effulgence will shine more and more to the perfect end.
+
+In this brochure attention has been chiefly directed to the _towns_
+of Roman Britain, as it would have required a volume of stupendous
+size to formulate a record of sites associated with isolated
+settlements, camps, burrows, "and bowers," or grounds whereon sports
+were conducted. Again, there are spots of interest more or less
+connected with Roman occupation, in tradition or in fact, such as
+Alderney,[1] Porchester,[2] Glastonbury, Avebury, Arbow Low in
+Derbyshire, Stripple Stones, on Bodmin Moor, in Cornwall, the
+hill-fort in Parc-y-meirch Wood, Dinorben, Denbighshire. The line we
+have been compelled to draw necessarily excludes such as these. The
+present work is intended to furnish a compendious guide to readers
+who desire to study the fruits of the Roman occupation, to trace out
+the roads they laid down, and to possess themselves of the position
+and essential features of the centres where they congregated for
+commerce, pleasure, or defence. The Author has long been attracted to
+the elucidation of the early history of Britain, and this feeling was
+intensified by the work he undertook some years ago in connection
+with the compilation of an Archæological Map of Herefordshire, on
+lines laid down by the Society of Antiquaries. His experience at that
+time made him aware how such an undertaking might serve to quicken
+the curiosity, and to whet the expectation of the student of old time
+as to the wonderful secrets which await the skilful use of such
+humble implements as the shovel and the pick in almost any quarter of
+our island home.
+
+[Footnote 1: Alderney (Ald, _old_; Ey, _island_). This, the most
+northerly of the four Channel Islands seems to have been known to the
+Romans as _Riduna_. Remains of ancient dwellings have been found
+there.]
+
+[Footnote 2: To the north of Portsmouth Harbour is situated
+Porchester Castle, a ruined Norman fortress, occupying the site of
+the _Portus Magnus_ of the Romans.]
+
+The Author desires to convey his acknowledgments to Messrs. Philip
+and Son, Ltd., of Fleet Street, for their kindness in permitting him
+to make use of the blocks for the two Maps which appear in this
+volume.
+
+CHILLENDEN RECTORY,
+  CANTERBURY.
+    _Nov., 1916_.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+                                               PAGE
+Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   v
+
+Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
+
+Introduction
+
+  Historical Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   1
+
+  Early History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5
+
+  Main Divisions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
+
+  Roman Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
+
+  Remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
+
+  Introduction of Christianity  . . . . . . . .  10
+
+  Influence of Roman Occupation . . . . . . . .  11
+
+  Roman Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
+
+  Roman Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14
+
+List of Roman Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
+
+  Aldborough (_Isurium Brigantum_)  . . . . . .  19
+
+  Aldeburgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
+
+  Bath (_Aquae Solis_, or _Sulis_)  . . . . . .  19
+
+  Caerleon (_Isca Siluvum_) . . . . . . . . . .  22
+
+  Caerwent (_Venta Silurum_)  . . . . . . . . .  24
+
+  Caistor Castle (_Venta_)  . . . . . . . . . .  24
+
+  Canterbury (_Durovernum_) . . . . . . . . . .  24
+
+  Cardiff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  27
+
+  Chester (_Caerleon Vawr_) . . . . . . . . . .  28
+
+  Chesterford (_Iceanum_) . . . . . . . . . . .  28
+
+  Chichester (_Regnum_) . . . . . . . . . . . .  29
+
+  Cirencester (_Corininum_) . . . . . . . . . .  30
+
+  Colchester (_Camolodunum_)  . . . . . . . . .  30
+
+  Corstopitum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  31
+
+    The Wall of Hadrian . . . . . . . . . . . .  32
+
+    The Wall of Antonine  . . . . . . . . . . .  34
+
+  Dorchester (Dorsetshire) (_Durnovaria_) . . .  35
+
+  Dorchester (Oxfordshire) (_Dorcinia_) . . . .  36
+
+  Dover (_Dubris_)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36
+
+  Exeter (_Caer Isca_; _Isca Damnoniorum_)  . .  38
+
+  Gloucester (_Glevum_) . . . . . . . . . . . .  39
+
+  Isle of Wight (_Vectis_)  . . . . . . . . . .  39
+
+  Kenchester (_Magni_)  . . . . . . . . . . . .  39
+
+  Lancaster (_Castra ad Alaunam_) . . . . . . .  40
+
+  Leicester (_Ratae_) . . . . . . . . . . . . .  40
+
+  Lincoln (_Lindum Colonia_, or _Lindocolina_)   41
+
+  London (_Augusta_)  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  42
+
+  Lympne (_Lemanae_)  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
+
+  Maldon  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
+
+  Manchester  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  48
+
+  Portsmouth  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  49
+
+  Reculver (_Regulbium_)  . . . . . . . . . . .  49
+
+  Richborough (_Rutupiae_)  . . . . . . . . . .  50
+
+  Rochester (_Durobrivae_)  . . . . . . . . . .  51
+
+  Silchester (_Calleva Atre-batum_) . . . . . .  51
+
+  St. Albans (_Verulamium_) . . . . . . . . . .  52
+
+  Winchester (_Venta Belgarum_) . . . . . . . .  54
+
+  Wroxeter (_Uriconium_, or _Viroconium_) . . .  55
+
+  York (_Eboracum_) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  56
+
+Appendix A  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  59
+
+Appendix B  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  60
+
+Appendix C  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  61
+
+Appendix D  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  64
+
+
+TABLE OF MAPS.
+
+Roman Britain showing the chief Roman Roads   Frontispiece
+
+The Roman Wall                             To face page 31
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.
+
+The earliest notice of Britain is in Herodotus (B.C. 480-408); but he
+mentions the Tin Islands (Scilly Islands and Cornwall), only to
+confess his ignorance about them. More important is a passage in
+Aristotle (B.C. 384-322), who (writing a century later) is the
+earliest author who mentions the British Isles by name, as he does in
+the following passage: "Beyond the Pillars of Hercules (the Strait of
+Gibraltar) the ocean flows round the earth, and in it are two very
+large islands (Nesoi Britannikoi), called in British Albion and
+Ierne, lying beyond the Keltoi." The application of the name
+Britannia to denote the larger island, is due to Julius Cæsar (B.C.
+100-44), who is the first _Roman_ writer to mention Britain. The name
+itself may be derived from Welsh, _brith_, mottled, tattooed, or from
+_brithyn_, cloth, cloth-clad, as opposed to the skin-clad Celts.
+
+The history of Britain would be a very long one if we only knew it.
+It is clear that a considerable interchange of commerce was carried
+on between the south-eastern parts of the island and Gaul, and that
+even the remoter regions of the Mediterranean were largely dependent
+upon Britain for their supplies of tin from the Cornish mines, of
+lead from Somerset, and of iron from Northumberland and the Forest of
+Dean.
+
+Politically, Britain consisted of a number of independent bodies,
+united in a federation of the loosest kind, in which the lead was
+taken by that tribe which happened at the time to be the most
+powerful or to have the bravest or most astute leader.
+
+About B.C. 56 Caius Volusenus was sent to this country by Julius
+Cæsar to examine the coast preparatory to an invasion. The step was
+threatened, because it was alleged that the Britons had aided and
+abetted some of the Gaulish tribes in their resistance to the Roman
+domination. On August 26th, B.C. 55, Cæsar himself set sail from
+Portus Itius, near Boulogne, with two legions, and effected a
+landing, presumably near Deal. A good deal of discussion has taken
+place relative to this point, and much has been said as to the action
+of the winds and tides in determining his landing place. Probably he
+would have made a feint at Dover and one or two other places, under
+cover of which the main body would land at a spot weakly defended. At
+all events, the resistance offered by the British was soon overcome,
+easy terms being imposed on their submission. Soon after, Cæsar left,
+but early in the following summer he again invaded these shores with
+five legions and two thousand cavalry. He landed in the same
+neighbourhood as before, and advanced 12 miles inland to the river
+Stour before meeting with the islanders. Ultimately he decisively
+defeated Cassivelaunus, the leader, either near London or his
+capital, Verulamium. The conqueror departed at the fall of the year,
+without leaving behind any garrison, but, at the same time, taking
+away hostages to ensure the carrying out of the terms imposed.
+
+Then ensues a period during which direct Roman influence of a
+dominant or military character fell into abeyance, so that one is
+required to take up the tale at a much later period, viz., the
+accession of Claudius, in A.D. 41. That emperor determined to carry
+out the intention of Augustus to exact the promised tribute from
+Britain. In 43 he despatched Aulus Plautius with four legions, who
+obtained an easy victory. Claudius himself received the submission of
+the tribes. In 42, Vespasian also--who afterwards became emperor in
+69--was warring against the Silurian chief, Caradog, or Caractacus (a
+son of Cunobelin). The latter was defeated in 50 by P. Ostorius
+Scapula, and found refuge in the country of Cartismandua, queen of
+the Brigantes, who, however, ultimately gave up her prisoner.
+
+There is a tradition embodied in the Welsh Triads that Caradog and
+his wife were taken to Rome, and that three hostages accompanied
+them, by name Bran, Llin, and Claudia, respectively the father, son,
+and daughter of the brave British chieftain. It is further surmised
+that Llin and Claudia were the Linus and Claudia referred to by St.
+Paul in 2 Tim. iv, 21, and that Bran, after seven years banishment at
+Rome--where he embraced Christianity under the influence of the great
+Apostle of the Gentiles--returned to his native land to proclaim the
+new religion to the people.
+
+In 61, Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, revolted against the Roman yoke,
+sacked London and Colchester, but was defeated near the former city,
+and took poison rather than fall into the hands of the victors.
+Agricola became governor in 78, and subjected to his rule the
+Ordovices Nivales. Not long after, he attacked the Brigantes and
+Galgacus. In 120, Hadrian was engaged in building the Roman or Pict
+wall between the Tyne and Solway Frith, which has for so long borne
+his name. Nineteen years later, Tollius Urbicus constructed the
+rampart, called the Wall of Antonine (Antoninus Pius 86-161), along
+the line of Agricola's forts, built between the Forth and the Clyde,
+to overawe the wild tribes to the north. This wall is now known by
+the name of Graeme's Dyke. In 207 onwards, Severus built a new wall
+along the line of Hadrian's rampart. He died at York in 211. The
+years 287, 288, saw the reigns of Carausius and Allectus. In 296,
+Constantius Chlorus regained Britain for Rome. He also died at York
+in 306. In 307 the Picts and Scots overran the country as far as
+London. The General Theodosius was sent to oppose them, and drove
+them back beyond Valentia, the fifth Roman division northwards. The
+title of Emperor was assumed by Maximus in 383, but he was put to
+death in 388. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, transferred one
+legion from Britain into Gaul. This weakened the defence of the land
+against the northern tribes, as the legion never returned. At this
+epoch ever-growing confusion and division manifested themselves
+within the Roman Empire, whereupon its hold on distant provinces grew
+weaker and weaker. At one period there were as many as six Emperors
+contending with one another for the sole authority; and in 410, the
+year in which Rome was sacked by the Goths under Alaric, the Roman
+occupation was terminated according to the terms of a letter
+addressed by Honorius to the cities of Britain.
+
+
+EARLY HISTORY.
+
+Nothing very specific can be said about the settlements of the Celtic
+inhabitants of these islands before the coming of Cæsar. The country
+must have been largely covered by forests and intersected by fens.
+Different tribes occupied different centres and were nomadic
+according to the season of the year. Barter was common, and there
+must have been facilities for the distribution of those goods which
+had their origin in Gaul. An export trade, too, was actively carried
+on in regard to such metals as tin, which were borne in rude
+conveyances along well-defined trackways wrought out along the
+sheltered sides of hills.
+
+Certain spots--woods, hills, wells--from their size, shape, position,
+or some accidental association, were regarded as sacred, and became
+the centres of religious worship, of sacrifice, and of schools of
+priests. Thus we have--then, or in somewhat later times--Bangor,
+Mona, or the Isle of Augury, Stonehenge, Avebury, etc.
+
+The coming of the Romans led to the opening up of new roads, and
+caused the building of walls of defence against predatory tribes. It
+also accentuated the position of many of the camps, centres of
+population, and strategic posts.
+
+
+MAIN DIVISIONS.
+
+In the reign of Claudius (B.C. 41-A.D. 54), the country south of the
+Solway Frith and the mouth of the Tyne formed one Roman province
+under a consular legate and a procurator. Ptolemy (_fl._ 139-162)
+(who flourished at Alexandria, and was one of the greatest of ancient
+geographers) mentions 17 native tribes as inhabiting this district.
+The Emperor Severus (146-211) divided the whole into two parts,
+Britannia Inferior, the south, and Britannia Superior, the north. In
+the division of the country under Diocletian, Britain was made a
+diocese in the prefecture of Gaul, and was governed by a vicarius,
+residing at York. It was split up into five provinces, of which the
+boundaries, though somewhat uncertain, are supposed to have been as
+follows:
+
+_Britannia Prima_--the country south of the Thames and of the Bristol
+Channel.
+
+_Britannia Secunda_--Wales.
+
+_Flavia Caesariensis_--the country between the rivers Thames, Severn,
+Mersey, and Humber.
+
+_Maxima Caesariensis_--the rest of England, up to the wall of
+Hadrian.
+
+_Valentia_ (soon abandoned by the Romans), Scotland south of the Wall
+of Antoninus.
+
+To ensure the obedience of the natives, various Roman legions,
+composed of Gauls, Germans, Iberians, rather than of pure Romans,
+were stationed in Britain, viz., at such places as Eboracum (York),
+Deva (Chester), Isca (Caerleon), and Magni, or Magna (Kenchester).[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: In the _Itinerary_, as in the Ravenna Geographer, we
+have only the form _Magnis_, presumably from a nominative _Magni_, or
+_Magna_.]
+
+
+ROMAN BRITAIN.
+
+The population of Roman Britain was, in the main Celtic; the Cymric
+division predominating in the south and east, the Gaidhelic in the
+north and west. There existed, besides these, remnants of two earlier
+races--a small dark-haired race, akin to the Basques, or Euskarian
+(found in S.W. England, S. Wales,[2] and parts of the Scotch
+Highlands), and a tall, fairhaired race.
+
+[Footnote 2: See Appendices A & B.]
+
+Under the Romans, many towns (_coloniae_ and _municipia_) were
+founded. In several cases their position had been occupied, as winter
+or summer quarters, by the aboriginal inhabitants; the choice of the
+site being determined by the contour of the hills, the convergence of
+trackways, or the proximity to the sea or rivers. Fifty-six Roman
+towns are enumerated by Claudius Ptolemy (_fl._ A.D. 139-162). They
+formed centres of Roman authority, law, commerce, and civilization;
+the conquerors, to a very limited extent, were able to introduce
+their own literature. Amongst others, the free inhabitants of
+Eboracum and Verulamium enjoyed the coveted rights of Roman
+citizenship. The Ravenna Geographer gives a list of towns--the names
+of some of which being difficult to identify. Principally to ensure
+military dominance, the conquerors made many main roads, mostly
+centering in London. They also developed the land into a corn-growing
+country.
+
+The history of the towns that became Roman is known to us very
+imperfectly and unevenly, in respect of elements earlier than the
+conquest of A.D. 43; of the beginnings, whether official or personal;
+of their size, original planning, character and composition of the
+buildings, of the language, degree of civilization, and comparative
+wealth of the inhabitants; of the relation of the town-life to the
+life of the adjacent country-side. Further, great mystery shrouds the
+particulars of their overthrow when the aegis of the Roman authority
+was withdrawn. There are but few survivals of towns to the present
+day, and parallels must be sought rather in Pannonia[3] and North
+Africa than in the Western European Empire.
+
+[Footnote 3: Now Illyria, a part of Hungary; finally subdued by
+Tiberius, A.D. 8.]
+
+
+REMAINS.
+
+The site of a Roman town always occupied a commanding position as to
+elevation, the confluence of roads, or the proximity of rivers. It
+was surrounded with walls, which were pierced with gates defended by
+towers and bastions. The houses of the well-off were unpretentious
+outside, but were fitted inside with comfort and even elegance. The
+rooms were built around a courtyard. In the villas at Brading and
+Chedworth tesselated pavements have been found, and traces of baths.
+Each city was furnished with a Forum, a Basilica, a Temple, and a
+series of Public Baths. Outside the walls were a Theatre, an
+Amphitheatre, and a Cemetery.
+
+A goodly proportion of articles recovered constitute treasure-trove
+in its purest form--objects buried, perhaps, by the owners in
+expectation of a raid, and never recovered owing to the incidence of
+death. Many finds have been simply fortuitous, but tombs have been
+the most valuable repositories. The objects recovered therefrom are
+in very different states of preservation. Fashioned iron implements
+have suffered the greatest from natural decay, often merely
+suggesting the fine smith's work lavished upon them; bronze articles
+are the less corroded. Gold, the purest of metals, has defied the
+ravages of time, and ornaments can be reproduced in the form and
+semblance they possessed when they left the hands of the maker. It is
+tolerably certain that women formed a part of the early Saxon and
+Danish raiders; and it is no less certain that a few women, at
+various times, came over with Roman soldiers or immigrants. To the
+graves of women especially we look for the recovery of numberless
+articles of use and adornment. Probably, at the first, there were
+also surface memorials over the graves so closely jumbled together in
+the cemeteries, but the violence of man and the inroads of the
+weather would combine to sweep them away at an early period.
+
+The Baths at Bath furnish the best example of the kind in England;
+London also has the remains of a Bath of Roman times in the Strand.
+It is stated that the church of St. Mary the Virgin at Dover is built
+on the site of a Roman bath, and that the market square there
+occupies the position of the Roman Agora. Pits used for tanning or
+dyeing are to be seen at Silchester, and various other industrial
+occupations are indicated from what may be seen at that city, at
+Wroxeter, and at various other centres.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+Before Christianity was planted in Britain, the religion of its
+inhabitants was Druidism. Julius Cæsar described this form of
+devotion as it existed in Gaul. The history of the beginnings of
+Christianity in this country is obscure. Most likely the faith was
+originally proclaimed in Britain by various independent agents, in
+different parts of the island. There are indistinct echoes of
+apostolic origin--of contact with the East and with Spain; but
+probably the new doctrine was introduced by merchants from Gaul or by
+soldiers in the Roman legions who were sent into the island by
+Claudius Cæsar under Aulus Plautius in the year 43 A.D. In the
+following pages mention will be made of the martyrdom of certain of
+these early saints at St. Albans and Caerleon.
+
+It may be said that the first Christian institution in Britain,
+_i.e._, the church of the garrison towns, was Roman in its origin and
+atmosphere; and that the second was founded by the followers of S.
+Germanus of Vienne, in France, whose Christianity was probably
+derived from Ephesus. Also that the origins of Celtic Christendom
+contained distinctively Greek elements. In the Romances,[4] too,
+there are various obscure but significant indications of certain
+influences derivable from Egyptian Christianity; but, vitally and
+essentially, the Celtic Church constituted itself. Like that of
+Ireland, it was tribal and monastic, not diocesan; and, in both
+cases, this loose organization proved to be a source of great
+weakness.
+
+[Footnote 4: Compiled by such men as Robert of Gloucester (_temp._
+Henry III).]
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF ROMAN OCCUPATION.
+
+Roman remains found in different parts of the island include
+foundations of towns (such as Silchester, Wroxeter), streets,
+milliaria, parts of walls and gates; baths, furnaces, flues, wooden
+and leaden water-pipes (London, Bath); villas with mosaic pavements,
+painted walls (London, Chedworth, near Cheltenham, Brading,
+Carisbrooke); altars, votive inscriptions, sculptures, bridges,
+weapons, tools, implements, pottery, domestic utensils, gold, silver,
+and bronze ornaments and toilet articles, and coins.
+
+The Romans laboured to render permanent their conquest of Britain.
+They introduced their native refinement, and greatly improved British
+arts. To this fact testimony is furnished by the tumuli, barrows,
+earthworks, monoliths, cromlechs, cairns, and such like remains,
+which are continually revealing secrets concealed ever since the
+debâcle which followed the departure of the Roman hosts from our
+shores. Even as these words were being written, the Author read in
+_The Times_ of the day an account of Nonsuch Palace at Ye Well, or
+Ewell, in Surrey, in which it was stated that in the course of recent
+excavations for the creation of a Japanese garden and lakes, Roman
+silver coins and pottery were found, testifying to the fact that
+Ewell was a Roman settlement, being, in fact, identified with
+Noviomagus.[5]
+
+[Footnote 5: About the same time, the discovery of a Roman pavement
+was recorded at Filey, and of coins and a Roman bath at Templeborough
+Camp, Yorkshire.]
+
+So true is it that below us on every side there have been hidden for
+centuries by the dull, heavy soil, innumerable traces of the life,
+working, and death of the different races of men successively
+inhabiting this island. What a wonderful story would not these
+remains be able to disclose if each claimant were granted a voice,
+and if each voice could unfold its own narrative!
+
+
+ROMAN ROADS.
+
+The method of the construction of the Roman roads largely varied with
+the nature of the country traversed; but they were uniformly raised
+above the surface of the neighbouring land, and ran from station to
+station in a straight course, almost regardless of hills. The more
+important lines were elaborately constructed with a foundation of
+hard earth, a bed of large stones, sometimes two more layers of rough
+stones and mortar, then gravel, lime, and clay; and, above all, the
+causeway was paved with flat stones. The width was generally about
+fifteen feet, and at regular intervals were posting stations. The
+distance was regularly marked off by milestones (_mille passuum_--a
+thousand paces). The principal roads were four in number, viz.,
+Watling Street, the Fosse Way, Icknield Street, and Ermine Street.
+
+Originally, Watling Street probably ran from London to Wroxeter. Its
+northward and westward continuations proceeded from Wroxeter into
+Wales; its southern continuations between London, Canterbury and the
+parts about Dover seem also to have received the same name.
+
+Drayton, in his Polyolbion, XIII (1613), says:
+
+   "Those two mighty ways, the Watling and the Fosse ... the first
+        doth hold her way
+    From Dover to the furth'st of fruitful Anglesey;
+    The second, north and south, from Michael's utmost mount,
+    To Caithness, which the farth'st of Scotland we account."
+
+The Fosse ran from the sea-coast at Seaton, in Devonshire, (R.
+Maridunum) to Leicester, with a continuation known as High Street, to
+the Humber.
+
+The Icknield Way seems to have extended from east to west from
+Icilgham, or Icklingham, near Bury St. Edmunds, underneath the chalk
+ridge of the Chilterns and Berkshire Downs, to the neighbourhood of
+Wantage, thence to Cirencester and Gloucester.
+
+The Ermine Street ran north and south through the Fenland from London
+to Lincoln.
+
+Besides the four great lines there were many scarcely subordinate
+ones. There were, _e.g._, several Icknield Streets. Akeman Street ran
+from Bath, north-east by Cirencester, through Wych-wood Forest and
+Blenheim to Alcester and Watling Street. A high-road ran from Exeter
+to the Land's End in continuation of the Fosse. Another route ran
+from Venta Silurum to St. David's Head; another to the Sarn Helen up
+the western Welsh coast to Carnarvon (Welsh, _sarn_--a road).
+
+
+ROMAN INFLUENCE.
+
+To a certain extent the conqueror enters into the entail of the
+conquered. Nevertheless he must obey the conditions of life which the
+natural features, or the climate of the country of which he has
+possessed himself, have compelled the aborigines to adopt.
+Occasionally, as in the case of Greece and Rome, the conquered
+enslave their masters in regard, at all events, to literature and
+art; but this did not obtain in the case before us, for the Roman
+occupation of Britain was largely military, and the Britons had
+little enough to impart either in literature or art. It is
+observable, however, that the Romans either did not seek to impose,
+or were unable to impose, their religious ideas on the Britons. In
+this connection it must be remembered that the composition of the
+Roman legions was largely cosmopolitan.
+
+The moral and religious influence brought to bear upon the native
+Britons by reason of the Roman occupation of close on four centuries
+can easily be overestimated. A section of the people in the vicinity
+of Roman towns were humanized and civilized, but the sequel proved
+that (to a certain extent) the fibre of the hardy and courageous
+Briton deteriorated and his faculty of resource and fighting
+diminished; so that when he was deserted by his Roman masters and
+deprived of his leading strings, he fell a prey--though not until
+after a protracted and sanguinary struggle--to the Pict and Scot and
+Saxon, who were able to combine for the attack, and who were
+regardless of ease and privation and love of life. Although the days
+of this old time are far away, and the face of the land has changed,
+this lesson is not without warning to the ignorant, indifferent,
+pleasure-loving sections of our England of the twentieth century, and
+this lesson is even now being brought home to us in no uncertain way
+in our death-grip with a cruel and relentless foe.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF TOWNS
+
+
+Here follows an alphabetical list of the Roman towns described in the
+following pages:
+
+Aldborough (Yorkshire), Aldborough (Suffolk), Bath, Caerleon,
+Caerwent, Caistor, Canterbury, Cardiff, Chester, Chesterford,
+Chichester, Cirencester, Corstopitum, Dorchester, Dover, Exeter,
+Gloucester, Isle of Wight, Kenchester, Lancaster, Leicester, Lincoln,
+London, Lympne, Maldon, Manchester, Portsmouth, Reculver,
+Richborough, Rochester, Silchester, St. Albans, Winchester, Wroxeter,
+York.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF TOWNS
+
+
+
+
+ALDBOROUGH--(A.S. burh, buruh, byrig--an earthwork) is situated in
+the West Riding of Yorkshire, 16 miles W.N.W. of York. It is now
+remarkable only for its numerous ancient remains.
+
+
+It was the Isurium Brigantum (the capital of the Brigantes) of the
+Romans, and here and there in the neighbourhood the remains of
+aqueducts, spacious buildings, and tesselated pavements have been
+found, as well as numerous implements, coins and urns. The Museum
+Isurianum is in the grounds of the Manor House.
+
+
+
+
+ALDEBURGH, or ALDBOROUGH--is situated in the county of Suffolk, 25
+miles E.N.E. of Ipswich.
+
+
+The borough was incorporated by a charter of Edward VI, and in former
+times was a place of considerable extent, but the old town known to
+the Romans was gradually submerged by the encroachments of the sea.
+
+
+
+
+BATH.--107-1/2 miles W. by S. of London. On the banks of the Avon.
+
+
+Aquae Solis, corrupted by the Anglo-Saxons to Akemannes-ceaster--the
+invalids' city--reached by the Akemannes Way.
+
+For many centuries it has been known by its truly descriptive name of
+Bath.
+
+Tradition says it was founded by the British King Bladud, 863 B.C.;
+but there is no real evidence of an early British settlement, though
+the hot springs must have been known from the beginning. However, the
+name of Aquae Solis is thought to point to a British goddess, Sol or
+Solis, somewhat equivalent to the Roman Minerva. It was never a Roman
+military station, being used apparently solely as a Spa.
+
+The remains of the Roman Baths were first uncovered in 1755, when the
+Duke of Kingston pulled down the old priory to form the Kingston
+Baths. The remains disclosed included a bath, hypocaust, channels and
+pipes for the passage of water and hot air, and tesselated pavements.
+But very little use was made of the discovery for, though some
+antiquaries took an interest in it, and a few relics were removed and
+preserved, the spot was filled in and the site covered with buildings
+for another 120 years. In 1878, however, public interest was aroused,
+a number of houses were removed, and a large area (of which that
+opened in 1755 was only a small part) was cleared, with the result
+that an extensive system of baths in a remarkable state of
+preservation was laid bare.
+
+The great bath, some 70 feet long and 28 feet wide, was found to be
+floored with lead two-thirds of an inch thick, in a perfectly sound
+condition. The service-pipe being cleared out, the bath still held
+water as it had done 1,500 years before.
+
+What a find this lead floor would have been to the builders of the
+houses above it had they but laid their foundations a few inches
+deeper! It would have gone the same way as Alfred's coffin at
+Winchester.
+
+Several other baths--one circular--and hypocausts were opened out,
+and--perhaps as interesting as anything--the culvert was discovered
+for drawing off the waste water, an excellent piece of masonry, and
+high enough for a man to stand upright in it. The remains of these
+old Baths of the Romans are not mere traces of walls, intelligible
+only to the antiquary, but are the actual basins, capable still of
+use, and one can ascend by the same steps and tread the same pavement
+as did the Roman bather of old.
+
+On the Romans leaving Britain, the baths were for a long time
+deserted, and were soon buried under alluvium by the flooding of the
+river; but the hot springs never ceased to pour forth their abundant
+stream. The waters are impregnated with calcium and sodium sulphates
+and sodium and magnesium chlorides, and we must not forget the metal
+which called forth Mr. Weller's description: "I thought they'd a very
+strong flavour o' warm flat-irons." They are in greater vogue than
+ever now that radium has been found to be one of the constituents.
+
+Bath was a place of resort even in Saxon times; for our
+forefathers--before the days of goloshes, mackintoshes and
+umbrellas--must have been sad sufferers from rheumatic affections.
+
+It is also clear that the brine-springs, or _wyches_, of Droitwich,
+in Worcestershire, were also known to the Romans, as well as Spas in
+other parts of the country. That there was a Roman station at
+Droitwich is evidenced by the remains of a villa, containing
+interesting and valuable relics, discovered some years ago during the
+construction of the Oxford and Wolverhampton Railway.
+
+
+
+
+CAERLEON, IN MONMOUTHSHIRE.
+
+
+This is the Isca Silurum of the Romans. It is situated on the right
+bank of the Usk, and is the Old Port, in contradistinction to the New
+Port, some 3-1/2 miles distant, lower down the river. Caerleon seems
+to be a corruption of _Castrum Legionis_. The place was one of the
+great fortresses of Roman Britain, and constituted the station of the
+Second Augustan Legion in the first century A.D. It ranked as a
+Colony, and as the capital of Britannia Secunda during the period of
+Roman domination. Its position was favourable for the coercion of the
+wild Silures. No civil life or municipality seems to have grown up
+outside its boundaries; like Chester, it remained purely military.
+There remain fragments of the walls, and outside these limits there
+is a grass-grown amphitheatre, 222 ft. by 192 ft., in which the tiers
+of seats are distinctly visible. The hamlet on the opposite bank
+preserves in a modified form the Roman name of _Ultra Pontem_. It is
+probable that the connecting bridge was a pontoon similar in
+character to that which survived to the close of the last century.
+The local Museum is rich in objects of archaeological interest.
+
+On the hill-side, which formed the burial place of the ancient city,
+fragments of slabs and memorial urns are even now often exhumed.
+Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald de Barry, Archdeacon of Brecknock
+(1147-1220), borrowing from Geoffrey of Monmouth (1130-1140, Bishop
+of St. Asaph, author of _Chronicon sive Historia Britonum_), says
+that "its splendid palaces, with their gilded roofs, once emulated
+the grandeur of Rome," which testimony we receive with a certain
+amount of incredulity; nevertheless, it bears witness to the
+reputation it enjoyed in his day.
+
+The city is connected with the romance of King Arthur and the Knights
+of the Round Table. It is said that hither Arthur came at Pentecost
+to be crowned, and that here he often took council with Dubric, or
+Dubritius, "the high saint."
+
+The keep of a castle is mentioned in Domesday Book, the ruins of
+which, now limited to a solitary bastion on the river's side, were
+very extensive, even in Leland's time (1506-1552). Caerleon was a
+place of great ecclesiastical importance and the seat of an
+archbishopric. It is noticeable as the place of martyrdom, according
+to Giraldus Cambrensis, of two saints, Aaron and Julius. Their bodies
+were buried in the city, each afterwards having a church dedicated to
+him. There is good reason for regarding these as historical
+personages, but as Caerleon-upon-Dee was also called "the City of the
+Legions," there is some doubt whether their martyrdom occurred at the
+former, now called Chester, or at the latter, which still retains its
+British name.
+
+Around the church of S. Cadoc there are abundant remains to show the
+important centre Caerleon-upon-Usk constituted in Roman times. There
+is a tradition that its bishop was one of three who attended the
+Council held at Arles, in 314, to discuss the validity of
+ecclesiastical orders conferred by such bishops as in time of
+persecution had delivered up to be burnt their sacred writings.
+
+
+
+
+CAERWENT.--This place is on the Chepstow side of Caerleon, near
+Severn Tunnel Junction.
+
+
+It was a military station, and important discoveries of Roman remains
+have been made here.
+
+
+
+
+CAISTOR CASTLE, or VENTA.--4-1/2 miles from Yarmouth. Caistor Village
+is 3 miles distant.
+
+
+This place occupies the site of a Roman camp, which, in conjunction
+with Burgh Castle, guarded this part of the coast. No remains of the
+camp now exist, but Roman urns, pottery, and coins have been found in
+and near the village. A field west of the church, styled "East Bloody
+Furlong" has been fixed upon as the site of the Castrum.
+
+
+
+
+CANTERBURY.--Cant-wara-byrig--the burgh of the men of the headland.
+(Hence, Archepiscopus Cantuariensis).
+
+
+Before the invasion of Cæsar, a tribe of the Belgae from Gaul had
+taken possession of a large portion of South Britain, including Kent.
+
+The principal Roman road was the Watling Street, between Dover and
+London, which followed much the same course as the modern highway.
+This road was joined at Canterbury by two others, proceeding
+respectively from Lympne and Reculver. Two other important Roman
+stations may be distinguished, Durolevum and Vagniacae, the one
+probably by Faversham, the other by Springhead, near Gravesend. The
+important position of modern Canterbury is affirmed by the fact that
+no fewer than 16 roads and railway routes now converge upon the city.
+So, too, in the olden time, it was a great nerve-centre, and the
+mid-point of the important Roman fortresses of Dover, Richborough,
+Reculver, and Lympne.
+
+The Roman remains found throughout Kent are numerous and important.
+There were potteries of purple or black ware at Upchurch, on the S.
+bank of the Medway. Leaden coffins, elaborately ornamented glass and
+bronze vessels, and gold and silver ornaments, have been found in
+Roman cemeteries. The city itself occupies the site of the Roman
+Durovernum (Celtic, _dwr_--water), and was established upon that ford
+of the Stour at which the roads from the four harbour-fortresses
+before mentioned became united into the one great military way
+through Britain, which became known as Watling Street in later times.
+The Romans do not seem (at least towards the end of their occupation)
+to have made the city a military centre, or given it a permanent
+garrison, but rather to have used it as a halting place for troops on
+the march. In a commercial sense (lying, as it did, in the direct
+path of all the south-eastern continental traffic of Britain) its
+importance at this epoch must have been considerable. The Cathedral
+stands on the site of a church founded in Roman times, and given by
+King Ethelbert (together with his own palace adjacent) to Augustine
+and his monks. St. Pancras (the foundations of which have now been
+uncovered) was originally Ethelbert's "Idol-house"; and St. Martin's,
+the sanctuary where the King's christian queen, Bertha, worshipped
+under the tutelage of Bishop Luithard. The structures existing in
+Ethelbert's day were destroyed, and ultimately the cathedral was
+entirely rebuilt by Lanfranc (1005-1089); to this additions were made
+by Anselm (1033-1109), and by succeeding builders even as late as
+1495, when the addition of Goldstone's Central Tower left the
+Cathedral as we have it to-day.
+
+St. Martin's Church cannot be dismissed in a summary manner. It is
+said by Bede to have been built whilst the Romans still occupied
+Britain. It is dedicated to the well-known Bishop of Tours (371-397).
+Certainly the nave shows evidences of Roman workmanship and plaster.
+A high arch has recently been discovered in the west wall, on each
+side of which is a window, apparently Roman in its origin, but which
+has been subsequently lengthened out by Saxon or Norman builders. The
+chancel, originally but 20 feet long, is variously conjectured to be
+Roman work or to have been built by St. Augustine. There is a
+square-headed Roman doorway and a round-headed Saxon one, in the
+south wall; also an early English sedile, bordered by Roman tiles on
+the same side, eastward.
+
+The writer, the present Rector of Chillenden, feels a peculiar
+pleasure in recalling the fact that two of the Priors took their
+names from his parish, viz., Adam de Chillenden (_d._ 1274) and
+Thomas de Chillenden (_d._ 1411). The name of the latter, in the
+Diocesan Calendar, is distinguished by bold type, by reason of the
+fact that between 1370 and 1410, the present nave and transepts of
+Canterbury Cathedral, with the middle part of the present central
+tower, were built upon Lanfranc's old foundations by the Convent
+under his superintendence, assisted as he was by King Richard II and
+Archbishops Courtenay and Arundel. The Chapel of St. Michael, the
+Warriors' Chapel, was also added to by him. Moreover to him is due
+the building of most of the cloisters, the great Dormitory windows,
+the vaulting here and along the north alley, as also the foliated
+window-like screens in the latter alley.
+
+The house in the precincts, known as Chillenden Chambers, was used in
+mediæval times for the reception of pilgrims. It has been occupied
+for some years by Dr. Walsh, Bishop of Dover.
+
+
+
+
+CARDIFF.--Castle on the Taff, in the County of Glamorgan.
+
+
+The position between the rivers Taff and Rhymney, as also between the
+mountains and the sea, marked out this site, probably to the Romans,
+certainly to the Normans, as a favourable position for a fortified
+station. The remains of the Keep of the Castle still exist, and the
+church of St. John has venerable memories. The buildings of the
+Blackfriars and Greyfriars have long ago disappeared. The old church
+of St. Mary, too, was washed away by the sea. To the west, beyond the
+suburb of Canton, the foundations of Roman buildings have been
+uncovered and various objects of interest found and lodged in the
+National Museum.
+
+
+
+
+CHESTER.--Otherwise Caerleon Vawr, or Caerlleon ar Dyfyrdwy.
+
+
+Here was situated the great camp of the renowned Twentieth Legion on
+the Dee, the Deva of the Roman Itinerary. It stood at the head of the
+then most important estuary on this part of the coast, and at a point
+where several Roman roads converged. It is doubtful whether the city
+constituted a Colonia. It boasted a fine Basilica. There may still be
+seen the remains of a Roman arch impinging upon the Keep, or Cæsar's
+Tower, in the Castle.
+
+
+
+
+CHESTERFORD.--In Essex, 47-1/2 miles N. of London.
+
+
+To-day the Great Eastern Railway crosses the Cam, or Granta, near a
+Roman station. Great Chesterford is the ancient Iceanum, once thought
+to be Camboricum. The foundations of walls enclosing about 50 acres
+are known to have existed a century and a half ago. The site was
+thoroughly explored between 1846 and 1848, under the superintendence
+of the Hon. R. C. Neville, afterwards Lord Braybrooke. Many Roman
+remains were recovered and are preserved at his seat, Audley End--one
+of the finest examples of Jacobean architecture now remaining in
+England. In this neighbourhood, at Heydon, two miles N.W. of
+Chrishall, and in the extreme angle of Essex, there was discovered,
+in 1848, a chamber cut in the chalk. It contained a sort of altar and
+an abundance of Roman fibulæ. Its purpose has not been clearly made
+out.
+
+
+
+
+CHICHESTER.
+
+
+This city is built on a Roman site, near a line of road now known as
+Stane Street. It is usually identified with Regnum, a town of the
+Belgae, mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. A slab of grey Sussex
+marble, now at Goodwood, discovered in 1713, on the site of the
+present Council House, bears an inscription which gives rise to an
+hypothesis which represents Chichester as the seat of the native
+king, Cogidubnus, mentioned by Tacitus as possessing independent
+authority. It is further conjectured that this king was the father of
+Claudia (2 Tim. iv, 21), whose husband seems to have been Pudens,
+mentioned in the same verse (traditionally said to have been a Roman
+Senator, who became a Governor of Britain). Cogidubnus appears to
+have taken to himself the more euphonious name of his imperial
+patron, Tiberius Claudius, hence, too, Claudia. It would appear from
+this slab that Chichester was the abode of a considerable number of
+craftsmen, and that they erected a temple to Neptune and Minerva
+under the patronage of a certain Pudens--in his unregenerate days,
+doubtless, if this be the same as St. Paul's Pudens. In the early
+Saxon occupation, the town was destroyed by one Ella, but restored by
+Cissa, hence Cissa's Castra, or Chichester; hence, also, the Bishop's
+signature, Cicestriensis.
+
+
+
+
+CIRENCESTER, or CORININUM.--In Gloucestershire, 93 miles W.N.W. of
+London, on the river Churn, a tributary of the Thames.
+
+
+This was a flourishing Romano-British town, a cavalry post, also a
+civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 miles, N.E., there has been unearthed
+one of the most interesting Roman villas in England.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHESTER.--51 miles N.E. of London, on the right bank of the Colne,
+12 miles from the sea.
+
+Colonia Victricensis, Camolodunum, or Camulodunum. (This colony is on
+the River Colne, even as another stream of the same name flows by the
+colony of Verulamium).
+
+
+Before the Roman conquest it was the royal town of Cunobelin, the
+Cymbeline of Shakespeare. When Claudius had conquered the
+south-eastern part of the island, he founded a _colonia_ here, which
+may be said to be the first in time of the Roman towns of Britain.
+Even now, the walls of Colchester are the most perfect Roman walls in
+England. There are other remains, including the guard-room at the
+principal gate. A large cemetery has been disclosed along the main
+road leading out of the town. A valuable collection of sepulchral
+remains has been made and placed in the local museum. The city was
+refounded and ultimately developed into a municipality, with
+discharged Roman soldiers as citizens, to assist the Roman dominion
+and spread Roman civilization.
+
+Under Boadicea, the Iceni burnt the town and massacred the colonists.
+
+
+
+
+CORSTOPITUM, or CORCHESTER.--In Northumberland.
+
+
+This important station lies half a mile west of the little town of
+Corbridge, at the junction of the Cor with the Tyne, which is here
+crossed by a fine bridge of seven arches, dating from 1674. It has
+been suggested that the name Cor is associated with the Brigantian
+tribe of Corionototae. In regard to building operations hereabouts
+extensive use has been made of materials derived from Corstopitum.
+This--in its day--occupied a commanding position as a Roman Station,
+inasmuch as it furnished a storehouse for grain and a basis for the
+northward operations carried on about the time of Antoninus Pius.
+When these operations became unsuccessful, Corstopitum ceased to be a
+military centre, though it still furnished a basis of civilian
+occupation. The town was brought to desolation early in the fifth
+century, and was never again occupied. It was only to be expected
+that valuable finds should be unearthed from the remains. Many have
+been found by accident, as _e.g._, in 1734, a silver dish was dug up
+weighing 148 oz., and ornamented with figures of deities. Again, much
+later, in 1908, there was recovered a hoard of gold coins, wrapped in
+leadfoil, and thrust into the chink of a wall by a fugitive who was
+fated never to return and recover his treasure. The first-rate
+importance of the city in its relation to the Roman Wall, and
+military operations based on Corstopitum as a centre, was only fully
+revealed by systematic investigations begun in 1907. There were then
+uncovered, the foundations of several structures fronting a broad
+thoroughfare, one of which is the largest Roman building found to the
+present in England, with the exception of the Baths at Bath. Two of
+these warehouses were evidently granaries. All testified to the
+importance attached to Corstopitum as a storehouse and distributing
+centre.
+
+[Illustration: The Roman Wall.]
+
+
+THE WALL OF HADRIAN.
+
+It may be of interest to insert here a few directions for any
+investigator who wishes to track out the Roman Wall. Such a traveller
+might profitably visit first the Museum at Newcastle, where many
+memorials are preserved. There might be included the Castle Keep and
+Chapel, with its richly-moulded Norman arches and the Black Gate,
+with the collection of Roman inscribed and sculptured stones from the
+eastern fortresses on the Wall between Bowness and Wallsend. The
+numerous carved altars are especially noticeable. From Newcastle the
+road can be taken alongside the Wall to Chollerford, by way of Denton
+Burn, Wallbottle, Heddon on the Wall, Vindobala, Harlow Hill,
+Wallhouses, Halton Shields Hunnum, Stagshaw Bank, and so, by a steep
+descent, into Chollerford. If the train be taken, it is expedient to
+break the journey at Prudhoe to view the ruins of the Castle, built
+in the reign of Henry II. The curious old bridge over a ravine is one
+of the oldest in the North. From Prudhoe to Corbridge is twenty
+minutes or so by rail. The buried city of Corstopitum lies to the
+west of Corbridge. There can be traced the Forum, streets, granaries,
+baths, and fountain. The excavations conducted during 1908 and the
+two following years are deeply interesting. There are Roman altars
+and monuments to be seen at Hexham. Close to Chollerford are the
+remains of the remarkable Roman bridge over the Tyne. Cilurnum
+(Chesters), the largest station on the Wall, lies on the river bank.
+In the Museum by the gates are deposited sculptured stones, vases,
+etc., discovered hereabouts. Journeying from Brunton to Limestone
+Bank, one finds the fosses and vallum exceptionally perfect. On the
+whole there are said to have been about 23 important stations on the
+Wall, named as follows:--Segedunum (Wallsend), Pons Ælii (Newcastle),
+Condercum (Benwell Hill), Vindobala (Rutchester), Hunnum (Halton
+Chester), Cilurnum (Chesters), Procolitia (Carrawburgh), Borcovicus
+(House-steads), Vindolana (Chesterholm), Æsica (Great Chesters),
+Magna (Carvoran), Amboglanna (Birdoswald), Petriana, Aballaba,
+Congovata, Axelodunum, Gabrosentum, Tunocelum, Glannibanta, Alionis,
+Bremetenracum, Olenacum, and Virosidum. It is noteworthy that not a
+trace of the original names survives in the local nomenclature of
+to-day, though the exact position of most of the stations has been
+made out from other indications.
+
+It will be seen that one Wall extended from Wallsend on the Tyne to
+Bowness on the Solway Firth, a distance of 73 miles. It would have
+been about 12 feet high and 6 feet thick, in parts 9-1/2 feet thick.
+Probably about 10 years were expended in the building. About 10,000
+men would be required adequately to garrison its stations. It is
+difficult to believe that it was constructed _de novo_, or all at one
+time. Probably a line of stations, suggested by the lie of the
+country, existed here before Roman times, which line was extended and
+consolidated by successive Roman generals and emperors.
+
+The Wall now bears the name of Hadrian, Emperor from 117 to 138, but
+other names associated with it are Agricola (37-93), Severus
+(193-211), Theodosius (346-395) and Stilicho (_d._ 408).
+
+To complete, or, rather round off, our account, a few words ought to
+be added as to the Northern Wall. The Wall of Antoninus, or Graham's
+Dyke (perhaps from C. _greim_--a place of strength, and that which is
+_dug_--a rampart) extends across the island from the Firth of Clyde
+to the Firth of Forth--a distance of about 36 miles. It consisted of
+an immense ditch, behind which was raised a rampart of intermingled
+stone and earth, surmounted by a parapet, behind which ran a level
+platform for the accommodation of the defenders. South of the whole
+ran the military way--a regular causeway about 20 feet wide.
+Commencing in the west on a height called Chapel Hill, near the
+village of Old Kilpatrick, in Dumbartonshire, it ran eastwards,
+passing in succession Kirkintilloch, Crory, Castlecary, and Falkirk,
+terminating at Bridgeness, a rocky promontory that projects into the
+Firth of Forth, south of Borrowstonness in Linlithgowshire. A writer
+of the life of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161) states that
+Lollius Urbicus, a legate of that sovereign, erected, after several
+victories over the Britons, "another rampart of turf" to check their
+incursions, but what has been said with reference to the builders of
+Hadrian's Wall may be repeated with reference to that of Antonine.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Appendix C.]
+
+
+
+
+DORCHESTER (Dorsetshire).--130 miles S.W. from London. On the right
+bank of the Frome. Dorcestre (Dwr--a portion of the name of the
+Durotriges, or dwellers upon the _dwr_ or water).
+
+
+Dorchester was a Romano-British town of considerable size, probably
+successor to the British tribal centre of the Durotriges. The walls
+can be traced in part, and many mosaics and other remains of houses
+have been found. Near Dorchester may be seen at Maumbury Rings
+remains of an amphitheatre. Maiden Castle, 2 miles S.W. of the town,
+is a vast earthwork, considered to have been a stronghold of the
+Durotriges.[2] Many other such remains are traceable in the vicinity.
+
+[Footnote 2: Mai-den = _Mai Dun_ = the stronghold of the plain. It is
+clearly originally the work of men of the latest Stone Age--men who
+lived their lives in round barrows, and who raised this entrenchment
+with merely their primitive picks or "celts" as tools, for a defence
+against their finally successful invaders, the Durotriges. In their
+turn, the latter used the forts against the Romans--unless, as is
+more probable, they submitted without fighting.]
+
+
+
+
+DORCHESTER (Oxfordshire).--Situated at the junction of the Thames and
+the Thame.
+
+
+There is a Roman station near the present village, and (across the
+Thames) the double isolated mound known as Wittenham Hills (Sinodum),
+on the summit of which are strong early earthworks. In 655, this
+place was the seat of a bishopric, the largest in England, including
+the whole of Wessex and Mercia. In 1086, William the First and Bishop
+Remigius removed the bishop's stool to Lincoln.
+
+
+
+
+DOVER.--Roman _Dubris_, on the Dour (_dwr_--water), the principal
+Cinque port, is situated close to the South Foreland, and is 72 miles
+from London.
+
+
+It is the eye of England, looking over to the nearest part of the
+continent. It is also the gate of England, through which have come
+and gone in all historic ages kings and queens and lesser folk on all
+kinds of missions, relating both to war and peace. Geologically it is
+knit to the French shore, by the existence both of _white_ and
+_black_ rocks, _i.e._, chalk and coal. At a time when Britain was
+joined to what is now Europe, when the cave bear devoured his prey in
+Kent's cavern, and the monkey gambolled in the lofty trees, when the
+Thames was a tributary of some great eastern stream, the Dour might
+have been a considerable river, as it has worked for itself a deep
+erosive valley. Even in early historic times its estuary must have
+occupied a great part of the land on which stands modern Dover.
+Originally wood fires were lighted on corresponding sites on the E.
+and W. cliffs to guide vessels into the intermediate beach and
+natural harbour during the darkness of a winter's night. Even when
+the Pharos was reared, the primitive mode of illumination by means of
+wood or coal was employed. The modern form of lighthouse, with glass
+or metal reflectors, dates but from 1758, when the first Eddystone
+lighthouse was built. A common coal fire-light was continued at St.
+Bees Head, in Cumberland, as late as 1820. Architecturally, the Dover
+Pharos (so called from one erected at Pharos, Alexandria, in 285
+B.C.--550 ft. high--said to have been visible 42 miles away) is
+interesting from the fact that the stones from which it is built are
+not native, but are supposed to have been brought over as ballast in
+Roman galleys. In some places it would appear that they were built up
+wall-shape, liquid cement being poured into the interstices. That the
+ubiquitous King Arthur built the first castle on the cliffs, 300 ft.
+above the sea, is a tradition--one we should like to believe. His
+name is also associated with sites on the Western Heights and Barham
+Downs. It is certain that the Roman invaders early took advantage of
+the position of this "key" of the island, and that amongst their five
+coast castles, under the control of "the Count of the Saxon Shore,"
+Dover held a position second only to Richborough. In the Watling
+Street, the baths, now destroyed, the church within the Castle, the
+Pharos, the Romans have left clear evidence of their occupation. St.
+Mary's may be the first Christian church in Britain. To the beginning
+of the eighteenth century it was used for worship; it was then
+dismantled, and, after being filled with stores, at last became a
+coal cellar. With the greatest difficulty it was saved from
+destruction in 1860, and restored by Sir Gilbert Scott.
+
+
+
+
+EXETER.--172 miles, W.S.W. from London.
+
+Caer Isca of the Britons (Keltic, _esk_--_exe_--_uisge_--water). In
+Camden's time (1551-1623), the name was written Ex-cester.
+
+
+Exeter is situated on a broad ridge of land, rising steeply from the
+left bank of the Exe. At the head of the ridge is the Castle,
+occupying the site of a strong British earth-work. Exeter was the
+Romano-British country town of Isca Damnoniorum, the most westerly
+town in the government of Roman Britain. Traces of Roman walls
+survive in mediæval walls, all the gates of which, however, have
+disappeared. Exeter is the nexus of a considerable number of roads.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER.--114 miles W.N.W. of London. On the east bank of the
+Severn.
+
+
+It is doubtful if it were a British settlement. The Roman
+municipality, or colonia, of Glevum, was founded by Nerva between 96
+and 98. Part of the original walls of the town may still be traced.
+
+
+
+
+ISLE OF WIGHT.--Called by the Romans, _Vectis_; Wight being a
+corruption of this word.
+
+
+This island was known in early times to the ancients, and appears to
+have been used as a summer or sea-bathing resort. There are
+interesting remains of Roman villas at Brading and Carisbrooke.
+
+
+
+
+KENCHESTER, or Magni, or Magna, sometimes Magnis, is situated on the
+Wye, about 4 miles west of the city of Hereford.
+
+
+Discoveries of coins and other objects suggest that British villages
+existed here. The Watling Street running from Wroxeter to Caerleon
+passes near, communicating with Stoney Street, south of the Wye. The
+site has yielded considerable evidence of Roman occupation.
+Kenchester appears to have been a small town, in shape an irregular
+hexagon, with an area of some seventeen acres, surrounded by a stone
+wall pierced by four gates. The principal street, 15 ft. wide, ran
+from east to west; the houses contained tesselated pavements,
+hypocausts, leaden and tile drains; coins of various periods; fibulae
+(some of silver), glass, pottery, and the like, abound; while two
+inscriptions (one dated A.D. 283), lend a distinctive Roman
+colouring. Suburbs lay outside; and there was a villa a mile to the
+west at Bishopstone. The town, though small, had pretensions to
+comfort and civilization; it is the only important Romano-British
+site in Herefordshire. A legion was stationed here.
+
+
+
+
+LANCASTER.--Castra ad alaunam--camp on the Lune, from Gaelic
+_all_--white. Therefore we have _al_--white; _avn_, or _afon_--water;
+which the Romans latinized into Alauna.
+
+
+
+
+LEICESTER.
+
+
+Before the Roman invasion, Leicester was inhabited by the Coritani.
+Under the Romans it formed part of the province of Flavia
+Cæsariensis. Watling Street,[3] the Fosse Way and Via Devana converge
+on Leicester.
+
+[Footnote 3: This does not actually pass through Leicester, but is
+twelve miles away at nearest.]
+
+The principal Roman stations near were:
+
+    Ratae       --Leicester;
+    Verometum   --Borough Hill;
+    Manducosedum--Mancetter;
+    Benones     --High Cross.
+
+In this region Roman remains have been found at: Leicester,[4]
+Rothley, Wanlip, Hasby, Bottesfold, Hinckley, Sapcote, and Melton
+Mowbray. In 1771 a Roman milestone of the time of Hadrian (76-138)
+was discovered at a spot two miles from Leicester. Near Blaby, over
+the Soar, is a bridge locally known as the Roman Bridge.
+
+[Footnote 4: There is to be seen _in situ_ beneath the Great Central
+Station here a beautiful and almost perfect tesselated pavement.]
+
+
+
+
+LINCOLN.--_Llyn_--a deep pool, and _Colonia_. The Britons called it
+_Lind-coit_. The name _Linn-dun_, of which _Lindum_ is the Romanised
+version, means _The hill-fort of the pool_.
+
+
+The territory hereabouts was first settled by Belgae; who, however,
+at the time of Cæsar's invasion, had become a mixed race with the
+real Britons. The country was conquered by the Romans about 70 A.D.,
+and formed part of the province of Flavia Caesariensis. The tribe
+which occupied Lincolnshire were the Coritani, who had Lindum and
+Ratae for their tribal centres. In this territory remains of British
+camps are found at Barrow, Folkingham, Ingoldsby, Revesby, and Wells.
+Also traces of Roman camps are discoverable at Alkborough, Caistor,
+Gainsborough, Gadney Hill, near Holbeach, Honington, near Grantham,
+South Ormsby, and Yarborough. The Roman roads in this neighbourhood
+are nearly perfect. There is Ermine Street on the eastern side of the
+Cliff Hills and the Fosse Way, running S.W. from Lincoln. There is a
+famous arch--the Newport--at Lincoln. It is one of the most perfect
+specimens of Roman architecture in England. It is sunk fully eleven
+feet below the present level of the street, and has two smaller
+arches on each side, the one to the west being concealed by an
+adjoining house. The Ermine Street passes through this gate, running
+north from it for eleven or twelve miles as straight as an arrow.
+Many Roman coins and ornaments have been found in the immediate
+vicinity of this gate. In the Cloister garden of the Cathedral are
+preserved a tesselated pavement and the sepulchral slab of a Roman
+warrior.
+
+
+
+
+LONDON.--Londonum, Londinium, the Augusta of the Romans. _Llyn
+Din_--the Black Llyn or Lake, or perhaps from Celto-Saxon _dun_, or
+_don_--a hill fort. This fort may have been situated where abouts St.
+Paul's now stands, or, in a more extended form, it may have been
+constituted by Tower Hill, Cornhill, and Ludgate Hill; bounded thus
+by the Thames on the South, the Fleet on the West, and the Fen of
+Moorfields and Finsbury (afterwards by Hounsditch and the Tower) on
+the East.
+
+
+It must be premised that the course of the Thames, the containing
+bounds, the depth of the stream, the character of the rivulets--such
+as the Lea, the Fleet, Wall-brook, West-Bourne, Tye-Bourne--presented
+marked differences in early historic days from the appearance they
+show to-day. The sites north and south of the line where London
+Bridge now stands constituted firm ground, with a tendency to an
+elevation in the north. These facts determined the position of the
+British settlement. At that part of the river the Britons had, if not
+a ford, at least a ferry, and finally a rough bridge--perhaps of
+coracles or boats--the progenitor of the noble structure now
+existing. The ferry went from what is now Dowgate to a similar
+opening still existing to the west of St. Saviour's, Southwark.
+
+A British settlement of an early date would not now be thought to
+deserve the name of town. No less an authority than Julius Cæsar
+tells us that it was nothing more than a thick wood, fortified with a
+ditch and rampart, to serve as a place of retreat from the inroads of
+enemies. At that time, we may, therefore, imagine a clearing carved
+out of the forest, extending probably from the site of St. Paul's
+Cathedral to that of the Bank of England, the dwellings of the
+Britons being spread about the higher ground looking down upon the
+river, including Tower Hill. At the time of the revolt of the Iceni,
+the Roman governor, Paulinus Suetonius, being unable to make a stand,
+abandoned London to Boadicea, who entirely destroyed the city, after
+having massacred the inhabitants. We find London holding an important
+place in the Antonine Itinerary, Londinium being a starting point for
+nearly half the routes described in the portion devoted to Britain.
+Traditionally, Constantine the Great walled the city, at the request
+of his mother Helena, who is said to have been a native of Britain.
+Probably we should place the northern wall somewhere along the course
+of Cornhill[5] and Leadenhall Street; the eastern in the direction of
+Billiter Street and Mark Lane; the southern in the line of Upper and
+Lower Thames Streets; the western on the S.W. side of Walbrook. About
+the centre of each side might be placed the four main gates,
+corresponding with Bridge Gate, Ludgate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate.
+
+[Footnote 5: Perhaps somewhat to the north of the modern street. A
+portion is to be seen in the churchyard of St. Giles, Cripplegate.]
+
+The vision of Geoffrey of Monmouth of a great British city, Troy
+Novant, founded by Brut, a descendant of Æneas, must be relegated to
+the limbo of myths. A more probable story is that one Belinus formed
+a port or haven on the site of the present Billingsgate, though it
+does not follow that he built a gate of wonderful structure, still
+less that he built over it--as the story goes--a prodigiously large
+tower. It should be noted that "gate" may not mean a gate at all in
+the modern sense of the word, but only an opening or an entrance,
+even as the "Yats" leading to the harbour of Yarmouth.[6] Mayhap this
+settlement constituted the headquarters of Cassivellaunus, which were
+taken and sacked by Julius Cæsar. At all events, Tacitus (61-117
+A.D.) the first Roman author who mentions London by name, speaks of
+it as an important commercial centre. It had not, up to A.D. 61, been
+dignified by the name of a Colony. A temple, dedicated to Diana,
+appears to have stood on the site of our Eastminster, S. Paul's, and
+another, to Apollo, at Westminster. When Tacitus wrote, Verulamium
+and Camulodunum possessed mints, whilst London did not. The earliest
+Roman London must have been a comparatively small place, with a fort
+to command the passage of the Thames. Perhaps to the Romans are due
+the primitive embankments which were designed to restrain the
+vagaries of the river at the times of tide and flood. London Stone,
+built into another stone in Cannon Street, outside the wall of St.
+Swithin's Church, is generally considered to be a milliarium (to mark
+so many thousand paces) or central station from which to measure
+distances, but it may conceivably have had some more ancient and
+peculiar designation in connection with a public or sacred building.
+Old London lies 20 feet or so below the present street level, so
+that, when excavations are made for any purpose, Roman remains are
+frequently found and parts of the Roman wall uncovered.
+
+[Footnote 6: In like manner we have Margate, Kingsgate, Westgate,
+Ramsgate, Sandgate, &c., indicating probably sites where a passage
+has been cut through the cliff by a stream or human agency.]
+
+Remains--pavements, etc.--are to be seen in abundance in the
+Guildhall Museum.
+
+When the old General Post Office in St. Martin's-le-Grand was
+demolished a large series of Roman rubbish pits was disclosed. The
+lowest portions of 120 of these were carefully excavated. The "finds"
+included a few whole pots and many thousands of fragments of Samian
+and coarse pottery, besides building materials, whetstones, beads,
+knives, coins, and other small articles. It has been possible to
+assign dates to most of the holes--between A.D. 50 and 200. By the
+association in the same hole of datable with undatable pottery, light
+has been thrown upon many types of the latter.
+
+Not long ago, while the buildings 3-6 King William Street were being
+demolished, another series of five large Roman pits was uncovered.
+From the fragments obtained therefrom nine Samian vessels of the
+first century have been pieced together, and are now in the Guildhall
+Museum. These include a decorated vessel, finer than any previously
+found in London, and two specimens of a shape unknown hitherto in
+England. A lamp, two coins, and other objects of pottery and bronze
+were also obtained from this source.[7]
+
+[Footnote 7: Besant's _London_ and his _Westminster_ convey a
+fascinating account of what was a labour of love on the part of the
+author to compile. All sorts of unexpected pleasures await the
+wanderer in London's highways and byeways. One of these may be
+noticed in respect of the Roman bath in the Strand. Turning down
+Strand Lane (a narrow passage between King's College and Surrey
+Street), a few yards bring one to the baths. The lane itself is as
+ancient as anything in London, inasmuch as it must have been in very
+early times a path by the side of the stream fed by the bath spring,
+and perhaps by the Holy Well, which afterwards gave its name to the
+notorious Holywell Street, this stream finally flowing into the
+Thames.]
+
+It is a moot point whether the Saxon migration along the Thames
+waterway was checked by the presence of London, which remained a city
+stronghold since Roman times, but it is evident that a gap was made
+in the history of the city just after the departure of the Romans,
+and the theory of continuous occupation can hardly be maintained in
+face of the fact that the mediæval City streets in no case follow the
+Roman roads traces of which lie beneath the mediæval houses.
+
+
+
+
+LYMPNE, or _Lemanae_.--Pevensey District, Anderida.
+
+
+It is considered that Reculver was the earliest Roman coast-fortress
+in Kent, that Richborough was founded somewhat later, and that Lympne
+and Pevensey constituted the latest stations; also, that (probably
+even before the time of Constantine) a division of the Romano-British
+fleet was stationed at Lympne and a series of buildings erected by
+their crews. When Romney Marshes were covered by an inland sea, and
+many streams drained this eastern side of the Andred Forest, the
+Romans established the military station Lemanae, at the estuary of
+the chief of those streams, and defended it by the castrum, the ruins
+of which are now known as Stutfall Castle. Some of the stones of this
+castrum were used by Archbishop Lanfranc in the construction of a
+church at Lympne.
+
+
+
+
+MALDON, Essex.--Situated on an acclivity rising from the south side
+of the Blackwater--44 miles E.N.E. of London, and 16 S.W. from
+Colchester or Camulodunum, with which it has sometimes been
+identified, or rather, confounded.
+
+
+It is supposed to have received its name[8] (Cross Hill) from a cross
+erected on the eminence. A large number of Roman remains have been
+found in the neighbourhood, testifying to the importance of the place
+during the time of their occupation. On the West side of the town
+there are also traces of a large camp, which was doubtless utilized
+by different bodies of invaders and settlers. The oldest historical
+mention of Maldon is in 913, when Edward the Elder encamped near it
+to oppose an incursion of the Danes.
+
+[Footnote 8: Maldon may be a shortened form of a second
+Ca_mul_odunum. _Dun_ would be a _hill-fortress_, and a cross being
+erected thereon would give rise to the appellation _Cross Hill_.]
+
+
+
+
+MANCHESTER.--180 miles N.W. of London. (Celtic _man_--a district).
+
+
+It is situated in the neighbourhood of four rivers, viz., the Irwell,
+Medlock, Irk, and Tib. It has been conjectured that at Castlefield
+there stood a British fortress, which was afterwards taken possession
+of by the soldiers of Agricola; at all events, it would appear to be
+certain that a Roman Station of some importance existed in this
+locality, as a fragment of a wall still exists. Even up to the end of
+the eighteenth century considerable evidences of Roman occupation
+were visible in and around Manchester, and from time to time in the
+course of excavation (especially during the digging for the
+Bridgewater Canal) old-time remains have been found. The coins
+recovered were those of Vespasian, Antoninus Pius, Trajan, Hadrian,
+Nero, Domitian, Vitellius, and even as late as the time of
+Constantine. The period immediately succeeding the Roman occupation
+is largely legendary; but up to the seventeenth century there was a
+floating tradition that Tarquin, an enemy of Arthur, kept the castle
+of Manchester, but was subsequently killed by Launcelot of the Lake.
+The town was probably one of the scenes of the preaching of Paulinus,
+the celebrated Bishop of York and of Rochester (597-644), and is said
+to have been the residence of Ina, King of Wessex, and his queen,
+Ethelburga, after he had defeated Ivor, in the year 689. It suffered
+greatly from the ravages of the Danes. In Domesday Book, Manchester,
+Salford, Rochdale, and Radcliffe are the only places named in
+South-east Lancashire.
+
+
+
+
+PORTSMOUTH.--74 miles S.W. of London.
+
+
+To the north of the harbour is situated Porchester Castle, a ruined
+Norman fortress occupying the site of the _Portus Magnus_ of the
+Romans. Portsmouth and Southampton must have been used by the Romans
+as a passage way to the Isle of Wight, where the remains of villas
+show that the island furnished a place of residence for rich and
+distinguished Romans.
+
+
+
+
+RECULVER.
+
+
+At the time of the Roman occupation Thanet was an island, and to
+guard the north-west end of the important channel of the "Wantsume,"
+which separated the island from the main part of Kent, the Romans
+built Regulbium, corresponding to the greater Rutupiae of the
+southern outlet.[9] The Roman fort was probably one of the earliest
+in the country. It must have covered about eighty acres, and was
+garrisoned by the first cohort of Vetasii from Brabant. In 670,
+Bassa, a priest, erected a monastery and church here, which, nearly
+three hundred years later, were annexed by the monks of Christ
+Church, Canterbury. The greater part of these buildings was
+ruthlessly destroyed by the villagers in 1809, but the intervention
+of the Trinity House authorities in the following year saved the
+towers of the church, to serve as landmarks to the mariner. The
+churchyard is being slowly eroded by the sea.
+
+[Footnote 9: It is possible that works now proceeding, necessitated
+by the Great War, may result in the regulation of the waterways close
+to Sandwich and in its neighbourhood in such wise as to open up again
+this channel, and constitute Thanet once more an island in fact as
+well as in name.]
+
+
+
+
+RICHBOROUGH.--Rutupiae.
+
+
+This furnishes one of the finest remaining relics of Roman Britain.
+Built somewhat later than Reculver--about the middle of the third
+century A.D.--the castle guarded the principal and oldest port of
+entry into Britain in the Roman period. The rectangular enclosure
+still existing was the fortress of a considerable Roman settlement
+which lay to the south and south-west. At a little distance is an
+amphitheatre with three entrances. Out of the West or Decuman Gate,
+the Roman road to London and the North started. In the centre of the
+North wall is the opening of the Postern Gate, and there were
+probably central gates on the east and south. The feature of greatest
+interest remaining is the subterranean structure in the centre. This
+consists of an overhanging platform on a concrete foundation. There
+are traces of an encircling wall, and projecting upwards from the
+centre is an extraordinary cruciform platform. An underground passage
+runs round the whole. Some antiquaries consider that all this formed
+part of some temporary or substitutional building raised in lieu of
+an original more ambitious design; others think it may have been a
+signal tower combined with a lighthouse. In the Liverpool Museum are
+to be found many objects discovered here, including mural paintings,
+pottery, toys, dice, a steelyard with weights, and bone spurs, used
+for cock-fighting.
+
+
+
+
+ROCHESTER.--Durobrivæ; Horfcester, 33 miles E.S.E. of London.
+
+
+Its situation on the Roman Way from the Kentish ports to the
+metropolis, as well as its strategical position on the bend of the
+Medway, gave Rochester and the adjacent places on the river early
+importance. It was a walled Romano-British town, though of no great
+size. The original bridge across the Medway to Strood probably dates
+from the Roman period, taking the place of a ferry.
+
+
+
+
+SILCHESTER.--In North Hampshire--Calleva, 10 miles south of Reading.
+
+
+A Romano-British town, which was thoroughly explored under the
+auspices of the Society of Antiquaries between 1890 and 1909. The
+whole plan of the ancient town within the walls was disclosed as
+successive portions were uncovered. The suburbs, and the cemeteries,
+which, as usual, were located without the gates, have not yet been
+excavated. The ruins of the Town Hall still remain. The Duke of
+Wellington, whose residence is at Strathfieldsaye, is the owner of
+the site. He has arranged that most of the objects found at
+Silchester shall be deposited in the Museum at Reading.
+
+
+
+
+ST. ALBANS.--Verulamium.
+
+
+Originally within the limits of the territory of the tribe of which
+Cassivellaunus was, at one time, the head. Before the Roman Conquest
+it was a British capital. In Roman times it received the dignity of a
+_municipium_--implying municipal status and Roman citizenship for its
+free inhabitants. Tacitus informs us that the town was burnt by
+Boadicea in 61 A.D., but it soon rose again to prosperity. The site
+is still easily recognisable, its walls, of flint rubble, surviving
+in stately fragments, enclosing an area of well-nigh 200 acres. Of
+the buildings formerly occupying this area but little is now known.
+The theatre was excavated in 1847, and parts of the forum in 1898.
+The tower of the famous Abbey is largely built of bricks taken from
+the Roman buildings!
+
+During the first three centuries ten distinct general persecutions
+swept over the nascent Christian Church. Owing to the remote position
+of Britain, it appears to have escaped these fiery trials until the
+time of the Emperor Diocletian, about 304. Several names among the
+Britons have been traditionally handed down to us as having received
+the honour of martyrdom, but the premier place among them has always
+been accorded to a young soldier who was stationed at Verulam. It
+appears that he was converted by an evangelist named Amphibalus, to
+whom, when the trial came, he gave shelter, and even facilitated his
+escape by an exchange of garments. When brought before the judges and
+charged with concealing "a blasphemer of the Roman gods," Alban
+avowed himself a convert to the proscribed religion and refused, in
+spite of torture, to burn incense upon the heathen altars. He was
+therefore beheaded outside the city about the year 285 (although the
+precise date is uncertain).[10] About A.D. 785, Offa, king of that
+part of Britain which we call the Midland Counties, caused search to
+be made for the bones of the proto-martyr, and built a noble
+monastery and church where they were found, which possibly may be
+identified with the older parts of the present structure.[11]
+Eventually his shrine was reared up in the South transept of the
+Cathedral. Behind and just above the shrine is the Watching Gallery,
+where devotees offered continual prayer and guarded the relics from
+fire and robbery. Close by is another shrine in memory of S.
+Amphibalus. The monastery attained to great eminence--its head was
+the premier Abbot of England--and the shrine was loaded with
+ornaments of enormous value. The glory departed at the time of the
+Dissolution under Henry VIII. The Monastic Church is now admitted to
+the rank of a Cathedral. The building was restored (or deformed?) at
+great cost by the first Lord Grimthorpe, who did things with all his
+right, but, as in this case, as some say, with all his wrong.
+
+[Footnote 10: Appendix D.]
+
+[Footnote 11: These words are written within a mile of a site in Kent
+which bears the name of St. Albans, inasmuch as a small
+daughter-house was established there.]
+
+The church in the neighbourhood of old St. Albans, on the North side
+of the chancel, contains a monument to the memory of Francis Bacon,
+Viscount St. Albans, a great lawyer, an incisive thinker, the founder
+of the school of inductive philosophers--a man who, unhappily, was
+cast from his exalted legal position by the malice of his foes. How
+far he himself contributed to his disgrace we will not say.
+
+
+
+
+WINCHESTER.--Wynton, otherwise, Venta Belgarum (_Venta_, a Latin form
+of _Win_, which is derived from the Celtic, _gwent_, a plain; hence
+also _Venta Silurum_, and Bennaventa=Daventry); 66-1/2 miles S.W.
+London.
+
+
+The city is situated in and above the valley of the Itchen, mainly on
+the left bank. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Tudor Rous
+Hudibras, and dates it 99 years before the first building of Rome!
+Earthworks and relics testify that the Itchen Valley was originally
+occupied by Celts, and it is certain from its position at the centre
+of six Roman roads, and from the relics found there, that the Caer
+Gwent (White City of the Celts--_Ghwin_--white[12]) under the name of
+Venta Belgarum, was an important Romano-British country town. Legends
+accumulate here around the persons of Arthur and his knights. After
+the conquest of Hampshire by Gervisus, the place became the capital
+of Wessex, then of England, when the Kings of Wessex consolidated the
+kingdom. Alfred and Canute resided here, amongst other English
+sovereigns; and here were laid to rest Alfred's remains, until--at
+the close of the eighteenth century--the coffin that contained them
+was sold by a mercenary municipality for the sake of the lead in
+which they were enclosed! Egbert, Edmund the Elder, and Canute were
+also buried here. Edward the Confessor was crowned in the Minster in
+1043. Being near the New Forest, and only 12 miles from Southampton,
+Winchester was much frequented by the Norman Kings. William I wore
+the crown there at Easter, even as at Westminster at Whitsuntide, and
+at Gloucester at Christmas.
+
+[Footnote 12: The two words _gwent_ and _ghwin_ probably look to each
+other in a common meaning. _Gwent_, that which is extended, as a
+plain; _ghwin_, that which presents a uniform lightish tint, such as
+a plain or a lake, as contrasted with dark patches or morass.]
+
+
+
+
+WROXETER.--(Towards the Welsh border the _c._ or _ch._ of _chester_
+becomes an _x_, and the tendency to elision is very strong.) The
+equivalent is Uriconium, properly Viroconium. The original Celtic
+name survives in _Wroxeter_ and _Wrekin_, it being derived from
+Celtic _rhos_--a moor. Wroxeter is situated on the Severn, 5 miles E.
+of Shrewsbury.
+
+
+It was a large Romano-British town, originally the chief town of the
+Cornovii. At first (perhaps about 45-55 A.D.) it constituted a Roman
+legionary fortress, held by Legio XIV (Gemina) against the Welsh hill
+tribes. However, its garrison was soon removed, and it became a
+flourishing town with stately Town Hall, Baths and other
+appurtenances of a thoroughly Roman and civilised city. It was larger
+and probably richer than Silchester. The lines of its walls can still
+be traced, enclosing about 170 acres. Parts of important public
+buildings have been disclosed by the excavations, which are still
+progressing. They are carried on under the auspices of the Society of
+Antiquaries.[13]
+
+[Footnote 13: See Appendix D.]
+
+
+
+
+YORK.--(Celtic, contracted from _eure-wic_; _wic_, from L. vicus),
+otherwise Eboracum.
+
+
+It lies in a plain watered by the Ouse, at the junction of the Foss
+stream with the main river, 188 miles N. by W. of London.
+
+In British times the city bore the name of Caer-Ebroc. It was chosen
+by the Romans as an important _depôt_ after the conquest of the
+Brigantes by Agricola in 79. Ultimately it became the most important
+Roman centre in North Britain. The fortress of Legio VI (Victrix) was
+situated near the site of the present Minster, and a municipality or
+colonia sprang up where now stands the railway station on the
+opposite side of the Ouse. There is a large collection of remains to
+be found in the hospitium of St. Mary's Abbey, derived from the
+cemetery and the site of the railway station. The base of the
+Multangular Tower, N.W. of the walls, is Roman, of mingled brick and
+stone work. The present names of the Bars are Micklegate, Bootham,
+Monk (Goodrum), and Walmgate. Of the Norman fortress erected by
+William the Conqueror in 1068 some portions were probably
+incorporated in Clifford's Tower, which was partly destroyed by fire
+in 1684. The Cathedral, or Minster of St. Peter, if surpassed by some
+other English fanes in certain special features, is on the whole the
+most striking and imposing specimen of ecclesiastical architecture in
+Britain.
+
+The Emperor Hadrian visited York in 120. The Emperor Severus died in
+this city in 211, and his body was probably burnt on the hill which
+now bears his name. After the death of Constantius Chlorus at York,
+his son, Constantine the Great (who, according to an ancient but
+incorrect tradition, was born at York), was inaugurated in this
+imperial centre. The Romans withdrew in 410, and after that, scarcely
+is anything known of the state of things hereabouts until 627, when
+King Edwin was baptized and Paulinus consecrated in what then
+constituted the metropolitan church.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+
+Of late years measurements and records in regard to racial characters
+have been made more or less thoroughly throughout Europe, partly by
+individual enterprise, partly by Government officials, who have
+mainly taken children and soldiers as the material of observation. It
+is thus established that there is along the Mediterranean, throughout
+the Spanish Peninsula, extending into the western borders of France,
+and as far north as the West of England, parts of Wales and of
+Scotland, and of Ireland (where dwell the descendants in the British
+Isles of the ancient Picts or long-barrow men), a predominating race
+which is called "the Mediterranean" or "Iberian" race, characterized
+by a narrow, long, skull, dark colour of the hair, eyes, and skin,
+and short stature.
+
+Fringing the north and north-west border of Europe, occupying
+Scandinavia, and largely dominating Great Britain and Ireland (where
+it has overrun the earlier Iberian, or Pictish people) is the second
+great European race--the Nordic. It was formerly called the
+"Teutonic," but, as this term has been misapplied in Germany for
+political reasons, so as to include a large body of the last, or
+third, race, it is better to use the word "Nordic." The Nordic race
+is, like the Iberian, long-headed, but in contrast it is blond and
+very tall.
+
+The third great European race occupies a vast wedge intruding between
+the areas occupied by the Iberian race to the South and the Nordic
+people to the North. It fills all but the northern border of Russia
+and occupies Hungary (where there are also intrusive Huns of
+Mongolian origin), Austria, Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria. It also
+populates Germany (except its northernmost provinces) and occupies
+the north and north-west of Italy, the west and centre of France and
+half of Belgium. It is characterized by the round head, sturdy size,
+and a colouration intermediate between that of the Iberians and
+Nordics, a colouration which may tend to brunette or blond according
+as either of these races is mixed with it. It is best called the
+Alpine race, but is also styled the Celtic, on account of its
+association with the Celtic culture and language; though it never
+occupied Ireland, and does not exist at the present day in Cornwall
+and Scotland, and is hardly recognisable in Wales.
+
+The Nordic element is predominant in Great Britain and Ireland,
+associated with the earlier and partly absorbed Iberian, with hardly
+a trace of the Alpine or Celtic race, in spite of the talk about
+Celtic fringes and the ancient introduction and prevalence of Celtic
+language and culture due to the influence of small groups of Celtic
+immigrants.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+
+In the course of an enquiry in Australia, having for its object the
+fostering a love of the country districts and stemming the exodus to
+the cities, which is a disquieting feature of life in the
+Commonwealth, medical inspectors in the schools of Victoria have come
+to the conclusion that blue-eyed people seek the land, and that the
+city populations are recruited largely from the brown-eyed. If this
+conclusion could be generally supported, it opens up interesting
+questions as to the connection of eye-pigmentation with race, and its
+possible modification by inter-marriage. From the uncertainty of our
+knowledge as to the immediate cause of eye and hair pigmentation one
+cannot but be faced with the alternative--either that little formal
+attention has been paid to the subject, or that the elements of
+investigation are uncertain and conflicting. What would Mendel have
+said to this problem?
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+
+In the course of the compilation of this History, the Author
+re-perused the _Handbook to the Roman Wall_, in the fifth edition,
+put forth by Mr. Robert Blair, many years after the death of the
+original compiler, Dr. Bruce. In the light of succeeding events it is
+curious to note what is said of Corstopitum, a site noted in the text
+as being near Hadrian's great line of wall and its defences. Thus the
+record runs:
+
+This site, which lost its military importance with the retreat of the
+Romans, apparently became a commercial emporium, and underwent very
+various fortunes, culminating in its destruction by barbarians; so
+that, from the fifth century, it ceased to be from that day to this;
+no man dwelling on the site.
+
+Mr. Blair says of the place itself:
+
+Its form and extent gave it the aspect of a city rather than of a
+camp. Remains of a bridge across the Tyne are to be seen when the
+river is low. Excavations were made in the summer of 1906. Nothing of
+account was found except a few walls, an intaglio, some fragments of
+pottery and a few coins.
+
+How frigid and disappointing is not this record! But listen to the
+story which Sir Arthur Evans related to the British Association for
+the Advancement of Science in his Presidential address at Newcastle
+last September:
+
+The work at Corbridge, the ancient Corstopitum, begun in 1906, and
+continued down to the autumn of 1914, has already uncovered
+throughout a great part of its area the largest urban centre--civil
+as well as military in character--on the line of the Wall, and the
+principal store-house of its stations. Here (together with well-built
+granaries, workshops, and barracks, and other records of river life
+as are supplied by sculptured stones and inscriptions, and the double
+discovery of hoards of gold coins) has come to light a spacious and
+massively constructed stone building, apparently a military
+store-house, worthy to rank besides the bridge-piers of the North
+Tyne among the most important monuments of Roman Britain. There is
+much here, indeed, to carry our thoughts far beyond our insular
+limits. On this, as on so many other sites along the Wall, the
+inscriptions and reliefs take us very far afield. We mark the
+gravestone of a man of Palmyra, an altar of the Tyrian Hercules--its
+Phoenician Baal--a dedication to a pantheistic goddess of Syrian
+religion and the raised effigy of the Persian Mithra. So, too, in the
+neighbourhood of Newcastle itself, as elsewhere on the Wall, there
+was found an altar of Jupiter Dolichenus, the old Anatolian God of
+the Double Axe, the male form of the divinity once worshipped in the
+prehistoric Labyrinth of Crete. Nowhere are we more struck than in
+this remote extremity of the Empire with the heterogeneous religious
+elements, often drawn from its far Eastern borders, that before the
+days of the final advent of Christianity Roman dominion had been
+instrumental in diffusing. The Orontes may be said to have flowed
+into the Tyne as well as the Tiber.
+
+This quotation has been given at length in order to sustain the
+contention--put forth more than once in this book--that treasures
+associated with the Roman epoch lie around us in every part of our
+island, and that all sorts of novel surprises mutely await the advent
+and quest of the diligent investigator.
+
+But to return for a moment to Corstopitum. It has been realised that
+the city was a centre of iron-work and pottery-making to supply the
+needs of the troops. It furnished a base for the invasion of
+Caledonia by Lollius Urbicus in A.D. 140, and for the great
+expedition of Septimius Severus in A.D. 208. Much of the area
+excavated during 1906 and the following years has been filled in, but
+the most important buildings remain open--two large granaries, the
+fountain or public water-pant, and a large unfinished building, which
+may have been designed as a military storehouse, or as the praetorium
+of a legionary fortress which never came into being. The most
+remarkable finds made here have been the Corbridge lion in stone,
+which now enjoys an European reputation, and two hoards of gold
+coins, now in the British Museum.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Official Handbook to Newcastle and District, put
+forth on the occasion of the last visit of the British Association to
+that city.]
+
+The Map above gives the line of Hadrian's Wall through the two
+counties of Northumberland and Cumberland, viz., from Wallsend to
+Bowness, and indicates the principal places on the route. For further
+details of this absorbing subject the reader is referred to such
+works as the Proceedings and Transactions of learned societies, such
+as the _Archæologia Æleana_, or the _Lapidarium Septentrionale_. The
+_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, Vol. vii gives a full rendering of
+the inscriptions.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX D
+
+
+"The Society of Antiquaries, in conjunction with the Shropshire
+Archæological Society, carried on extensive excavations at Wroxeter
+during the years 1912, 1913, and 1914.
+
+"Wroxeter, the ancient Viroconium or Uriconium, is situated on the
+east bank of the Severn, between five and six miles south-east of
+Shrewsbury. The lines of its walls can still be traced, enclosing an
+area of about 170 acres, and the town must have been an important
+centre in Roman-Britain, as it stood at the junction of two of the
+main roads, viz., the Watling Street from London and the south-east,
+and the road from the legionary fortress of Caerleon in South Wales.
+There were also other roads running from it into Wales and to
+Chester. The town is referred to by the Ravenna Geographer as
+Viroconium Cornoviorum, and was probably the chief town of that tribe
+which inhabited a district including both Wroxeter and Chester.
+
+"That the site was inhabited soon after the invasion under Claudius
+in 43 A.D. is evident. Coins and other objects of pre-Flavian date
+have been met with in some quantities, and there are tombstones of
+soldiers of the XIV Legion from the cemetery. This legion came over
+with Claudius, and left Britain for good in the year 70 A.D.
+Wroxeter, situated on the edge of the Welsh hills and protected from
+attack on that side by the river Severn, would have formed an
+admirable base for operations against the turbulent tribes of Wales,
+and it is more than likely that it was used as such in the campaigns
+undertaken by Ostorius Scapula in 50 A.D. and by Suetonius Paulinus
+in 60 A.D.
+
+"The Welsh tribes were finally subdued before the end of the reign of
+Vespasian, and the country became more settled. Wroxeter appears to
+have ceased to be a military centre and to have grown into a large
+and prosperous town. It is in this period--namely, the last quarter
+of the first century A.D.--that the occupation began on the part of
+the site recently excavated. Very little of the earlier buildings
+remained, as they all appear to have been built of wood and
+wattle-and-daub.
+
+"In the second century more substantial houses were erected, and in
+the course of the excavations the following buildings were uncovered.
+In 1912, four long shops, with rooms at the back and open fronts with
+porticoes on the street. In 1913, a temple, which must have been of
+some architectural pretensions, and contained life-sized statues, of
+which several fragments were discovered. In 1914, a large dwelling
+house, consisting of a number of rooms with a large portico on the
+street and a small bath-house on the south side. The porticoes of all
+these buildings formed a continuous colonnade by the side of the
+street. At the back of the large dwelling-house another structure was
+discovered. Unfortunately it could not be entirely explored, as its
+west part was beyond the reserved area. It consisted of two parallel
+walls, 13 ft. apart, which enclosed an oblong space with rounded
+corners 144 ft. wide and 188 ft. long to the furthest point
+excavated. No other building of this form appears to have been found
+elsewhere, and it is difficult to say for what purpose it was used,
+especially as part of it is still unexcavated. It is possible,
+however, that it may have been a place of amusement for games,
+bull-baiting, etc., and that the two parallel walls held tiers of
+wooden seats.
+
+"The buildings that faced the street had been altered and rebuilt
+several times, the mixed soil being from 8 ft. to 10 ft. deep in
+places, making the work of excavation very slow and laborious. For
+instance, in 1914 there was evidence of at least four different
+periods of buildings on the same site. In the early period there were
+wood and wattle-and-daub houses. Over the remains of these in the
+first half of the second century three long buildings were erected
+with open fronts or porticoes similar to those found in 1912. About
+the middle of the second century these three buildings were
+incorporated in one large house with corridors, two courtyards, many
+rooms, some with mosaic floors, and others fitted with hypocausts. A
+bath-house, with cold baths and hot rooms, was situated at the
+south-west corner. At a later period this dwelling was considerably
+altered, several of the rooms being swept away, and the central part
+of the building turned into one large courtyard with corridors on
+three sides. Two new hypocausts were inserted and extra rooms and a
+long corridor or verandah built at the back. Water was supplied to
+the houses by a water main at the side of the road. By shutting
+sluice-gates it was possible to divert the water into side channels
+which ran through the houses, flushing their drains, and discharging
+at the back into the river. Eleven wells were found during the
+excavations, varying from 10 ft. to 12 ft. in depth and stone-lined.
+
+"A number of crucibles and some unfinished bronze castings, etc.,
+have been met with, showing that metalworking was carried on on the
+site. There was also evidence of other industrial processes, such as
+enamelling and working in bone. A very large number of small objects
+has been discovered during the excavations, such as cameos and
+engraved gems (some still set in finger rings), many brooches of
+different metals, enamelled ornaments, and a quantity of interesting
+articles in different metals, bone, glass, etc.
+
+"The great quantity of pottery found may be judged by the fact that
+upwards of 900 potters' stamps on Samian ware have been recorded. The
+coins number between 1,200 and 1,300, among them being a few British
+varieties. No coins later than the end of the fourth century have
+been, as yet, met with, and the town does not appear to have been
+inhabited after that date. What was the cause of its destruction or
+desertion is, as yet, uncertain, but it is hoped that future
+excavations will solve the problem.
+
+"Detailed accounts of the excavations are printed in the Reports of
+the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London, Nos.
+1, 2, and 4."
+
+The above has been extracted, by kind permission of the Council, from
+the proceedings of the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science for 1915; and is taken from the Report of the Committee on
+"Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain," comprising the Special
+Return made by J. P. Bushe-Fox, F.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+WORKS BY REV. J. O. BEVAN, M.A., F.G.S., F.S.A.
+
+(_Rector of Chillenden, Canterbury; Sometime Prizeman, Exhibitioner,
+and Foundation Scholar of Emmanuel College, Cambridge_).
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