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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the World According to
+Revelation and Science, by John William Dawson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Origin of the World According to Revelation and Science
+
+Author: John William Dawson
+
+Release Date: July 2, 2010 [EBook #33049]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, ismail user and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from scans of public domain works at the
+University of Michigan's Making of America collection.)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: All footnotes are renumbered and moved to the end of
+the text before the index.]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  ORIGIN OF THE WORLD,
+  ACCORDING TO
+  REVELATION AND SCIENCE.
+
+  BY J. W. DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
+
+  PRINCIPAL AND VICE-CHANCELLOR OF M'GILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL; AUTHOR OF
+  "ACADIAN GEOLOGY," "THE STORY OF THE EARTH AND MAN,"
+  "LIFE'S DAWN ON EARTH," ETC.
+
+"Speak to the Earth, and it shall teach thee."
+                                        --_Job._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+  FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+  1877.
+
+  TO HIS EXCELLENCY
+
+  THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF DUFFERIN,
+  K.P., K.C.B., ETC.,
+
+  GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF CANADA,
+
+  _This Work is Respectfully Dedicated_,
+
+  AS A SLIGHT TRIBUTE OF ESTEEM TO ONE WHO GRACES THE
+  HIGHEST POSITION IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA BY HIS
+  EMINENT PERSONAL QUALITIES, HIS REPUTATION AS
+  A STATESMAN AND AN AUTHOR, AND HIS KIND
+  AND ENLIGHTENED PATRONAGE OF EDUCATION,
+  LITERATURE, AND SCIENCE.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The scope of this work is in the main identical with that of
+"Archaia," published in 1860; but in attempting to prepare a new
+edition brought up to the present condition of the subject, it was
+found that so much required to be rewritten as to make it essentially
+a new book, and it was therefore decided to give it a new name, more
+clearly indicating its character and purpose.
+
+The intention of this new publication is to throw as much light as
+possible on the present condition of the much-agitated questions
+respecting the origin of the world and its inhabitants. To students of
+the Bible it will afford the means of determining the precise import
+of the biblical references to creation, and of their relation to what
+is known from other sources. To geologists and biologists it is
+intended to give some intelligible explanation of the connection of
+the doctrines of revealed religion with the results of their
+respective sciences.
+
+A still higher end to which the author would gladly contribute is that
+of aiding thoughtful men perplexed with the apparent antagonisms of
+science and religion, and of indicating how they may best harmonize
+our great and growing knowledge of nature with our old and cherished
+beliefs as to the origin and destiny of man.
+
+In aiming at these results, it has not been thought necessary to
+assume a controversial attitude or to stand on the defensive, either
+with regard to religion or science, but rather to attempt to arrive at
+broad and comprehensive views which may exhibit those higher harmonies
+of the spiritual and the natural which they derive from their common
+Author, and which reach beyond the petty difficulties arising from
+narrow or imperfect views of either or both. Such an aim is too high
+to be fully attained, but in so far as it can be reached we may hope
+to rescue science from a dry and barren infidelity, and religion from
+mere fruitless sentiment or enfeebling superstition.
+
+Since the publication of "Archaia," the subject of which it treats has
+passed through several phases, but the author has seen no reason to
+abandon in the least degree the principles of interpretation on which
+he then insisted, and he takes a hopeful view as to their ultimate
+prevalence. It is true that the wide acceptance of hypotheses of
+"evolution" has led to a more decided antagonism than heretofore
+between some of the utterances of scientific men and the religious
+ideas of mankind, and to a contemptuous disregard of revealed religion
+in the more shallow literature of the time; but, on the other hand, a
+barrier of scientific fact and induction has been slowly rising to
+stem this current of crude and rash hypothesis. Of this nature are the
+great discoveries as to the physical constitution and probable origin
+of the universe, the doctrine of the correlation and conservation of
+forces, the new estimates of the age of the earth, the overthrow of
+the doctrine of spontaneous generation, the high bodily and mental
+type of the earliest known men, the light which philology has thrown
+on the unity of language, our growing knowledge of the uniformity of
+the constructive and other habits of primitive men, and of the
+condition of man in the earlier historic time, the greater
+completeness of our conceptions as to the phenomena of life and their
+relation to organizable matters--all these and many other aspects of
+the later progress of science must tend to bring it back into greater
+harmony with revealed religion.
+
+On the other side, there has been a growing disposition on the part of
+theologians to inquire as to the actual views of nature presented in
+the Bible, and to separate these from those accretions of obsolete
+philosophy which have been too often confounded with them. With
+respect to the first chapter of Genesis more especially, there has
+been a decided growth in the acceptance of those principles for which
+I contended in 1860. In illustration of this I may refer to the fact
+that in 1862 it was precisely on these principles that Dr. McCaul
+conducted his able defence of the Mosaic record of creation in the
+"Aids to Faith," which may almost be regarded as an authoritative
+expression of the views of orthodox Christians in opposition to those
+of the once notorious "Essays and Reviews." Equally significant is the
+adoption of this method of interpretation by Dr. Tayler Lewis in his
+masterly "Special Introduction" to the first chapter of Genesis, in
+the American edition of Lange's Commentary, edited by Dr. Philip
+Schaff; and the manifest approval with which the lucid statement of
+the relations of Geology and the Bible by Dr. Arnold Guyot, was
+received by the great gathering of divines at the Convention of the
+Evangelical Alliance in New York, in 1873, bears testimony to the same
+fact. The author has also had the honor of being invited to
+illustrate this mode of reconciliation to the students of two of the
+most important theological colleges in America, in lectures afterwards
+published and widely circulated.
+
+The time is perhaps nearer than we anticipate when Natural Science and
+Theology will unite in the conviction that the first chapter of
+Genesis "stands alone among the traditions of mankind in the wonderful
+simplicity and grandeur of its words," and that "the meaning of these
+words is always a meaning ahead of science--not because it anticipates
+the results of science, but because it is independent of them, and
+runs as it were round the outer margin of all possible discovery."[1]
+
+In the Appendix the reader will find several short essays on special
+points collateral to the general subject, and important in the
+solution of some of its difficulties, but which could not be
+conveniently included in the text. More especially I would refer to
+the summaries given in the Appendix of the present state of our
+knowledge as to the origin of life, of species, and of man--topics not
+discussed in much detail in the body of the work, both because of the
+wide fields of controversy to which they lead, and because I have
+treated of them somewhat fully in a previous work, "The Story of the
+Earth and Man," in which the detailed history of life as disclosed by
+science was the main subject in hand.
+
+                                                  J. W. D.
+
+_May, 1877._
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE MYSTERY OF ORIGINS AND ITS SOLUTIONS.
+
+  Reality of the Unseen.--Personality of God.--Possibility of a
+  Revelation of Origins.--Turanian, Aryan, and Semitic Solutions
+  of the Mystery.--The Abrahamic Genesis.--The Mosaic Genesis   Page 9
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS.
+
+  Objects to be Attained by a Revelation of Origins.--Its Method and
+  Structure.--Vision of Creation.--Translation of the First Chapter of
+  Genesis                                                           35
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS
+  (_continued_).
+
+  Character of the Revelation and its Views of Nature.--Natural Law.--
+  Progress and Development.--Purpose and Use.--Type or Pattern      70
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE BEGINNING.
+
+  The Universe not eternal.--Its Creation.--The Heavens.--The Earth.--
+  The Creator, Elohim.--The Beginning very Remote in Time           87
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  THE DESOLATE VOID.
+
+  Characteristics of Biblical Chaos.--The Primitive Deep.--The Divine
+  Spirit.--The Breath of God.--Chaos in other Cosmogonies.--Chemical
+  and Physical Conditions of the Primitive Chaos                   100
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  LIGHT AND CREATIVE DAYS.
+
+  What is Implied in Cosmic Light.--Its Gradual Condensation.--Day and
+  Night.--Days of Creation.--Their Nature and Length.--They are
+  Olams, �ons or Time-worlds.--Objections to this View
+  Answered.--Confirmations from Extraneous Sources.                115
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  THE ATMOSPHERE.
+
+  Its Present Constitution.--Waters Above and Below.--The "Expanse"
+  of Genesis not a Solid Arch.--Mythology of the Atmosphere.--
+  Superstitions connected with it Opposed by the Bible.            157
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  THE DRY LAND AND THE FIRST PLANTS.
+
+  The Earth of the Bible is the Dry Land.--Its Elevation and Support
+  above the Waters.--Structure of the Continents arranged from the
+  first.--The First Vegetation.--Its Nature.--Introduction of Life.--
+  Organization and Reproduction.--Objections considered.--Geological
+  Indications.                                                     174
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  LUMINARIES.
+
+  How Introduced.--What Implied in this.--Dominion of Existing Causes.
+  --Astronomy of the Hebrews.--Not Connected with Astrology        199
+
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+  THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+  The Sheretzim, or Swarmers.--Their Origin from the Waters.--The
+  Great Reptiles.--Their Creation.--Coincidences with Geology.
+  --Hypotheses of Evolution                                        211
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI.
+
+  THE HIGHER ANIMALS AND MAN.
+
+  The Placental Mammals.--The Principal Groups of these.--Man, how
+  Introduced.--His Early Condition.--His Relations to Nature       230
+
+
+  CHAPTER XII.
+
+  THE REST OF THE CREATOR.
+
+  The Sabbath of Creation.--The Modern Period.--Its Early History.
+  --The Fall and Antediluvian Man.--Postdiluvian Extension of Men  249
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIII.
+
+  UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+  Biblical Account of his Introduction and Early History.--Historical
+  Testimony with respect to his Unity and Antiquity.--Testimony of
+  Language                                                         263
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIV.
+
+  UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN (_continued_).
+
+  Geological Evidence of Antiquity of Man.--General Conditions of
+  Post-glacial and Modern Periods.--Remains of Man in Caverns, in
+  River-gravels, etc.--Pal�ocosmic and Neocosmic Men               294
+
+
+  CHAPTER XV.
+
+  COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS.
+
+  Geological Chronology.--Table of Succession of Life.--Points of
+  Agreement of the Two Records.--Parallelism of Genesis and Physical
+  Science with Reference to the Origin and Early History of the World.
+  --Conclusion                                                     322
+
+
+  APPENDICES.
+
+  A.--True and False Evolution.                                    363
+
+  B.--Evolution and Creation by Law.                               373
+
+  C.--Modes of Creation.                                           377
+
+  D.--Theories of Life.                                            383
+
+  E.--Recent Facts as to the Antiquity of Man.                     386
+
+  F.--Glacial Periods in Connection with Genesis.                  395
+
+  G.--Chemistry of the Primeval Earth.                             400
+
+  H.--Tannin and Bhemah.                                           405
+
+  I.--Ancient Mythologies.                                         408
+
+  K.--Assyrian and Egyptian Texts.                                 412
+
+  L.--Species and Varieties in Connection with Evolution and the
+      Unity of Man.                                                414
+
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE MYSTERY OF ORIGINS AND ITS SOLUTIONS.
+
+     "The things that are seen are temporal."--PAUL.
+
+
+Have we or can we have any certain solution of those two great
+questions--Whence are all things? and Whither do all things tend? No
+thinking man is content to live merely in a transitory present, ever
+emerging out of darkness and ever returning thither again, without
+knowing any thing of the origin and issue of the world and its
+inhabitants. Yet it would seem that to-day men are as much in
+uncertainty on these subjects as at any previous time. It even appears
+as if all our added knowledge would only, for a time at least, deprive
+us of the solutions to which we trusted, and give no others in their
+room. Christians have been accustomed to rest on the cosmogony and
+prophecy of the Bible; but we are now frankly told on all hands that
+these are valueless, and that even ministers of religion more or less
+"sacrifice their sincerity" in making them the basis of their
+teachings. On the other hand, we are informed that nothing can be
+discerned in the universe beyond matter and force, and that it is by a
+purely material and spontaneous evolution that all things exist. But
+when we ask as to the origin of matter and force, and the laws which
+regulate them--as to the end to which their movement is tending, as to
+the manner in which they have evolved the myriad forms of life and the
+human intelligence itself--the only answer is that these are
+"insoluble mysteries."
+
+Are we, then, to fall back on the real or imagined revelations and
+traditions of the past, and to endeavor to find in them some foothold
+of assurance; or are we to wait till further progress in science may
+have cleared up some of the present mysteries? Whatever may be said of
+the former alternative, all honest students of science will unite with
+me in the admission that the latter is hopeless. We need not seek to
+belittle the magnificent triumphs of modern science. They have been
+real and stupendous. But it is of their very nature to conduct us to
+ultimate facts and laws of which science can give no explanation; and
+the further we push our inquiries the more insuperably does the wall
+of mystery rise before us. It is true we can furnish the materials for
+philosophical speculations which may be built on scientific facts and
+principles; but these are in their nature uncertain, and must
+constantly change as knowledge advances. They can not solve for us the
+great practical problems of our origin and destiny.
+
+In these circumstances no apology is needed for a thorough and careful
+inquiry into those foundations of religious belief which rest on the
+idea of a revelation of origins and destinies made to man from
+without, and on which we may build the superstructure of a rational
+religion, giving guidance for the present and hope for the future. In
+the following pages I propose to enter upon so much of this subject as
+relates to the origin and earliest history of the world, in so far as
+these are treated of in the Bible and in the traditions of the more
+ancient nations; and this with reference to the present standpoint of
+science in relation to these questions.
+
+To discuss such questions at all, certain preliminary admissions are
+necessary. These are: (1) The reality of an unseen universe, spiritual
+rather than material in its nature. (2) The existence of a personal
+God, or of a great Universal Will. (3) The possibility of
+communication taking place between God and man. I do not propose to
+attempt any proof of these positions, but it may be well to explain
+what they mean.
+
+(1) That the great machine for the dissipation of energy, in which we
+exist, and which we call the universe, must have a correlative and
+complement in the unseen, is a conclusion now forced upon physicists
+by the necessities of the doctrine of the conservation of force. In
+short, it seems that, unless we admit this conclusion, we can not
+believe in the possible existence of the material universe itself, and
+must sink into absolute nihilism. This doctrine is expressed by the
+apostle Paul in the statement, "The things that are seen are temporal,
+but the things that are not seen are eternal," and it has been ably
+discussed by the authors of the remarkable work, "The Unseen
+Universe." That this unseen world is spiritual--that is, not subject
+to the same material laws with the visible universe--is also a fair
+deduction from physical science, as well as a doctrine of Scripture. I
+prefer the term spiritual to supernatural, because the first is the
+term used in the Bible, and because the latter has had associated with
+it ideas of the miraculous and abnormal, not implied at all in the
+idea of the spiritual, which in some important senses may be more
+natural than the material.
+
+(2) The idea of a personal God implies not merely the existence of an
+unknown absolute power, as Herbert Spencer seems to hold, or of "an
+Eternal, not ourselves, that makes for righteousness," as Matthew
+Arnold puts it, but of a Being of whom we can affirm will,
+intelligence, feeling, self-consciousness, not certainly precisely as
+they occur in us, but in a higher and more perfect form, of which our
+own consciousness furnishes the type, or "image and shadow," as Moses
+long ago phrased it. On the one hand, it is true that we can not fully
+comprehend such a personal God, because not limited by the conditions
+which limit us. On the other hand, it is clear that our intellect, as
+constituted, can furnish us with no ultimate explanation of the
+universe except in the action of such a primary personal will. In the
+Bible the absolute personality of God is expressed by the title "I
+am." His intimate relation to us is indicated by the expression, "In
+him we live, and move, and have our being." His all-pervading essence
+is stated as "the fullness of him that filleth all in all." His
+relative personality is shadowed forth by the attribution to him of
+love, anger, and other human feelings and sentiments, and by
+presenting him in the endearing relation of the universal Father.
+
+(3) With reference to the possibility of communication between God and
+man, it may truly be said that such communication is not only
+possible, but infinitely probable. God is not only near to us, but we
+are in him, and, independently of the testimony of revelation, it has
+been felt by all classes of men, from the rudest and most primitive
+savages up to our great English philosopher, John Stuart Mill, that if
+there is a God, he can not be excluded from communion with his
+intelligent creatures, either directly or through the medium of
+ministering spirits.[2] Farther, placed as man is in the midst of
+complex and to him inexplicable phenomena, involved in a conflict of
+good and evil, happiness and misery, to which the wisest and the
+greatest minds have found no issue, subject to be degraded by low
+passions and tempted to great extremes of evil, and himself weak,
+impulsive, and vacillating, there seems the most urgent need for
+divine communication. It may be said that these are conflicts and
+problems which God has left man to decide and solve for himself by his
+own reason. But when we consider how slow this process is, and how
+imperfect even now, after the experience of ages, we seem to need some
+intervention that shall stimulate the human mind, and impel it forward
+with greater rapidity. Farther, it would appear only right that an
+intelligent and accountable being, placed in a world like this, should
+have some explanation of his origin and destiny given him at first,
+and that, if he should perchance go astray, a helping hand should be
+extended to him.
+
+Practically it is an historical fact that all the great impulses given
+to humanity have been by men claiming divine guidance or inspiration,
+and professing to bring light and truth from the unseen world. It
+would be too much to say that all these prophets and reformers have
+been inspired of heaven; but scarcely too much to say that they have
+either received a message of God, or have been permitted to transmit
+to our world messages for weal or woe from powers without in
+subordination to him. Farther, we shall have reason in the sequel to
+see that in far back prehistoric times there must have been impulses
+given to mankind, and revelations made to them, as potent as those
+which have acted in later historic periods. In Holy Scripture the Word
+of God is represented as "enlightening every man;[3]" and with
+reference to our present subject we are told that "by faith we
+understand that the ages of the world were constituted by the Word of
+God, so that the visible things were not made of those which
+appear."[4] In other words, that the will of God has been active and
+operative as the sole cause throughout all ages of the world's
+creation and history, and that the visible universe is not a mere
+product of its own phenomena. We may call this faith, if we please, an
+intuition or instinct, a God-given gift, or a product of our own
+thought acting on evidence afforded by the outer world; but in any
+case it seems to be the sole possible solution of the mystery of
+origins.
+
+These points being premised, we are in a position to inquire as to the
+teaching of our own Holy Scriptures, and in this inquiry we can easily
+take along with them all other revelations, pretended or true, that
+deal with our subject.
+
+Max M�ller, in his lectures on the Science of Religion, rejects the
+ordinary division into natural and revealed, and adopts a threefold
+grouping, corresponding to the great division of languages into
+Turanian, Aryan, and Semitic. With some modification and explanation,
+this classification will serve well our present purpose. As to natural
+and revealed religions, if we regard our own as revealed, we must
+admit an element of revelation in all others as well. According to the
+Hebrew Scriptures revelation began in Eden, and was continued more or
+less in all successive ages up to the apostolic times. Consequently
+the earlier revelations of the antediluvian and postdiluvian times
+must have been the common property of all races, and must have been
+associated with whatever elements of natural religion they had. When,
+therefore, we call our religion distinctively a revealed one, we must
+admit that traces of the same revelation may be found in all others.
+On the other hand, when we characterize our religion as Hebrew or
+Semitic, we must bear in mind that in its earlier stages it was not so
+limited; but that, if as old as it professes to be, it must include a
+substratum common to it with the old religions of the Turanians and
+Aryans. Neglect of these very simple considerations often leads to
+great confusion in the minds both of Christians and unbelievers, as to
+the relation of Christianity to heathenism, and especially to the
+older and more primitive forms of heathenism.
+
+The Turanian stock, of which the Mongolian peoples of Northern Asia
+may be taken as the type, includes also the American races, and the
+oldest historical populations of Western Asia and of Europe; and they
+are the peoples who, in their physical features and their art
+tendencies, most nearly resemble the prehistoric men of the caves and
+gravels. They largely consist of the populations which the Bible
+affiliates with Ham. They are remarkable for their permanent and
+stationary forms of civilization or barbarism, and for the languages
+least developed in grammatical structure. These people had and still
+have traditions of the creation and early history of man similar to
+those in the earlier Biblical books; but the connection of their
+religions with that of the Bible breaks off from the time of Abraham;
+and the earlier portions of revelation which they possessed became
+disintegrated into a polytheism which takes very largely the form of
+animism, or of attributing some special spiritual indwelling to all
+natural objects, and also that of worship of ancestors and heroes. The
+portion of primitive theological belief to which they have clung most
+persistently is the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, which in
+all their religious beliefs occupies a prominent place, and has always
+been connected with special attention to rites of sepulture and
+monuments to the dead. Their version of the revelation of creation
+appears most distinctly in the sacred book of the Quich�s of Central
+America, and in the creation myths of the Mexicans, Iroquois,
+Algonquins, and other North American tribes; and it has been handed
+down to us through the Semitic Assyrians from the ancient
+Chald�o-turanian population of the valley of the Euphrates.
+
+The Aryan races have been remarkable for their changeable and
+versatile character. Their religious ideas in the most primitive times
+appear to have been not dissimilar from those of the Turanians; and
+the Indians, Persians, Greeks, Scandinavians, and Celts have all gone
+some length in developing and modifying these, apparently by purely
+human imaginative and intellectual materials. But all these
+developments were defective in a moral point of view, and had lost the
+stability and rational basis which proceed from monotheism. Hence they
+have given way before other and higher faiths; and at this day the
+more advanced nations of the Aryan, or in Scriptural language the
+Japhetic stock, have adopted the Semitic faith; and, as Noah long ago
+predicted, "dwell in the tents of Shem." No indigenous account of the
+genesis of things remains among the Aryan races, with the exception of
+that in the Avesta, and in some ancient Hindoo hymns, and these are
+merely variations of the Turanian or Semitic cosmogony. God has given
+to the Aryans no special revelations of his will, and they would have
+been left to grope for themselves along the paths of science and
+philosophy, but for the advent among them of the prophets of "Jehovah
+the God of Shem."
+
+It is to the Semitic race that God has been most liberal in his gift
+of inspiration. Gathering up and treasuring the old common
+inheritance of religion, and eliminating from it the accretions of
+superstition, the children of Abraham at one time stood alone, or
+almost alone, as adherents of a belief in one God the Creator. Their
+theology was added to from age to age by a succession of prophets, all
+working in one line of development, till it culminated in the
+appearance of Jesus Christ, and then proceeded to expand itself over
+the other races. Among them it has undergone two remarkable phases of
+retrograde development--the one in Mohammedanism, which carries it
+back to a resemblance to its own earlier patriarchal stage, the other
+in Roman and Greek ecclesiasticism, which have taken it back to the
+Levitical system, along with a strong color of paganism. Still its
+original documents survive, and retain their hold on large portions of
+the more enlightened Aryan nations, while through their means these
+documents have entered on a new career of conquest among the Semites
+and Turanians. They are, however, it must be admitted, among the Aryan
+races of Europe, growing in a somewhat uncongenial soil; partly
+because of the materialistic organization of these races, and partly
+because of the abundant remains of heathenism which still linger among
+them; and it is possible that they may not realize their full triumphs
+over humanity till the Semitic races return to the position of
+Abraham, and erect again in the world the standard of monotheistic
+faith, under the auspices of a purified Christianity.
+
+It follows from this hasty survey that it is the Semitic solution of
+the question of origins, as contained in the Hebrew Scriptures, that
+mainly concerns us; and in the first place we must consider the
+foundation and historical development of this solution, as many
+misconceptions prevail on these points. We may discuss these subjects
+under the heads of the Abrahamic Genesis and the Mosaic Genesis, and
+may in a subsequent chapter consider the results of these in the
+Genesis of the later Scripture writers.
+
+
+THE ABRAHAMIC GENESIS.
+
+It has been a favorite theory with some learned men that the earlier
+parts of the book of Genesis existed as ancient documents even in the
+time of Moses, and were incorporated by him in his work, and attempts
+have been made to separate, on various grounds, the older from the
+newer portions. Until lately, however, these attempts have been
+altogether conjectural and destitute of any positive basis of
+arch�ological fact. A new and interesting aspect has been given to
+them by the recent readings of the inscriptions on clay tablets found
+at Nineveh, and to which especial attention has been given by the late
+Mr. G. Smith, of the Arch�ological Department of the British Museum.
+
+Assurbanipal, king of Assyria, one of the kings known to the Greeks by
+the name of Sardanapalus, reigned at Nineveh about B.C. 673. He was a
+grandson of the Biblical Sennacherib, and son of Esarhaddon, and it
+seems that he had inherited from his fathers a library of Chaldean and
+Assyrian literature, written not on perishable paper or parchment, but
+on tablets of clay, and containing much ancient lore of the nations
+inhabiting the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. Assurbanipal,
+living when the Assyrian empire had attained to the acme of its
+greatness, had leisure to become a greater patron of learning than any
+preceding king. His scribes ransacked the record chambers of the
+oldest temples in the world; and Babel, Erech, Accad, and Ur had to
+yield up their treasures of history and theology to diligent copyists,
+who transcribed them in beautiful arrow-head characters on new clay
+tablets, and deposited them in the library of the great king. It
+would appear that, at the same time, these documents were edited,
+archaic forms of expression translated, and lacun� caused by decay or
+fracture repaired. They were also inscribed with legends stating the
+sources whence they had been derived.
+
+The empire of Assyria went down in blood, and its palaces were
+destroyed with fire, but the imperishable clay tablets which had
+formed the treasure of their libraries remained, more or less broken
+it is true, among the ruins. Exhumed by Layard and Smith, they are now
+among the collections of the British Museum, and their decipherment is
+throwing a new and strange light on the cosmogony and religions of the
+early East. Though the date of the writing of these tablets is
+comparatively modern, being about the time of the later kings of
+Judah, the original records from which they were transcribed profess
+to have been very ancient--some of them about 1600 years before the
+time of Assurbanipal, so that they go back to a time anterior to that
+of the early Hebrew patriarchs. Their genuineness has been endorsed,
+in one case, by the discovery by Mr. Loftus, in the city of Senkereh,
+of an apparent original, bearing date about 1600 years before Christ,
+and other inscriptions of equal or greater antiquity have been found
+in the ruins of Ur, on the Euphrates. Nor does there seem any reason
+to doubt that the scribes of Assurbanipal faithfully transcribed the
+oldest records extant in their time. Their care and diligence are also
+shown by the fact that where different versions of these records
+existed in different cities, they have made copies of these variant
+manuscripts, instead of attempting to reduce them to one text. The
+subjects treated of in the Nineveh tablets are very various, but those
+that concern our present purpose are the documents relating to the
+creation, the fall of man, and the deluge, of which considerable
+portions have been recovered, and have been translated by Mr. Smith.
+
+These documents carry us back to a time when the Turanian religions
+had not yet been separated from the Semitic. The early Chaldeans,
+termed Cushites in the Bible, and who under Nimrod seem to have
+established the first empire in that region, are now known to have
+been Turanian; and among them apparently arose at a very early period
+a literature and a mythology. The Chaldeans were politically
+subjugated by the Semitic Assyrians, but they retained their religious
+predominance; and until a comparatively late period existed as a
+learned and priestly caste. To these primitive _Chasdim_ were
+undoubtedly due the creation legends collected by the scribes of
+Assurbanipal. They were obtained in the old Chaldean cities, in the
+temples under the guardianship of Chaldean priests; and their date
+carries them back to a time anterior to the Assyrian conquest, and in
+which Chaldean kings still reigned. Here, then, we have an important
+connecting link between the cosmogonies of the Turanian and Semitic
+races; and leaving out of sight for the present the legends of the
+deluge and other matters allied to it, we may inquire as to the nature
+and contents of the Assyrian and Chaldean record of creation.
+
+The Assyrian Genesis is similar in order and arrangement to that in
+our own Bible, and gives the same general order of the creative work.
+Its days, however, of creation, as indeed there is good internal
+evidence to prove those of Moses also are, seem to be periods or ages.
+It treats of the creation of gods, as well as of the universe, and
+thus introduces a polytheistic system; and it seems to recognize, like
+the Avesta, a primitive principle of evil, presiding over chaos, and
+subsequently introducing evil among men. These points may be
+illustrated by an extract from Mr. Smith's translation. It relates to
+the earlier part of the work:
+
+  "When above were not raised the heavens,
+  And below on the earth a plant had not grown up
+  The deep also had not broken up its boundaries
+  Chaos (or water) Tiamat (the sea or abyss) was the producing mother
+     of them all
+  These waters at the beginning were ordained
+  But a tree had not grown a flower had not unfolded
+  When the gods had not sprung up any one of them
+  A plant had not grown and order did not exist
+  Were made also the great gods
+  The gods Lahma and Lahamu they caused to come * * *
+  And they grew * * *
+  The gods Sar and Kisar were made
+  A course of days and a long time passed
+  The god Anu * * *
+  The gods Sar and * * *"
+
+Here the first existences are Chaos (Mummu, or confusion) and Tiamat,
+which is the Thalatth of Berosus, representing the sea or primitive
+abyss, but also recognized as a female deity or first mother. Then we
+have Lahma and Lahamu, which represent power or motion in nature, and
+are the equivalents of the Divine Spirit moving on the face of the
+waters in our Genesis. Next we have the production of Sar or Iloar and
+Kisar, representing the expanse or firmament. Sar is supposed to be
+the god Assur of the Assyrians, a great weather god, and after whom
+their nation and its founder were named. The next process is the
+creation of the heaven and the earth, represented by Anu and Anatu.
+Anu was always one of the greater gods, and was identified with the
+higher or starry heavens. In succeeding tablets to this we find Bel or
+Belus introduced, as the agent in the creation of animals and of men;
+and he is the true Demiurgus or Mediator of the Assyrian system. Next
+we have the introduction of Hea or Saturn, who is the equivalent of
+the Biblical Adam, and of Ishtar, mother of men, who is the Isba or
+Eve of Genesis. The rest of this legend evidently relates to deified
+men, among whom are Merodach, Nebo, and other heroes.
+
+The first remark that we may make on this Assyrian Genesis is that,
+while it resembles generally the Mosaic account of creation, it also
+strongly resembles the old cosmogonies of the Egyptians and Persians,
+and those of the widely scattered Turanians of Northern Asia and of
+America. As an extreme illustration of this, and to obviate the
+necessity of digression at this point of our inquiry, I introduce here
+some extracts from the Popul Vuh, or sacred book of the Quich� Indians
+of Central America, an undoubted product of prehistoric religion in
+the western continent.[5]
+
+     "And the heaven was formed, and all the signs thereof set in
+     their angle and alignment, and its boundaries fixed toward
+     the four winds by the Creator and Former, and Mother and
+     Father of life and existence--he by whom all move and
+     breathe, the Father and Cherisher of the peace of nations
+     and of the civilization of his people--he whose wisdom has
+     projected the excellence of all that is on the earth or in
+     the lakes or in the sea."
+
+     "Behold the first word and the first discourse. There was
+     yet no man nor any animal, * * * nothing was but the
+     firmament. The face of the earth had not yet appeared over
+     the peaceful sea, and all the space of heaven * * * nothing
+     but immobility and silence in the night."
+
+     "Alone also the Creator, the Former, the Dominator, the
+     Feathered Serpent--those that engender, those that give
+     being--they are upon the water like a growing light. They
+     are enveloped in green and blue, and therefore their name is
+     Gucumatz."[6]
+
+     "Lo now how the heavens exist, how exists also the Heart of
+     Heaven; such is the name of God. It is thus that he is
+     called. And they spake, they consulted together and
+     meditated; they mingled their words and their opinions."
+
+     "And the creation [of the earth] was verily after this wise.
+     Earth, they said, and on the instant it was formed; like a
+     cloud or a fog was its beginning. Then the mountains rose
+     over the water like great fishes; in an instant the
+     mountains and the plains were visible, and the cypress and
+     the pine appeared. Then was the Gucumatz filled with joy,
+     crying out: Blessed be thy coming, O Heart of Heaven,
+     Hurakan, Thunderbolt. Our work and our labor has
+     accomplished its end."
+
+This corresponds to the work of the first four creative days; and next
+details are given as to the introduction of animals, with which,
+however, the Creator is represented as dissatisfied, because they
+could not know or invoke the Creator. They are therefore condemned to
+be subject to be devoured one of another. Again there is a council in
+heaven, and the gods determine to make man. But he also is imperfect,
+for he has speech without intelligence: so he is condemned to be
+destroyed by water. A new council is held, and a second race of men
+produced; but this fails in the capacity for religious worship--"they
+forgot the Heart of Heaven." These were partly destroyed by fire and
+partly converted into apes. Lastly another council is held, and
+perfect men created. Then follows a remarkable series of stories
+relating to the early history and migrations of men.
+
+It is known that similar creation myths existed among the Mexicans
+and other early civilized nations of America, and in ruder and more
+grotesque forms even among the semi-barbarous and hunter tribes. Their
+connection with the ancient Semitic and Turanian revelations of Asia
+is unquestionable.
+
+We have thus in the Assyrian Genesis a relic of early religious belief
+belonging to a period when such widely separated stocks as the
+Assyrian and American were still one: to a period, therefore,
+presumably long anterior to that of Moses. Yet at this very early
+period the central portions at least of the Turanian race had already
+devised some means of recording their traditions in writing--probably
+the arrow-head writing, afterwards used by the Assyrians, had already
+been invented. Again, at this early period a complex polytheism had
+already sprung up, and this was connected with cosmological ideas,
+inasmuch as the primitive abyss, the firmament, the starry heavens,
+the principle of life, were all subordinate gods; and so were also
+some of the earliest of the patriarchs of the human race. It is
+possible, however, that this was among the early Chaldeans an exoteric
+representation for the vulgar, and that the priestly caste may have
+understood it in a monotheistic sense. In any case, the idea of a
+Supreme Creator remains behind the whole. Farther, in the early
+Chaldean record we have a more detailed and expanded document than
+that of the Hebrew Genesis, probably intended for the popular ear, and
+to include as much as possible of the current mythology. As an
+example, I quote the following in relation to the creation of the
+moon, being apparently a part of the narrative of that creative period
+corresponding with the fourth day of Genesis:
+
+  "In its mass [that is, of the lower chaos] he made a boiling,
+  The God Uru [the moon] he caused to rise out, the night he
+     overshadowed.
+  To fix it also for the light of the night until the shining of
+     the day,
+  That the month might not be broken and in its amount be regular.
+  At the beginning of the month at the rising of the night,
+  His horns are breaking through to shine in the heavens.
+  On the seventh day to a circle he begins to swell,
+  And stretches toward the dawn farther."
+
+We now come to the historical connection of all this with Abraham and
+with the Hebrew Scriptures. The early life of the "Father of the
+Faithful" belongs to the time when Turanian and Semitic elements were
+mingled in the Euphratean valley. Himself of the stock of Shem, he
+dwelt in Ur of the Chaldees, a city in whose ruins, now known by the
+name of Mugheir, Chaldean inscriptions have been found of a date
+anterior to that of the patriarch. In the time of Abraham a
+polytheistic religion already existed in Ur, for we are told that his
+father "served other gods." Further, the legends of the creation and
+the deluge, and the antediluvian age, with the history of Nimrod and
+other postdiluvian heroes, existed in a written form; and, strange
+though this may seem, there can be little doubt that Abraham, before
+he left Ur of the Chaldees, had read the same creation legends that
+have so recently been translated and published by Mr. Smith. But
+Abraham's relation to these was of a peculiar kind. With a spiritual
+enlightenment beyond that of his age, he dissented from the Turanian
+animism and polytheism, and maintained that pure and spiritual
+monotheism which, according to the Bible, had been the original faith
+of the sons of Noah. But he was overborne by the tendencies of his
+time, and probably by the royal and priestly influence then dominant
+in Chaldea, and he went forth from his native land in search of a
+country where he might have freedom to worship God. It is thus that
+Abraham appears as the earliest reformer, the first of those martyrs
+of conscience who fear not to differ from the majority, the father and
+prototype of the faithful of every age, and the earliest apostle of
+the monotheistic faith which still reigns among all the higher races
+of men.
+
+Did Abraham take with him in his pilgrimage the records of his people?
+It is scarcely possible to doubt that he did, and this probably in a
+written form, but purified from the polytheism and inane imaginations
+accreted upon them; or perhaps he had access to still older and more
+primitive records anterior to the rise of the Turanian superstitions.
+In any case we may safely infer that Abraham and his tribe carried
+with them the substance of all that part of Genesis which contains the
+history of the world up to his time, and that this would be a precious
+heir-loom of his family, until it was edited and incorporated in the
+Pentateuch by his great descendant Moses. It seems plain, therefore,
+that the original prophet or seer to whom the narrative of creation
+was revealed lived before Abraham, but we need not doubt that the
+latter had the benefit of divine guidance in his noble stand against
+the idolatry of his age, and in his selection of the documents on
+which his own theology was based. These considerations help us to
+understand the persistence of Hebrew monotheism in the presence of the
+idolatries of Canaan and Egypt, since these were closely allied to the
+Chaldean system against which Abraham had protested. They also explain
+the recognition by Abraham, as co-religionists, of such monotheistic
+personages as Melchisedec, king of Salem. They further illustrate the
+nature of the religious basis in his people's beliefs on which Moses
+had to work, and on which he founded his theocratic system.
+
+Before leaving this part of the subject, I would observe that the view
+above given; while it explains the agreement between the Hebrew
+Genesis and other ancient religious beliefs, is in strict accordance
+with the teachings of Genesis itself. The history given there implies
+monotheism and knowledge of God as the Creator and Redeemer, in
+antediluvian and early postdiluvian times, a decadence from this into
+a systematic polytheism at a very early date, the protest and dissent
+of Abraham, his call of God to be the upholder of a purer faith, and
+the maintenance of that faith by his descendants. Besides this, any
+careful reader of Genesis and of the book of Job, which, whatever its
+origin, must be more ancient than the Mosaic law, will readily
+discover indications that Abraham and the patriarchs were in the
+possession of documents and traditions of the same purport with those
+in the early chapters of Genesis, and that these were to them their
+only sacred literature. The reader of the Pentateuch must carry this
+idea with him, if he would have any clear conception of the unity and
+symmetry of these remarkable books.
+
+
+THE MOSAIC GENESIS.
+
+In the period of 400 years intervening between Abraham's departure
+from Ur and the exodus of Israel from Egypt, no great prophetic mind,
+like that of the Father of the Faithful, appeared among the Hebrews.
+But then arose Moses, the greatest figure in all antiquity before the
+advent of Christ, and who was destined to give permanence and
+world-wide prevalence to the faith for which Abraham had sacrificed so
+much. Under the leadership of Moses, the Abrahamid�, now reduced to
+the condition of a serf population, emancipated themselves from
+Egyptian bondage, and, after forty years of wandering desert life,
+settled themselves permanently on the hills and in the valleys of
+Palestine. The voice of the ruling race, indistinctly conveyed to us
+from that distant antiquity, maintains that the fugitive slaves were
+an abject and contemptible herd; but the leader of the exodus informs
+us that, though cruelly trodden down by a haughty despot, they were of
+noble parentage, the heirs of high hopes and promises. Their migration
+is certainly the most remarkable national movement in the world's
+history--remarkable, not merely in its events and immediate
+circumstances, but in its remote political, literary, and moral
+results. The rulers of Egypt, polished, enlightened, and practical
+men, were yet the devotees of a complicated system of hero and animal
+worship, like that from which Abraham dissented, and derived in great
+part from the "animism" which caused some of the oldest nations of the
+world to associate a spiritual indwelling with the natural objects
+surrounding them; or, if they had ceased to believe in this, they had
+sunk into a materialistic devotion to the good things of the present
+world, combined with a superstitious belief in the efficacy of
+priestly absolution.
+
+The slaves, leaving all this behind them, rose in their religious
+opinions to the pure and spiritual monotheism of the great father of
+their race; and their leader presented to them a law unequalled up to
+our time in its union of justice, patriotism, and benevolence, and
+established among them, for the first time in the world's history, a
+free constitutional republic. Nor is this all; unexampled though such
+results are elsewhere in the case of serfs suddenly emancipated. The
+Hebrew lawgiver has interwoven his institutions in a great historical
+composition, including the grand and simple cosmogony of the
+patriarchs, a detailed account of the affiliation and ethnological
+relations of the races of men, and a narrative of the fortunes of his
+own people; intimating not only that they were a favored and chosen
+race, but that of them was to arise a great Deliverer, who would bless
+all nations with pardon and with peace,[7] and would solve once for
+all those great problems of the relations of man to God and the unseen
+world, which in the time of Moses as in our own were the most
+momentous of all, and gave to questions of origins all their practical
+value.
+
+The lawgiver passed to his rest. His laws and literature, surviving
+through many vicissitudes, have produced in each succeeding age a new
+harvest of poetry and history, leavened with their own spirit. In the
+mean time the learning and the superstition of Egypt faded from the
+eyes of men. The splendid political and military organizations of
+Assyria, Babylon, Persia, and Macedon arose and crumbled into dust.
+The wonderful literature of Greece blazed forth and expired. That of
+Rome, a reflex and copy of the former, had reached its culminating
+point; and no prophet had arisen among any of these Gentile nations to
+teach them the truth of God. The world, with all its national
+liberties crushed out, its religion and its philosophy corrupted and
+enfeebled to the last degree by an endless succession of borrowings
+and intermixtures, lay prostrate under the iron heel of Rome. Then
+appeared among the now obscure remnant of Israel, one who announced
+himself as the Prophet like unto Moses, promised of old; but a prophet
+whose mission it was to redeem not Israel only, but the whole world,
+and to make all who will believe, children of faithful Abraham.
+Adopting the whole of the sacred literature of the Hebrews, and
+proving his mission by its words, he sent forth a few plain men to
+write its closing books, and to plant it on the ruins of all the
+time-honored beliefs of the nations--beliefs supported by a splendid
+and highly organized priestly system and by despotic power, and gilded
+by all the highest efforts of poetry and art.
+
+The story is a very familiar one; but it is marvellous beyond all
+others. Nor is the modern history of the Bible less wonderful. Exhumed
+from the rubbish of the Middle Ages, it has entered on a new career of
+victory. It has stimulated the mind of modern Europe to all its
+highest efforts, and has been the charter of its civil and religious
+liberties. Its wondrous revelation of all that man most desires to
+know, in the past, in the present, and in his future destinies, has
+gone home to the hearts of men in all ranks of society and in all
+countries. In many great nations it is the only rule of religious
+faith. In every civilized country it is the basis of all that is most
+valuable in religion. Where it has been withheld from the people,
+civilization in its highest aspects has languished, and superstition,
+priestcraft, and tyranny have held their ground or have perished under
+the assaults of a heartless and inhuman infidelity. Where it has been
+a household book, education has necessarily flourished, liberty has
+taken root, and the higher nature of man has been developed to the
+full. Driven from many other countries by tyrannical interference with
+liberty of thought and discussion, or by a short-sighted
+ecclesiasticism, it has taken up its special abode with the greatest
+commercial nations of our time; and, scattered by their agency
+broadcast over the world, it is read by every nation under heaven in
+its own tongue, and is slowly but surely preparing the way for wider
+and greater changes than any that have heretofore resulted from its
+influence. Explain it as we may, the Bible is a great literary
+miracle; and no amount of inspiration or authority that can be
+claimed for it is more strange or incredible than the actual history
+of the book. Yet no book has ever thrown itself into so decided
+antagonism with all the great forces of evil in the world. Tyranny
+hates it, because the Bible so strongly maintains the individual value
+and rights of man as man. The spirit of caste dislikes it for the same
+reason. Anarchical license, on the other hand, finds nothing but
+discouragement in it. Priestcraft gnashes its teeth at it, as the very
+embodiment of private judgment in religion, and because it so
+scornfully ignores human authority in matters of conscience, and human
+intervention between man and his Maker. Skepticism sneers at it,
+because it requires faith and humility, and threatens ruin to the
+unbeliever. It launches its thunders against every form of violence or
+fraud or allurement that seeks to profit by wrong or to pander to the
+vices of mankind; all these consequently are its foes. On the other
+hand, by its uncompromising stand with reference to certain scientific
+and historical facts, it has appeared to oppose the progress of
+thought and speculation; though, as we shall see, it has been unfairly
+accused in this last respect.
+
+With its antagonism to the evil that is in the world we have at
+present nothing to do, except to caution the student of this venerable
+literature against the prejudices which interested and unscrupulous
+foes seek to cultivate. Its doctrine of the origin of man and of the
+world, and the relation of this to modern scientific and historical
+results, is that which now claims our attention; and this more
+especially in the relation which the Mosaic cosmogony, considered as
+an early revelation from God, may be found to bear to the facts which
+modern scientific research has elicited from the universe itself. The
+aspects in which apparent conflicts present themselves are threefold.
+At one time it was not unusual to impugn the historical accuracy of
+the Pentateuch on the evidence of the Greek historians; and on many
+points scarcely any corroborative evidence could be cited in favor of
+the Hebrew writers. In our own time much of this difficulty has been
+removed, and an immense amount of learned research has been reduced to
+waste paper, by the circumstance that the monuments of Egypt and
+Assyria have risen up to bear testimony in favor of the Bible; and
+scarcely any sane man now doubts the value of the Hebrew history. The
+battle-ground has in consequence been shifted farther back, to points
+concerning the affiliation of the races of men, the absolute antiquity
+of man's residence on the earth, and the condition of prehistoric men;
+questions on which we can scarcely expect to find, at least for a long
+time, any decisive monumental or scientific evidence. Secondly, the
+Bible commits itself to certain cosmological doctrines and statements
+respecting the system of nature, and details of that system, more or
+less approaching to the domain which geology occupies in its
+investigations of the past history of the earth; and at every stage in
+the progress of modern science, independently of the mischief done by
+smatterers and skeptics, earnest bigotry on the one hand, and earnest
+scientific enthusiasm on the other, have come into collision. One
+stumbling-block after another has, it is true, been removed by mutual
+concession and farther enlightenment, and by the removal of false
+traditional interpretations of the sacred records, as well as by
+farther discoveries in relation to nature. But the field of conflict
+has thereby apparently only changed; and we still have some Christians
+in consequence regarding the revelations of natural science with
+suspicion, and some scientific men cherishing a sullen resentment
+against what they regard as an intolerant intermeddling of theology
+with the domain of legitimate investigation. Lastly, the great growth
+of physical science, and the tendency to take partial views of the
+universe as if it were comprehended in mere matter and force, with
+similarly partial views of the doctrines of continuity and the
+conservation of forces, along with the growth of a belief in
+spontaneous evolution as a philosophical dogma, have placed many
+scientific minds in a position which makes them treat the whole
+question of the origin and destiny of man and of the world with
+absolute indifference.
+
+There can nevertheless be no question that the whole subject is at the
+present moment in a more satisfactory state than ever previously; that
+much has been done for the solution of difficulties; that many
+theologians admit the great service which in many cases science has
+rendered to the interpretation of the Bible, and that most naturalists
+feel themselves free from undue trammels. Above all, there is a very
+general disposition to admit the distinctness and independence of the
+fields of revelation and natural science, the possibility of their
+arriving at some of the same truths, though in very different ways,
+and the folly of expecting them fully and manifestly to agree in the
+present state of our information. The literature of this kind of
+natural history has also become very extensive, and there are few
+persons who do not at least know that there are methods of reconciling
+the cosmogony of Moses with that obtained from the study of nature.
+For this very reason the time is favorable for an unprejudiced
+discussion of the questions involved; and for presenting on the one
+hand to naturalists a summary of what the Bible does actually teach
+respecting the early history of the earth and man, and on the other to
+those whose studies lie in the book which they regard as the Word of
+God, rather than in the material universe which they regard as his
+work, a view of the points in which the teaching of the Bible comes
+into contact with natural science at its present stage of progress.
+These are the ends which I propose to myself in the following pages,
+and which I shall endeavor to pursue in a spirit of fair and truthful
+investigation; having regard on the one hand to the claims and
+influence of the venerable Book of God, and on the other to the rights
+and legitimate results of modern scientific inquiry.
+
+The plan which I have proposed to myself in this part of my subject
+is to take the statements of Genesis in their order, and consider what
+they import, and how they appear to harmonize with what we know from
+other sources. This will occupy some space, but it will save time in
+dealing with the remaining parts of the subject. Before entering upon
+it, I propose to devote one chapter to the answers to three questions
+which concern the whole doctrine of revealed religion, whether
+Semitic, Turanian, or Aryan. These are: (1) _Why_ the origin of things
+should be revealed; (2) _How_ it could be revealed; and (3) _What_
+would require to be revealed in order to form the basis of a rational
+theism.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS.
+
+
+     "There are two books from which I collect my divinity;
+     besides that written one of God, another of his servant
+     nature--that universal and public manuscript that lies
+     expansed unto the eyes of all."--SIR T. BROWNE.
+
+
+There are some questions, simple enough in themselves, respecting the
+general character and object of the references to nature and creation
+in the Scriptures, which yet are so variously and vaguely answered
+that they deserve some consideration before entering on the detailed
+study of the subject. These are: (1) The object of the introduction of
+such subjects into the Hebrew sacred books--the _why_ of the
+revelation of origins. (2) The origin, character, and structure of the
+narrative of creation and other cosmological statements in those
+books--the _how_ of the revelation. (3) The character of the Biblical
+cosmogony, and general views of nature to which it leads--the _what_
+of the revelation.
+
+(1) _The Object of the Introduction of a Cosmogony in the
+Bible._--Man, even in his rudest and most uncivilized state, does not
+limit his mental vision to his daily wants. He desires to live not
+merely in the present, but in the future also and the past. This is a
+psychological peculiarity which, as much as any other, marks his
+separation from the lower animals, and which in his utmost degradation
+he never wholly loses. Whatever may be fancied as to imagined
+prehistoric nations, it is certain that no people now existing, or
+historically known to us, is so rude as to be destitute of some hopes
+or fears in reference to the future, some traditions as to the distant
+past. Every religious system that has had any influence over the human
+mind has included such ideas. Nor are we to regard this as an
+accident. It depends on fixed principles in our constitution, which
+crave as their proper aliment such information; and if it can not be
+obtained, the mind, rather than want it, invents for itself. We might
+infer from this very circumstance that a true religion, emanating from
+the Creator, would supply this craving; and might content ourselves
+with affirming that, on this ground alone, it behooved revelation to
+have a cosmogony.
+
+But the religion of the Hebrews especially required to be explicit as
+to the origin of the earth and all things therein. Its peculiar dogma
+is that of one only God, the Creator, requiring the sole homage of his
+creatures. The heathen for the most part acknowledged in some form a
+supreme god, but they also gave divine honors to subordinate gods, to
+deceased ancestors and heroes, and to natural phenomena, in such a
+manner as practically to obscure their ideas of the Creator, or
+altogether to set aside his worship. The influence of such idolatry
+was the chief antagonism which the Hebrew monotheism had to encounter;
+and we learn from the history of the nation how often the worshippers
+of Jehovah were led astray by its allurements. To guard against this
+danger, it was absolutely necessary that no place should be left for
+the introduction of polytheism, by placing the whole work of creation
+and providence under the sole jurisdiction of the One God. Moses
+consequently takes strong ground on these points. He first insists on
+the creation of all things by the fiat of the Supreme. Next he
+specifies the elaboration and arrangement of all the powers of
+inanimate nature, and the introduction of every form of organic
+existence, as the work of the same First Cause. Lastly, he insists on
+the creation of a primal human pair, and on the descent from them of
+all the branches of the human race, including of course those
+ancestors and magnates who up to his time had been honored with
+apotheosis; and on the same principle he explains the golden age of
+Eden, the fall, the cherubic emblems, the deluge, and other facts in
+human history interwoven by the heathen with their idolatries. He thus
+grasps the whole material of ancient idolatry, reduces it within the
+compass of monotheism, and shows its relation to the one true
+primitive religion, which was that not only of the Hebrews, but of
+right that of the whole world, whose prevailing polytheism consisted
+in perversions of its truth or unity. For such reasons the early
+chapters of Genesis are so far from being of the character of
+digressions from the scope and intention of the book, that they form a
+substratum of doctrine absolutely essential to the Hebrew faith, and
+equally so to its development in Christianity.
+
+The references to nature in the Bible, however, and especially in its
+poetical books, far exceed the absolute requirements of the reasons
+above stated; and this leads to another and very interesting view,
+namely, the tendency of monotheism to the development of truthful and
+exalted ideas of nature. The Hebrew theology allowed no attempt at
+visible representations of the Creator or of his works for purposes of
+worship. It thus to a great extent prevented that connection of
+imitative art with religion which flourished in heathen antiquity, and
+has been introduced into certain forms of Christianity. But it
+cultivated the higher arts of poetry and song, and taught them to draw
+their inspiration from nature as the only visible revelation of Deity.
+Hence the growth of a healthy "physico-theology," excluding all
+idolatry of natural phenomena, and all superstitious dread of them as
+independent powers, but inviting to their examination as
+manifestations of God, and leading to conceptions of the unity of plan
+in the cosmos, of which polytheism, even in its highest literary
+efforts, was quite incapable. In the same manner the Bible has always
+proved itself an active stimulant of natural science, connecting such
+studies, as it does, with our higher religious sentiments; while
+polytheism and materialism have acted as repressive influences, the
+one because it obscures the unity of nature, the other because, in
+robbing it of its presiding Divinity, it gives a cold and repulsive,
+corpse-like aspect, chilling to the imagination, and incapable of
+attracting the general mind.
+
+Naturalists should not forget their obligations to the Bible in this
+respect, and should on this very ground prefer its teachings to those
+of modern pantheism and positivism, and still more to those of mere
+priestly authority. Very few minds are content with simple
+materialism, and those who must have a God, if they do not recognize
+the Jehovah of the Hebrew Scriptures as the Creator and Supreme Ruler
+of the universe, are too likely to seek for him in the dimness of
+human authority and tradition, or of pantheistic philosophy; both of
+them more akin to ancient heathenism than to modern civilization, and
+in their ultimate tendencies, if not in their immediate consequences,
+quite as hostile to progress in science as to evangelical
+Christianity.
+
+Every student of human nature is aware of the influence in favor of
+the appreciation of natural beauty and sublimity which the Bible
+impresses on those who are deeply imbued with its teaching; even where
+that same teaching has induced what may be regarded as a puritanical
+dislike of imitative art, at least in its religious aspects. On the
+other hand, naturalists can not refuse to acknowledge the surpassing
+majesty of the views of nature presented in the Bible. No one has
+expressed this better than Humboldt: "It is characteristic of the
+poetry of the Hebrews that, as a reflex of monotheism, it always
+embraces the universe in its unity, comprising both terrestrial life
+and the luminous realms of space; it dwells but rarely on the
+individuality of phenomena, preferring the contemplation of great
+masses. The Hebrew poet does not depict nature as a self-dependent
+object, glorious in its individual beauty, but always as in relation
+or subjection to a higher spiritual power. Nature is to him a work of
+creation and order--the living expression of the omnipresence of the
+Divinity in the visible world." In reference to the 104th Psalm, which
+may be viewed as a poetical version of the narrative of creation in
+Genesis, the same great writer remarks: "We are astonished to find in
+a lyrical poem of such a limited compass, the whole universe--the
+heavens and the earth--sketched with a few bold touches. The calm and
+toilsome life of man, from the rising of the sun to the setting of the
+same, when his daily work is done, is here contrasted with the moving
+life of the elements of nature. This contrast and generalization in
+the conception of the mutual action of natural phenomena, and the
+retrospection of an omnipresent invisible Power, which can renew the
+earth or crumble it to dust, constitute a solemn and exalted rather
+than a gentle form of poetic creation."[8]
+
+If we admit the source of inspiration claimed by the Hebrew poets, we
+shall not be surprised that they should thus write of nature. We shall
+only lament that so many pious and learned interpreters of Scripture
+have been too little acquainted with nature to appreciate the natural
+history of the Book of God, or adequately to illustrate it to those
+who depend on their teaching; and that so many naturalists have
+contented themselves with wondering at the large general views of the
+Hebrew poets, without considering that they are based on a revelation
+of the nature and order of the creative work which supplied to the
+Hebrew mind the place of those geological wonders which have
+astonished and enlarged the minds of modern nations. A modern divine,
+himself well read in nature, truly says: "If men of piety were also
+men of science, and if men of science were to read the Scriptures,
+there would be more faith on the earth and also more philosophy."[9]
+In a similar strain the patient botanist of the marine alg� thus
+pleads for the joint claims of the Bible and nature: "Unfortunately it
+happens that in the educational course prescribed to our divines
+natural history has no place, for which reason many are ignorant of
+the important bearings which the book of nature has on the book of
+revelation. They do not consider, apparently, that both are from
+God--both are his faithful witnesses to mankind. And if this be so, is
+it reasonable to suppose that either, without the other, can be fully
+understood? It is only necessary to glance at the absurd commentaries
+in reference to natural objects which are to be found in too many
+annotations of the Holy Scriptures to be convinced of the benefit
+which the clergy would themselves derive from a more extended study of
+the works of creation. And to missionaries especially, a minute
+familiarity with natural objects must be a powerful assistance in
+awakening the attention of the savage, who, after his manner, is a
+close observer, and likely to detect a fallacy in his teacher, should
+the latter attempt a practical illustration of his discourse without
+sufficient knowledge. These are not days in which persons who ought to
+be our guides in matters of doctrine can afford to be behind the rest
+of the world in knowledge; nor can they safely sneer at the knowledge
+which puffeth up, until, like the apostle, they have sounded its
+depths and proved its shallowness."[10] It is truly much to be desired
+that divines and commentators, instead of trying to distort the
+representations of nature in the Bible into the supposed requirements
+of a barbarous age, or of setting aside modern discoveries as if they
+could have no connection with Scripture truth, would study natural
+objects and laws sufficiently to bring themselves in this respect to
+the level of the Hebrew writers. Such knowledge would be cheaply
+purchased even by the sacrifice of a part of their verbal and literary
+training. It is well that this point is now attracting the attention
+of the Christian world, and it is but just to admit that some of our
+more eminent religious writers have produced noble examples of
+accurate illustrations of Scripture derived from nature. In any case,
+the Bible itself can not be charged with any neglect of the claims of
+nature or with any narrow tendency to place material and spiritual
+things in antagonism to one another.
+
+Another reason why a revelation from God must deal with the origins of
+things, is that such revelation is, like creation, in its own nature
+progressive. It is given little by little to successive generations of
+men, and must proceed from the first rudiments of religious truth
+onward to its higher developments with the growth of humanity from age
+to age. Hence the teachings in the early chapters of Genesis are of
+the simplest and most child-like character, and the first of these
+early teachings is necessarily that of God the Creator, just as our
+elementary catechisms for children have been wont to begin with the
+question, "Who made you?" In this way man is led in the most direct
+and simple way to the feet of the Universal Father, and a foundation
+is laid whereon further religious teaching adapted to the growth of
+the individual mind and to the growing complications of human society
+can be built. But again, alike in the earliest and simplest as in the
+more advanced states of the human mind, if spiritual things are to be
+taught, it must be through the medium of material things. We have no
+language to express in any direct way spiritual truths; they must be
+given to us in terms of the natural. We have not yet learned the
+tongue of the immortals, and probably can not learn it in this world.
+The word "spirit" itself, which we borrow from the Latin, the Greek
+_Pneuma_, the Hebrew _Ruah_, primarily all agree in signifying breath
+or wind. We have to speak of our own breath when we mean our spiritual
+nature, of God's breath when we mean his spiritual nature, and so of
+all other things not obvious to our senses. There is constant danger
+in this that the material shall be taken for the spiritual of which it
+is the symbol, the figure for the reality, the creature for the
+Creator, and this danger is best counteracted by a decided testimony
+in relation to the origin of all material things in the will of the
+spiritual and eternal God. Thus the Bible writers are enabled to use a
+free and bold manner of speech respecting divine things. Their
+expressions at one time appear pantheistic and at another
+anthropomorphic; they see God in every thing, and use with the utmost
+freedom natural emblems to indicate his perfections and procedure, and
+our relations to him. In this way there is life and action in their
+teaching, and it is removed as far as possible from a dry, abstract
+theology, while equally remote from any tinge of idolatry or
+superstition.
+
+It may, however, be objected that by the introduction of a cosmogony
+the Bible exposes itself to a conflict with science, and that thereby
+injury results both to science and to religion. This is a grave
+charge, and one that has evidently had much weight with many minds,
+since it has been the subject of entire treatises designed to
+illustrate the history of the conflict or to explain its nature. The
+revelation of God's will to man for his moral guidance, if necessary
+at all, was necessary before the rise of natural science. Men could
+not do without the knowledge of the unity of nature and of the unity
+of God, until these great truths could be worked out by scientific
+induction. Perhaps they might never have been so worked out. Therefore
+a revealed book of origins has a right to precedence in this matter.
+Nor need it in any way come into conflict with the science
+subsequently to grow up. Science does not deal so much with the origin
+of nature as with its method and laws, and all that is necessary on
+the part of a revelation, to avoid conflict with it, is to confine
+itself to statements of phenomena and to avoid hypotheses. This is
+eminently the course of the Bible. In its cosmogony it shuns all
+embellishments and details, and contents itself with the fact of
+creation and a slight sketch of its order; and in their subsequent
+references to nature the sacred writers are strictly phenomenal in
+their statements, and refer every thing directly to the will of God,
+without any theory as to secondary causes and relations. They are thus
+decided and positive on the points with reference to which it behooves
+revelation to testify, and absolutely non-committal on the points
+which belong to the exclusive domain of science.
+
+What, then, are we to say of the imaginary "conflict of science with
+religion," of which so much has been made? Simply that it results
+largely from misapprehension and from misuse of terms. True religion,
+which consists in practical love to God and to our fellow-men, can
+have no conflict with science. True science is its fast ally. The
+Bible, considered as a revelation of spiritual truth to man for his
+salvation and enlightenment, can have no conflict with science. It
+promotes the study of nature, rendering it honorable by giving it the
+dignity of an inquiry into the ways of God, and rendering it safe by
+separating it from all ideas of magic and necromancy. It gives a
+theological basis to the ideas of the unity of nature and of natural
+law. The conflict of science, when historically analyzed, is found to
+have been fourfold--with the Church, with theology, with superstition,
+and with false or imperfect science and philosophy. Religious men may
+have identified themselves from time to time with these opponents, but
+that is all; and much more frequently the opposition has been by bad
+men more or less professing religious objects. Organizations calling
+themselves "the Church," and whose warrant from the Bible is often of
+the slenderest, have denounced and opposed and persecuted new
+scientific truths; but they have just as often denounced the Bible
+itself, and religious doctrines founded on it. Theology claims to be
+itself one of the sciences, and as such it is necessarily imperfect
+and progressive, and may at any time be more or less in conflict with
+other sciences; but theology is not religion, and may often have very
+little in common either with true religion or the Bible. When
+discussions arise between theology and other sciences, it is only a
+pity that either side should indulge in what has been called the
+_odium theologicum_, but which is unfortunately not confined to
+divines. Superstition, considered as the unreasonable fear of natural
+agencies, is a passive rather than an active opponent of science. But
+revelation, which affirms unity, law, and a Father's hand in nature,
+is the deadly foe of superstition, and no people who have been readers
+of the Bible and imbued with its spirit have ever been found ready to
+molest or persecute science. Work of this sort has been done only by
+the ignorant, superstitious, and priest-ridden votaries of systems
+which withhold the Bible from the people, and detest it as much as
+they dislike science. Perhaps the most troublesome opposition to
+science, or rather to the progress of science, has sprung from the
+tenacity with which men hold to old ideas. These, which may have been
+at one time the best science attainable, root themselves in popular
+literature, and even in learned bodies and in educational books and
+institutions. They become identified with men's conceptions both of
+nature and religion, and modify their interpretations of the Bible
+itself. It thus becomes a most difficult matter to wrench them from
+men's minds, and their advocates are too apt to invoke in their
+defense political, social, and ecclesiastical powers, and to seek to
+support them by the authority of revelation, when this may perhaps be
+quite as favorable to the newer views opposed to them. All these
+conflicts are, however, necessary incidents in human progress, which
+comes only by conflict; and there is reason to believe that they would
+be as severe in the absence of revealed religion as in its presence,
+were it not that the absence of revelation seems often to produce a
+fixity and stagnation of thought unfavorable to any new views, and
+consequently to some extent to any intellectual conflict. It has been,
+indeed, to the disinterment of the Bible in the Reformation of the
+fifteenth century that the world owes, more than to any other cause,
+the immense growth of modern science, and the freedom of discussion
+which now prevails. The Protestant idea of individual judgment in
+matters of religion is thoroughly Biblical, for the Bible everywhere
+appeals to men in this way; and this idea is the strongest guarantee
+that the world possesses for intellectual liberty in other matters.
+
+We conclude, therefore, on all these grounds, that it was necessary
+that a revelation from God should take strong and positive ground on
+the question of the origin of the universe.
+
+       *     *     *     *     *
+
+(2) _The Origin, Method, and Structure of the Scriptural
+Cosmogony._--A respectable physicist, but somewhat shallow naturalist
+and theologian, whose works at one time attracted much attention, has
+said of the first chapter of Genesis: "It can not be history--it may
+be poetry." Its claims to be history we shall investigate under
+another head, but it is pertinent to our present inquiry to ask
+whether it can be poetry. That its substance or matter is poetical no
+one who has read it once can believe; but it can not be denied that in
+its form it approaches somewhat to that kind of thought-rhythm or
+parallelism which gives so peculiar a character to Hebrew poetry. We
+learn from many Scripture passages, especially in the Proverbs, that
+this poetical parallelism need not necessarily be connected with
+poetical thought; that in truth it might be used, as rhyme is
+sometimes with us, to aid the memory. The oldest acknowledged verse in
+Scripture is a case in point. Lamech, who lived before the flood,
+appears to have slain a man in self-defense, or at least in an
+encounter in which he himself was wounded; and he attempts to define
+the nature of the crime in the following words:
+
+  "Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;
+  Ye wives of Lamech, hearken to my speech:--
+  I have slain a man to my wounding,
+  And a young man to my hurt;
+  If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold,
+  Truly Lamech seventy and seven fold."
+
+All this is prosaic enough in matter, but the form into which it is
+thrown gives it a certain dignity, and impresses it on the memory;
+which last object was probably what the author of this sole fragment
+of antediluvian literature had in view. He succeeded too--for the
+sentiment was handed down, probably orally; and Moses incorporates it
+in his narration, perhaps on account of its interest as the first
+record of the distinction between willful murder like that of Cain,
+and justifiable homicide. It is interesting also to observe the same
+parallelism of style, no doubt with the same objects, in many old
+Egyptian monumental inscriptions, which, however grandiloquent, are
+scarcely poetical.[11] It also appears in that ancient record of
+creation and the deluge recently rescued from the clay tablets of
+Nineveh.
+
+Now in the first chapter of Genesis, and the first three verses of
+chapter second, being the formal general narrative of creation, on
+which, as we shall see, every other statement on the subject in the
+Bible is based, we have this peculiar parallelism of style. If we ask
+why, the answer must, I think, be--to give dignity and symmetry to
+what would otherwise be a dry abstract, and still more to aid memory.
+This last consideration, perhaps indicating that this chapter, like
+the apology of Lamech, had been handed down orally for a long period,
+connects itself with the theory of the pre-Abrahamic origin of these
+documents to which reference has already been made.
+
+The form of the narrative, however, in no way impairs its precision
+or accuracy of statement. On this Eichhorn well says: "There lies at
+the foundation of the first chapter a carefully designed plan, all
+whose parts are carried out with much art, whereby its appropriate
+place is assigned to every idea;" and we may add, whereby every idea
+is expressed in the simplest and fewest words, yet with marvellous
+accuracy, amounting to an almost scientific precision of diction, for
+which both the form into which it is thrown and the homogeneous and
+simple character of the Hebrew language are very well adapted. Much of
+this indeed remains in the English version, though our language is
+less perfectly suited than the Hebrew for the concise announcement of
+general truths of this description. Our translators have, however,
+deviated greatly from the true sense of many important words,
+especially where they have taken the Septuagint translation for their
+guide, as in the words "firmament," "whales," "creeping things," etc.
+These errors will be noticed in subsequent pages. In the mean time I
+may merely add that the labors of the ablest Biblical critics give us
+every reason to conclude that the received text of Genesis preserves,
+almost without an iota of change, the beautiful simplicity of its
+first chapter; and that we now have it in a more perfect state than
+that in which it was presented to the translators of most of the early
+versions. It must also be admitted that the object in view was best
+served by that direct reference to the creative fiat, and ignoring of
+all secondary causes, which are conspicuous in this narrative. This is
+indeed the general tone of the Bible in speaking of natural phenomena;
+and this mode of proceeding is in perfect harmony with its claims to
+divine authority. Had not this course been chosen, no other could have
+been adopted, in strict consistency with truth, short of a full
+revelation of the whole system of nature, in the details of all its
+laws and processes. This we now know would have been impossible, and,
+if possible, useless or even mischievous.
+
+Regarded from this point of view--the plenary inspiration of the
+book--the Scriptural references to creation profess to furnish a very
+general outline, for theological purposes, of the principal features
+of a vast region unexplored when they were written, and into which
+human research has yet penetrated along only a few lines. Natural
+science, in following out these lines of observation, has reached some
+of the objects delineated in the Scriptural sketch; of others it has
+obtained distant glimpses; many are probably unknown, and we can
+appreciate the true value and dimensions relatively to the whole of
+very few. So vast indeed are the subjects of the bold sketch of the
+Hebrew prophet, that natural science can not pretend as yet so to fill
+in the outline as quite to measure the accuracy of its proportions.
+Yet the lines, though few, are so boldly drawn, and with so much
+apparent unity and symmetry, that we almost involuntarily admit that
+they are accurate and complete. This may appear to be underrating the
+actual progress of science relatively to this great foreshadowing
+outline; but I know that those most deeply versed in the knowledge of
+nature will be the least disposed to quarrel with it, whatever
+skepticism they may entertain as to the greater general completeness
+of the inspired record.
+
+Another point which deserves a passing notice here is the theory of
+Dr. Kurtz and others, that the Mosaic narrative represents a vision of
+creation, analogous to those prophetic visions which appear in the
+later books of Scripture. This is beyond all question the most simple
+and probable solution of the origin of the document, when viewed as
+inspired, but we shall have to recur to it on a future page.
+
+But with respect to the precise origin of this cosmogony, the question
+now arises, Is it really in substance a revelation from God to man? We
+must not disguise from ourselves that this deliberate statement of an
+order of creation in so far challenges comparison with the results of
+science, and this in a very different way from that which applies to
+the incidental references to nature in the Bible. Further, inasmuch as
+it relates to events which transpired before the creation of man, it
+is of the nature of prophecy rather than of history. It is, in short,
+either an inspired revelation of the divine procedure in creation, or
+it is a product of human imagination or research, or a deliberate
+fraud.
+
+To no part of the Bible do these alternatives more strictly apply than
+to its first chapter. This "can not be history" in the strict
+acceptation of the term. It relates to events which no human eye
+witnessed, respecting which no human testimony could give any
+information. It represents the creation of man as the last of a long
+series of events, of which it professes to inform us. The knowledge of
+these events can not have been a matter of human experience. If at all
+entitled to confidence, the narrative must, therefore, be received as
+an inspired document, not handed down by any doubtful tradition, but
+existing as originally transfused into human language from the mind of
+the Author of nature himself. This view is in no way affected by the
+hypothesis, already mentioned, that the first chapters of Genesis were
+compiled by Moses from more ancient documents. This merely throws back
+the revelation to a higher antiquity, and requires us to suppose the
+agency of two inspired men instead of one.
+
+It would be out of place here to enter into any argument for the
+inspiration of Scripture, or to attempt to define the nature of that
+inspiration. I merely wish to impress on the mind of the reader that
+without the admission of its reality, or at least its possibility, our
+present inquiry becomes merely a matter of curious antiquarian
+research. We must also on this ground distinguish between the claims
+of the Scriptures and those of tradition or secular history, when they
+refer to the same facts. The traditions and cosmogonies of some
+ancient nations have many features in common with the Bible narrative;
+and, on the supposition that Moses compiled from older documents, they
+may be portions of this more ancient sacred truth, but clothed in the
+varied garments of the fanciful mythological creeds which have sprung
+up in later and more degenerate times. Such fragments may safely be
+received as secondary aids to the understanding of the authentic
+record, but it would be folly to seek in them for the whole truth.
+They are but the scattered masses of ore, by tracing which we may
+sometimes open up new and rich portions of the vein of primitive lore
+from which they have been derived. It is, however, quite necessary
+here formally to inquire if there are any hypotheses short of that of
+plenary inspiration which may allow us to attach any value whatever to
+this most ancient document. I know but two views of this kind that are
+worthy of any attention.
+
+1. The Mosaic account of creation may be a result of ancient
+scientific inquiries, analogous to those of modern geology.
+
+2. It may be an allegorical or poetical mythus, not intended to be
+historical, but either devised for some extraneous purpose, or
+consisting of the conjectures of some gifted intellect.
+
+These alternatives we may shortly consider, though the materials for
+their full discussion can be furnished only by facts to be
+subsequently stated. I am not aware that the first of these views has
+been maintained by any modern writer. Some eminent scientific men are,
+however, disposed to adopt such an explanation of the ancient Hindoo
+hymns, as well as of the cosmogony of Pythagoras, which bears evidence
+of this origin; and it may be an easy step to infer that the Hebrew
+cosmogony was derived from some similar source. Not many years ago
+such a supposition would have been regarded as almost insane. Then the
+science of antiquity was only another name for the philosophy of
+Greece and Rome. But in recent times we have seen Egypt disclose the
+ruins of a mighty civilization, more grand and massive though less
+elegant than that of Greece, and which had reached its acme ere Greece
+had received its alphabet--a civilization which, according to the
+Scripture history, is derived from that of the primeval Cushite
+empire, which extended from the plains of Shinar over all Southeastern
+Asia, but was crushed at its centre before the dawn of secular
+history. We have now little reason to doubt that Moses, when he
+studied the learning of Egypt, held converse with men who saw more
+clearly and deeply into nature's mysteries than did Thales or
+Pythagoras, or even Aristotle.[12] Still later the remnants of old
+Nineveh have been exhumed from their long sepulture, and antiquaries
+have been astonished by the discovery that knowledge and arts,
+supposed to belong exclusively to far more recent times, were in the
+days of the early Hebrew kings, and probably very long previously,
+firmly established on the banks of the Tigris. Such discoveries, when
+compared with hints furnished by the Scriptures, tend greatly to exalt
+our ideas of the state of civilization at the time when they were
+written; and we shall perceive, in the course of our inquiry, many
+additional reasons for believing that the ancient Israelites were much
+farther advanced in natural science than is commonly supposed.
+
+We have, however, no positive proof of such a theory, and it is
+subject to many grave objections. The narrative itself makes no
+pretension to a scientific origin, it quotes no authority, and it is
+connected with no philosophical speculations or deductions. It bears
+no internal evidence of having been the result of inductive inquiry,
+but appeals at once to faith in the truth of the great ultimate
+doctrine of absolute creation, and then proceeds to detail the steps
+of the process, in the manner of history as recorded by a witness, and
+not in the manner of science tracing back effects to their causes.
+Farther, it refers to conditions of our planet respecting which
+science has even now attained to no conclusions supported by evidence,
+and is not in a position to make dogmatic assertions. The tone of all
+the ancient cosmogonies has in these respects a resemblance to that
+of the Scriptures, and bears testimony to a general impression
+pervading the mind of antiquity that there was a divine and
+authoritative testimony to the facts of creation, distinct from
+history, philosophical speculation, or induction.
+
+One of the boldest and simplest methods of this kind is that followed
+by the authors of the "Types of Mankind," in the attempt to assign a
+purely human origin to Genesis 1st. These writers admit the greater
+antiquity of the first chapter, though assigning the whole of the book
+to a comparatively modern date. They say:
+
+"The 'document Jehovah'[13] does not especially concern our present
+subject; and it is incomparable with the grander conception of the
+more ancient and unknown writer of Genesis 1st. With extreme felicity
+of diction and conciseness of plan, the latter has defined the most
+philosophical views of antiquity upon _cosmogony_; in fact so well
+that it has required the pal�ontological discoveries of the nineteenth
+century--at least 2500 years after his death--to overthrow his
+_septenary_ arrangement of 'Creation;' which, after all, would still
+be correct enough in great principles, were it not for one individual
+oversight and one unlucky blunder; not exposed, however, until long
+after his era, by post-Copernican astronomy. The oversight is where he
+wrote (Gen. i. 6-8), 'Let there be _raqui�_,' _i. e._, a _firmament_;
+which proves that his notions of 'sky' (solid like the concavity of a
+copper basin, with _stars_ set as brilliants in the metal) were the
+same as those of adjacent people of his time--indeed, of all men
+before the publication of Newton's 'Principia' and of Laplace's
+'M�canique C�leste.' The blunder is where he conceives that _aur_,
+'light,' and _iom_, 'day' (Gen. i. 14-18), could have been physically
+possible _three whole days_ before the 'two great luminaries,' _Sun_
+and _Moon_, were created. These venial errors deducted, his majestic
+song beautifully illustrates the simple process of ratiocination
+through which--often without the slightest historical proof of
+intercourse--different 'Types of Mankind,' at distinct epochas, and in
+countries widely apart, had arrived, naturally, at cosmogonic
+conclusions similar to the doctrines of that Hebraical school of which
+his harmonic and melodious numbers remain a magnificent memento.
+
+"That process seems to have been the following: The ancients knew, as
+we do, that man _is_ upon the earth; and they were persuaded, as we
+are, that his appearance was preceded by unfathomable depths of time.
+Unable (as we are still) to measure periods antecedent to man by any
+_chronological_ standard, the ancients rationally reached the
+tabulation of some events anterior to man through _induction_--a
+method not original with Lord Bacon, because known to St. Paul; 'for
+his unseen things from the creation of the world, his power and
+Godhead, are clearly seen, _being understood by the things that are
+made_' (Rom. i., 20). Man, they felt, could not have lived upon earth
+without _animal_ food; ergo, 'cattle' preceded him, together with
+birds, reptiles, fishes, etc. Nothing living, they knew, could have
+existed without light and heat; ergo, the _solar system_ antedated
+animal life, no less than the _vegetation_ indispensable for animal
+support. But terrestrial plants can not grow without _earth_; ergo,
+that dry land had to be separated from pre-existent 'waters.' Their
+geological speculations inclining rather to the _Neptunian_ than to
+the _Plutonian_ theory--for Werner ever preceded Hutton--the ancients
+found it difficult to 'divide the waters from the waters' without
+interposing a metallic substance that 'divided the waters which were
+_under_ the firmament from the waters that were _above_ the
+firmament;' so they inferred, logically, that a _firmament_ must have
+been actually created for this object. [_E.g._, 'The _windows_ of the
+skies' (Gen. vii., 11); 'the waters _above_ the skies' (Psa. cxlviii.,
+4).] Before the 'waters' (and here is the peculiar error of the
+genesiacal bard) some of the ancients claimed the pre-existence of
+_light_ (a view adopted by the writer of Genesis 1st); while others
+asserted that 'chaos' prevailed. Both schools united, however, in the
+conviction that DARKNESS--_Erebus_--anteceded all other _created
+things_. What, said these ancients, can have existed before the
+'darkness?' _Ens entium_, the CREATOR, was the humbled reply. _Elohim_
+is the Hebrew vocal expression of that climax; to define whose
+attributes, save through the phenomena of creation, is an attempt we
+leave to others more presumptuous than ourselves."
+
+The problem here set to the "unknown" author of Genesis is a hard
+one--given the one fact that "man is" to find in detail how the world
+was formed in a series of preceding ages of vast duration. Is it
+possible that such a problem could have been so worked out as to have
+endured the test of three thousand years, and the scrutiny of modern
+science? But there is an "oversight" in one detail, and a "blunder" in
+another. By reference farther on, the reader will find under the
+chapters on "Light" and the "Atmosphere" that the oversight and
+blunder are those not of the writer of Genesis, but of the learned
+American ethnologists in the nineteenth century; a circumstance which
+cuts in two ways in defense of the ancient author so unhappily unknown
+to his modern critics.
+
+The second of the alternatives above referred to, the mythical
+hypothesis, has been advanced and ably supported, especially on the
+continent of Europe, and by such English writers as are disposed to
+apply the methods of modern rationalistic criticism to the Bible. In
+one of its least objectionable forms it is thus stated by Professor
+Powell:
+
+"The narrative, then, of six periods of creation, followed by a
+seventh similar period of rest and blessing, was clearly designed by
+adaptation to their conceptions to enforce upon the Israelites the
+institution of the Sabbath; and in whatever way its details may be
+interpreted, it can not be regarded as an _historical_ statement of
+the _primeval_ institution of a Sabbath; a supposition which is indeed
+on other grounds sufficiently improbable, though often adopted. * * *
+If, then, we would avoid the alternative of being compelled to admit
+what must amount to impugning the truth of those portions at least of
+the Old Testament, we surely are bound to give fair consideration to
+the only suggestion which can set us entirely free from all the
+difficulties arising from the geological contradiction which does and
+must exist against any conceivable interpretation which retains the
+assertion of the historical character of the details of the narrative,
+as referring to the distinct transactions of each of the seven
+periods. * * * The one great fact couched in the general assertion
+that all things were created by the sole power of one Supreme Being is
+the whole of the representation to which an historical character can
+be assigned. As to the particular form in which the descriptive
+narrative is conveyed, we merely affirm that it can not be history--it
+may be poetry."[14]
+
+The general ground on which this view is entertained is the supposed
+irreconcilable contradiction between the literal interpretation of the
+Mosaic record and the facts of geology. The real amount of this
+difficulty we are not, in the present stage of our inquiry, prepared
+to estimate. We can, however, readily understand that the hypothesis
+depends on the supposition that the narrative of creation is posterior
+in date to the Mosaic ritual, and that this plain and circumstantial
+series of statements is a fable designed to support the Sabbatical
+institution, instead of the rite being, as represented in the Bible
+itself, a commemoration of the previously recorded fact. This is,
+fortunately, a gratuitous assumption, contrary to the probable date of
+the documents, as deduced from internal evidence and from comparison
+with the Assyrian and other cosmogonies; and it also completely
+ignores the other manifest uses mentioned under our first head. If
+proved, it would give to the whole the character of a pious fraud, and
+would obviously render any comparison with the geological history of
+the earth altogether unnecessary. While, therefore, it must be freely
+admitted that the Mosaic narrative can not be history, in so far at
+least as history is a product of human experience, we can not admit
+that it is a poetical mythus, or, in other words, that it is destitute
+of substantial truth, unless proved by good evidence to be so; and,
+when this is proved, we must also admit that it is quite undeserving
+of the credit which it claims as a revelation from God.
+
+Since, therefore, the events recorded in the first chapter of Genesis
+were not witnessed by man; since there is no reason to believe that
+they were discovered by scientific inquiry; and since, if true, they
+can not be a poetical myth, we must, in the mean time, return to our
+former supposition that the Mosaic cosmogony is a direct revelation
+from the Creator. In this respect, the position of this part of the
+earth's Biblical history resembles that of prophecy. Writers _may_
+accurately relate contemporary events, or those which belong to the
+human period, without inspiration; but the moment that they profess
+accurately to foretell the history of the future, or to inform us of
+events which preceded the human period, we must either believe them to
+be inspired, or reject them as impostors or fanatics. Many attempts
+have been made to find intermediate standing-ground, but it is so
+precarious that the nicest of our modern critical balancers have been
+unable to maintain themselves upon it.
+
+Having thus determined that the Mosaic cosmogony, in its grand general
+features, must either be inspired or worthless, we have further to
+inquire to what extent it is necessary to suppose that the particular
+details and mode of expression of the narrative, and the subsequent
+allusions to nature in the Bible, must be regarded as entitled to this
+position. We may conceive them to have been left to the discretion of
+the writers; and, in that case, they will merely represent the
+knowledge of nature actually existing at the time. On the other hand,
+their accuracy may have been secured by the divine afflatus. Few
+modern writers have been disposed to insist on the latter alternative,
+and have rather assumed that these references and details are
+accommodated to the state of knowledge at the time. I must observe
+here, however, that a careful consideration of the facts gives to a
+naturalist a much higher estimate of the real value of the
+observations of nature embodied in the Scriptures than that which
+divines have ordinarily entertained; and, consequently, that if we
+suppose them of human origin, we must be prepared to modify the views
+generally entertained of early Oriental simplicity and ignorance. The
+truth is, that a large proportion of the difficulties in Scriptural
+natural history appear to have arisen from want of such accommodation
+to the low state of the knowledge of nature among translators and
+expositors; and this is precisely what we should expect in a
+veritable revelation. Its moral and religious doctrines were slowly
+developed, each new light illuminating previous obscurities. Its human
+history comes out as evidence of its truth, when compared with
+monumental inscriptions; and why should not the All-wise have
+constructed as skilfully its teachings respecting his own works? There
+can be no doubt whatever that the Scripture writers intended to
+address themselves to the common mind, which now as then requires
+simple and popular teaching, but they were under obligation to give
+truthful statements; and we need not hesitate to say, with Dr.
+Chalmers, in reference to a book making such claims as those of the
+Bible: "There is no argument, saving that grounded on the usages of
+popular language, which would tempt us to meddle with the literalities
+of that ancient and, as appears to us, authoritative document, any
+farther than may be required by those conventionalities of speech
+which spring from 'optical' impressions of nature."[15]
+
+Attempt as we may to disguise it, any other view is totally unworthy
+of the great Ruler of the universe, especially in a document
+characterized as emphatically _the truth_, and in a moral revelation,
+in which statements respecting natural objects need not be inserted,
+unless they could be rendered at once truthful and illustrative of the
+higher objects of the revelation. The statement often so flippantly
+made that the Bible was not intended to teach natural history has no
+application here. _Spiritual_ truths are no doubt shadowed forth in
+the Bible by material emblems, often but rudely resembling them,
+because the nature of human thought and language render this
+necessary, not only to the unlearned, but in some degree to all; but
+this principle of adaptation can not be applied to plain material
+facts. Yet a confusion of these two very distinct cases appears to
+prevail almost unaccountably in the minds of many expositors. They
+tell us that the Scriptures ascribe bodily members to the immaterial
+God, and typify his spiritual procedure by outward emblems; and this
+they think analogous to such doctrines as a solid firmament, a plane
+earth, and others of a like nature, which they ascribe to the sacred
+writers. We shall find that the writers of the Scriptures had
+themselves much clearer views, and that, even in poetical language,
+they take no such liberties with truth.
+
+As an illustration of the extent to which this doctrine of
+"accommodation" carries us beyond the limits of fair interpretation, I
+cite the following passage from one of the ablest and most judicious
+writers on the subject:[16] "It was the opinion of the ancients that
+the earth, at a certain height, was surrounded by a transparent hollow
+sphere of solid matter, which they called the firmament. When rain
+descended, they supposed that it was through windows or holes made in
+the crystalline curtain suspended in mid-heavens. To these notions
+the language of the Bible is frequently conformed. * * * But the most
+decisive example I have to give on this subject is derived from
+astronomy. Until the time of Copernicus no opinion respecting natural
+phenomena was thought better established than that the earth is fixed
+immovably in the centre of the universe, and that the heavenly bodies
+move diurnally round it. To sustain this view the most decisive
+language of Scripture might be quoted. God is there said to have
+'_established the foundations of the earth, so that they could not be
+removed forever_;' and the sacred writers expressly declare that the
+heavenly bodies _arise and set_, and nowhere allude to any proper
+motion of the earth."
+
+Will it be believed that, with the exception of the poetical
+expression, "windows of heaven," and the common forms of speech
+relating to sunrise and sunset, the above "decisive" instances of
+accommodation have no foundation whatever in the language of
+Scripture. The doctrine of the rotation of solid celestial spheres
+around the earth belongs to a Greek philosophy which arose after the
+Hebrew cosmogony was complete; and though it occurs in the Septuagint
+and other ancient versions, it is not based on the Hebrew original. In
+truth, we know that those Grecian philosophers--of the Ionic and
+Pythagorean schools--who lived nearest the times of the Hebrew
+writers, and who derived the elements of their science from Egypt and
+Western Asia, taught very different doctrines. How absurd, then, is it
+thus to fasten upon the sacred writers, contrary to their own words,
+the views of a school of astronomy which probably arose long after
+their time, when we know that more accurate ideas prevailed nearer
+their epoch. Secondly, though there is some reason for stating that
+the "ancients," though certainly not those of Israel, believed in
+celestial spheres supporting the heavenly bodies, I suspect that the
+doctrine of a solid vault _supporting the clouds_, except as a mere
+poetical or mythological fancy, is a product of the imagination of the
+theologians and closet philosophers of a more modern time. The
+testimony of men's senses appears to be in favor of the whole universe
+revolving around a plane earth, though the oldest astronomical school
+with which we are acquainted suspected that this is an illusion; but
+the every-day observation of the most unlettered man who treads the
+fields and is wet with the mists and rains must convince him that
+there is no _sub-nubilar_ solid sphere. If, therefore, the Bible had
+taught such a doctrine, it would have shocked the common-sense even of
+the plain husbandmen to whom it was addressed, and could have found no
+fit audience except among a portion of the literati of comparatively
+modern times. Thirdly, with respect to the foundations of the earth, I
+may remark that in the tenth verse of Genesis there occurs a
+definition as precise as that of any lexicon--"and God called the _dry
+land_ earth;" consequently it is but fair to assume that the earth
+afterwards spoken of as supported above the waters is the dry land or
+continental masses of the earth, and no geologist can object to the
+statement that the dry land is supported above the waters by
+foundations or pillars.
+
+We shall find in our examination of the document itself that all the
+instances of such accommodation which have been cited by writers on
+this subject are as baseless as those above referred to. It is much to
+be regretted that so many otherwise useful expositors have either
+wanted that familiarity with the aspects of external nature by which
+all the Hebrew writers are characterized, or have taken too little
+pains to ascertain the actual meaning of the references to creation
+which they find in the Bible. I may further remark that if such
+instances of accommodation could be found in the later poetical books,
+it would be extremely unfair to apply them as aids in the
+interpretation of the plain, precise, and unadorned statements of the
+first chapters of Genesis. There is, however, throughout even the
+higher poetry of the Bible, a truthful representation and high
+appreciation of nature for which we seek in vain in any other poetry,
+and we may fairly trace this in part to the influence of the cosmogony
+which appears in its first chapter. The Hebrew was thus taught to
+recognize the unity of nature as the work of an Almighty Intelligence,
+to regard all its operations as regulated by his unchanging law or
+"decree," and to venerate it as a revelation of his supreme wisdom and
+goodness. On this account he was likely to regard careful observation
+and representation with as scrupulous attention as the modern
+naturalist. Nor must we forget that the Old Testament literature has
+descended to us through two dark ages--that of Greek and Roman
+polytheism and of Middle Age barbarism--and that we must not confound
+its tenets with those of either. The religious ideas of both these
+ages were favorable to certain forms of literature and art, but
+eminently unfavorable to the successful prosecution of the study of
+nature. Hence we have a right to expect in the literature of the
+golden age of primeval monotheism more affinity with the ideas of
+modern science than in any intermediate time; and the truthful
+delineation which the claims of the Bible to inspiration require might
+have been, as already hinted, to a certain extent secured merely by
+the reflex influence of its earlier statements, without the necessity
+of our supposing that illustrations of this kind in the later books
+came directly from the Spirit of God.
+
+Our discussion of this part of the subject has necessarily been rather
+desultory, and the arguments adduced must depend for their full
+confirmation on the results of our future inquiries. The conclusions
+arrived at may be summed up as follows: 1. That the Mosaic cosmogony
+must be considered, like the prophecies of the Bible, to claim the
+rank of inspired teaching, and must depend for its authority on the
+maintenance of that claim. 2. That the incidental references to nature
+in other parts of Scripture indicate, at least, the influence of these
+earlier teachings, and of a pure monotheistic faith, in creating a
+high and just appreciation of nature among the Hebrew people.
+
+It is now necessary to inquire in what precise form this remarkable
+revelation of the origin of the world has been given. I have already
+referred to the hypothesis that it represents a vision of creation
+presented to the mind of a seer, as if in a series of pictures which
+he represents to us in words. This is perhaps the most intelligible
+conception of the manner of communication of a revelation from God;
+and inasmuch as it is that referred to in other parts of the Bible as
+the mode of presentation of the future to inspired prophets, there can
+be no impropriety in supposing it to have been the means of
+communicating the knowledge of the unknown past. We may imagine the
+seer--perhaps some aboriginal patriarch, long before the time of
+Moses--perhaps the first man himself--wrapt in ecstatic vision, having
+his senses closed to all the impressions of the present time, and
+looking as at a moving procession of the events of the earth's past
+history, presented to him in a series of apparent days and nights. In
+the first chapter of Genesis he rehearses this divine vision to us,
+not in poetry, but in a series of regularly arranged parts or
+strophes, thrown into a sort of rhythmical order fitted to impress
+them on the memory, and to allow them to be handed down from mouth to
+mouth, perhaps through successive generations of men, before they
+could be fixed in a written form of words. Though the style can
+scarcely be called poetical, since its expressions are obviously
+literal and unadorned by figures of speech, the production may not
+unfairly be called the Song or Ballad of Creation, and it presents an
+Archaic simplicity reminding us of the compositions of the oldest and
+rudest times, while it has also an artificial and orderly arrangement,
+much obscured by its division into verses and chapters in our Bibles.
+It is undoubtedly also characterized by a clearness and grandeur of
+expression very striking and majestic, and which shows that it was
+written by and intended for men of no mean and contracted minds, but
+who could grasp the great problems of the origin of things, and
+comprehend and express them in a bold and vigorous manner. It may be
+well, before proceeding farther, to present to the reader this ancient
+document in a form more literal and intelligible, and probably nearer
+to its original dress, than that in which we are most familiar with it
+in our English Bibles:
+
+
+THE ABORIGINAL SONG OF CREATION.
+
+
+_Beginning._
+
+      In the Beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth,
+      And the Earth was formless and empty,
+      And darkness on the surface of the deep,
+      And the Breath of God moved on the Surface of the Waters.
+
+
+_Day One._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let Light be,"
+    And Light was.
+  And God saw the Light that it was good.
+     And God called the Light Day,
+     And the darkness he called Night.
+  And Evening was and Morning was--Day one.
+
+
+_Day Second._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let there be an Expanse
+           in the midst of the waters,
+    And let it divide the waters from the waters."
+    And God made the Expanse,
+    And divided the waters below the Expanse
+           from the waters above the Expanse.
+    And it was so.
+    And God called the Expanse Heavens.
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Second Day.
+
+_Day Third._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let the waters under the
+           Heavens be gathered into one place,
+    And let the Dry Land appear."
+    And it was so,
+    And God called the Dry Land Earth,
+    And the gathering of waters called he Seas.
+  And God saw that it was good.
+    _And God said_--"Let the earth shoot forth herbage,
+    The Herb yielding seed and the fruit-tree yielding fruit
+           containing seed after its kind, on the earth."
+    And it was so.
+    And the earth brought forth herbage,
+    The Herb yielding seed and the Tree yielding fruit whose
+           seed is in it after its kind,
+  And God saw that it was good.
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Third Day.
+
+
+_Day Fourth._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let there be Luminaries
+           in the Expanse of Heaven,
+    To divide the day from the night,
+    And let them be for Signs and for Seasons,
+    And for Days and for Years.
+    And let them be Luminaries in the Expanse of Heaven
+    To give light on the earth."
+    And it was so.
+    And God made two great Luminaries,
+    The greater Luminary to rule the day,
+    The lesser Luminary to rule the night,
+    The Stars also.
+    And God placed them in the Expanse of Heaven
+    To give light upon the earth,
+    And to rule over the day and over the night,
+    And to divide the light from the darkness.
+  And God saw that it was good.
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Fourth Day.
+
+
+_Day Fifth._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let the waters swarm
+           with swarmers, having life,
+    And let winged animals fly over the earth on the
+           surface of the expanse of heaven."
+    And God created great Reptiles,
+    And every living thing that moveth,
+    With which the waters swarmed after their kind,
+    And every winged bird after its kind.
+  And God saw that it was good.
+    And God blessed them, saying--
+    "Be fruitful and multiply,
+    And fill the waters of the sea;
+    And let birds multiply in the land."
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Fifth Day.
+
+_Day Sixth._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let the Land bring forth
+           living things after their kind,
+    Herbivores and smaller mammals and Carnivores after their kind."
+    And it was so.
+    And God made all Carnivores after their kind,
+    And all Herbivores after their kind,
+    And all minor mammals after their kind.
+  And God saw that it was good.
+    _And God said_--"Let us make man in our image,
+           after our likeness,
+    And let him have dominion over the fish in the sea
+    And over the birds of the heavens,
+    And over the Herbivora,
+    And over the Earth,
+    And over all the minor animals that creep upon the earth."
+    And God created man in his own image,
+    In the image of God created he him,
+    Male and female created he them.
+    And God blessed them.
+    And God said unto them--
+    "Be fruitful and multiply,
+    And replenish the earth and subdue it,
+    And have dominion over the fishes of the sea
+    And over the birds of the air,
+    And over all the animals that move upon the earth."
+    _And God said_--"Behold, I have given you all herbs
+           yielding seed,
+    Which are on the surface of the whole earth,
+    And every tree with fruit having seed,
+    They shall be unto you for food.
+    And to all the animals of the land
+    And to all the birds of the heavens,
+    And to all things moving on the land having the breath of life,
+    I have given every green herb for food."
+  And it was so.
+  And God saw every thing that he had made,
+      and behold it was very good.
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Sixth Day.
+
+
+_Day Seventh._
+
+    Thus the Heavens and the Earth were finished,
+    And all the hosts of them.
+    And on the seventh day God ended the work which he had made,
+    And he rested on the seventh day from all his work
+        which he had made.
+    And God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it,
+   Because that in it he rested from all his work that he had
+        created and made.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS--_Continued._
+
+
+                             "What if earth
+  Be but a shadow of heaven, and things therein
+  Each to the other like; more than on earth is thought."
+                                                 MILTON.
+
+
+
+(3) _Character of the Biblical Cosmogony, and general Views of Nature
+which it Contains or to which it Leads._--Much of what appertains to the
+character of the revelation of origins has been anticipated under
+previous heads. We have only to read the Song of Creation, as given in
+the last chapter, to understand its power and influence as a beginning
+of religious doctrine. The revelation was written for plain men in the
+infancy of the world. Imagine Chaldean or Hebrew shepherd listening to
+these majestic lines from the lips of some ancient patriarch, and
+receiving them as truly the words of God. What a grand opening to him of
+both the seen and unseen worlds! Henceforth he has no superstitious
+dread of the stars above, or of the lightning and thunder, or of the
+dark woods and flowing waters beneath. They are all the works of the one
+Creator, the same Creator who is his own Maker, in whose image and
+shadow he is made. He can look up now to the heavens or around upon the
+earth, and see in all the handiwork of God, and can worship God through
+all. He can see that the power that cares for the birds and the flowers
+of the field cares for him. He is no longer the slave and sport of
+unknown and dreadful powers; they are God's workmanship and under his
+control--nay, God has given him a mission to subdue and rule over them.
+So these noble words raise him to a new manhood, and emancipate him from
+the torture of endless fears, and open to him vast new fields of thought
+and inquiry, which may enrich him with boundless treasures of new
+religious and intellectual wealth. Imagine still farther that he wanders
+into those great cities which are the seats of the idolatries of his
+time. He enters magnificent temples, sees elaborately decorated altars,
+huge images, gorgeous ceremonials, priests gay in vestments and imposing
+in numbers. He is invited to bow down before the bull Apis, to worship
+the statue of Belus or of Ishtar, of Osiris or of Isis. But this is not
+in his book of origins. All these things are contrivances of man, not
+works of God, and their aim is to invite him to adore that which is
+merely his fellow-creature, that which he has the divine commission to
+subdue and rule. So our primitive Puritan turns away. He will rather
+raise an altar of rough stones in the desert, and worship the unseen yet
+real Creator, the God that has no local habitation in temples made with
+hands, yet is everywhere present. Such is the moral elevation to which
+this revelation of origins raises humanity; and when there was added to
+it the farther history of primeval innocence, of the fall, and of the
+promise of a Redeemer, and of the fate of the godless antediluvians,
+there was a whole system of religion, pure and elevating, and placing
+the Abrahamid�, who for ages seem alone to have held to it, on a plane
+of spiritual vantage immeasurably above that of other nations. Farther,
+every succeeding prophet whose works are included in the sacred canon,
+following up these doctrines in the same spirit, and added new
+treasures of divine knowledge from age to age.
+
+But admitting all this, it may be asked, Are these ancient records of
+any value to us? May we not now dispense with them, and trust to the
+light of science? The infinitely varied and discordant notions of our
+modern literature on these great questions of origin, the incapacity
+of any philosophical system to reach the common mind for practical
+purposes, and the baseless character of any religious system which
+does not build on these great primitive truths, give a sufficient
+answer. Farther, we may affirm that the greatest and widest
+generalizations of our modern science have, in so far as they are of
+practical importance, been anticipated in the revelations of the
+Bible, and that in the cosmogony of Genesis and its continuation in
+the other sacred books we have general views of the universe as broad
+as those of any philosophies, ancient or modern. This is a hard test
+for our revelation, but it can be endured, and we may shortly inquire
+what we find in the Bible of such great general truths.
+
+Many may be disposed to admit the accurate delineation of natural
+facts open to human observation in the sacred Scriptures, who may not
+be prepared to find in these ancient books any general views akin to
+those of the ancient philosophers, or to those obtained by inductive
+processes in modern times. Yet views of this kind are scattered
+through the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures, and are a natural
+outgrowth and development of the great facts and principles asserted
+in the first chapter of Genesis. They resolve themselves, almost as a
+matter of course, into the two leading ideas of order and adaptation.
+I have already quoted the eloquent admission by Baron Humboldt of the
+presence of these ideas of the cosmos in Psalm civ. They are both
+conspicuous in the narrative of creation, and equally so in a great
+number of other passages. "Order is heaven's first law; and the second
+is like unto it--that every thing serves an end. This is the sum of
+all science. These are the two mites, even all that she hath, which
+she throws into the treasury of the Lord; and, as she does so in
+faith, Eternal Wisdom looks on and approves the deed."[17] These two
+mites, lawfully acquired by science, by her independent exertions, she
+may, however, recognize as of the same coinage with the treasure
+already laid up in the rich storehouse of the Hebrew literature; but
+in a peculiar and complex form, which may be illustrated under the
+following general statements:
+
+1. The Scriptures assert invariable natural law, and constantly
+recurring cycles in nature. Natural law is expressed as the ordinance
+or decree of Jehovah. From the oldest of the Hebrew books I select the
+following examples:[18]
+
+  "When he made a decree for the rain,
+  And a way for the thunder-flash."
+
+  --Job xxviii., 26.
+
+  "Knowest thou the ordinances of the heavens?
+  Canst thou establish a dominion even over the earth?"
+
+  --Job xxxviii., 33.
+
+The later books give us such views as the following:
+
+  "He hath established them [the heavens] for ever and ever;
+  He hath made a decree which shall not pass."
+
+  --Psa. cxlviii., 6.
+
+  "Thou art forever, O Jehovah, thy word is established
+        in the heavens;
+  Thou hast established the earth, and it abideth;
+  They continue this day according to thine ordinances,
+        for all are thy servants."
+
+  --Psa. cxix., 90.
+
+  "When he established the clouds above;
+  When he strengthened the fountains of the deep;
+  When he gave to the sea his decree,
+  That the waters should not pass his commandment;
+  When he appointed the foundations of the earth."
+
+  --Prov. viii., 28.
+
+Many similar instances will be found in succeeding pages; and in the
+mean time we may turn to the idea of recurring cycles, which forms the
+starting-point of the reasonings of Solomon on the current of human
+affairs, in the book of Ecclesiastes: "One generation passeth away,
+and another generation cometh; but the earth abideth for the ages. The
+sun ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteneth to its place whence
+it arose. The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth unto the north.
+It whirleth about continually, and returneth again according to its
+circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea doth not
+overflow; unto the place whence the rivers came, thither they return
+again." I might fill pages with quotations more or less illustrative
+of the statement in proof of which the above texts are cited; but
+enough has been given to show that the doctrine of the Bible is not
+that of fortuitous occurrence, or of materialism, or of pantheism, or
+of arbitrary supernaturalism, but of invariable natural law
+representing the decree of a wise and unchanging Creator. It is a
+common but groundless and shallow charge against the Bible that it
+teaches an "arbitrary supernaturalism." What it does teach is that
+all nature is regulated by the laws of God, which like himself are
+unchanging, but which are so complex in their relations and
+adjustments that they allow of infinite variety, and do not exclude
+even miraculous intervention, or what appears to our limited
+intelligence as such. In opposition to this, it is true, some
+physicists have held that natural law is a fatal necessity.[19] If
+they mean by this a merely hypothetical necessity that certain effects
+must follow if certain laws act, this is in accordance with the
+Biblical view, for nothing can resist the will of God. But if they
+mean an absolute necessity that these laws can not be suspended or
+counteracted by higher laws, or by the will of the Creator, they
+assert what is not only contrary to Scripture, but absurd, for "blind
+metaphysical necessity, which is the same always and everywhere, could
+produce no variety of things."[20] It could lead merely to a dead and
+inert equilibrium. On the hypothesis of mere physical necessity, the
+universe either never could have existed, or must have come to an end
+infinite ages ago, which is the same thing. Only on the hypothesis of
+law proceeding from an intelligent will can we logically account for
+nature.
+
+2. The Bible recognizes progress and development in nature. At the
+very outset we have this idea embodied in the gradual elaboration of
+all things in the six creative periods, rising from the formless void
+of the beginning, through successive stages of inorganic and organic
+being, up to Eden and to man. Beyond this point the work of creation
+stops; but there is to be an occupation and improvement of the whole
+earth by man spreading from Eden. This process is arrested or impeded
+by sin and the fall. Here commences the special province of the
+Bible, in explaining the means of recovery from the fall, and of the
+establishment of a new spiritual and moral kingdom, and finally of the
+restoration of Eden in a new heaven and earth. All this is moral, and
+relates to man, in so far as the present state of things is concerned;
+but we have the commentary of Jesus: "My Father worketh hitherto, and
+I work;" the remarkable statement of Paul, that the whole creation is
+involved in the results of man's moral fall and restoration, and the
+equally remarkable one that the Redeemer is also the maker of the
+"worlds" or ages of the earth's physical progress, as well as of the
+future "new heaven and new earth." Peter also rebukes indignantly
+those scoffers who maintained that all things had remained as they are
+since the beginning; and refers to the creation week and to the deluge
+as earnests of the great changes yet in store for the earth.[21]
+
+It is indeed curious to observe how in our version of the Bible this
+idea of progress in the universe, or of "time-worlds," as it has been
+called, has been variously replaced by the words "world" and
+"eternity," owing to the defective ideas prevalent at the time when
+the translation was made. In the Hebrew Scriptures the term _Olam_,
+"age," and in the New Testament the equivalent term _Ai[=o]n_ have
+been thus treated, and their real significance much obscured. Thus
+when it is said, "by faith we understand that the _worlds_ were
+framed," or "by him God made the _worlds_,"[22] or that certain of
+God's plans have been hid "from the beginning of the _world_,"[23] the
+reference is not to worlds in space, but to worlds in time, or ages of
+God's working in the universe. So also these ages of God's working
+are given to us as our only intelligible type of eternity, of which
+absolutely we can have no conception. Thus God's "eternal purpose" is
+his purpose of the ages. So when he is the "King eternal,"[24] and in
+that capacity gives to his people "life everlasting," he is the King
+of the ages, and gives life of the ages. So in the noble hymn
+attributed to Moses (Psalm xc.), where our version has, "from
+everlasting to everlasting thou art God,"[25] the original is, "from
+age to age thou art, O God." It has perhaps been a defect of our
+modern science that it has familiarized us merely with the existence
+of worlds in space, and not with their existence in time. It is only
+in comparatively modern times that the developments of chronological
+geology and of physical astronomy have brought before us, not only the
+long ages in which the earth was passing through its formative stages,
+but also the fact that still longer �ons are embraced in the history
+of the other bodies of our solar system, and of the starry orbs and
+nebul�. These grand conceptions were already embodied in the Hebrew
+revelation, and were used there as the means of giving some faint
+approach to a conception of the unlimited existence of God himself, of
+the ages in which his creative work has been going on, and of the
+future life he has prepared for his redeemed people.
+
+Such views of development and progress are not unknown to many ancient
+cosmogonies and philosophical systems, but they had no stable
+foundation in observed fact until the rise of modern geology and
+physical astronomy; which enable us to affirm that, in addition to
+those changeless physical laws which cause the bodies of the universe
+to wheel in unvarying cycles, and all natural powers to reproduce
+themselves, and, in addition to those organic laws which produce
+unceasing successions of living individuals, there is a higher law of
+progress. We can now trace back man, the animals and plants his
+contemporaries, and others which preceded them, our continents and
+mountain ranges, and the solid rocks of which they are composed--nay,
+the very fabric of the solar system itself--to their several origins
+at distinct points of time; and can maintain that since the earth
+began to wheel around the sun, no succeeding year has seen it
+precisely as it was in the year before. The old Hebrew record affirms,
+and I presume scarcely any sane man really doubts, that this law of
+progress emanates from the mind and power of one creative Being. When
+men see in natural law only recurring cycles, they may be pardoned for
+falling even into the absurdity of believing in eternal succession;
+but when they see change and progress, and this in a uniform
+direction, overmastering recurring cycles, and introducing new objects
+and powers not accounted for by previous objects or powers, they are
+brought very near to the presence of the Spiritual Creator. And hence,
+although no science can reach back to the act of creation, this
+doctrine is much more strongly held in our day by geologists than by
+physicists. It is quite true that the idea of creative acts has been
+superseded to a great extent by that of "creation by law," or by that
+of "evolution." Still behind all there lies a primary creative power;
+and the validity of these ideas and their bearing on theism and
+creation we shall have to discuss in the sequel. In one thing only
+does the Bible here part company with natural science. The Bible goes
+on into the future, and predicts a final condition of our planet, of
+which science can from its investigations learn nothing.
+
+3. The Bible recognizes purpose, use, and special adaptation in
+nature. It is, in short, full of natural theology, akin in some
+respects to that which has been so elaborately worked out by so many
+modern writers. Numerous passages in support of this will occur to
+every one who has read the Scriptures. It is necessary here, however,
+to direct attention to a distinction very obvious in Scripture, but
+not always attended to by writers on this subject. The Bible maintains
+the true "final cause" of all nature to be, not its material and
+special adaptations or its value to man, but the pleasure or
+satisfaction of the Creator himself. In the earlier periods of
+Creation, before man was upon the earth, God contemplates his work and
+pronounces it good. The heavenly hosts praise him, saying, "Thou hast
+created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and were created."
+Further, the Bible represents intelligences higher than man as sharing
+in the delight which may be derived from the contemplation of God's
+works. When the earth first rose from the waters to greet the light,
+"the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for
+joy." There are many things in nature that strongly impress the
+naturalist with this same view, that the Creator takes pleasure in his
+works; and, like human genius in its highest efforts, rejoices in
+production, even if no sentient being should be ready to sympathize.
+The elaborate structures of fossils, of which we have only fragmentary
+remains, the profusion of natural objects of surpassing beauty that
+grow and perish unseen by us, the delicate microscopic mechanism of
+nearly all organic structures, point to other reasons for beauty and
+order than those that concern man, or the mere utilities of human
+beings; and though there are now naturalists who deny absolutely that
+beauty is an object in nature, and assign even the colors of flowers
+and insects to utility alone, and this of a very low order, this
+doctrine is so repulsive to our higher sentiments that there is
+little danger of its general acceptance; while the slightest
+consideration shows that the utilities referred to could have been
+secured without any of this consummate beauty associated with them,
+and our perception of and delight in which mark in a way beyond the
+ability of skepticism to cavil at our own spiritual kinship with the
+Author of all this profusion of beauty. Yet man is represented as the
+chief created being for whom this earth has been prepared and
+designed. He obtains dominion over it. A chosen spot is prepared for
+him, in which not only his wants but his tastes are consulted; and,
+being made in the image of his Maker, his �sthetic sentiments
+correspond with the beauties of the Maker's work, and he finds there
+also food for his reason and imagination. This view of the subject, as
+well as others already referred to, is finely represented in the
+address of the Almighty to Job.[26]
+
+The Bible also very often refers to the special adaptations of natural
+objects and laws to each other, and to the promotion of the happiness
+of sentient creatures lower than man. The 104th Psalm is replete with
+notices of such adaptations, and so is the address to Job; and indeed
+this view seems hardly ever absent from the minds of the Hebrew
+writers, but has its highest applications in the lilies of the field,
+that toil not neither do they spin, and the sparrows that are sold for
+a farthing, yet the heavenly Father has clothed the one with
+surpassing beauty, and provides food for the other, nor allows it to
+fail without his knowledge. I may, by way of farther illustration,
+merely name a few of the adaptations referred to in Job xxxviii. and
+the following chapters. The winds and the clouds are so arranged as to
+afford the required supplies of moisture to the wilderness where no
+man is, to "cause the bud of the tender herb to spring forth." For
+similar objects the tempest is ordered, and the clouds arranged "by
+wisdom." The adaptations of the wild ass, the wild goat, the ostrich,
+the migratory birds, the horse, the hippopotamus, the crocodile, to
+their several habitats, modes of life, and uses in nature, are most
+vividly sketched and applied as illustrations of the consummate wisdom
+of the Creator, which descends to the minutest details of organization
+and habit.
+
+It is to be observed here that in holding this doctrine of use and
+adaptation in nature, the Bible is only consistent with its own theory
+of rational theism. The Monotheist can not refer nature to a conflict
+of antagonistic powers and forces. He must recognize in it a unity of
+plan; and even those things which appear aberrant, irregular, or
+noxious must have their place in this plan. Hence in the Bible God is
+maker not only of the day but of the night, not only of the peaceful
+cattle but of the voracious crocodile, not only of the sunshine and
+shower but of the tornado and the earthquake. Further, in all these
+things God is manifested, so that we may learn "his eternal power and
+divinity[27] from the things which he has made," and in all these also
+there are emblems of his relations to us. This argument from design is
+in truth the only proof the Bible condescends to urge for the
+existence of God; and it is the only one in which in his later days
+our great English philosopher Mill could see any validity.[28]
+
+If the reader happens to be familiar with the objections to the
+doctrine of final causes, or teleology, in nature, urged in our day
+by Spencer, Haeckel, and others, he will have seen from the foregoing
+statements that these objections are in themselves baseless, or
+inapplicable to this doctrine as maintained in the Bible. There is no
+consistency in the position of men who, when they dig a rudely chipped
+flint out of a bed of gravel, immediately infer an intelligent
+workman, and who refuse to see any indication of a higher intelligence
+in the creation of the workman himself. It is a blind philosophy which
+professes to see in primal atoms the "promise and potency of mind,"
+and which fails to perceive that such potency is more inconceivable
+than the evidence of primary and supreme mind. The men who maintain
+that wings were not planned for flight, but that flight has produced
+wings, and thousands of like propositions, are simply amusing
+themselves with paradoxes to which may very properly be applied the
+strange word devised by Haeckel to express his theory of
+nature--_Dysteleology_, or purposelessness. It is to be borne in mind,
+however, that the teleology of the Bible is not of that narrow kind
+which would make man the sole object of nature, and the supreme judge
+of its adaptations. Inasmuch as God's plan goes over all the ages past
+and future, and relates to the welfare of all sentient beings known or
+unknown to us, and also to his own sovereign pleasure as the supreme
+object, we may not be in a position either to understand or profit by
+all its parts, and hence may expect to find many mysteries, and many
+things that we can not at present reconcile with God's wisdom and
+goodness. We know but "parts of his ways," the "fullness of his power
+who can understand." "His judgments are unsearchable," "his ways are
+past finding out."
+
+4. The law of type or pattern in nature is distinctly indicated in the
+Bible. This is a principle only recently understood by naturalists,
+but it has more or less dimly dawned on the minds of many great
+thinkers in all ages. Nor is this wonderful, for the idea of type is
+scarcely ever absent from our own conceptions of any work that we may
+undertake. In any such work we anticipate recurring daily toil, like
+the returning cycles of nature. We look for progress, like that of the
+growth of the universe. We study adaptation both of the several parts
+to subordinate uses, and of the whole to some general design. But we
+also keep in view some pattern, style, or order, according to which
+the whole is arranged, and the mutual relations of the parts are
+adjusted. The architect must adhere to some order of architecture, and
+to some style within that order. The potter, the calico-printer, and
+the silversmith must equally study uniformity of pattern in their
+several manufactures. The Almighty Worker has exhibited the same idea
+in his works. In the animal kingdom, for instance, we have four or
+more leading types of structure. Taking any one of these--the
+vertebrate, for example--we have a uniform general plan, embracing the
+vertebral column constructed of the same elements; the members,
+whether the arm of man, the limb of the quadruped, or the wing of the
+bat or the bird, or the swimming-paddle of the whale, built of the
+same bones. In like manner all the parts of the vertebral column
+itself in the same animal, whether in the skull, the neck, or the
+trunk, are composed of the same elementary structures. These types are
+farther found to be sketched out--first in their more general, and
+then in their special features--in proceeding from the lower species
+of the same type to the higher, in proceeding from the earlier to the
+later stages of embryonic development, and in proceeding from the more
+ancient to the more recent creatures that have succeeded each other in
+geological time. Man, the highest of the vertebrates, is thus the
+archetype, representing and including all the lower and earlier
+members of the vertebrate type. The above are but trite and familiar
+examples of a doctrine which may furbish and has furnished the
+material of volumes. There can be no question that the Hebrew Bible is
+the oldest book in which this principle is stated. In the first
+chapter of Genesis we have specific type in the creation of plants and
+animals after their kinds or species, and in the formation of man in
+the image and likeness of the Creator; and, as we shall find in the
+sequel, there are some curious ideas of higher and more general types
+in the grouping of the creatures referred to. The same idea is
+indicated in the closing chapters of Job, where the three higher
+classes of the vertebrates are represented by a number of examples,
+and the typical likeness of one of these--the hippopotamus--to man,
+seems to be recognized. Dr. McCosh has quoted, as an illustration of
+the doctrine of types, a very remarkable passage from Psalm cxxxix.:
+
+  "I will praise Thee, for I am fearfully and wonderfully made.
+  Marvellous are thy works,
+  And that my soul knoweth right well.
+  My substance was not hid from Thee,
+  When I was made in secret,
+  And curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth:
+  Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being imperfect;
+  And in thy book all my members were written,
+  Which in continuance were fashioned when as yet there
+    was none of them."
+
+It would too much tax the faith of many to ask them to believe that
+the writer of the above passage, or the Spirit that inspired him,
+actually meant to teach--what we now know so well from geology--that
+the prototypes of all the parts of the archetypal human structure may
+be found in those fossil remains of extinct animals which may, in
+nearly every country, be dug up from the rocks of the earth. No
+objection need, however, be taken to our reading in it the doctrine of
+embryonic development according to a systematic type.
+
+Science, it is true, or rather I should perhaps say philosophical
+speculation, has sometimes pushed this idea of plan into that of a
+spontaneous genetic evolution of things in time, without any creative
+superintendence or definite purpose. This way of viewing the matter
+is, however, as we shall have occasion to see, both bald and
+irrational, and wants the symmetry and completeness of that style of
+thought which grasps at once progress and plan and adaptation, as
+emanating from a Supreme Will. The question of how the plan has been
+worked out will come up for detailed consideration farther on. In the
+mean time we have before us the fact that the Bible represents the
+cosmos as not the product of a blind conflict of self-existent forces,
+but as the result of the production and guidance of these forces by
+infinite wisdom.
+
+It is more than curious that this idea of type, so long existing in an
+isolated and often depised form, as a theological thought in the
+imagery of Scripture, should now be a leading idea of natural science;
+and that while comparative anatomy teaches us that the structures of
+all past and present lower animals point to man, who, as Professor
+Owen expresses it, has had all his parts and organs "sketched out in
+anticipation in the inferior animals," the Bible points still farther
+forward to an exaltation of the human type itself into what even the
+comparative anatomist might perhaps regard as among the "possible
+modifications of it beyond those realized in this little orb of ours,"
+could he but learn its real nature.
+
+Under the foregoing heads, of the object, the structure, the
+authority, and the general cosmical views of the Scripture, I have
+endeavored to group certain leading thoughts important as preliminary
+to the study of the subject; and, in now entering on the details of
+the Old Testament cosmogony, I trust the reader will pardon me for
+assuming, as a working hypothesis, that we are studying an inspired
+book, revealing the origin of nature, and presenting accurate pictures
+of natural facts and broad general views of the cosmos, at least until
+in the progress of our inquiry we find reason to adopt lower views;
+and that he will, in the mean time, be content to follow me in that
+careful and systematic analysis which a work claiming such a character
+surely demands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE BEGINNING.
+
+
+     "In the beginning Elohim created the heavens and the
+     earth."--Genesis i., 1.
+
+
+It is a remarkable and instructive fact that the first verse of the
+Hebrew sacred writings speaks of the material universe--speaks of it
+as a whole, and as originating in a power outside of itself. The
+universe, then, in the conception of this ancient writer, is not
+eternal. It had a beginning, but that beginning in the indefinite and
+by us unmeasured past. It did not originate fortuitously, or by any
+merely accidental conflict of self-existent material atoms, but by an
+act--an act of will on the part of a Being designated by that name
+which among all the Semitic peoples represented the ultimate, eternal,
+inscrutable source of power and object of awe and veneration. With the
+simplicity and child-like faith of an archaic age, the writer makes no
+attempt to combat any objections or difficulties with which this great
+fundamental truth may be assailed. He feels its axiomatic force as the
+basis of all true religion and sound philosophy, and the ultimate fact
+which must ever bar our further progress in the investigation of the
+origin of things--the production from non-existence of the material
+universe by the eternal self-existent God.
+
+It did not concern him to know what might be the nature of that
+unconditioned self-existence; for though, like our ideas of space and
+time, incomprehensible, it must be assumed. It did not concern him to
+know how matter and force subsist, or what may be the difference
+between a material universe cognizable by our senses and the absolute
+want of all the phenomena of such a universe or of whatever may be
+their basis and essence. Such questions can never be answered, yet the
+succession of these phenomena must have had a commencement somewhere
+in time. How simple and how grand is his statement! How plain and yet
+how profound its teachings!
+
+It is evident that the writer grasps firmly the essence of the
+question as to the beginning of things, and covers the whole ground
+which advanced scientific or philosophical speculation can yet
+traverse. That the universe must have had a beginning no one now needs
+to be told. If any philosophical speculator ever truly held that there
+has been an endless succession of phenomena, science has now
+completely negatived the idea by showing us the beginning of all
+things that we know in the present universe, and by establishing the
+strongest probabilities that even its ultimate atoms could not have
+been eternal. But the question remains--If there was a beginning, what
+existed in that beginning? To this question many partial and imperfect
+answers have been given, but our ancient record includes them all.
+
+If any one should say, "In the beginning was nothing." Yes, says
+Genesis, there was, it is true, nothing of the present matter and
+arrangements of nature. Yet all was present potentially in the will of
+the Creator.
+
+"In the beginning were atoms," says another. Yes, says Genesis, but
+they were created; and so says modern science, and must say of
+ultimate particles determined by weight and measure, and incapable of
+modification in their essential properties--"They have the properties
+of a manufactured article."[29]
+
+"In the beginning were forces," says yet another. True, says Genesis;
+but all forces are one in origin--they represent merely the fiat of
+the eternal and self-existent. So says science, that force must in the
+ultimate resort be an "expression of Will."[30]
+
+"In the beginning was Elohim," adds our old Semitic authority, and in
+him are the absolute and eternal thought and will, the Creator from
+whom and by whom and in whom are all things.
+
+Thus the simple familiar words, "In the beginning God created the
+heaven and the earth," answer all possible questions as to the origin
+of things, and include all under the conception of theism. Let us now
+look at these pregnant words more particularly as to their precise
+import and significance.
+
+The divine personality expressed by the Hebrew Elohim may be fairly
+said to include all that can be claimed for the pantheistic conception
+of "dynamis," or universal material power. Lange gives this as
+included in the term Elohim, in his discussion of this term in his
+book on Genesis. It has been aptly said that if, physically speaking,
+the fall of a sparrow produces a gravitative effect that extends
+throughout the universe, there can be no reason why it should be
+unknown to God. God is thus everywhere, and always. Yet he is
+everywhere and always present as a personality knowing and willing.
+From his thought and will in the beginning proceeded the universe. By
+him it was created.
+
+What, then, is creation in the sense of the Hebrew writer. The act is
+expressed by the verb _bara_, a word of comparatively rare occurrence
+in the Scriptures, and employed to denote absolute creation, though
+its primary sense is to cut or carve, and it is indeed a near relative
+of our own English word "pare." If, says Professor Stuart, of Andover,
+this word "does not mean to create in the highest sense, then the
+Hebrews had no word by which they could designate this idea." Yet,
+like our English "create," the word is used in secondary and
+figurative senses, which in no degree detract from its force when
+strictly and literally used. Since, however, these secondary senses
+may often appear to obscure the primitive meaning, we must examine
+them in detail.
+
+In the first chapter of Genesis, after the general statement in verse
+1, other verbs signifying to _form_ or _make_ are used to denote the
+elaboration of the separate parts of the universe, and the word
+"create" is found in only two places, when it refers to the
+introduction of "great whales" (reptiles) and of man. These uses of
+the word have been cited to disprove its sense of absolute creation.
+It must be observed, however, that in the first of these cases we have
+the earliest appearance of animal life, and in the second the
+introduction of a rational and spiritual nature. Nothing but pure
+materialism can suppose that the elements of vital and spiritual being
+were included in the matter of the heavens and the earth as produced
+in the beginning; and as the Scripture writers were not materialists,
+we may infer that they recognized, in the introduction of life and
+reason, acts of absolute creation, just as in the origin of matter
+itself. In Genesis ii. and iii. we have a form of expression which
+well marks the distinction between creation and making. God is there
+said to have rested from all his works which he "created and
+made"--literally, created "for or in reference to making," the word
+for making being one of those already referred to.[31] The force of
+this expression consists in its intimating that God had not only
+finished the work of _creation_, properly so called, but also the
+elaboration of the various details of the universe, as formed or
+fashioned out of the original materials. Of a similar character is the
+expression in Isaiah xlii., 5, "Jehovah, he that _created_ the heavens
+and spread them out;" and that in Psalm cxlviii., 5, "He commanded and
+they were _created_, he hath also established them for ever and ever."
+
+In as far as I am aware, the word _bara_ in all the remaining
+instances of its occurrence in the Pentateuch refers to the creation
+of man, with the following exceptions: Exodus xxxiv., 10, "I will do
+(create) marvels, such as have not been seen in all the earth;"
+Numbers xvi., 30, "If the Lord make a new thing (create a creation),
+and the earth open her mouth and swallow them up." These verses are
+types of a class of expressions in which the proper term for creation
+is applied to the production of something new, strange, and
+marvellous; for instance, "Create in me a clean heart, O Lord;"
+"Behold, I create new heavens and a new earth." It is, however,
+evidently an inversion of sound exposition to say that these secondary
+or figurative meanings should determine the primary and literal sense
+in Genesis i. On the contrary, we should rather infer that the sacred
+writers in these cases selected the proper word for creation, to
+express in the most forcible manner the novel and thorough character
+of the changes to which they refer, and their direct dependence on the
+Divine will. By such expressions we are in effect referred back to the
+original use of the word, as denoting the actual creation of matter
+by the command of God, in contradistinction from those arrangements
+which have been effected by the gradual operation of secondary agents,
+or of laws attached to matter at its creation. It has been farther
+observed[32] that in the Hebrew Scriptures this word _bara_ is applied
+to God only as an agent, not to any human artificer; a fact which is
+very important with reference to its true significance. Viewing
+creation in this light, we need not perplex ourselves with the
+question whether we should consider Genesis i., 1, to refer to the
+essence of matter as distinguished from its qualities. We may content
+ourselves with the explanation given by Paul in the eleventh of
+Hebrews: "By faith we are certain that the worlds[33] were created by
+the decree of God, so that that which _is seen_ was made of that which
+_appears not_." Or, with reference to the other uses of the word, if
+the first introduction of animal life was a creation, and if the
+introduction of the rational nature of man was a creation, we may
+suppose that the original creation was in like manner the introduction
+or first production of those entities which we call matter and force,
+and which to science now are as much ultimate facts as they were to
+Moses.
+
+The _nature_ of the act of creation being thus settled, its _extent_
+may be ascertained by an examination of the terms heaven and earth.
+
+The word "heavens" (_shamayim_) has in Hebrew as in English a variety
+of significations. Of material heavens there are, in the quaint
+language of Poole, "_tres regiones, ubi aves, ubi nubes, ubi sidera_;"
+or (1) the atmosphere or firmament;[34] (2) the region of clouds in
+the upper part of the atmosphere;[35] (3) the depths of space
+comprehending the starry orbs.[36] Besides these we have the "heaven
+of heavens," the abode of God and spiritual beings.[37] The
+application of the term "heaven" to the atmosphere will be considered
+when we reach the 6th and 7th verses. In the mean time we may accept
+the word in this place as including the material heavens in the widest
+sense: (1.) Because it is not here, as in verse 8th, restricted to the
+atmosphere by the terms of the narrative; this restriction in verse
+8th in fact implying the wider sense of the word in preceding verses.
+(2.) Because the atmospheric firmament, elsewhere called heaven,
+divides the waters above from those below, whereas it is evident that
+all these waters, and of consequence the materials of the atmosphere
+itself, are included in the earth of the following verse. (3.) Because
+in verse 14th the sidereal heavens are spoken of as arranged from
+pre-existing materials, which refers their actual creation back to
+this passage.
+
+In the words now under consideration we therefore regard the heavens
+as including the whole material universe beyond the limits of our
+earth. That this sense of the word is not unknown to the writers of
+Scripture, and that they had enlarged and rational views of the
+star-spangled abysses of space, will appear from the terms employed by
+Moses in his solemn warning against the Sab�an idolatry, in
+Deuteronomy iv.: "And lest thou lift up thine eyes to the heavens, and
+when thou seest the sun and the moon and the stars, even all the host
+of the heavens, shouldest be incited to worship them and serve them
+which Jehovah thy God hath appointed to all nations under the whole
+heavens." To the same effect is the expression of the awe and wonder
+of the poet king of Israel in Psalm viii.:
+
+  "When I consider the heavens, the work of thy fingers,
+  The moon and the stars which thou hast ordained;
+  What is man that thou art mindful of him?"
+
+I may observe, however, that throughout the Scriptures the word in
+question is much more frequently applied to the atmospheric than to
+the sidereal heavens. The reason of this appears in the terms of verse
+8th.
+
+If we have correctly referred the term "heavens" to the whole of
+extramundane space, then the word "earth" must denote our globe as a
+distinct world, with all the liquid and aeriform substances on its
+surface. The arrangement of the whole universe under the heads
+"heaven" and "earth" has been derided as a division into "infinity and
+an atom;" but when we consider the relative importance of the earth to
+us, and that it constitutes the principal object of the whole
+revelation to which this is introductory, the absurdity disappears,
+and we recognize the classification as in the circumstances natural
+and rational. The word "earth" (_aretz_) is, however, generally used
+to denote the dry land, or even a region or district of country. It is
+indeed expressly restricted to the dry land in verse 10th; but as in
+the case of the parallel limitation of the word "heaven," we may
+consider this as a hint that its previous meaning is more extended.
+That it is really so, appears from the following considerations: (1.)
+It includes the deep, or the material from which the sea and
+atmosphere were afterwards formed. (2.) The subsequent verses show
+that at the period in question no dry land existed. If instances of a
+similar meaning from other parts of Scripture are required, I give
+the following: Genesis ii., 1 to 4, "Thus the heavens and the earth
+were finished, and all the host of them;" "these are the generations
+of the heavens and the earth." In this general summary of the creative
+work, the earth evidently includes the seas and all that is in them,
+as well as the dry land; and the whole expression denotes the
+universe. The well-known and striking remark of Job, "Who hangeth the
+earth upon nothing," is also a case in point, and must refer to the
+whole world, since in other parts of the same book the dry land or
+continental masses of the earth are said, and with great truth and
+propriety, to be supported above the waters on pillars or foundations.
+The following passages may also be cited as instances of the
+occurrence of the idea of the whole world expressed by the word
+"earth:" Exodus x., 29, "And Moses said unto him, As soon as I am gone
+out of the city, I will spread abroad my hands unto the Lord, and the
+thunder shall cease, neither shall there be any more hail; that thou
+mayest know the earth is the Lord's;" Deuteronomy x., 14, "Behold, the
+heaven and the heaven of heavens is the Lord's, the earth also, and
+all that therein is."
+
+The material universe was brought into existence in the "beginning"--a
+term evidently indefinite as far as regards any known epoch, and
+implying merely priority to all other recorded events. It can not be
+the first day, for there is no expressed connection, and the work of
+the first day is distinct from that of the beginning. It can not be a
+general term for the whole six days, since these are separated from it
+by that chaotic or formless state to which we are next introduced. The
+beginning, therefore, is the threshold of creation--the line that
+separates the old tenantless condition of space from the world-crowded
+galaxies of the existing universe. The only other information
+respecting it that we have in Scripture is in that fine descriptive
+poem in Proverbs viii., in which the Wisdom of God personified--who
+may be held to represent the Almighty Word, or Logos, introduced in
+the formula "God said," and afterward referred to in Scripture as the
+manifested or conditioned Deity, the Mediator between man and the
+otherwise inaccessible Divinity, the agent in the work of creation as
+well as in that of redemption--narrates the origin of all created
+things:
+
+  "Jehovah possessed[38] me, the beginning of his way,
+  Before his work of old.
+  I was set up from everlasting,
+  From the beginning, before the earth was;
+  When there were no deeps I was brought forth,
+  When there were no fountains abounding in water."
+
+The beginning here precedes the creation of the earth, as well as of
+the deep which encompassed its surface in its earliest condition. The
+beginning, in this point of view, stretches back from the origin of
+the world into the depths of eternity. It is to us emphatically _the_
+beginning, because it witnessed the birth of our material system; but
+to the eternal Jehovah it was but the beginning of a great series of
+his operations, and we have no information of its absolute duration.
+From the time when God began to create the celestial orbs, until that
+time when it could be said that he had created the heavens and the
+earth, countless ages may have rolled along, and myriads of worlds may
+have passed through various stages of existence, and the creation of
+our planetary system may have been one of the last acts of that long
+beginning.
+
+The author of creation is Elohim, or God in his general aspect to
+nature and man, and not in that special aspect in reference to the
+Hebrew commonwealth and to the work of redemption indicated by the
+name Jehovah (_Iaveh_). We need not enter into the doubtful etymology
+of the word; but may content ourselves with that supported by many,
+perhaps the majority of authorities, which gives it the meaning of
+"Object of dread or adoration," or with that preferred by Gesenius,
+which makes it mean the "Strong or mighty one." Its plural form has
+also greatly tried the ingenuity of the commentators. After carefully
+considering the various hypotheses, such as that of the plural of
+majesty of the Rabbins, and the primitive polytheism supposed by
+certain Rationalists, I can see no better reason than an attempt to
+give a grammatical expression to that plurality in unity indicated by
+the appearance of the Spirit or breath of God and his Word, or
+manifested will and power, as distinct agents in the succeeding
+verses. This was probably always held by the Hebrews in a general
+form; and was by our Saviour and his apostles specialized in that
+trinitarian doctrine which enables both John and Paul explicitly to
+assert the agency of the second person of the Trinity in the creative
+work.
+
+This elementary trinitarian idea of the first chapter of Genesis may
+be further stated thus: The name Elohim expresses the absolute
+unconditioned will and reason--the Godhead. The manifestation of God
+in creative power, and in the framing and ordering of the cosmos, is
+represented by the formula "God said"--the equivalent of the Divine
+Word. The further manifestation of God in love of and sympathy with
+his work is represented by the Breath of God, and by the expression,
+"God saw that it was good"--operations these of the Divine Spirit.
+
+The aboriginal root of the word Elohim probably lies far back of the
+Semitic literature, and comes from the natural exclamations "al,"
+"lo," "la," which arise from the spontaneous action of the human vocal
+organs in the presence of any object of awe or wonder. The plural form
+may in like manner be simply equivalent to our terms Godhead or
+Divinity, implying all that is essentially God without specification
+or distinction of personalities. As Dr. Tayler Lewis well remarks in
+his "Introduction to Genesis," we should not dismiss such plurals as
+mere _usus loquendi_. The plural form of the name of God, of the
+heavens (literally, the "heights"), of the _olamim_, or time-worlds,
+of the word for life in Genesis (lives), indicates an idea of vastness
+and diversity not measurable by speech, which must have been impressed
+on the minds of early men, otherwise these forms would not have
+arisen. God, heaven, time, life, were to them existences stretching
+outward to infinity, and not to be denoted by the bare singular form
+suitable to ordinary objects.
+
+Fairly regarding, then, this ancient form of words, we may hold it as
+a clear, concise, and accurate enunciation of an ultimate doctrine of
+the origin of things, which with all our increased knowledge of the
+history of the earth we are not in a position to replace with any
+thing better or more probable. On the other hand, this sublime dogma
+of creation leaves us perfectly free to interrogate nature for
+ourselves, as to all that it can reveal of the duration and progress
+of the creative work. But the positive gain which comes from this
+ancient formula goes far beyond these negative qualities. If received,
+this one word of the Old Testament is sufficient to deliver us forever
+from the superstitious dread of nature, and to present it to us as
+neither self-existent nor omnipotent, but as the mere handiwork of a
+spiritual Creator to whom we are kin; as not a product of chance or
+caprice, but as the result of a definite plan of the All-wise; as not
+a congeries of unconnected facts and processes, but as a cosmos, a
+well-ordered though complex machine, designed by Him who is the
+Almighty and the supreme object of reverence. Had this verse alone
+constituted the whole Bible, this one utterance would, wherever known
+and received, have been an inestimable boon to mankind; proclaiming
+deliverance to the captives of every form of nature-worship and
+idolatry, and fixing that idea of unity of plan in the universe which
+is the fruitful and stable root of all true progress in science. We
+owe profound thanks to the old Hebrew prophet for these words--words
+which have broken from the necks of once superstitious Aryan races
+chains more galling than those of Egyptian bondage.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE DESOLATE VOID.
+
+
+     "And the earth was desolate and empty, and darkness was upon
+     the surface of the deep; and the Spirit of God moved on the
+     surface of the waters."--Genesis i., 2.
+
+
+We have here a few bold outlines of a dark and mysterious scene--a
+condition of the earth of which we have no certain intimation from any
+other source, except the speculations based on modern discoveries in
+physical science. It was "unshaped and empty," formless and
+uninhabited. The words thus translated are sufficiently plain in their
+meaning. The first is used by Isaiah to denote the desolation of a
+ruined city, and in Job and the Psalms as characteristic of the
+wilderness or desert. Both in connection are employed by Isaiah to
+express the destruction of Idumea, and by Jeremiah in a powerful
+description of the ruin of nations by God's judgments. When thus
+united, they form the strongest expression which the Hebrew could
+supply for solitary, uninhabited desolation, like that of a city
+reduced to heaps of rubbish, and to the silence and loneliness of
+utter decay.
+
+In the present connection these words inform us that the earth was in
+a chaotic state, and unfit for the residence of organized beings. The
+words themselves suggest the important question: Are they intended to
+represent this as the original condition of the earth? Was it a scene
+of desolation and confusion when it sprang from the hand of its
+Creator? or was this state of ruin consequent on convulsions which
+may have been preceded by a very different condition, not mentioned by
+the inspired historian? That it may have been so is rendered possible
+by the circumstance that the words employed are generally used to
+denote the ruin of places formerly inhabited, and by the want of any
+necessary connection in time between the first and second verses. It
+has even been proposed, though this does violence to the construction,
+to read "and the earth became" desolate and empty. Farther, it seems,
+_� priori_, improbable that the first act of creative power should
+have resulted in the production of a mere chaos. The crust of the
+earth also shows, in its alternations of strata and organic remains,
+evidence of a great series of changes extending over vast periods, and
+which might, in a revelation intended for moral purposes, with great
+propriety be omitted.
+
+For such reasons some eminent expositors of these words are disposed
+to consider the first verse as a title or introduction, and to refer
+to this period the whole series of geological changes; and this view
+has formed one of the most popular solutions of the apparent
+discrepancies between the geological and Scriptural histories of the
+world. It is evident, however, that if we continue to view the term
+"earth" as including the whole globe, this hypothesis becomes
+altogether untenable. The subsequent verses inform us that at the
+period in question the earth was covered by a universal ocean,
+possessed no atmosphere and received no light, and had not entered
+into its present relations with the other bodies of our system. No
+conceivable convulsions could have effected such changes on an earth
+previously possessing these arrangements; and geology assures us that
+the existing laws and dispositions in these respects have prevailed
+from the earliest periods to which it can lead us back, and that the
+modern state of things was not separated from those which preceded it
+by any such general chaos. To avoid this difficulty, which has been
+much more strongly felt as these facts have been more and more clearly
+developed by modern science, it has been held that the word earth may
+denote only a particular region, temporarily obscured and reduced to
+ruin, and about to be fitted up, by the operations of the six days,
+for the residence of man; and that consequently the narrative of the
+six days refers not to the original arrangement of the surface,
+relations, and inhabitants of our planet, but to the retrieval from
+ruin and repeopling of a limited territory, supposed to have been in
+Central Asia, and which had been submerged and its atmosphere obscured
+by aqueous or volcanic vapors. The chief support of this view is the
+fact, previously noticed, that the word earth is very frequently used
+in the signification of region, district, country; to which may be
+added the supposed necessity for harmonizing the Scriptures with
+geological discovery, and at the same time viewing the days of
+creation as literal solar days.
+
+Can we, however, after finding that in verse 1st the term earth must
+mean the whole world, suddenly restrict it in verse 2d to a limited
+region. Is it possible that the writer who in verse 10th for the first
+time intimates a limitation of the meaning of this word, by the solemn
+announcement, "And God called the _dry land_ earth," should in a
+previous place use it in a much more limited sense without any hint of
+such restriction. The case stands thus: A writer uses the word earth
+in the most general sense; in the next sentence he is supposed,
+without any intimation of his intention, to use the same word to
+denote a region or country, and by so doing entirely to change the
+meaning of his whole discourse from that which would otherwise have
+attached to it. Yet the same writer when, a few sentences farther on,
+it becomes necessary for him to use the word earth to denote the dry
+land as distinguished from the seas, formally and with an assertion of
+divine authority, intimates the change of meaning. Is not this
+supposition contrary not only to sound principles of interpretation,
+but also to common-sense; and would it not tend to render worthless
+the testimony of a writer to whose diction such inaccuracy must be
+ascribed. It is in truth to me surprising beyond measure that such a
+view could ever have obtained currency; and I fear it is to be
+attributed to a determination, at all hazards and with any amount of
+violence to the written record, to make geology and religion coincide.
+Must we then throw aside this simple and convenient method of
+reconciliation, sanctioned by Chalmers, Smith, Harris, King,
+Hitchcock, and many other great or respectable names, and on which so
+many good men complacently rest. Truth obliges us to do so, and to
+confess that both geology and Scripture refuse to be reconciled on
+this basis. We may still admit that the lapse of time between the
+beginning and the first day may have been great; but we must
+emphatically deny that this interval corresponds with the time
+indicated by the series of fossiliferous rocks.
+
+Before leaving this part of the subject, I may remark that the
+desolate and empty condition of the earth was not necessarily a
+chaotic mass of confusion--_rudis indigestaque moles_; but in reality,
+when physically considered, may have been a more symmetrical and
+homogeneous condition than any that it subsequently assumed. If the
+earth were first a vast globe of vapor, then a liquid spheroid, and
+then acquired a crust not yet seamed by fissures or broken by
+corrugations, and eventually covered with a universal ocean, then in
+each of these early conditions it would, in regard to its form, be a
+more perfect globe than at any succeeding time. That something of this
+kind is the intention of our historian is implied in his subsequent
+statements as to the absence of land and the prevalence of a universal
+ocean in the immediately succeeding period, which imply that the crust
+had not yet been ruptured or disturbed, but presented an even and
+uniform surface, no part of which could project above the
+comparatively thin fluid envelope.
+
+The second clause introduces a new object--"_the deep_." Whatever its
+precise nature, this is evidently something included in the earth of
+verse 1st, and created with it. The word occurs in other parts of the
+Hebrew Scriptures in various senses. It often denotes the sea,
+especially when in an agitated state (Psa. xlii., 8; Job xxxviii.,
+10). In Psalm cxxxv., however, it is distinguished from the sea:
+"Whatsoever the Lord pleased, that did he in heaven, in the earth, in
+the seas, and _in all deeps_." In other cases it has been supposed to
+refer to interior recesses of the earth, as when at the deluge "the
+fountains of the great deep" are said to have been broken up. It is
+probable, however, that this refers to the ocean. In some places it
+would appear to mean the atmosphere or its waters; as Prov. viii.,
+27-29, "When he prepared the heavens, I was there; when he described a
+circle on the face of the deep, when he established the clouds above,
+when he strengthened the fountains of the deep." The Septuagint in
+this passage reads "throne on the winds" and "fountains under the
+heaven."[39] Though we can not attach much value to these readings,
+there seems little reason to doubt that the author of this passage
+understands by the deep the atmospheric waters, and not the sea,
+which he mentions separately. The same meaning must be attached to the
+word in another passage of the Book of Proverbs: "The Lord in wisdom
+hath founded the earth, by understanding hath he established the
+heavens; by his knowledge the depths are broken up, and the clouds
+drop down the small rain."
+
+In the passage now under consideration, it would seem that we have
+both the deep and the waters mentioned, and this not in a way which
+would lead us to infer their identity. The darkness on the surface of
+the deep and the Spirit of God on the face of the waters seem to refer
+to the condition of two distinct objects at the same time. Neither can
+the word here refer to subterranean cavities, for the ascription of a
+surface to these, and the statement that they were enveloped in
+darkness, would in this case have neither meaning nor use. For these
+reasons I am induced to believe that the locality of the deep or abyss
+is to be sought, not in the universal ocean or the interior of the
+earth, but in the vaporous or aeriform mass mantling the surface of
+our nascent planet, and containing the materials out of which the
+atmosphere was afterward elaborated. This is a view leading to
+important consequences: one of which is that the darkness on the
+surface of the deep can not have been, as believed by the advocates of
+a local chaos, a mere atmospheric obscuration; since even at the
+_surface_ of what then represented the atmosphere darkness prevailed.
+"God covered the earth with the deep as with a garment, and the waters
+stood above the hills," and without this outer garment was the
+darkness of space destitute of luminaries, at least of those greater
+ones which are of primary importance to us. We learn from the
+following verses that there was no layer of clear atmosphere in this
+misty deep, separating the clouds from the ocean waters.
+
+The last clause of the verse has always been obscure, and perhaps it
+is still impossible to form a clear idea of the operation intended to
+be described. We are not even certain whether it is intended to
+represent any thing within the compass of ordinary natural laws, or to
+denote a direct intervention of the Creator, miraculous in its nature
+and confined to one period. It is possible that the general intention
+of the statement may be to the effect that the agency of the divine
+power in separating the waters from the incumbent vapors had already
+commenced--that the Spirit which would afterward evoke so many wonders
+out of the chaotic mass was already acting upon it in an unseen and
+mysterious way, preparing it for its future destiny.
+
+Some commentators, both Jewish and Christian, are, however, disposed
+to view the _Ruach Elohim_, Spirit, or breath of God, as meaning a
+wind of God, or mighty wind, according to a well-known Hebrew idiom.
+The word in its primary sense means wind or breath, and there are
+undoubted instances of the expression "wind of God" for a great or
+strong wind. For example, Isaiah xl., 7: "The grass withereth because
+the wind of the Lord bloweth upon it;" see also 2 Kings ii., 16. Such
+examples, however, are very rare, and by no means sufficient of
+themselves to establish this interpretation. Those who hold this view
+do so mainly in consideration of the advantage which it affords in
+attaching a definite meaning to the expression. Many of them are not,
+however, aware of its precise import in a cosmical point of view. A
+violent wind, before the formation of the atmosphere, and the
+establishment of the laws which regulate the suspension and motions of
+aqueous vapors and clouds, must have been merely an agitation of the
+confused misty and vaporous mass of the deep; since, as
+Ainsworth--more careful than modern interpreters--long ago observed,
+"winde (which is the moving of the aier) was not created till the
+second day, that the firmament was spred, and the aier made." Such an
+agitation is by no means improbable. It would be a very likely
+accompaniment of a boiling ocean, resting on a heated surface, and of
+excessive condensation of moisture in the upper regions of the
+atmosphere; and might act as an influential means of preparing the
+earth for the operations of the second day. It is curious also that
+the Phoenician cosmogony is said to have contained the idea of a
+mighty wind in connection with this part of creation, and the idea of
+seething or commotion in the primitive chaos also occurs in the
+Assyrian tablets of creation, while the Quich� legend represents
+Hurakon, the storm-god, as specially concerned in the creative
+work.[40] On the other hand, the verb used in the text rather
+expresses hovering or brooding than violent motion, and this better
+corresponds with the old fable of the mundane egg, which seems to have
+been derived from the event recorded in this verse. The more
+evangelical view, which supposes the Holy Spirit to be intended, is
+also more in accordance with the general scope of the Scripture
+teachings on this subject; and the opposite idea is, as Calvin well
+says, "too frigid" to meet with much favor from evangelical
+theologians.
+
+Chaos, the equivalent of the Hebrew "desolation and emptiness,"
+figures largely in all ancient cosmogonies. That of the Egyptians is
+interesting, not only from its resemblance to the Hebrew doctrine, but
+also from its probable connection with the cosmogony of the Greeks.
+Taking the version of Diodorus Siculus, which though comparatively
+modern, yet corresponds with the hints derived from older sources, we
+find the original chaos to have been an intermingled condition of
+elements constituting heaven and earth. This is the Hebrew "deep." The
+first step of progress is the separation of these; the fiery particles
+ascending above, and not only producing light, but the revolution of
+the heavenly bodies--a curious foreshadowing of the nebular hypothesis
+of modern astronomy. After these, in the terms of the lines quoted by
+Diodorus from Euripides, plants, birds, mammals, and finally man are
+produced, not however by a direct creative fiat, but by the
+spontaneous fecundity of the teeming earth. The Phoenician cosmogony
+attributed to Sancuniathon has the void, the deep, and the brooding
+Spirit; and one of the terms employed, "baau," is the same with the
+Hebrew "bohu," void, if read without the points. The Babylonians,
+according to Berosus, believed in a chaos--which, however, like the
+literal-day theory of some moderns, produced many monsters before
+Belus intervened to separate heaven and earth. But the Assyrian legend
+found in the Nineveh tablets is very precise in its intimation of the
+Chaos or _Tiamat_, the mother of all things; and, farther, it
+recognizes this personified chaos as the principle of evil, whose
+"dragon" becomes the tempter of the progenitors of mankind, exactly
+like the Biblical serpent. This "dragon of the abyss" is thus
+identical in name and function with the evil principle even of the
+last book of the New Testament, and we have in this also probably the
+origin of the Ahriman of the Avesta. Thus in these Eastern theologies
+the primeval chaos becomes the type of evil as opposed to the order,
+beauty, and goodness of the creation of God--a very natural
+association; but one kept in the background by the Hebrew Scriptures,
+as tending to a dualistic belief subversive of monotheism. The Greek
+myth of Chaos, and its children Erebus and Night, who give birth to
+Aether and Day, is the same tradition, personified after the fanciful
+manner of a people who, in the primitive period of their civilization,
+had no profound appreciation of nature, but were full of human
+sympathies.[41] Lastly, in a hymn translated by Dr. Max M�ller from
+the Rig-Veda, a work probably far older than the Institutes of Menu,
+we have such utterances as the following:
+
+  "Nor aught nor nought existed: yon bright sky
+  Was not, nor heaven's broad woof outstretched above.
+  What covered all? what sheltered? what concealed?
+  Was it the water's fathomless abyss? * * *
+  Darkness there was, and all at first was veiled
+  In gloom profound--an ocean without light;
+  The germ that still lay covered in the husk
+  Burst forth, one nature, from the fervent heat."
+
+It is evident that the state of our planet which we have just been
+considering is one of which we can scarcely form any adequate
+conception, and science can in no way aid us, except by suggesting
+hypotheses or conjectures. It is remarkable, however, that nearly all
+the cosmological theories which have been devised contain some of the
+elements of the inspired narrative. The words of Moses appear to
+suggest a heated and cooling globe, its crust as yet unbroken by
+internal forces, covered by a universal ocean, on which rested a mass
+of confused vaporous substances; and it is of such materials, thus
+combined by the sacred historian, that cosmologists have built up
+their several theories, aqueous or igneous, of the early state of the
+earth. Geology, as a science of observation and induction, does not
+carry us back to this period. It must still and always say, with
+Hutton, that it can find "no trace of a beginning, no prospect of an
+end"--not because there has been no beginning or will be no end, but
+because the facts which it collects extend neither to the one nor the
+other. Geology, like every other department of natural history, can
+but investigate the facts which are open to observation, and reason on
+these in accordance with the known laws and arrangements of existing
+nature. It finds these laws to hold for the oldest period to which the
+rocky archives of the earth extend. Respecting the origin of these
+general laws and arrangements, or the condition of the earth before
+they originated, it knows nothing. In like manner a botanist may
+determine the age of a forest by counting the growth rings of the
+oldest trees, but he can tell nothing of the forests that may have
+preceded it, or of the condition of the surface before it supported a
+forest. So the arch�ologist may on Egyptian monuments read the names
+and history of successive dynasties of kings, but he can tell nothing
+of the state of the country and its native tribes before those
+dynasties began or their monuments were built. Yet geology at least
+establishes a probability that a time was when organized beings did
+not exist, and when many of the arrangements of the surface of our
+earth had not been perfected; and the few facts which have given birth
+to the theories promulgated on this subject tend to show that this
+pre-geological condition of the earth may have been such as that
+described in the words now under consideration. I may remark, in
+addition, that if the words of Moses imply the cooling of the globe
+from a molten or intensely heated state down to a temperature at which
+water could exist on its surface, the known rate of cooling of bodies
+of the dimensions and materials of the earth shows that the time
+included in these two verses of Genesis must have been enormous,
+amounting it may be to many millions of years.
+
+There are two other sciences besides geology which have in modern
+times attempted to penetrate into the mysteries of the primitive
+abyss, at least by hypothetical explanations--astronomy and chemistry.
+The magnificent nebular hypothesis of La Place, which explains the
+formation of the whole solar system by the condensation of a revolving
+mass of gaseous matter, would manifestly bring our earth to the
+condition of a fluid body, with or without a solid crust, and
+surrounded by a huge atmosphere of its more volatile materials,
+gradually condensing itself around the central nucleus. Chemistry
+informs us that this vaporous mass would contain not only the
+atmospheric air and water, but all the carbon, sulphur, phosphorus,
+chlorine, and other elements, volatile in themselves, or forming
+volatile compounds with oxygen or hydrogen, that are now imprisoned in
+various states of combination in the solid crust of the earth. Such an
+atmosphere--vast, dark, pestilential, and capable in its condensation
+of producing the most intense chemical action--is a necessity of an
+earth condensing from a vaporous and incandescent state. Thus, in so
+far as scientific speculation ventures to penetrate into the genesis
+of the earth, its conclusions are at one with the Mosaic cosmogony and
+with the traditions of most ancient nations as to the primitive
+existence of a chaos--formless and void, in which "nor aught nor
+nought existed."
+
+Some of the details of the Mosaic vision of the primeval chaos may be
+supplied by the probabilities established by physics and chemistry.
+Our first idea of the earth would be a vast vaporous ball, recently
+spun out from the general mass of vapors forming the nebula which once
+represented the solar system. This huge cloud, whirling its annual
+round about the still vaporous centre of the system, would consist of
+all the materials now constituting the solid rocks as well as those of
+the seas and atmosphere, their atoms kept asunder by the force of
+heat, preventing not only their mechanical union, but even their
+chemical combination. But heat is being radiated on all sides into
+space, and the opposing force of gravitation is little by little
+gathering the particles toward the centre. At length a liquid nucleus
+is formed, while upon this are being precipitated showers of
+condensing matter from the still vast atmosphere to add to its volume.
+As this process advances, a new brilliancy is given to the feebly
+shining vapors by the incandescence of solid particles in the upper
+layers of the atmosphere, and in this stage our earth would be a
+little sun, a miniature of that which now forms the centre of our
+system, and which still, by virtue of its greater mass, continues in
+this state. But at length, by further cooling, this brilliancy is
+lost, and the still fluid globe is surrounded by a vast cloudy pall,
+in which condensing vapors gather in huge dark masses, and amid
+terrible electrical explosions, pour, in constantly increasing, acid,
+corrosive rains, upon the heated nucleus, combining with its
+materials, or again flashing into vapors. Thus darkness dense and
+gross would settle upon the vaporous deep, and would continue for long
+ages, until the atmosphere could be finally cleared of its superfluous
+vapors. In the mean time a crust of slag or cinder has been forming
+upon the molten nucleus. Broken again and again by the heaving of the
+seething mass, it at length sets permanently, and finally allows some
+portion of the liquid rain condensed upon it to remain as a boiling
+ocean. Then began the reign of the waters, under which the first
+stratified rocks were laid down by the deposit of earthy and saline
+matter suspended or dissolved in the heated sea. Such is the picture
+which science presents to us of the genesis of the earth, and so far
+as we can judge from his words, such must have been the picture
+presented to the mental vision of the ancient seer of creation; but he
+could discern also that mysterious influence, the "breath of Elohim,"
+which moved on the face of the waters, and prepared for the evolution
+of land and of life from their bosom. He saw--
+
+  "An earth--formless and void;
+  A vaporous abyss--dark at its very surface;
+  A universal ocean--the breath of God hovering over it."
+
+How could such a scene be represented in words? since it presented
+none of the familiar features of the actual world. Had he attempted to
+dilate upon it, he would, in the absence of the facts furnished by
+modern science, have been obliged, like the writers of some of the
+less simple and primitive cosmogonies already quoted,[42] to adopt the
+feeble expedient of enumerating the things not present. He wisely
+contents himself with a few well-chosen words, which boldly sketch the
+crude materials of a world hopeless and chaotic but for the animating
+breath of the Almighty, who has created even that old chaos out of
+which is to be worked in the course of the six creative days all the
+variety and beauty of a finished world.
+
+In conclusion, the reader will perceive how this reticence of the
+author of Genesis strengthens the argument for the primitive age of
+the document, and for the vision-theory as to its origin; and will
+also observe that, in the conception of this ancient writer, the
+"promise and potency" of order and life reside not alone in the atoms
+of a vaporous world, but also in the will of its Creator.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+LIGHT AND CREATIVE DAYS.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let light be, and light was; and God saw the
+     light that it was good, and separated the light from the
+     darkness; and God called the light Day; and the darkness he
+     called Night. And Evening was and Morning was--Day
+     one."--Genesis i., 3-5.
+
+
+Light is the first element of order and perfection introduced upon our
+planet--the first innovation on the old r�gime of darkness and
+desolation. There is a beautiful propriety in this, for the Hebrew
+_Aur_ (light) should be viewed as including heat and electricity as
+well as light; and these three forces--if they are really distinct,
+and not merely various movements of one and the same ether--are in
+themselves, or the proximate causes of their manifestation, the prime
+movers of the machinery of nature, the vivifying forces without which
+the primeval desolation would have been eternal. The statement
+presented here is, however, a bold one. Light without luminaries,
+which were afterward formed--independent light, so to speak, shining
+all around the earth--is an idea not likely to have occurred in the
+days of Moses to the framer of a fictitious cosmogony, and yet it
+corresponds in a remarkable manner with some of the theories which
+have grown out of modern induction.
+
+I have said that the Hebrew word translated "light" includes the
+vibratory movements which we call heat and electricity as well. I make
+this statement, not intending to assert that the Hebrews experimented
+on these forces in the manner of modern science, and would therefore
+be prepared to understand their laws or correlations as fully as we
+can. I give the word this general sense simply because throughout the
+Bible it is used to denote the solar light and heat, and also the
+electric light of the thunder-cloud: "the light of His cloud," "the
+bright light which is in the clouds." The absence of "_aur_,"
+therefore, in the primeval earth, is the absence of solar radiation,
+of the lightning's flash, and of volcanic fires. We shall in the
+succeeding verses find additional reasons for excluding all these
+phenomena from the darkness of the primeval night.
+
+The light of the first day can not reasonably be supposed to have been
+in any other than a visible and active state. Whether light be, as
+supposed by the older physicists, luminous matter radiated with
+immense velocity, or, as now appears more probable, merely the
+undulations of a universally diffused ether, its motion had already
+commenced. The idea of the matter of light as distinct from its power
+of affecting the senses does not appear in the Scriptures any farther
+than that the Hebrew name is probably radically identical with the
+word ether now used to express the undulating medium by which light is
+propagated; and if it did, the general creation of matter being stated
+in verse 1, and the notice of the separation of light and darkness
+being distinctly given in the present verse, there is no place left
+for such a view here. For this reason, that explanation of these words
+which supposes that on the first day the _matter_ of light, or the
+ether whose motions produce light, was created, and that on the fourth
+day, when luminaries were appointed, it became visible by beginning to
+undulate, must be abandoned; and the connection between these two
+statements must be sought in some other group of facts than that
+connected with the existence of the matter of light as distinct from
+its undulations.
+
+What, then, was the nature of the light which on the first day shone
+without the presence of any local luminary? It must have proceeded
+from luminous matter diffused through the whole space of the solar
+system, or surrounding our globe as with a mantle. It was "clothed
+with light as with a garment,"
+
+  "Sphered in a radiant cloud, for yet the sun was not."
+
+We have already rejected the hypothesis that the primeval night
+proceeded from a temporary obscuration of the atmosphere; and the
+expression, "God said, Let light be," affords an additional reason,
+since, in accordance with the strict precision of language which
+everywhere prevails in this ancient document, a mere restoration of
+light would not be stated in such terms. If we wish to find a natural
+explanation of the mode of illumination referred to, we must recur to
+one or other of the suppositions mentioned above, that the luminous
+matter formed a nebulous atmosphere, slowly concentrating itself
+toward the centre of the solar system, or that it formed a special
+envelope of our earth, which subsequently disappeared.
+
+We may suppose this light-giving matter to be the same with that which
+now surrounds the sun, and constitutes the stratum of luminous
+substance which, by its wondrous and unceasing power of emitting
+light, gives him all his glory. To explain the division of the light
+from the darkness, we need only suppose that the luminous matter, in
+the progress of its concentration, was at length all gathered within
+the earth's orbit, and then, as one hemisphere only would be
+illuminated at a time, the separation of light from darkness, or of
+day from night, would be established. This hypothesis, suggested by
+the words themselves, affords a simple and natural explanation of a
+statement otherwise obscure.
+
+It is an instructive circumstance that the probabilities respecting
+the early state of our planet, thus deduced from the Scriptural
+narrative, correspond very closely with the most ingenious and truly
+philosophical speculation ever hazarded respecting the origin of our
+solar system. I refer to the cosmical hypothesis of La Place, which
+was certainly formed without any reference to the Bible; and by
+persons whose views of the Mosaic narrative are of that shallow
+character which is too prevalent, has been suspected as of infidel
+tendency. La Place's theory is based on the following properties of
+the solar system, which will be found referred to in this connection
+in many popular works on astronomy: 1. The orbits of the planets are
+nearly circular. 2. They revolve nearly in the plane of the sun's
+equator.[43] 3. They all revolve round the sun in one direction, which
+is also the direction of the sun's rotation. 4. They rotate on their
+axes also, as far as is known, in the same direction. 5. Their
+satellites, with the exception of those of Uranus and Neptune, revolve
+in the same direction. Now all these coincidences can scarcely have
+been fortuitous, and yet they might have been otherwise without
+affecting the working of the system; and, farther, if not fortuitous,
+they correspond precisely with the results which would flow from the
+condensation of a revolving mass of nebulous matter. La Place,
+therefore, conceived that in the beginning the matter of our system
+existed in the condition of a mass of vaporous material, having a
+central nucleus more or less dense, and the whole rotating in a
+uniform direction. Such a mass must, "in condensing by cold, leave in
+the plane of its equator zones of vapor composed of substances which
+required an intense degree of cold to return to a liquid or solid
+state. These zones must have begun by circulating round the sun in the
+form of concentric rings, the most volatile molecules of which must
+have formed the superior part, and the most condensed the inferior
+part. If all the nebulous molecules of which these rings are composed
+had continued to cool without disuniting, they would have ended by
+forming a liquid or solid ring. But the regular constitution which all
+parts of the ring would require for this, and which they would have
+needed to preserve when cooling, would make this phenomenon extremely
+rare. Accordingly the solar system presents only one instance of
+it--that of the rings of Saturn. Generally the ring must have broken
+into several parts which have continued to circulate round the sun,
+and with almost equal velocity, while at the same time, in consequence
+of their separation, they would acquire a rotatory motion round their
+respective centres of gravity; and as the molecules of the superior
+part of the ring--that is to say, those farthest from the centre of
+the sun--had necessarily an absolute velocity greater than the
+molecules of the inferior part which is nearest it, the rotatory
+motion common to all the fragments must always have been in the same
+direction with the orbitual motion. However, if after their division
+one of these fragments has been sufficiently superior to the others to
+unite them to it by its attraction, they will have formed only a mass
+of vapor, which, by the continual friction of all its parts, must have
+assumed the form of a spheroid, flattened at the poles and expanded in
+the direction of its equator."[44] Here, then, are rings of vapor left
+by the successive retreats of the atmosphere of the sun, changed into
+so many planets in the condition of vapor, circulating round the
+central orb, and possessing a rotatory motion in the direction of
+their revolution, while the solar mass was gradually contracting
+itself round its centre and assuming its present organized form. Such
+is a general view of the hypothesis of La Place, which may also be
+followed out into all the known details of the solar system, and will
+be found to account for them all. Into these details, however, we can
+not now enter. Let us now compare this ingenious speculation with the
+Scripture narrative. In both we have the raw material of the heavens
+and the earth created before it assumed its distinct forms. In both we
+have that state of the planets characterized as without form and void,
+the condensing nebulous mass of La Place's theory being in perfect
+correspondence with the Scriptural "deep." In both it is implied that
+the permanent mutual relations of the several bodies of the system
+must have been perfected long after their origin. Lastly, supposing
+the luminous atmosphere of our sun to have been of such a character as
+to concentrate itself wholly around the centre of the system, and that
+as it became concentrated it acquired its intense luminosity, we have
+in both the production of light from the same cause; and in both it
+would follow that the concentration of this matter within the orbit of
+the earth would effect the separation of day from night, by
+illuminating alternately the opposite sides of the earth. It is true
+that the theory of La Place does not provide for any such special
+condensation of luminous matter, nor for any precise stage of the
+process as that in which the arrangements of light and darkness should
+be completed; but under his hypothesis it seems necessary to account
+in some such way for the sole luminosity of the sun; and the point of
+separation of day and night must have been a marked epoch in the
+history of the process for each planet. The theory of accretion of
+matter which has in modern times been associated with that of La Place
+would equally well accord with the indications in our Mosaic
+record.[45]
+
+It is further to be observed that so long as the material of the earth
+constituted a part of the great vaporous mass, it would be encompassed
+with its diffused light, and that after it had been left outside the
+contracting solar envelope, it might still retain some independent
+luminosity in its atmosphere, a trace of which may still exist in the
+auroral displays of the upper strata of the air. The earth might thus
+at first be in total darkness. It might then be dimly lighted by the
+surrounding nebulosity, or by a luminous envelope in its own
+atmosphere. Then it might, as before explained, relapse into the
+darkness of its misty mantle, and as this cleared away and the light
+of the sun increased and became condensed, the latter would gradually
+be installed into his office as the sole orb of day. It is quite
+evident that we thus have a sufficient hypothetical explanation of the
+light of the first of the creative �ons; and this is all that in the
+present state of science we can expect. "Where is the way where light
+dwelleth? and as for darkness, where is the place thereof, that thou
+shouldest take it to the bound thereof, and know the way to the house
+thereof?"
+
+For the reasons above given, we must regard the hypothesis of the
+great French astronomer as a wonderful approximation to the grand and
+simple plan of the construction of our system as revealed in
+Scripture. Nor must we omit to notice that the telescope and the
+spectroscope reveal to us in the heavens gaseous nebular bodies which
+may well be new systems in progress of formation, and in which the
+Creator is even now dividing the light from the darkness. Still
+another thought in connection with this subject is that the theory of
+a condensing system affords a measure of the aggregate time occupied
+in the work of creation. Sir William Thomson's well-known calculations
+give us one hundred millions of years as the possible age of the earth
+as a planetary globe; but calculations of the sun's heat as produced
+by gravitation alone would give a much less time. We have, however, a
+right to assume an original heated condition of the vaporous mass from
+which the sun was formed. Still the date above given would seem to be
+a maximum rather than a minimum age for the solar system.
+
+"God saw the light that it was good," though it illuminated but a
+waste of lifeless waters. It was good because beautiful in itself, and
+because God saw it in its relations to long trains of processes and
+wonderful organic structures on which it was to act as a vivifying
+agency. Throughout the Scriptures light is not only good, but an
+emblem of higher good. In Psalm civ. God is represented as "clothing
+himself with light as with a garment;" and in many other parts of
+these exquisite lyrics we have similar figures. "The Lord is my light
+and salvation;" "Lift up the light of thy countenance upon me;" "The
+entrance of thy law giveth light;" "The path of the just is as a
+shining light." And the great spiritual Light of the world, the "only
+begotten of the Father," the mediator alike in creation and
+redemption, is himself the "Sun of Righteousness." Perhaps the noblest
+Scripture passage relating to the blessing of light is one in the
+address of Jehovah to Job, which is unfortunately so imperfectly
+translated in the English version as to be almost unintelligible:
+
+  "Hast thou in thy lifetime given law to the morning,
+  Or caused the dawn to know its place,
+  That it may enclose the horizon in its grasp,
+  And chase the robbers before it:
+  It rolls along as the seal over the clay,
+  Causing all things to stand forth in gorgeous apparel."[46]
+
+                                       Job xxxviii., 12.
+
+
+The concluding words, "Day one," bring us to the consideration of one
+of the most difficult problems in this history, and one on which its
+significance in a great measure depends--the meaning of the word
+_day_, and the length of the days of creation.
+
+In pursuing this investigation, I shall refrain from noticing in
+detail the views of the many able modern writers who, from Cuvier, De
+Luc, and Jameson, down to Hugh Miller, Donald McDonald, and Tayler
+Lewis, have maintained the period theory, or those equally numerous
+and able writers who have supported the opposite view. I acknowledge
+obligations to them all, but prefer to direct my attention immediately
+to the record itself.
+
+The first important fact that strikes us is one which has not
+received the attention it deserves, viz., that the word _day_ is
+evidently used in three senses in the record itself. We are told
+(verse 5th) that God called the _light_, that is, the diurnal
+continuance of light, day. We are also informed that the _evening_ and
+the _morning_ were the first day. Day, therefore, in one of these
+clauses is the light as separated from the darkness, which we may call
+the _natural day_; in the other it is the whole time occupied in the
+creation of light and its separation from the darkness, whether that
+was a _civil or astronomical day_ of twenty-four hours or some longer
+period. In other words, the daylight, to which God is represented as
+restricting the use of the term day, is only a part of a day of
+creation, which included both light and darkness, and which might be
+either a civil day or a longer period, but could not be the natural
+day intervening between sunrise and sunset, which is the _ordinary_
+day of Scripture phraseology. Again, in the 4th verse of chapter ii.,
+which begins the second part of the history, the whole creative week
+is called one day--"In the day that Jehovah Elohim made the earth and
+the heavens." Such an expression must surely in such a place imply
+more than a mere inadvertence on the part of the writer or writers.
+
+To pave the way for a right understanding of the day of creation, it
+may be well to consider, in the first place, the manner in which the
+_shorter day_ is introduced. In the expression, "God _called_ the
+light day," we find for the first time the Creator naming his works,
+and we may infer that some important purpose was to be served by this.
+The nature of this purpose we ascertain by comparison with other
+instances of the same kind occurring in the chapter. God called the
+darkness night, the firmament heaven, the dry land earth, the gathered
+waters seas. In all these cases the purpose seems to have been one of
+verbal definition, perhaps along with an assertion of sovereignty. It
+was necessary to distinguish the diurnal darkness from that unvaried
+darkness which had been of old, and to discriminate between the
+limited waters of an earth having dry land on its surface and those of
+the ancient universal ocean. This is effected by introducing two new
+terms, night and seas. In like manner it was necessary to mark the new
+application of the term earth to the dry land, and that of heaven to
+the atmosphere, more especially as these were the senses in which the
+words were to be popularly used. The intention, therefore, in all
+these cases was to affix to certain things names different from those
+which they had previously borne in the narrative, and to certain terms
+new senses differing from those in which they had been previously
+used. Applying this explanation here, it results that the probable
+reason for calling the light day is to point out that the word occurs
+in two senses, and that while it was to be the popular and proper term
+for the natural day, this sense must be distinguished from its other
+meaning as a day of creation. In short, we may take this as a plain
+and authoritative declaration _that the day of creation is not the day
+of popular speech_. We see in this a striking instance of the general
+truth that in the simplicity of the structure of this record we find
+not carelessness, but studied and severe precision, and are warned
+against the neglect of the smallest peculiarities in its diction.
+
+What, then, is the day of creation, as distinguished by Moses himself
+from the natural day. The general opinion, and that which at first
+sight appears most probable, is that it is merely the ordinary civil
+day of twenty-four hours. Those who adopt this view insist on the
+impropriety of diverting the word from its usual sense. Unfortunately,
+however, for this argument, the word is not very frequently used in
+the Scriptures for the whole twenty-four hours of the earth's
+revolution. Its etymology gives it the sense of the time of glowing or
+warmth, and in accordance with this the divine authority here limits
+its meaning to the daylight. Accordingly throughout the Hebrew
+Scriptures _yom_ is generally the natural and not the civil day; and
+where the latter is intended, the compound terms "day and night" and
+"evening and morning" are frequently used. Any one who glances over
+the word "day" in a good English concordance can satisfy himself of
+this fact. But the sense of natural day from sunrise to sunset is
+expressly excluded here by the context, as already shown; and all that
+we can say in favor of the interpretation that limits the day of
+creation to twenty-four hours, is that next to the use of the word for
+the natural day, which is its true popular meaning, its use for the
+civil day is perhaps the most frequent. It is therefore by no means a
+statement of the whole truth to affirm, as many writers have done,
+that the civil day is _the ordinary_ meaning of the term. At the same
+time we may admit that this is _one_ of its ordinary meanings, and
+therefore may be its meaning here. Another argument frequently urged
+is that the day of creation is said to have had an evening and
+morning. We shall consider this more fully in the sequel, and in the
+mean time may observe that it appears rather hazardous to attribute an
+ordinary evening and morning to a day which, on the face of the
+record, preceded the formation and arrangement of the luminaries which
+are "for days and for years."[47]
+
+But it may be affirmed that in the Bible long and undefined periods
+are indicated by the word "day." In many of these cases the word is in
+the plural: as Genesis iv., 3, "And after days it came to pass,"
+rendered in our version "in process of time;" Genesis xl., 4, "days in
+ward," rendered "a season." Such instances as these are not applicable
+to the present question, since the plural may have the sense of
+indefinite time, merely by denoting an undetermined number of natural
+days. Passages in which the singular occurs in this sense are those
+which strictly apply to the case in hand, and such are by no means
+rare. A very remarkable example is that in Genesis ii., 4, already
+mentioned, where we find, "In the day when Jehovah Elohim made the
+earth and the heavens." This day must either mean the beginning, or
+must include the whole six days; most probably the latter, since the
+word "made" refers not to the act of creation, properly so called, but
+to the elaborating processes of the creative week; and occurring as
+this does immediately after the narrative of creation, it seems almost
+like an intentional intimation of the wide import of the creative
+days. It has been objected, however, that the expression "in the day"
+is properly a compound adverb, having the force of "when" or "at the
+time." But the learned and ingenious authors who urge this objection
+have omitted to consider the relative probabilities as to whether the
+adverbial use had arisen while the word _yom_ meant simply a day, or
+whether the use of the noun for long periods was the reason of the
+introduction of such an adverbial expression. The probabilities are in
+favor of the latter, for it is not likely that men would construct an
+adverb referring to indefinite time from a word denoting one of the
+most precisely limited portions of time, unless that word had also a
+second and more unlimited sense. Admitting, therefore, that the phrase
+is an adverb of time, its use so early as the date of the composition
+of Genesis, to denote a period longer than a literal day, seems to
+imply that this indefinite use of the word was of high antiquity, and
+probably preceded the invention of any term by which long periods
+could be denoted.
+
+This use of the word "day" is, however, not limited to cases of the
+occurrence of the formula "in the day." The following are a few out of
+many instances that might be quoted: Job xviii., 20, "They that come
+after him shall be astonished at his day;" Job xv., 32, "It shall be
+accomplished before his _time_;" Judges xviii., 30, "Until the day of
+the captivity of the land;" Deut. i., 39, "And your children which in
+that day had no knowledge of good and evil;" Gen. xxxix., 10, "And it
+came to pass about that time" (on that day). We find also abundance of
+such expressions as "day of calamity," "day of distress," "day of
+wrath," "day of God's power," "day of prosperity." In such passages
+the word is evidently used in the sense of era or period of time, and
+this in prose as well as poetry.
+
+There is a remarkable passage in the Psalms, which conveys the idea of
+a day of God as distinct from human or terrestrial days:
+
+  "Before the mountains were brought forth,
+  Or ever thou hadst formed the earth and the world,
+  Even from everlasting to everlasting, thou art God.
+  Thou turnest man to destruction,
+  And sayest, Return, ye children of men;
+  For a thousand years are in thy sight as yesterday when it is past,
+  And as a watch in the night."[48]
+
+It is a singular coincidence that the authorship of this Psalm is
+attributed to Moses, and that its style and language correspond with
+the songs credited to him in Deuteronomy. It is farther to be observed
+that the reference is to the long periods employed in creation as
+contrasted with the limited space of years allotted to man. Its
+meaning, too, is somewhat obscured by the inaccurate translation of
+the third line. In the original it is, "From _olam_ to _olam_ thou
+art, O El"--that is, "from age to age." These long ages of creation,
+constituting a duration to us relatively eternal, were so protracted
+that even a thousand years are but as a watch in the night. If this
+Psalm is rightly attributed to the author of the first chapter of
+Genesis, it seems absolutely certain that he understood his own
+creative days as being _Olamim_ or �ons. The same thought occurs in
+the Second Epistle of Peter: "One day is with the Lord as a thousand
+years, and a thousand years as one day."
+
+That the other writers of the Old Testament understood the creative
+days in this sense, might be inferred from the entire absence of any
+reference to the work of creation as short, since it occupied only six
+days. Such reference we may find in modern writers, but never in the
+Scriptures. On the contrary, we receive the impression of the creative
+work as long continued. Thus the divine Wisdom says in Prov. viii.,
+The Lord possessed me "from the beginning of his way before his works
+of old, from everlasting, before the antiquities of the earth." So in
+Psalm cxlv., God's kingdom relatively to nature and providence is a
+kingdom "of all ages." In Psalm civ., which is a poetical version of
+the creative work, and the oldest extant commentary on Genesis i., it
+is evident that there was no idea in the mind of the writer of a short
+time, but rather of long consecutive processes; and I may remark here
+that the course of the narrative itself in Genesis i., implies time
+for the replenishing of the earth with various forms of being in
+preparation for others, exactly as in Psalm civ.
+
+Perhaps one of the most conclusive arguments in favor of the length of
+the creative days is that furnished by the seventh day and the
+institution of the Sabbath. In Genesis the seventh day is not said to
+have had any evening or morning, nor is God said to have resumed his
+work on any eighth day. Consequently the seventh day of creation must
+be still current. Now in the fourth commandment the Israelites are
+enjoined to "remember the Sabbath-day," because "in six days God
+created the heavens and the earth." Observe here that the Sabbath is
+to be remembered as an institution already known. Observe farther that
+the commandment is placed in the middle of the Decalogue, a solitary
+piece of apparently arbitrary ritual amid the plainest and most
+obvious moral duties. Observe also that the reason given--namely,
+God's six days' work and seventh day's rest--seems at first sight both
+far-fetched and trivial, as an argument for abstaining from work in a
+seventh part of our time. How is all this to be explained? Simply, I
+think, on the supposition that the Lawgiver, and those for whom he
+legislated, knew beforehand the history of creation and the fall, as
+we have them recorded in Genesis, and knew that God's days are �ons.
+The argument is not, "God worked on six natural days, and rested on
+the seventh; do you therefore the same." Such an argument could have
+no moral or religious force, more especially as it could not be
+affirmed that God habitually works and rests in this way. The argument
+reaches far deeper and higher. It is this. God created the world in
+six of his days, and on the seventh rested, and invited man in Eden to
+enter on his rest as a perpetual Sabbath of happiness. But man fell,
+and lost God's Sabbath. Therefore a weekly Sabbath was prescribed to
+him as a memorial of what he had lost, and a pledge of what God has
+promised in the renewal of life and happiness through our Saviour.
+Thus the Sabbath is the central point of the moral law--the Gospel in
+the Decalogue--the connection between God and man through the promise
+of redemption. It is this and this alone that gives it its true
+religious significance, but is lost on the natural-day theory. It
+would farther seem that this view of the law was that of our Lord
+himself, and was known to the Jews of his time, for, when blamed for
+healing a man on the Sabbath, he says, "My Father worketh hitherto,
+and I work"--an argument whose force depended on the fact that God
+continues to work in his providence throughout his long Sabbath, which
+has never been broken except by man. Farther, the writer of the
+Epistle to the Hebrews takes this view in arguing as to the rest or
+Sabbatism that remains to the people of God. His argument (chap. iv.,
+4) may be stated thus: God finished his work and entered into his
+rest. Man, in consequence of the fall, failed to do so. He has made
+several attempts since, but unsuccessfully. Now Christ has finished
+his work, and has entered into his Sabbath, and through him we may
+enter into that rest of God which otherwise we can not attain to. This
+does not, it is true, refer to the keeping of a Sabbath-day; but it
+implies an understanding of the reference to God's olamic Sabbath,
+and also implies that Christ, having entered into his Sabbatism in
+heaven, gives us a warrant for the Christian Sabbath or Lord's day,
+which has the same relation to Christ's present Sabbatism in heaven
+that the old Sabbath had to God's rest from his work of creation.[49]
+
+We may add to these considerations the use of the Greek term _Ai[=o]n_
+in the New Testament, for what may be called time-worlds as
+distinguished from space-worlds. For example, take the expression in
+Heb. i., 2: "His Son, by whom he made the worlds," or, literally,
+"constituted the �ons"--the long time-worlds of the creation. For
+God's worlds must exist in time as well as in space, and both may to
+our minds alike appear as infinities. If, then, we find that Moses
+himself seems to have understood his creative days as �ons, that the
+succeeding Old Testament writers favor the same view, that this view
+is essential to the true significance of the Sabbath and the Lord's
+day, and that it is sustained by Christ and his apostles, there is
+surely no need for our clinging to a medi�val notion which has no
+theological value, and is in opposition to the facts of nature. On the
+contrary, should not even children be taught these grand truths, and
+led to contemplate the great work of Him who is from �on to �on, and
+to think of that Sabbatism which he prepared for us, and which he
+still offers to us in the future, in connection with the succession of
+worlds in time revealed by geology, and which rivals in grandeur and
+perhaps exceeds in interest the extension of worlds in space revealed
+by astronomy. In truth, we should bear in mind that the great
+revelations of astronomy have too much habituated us to think of
+space-worlds rather than time-worlds, while the latter idea was
+evidently dominant with the Biblical writers as it is also with modern
+geologists. Viewed as �ons--divine days, or time-worlds--the days of
+creation are thus a reality for all ages; and connect themselves with
+the highest moral teachings of the Bible in relation to the fall of
+man and God's plan for his restoration, begun in this seventh �on of
+the world's long history, and to be completed in that second divine
+Sabbatism, secured by the work of redemption, the final "rest" of the
+"new heavens and new earth," which remains for the people of God.
+
+But supposing that the inspired writer intended to say that the world
+was formed in six long periods of time, could not he have used some
+other word than _yom_ that would have been liable to fewer doubts.
+There are words which might have been used, as, for instance, _eth_,
+time, season, or _olam_, age, ancient time, eternity. The former,
+however, has about it a want of precision as to its beginning and end
+which unfits it for this use; the latter we have already seen is used
+as equivalent to the creative _yom_. On the whole, I am unable to
+find any instance which would justify me in affirming that, on the
+supposition that Moses intended long periods, he could have better
+expressed the idea than by the use of the word _yom_, more especially
+if he and those to whom he wrote were familiar with the thought,
+preserved to us in the mythology of the Hindoos and Persians, and
+probably widely diffused in ancient Asia, that a working day of the
+Creator immeasurably transcends a working day of man.[50]
+
+Many objections to the view which I have thus endeavored to support
+from internal evidence will at once occur to every intelligent reader
+familiar with the literature of this subject. I shall now attempt to
+give the principal of these objections a candid consideration.
+
+(1.) It is objected that the time occupied in the work of creation is
+given as a reason for the observance of the seventh day as a Sabbath;
+and that this requires us to view the days of creation as literal
+days. "For in six days Jehovah made the heaven and the earth, the sea
+and all that in them is, and rested on the seventh day; therefore
+Jehovah blessed the Sabbath-day and sanctified it." The argument used
+here is, however, as we have already seen, one of analogy. Because God
+rested on his seventh day, he blessed and sanctified it, and required
+men in like manner to sanctify their seventh day.[51] Now, if it
+should appear that the working day of God is not the same with the
+working day of man, and that the Sabbath of God is of proportionate
+length to his working day, the analogy is not weakened; more
+especially as we find the same analogy extended to the seventh year.
+If it should be said, God worked in the creation of the world in six
+long ages, and rested on the seventh, therefore man, in commemoration
+of this fact, and of his own loss of an interest in God's rest by the
+fall, shall sanctify the seventh of his working days, the argument is
+stronger, the example more intelligible, than on the common
+supposition. This objection is, in fact, a piece of pedantic
+hyperorthodoxy which has too long been handed about without
+investigation. I may add to what has been already said in reference to
+it, the following vigorous thrust by Hugh Miller:[52]
+
+"I can not avoid thinking that many of our theologians attach a too
+narrow meaning to the remarkable reason attached to the fourth
+commandment by the divine Lawgiver. "God rested on the seventh day,"
+says the text, "from all his work which he had created and made; and
+God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it." And such is the reason
+given in the Decalogue why man should rest on the Sabbath-day. God
+rested on the Sabbath-day and sanctified it; and therefore man ought
+also to rest on the Sabbath and keep it holy. But I know not where we
+shall find grounds for the belief that the Sabbath-day during which
+God rested was merely commensurate with one of the Sabbaths of
+short-lived man--a brief period measured by a single revolution of the
+earth on its axis. We have not, as has been shown, a shadow of
+evidence that he resumed his work of creation on the morrow; the
+geologist finds no trace of post-Adamic creation; the theologian can
+tell us of none. God's Sabbath of rest may still exist; the work of
+redemption may be the work of his Sabbath-day. That elevatory process
+through successive acts of creation, which engaged him during myriads
+of ages, was of an ordinary week-day character; but when the term of
+his moral government began, the elevatory process peculiar to it
+assumed the divine character of the Sabbath. This special view appears
+to lend peculiar emphasis to the reason embodied in the commandment.
+The collation of the passage with the geologic record seems, as if by
+a species of retranslation, to make it enunciate as its injunction,
+"Keep this day, not merely as a day of memorial related to a past
+fact, but also as a day of co-operation with God in the work of
+elevation, in relation both to a present fact and a future purpose."
+"God keeps his Sabbath," it says, "in order that he may save; keep
+yours also that ye may be saved." It serves besides to throw light on
+the prominence of the Sabbatical command, in a digest of law of which
+no jot or tittle can pass away until the fulfillment of all things.
+During the present dynasty of probation and trial, that special work
+of both God and man on which the character of the future dynasty
+depends is the Sabbath-day work of saving and being saved.
+
+"The common objection to that special view which regards the days of
+creation as immensely protracted periods of time, furnishes a
+specimen, if not of reasoning in a circle, at least of reasoning from
+a mere assumption. It first takes for granted that the Sabbath-day
+during which God rested was a day of but twenty-four hours, and then
+argues from the supposition that, in order to keep up the proportion
+between the six previous working days and the seventh day of rest,
+which the reason annexed to the fourth commandment demands, these
+previous days must also have been twenty-four hours each. It would, I
+have begun to suspect, square better with the ascertained facts, and
+be at least equally in accordance with Scripture, to reverse the
+process, and argue that because God's working days were immensely
+protracted periods, his Sabbath also must be an immensely protracted
+period. The reason attached to the law of the Sabbath seems to be
+simply a reason of proportion: the objection to which I refer is an
+objection palpably founded on considerations of proportion, and
+certainly were the reason to be divested of proportion, it would be
+divested also of its distinctive character as a reason. Were it as
+follows, it could not be at all understood: "Six days shalt thou
+labor, etc.; but on the seventh day shalt thou do no labor, etc.; for
+in six immensely protracted periods of several thousand years each did
+the Lord make the heavens and the earth, etc.; and then rested during
+a brief day of twenty-four hours; therefore the Lord blessed the brief
+day of twenty-four hours and hallowed it." This, I repeat, would not
+be reason. All, however, that seems necessary to the integrity of the
+reason, in its character as such, is that the proportion of six parts
+to seven should be maintained. God's periods may be periods expressed
+algebraically by letters symbolical of unknown quantities, and man's
+periods by letters symbolical of quantities well known; but if God's
+Sabbath be equal to one of his six working days, and man's Sabbath
+equal to one of his six working days, the integrity of proportion is
+maintained."
+
+Not only does this view of the case entirely remove the objection,
+but, as we have already seen, it throws a new light on the nature and
+reason of the Sabbath. No good reason, except that of setting an
+example, can be assigned for God's resting for a literal day. But if
+God's Sabbath of rest from natural creation is still in progress, and
+if our short Sabbaths are symbolical of the work of that great Sabbath
+in its present gray morning and in its coming glorious noon, then may
+the Christian thank this question, incidentally raised by geology and
+its long periods, for a ray of light which shines along the whole
+course of Scripture history, from the first Sabbath up to that final
+"rest which remaineth for the people of God."[53]
+
+(2.) It is objected that evening and morning are ascribed to the first
+day. This has been already noticed; it may here be considered more
+fully. The word evening in the original is literally the darkening,
+the sunset, the dusk. Morning is the _opening_ or _breaking forth_ of
+light--the daybreak. It must not be denied that the explanation of
+these terms is attended with some difficulty, but this is not at all
+lessened by narrowing the day to twenty-four hours. The first
+operation of the first day was the creation of light; next we have the
+Creator contemplating his work and pronouncing it to be good; then we
+have the separation of the light and darkness, previously, it is to be
+presumed, intermixed; and all this without the presence of a sun or
+other luminary. Which of these operations occupied the evening, and
+which the morning, if the day consisted of but twenty-four hours,
+beginning, according to Hebrew custom, in the evening? Was the old
+primeval darkness the evening or night, and the first breaking forth
+of light morning? This is almost the only view compatible with the
+Hebrew civil day beginning at evening, but it would at once lengthen
+the day beyond twenty-four hours, and contradict the terms of the
+record. Again, were the separated light and darkness the morning and
+evening? If so, why is the evening mentioned first, contrary to the
+supposed facts of the case? why, indeed, are the evening and morning
+mentioned at all, since on that supposition this is merely a
+repetition? Lastly, shall we adopt the ingenious expedient of dividing
+the evening and morning between two days, and maintaining that the
+evening belongs to the first and the morning to the second day, which
+would deprive the first day of a morning, and render the creative
+days, whatever their length, altogether different from Hebrew natural
+or civil days? It is unnecessary to pursue such inquiries farther,
+since it is evident that the terms of the record will not agree with
+the supposition of natural evening and morning. This is of itself a
+strong presumption against the hypothesis of civil days, since the
+writer was under no necessity so to word these verses that they would
+not give any rational or connected sense on the supposition of natural
+evening and morning, unless he wished to be otherwise understood.
+
+But what is the meaning of evening and morning, if these days were
+long periods? Here fewer difficulties meet us. First: It is readily
+conceivable that the beginning and end of a period named a day should
+be called evening and morning. But what made the use of these
+divisions necessary or appropriate? I answer that nature and
+revelation both give grounds at least to suspect that the evening, or
+earlier part of each period, was a time of comparative inaction,
+sometimes even of retrogression, and that the latter part of each
+period was that of its greatest activity and perfection. Thus, on the
+views stated in a former chapter, in the first day there was a time
+when luminous matter, either gradually concentrating itself toward the
+sun, or surrounding the earth itself, shed a dim but slowly increasing
+light; then there were day and night, the light increasing in
+intensity as, toward the end of the period, the luminous matter became
+more and more concentrated around the sun. So in our own seventh day,
+the earlier part was a time of deplorable retrogression, and though
+the Sun of Righteousness has arisen, we have seen as yet only a dim
+and cloudy morning. On the theory of days of vision, as expounded by
+Hugh Miller, in the "Testimony of the Rocks," in one of his noblest
+passages, the evening and night fall on each picture presented to the
+seer like the curtain of a stage. Secondly: Though the explanation
+stated above is the most probable, the hypothesis of long periods
+admits of another, namely, that the writer means to inform us that
+evening and morning, once established by the separation of light from
+darkness, continued without cessation throughout the remainder of the
+period--rolling from this time uninterruptedly around our planet, like
+the seal cylinder over the clay.[54] This explanation is, however,
+less applicable to the following days than to the first. Nor does this
+accord with the curious fact that the seventh day, which, on the
+hypothesis of long periods, is still in progress, is not said to have
+had an evening or morning.
+
+(3.) It is objected that the first chapter of Genesis "is not a poem
+nor a piece of oratorical diction," but a simple prosaic narrative,
+and consequently that its terms must be taken in a literal sense. In
+answer to this, I urge that the most truly literal sense of the word,
+namely, the _natural_ day, is excluded by the terms of the narrative;
+and that the word may be received as a literal day of the Creator, in
+the sense of one of his working periods, without involving the use of
+poetical diction, and in harmony with the wording of plain prosaic
+passages in other parts of the Bible. Examples of this have already
+been given. It is, however, true that, though the first chapter of
+Genesis is not strictly poetical, it is thrown into a metrical form
+which admits of some approach to a figurative expression in the case
+of a term of this kind.
+
+(4.) It has been urged that in cases where day is used to denote
+period, as in the expressions "day of calamity," etc., the adjuncts
+plainly show that it can not mean an ordinary day. In answer to this,
+I merely refer to the internal evidence already adduced, and to the
+deliberate character of the statements, in the manner rather of the
+description of processes than of acts. The difficulties attending the
+explanation of the evening and the morning, and the successive
+creation of herbivorous and carnivorous animals, are also strong
+indications which should serve here to mark the sense, just as the
+context does in the cases above referred to.
+
+(5.) In Professor Hitchcock's valuable and popular "Religion of
+Geology," I find some additional objections, which deserve notice as
+specimens of the learned trifles which pass current among writers on
+this subject, much to the detriment of sound Scriptural literature. I
+give them in the words of the author. 1. "From Genesis ii., 5 compared
+with Genesis i., 11 and 12, it seems that it had not rained on the
+earth till the third day; a fact altogether probable if the days were
+of twenty-four hours, but absurd if they were long periods." It
+strikes us that the absurdity here is all on the side of the short
+days. Why should any prominence be given to a fact so common as the
+lapse of two ordinary days without rain, more especially if a region
+of the earth and not the whole is referred to, and in a document
+prepared for a people residing in climates such as those of Egypt and
+Palestine. But what could be more instructive and confirmatory of the
+truth of the narrative than the fact that in the two long periods
+which preceded the formation and clearing up of the atmosphere or
+firmament, on which rain depends, and the elevation of the dry land,
+which so greatly modifies its distribution, there had been no rain
+such as now occurs. This is a most important fact, and one of the
+marked coincidences of the record with scientific truth. The
+objection, therefore, merely shows that the ordinary day hypothesis
+tends to convert one of the finest internal harmonies of this
+wonderful history into an empty and, in some respects, absurd
+commonplace. 2. "This hypothesis (that days are long periods) assumes
+that Moses describes the creation of all the animals and plants that
+have ever lived on our globe. But geology decides that the species now
+living, since they are not found in the rocks any lower than man
+is,[55] could not have been contemporaneous with those in the rocks,
+but must have been created when man was--that is, in the sixth day. Of
+such a creation no mention is made in Genesis; the inference is that
+Moses does not describe the creation of the existing races, but only
+of those that lived thousands of years earlier, and whose existence
+was scarcely suspected till modern times. Who will admit such an
+absurdity?" In answer to this objection, I remark that it is based on
+a false assumption. The hypothesis of long periods does not require us
+to assume that Moses notices all the animals and plants that have ever
+lived, but on the contrary that he informs us only of the _first
+appearance_ of each great natural type in the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms; just as he informs us of the first appearance of dry land on
+the third day, but says nothing of the changes which it underwent on
+subsequent days. Thus plants were created on the third day, and though
+they may have been several times destroyed and renewed as to genera
+and species, we infer that they continued to exist in all the
+succeeding days, though the inspired historian does not inform us of
+the fact. So also many tribes of animals were created in the early
+part of the fifth day, and it is quite unnecessary for us to be
+informed that these tribes continued to exist through the sixth day.
+If the days were long periods, the inspired writer could not have
+adopted any other course, unless he had been instructed to write a
+treatise on Pal�ontology, and to describe the fauna and flora of each
+successive period with their characteristic differences. 3. "Though
+there is a general resemblance between the order of creation as
+described in Genesis and by geology, yet when we look at the details
+of the creation of the organic world, as required by this hypothesis,
+we find manifest discrepancy. Thus the Bible represents plants only to
+have been created on the third day, and animals not till the fifth;
+and hence at least the lower half of the fossiliferous rocks ought to
+contain nothing but vegetables. Whereas in fact the lower half of
+these rocks, all below the carboniferous, although abounding in
+animals, contain scarcely any plants, and these in the lowest strata
+fucoids or sea-weeds. But the Mosaic account evidently describes
+flowering and seed-bearing plants, not flowerless and seedless alg�.
+Again, reptiles are described in Genesis as created on the fifth day;
+but reptilia and batrachians existed as early as the time when the
+lower carboniferous and even old red sandstone were in course of
+deposition, as their tracks on those rocks in Nova Scotia and
+Pennsylvania evince.[56] In short, if we maintain that Moses describes
+fossils as well as living species, we find discrepancy instead of
+correspondence between his order of creation and that of geology." In
+this objection it is assumed that the geological history of the earth
+goes back to the third day of creation, or, in other words, to the
+dawn of organic life. None of the greater authorities in geology
+would, however, now venture to make such an assertion, and the
+progress of geology is rapidly making the contrary more and more
+probable. The fact is that, on the supposition that the days of
+creation are long periods, the whole series of the fossiliferous rocks
+belongs to the fifth and sixth days; and that for the early plant
+creation of the third day, and the great physical changes of the
+fourth, geology has nothing as yet to show, except a mass of
+metamorphosed eozoic rocks which have hitherto yielded no fossils
+except a few Protozoa; but which contain vast quantities of carbon in
+the form of graphite, which may be the remains of plants.
+
+I have much pleasure in quoting, as a further answer to these
+objections, the following from Professor Dana:[57]
+
+"Accepting the account in Genesis as true, the seeming discrepancy
+between it and geology rests mainly here: Geology holds, and has held
+from the first, that the progress of creation was mainly through
+secondary causes; for the existence of the science presupposes this.
+Moses, on the contrary, was thought to sustain the idea of a simple
+fiat for each step. Grant this first point to science, and what
+farther conflict is there? _The question of the length of time_, it is
+replied. But not so; for if we may take the record as allowing more
+than six days of twenty-four hours, the Bible then places no limit to
+time. _The question of the days and periods_, it is replied again. But
+this is of little moment in comparison with the first principle
+granted. Those who admit the length of time and stand upon days of
+twenty-four hours have to place geological time _before_ the six days,
+and then assume a chaos and reordering of creation, on the six-day and
+fiat principle, after a previous creation that had operated for a long
+period through secondary causes. Others take days as periods, and thus
+allow the required time, admitting that creation was one in progress,
+a grand whole, instead of a _first_ creation excepting man by one
+method, and a _second_ with man by the other. This is now the
+remaining question between the theologians and geologists; for all the
+minor points, as to the exact interpretation of each day, do not
+affect the general concordance or discordance of the Bible and
+science.
+
+"On this point geology is now explicit in its decision, and indeed has
+long been so. It proves that there was no return to chaos, no great
+revolution, that creation was beyond doubt one in its progress. We
+know that some geologists have taken the other view. But it is only in
+the capacity of theologians, and not as geologists. The Rev. Dr.
+Buckland, in placing the great events of geology between the first and
+second verses of the Mosaic account, did not pretend that there was a
+geological basis for such an hypothesis; and no writer since has ever
+brought forward the first fact in geology to support the idea of a
+rearrangement just before man; not one solitary fact has ever been
+appealed to. The conclusion was on Biblical grounds, and not in any
+sense on geological. The best that Buckland could say, when he wrote
+twenty-five years since, was that geology did not absolutely disprove
+such an hypothesis; and that can not be said now.
+
+"It is often asserted, in order to unsettle confidence in these
+particular teachings of geology, that geology is a changing science.
+In this connection the remark conveys an erroneous impression. Geology
+is a progressive science; and all its progress tends to establish more
+firmly these two principles: (1) The slow progress of creation through
+secondary causes, as explained; and (2) the progress by periods
+analogous to the days of Genesis."
+
+I have, I trust, shown that the principal objections to the
+lengthening of the Mosaic days into great cosmical periods are of a
+character too light and superficial to deserve any regard. I shall now
+endeavor to add to the internal evidence previously given some
+considerations of an external character which support this view.
+
+1. The fact that the creation was progressive, that it proceeded from
+the formation of the raw material of the universe, through successive
+stages, to the perfection of living organisms, if we regard the
+analogy of God's operations as disclosed in the geological history of
+the earth and in the present course of nature, must impress us with a
+suspicion that long periods were employed in the work. God might have
+prepared the earth for man in an instant. He did not choose to do so,
+but on the contrary proceeded step by step; and the record he has
+given us does not receive its full significance nor attain its full
+harmony with the course of geological history, unless we can
+understand each day of the creative week as including a long
+succession of ages.
+
+2. We have, as already explained, reason to believe that the seventh
+day at least has been of long duration. At the close of the sixth, God
+rested from all his work of material creation, and we have as yet no
+evidence that he has resumed it. Neither theologians nor evolutionists
+will, I presume, desire to maintain that any strictly creative acts
+have occurred in the modern period of geology. We know that the
+present day, if it is the seventh, has lasted already for at least six
+thousand years, and, if we may judge from the testimony of prophecy,
+has yet a long space to run, before it merges in that "new heaven and
+new earth" for which all believers look, and which will constitute the
+first day of an endless sabbatism.
+
+3. The philosophical and religious systems of many ancient nations
+afford intimations of the somewhat extensive prevalence in ancient
+times of the notion of long creative periods, corresponding to the
+Mosaic days. These notions, in so far as they are based on truth, are
+probably derived from the Mosaic narrative itself, or from the
+primitive patriarchal documents which may have formed the basis of
+that narrative. They are, no doubt, all more or less garbled versions,
+and can not be regarded as of any authority, but they serve to show
+what was the interpretation of the document in a very remote
+antiquity. I have collected from a variety of sources the following
+examples:
+
+The ancient mythology of Persia appears to have had six creative
+periods, each apparently of a thousand years, and corresponding very
+nearly with the Mosaic days.[58] The Chaldeans had a similar system,
+to which in a previous chapter we have already referred. The Etruscans
+possessed a history of the creation, somewhat resembling that of the
+Bible, and representing the creation as occupying six periods of a
+thousand years each.[59]
+
+The Egyptians believed that the world had been subject to a series of
+destructions and renewals, the intervals between which amounted to
+120,000 years, or, according to other authorities, to 300,000 or
+360,000 years. This system of destruction and renewal the Egyptian
+priests appear to have wrought out into considerable detail, but
+though important truths may be concealed under their mysterious
+dogmas, it will not repay us to dwell on the fragments that remain of
+them. There can be no doubt, however, that at least the basis of the
+Egyptian cosmogony must have been the common property of all the
+Hamite nations, of which Egypt was the greatest and most permanent;
+and therefore in all probability derived from the ideas of creation
+which were current not long after the Deluge. The Egyptians appear
+also, as already stated, to have had a physical cosmogony, beginning
+with a chaos in which heaven and earth were mingled, and from which
+were evolved fiery matters which ascended into the heavens, and moist
+earthy matters which formed the earth and the sea; and from these were
+produced, by the agency of solar heat, the various animals. The terms
+of this cosmogony, as it is given by Diodorus Siculus, indicate the
+belief of long formative periods.[60]
+
+The Hindoos have a somewhat extended, though, according to the
+translations, a not very intelligible cosmogony. It plainly, however,
+asserts long periods of creative work, and is interesting as an
+ancient cosmogony preserved entire and without transmission through
+secondary channels. The following is a summary, in so far as I have
+been able to gather it, from the translation of the Institutes of Menu
+by Sir W. Jones.[61]
+
+The introduction to the Institutes represents Menu as questioned by
+the "divine sages" respecting the laws that should regulate all
+classes or castes. He proceeds to detail the course of creation,
+stating that the "Self-existing Power,[62] undiscovered, but making
+this world discernible, He whom the mind alone can perceive, whose
+essence eludes the external senses, who has no visible parts, who
+exists from eternity, even the soul of all being, whom no being can
+comprehend, shone forth in person."
+
+After giving this exalted view of the Creator, the writer proceeds to
+state that the Self-existent created the waters, and then an egg, from
+which he himself comes forth as Brahma the forefather of spirits. "The
+waters are called Nara because they are the production of _Nara_, the
+spirit of God, and since they were his first _Ayana_, or place of
+motion, he thence is named _Narayana_, or moving on the waters. In the
+egg Brahma remained a year, and caused the egg to divide, forming the
+heaven above and the earth beneath, and the subtile ether, the eight
+regions, and the receptacle of waters between. He then drew forth from
+the supreme soul mind with all its powers and properties." The rest of
+the account appears to be very confused, and I confess to a great
+extent unintelligible to me. There follows, however, a continuation
+of the narrative, stating that there is a succession of seven Menus,
+each of whom produces and supports the earth during his reign. It is
+in the account of these successive Menus that the following statement
+respecting the days and years of Brahma occurs:
+
+"A day of the Gods is equal to a year. Four thousand years of the Gods
+are called a Critya or Satya age. Four ages are an age of the Gods.
+_One thousand divine ages (equal to more than four millions of human
+years) are a day of Brahma the Creator._ Seventy-two divine ages are
+one manwantara. * * * The aggregate of four ages they call a divine
+age, and believe that in every thousand such ages, or in every day of
+Brahma, fourteen Menus are successively invested with the sovereignty
+of the earth. Each Menu they suppose transmits his authority to his
+sons and grandsons during a period of seventy-two divine ages, and
+such a period they call a manwantara. Thirty such days (of the
+Creator), or calpas, constitute a month of Brahma; twelve such months
+one of his years, and 100 such years his age, of which they assert
+that fifty years have elapsed. We are thus, according to the Hindoos,
+in the first day or calpa of the fifty-first year of Brahma's life,
+and in the twenty-eighth divine age of the _seventh manwantara_ of
+that day. In the present day of Brahma the first Menu was named the
+Son of the Self-existent, and by him the institutes of religion and
+civil duties are said to have been delivered. In his time occurred a
+new creation called the _Lotos_ creation." Of five Menus who succeeded
+him, Sir William could find little but the names, but the accounts of
+the seventh are very full, and it appears that in his reign the earth
+was destroyed by a flood. Sir William suggests that the first Menu may
+represent the creation, and that the seventh may be Noah. The name
+Menu or Manu is equivalent to "man," and signifies "the
+intelligent."[63]
+
+In this Hindoo cosmogony we have many points of correspondence with
+the Scripture narrative: for instance, the Self-existent Creator; the
+agency of the Son of God and the Holy Spirit; the absolute creation of
+matter; the hovering of the Spirit over the primeval waters; the
+sevenfold division of the creative process; and the idea of days of
+the Creator of immense duration. If we suppose the day of Brahma in
+the Hindoo cosmogony to represent the Mosaic day, then it amounts to
+no less than 4,320,000 years; or if, with Sir W. Jones, we suppose the
+manwantara to represent the Mosaic day, its duration will be 308,571
+years; and the total antiquity of the earth, without counting the
+undefined "beginning," will be either more than twenty-five or than
+two millions of years. It would be folly, however, to suppose that
+these Hindoo numbers, which are probably purely conjectural, or based
+on astronomical cycles, make any near approximation to the facts of
+the case. The Institutes of Menu are probably in their present form
+not of great antiquity, but there are other Hindoo documents of
+greater age which maintain similar views, and it is probable that the
+account of the creation in the Institutes is at least an imperfect
+version of the original narrative as it existed among the earliest
+colonists of India.[64] It corresponds in many points with the oldest
+notions on these subjects that remain to us in the wrecks of the
+mythology of Egypt and other ancient nations, and it aids in proving
+that the fabulous ages of gods and demigods in the ancient mythologies
+_are really pre-Adamite_; and belong not to human history, but to the
+work of creation. It also shows that the idea of long creative periods
+as equivalents of the Mosaic days must, in the infancy of the
+postdiluvian world, have been very widely diffused. Such evidence is,
+no doubt, of small authority in the interpretation of Scripture; but
+it must be admitted that serious consideration is due to a method of
+interpretation which thus tends to bring the Mosaic account into
+harmony with the facts of modern science, and with the belief of
+almost universal antiquity, and at the same time gives it its fullest
+significance and most perfect internal symmetry of parts. It is also
+very interesting to note the wide diffusion among the most ancient
+nations of cosmological views identical in their main features with
+those of the Bible, proving, almost beyond doubt, that these views had
+some common and very ancient source, and commanded universal belief
+among the primitive tribes of men.
+
+I have hitherto in this part of the discussion avoided detailed
+reference to what may be regarded as the "prophetic day" view of the
+narrative of creation. This may be shortly stated as follows: In the
+prophetical parts of Scripture the prophet sees in vision, as in a
+picture or acted scene, the events that are to come to pass, and in
+consequence represents years or longer periods by days of vision. Now
+the revelation of the pre-Adamite past is in its nature akin to that
+of the unknown future; and Moses may have seen these wondrous events
+in vision--in visions of successive days--under the guise of which he
+presents geological time. Some things in the form of the narrative
+favor this view, and it certainly affords the most clearly
+intelligible theory as to the mode in which such a revelation may have
+been made to man. It is advocated by Kurtz, by the author of an
+excellent little work, the "Harmony of the Mosaic and Geological
+Records," by Hugh Miller, and more recently by Tayler Lewis. To these
+writers I must refer for its more full illustration, and for the grand
+pictorial view which it gives of the vision of the creative week.
+
+In reviewing the somewhat lengthy train of reasoning into which the
+term "day" has led us, it appears that from internal evidence alone it
+can be rendered probable that the day of creation is neither the
+natural nor the civil day. It also appears that the objections urged
+against the doctrine of day-periods are of no weight when properly
+scrutinized, and that it harmonizes with the progressive nature of the
+work, the evidence of geology, and the cosmological notions of ancient
+nations. I do not suppose that this position has been incontrovertibly
+established; but I believe that every serious difficulty has been
+removed from its acceptance; and with this, for the present, I remain
+satisfied. Every step of our subsequent progress will afford new
+criteria of its truth or fallacy.
+
+One further question of some interest is--What, according to the
+theory of long creative days and the testimony of geology, would be
+the length and precise cosmical nature of these days? With regard to
+the first part of the question, we do not know the actual value of our
+geological ages in time; but it is probable that each great creative
+�on may have extended through millions of years. As to the nature of
+the days, this may have been determined by direct volitions of the
+Creator, or indirectly by some of those great astronomical cycles
+which arise from the varying eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or the
+diminution of the velocity of its rotation, or by its gradual cooling.
+
+With reference to these points, science has as yet little information
+to give. Sir William Thomson has, indeed, indicated for the time since
+the earth's crust first began to form a period of between one and two
+hundred millions of years; but Professor Guthrie Tait, on the other
+hand, argues that ten or fifteen millions of years are probably
+sufficient,[65] and Lockyer has suggested an hypothesis of successive
+rekindlings of the solar heat which might give a more protracted time
+than that of Thomson. Some of the hypotheses of derivation current,
+but which are based rather on philosophical speculation than on
+scientific fact, would also require a longer time than that allowed by
+Thomson; and it is to be regretted that some geologists, by giving
+credence to such hypotheses of derivation, and by loose reasoning on
+the time required for the denudation and deposition of rocks, have
+been induced to commit themselves to very extravagant estimates as to
+geological time. On the whole, it is evident that only the most vague
+guesses can at present be based on the facts in our possession, though
+the whole time required has unquestionably been very great, the
+deposition of the series of stratified rocks probably requiring at
+least the greater part of the minimum time allowed by Thomson.[66]
+
+As to the cosmical nature of the periods, while some geologists appear
+to regard the whole of geological time as a continuous evolution
+without any breaks, it is evidently more in accordance with facts to
+hold that there have been cycles of repose and activity succeeding
+each other, and that these have been of different grades. In the
+succession of deposits it is plain that periods of depression and
+upheaval common to all the continental masses have succeeded each
+other at somewhat regular intervals, and that within these periods
+there have been alternations of colder and warmer climates. These,
+however, are not equal to the creative days of our record, for they
+are greatly more numerous. They are but the vastly protracted hours of
+these almost endless days. Beyond and above these there is another
+grade of geological period, marked not by mere gradual elevation and
+depression of the continental areas, but by vast crumplings of the
+earth's crust and enormous changes of level. Such a great movement
+unquestionably closed the Eozoic period of geology. Another of less
+magnitude occurred in what is termed the Permian age at the end of the
+Pal�ozoic. A third terminated the Mesozoic age, and introduced the
+Tertiary or Kainozoic. Perhaps we should reckon the glacial age,
+though characterized by far less physical change than the others, as a
+fourth. The possible physical causes which have been suggested for
+such greater disturbances are the collapses of the crust in equatorial
+regions, which may be supposed to have resulted at long intervals of
+time, from the gradual retardation of the earth's rotation caused by
+the tides, or the similar collapses and other changes due to the
+shrinkages of the earth's interior caused by its gradual cooling, and
+to the unequal deposition of material by water on different parts of
+its surface.[67] The more full discussion of these points belongs,
+however, to a future chapter.
+
+These greater movements of the crust, would, as already stated,
+coincide to some extent with the later creative days in the manner
+indicated below:
+
+  ==================================================================
+  Collapse of crust at close of   | Close of Fourth �on,
+  Eozoic Time,                    | and beginning of Fifth.
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Collapse in Permian Period and  | Middle of Fifth �on.
+  end of Pal�ozoic Time,          |
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Great subsidence and collapse   | Close of Fifth �on, and beginning
+  at close of Mesozoic Age,       | of Sixth.
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Great subsidence of the         | End of Sixth �on.
+  Pleistocene or Glacial Age,     |
+  ==================================================================
+
+The question recurs--Why are God's days so long? He is not like us, a
+being of yesterday. He is "from Olam to Olam," and even in human
+history one day is with him as a thousand years; and we who live in
+these later days of the world know full well how slow the march of his
+plan has been even in human history. We shall know in the endless ages
+of a future eternity that even to us these long creative days may at
+last become but as watches in the night.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE ATMOSPHERE.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let there be an expanse between the waters;
+     and let it separate the waters from the waters. And God made
+     the expanse, and separated the waters which are under the
+     expanse from the waters which are over the expanse: and it
+     was so. And God called the expanse Heaven. And the evening
+     and the morning were the second day."--Genesis i. 6-8.
+
+
+At the opening of the period to which we are now introduced the earth
+was covered by the waters, and these were in such a condition that
+there was no distinction between the seas and the clouds. No
+atmosphere separated them, or, in other words, dense fogs and mists
+everywhere rested on the surface of the primeval ocean. To understand
+as far as possible the precise condition of the earth's surface at
+this period, it will be necessary to notice the present constitution
+of the atmosphere, especially in its relations to aqueous vapor.
+
+The regular and constant constituents of the atmosphere are the
+elements oxygen and nitrogen, which, at the temperature and pressure
+existing on the surface of our globe, are permanently aeriform or
+gaseous. Beside these gases, the air always contains a quantity of the
+vapor of water in a perfectly aeriform and transparent condition. This
+vapor is not, however, permanently gaseous. At all temperatures below
+212 degrees it tends to the liquid state; and its elastic force, which
+preserves its particles in the separated state of vapor, increases or
+diminishes at a more rapid rate than the increase or diminution of
+temperature. Hence the quantity of vapor that can be suspended in
+clear air depends on the temperature of the air itself. As the
+temperature of the air rises, its power of sustaining vapor increases
+more rapidly than its temperature; and as the temperature of the air
+falls, the elastic force of its contained vapor diminishes in a
+greater ratio, until it can exist as an invisible vapor no longer, but
+becomes condensed into minute bubbles or globules, forming cloud,
+mist, or rain. Two other circumstances operate along with these
+properties of air and vapor. The heat radiated from the earth's
+surface causes the lower strata of air to be, in ordinary
+circumstances, warmer than the higher; and, on the other hand, warm
+air, being lighter than that which is colder, the warm layer of air at
+the surface continually tends to rise through and above the colder
+currents immediately over it. Let us consider the operation of the
+causes thus roughly sketched in a column of calm air. The lower
+portion becomes warmed, and if in contact with water takes up a
+quantity of its vapor proportioned to the temperature, or in ordinary
+circumstances somewhat less than this proportion. It then tends to
+ascend, and as it rises and becomes mixed with colder air it gradually
+loses its power of sustaining moisture, and at a height proportioned
+to the diminution of temperature and the quantity of vapor originally
+contained in the air, it begins to part with water, which becomes
+condensed in the form of mist or cloud; and the surface at which this
+precipitation takes place is often still more distinctly marked when
+two masses or layers of air at different temperatures become
+intermixed; in which case, on the principle already stated, the mean
+temperature produced is unable to sustain the vapor proper to the two
+extremes, and moisture is precipitated. It thus happens that layers
+of cloud accumulate in the atmosphere, while between them and the
+surface there is a stratum of clear air. Fogs and mists are in the
+present state of nature exceptional appearances, depending generally
+on local causes, and showing what the world might be but for that
+balancing of temperature and the elastic force of vapor which
+constitutes the atmospheric firmament.[68]
+
+The quantity of water thus suspended over the earth is enormous. "When
+we see a cloud resolve itself into rain, and pour out thousands of
+gallons of water, we can not comprehend how it can float in the
+atmosphere."[69] The explanation is--1st, the extreme levity of the
+minute globules, which causes them to fall very slowly; 2d, they are
+supported by currents of air, especially by the ascending currents
+developed both in still air and in storms; 3dly, clouds are often
+dissolving on one side and forming on another. A cloud gradually
+descending may be dissolving away by evaporation at the base as fast
+as new matter is being added above. On the other hand, an ascending
+warm current of air may be constantly depositing moisture at the base
+of the cloud, and this may be evaporating under the solar rays above.
+In this case a cloud is "merely the visible form of an aerial space,
+in which certain processes are at the moment in equilibrium, and all
+the particles in a state of upward movement."[70] But so soon as
+condensation markedly exceeds evaporation, rain falls, and the
+atmosphere discharges its vast load of water--how vast we may gather
+from the fact that the waters of all the rivers are but a part of the
+overflowings of the great atmospheric reservoir. "God binds up the
+waters in his thick cloud, and the cloud is not rent under them." It
+is thus that the terrestrial waters are divided into those above and
+those below that expanse of clear air in which we live and move,
+exempt from the dense, dark mists of the earth's earlier state, yet
+enjoying the benefits of the cloudy curtain that veils the burning
+sun, and of the cloudy reservoirs that drop down rain to nourish every
+green thing.
+
+We have no reason to suppose that the laws which regulate mixtures of
+gases and vapors did not prevail in the period in question. It is
+probable that these laws are as old as the creation of matter; but the
+condition of our earth up to the second day must have been such as
+prevented them from operating as at present. Such a condition might
+possibly be the result of an excessive evaporation occasioned by
+internal heat. The interior of the earth still remains in a heated
+state, and includes large subterranean reservoirs of melted rock, as
+is proved by the increase of temperature in deep mines and borings,
+and by the widely extended phenomena of hot springs and volcanic
+action. At the period in question the internal temperature of the
+earth was probably vastly greater than at present, and perhaps the
+whole interior of the globe may have been in a state of igneous
+fluidity. At the same time the external solid crust may have been
+thin, and it was not fractured and thickened in places by the upheaval
+of mountain chains or the deposition of great and unequal sheets of
+sediment; for, as I may again remind the reader, the primitive chaos
+did not consist of a confused accumulation of rocky masses, but the
+earth's crust must then have been more smooth and unbroken than at any
+subsequent period. This being the internal condition of the earth, it
+is quite conceivable, without any violation of the existing laws of
+nature, that the waters of the ocean, warmed by internal heat, may
+have sent up a sufficient quantity of vapor to keep the lower strata
+of air in a constant state of saturation, and to occasion an equally
+constant precipitation of moisture from the colder strata above. This
+would merely be the universal operation of a cause similar to that
+which now produces fogs at the northern limit of the Atlantic Gulf
+Stream, and in other localities where currents of warm water flow
+under or near to cooler air. Such a state of things is more
+conceivable in a globe covered with water, and consequently destitute
+of the dry and powerfully radiating surfaces which land presents, and
+receiving from without the rays, not of a solar orb, but of a
+comparatively feeble and diffused luminous ether. The continued action
+of these causes would gradually cool the earth's crust and its
+incumbent waters, until the heat from without preponderated over that
+from within, when the result stated in the text would be effected.
+
+The statements of our primitive authority for this condition of the
+earth might also be accounted for on the supposition that the
+permanently gaseous part of the atmosphere did not at the period in
+question exist in its present state, but that it was on the second day
+actually elaborated and caused to take its place in separating the
+atmospheric from the oceanic waters. The first is by far the more
+probable view; but we may still apply to such speculations the words
+of Elihu, the friend of Job:
+
+  "Stand still and consider the wonderful works of God.
+  Dost thou know when God disposes them,
+  And the lightning of his cloud shines forth?
+  Dost thou know the poising of the dark clouds,
+  The wonderful works of the Perfect in knowledge?"
+
+We may now consider the words in which this great improvement in the
+condition of the earth is recorded. The Hebrew term for the atmosphere
+is _Rakiah_, literally, something expanded or beaten out--an expanse.
+It is rendered in our version "firmament," a word conveying the notion
+of support and fixity, and in the Septuagint "_Stereoma_," a word
+having a similar meaning. The idea conveyed by the Hebrew word is not,
+however, that of _strength_, but of _extent_; or as Milton--the most
+accurate of expositors of these words--has it:
+
+  "The firmament, expanse of liquid, pure,
+  Transparent, elemental air, diffused
+  In circuit to the uttermost convex
+  Of this great round."
+
+That this was really the way in which this word was understood by the
+Hebrews appears from several passages of the Bible. Job says of God,
+"Who alone _spreadeth_ out the heavens."[71] David, in the 104th
+Psalm, which is a poetical paraphrase of the history of creation,
+speaks of the Creator as "_stretching_ out the heavens as a curtain."
+In later writers, as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, similar expressions
+occur. The notion of a solid or arched firmament was probably
+altogether remote from the minds of these writers. Such beliefs may
+have prevailed at the time when the Septuagint translation was made,
+but I have no hesitation in affirming that no trace of them can be
+found in the Old Testament. In proof of this, I may refer to some of
+the passages which have been cited as affording the strongest
+instances of this kind of "accommodation." In Exodus xxiv., 10, we
+are told, "And they saw the God of Israel, and under his feet as it
+were a paved work of sapphire, and as it were the heaven itself in its
+clearness." This is evidently a comparison of the pavement seen under
+the feet of Jehovah to a sapphire in its color, and to the heavens in
+its transparency. The intention of the writer is not to give
+information respecting the heavens, or to liken them either to a
+pavement or a sapphire; all that we can infer is that he believed the
+heavens to be clear or transparent. Job mentions the "pillars of
+heaven," but the connection shows that this is merely a poetical
+expression for lofty mountains. The earthquake causes these pillars of
+heaven to "tremble." We are informed in the book of Job that God "ties
+up his waters in his thick cloud, and the cloud is not rent under
+them." We are also told of the "treasures of snow and the treasures of
+hail," and rain is called the "bottles of heaven," and is said to be
+poured out of the "lattices of heaven." I recognize in all these mere
+poetical figures, not intended to be literally understood. Some
+learned writers wish us to believe that the intention of the Bible in
+these places is actually to teach that the clouds are contained in
+skin bottles, or something similar, and that they are emptied through
+hatches in a solid firmament. To found such a belief, however, on a
+few figurative statements, seems ridiculous, especially when we
+consider that the writers of the Scriptures show themselves to be well
+acquainted with nature, and would not be likely on any account to
+deviate so far from the ordinary testimony of the senses; more
+especially as by doing so they would enable every unlettered man who
+has seen a cloud gather on a mountain's brow or dissolve away before
+increasing heat to oppose the evidence of his senses to their
+statements, and perhaps to reject them with scorn as a barefaced
+imposture. But, lastly, we are triumphantly directed to the question
+of Elihu in his address to Job:
+
+  "Hast thou with him stretched out the sky,
+  Which is firm and like a molten mirror?"
+
+But the word translated sky here is not "_rakiah_," or "_shamayim_,"
+but another signifying the _clouds_, so that we should regard Elihu as
+speaking of the apparent firmness or stability, and the beautiful
+reflected tints of the clouds. His words may be paraphrased thus:
+"Hast thou aided Him in spreading out those clouds, which appear so
+stable and self-sustaining, and so beautifully reflect the
+sunlight?"[72] The above passages form the only authority which I can
+find in the Scriptures for the doctrine of a solid firmament, which
+may therefore be characterized as a modern figment of men more learned
+in books but less acquainted with nature than the Scripture writers.
+As a contrast to all such doctrines I may quote the sublime opening of
+the poetical account of creation in Psalm civ., which we may also take
+here as elsewhere as the oldest and most authoritative commentary on
+the first chapter of Genesis:
+
+  "Bless the Lord, O my soul!
+  O Lord, my God, thou art very great:
+  Thou art clothed with honor and majesty,
+  Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment,
+  Who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain (of a tent),
+  _Who layest the beams of thy chambers in the waters,
+  Who makest the clouds thy chariots,
+  Who walkest upon the wings of the wind_."
+
+The waters here are those above the firmament, the whole of this part
+of the Psalm being occupied with the heavens; and there is no place
+left for the solid firmament, of which the writer evidently knew
+nothing. He represents God as laying his chambers on the waters,
+instead of on the supposed firmament, and as careering in cloudy
+chariots on the wings of the wind, instead of over a solid arch. For
+all the above reasons, we conclude that the "expanse" of the verses
+under consideration was understood by the writers of the book of God
+to be _aerial_, not _solid_; and the "establishment of the clouds
+above," as it is finely called in Proverbs, is the effect of those
+meteorological laws to which I have already referred, and which were
+now for the first time brought into operation by the divine
+Legislator. The Hebrew theology was not of a kind to require such
+expedients as that of solid heavenly arches; it recurred at once to
+the will--the decree--of Jehovah; and was content to believe that
+through this efficient cause the "rivers run into the sea, yet the sea
+is not full," for "to the place whence the rivers came, thither they
+return again," through the agency of those floating clouds, "the
+waters above the heavens," which "pour down rain according to the
+vapor thereof."
+
+God called the expanse "Heaven." In former chapters we have noticed
+that heaven in the popular speech of the Hebrews, as in our own, had
+different meanings, applying alike to the cloudy, the astral, and the
+spiritual heavens. The Creator here sanctions its application to the
+aerial expanse; and accordingly throughout the Scriptures it is used
+in this way; _rakiah_ occurs very rarely, as if it had become nearly
+obsolete, or was perhaps regarded as a merely technical or descriptive
+term. The divine sanction for the use of the term heaven for the
+atmosphere is, as already explained, to indicate that this popular
+use is not to interfere with its application to the whole universe
+beyond our earth in verse 1st.
+
+The poetical parts of the Bible, and especially the book of Job, which
+is probably the most ancient of the whole, abound in references to the
+atmosphere and its phenomena. I may quote a few of these passages, to
+enable us to understand the views of these subjects given in the
+Bible, and the meaning attached to the creation of the atmosphere, in
+very ancient periods. In Job, 38th chapter, we have the following:
+
+  "In what way is the lightning distributed,
+  And how is the east wind spread abroad over the earth?
+  Who hath opened a channel for the pouring rain,
+  Or a way for the thunder-flash?
+  To cause it to rain on the land where no man is,
+  In the desert where no one dwells;
+  To saturate the desolate and waste ground,
+  And to cause the bud of the tender herb to spring forth."
+
+Here we have the unequal and unforeseen distribution of
+thunder-storms, beyond the knowledge and power of man, but under the
+absolute control of God, and designed by him for beneficent purposes.
+Equally fine are some of the following lines:
+
+  "Dost thou lift up thy voice to the clouds,
+  That abundance of waters may cover thee?
+  Dost thou send forth the lightnings, and they go,
+  And say unto thee, Here are we?
+  Who can number the clouds by wisdom,
+  Or cause the bottles of heaven to empty themselves?
+  When the dust groweth into mire,
+  And the clods cleave fast together?"
+
+In the 36th and 37th chapters of the same book we have a grand
+description of atmospheric changes in their relation to man and his
+works. The speaker is Elihu, who in this ancient book most favorably
+represents the knowledge of nature that existed at a time probably
+anterior to the age of Moses--a knowledge far superior to that which
+we find in the works of many modern poets and expositors, and
+accompanied by an intense appreciation of the grandeur and beauty of
+natural objects:
+
+  "For he draweth up the drops of water,
+  Rain is condensed[73] from his vapor,
+  Which the clouds do drop,
+  And distill upon man abundantly.
+  Yea, can any understand the distribution of the clouds
+  Or the thundering of his tabernacle.[74]
+  Behold he spreadeth his lightning upon it,
+  He covereth it as with the depths of the sea.[75]
+  By these he executes judgment on the people,
+  By these also he giveth food in abundance;
+  His hands he covers with the lightning,
+  And commands it (against the enemy) in its striking;
+  He uttereth to it his decree,[76]
+  Concerning the herd as well as proud man.
+  At this also my heart trembles,
+  And bounds out of its place;
+  Hear attentively the thunder of his voice,
+  And the loud sound that goes from his mouth.
+  He directs it under the whole heavens,
+  And his lightning to the ends of the earth.
+  After it his voice roareth,
+  He thundereth with the voice of his majesty;
+  And delays not (the tempest) when his voice is heard.
+  God thundereth marvellously with his voice,
+  He doeth wonders which we can not comprehend;
+  For he saith to the snow, Be thou on the earth.
+  Also to the pouring rain, even the great rain of his might.
+  He sealeth up the hand of every man,
+  That all men may know his work.
+  Then the beasts go to their dens,
+  And remain in their caverns.
+  Out of the south cometh the whirlwind
+  And cold out of the north,
+  By the breath of God the frost is produced
+  And the breadth of waters becomes bound;
+  With moisture he loads the thick cloud,
+  He spreads the cloud of his lightning,
+  And it is turned about by his direction,
+  To execute his pleasure on the face of the world;
+  Whether for correction, for his land, or for mercy,
+  He causeth it to come.
+  Hearken unto this, O Job,
+  Stand still and consider the wonderful works of God.
+  Dost thou know when God disposes these things,
+  And the lightning of his cloud flashes forth?
+  Dost thou know the poising of the clouds,
+  The wonderful work of the Perfect in knowledge?
+  When thy garments become warm
+  When he quieteth the earth by the south wind;
+  Hast thou with him spread out the clouds
+  Firm and like a molten mirror?"[77]
+
+It would not be easy to find, in the poetry of any nation or time, a
+description of so many natural phenomena, so fine in feeling or
+truthful in delineation. It should go far to dispel the too prevalent
+ideas of early Oriental ignorance, and should lead to a more full
+appreciation of these noble pictures of nature, unsurpassed in the
+literature of any people or time. I trust that the previous
+illustrations are sufficient to show, not only that the _stereoma_, or
+solid firmament of the Septuagint, is not to be found in Scripture,
+but that the positive doctrine of the Bible on the subject is of a
+very different character. For instance, in the above extract from the
+book of Job, Elihu speaks of the poising or suspension of the clouds
+as inscrutable, and tells us that God draws up water into the clouds,
+and pours down rain according to the vapor thereof; he also speaks of
+the clouds as being scattered before the brightness of the sun; and
+notices, in truthful as well as exalted language, the nature and
+succession of the lightning's flash, the thunder, and the
+precipitation of rain that follows. Solomon also informs us that the
+"establishment of the clouds above" is due to the law or will of
+Jehovah. Finally, in this connection, the divine sanction given to the
+use of the term heaven for the atmosphere may in itself be regarded as
+an intimation that no definite barrier separates our film of
+atmosphere from the boundless abyss of heaven without.
+
+Of this period natural science gives us no intimation. In the earliest
+geological epochs organic life, dry land, and an atmosphere already
+existed. At the period now under consideration the two former had not
+been called into existence, and the latter was in process of
+elaboration from the materials of the primeval deep. If the formation
+of the atmosphere in its existing conditions was, as already hinted, a
+result of the gradual cooling of the earth, then this period must have
+been of great length, and the action of the heated waters on the crust
+of the globe may have produced thick layers of detrital matter
+destined to form the first soils of the succeeding �on. We know
+nothing, however, of these primitive strata, and most of them must
+have been removed by denuding agencies in succeeding periods, or
+restored by subterranean heat to the crystalline state. The events and
+results of this day may be summed up as follows:
+
+"At the commencement of the period the earth was enveloped by a misty
+or vaporous mantle. In its progress those relations of air and vapor
+which cause the separation of the clouds from the earth by a layer of
+clear air, and the varied alternations of sunshine and rain, were
+established. At the close of the period the newly formed atmosphere
+covered a universal ocean; and there was probably a very regular and
+uniform condition of the atmospheric currents, and of the processes of
+evaporation and condensation."
+
+But while we must affirm that no idea of a solid atmospheric vault can
+be detected in the Bible, and while we may also affirm that such an idea
+would have been altogether foreign to its tone, which invariably refers
+all things not to secondary machinery, but to the will and fiat of the
+Supreme, we must not forget that a most important moral purpose was to
+be served by the assertion of the establishment of the atmospheric
+expanse. Among all nations the phenomena of the atmosphere have had
+important theological and mythological relations. The ever-changing and
+apparently capricious aspects of the atmosphere and its clouds, the
+terrible effects of storms, and the balmy influence of sunshine and
+calm, deeply impress the minds of simple and superstitious men, and
+this all the more that in their daily life and expeditions they are
+constantly subjected to the effects of atmospheric vicissitudes. Hence
+the greatest gods of all the ancient nations are weather-gods--rulers of
+the atmospheric heavens--displaying their anger in the thunder-storm and
+tornado. It is likely that in most cases, as in many barbarous tribes of
+modern times, these weather-gods were malevolent beings contending
+against the genial influences of the heavenly Sun-god; but in nearly
+every case their supposed practical importance has elevated them, as in
+the case of the Olympian Zeus, the Scandinavian Thor, and the American
+Hurakon, to the place of supreme divinity. This was one of the
+superstitions which the Hebrew monotheism had to overcome. Hence the
+atmosphere is affirmed to be under Jehovah's law, and all its phenomena
+are attributed to his power. The value of this as cutting at the root of
+the most widespread superstitions it is easy to understand, and it has a
+farther value in teaching that even the apparently unstable and
+capricious air is a thing established from the first and amenable to the
+ordinance of God. How difficult it has been to eradicate superstitious
+views of the atmosphere may be learned from the fact that St. Paul, in
+writing to the enlightened citizens of Ephesus, could speak of the power
+which the heathen worshipped as the "Prince of the powers of the air,"
+and it is also evidenced by the abundant notions of this kind which have
+survived from the Middle Ages among the more ignorant part of the people
+even in lands called Christian.
+
+While, however, the Bible affirms the atmosphere to be subject to law,
+it does not carry this into the domain of physical necessity, and
+affirm with some modern materialistic philosophers that it is useless
+to pray for rain. It is God who gives rain from heaven and fruitful
+seasons, and what he gives he can withhold. Perhaps no part of our
+subject can better than this illustrate the rational distinction
+between a mere physical fatalism, or a mere superstitious fear of
+capricious nature, and that belief in a divine Lawgiver which lies
+between these extremes. Modern science may smile at the poor Indian,
+who in his fear invokes Hurakon or Tlaloc or the terrible
+Thunder-bird, and may even despise that nobler worship of the great
+Phoenician Sun-god, the source and fountain of all light and life;
+against which, though it was the grandest of all the old idolatries,
+Elijah waged war to the death. But may it not equally deride the faith
+of Elijah himself, when, after three years of drought, he prayed in
+the sight of assembled Israel for rain? It may do so if physical law
+amounts to an invariable necessity, and if there is no supreme Will
+behind it. But if natural laws are the expression of the divine will,
+if these laws are multiform and complicated in their relations, and
+regulate vastly varied causes interacting with each other, and if the
+action and welfare of man come within the scope of these laws, then
+there is nothing irrational in the supposition that God, without any
+capricious or miraculous intervention, may have so correlated the
+myriad adjustments of his creation as that, while it is his usual rule
+that rain falls alike on the evil and on the good, he may make its
+descent at particular times and places to depend on the needs and
+requests of his own children. In truth the belief in law is essential
+to the philosophical conception of prayer. If the universe were a mere
+chaos of chances, or if it were a result of absolute necessity, there
+would be no place for intelligent prayer; but if it is under the
+control of a Lawgiver, wise and merciful, not a mere manager of
+material machinery, but a true Father of all, then we can go to such
+a being with our requests, not in the belief that we can change his
+great plans, or that any advantage could result from this if it were
+possible, but that these plans may be made in his boundless wisdom and
+love to meet our necessities. There is also in the Bible the farther
+promise that, if we are truly the children of God, regulating our
+conduct by his will and enlightened by his spirit, we shall know how
+to pray for what is in accordance with his divine purpose, and how to
+receive with gladness whatever he sees fit to give. While, therefore,
+the Biblical doctrine as to natural law emancipates us from fears of
+angry storm-demons, it draws us near to a heavenly Father, whose power
+is above all the tempests of earth, and who, while ruling by law, has
+regulated all things in conformity with the higher law of love. When
+God had made the atmosphere, he saw that it was good, and the highest
+significance is given to this by the consideration that God is love.
+The position of the Bible is thus the true mean between superstitions
+at once unhappy and debasing, and a materialistic infidelity that
+would reduce the universe to a dead, remorseless machine, in which we
+must struggle for a precarious existence till we are crushed between
+its wheels.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE DRY LAND AND THE FIRST PLANTS.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let the waters under the heavens be gathered
+     into one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.
+     And God called the dry land earth, and the gathering of
+     waters called he seas; and God saw that it was good.
+
+     "And God said, Let the earth bring forth the springing herb,
+     the herb bearing seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit,
+     after its kind, whose seed is in it on the earth: and it was
+     so. And the earth brought forth the tender herb, the herb
+     yielding seed, and the tree bearing fruit whose seed is in
+     it, after its kind; and God saw that it was good."--Genesis
+     i., 10, 11.
+
+These are events sufficiently simple and intelligible in their general
+character. Geology shows us that the emergence of the dry land must
+have resulted from the elevation of parts of the bed of the ancient
+universal ocean, and that the agent employed in such changes is the
+bending and crumpling of the outer crust of the earth, caused by
+lateral pressure, and operating either in a slow and regular manner or
+by sudden paroxysms. It farther informs us that the existing
+continents consist of stratified or bedded masses, more or less
+inclined, fissured and irregularly elevated, and usually supported by
+crystalline rocks which have been produced among them, or forced up
+beneath or through them by internal agencies, and which truly
+constitute the pillars and foundations of the earth. These elevations,
+it is true, were successive, and belong to different periods; but the
+appearance of the first dry land is that intended here.
+
+The elevation of the dry land is more frequently referred to in
+Scripture than any other cosmological fact; and while all have been
+misapprehended, the statements on this subject have been even more
+unjustly dealt with than others. In the text, the word "earth"
+(_aretz_[78]) is, by divine sanction, narrowed in meaning to the dry
+land; but while some expositors are quite willing to restrict it to
+this, or even a more limited sense, in the first and second verses of
+this chapter, almost the only verses in the Bible where the terms of
+the narrative make such a restriction inadmissible, they are equally
+ready to understand it as meaning the whole globe in places where the
+explanatory clause in the verse now under consideration teaches us
+that we should understand the land only, as distinguished from the
+sea. I may quote some of these passages, and note the views they give;
+always bearing in mind that, after the intimation here given, we must
+understand the term "earth" as applying _only to the continents_ or
+_dry land_, unless where the context otherwise fixes the meaning. We
+may first turn to Psalm civ.:
+
+  "Thou laidst the foundations of the earth,
+  That it should never be removed;
+  Thou coveredst it with the deep as with a garment;
+  The waters stood above the mountains;
+  At thy rebuke they fled;
+  At the sound of thy thunder they hasted away;
+  Mountains ascended, valleys descended
+  To the place thou hast appointed for them:
+  Thou hast appointed them bounds that they may not pass,
+  That they return not again to cover the earth."
+
+The position of these verses in this "the hymn of creation" leaves no
+doubt that they refer to the events we are now considering. I have
+given above the literal reading of the line that refers to the
+elevation of mountains and subsidence of valleys; admitting, however,
+that the grammatical construction gives an air of probability to the
+rendering in our version, "they go up by the mountains, they go down
+by the valleys," which, on the other hand, is rendered very improbable
+by the sense. In whichever sense we understand this line, the picture
+presented to us by the Psalmist includes the elevation of the
+mountains and continents, the subsidence of the waters into their
+depressed basins, and the firm establishment of the dry land on its
+rocky foundations, the whole accompanied by a feature not noticed in
+Genesis--the voice of God's thunder--or, in other words, electrical
+and volcanic explosions. The following quotations refer to the same
+subject:
+
+  "Before the mountains were settled,
+  Before the hills was I (the Wisdom of God) brought forth;
+  While as yet he had not made the earth,
+  Nor the plains, nor the higher parts of the habitable world.
+  When he gave the sea his decree
+  That the waters should not pass his limits,
+  When he determined the foundations of the earth."
+
+  --Proverbs viii., 25.
+
+  "Thou hast established the earth, and it endureth,
+  According to thy decrees they continue this day,
+  For all are thy servants."
+
+  --Psalm cxix., 90.
+
+  "Who shaketh the earth out of its place,
+  And its pillars tremble."
+
+  --Job ix., 6.
+
+  "Where wast thou when I founded the earth?
+  Declare, if thou hast knowledge.
+  Who hath fixed the proportion thereof, if thou knowest?
+  Who stretched the line upon it?
+  Upon what are its foundations settled?
+  Or who laid its corner-stone,
+  When the morning stars sang together,
+  And all the sons of God shouted for joy?
+  Who shut up the sea with doors
+  In its bursting forth as from the womb?
+  When I made the cloud its garment,
+  And swathed it in thick darkness,
+  I measured out for it my limit,
+  And fixed its bars and doors;
+  And said, Thus far shalt thou come, but no farther,
+  And here shall thy proud waves be stayed."
+
+  --Job xxxviii., 4.
+
+In these passages the foundation of the earth at first, as well as the
+shaking of its pillars by the earthquake, are connected with what we
+usually call natural law--the decree of the Almighty--the unchanging
+arrangements of an unchangeable Creator, whose "hands formed the dry
+land."[79] This is the ultimate cause not only of the elevation of the
+land, but of all other natural things and processes. The naturalist
+does not require to be informed that the details, in so far as they
+are referred to in the above passages, are perfectly in accordance
+with what we know of the nature and support of continental masses.
+Geological observation and mathematical calculation have in our day
+combined their powers to give clear views of the manner in which the
+fractured strata of the earth are wedged and arched together, and
+supported by internal igneous masses upheaved from beneath, and
+subsequently cooled and hardened. A general view of these facts which
+we have learned from scientific inquiry, the Hebrews gleaned with
+nearly as much precision from the short account of the elevation of
+the land in Genesis, and from the later comments of their inspired
+poets. From the same source our own great poet, Milton, learned these
+cosmical facts, before the rise of geology, and expressed them in
+unexceptionable terms:
+
+            "The mountains huge appear
+  Emergent, and their broad bare backs upheave
+  Into the clouds, their tops ascend the sky.
+  So high as heaved the tumid hills, so low
+  Down sunk a hollow bottom, broad and deep,
+  Capacious bed of waters."
+
+In further illustration of the opinions of the Scripture writers
+respecting the nature of the earth, and the disturbances to which it
+is liable, I quote the following passages. The first is from the
+magnificent description of Jehovah descending to succor his people
+amid the terrors of the earthquake, the volcano, and the
+thunder-storm, in Psalm xviii.:
+
+  "Then shook and trembled the earth,
+  The foundations of the hills moved and were shaken,
+  Because he was angry.
+  Smoke went up from his nostrils,
+  Fire from his mouth devoured,
+  Coals were kindled by it.
+  Then were seen the channels of the waters,
+  And the foundations of the world were discovered,
+  At thy rebuke--O Jehovah--
+  At the blast of the breath of thy nostrils."
+
+In another place in the Psalms we find volcanic action thus tersely
+sketched:
+
+  "He looketh on the earth and it trembleth,
+  He toucheth the hills and they smoke."
+
+  --Psalm civ., 32.
+
+Perhaps the most remarkable discourse on this subject in the whole
+Bible is that in Job xxviii., in which mining operations are
+introduced as an illustration of the difficulty of obtaining true
+wisdom. This passage is interesting both from its extreme antiquity,
+and the advancement in knowledge and practical skill which it
+indicates. It presents, however, many difficulties; and its details
+have almost entirely lost their true significance in our common
+English version:
+
+  "Surely there is a vein for silver,
+  And a place for the gold which men refine;
+  Iron is taken from the earth,
+  And copper is molten from the ore.
+  To the end of darkness and to all extremes man searcheth,
+  For the stones of darkness and the shadow of death.
+  He opens a passage [shaft] from where men dwell,
+  Unsupported by the foot, they hang down and swing to and fro.[80]
+  The earth--out of it cometh bread;
+  And beneath, it is overturned as by fire.[81]
+  Its stones are the place of sapphires,
+  And it hath lumps[82] of gold.
+  The path (thereto) the bird of prey hath not known,
+  The vulture's eye hath not seen it.[83]
+  The wild beasts' whelps have not trodden it,
+  The lion hath not passed over it.
+  Man layeth his hand on the hard rock,
+  He turneth up the mountains from their roots,
+  He cutteth channels [_adits_] in the rocks,
+  His eye seeth every precious thing.
+  He restraineth the streams from trickling,
+  And bringeth the hidden thing to light.
+  But where shall wisdom be found,
+  And where is the place of understanding?"
+
+This passage, incidentally introduced, gives us a glimpse of the
+knowledge of the interior of the earth and its products, as it existed
+in an age probably anterior to that of Moses. It brings before us the
+repositories of the valuable metals and gems--the mining operations,
+apparently of some magnitude and difficulty, undertaken in extracting
+them--and the wonderful structure of the earth itself, green and
+productive at the surface, rich in precious metals beneath, and deeper
+still the abode of intense subterranean fires. The only thing wanting
+to give completeness to the picture is some mention of the fossil
+remains buried in the earth; and, as the main thought is the eager and
+successful search for useful minerals, this can hardly be regarded as
+a defect. The application of all this is finer than almost any thing
+else in didactic poetry. Man can explore depths of the earth
+inaccessible to all other creatures, and extract thence treasures of
+inestimable value; yet, after thus exhausting all the natural riches
+of the earth, he too often lacks that highest wisdom which alone can
+fit him for the true ends of his spiritual being. How true is all
+this, even in our own wonder-working days! A poet of to-day could
+scarcely say more of subterranean wonders, or say it more truthfully
+and beautifully; nor could he arrive at a conclusion more pregnant
+with the highest philosophy than the closing words:
+
+  "The fear of the Lord, that is wisdom;
+  And to depart from evil is understanding."
+
+The emergence of the dry land is followed by a repetition of the
+approval of the Creator. "God saw that it was good." To our view that
+primeval dry land would scarcely have seemed good. It was a world of
+bare, rocky peaks, and verdureless valleys--here active volcanoes,
+with their heaps of scori� and scarcely cooled lava currents--there
+vast mudflats, recently upheaved from the bottom of the
+waters--nowhere even a blade of grass or a clinging lichen. Yet it was
+good in the view of its Maker, who could see it in relation to the
+uses for which he had made it, and as a fit preparatory step to the
+new wonders he was soon to introduce. Then too, as we are informed in
+Job xxxviii., "The morning stars sang together, and all the sons of
+God shouted for joy." We also, when we think of the beautiful variety
+of the terrestrial surface, the character and composition of its
+soils, the variety of climate and exposure resulting from its degrees
+of elevation, the arrangements for the continuance of springs and
+streams, and many other beneficial provisions connected with the
+merely mechanical arrangements of the dry land, may well join in the
+tribute of praise to the All-wise Creator. There is, however, a
+farther thought suggested by the approval of the great Artificer. In
+this wondrous progress of creation, it seems as if every thing at
+first was in its best estate. No succeeding state could parallel the
+unbroken symmetry of the earth in the fluid and vaporous condition of
+the "deep." Before the elevation of the land, the atmospheric currents
+and the deposition of moisture must have been surpassingly regular.
+The first dry land may have presented crags and peaks and ravines and
+volcanic cones in a more marvellous and perfect manner than any
+succeeding continents--even as the dry and barren moon now, in this
+respect, far surpasses the earths. In the progress of organic life,
+geology gives similar indications, in the variety and magnitude of
+many animal types on their first introduction; so that this may very
+possibly be a law of creation.
+
+During the emergence of the first dry land, large quantities of
+detrital matter must have been deposited in the waters, and in part
+elevated into land. All of these beds would, probably, be destitute of
+organic remains; but if such beds were formed and still remain, they
+are probably unknown to us, for the oldest formations that we
+know--those of the Eozoic age--contain traces of such remains. It has,
+indeed, been suggested that these most ancient organisms are, as it
+were, overlooked in the history of creation, or regarded as equivalent
+to those shapeless monsters and animals of the darkness that are
+referred to in the older Turanian versions of this story of creation.
+I doubt very much, however, if this is a fair interpretation of our
+ancient record; but we shall be in a better position to discuss it
+when we come to the actual introduction of animals.
+
+Modern analogy would induce us to believe that the land was not
+elevated suddenly; but either by a series of small paroxysms, as in
+the case of Chili, or by a gradual and imperceptible movement, as in
+the case of Sweden--two of the most remarkable modern instances of
+elevation of land--accompanied, however, in the case of the last by
+local subsidence.[84] In either of these ways the seas and rivers
+would have time to smooth the more rugged inequalities, to widen the
+ravines into valleys, and to spread out sediment in the lower grounds;
+thus fitting the surface for the habitation of plants and animals. We
+must not suppose, however, that the dry land had any close resemblance
+to that now existing in its form or distribution. Geology amply
+proves that since the first appearance of dry land, its contour has
+frequently been changed, and probably also its position. Hence nearly
+all our present land consists of rocks which have been formed under
+the waters, long after the period now under consideration, and have
+been subsequently hardened and elevated; and since all the existing
+high mountain ranges are of a comparatively late age, it is probable
+that this primeval dry land was low, as well as, in the earlier part
+of the period at least, of comparatively small extent. It is, however,
+by no means certain that there may not have been a greater expanse of
+land toward the close of this period than that which afterwards
+existed in those older periods of animal life to which the earliest
+fossiliferous rocks of the geologist carry us back; since, as already
+hinted, it seems to be a rule in creation that each new object shall
+be highly developed of its kind at its first appearance, and since
+there have been in geological time many great subsidences as well as
+elevations. Neither must we forget that the oldest land has been
+subjected throughout geological time to wearing and degrading
+agencies, and that from its waste the later formations have been
+mainly derived.
+
+It would be wrong, however, to omit to state that, though we may know
+at present no remains of the first dry land, we are not ignorant of
+its general distribution; for the present continents show, in the
+arrangement of their formations and mountain chains, evidence that
+they are parts of a plan sketched out from the beginning. It has often
+been remarked by physical geographers that the great lines of coast
+and mountain ranges are generally in directions approaching to
+northeast and southwest, or northwest and southeast, and that where
+they run in other directions, as in the case of the south of Europe
+and Asia, they are much broken by salient and re-entering angles,
+formed by lines having these directions. Professor R. Owen, of
+Tennessee, and Professor Pierce, of Harvard College, were, I believe,
+the first to point out that these lines are in reality parts of great
+circles tangent to the polar circles, and the latter to suggest a
+theory of their origin, based on the action of solar heat and the
+seasons on a cooling earth. This has been more fully stated by Mr. W.
+Lowthian Green in his curious book, "Vestiges of the Molten
+Globe."[85] It would appear that the great circles in question are in
+reality at right angles to the line of direction of the attraction of
+the sun and moon at the period of either solstice, and when they
+happen to be in conjunction or opposition at these periods; and that
+such circles would be the lines on which the thin crust of a cooling
+globe would be most likely to be ruptured by its internal tidal-wave.
+Whatever the cause of the phenomenon, it is evident that in the
+formation of its surface inequalities the earth has cracked--so to
+speak--along two series of great circles tangent to the polar circles;
+and that these, with certain subordinate lines of fracture running
+north and south and east and west, have determined the forms of the
+continents from their origin.
+
+M. Elie de Beaumont, and after him most other geologists, have
+attributed the elevation of the continents and the upheaval and
+plication of mountain chains to the secular refrigeration of the
+earth, causing its outer shell to become too capacious for its
+contracting interior mass, and thus to break or bend, and to settle
+toward the centre. This view would well accord with the terms in which
+the elevation of the land is mentioned throughout the Bible, and
+especially with the general progress of the work as we have gleaned
+it from the Mosaic narrative; since from the period of the desolate
+void and aeriform deep to that now before us secular refrigeration
+must have been steadily in progress. Let us also observe here that the
+earliest fractures of the crust would determine the first coast lines,
+and the first slopes along which sedimentary matter would descend from
+the land and be deposited in the sea. They would also modify the
+direction of the ocean currents. Thus the deposition of new formations
+would be directed by these old lines, as would also to some extent the
+course of all subsequent fractures and plications. Thus it happens
+that the lines of outcrop of the oldest rocks first raised out of the
+waters already marked out the forms of the continents, and that the
+later formations appear rather as fillings-up and extensions of the
+skeleton established by the first dry land. Farther, the lines of
+plication first established along the borders of the continents formed
+resisting walls along which, in the continued contraction of the
+earth, pressure was exerted from the ocean bed, widening and elevating
+these lines of upheaval, and still farther fixing the general forms of
+the continents, and giving variety to their surfaces. In the progress
+of geological time there have also been successive depressions and
+re-elevations of the continental plateaus, subjecting them alternately
+to the wearing and disintegrating action of the atmosphere and its
+waters, and to the influence of waves and ocean currents, and
+especially to that of the deep-seated polar currents which have
+throughout geological ages been loading the submerged areas of the
+earth's surface with the products of the waste caused by frost and ice
+in the polar regions. These causes again have been progressively
+increasing the oblateness of the earth's figure, and, along with the
+slackening of its rotation, preparing the way for those periodical
+collapses in the equatorial and temperate regions which form the
+boundaries of some of our most important geological periods.[86]
+Throughout all these changes the great general plan of the continents,
+first sketched out when the "foundations of the earth" were laid,
+before Eozoic time, was being elaborated.
+
+The same creative period that witnessed the first appearance of dry
+land saw it also clothed with vegetation; and it is quite likely that
+this is intended to teach that no time was lost in clothing the earth
+with plants--that the first emerging portions received their vegetable
+tenants as they became fitted for them--and that each additional
+region, as it rose above the surface of the waters, in like manner
+received the species of plants for which it was adapted. What was the
+nature of this earliest vegetation? The sacred writer specifies three
+descriptions of plants as included in it; and, by considering the
+terms which he uses, some information on this subject may be gained.
+
+_Desh�_, translated "grass" in our version, is derived from a verb
+signifying to spring up or bud forth; the same verb, indeed, used in
+this verse to denote "bringing forth," literally causing to spring up.
+Its radical meaning is, therefore, vegetation in the act of sprouting
+or springing forth; or, as connected with this, young and delicate
+herbage. Thus, in Job xxxviii., "To satisfy the desolate and waste
+ground, and to cause the bud of the _young herbage_ to spring forth."
+Here the reference is, no doubt, to the bulbous and tuberous rooted
+plants of the desert plains, which, fading away in the summer drought,
+burst forth with magical rapidity on the setting-in of rain. The
+following passages are similar: Psalm xxiii., "He maketh me to lie
+down in green pastures" (literally, young or _tender herbage_);
+Deuteronomy xxiii., "Small rain upon the _tender herb_;" Isaiah
+xxxvii., "_Grass_ on the house-tops." The word is also used for
+herbage such as can be eaten by cattle or cut down for fodder, though
+even in these cases the idea of young and tender herbage is evidently
+included; "Fat as a heifer at _grass_" (Jer. xiv.)--that is, feeding
+on young succulent grass, not that which is dry and parched. "Cut down
+as the grass, or wither as the green herb," like the soft, tender
+grass, soon cut down and quickly withering. With respect to the use of
+the word in this place, I may remark: 1. It is not here correctly
+translated by the word "grass;" for grass bears seed, and is,
+consequently, a member of the second class of plants mentioned. Even
+if we set aside all idea of inspiration, it is obviously impossible
+that any one living among a pastoral or agricultural people could have
+been ignorant of this fact. 2. It can scarcely be a general term,
+including all plants when in a young or tender state. The idea of
+their springing up is included in the verb, and this was but a very
+temporary condition. Besides, this word does not appear to be employed
+for the young state of shrubs or trees. 3. We thus appear to be shut
+up to the conclusion that _desh�_ here means those plants, mostly
+small and herbaceous, which bear no proper seeds;[87] in other words,
+the Cryptogamia--as fungi, mosses, lichens, ferns, etc. The remaining
+words are translated with sufficient accuracy in our version. They
+denote seed-bearing or phoenogamous herbs and trees. The special
+mention of the fructification of plants is probably intended not only
+for distinction, but also to indicate the new power of organic
+reproduction now first introduced on the surface of our planet, and to
+mark its difference from the creative act itself. That this new and
+wondrous phenomenon should be so stated is thus in strict scientific
+propriety, and it is precisely the point that would be seized by an
+intelligent spectator of the visions of creation, who had previously
+witnessed only the accretion and disintegration of mineral substances,
+and to whom this marvellous power of organic reproduction would be in
+every respect a new creation.
+
+The arrangement of plants in the three great classes of cryptogams,
+seed-bearing herbs, and fruit-bearing trees differs in one important
+point--viz., the separation of herbaceous plants from trees--from
+modern botanical classification. It is, however, sufficiently natural
+for the purposes of a general description like this, and perhaps gives
+more precise ideas of the meaning intended than any other arrangement
+equally concise and popular. It is also probable that the object of
+the writer was not so much a natural-history classification as an
+account of the _order_ of creation, and that he wishes to affirm that
+the introduction of these three classes of plants on the earth
+corresponded with the order here stated. This view renders it
+unnecessary to vindicate the accuracy of the arrangement on botanical
+grounds, since the historical order was evidently better suited to the
+purpose in view, and in so far as the earlier appearance of
+cryptogamous plants is concerned, it is in strict accordance with
+geological fact.
+
+A very important truth is contained in the expression "after its
+kind"--that is, after its _species_; for the Hebrew "_min_," used
+here, has strictly this sense, and, like the Greek _idea_ and the
+Latin _species_, conveys the notion of form as well as that of kind.
+It is used to denote species of animals, in Leviticus i., 14, and in
+Deuteronomy xiv., 15. We are taught by this statement that plants were
+created each kind by itself; and that creation was not a sort of
+slump-work to be perfected by the operation of a law of development,
+as fancied by some modern speculators. In this assertion of the
+distinctness of species, and the production of each as a distinct part
+of the creative plan, revelation tallies perfectly with the
+conclusions of natural science, which lead us to believe that each
+species, as observed by us, is permanently reproductive, variable
+within narrow limits, and incapable of permanent intermixture with
+other species; and though hypotheses of modification by descent, and
+of the production of new species by such modification, may be formed,
+they are not in accordance with experience, and are still among the
+unproved speculations which haunt the outskirts of true science. We
+shall be better prepared, however, to weigh the relations of such
+hypotheses to our revelation of origins when we shall have reached the
+period of the introduction of animal life.
+
+Some additional facts contained in the recapitulation of the creative
+work in Chapter II. may very properly be considered here, as they seem
+to refer to the climatal conditions of the earth during the growth of
+the most ancient vegetation, and before the final adjustment of the
+astronomical relations of the earth on the fourth day. "And every
+shrub of the land before it was on the earth, and every herb of the
+land before it sprung up. For the Lord God had not caused it to rain
+on the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground; but a mist
+ascended from the earth and watered the whole surface of the ground."
+This has been supposed to be a description of the state of the earth
+during the whole period anterior to the fall of man. There is,
+however, no Scripture evidence of this; and geology informs us that
+rain fell as at present far back in the Pal�ozoic period, countless
+ages before the creation of man or the existing animals. Although,
+however, such a condition of the earth as that stated in these verses
+has not been known in any geological period, yet it is not
+inconceivable, but in reality corresponds with the other conditions of
+nature likely to have prevailed on the third day, as described in
+Genesis. The land of this period, we may suppose, was not very
+extensive nor very elevated. Hence the temperature would be uniform
+and the air moist. The luminous and calorific matter connected with
+the sun still occupied a large space, and therefore diffused heat and
+light more uniformly than at present. The internal heat of the earth
+may still have produced an effect in warming the oceanic waters. The
+combined operation of these causes, of which we, perhaps, have some
+traces as late as the Carboniferous period, might well produce a state
+of things in which the earth was watered, not by showers of rain, but
+by the gentle and continued precipitation of finely divided moisture,
+in the manner now observed in those climates in which vegetation is
+nourished for a considerable part of the year by nocturnal mists and
+copious dews. The atmosphere, in short, as yet partook in some slight
+degree of the same moist and misty character which prevailed before
+the "establishment of the clouds above"--the airy firmament of the
+second day. The introduction of these explanatory particulars by the
+sacred historian furnishes an additional argument for the theory of
+long periods. That vegetation should exist for two or three natural
+days without rain or the irrigation which is given in culture, was, as
+already stated, a circumstance altogether unworthy of notice; but the
+growth during a long period of a varied and highly organized flora,
+without this advantage, and by the aid of a special natural provision
+afterward discontinued, was in all respects so remarkable and so
+highly illustrative of the expedients of the divine wisdom that it
+deserved a prominent place.
+
+It is evident that the words of the inspired writer include plants
+belonging to all the great subdivisions of the vegetable kingdom. This
+earliest vegetation was not rude or incomplete, or restricted to the
+lower forms of life. It was not even, like that of the coal period,
+solely or mainly cryptogamous or gymnospermous. It included trees
+bearing fruit, as well as lichens and mosses, and it received the same
+stamp of approbation bestowed on other portions of the work--"it was
+good." We have a good right to assume that its excellence had
+reference not only to its own period, but to subsequent conditions of
+the earth. Vegetation is the great assimilating power, the converter
+of inorganic into organic matter suitable for the sustenance of
+animals. In like manner the lower tribes of plants prepare the way for
+the higher. We should therefore have expected _� priori_ that
+vegetation would have clothed the earth before the creation of
+animals, and a sufficient time before it to allow soils to be
+accumulated, and surplus stores of organic matter to be prepared in
+advance: this consideration alone would also induce us to assign a
+considerable duration to the third day. After the elevation of land,
+and the draining off from it of the saline matter with which it would
+be saturated, a process often very tedious, especially in low tracts
+of ground, the soil would still consist only of mineral matter, and
+must have been for a long period occupied by plants suited to this
+condition of things, in order that sufficient organic matter might be
+accumulated for the growth of a more varied vegetation; a
+consideration which perhaps illustrates the order of the plants in the
+narrative.
+
+It may be objected to the above views that, however accordant with
+chemical and physiological probabilities, they do not harmonize with
+the facts of geology; since the earliest fossiliferous formations
+contain almost exclusively the remains of animals, which must
+therefore have preceded, or at least been coeval with, the earliest
+forms of terrestrial vegetation. This objection is founded on
+well-ascertained facts, but facts which may have no connection with
+the third day of creation when regarded as a long period. The oldest
+geological formations are of marine origin, and contain remains of
+marine animals, with those of plants supposed to be allied to the
+existing alg� or sea-weeds. Geology can not, however, assure us either
+that no land plants existed contemporaneously with these earliest
+animals, or that no land flora preceded them. These oldest
+fossiliferous rocks may mark the commencement of animal life, but they
+testify nothing as to the existence or non-existence of a previous
+period of vegetation alone. Farther, the rocks which contain the
+oldest remains of life exist as far as yet known in a condition so
+highly metamorphic as almost to preclude the possibility of their
+containing any distinguishable vegetable fossils; yet they contain
+vast deposits of carbon in the form of graphite, and if this, like
+more modern coaly matter, was accumulated by vegetable growth, it must
+indicate an exuberance of plants in these earliest geological periods,
+but of plants as yet altogether unknown to us. It is possible,
+therefore, that in these Eozoic rocks we may have remnants of the
+formations of the third Mosaic day; and if we should ever be so
+fortunate as to find any portion of them containing vegetable fossils,
+and these of species differing from any hitherto known, either in a
+fossil state or recent, and rising higher, in elevation and complexity
+of type, than the flora of the succeeding Silurian and Carboniferous
+eras, we may then suppose that we have penetrated to the monuments of
+this third creative �on. The only other alternative by which these
+verses can be reconciled with geology is that adopted by the late Hugh
+Miller, who supposes that the plants of the third day are those of the
+Carboniferous period; but, besides the apparent anachronism involved
+in this, we now know that the coal flora consisted mainly of
+cryptogams allied to ferns and club-mosses, and of gymnosperms allied
+to the pines and cycads, the higher orders of plants being almost
+entirely wanting. For these reasons we are shut up to the conclusion
+that this flora of the third day must have its place before the
+Pal�ozoic period of geology.
+
+To those who are familiar with the vast lapse of time required by the
+geological history of the earth, it may be startling to ascribe the
+whole of it to three or four of the creative days. If, however, it be
+admitted that these days were periods of unknown duration, no reason
+remains for limiting their length any farther than the facts of the
+case require. If in the strata of the earth which are accessible to us
+we can detect the evidence of its existence for myriads of years, why
+may not its Creator be able to carry our view back for myriads more.
+It may be humbling to our pride of knowledge, but it is not on any
+scientific ground improbable, that the oldest animal remains known to
+geology belong to the middle period of the earth's history, and were
+preceded by an enormous lapse of ages in which the earth was being
+prepared for animal existence, but of which no records remain, except
+those contained in the inspired history.
+
+It would be quite unphilosophical for geology to affirm either that
+animal life must always have existed, or that its earliest animals are
+necessarily the earliest organic beings. To use, with a slight
+modification, the words of an able thinker on these subjects,[88]
+"For ages the prejudice prevailed that the historical period, or that
+which is coeval with the life of man, exhausted the whole history of
+the globe. Geologists removed that prejudice," but must not substitute
+"another in its place, viz., that geological time is coeval with the
+globe itself, or that organic life always existed on its surface."
+
+A second doubt as to the existence of this primitive flora may be
+based on the statement that it included the highest forms of plants.
+Had it consisted only of low and imperfect vegetables, there might
+have been much less difficulty in admitting its probability. Farther,
+we find that even in the Carboniferous period scarcely any plants of
+the higher orders flourished, and there was a preponderance of the
+lower forms of the vegetable kingdom. We have, however, in geological
+chronology, many illustrations of the fact that the progress of
+improvement has not been continuous or uninterrupted, and that the
+preservation of the flora and fauna of many geological periods has
+been very imperfect. Hence the occurrence in one particular stratum or
+group of strata of few or low representatives of animal and vegetable
+life affords no proof that a better state of things may not have
+existed previously. We also find, in the case of animals, that each
+tribe attained to its highest development at the time when, in the
+progress of creation, it occupied the summit of the scale of life.
+Analogy would thus lead us to believe that when plants alone existed,
+they may have assumed nobler forms than any now existing, or that
+tribes now represented by few and humble species may at that time have
+been so great in numbers and development as to fill all the offices of
+our present complicated flora, as well as, perhaps, some of those now
+occupied by animals. We have this principle exemplified in the
+Carboniferous flora, by the magnitude of its arborescent club-mosses,
+and the vast variety of its gymnosperms. For this reason we may
+anticipate that if any remains of this early plant-creation should be
+disinterred, they will prove to be among the most wonderful and
+interesting geological relics ever discovered, and will enlarge our
+views of the compass and capabilities of the vegetable kingdom, and
+especially of its lower forms.
+
+A farther objection is the uselessness of the existence of plants for
+a long period, without any animals to subsist on or enjoy them, and
+even without forming any accumulation of fossil fuel or other products
+useful to man. The only direct answer to this has already been given.
+The previous existence of plants may have been, and probably was,
+essential to the comfort and subsistence of the animals afterwards
+introduced. Independently of this, however, we have an analogous case
+in the geological history of animals, which prevents this fact from
+standing alone. Why was the earth tenanted so long by the inferior
+races of animals, and why were so much skill and contrivance expended
+on their structures, and even on their external ornament, when there
+was no intelligent mind on earth to appreciate their beauties. Even in
+the present world we may as well ask why the uninhabited islands of
+the ocean are found to be replete with luxuriant vegetable life, why
+God causes it to rain in the desert where human foot never treads, or
+why he clothes with a marvellous exuberance of beautiful animal and
+plant forms the depths of the sea. We can but say that these things
+seemed and seem good to the Creator, and may serve uses unknown to us;
+and this is precisely what we must be content to say respecting the
+plant-creation of the Eozoic period.
+
+Some writers[89] on this subject have suggested that the cosmical use
+of this plant-creation was the abstraction from the atmosphere of an
+excess of carbonic acid unfavorable to the animal life subsequently to
+be introduced. This use it may have served, and when its effects had
+been gradually lost through metamorphism and decay, that second great
+withdrawal of carbon which took place in the Carboniferous period may
+have been rendered necessary. The reasons afforded by natural history
+for supposing that plants preceded animals are thus stated by
+Professor Dana:
+
+"The proof from science of the existence of plants before animals is
+inferential, and still may be deemed satisfactory. Distinct fossils
+have not been found, all that ever existed in the azoic[90] rocks
+having been obliterated. The arguments in the affirmative are as
+follows:
+
+"1. The existence of limestone rocks among the other beds, similar
+limestones in later ages having been of organic origin; also the
+occurrence of carbon in the shape of graphite, graphite being, in
+known cases in rocks, a result of the alteration of the carbon of
+plants.
+
+"2. The fact that the cooling earth would have been fitted for
+vegetable life for a long age before animals could have existed; the
+principle being exemplified everywhere that the earth was occupied at
+each period with the highest kinds of life the conditions allowed.
+
+"3. The fact that vegetation subserved an important purpose in the
+coal-period in ridding the atmosphere of carbonic acid for the
+subsequent introduction of land animals, suggests a valid reason for
+believing that the same great purpose, the true purpose of vegetation,
+was effected through the ocean before the _waters_ were fitted for
+animal life.
+
+"4. Vegetation being directly or mediately the food of animals, it
+must have had a previous existence. The latter part of the azoic age
+in geology we therefore regard as the age when the plant kingdom was
+instituted, the latter half of the third day in Genesis. However short
+or long the epoch, it was one of the great steps of progress."
+
+In concluding the examination of the work of the third day, I must
+again remind the reader that, on the theory of long creative periods,
+the words under consideration must refer to the first introduction of
+vegetation, in forms that have long since ceased to exist. Geology
+informs us that in the period of which it is cognizant the vegetation
+of the earth has been several times renewed, and that no plants of the
+older and middle geological periods now exist. We may therefore rest
+assured that the vegetable species, and probably also many of the
+generic and family forms of the vegetation of the third day, have long
+since perished, and been replaced by others suited to the changed
+condition of the earth. It is indeed probable that during the third
+and fourth days themselves there might be many removals and renewals
+of the terrestrial flora, so that perhaps every species created at the
+commencement of the introduction of plants may have been extinct
+before the close of the period. Nevertheless it was marked by the
+introduction of vegetation, which in one or another set of forms has
+ever since clothed the earth.
+
+At the commencement of the third day the earth was still covered by
+the waters. As time advanced islands and mountain-peaks arose from
+the ocean, vomiting forth the molten and igneous materials of the
+interior of the earth's crust. Plains and valleys were then spread
+around, rivers traced out their beds, and the ocean was limited by
+coasts and divided by far-stretching continents. At the command of the
+Creator plants sprung from the soil--the earliest of organized
+structures--at first probably few and small, and fitted to contend
+against the disadvantages of soils impregnated with saline particles
+and destitute of organic matter; but as the day advanced increasing in
+number, magnitude, and elevation, until at length the earth was
+clothed with a luxuriant and varied vegetation, worthy the approval of
+the Creator, and the admiring song of the angelic "sons of God."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+LUMINARIES.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let there be luminaries in the expanse of
+     heaven, to divide the day from the night; and let them be
+     for signs and for seasons, and for days and for years. And
+     let them be for luminaries in the expanse of heaven, to give
+     light on the earth: and it was so.
+
+     "And God made two great luminaries, the greater luminary to
+     preside over the day, the lesser luminary to preside over
+     the night. He made the stars also. And God placed them in
+     the expanse of heaven to give light on the earth, and to
+     preside over the day and over the night, and to separate the
+     light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good. And
+     the evening and the morning were the fourth day."--Genesis
+     i., 14-19.
+
+
+After so long a sojourn on the earth, we are in these verses again
+carried to the heavens. Every scientific reader is struck with the
+position of this remarkable statement, interrupting as it does the
+progress of the organic creation, and constituting a break in the
+midst of the terrestrial history which is the immediate subject of the
+narrative; thus, in effect, as has often been remarked, dividing the
+creative week into two portions. Why was the completion of the
+heavenly bodies so long delayed? Why were light and vegetation
+introduced previously? If we can not fully answer these questions, we
+may at least suppose that the position of these verses is not
+accidental, though certainly not that which would have been chosen for
+its own sake by any fabricator of systems ancient or modern. Let us
+inquire, however, what are the precise terms of the record.
+
+1. The word here used to denote the objects produced clearly
+distinguishes them from the product of the first day's creation. Then
+God said, "Let _light_ be;" he now says, "Let _luminaries_ or
+light-bearers be." We have already seen that the light of the first
+day may have emanated from an extended luminous mass, at first
+occupying the whole extent of the solar system, and more or less
+attached to the several planetary bodies, and afterwards concentrated
+within the earth's orbit. The verses now under consideration inform us
+that the process of concentration was now complete, that our great
+central luminary had attained to its perfect state. This process of
+concentration may have been proceeding during the whole of the
+intervening time, or it may have been completed at once by some more
+rapid process of the nature of a direct interposition of creative
+power.
+
+2. The division of light from darkness is expressed by the same terms,
+and is of the same nature with that on the first day. This separation
+was now produced in its full extent by the perfect condensation of the
+luminiferous matters around the sun.
+
+3. The heavenly bodies are said to be intended for _signs_--that is,
+for marks or indications--either of the seasons, days, and years
+afterwards mentioned, or of the majesty and power of the true God, as
+the Creator of objects so grand and elevated as to become to the
+ignorant heathen objects of idolatrous worship; or perhaps of the
+earthly events they are supposed to influence. The arrangements now
+perfected for the first time enabled natural days, seasons, and years
+to have their limits accurately marked. Previously to this period
+there had been no distinctly marked seasons, and consequently no
+natural separation of years, nor were the limits of days at all
+accurately defined.
+
+4. The terms _expanse_ and _heaven_, previously applied to the
+atmosphere, are here combined to denote the more distant starry and
+planetary heavens. There is no ambiguity involved in this, since the
+writer must have well known that no one could so far mistake as to
+suppose that the heavenly bodies are placed in that atmospheric
+expanse which supports the clouds.
+
+5. The luminaries were _made_ or appointed to their office on the
+fourth day. They are not said to have been created, being included in
+the creation of the beginning. They were now completed, and fully
+fitted for their work. An important part of this fitting seems to have
+been the setting or placing them in the heavens, conveying to us the
+impression that the mutual relations and regular motions of the
+heavenly bodies were now for the first time perfected.
+
+6. The stars are introduced in a parenthetical manner, which leaves it
+doubtful whether we are merely informed in general terms that they are
+works of God, as well as those heavenly bodies which are of more
+importance to us, or that they were arranged as heavenly luminaries
+useful to our earth on the fourth day. The term includes the fixed
+stars, and it is by no means probable that these were in any way
+affected by the work referred to the fourth day, any farther than
+their appearance from our earth is concerned. This view is confirmed
+by the language of the 104th Psalm, which in this part of the work
+mentions the sun and moon alone, without the fixed stars or planets.
+
+It is evident that the changes referred to this period related to the
+whole solar system, and resulted in the completion of that system in
+the form which it now bears, or at least in the final adjustment of
+the motions and relations of the earth; and we have reason to believe
+that the condensation of the luminous envelope around the sun was one
+of the most important of these changes. On the hypothesis of La Place,
+already referred to as most in accordance with the earlier stages of
+the work, there seems to be no especial reason why the completion of
+the process of elaboration of the sun and planets should be
+accelerated at this particular stage. We can easily understand,
+however, that those closing steps which brought the solar system into
+a state of permanent and final equilibrium would form a marked epoch
+in the work; and we can also understand that now, on the eve of the
+introduction of animal life, there is a certain propriety in the
+representation of the Creator interfering to close up the merely
+inorganic part of his great work, and bring this department at least
+to its final perfection. The fourth day, then, in geological language,
+marks _the complete introduction of "existing causes" in inorganic
+nature_, and we henceforth find no more creative interference, except
+in the domain of organization. This accords admirably with the
+deductions of modern geology, and especially with that great principle
+so well expounded by Sir Charles Lyell, and which forms the true basis
+of modern geological reasonings--that we should seek in existing
+causes of change for the explanation of the appearances of the rocks
+of the earth's crust. Geology probably carries us back to the
+introduction of animal life; and shows us that since that time land,
+sea, and atmosphere, summer and winter, day and night--all the great
+inorganic conditions affecting animal life--have existed as at
+present, and have been subject to modifications the same in kind with
+those which they now experience, though perhaps different in degree.
+In this ancient record we find in like manner that the period
+immediately preceding the creation of animals witnessed the completion
+of all the great general arrangements on which these phenomena
+depend. The Bible, therefore, and science agree in the truth that
+existing causes have been in full force since the creation of animals;
+and that since that period the exercise of creative power has been
+limited to the organic world. This has a curious bearing, not often
+thought of, on modern theories of evolution as compared with the
+teaching of the Bible. In one important sense, absolute creation, in
+so far as the inorganic universe is concerned, is in our Mosaic
+narrative limited to the production of matter and force at first. All
+else is called making, forming, or appointing. Thus the production of
+all the arrangements of the waters, the atmosphere, the earth, and the
+heavens, in the work of the first four days, and even the introduction
+of plants, may be correctly termed an evolution or development from
+preformed materials, with the single exception that the reproductive
+power and specific diversities of plants are recognized as entirely
+new facts. Creation is properly resumed when animal life is
+introduced. Hence, in so far as a comparison with the terms of Genesis
+is concerned, hypotheses as to the evolution of animal life from
+inorganic matter are in a different position from hypotheses as to the
+previous evolution of the parts of inorganic nature; and still more so
+from statements as to the progress of inorganic nature subsequent to
+the introduction of animals; since within that period, which really
+includes the whole of geological time, absolutely no creation whatever
+in the domain of inanimate nature is affirmed in the Biblical record
+to have taken place. On the contrary, all the arrangements of
+inorganic nature are represented as finally completed before the
+creation of animals.
+
+The obliquity of the earth's axis, which gives us the changes of the
+seasons, is apparently included in the arrangements of the fourth
+creative day. The cause of this obliquity, and the time when it may
+have attained to its present amount, have been fertile themes of
+discussion. It is clear, however, that if this obliquity was
+established, as appears to be stated here, before the introduction of
+animal life, it can have no bearing on the changes of climate of which
+we have evidence in geological time since the dawn of animal life,
+unless, indeed, it is capable of greater variation than astronomers
+admit; and the same remark applies to supposed changes in the position
+of the poles themselves. There is, however, nothing in this record to
+oppose the idea of any secular changes in these arrangements under the
+laws appointed in the fourth creative period.
+
+The record relating to the fourth day is silent respecting the mundane
+history of the period; and geology gives no very certain information
+concerning it. If, however, we assume that any of the Eozoic or
+pre-eozoic rocks are deposits of this or the preceding period, we may
+infer from the disturbances and alteration which these have suffered,
+prior to the deposition of the Cambrian and Silurian, that during or
+toward the close of this day the crust of the earth was affected by
+great movements. There is another consideration also leading to
+important conclusions in relation to this period. In the earliest
+fossiliferous rocks there seems to be good evidence that the dry land
+contemporary with the seas in which they were formed was of very small
+extent. Now, since on the third day a very plentiful and highly
+developed vegetation was produced, we may infer that during that
+period the extent of dry land was considerable, and was probably
+gradually increasing. If, then, the Cambrian and Silurian systems, so
+rich in marine organic remains, belong to the commencement of the
+fifth day, we must conclude that during the fourth much of the land
+previously existing had been again submerged. In other words, during
+the third day the extent of terrestrial surface was increasing, on the
+fourth day it diminished, and on the fifth it again increased, and
+probably has on the whole continued to increase up to the present
+time. One most important geological consequence of this is that the
+marine animals of the fifth day probably commenced their existence on
+sea bottoms which were the old soil surfaces of submerged continents
+previously clothed with vegetation, and which consequently contained
+much organic matter fitted to form a basis of support for the newly
+created animals.
+
+I shall close my remarks on the fourth day by a few quotations from
+those passages of Scripture which refer to the objects of this day's
+work. I have already referred to that beautiful passage in Deuteronomy
+where the Israelites are warned against the crime of worshipping those
+heavenly bodies which the Lord God hath "divided to every nation under
+the whole heaven." In the book of Job also we find that the heavenly
+bodies were in his day regarded as signal manifestations of the power
+of God, and that several of the principal constellations had received
+names:
+
+  "He commandeth the sun, and it shineth not;
+  He sealeth up the stars;[91]
+  He alone spreadeth out the heavens,
+  And walketh on the high waves of the sea;[92]
+  He maketh Arcturus, Orion,
+  The Pleiades, and the hidden chambers of the south;
+  Who doeth great things past finding out;
+  Yea, marvellous things beyond number."
+
+  --Job ix., 9.
+
+  "Canst thou tighten the bonds of the Pleiades,[93]
+  Or loose the bands of Orion?
+  Canst thou bring forth the Mazzaroth in their season,
+  Or lead forth Arcturus and its sons?
+  Knowest thou the laws of the heavens,
+  Or hast thou appointed their dominion over the earth?"
+
+  --Job xxxviii., 31.
+
+I may merely remark on these passages that the chambers of the south
+are supposed to be those parts of the southern heavens invisible in
+the latitude in which Job resided. The bonds of Pleiades and of Orion
+probably refer to the apparently close union of the stars of the
+former group, and the wide separation of those of the latter; a
+difference which, to the thoughtful observer of the heavens, is more
+striking than most instances of that irregular grouping of the stars
+which still forms a question in astronomy, from the uncertainty
+whether it is real, or only an optical deception arising from stars at
+different distances coming nearly into a line with each other. I have
+seen in some recent astronomical work this very instance of the
+Pleiades and Orion taken as a marked illustration of this
+problematical fact in astronomy. _Mazzaroth_ are supposed by modern
+expositors to be the signs of the Zodiac.
+
+On the whole, the Hebrew books give us little information as to the
+astronomical theories of the time when they were written. They are
+entirely non-committal as to the nature of the connections and
+revolutions of the heavenly bodies; and indeed regard these as matters
+in their time beyond the grasp of the human mind, though well known to
+the Creator and regulated by his laws. From other sources we have
+facts leading to the belief that even in the time of Moses, and
+certainly in that of the later Biblical writers, there was not a
+little practical astronomy in the East, and some good theory. The
+Hindoo astronomy professes to have observations from 3000 B.C., and
+the arguments of Baily and others, founded on internal evidence, give
+some color of truth to the claim. The Chaldeans at a very early period
+had ascertained the principal circles of the sphere, the position of
+the poles, and the nature of the apparent motions of the heavens as
+the results of revolution on an inclined axis. The Egyptian astronomy
+we know mainly from what the Greeks borrowed from it. Thales, 640
+B.C., taught that the moon is lighted by the sun, and that the earth
+is spherical, and the position of its five zones. Pythagoras, 580
+B.C., knew, in addition to the sphericity of the earth, the obliquity
+of the ecliptic, the identity of the evening and morning star, and
+that the earth revolves round the sun. This Greek astronomy appears
+immediately after the opening of Egypt to the Greeks; and both these
+philosophers studied in that country. Such knowledge, and more of the
+same character, may therefore have existed in Egypt at a much earlier
+period.
+
+The Psalms abound in beautiful references to the creation of the
+fourth day:
+
+  "When I consider the heavens, the work of thy fingers,
+  The moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained;
+  What is man, that thou art mindful of him?
+  Or the son of man, that thou visitest him?"
+                               --Psalm viii.
+
+
+  "Who telleth the number of the stars,
+  Who calleth them all by their names.
+  Great is our Lord, and of great praise;
+  His understanding is infinite.
+  The Lord lifteth up the meek;
+  He casteth the wicked to the ground."
+                               --Psalm cxlvii.
+
+
+  "The heavens declare the glory of God,
+  The firmament showeth his handiwork;
+  Day unto day uttereth speech,
+  Night unto night showeth knowledge.
+  They have no speech nor language,
+  Their voice is not heard;
+  Yet their line is gone out to all the earth,
+  And their words to the end of the world.
+  In them hath he set a pavilion for the sun,
+  Which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber,
+  And rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race.
+  Its going forth is from the end of the heavens,
+  And its circuit unto the end of them.
+  And there is nothing hid from the heat thereof."
+                              --Psalm xix.
+
+These are excellent illustrations of the truth of the Scripture mode
+of treating natural objects, in connection with their Maker. It is but
+a barren and fruitless philosophy which sees the work and not its
+author--a narrow piety which loves God but despises his works. The
+Bible holds forth the golden mean between these extremes, in a strain
+of lofty poetry and acute perception of the great and beautiful,
+whether seen in the Creator or reflected from his works.
+
+The work of this day opens up a wide field for astronomical
+illustration, more especially in relation to the wisdom and
+benevolence of the Creator as displayed in the heavens; but it would
+be foreign to our present purpose to enter into these.
+
+It may be well, however, to think for a moment of the importance of
+the facts suggested by the writer of Genesis in mentioning the use of
+the heavenly bodies as signs of time. To what extent civilization or
+even the continued existence of man as an intelligent being would have
+been possible without the marks of subdivision of time given by the
+great astronomical clock of the universe, it is almost impossible for
+us to imagine. Without such marks of time, in any case, the whole
+fabric of human culture must have been different from what it is.
+Farther, in connection with this, it is a grand thought of our early
+revelation that all these heavenly bodies, however magnificent, and
+however they might seem to the heathen to be objects of worship, are
+but marks on God's clock, parts of a mere machine which keeps time for
+us, and is therefore our servant, as the children of the great
+Artificer, and not our ruler. The idea has been termed an astrological
+one; but astrology as a means of divination has no place in the
+record. The heavenly bodies are under the law of the Creator, and
+their function relatively to us is to give light and to give time.
+Astrological divination is an outgrowth of the Sab�an idolatry, and
+held in abomination by the monotheistic author of Genesis. His object
+may be summed up in the following general statements:
+
+1. The heavenly hosts and their arrangements are the work of Jehovah,
+and are regulated wholly by his laws or ordinances; a striking
+illustration of the recognition by the Hebrew writer both of creative
+interference, and that stable, natural law which too often withdraws
+the mind of the philosopher from the ideas of creation and of
+providence.
+
+2. The heavenly bodies have a relation to the earth--are parts of the
+same plan, and, whatever other uses they were made to serve, were made
+for the benefit of man.
+
+3. The general physical arrangements of the solar system were
+perfected before the introduction of animals on our planet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let the waters swarm with swarming living
+     creatures, and let birds fly on the surface of the expanse
+     of heaven. And God created great reptiles, and every living
+     moving thing, which the waters brought forth abundantly,
+     after their kind, and every bird after its kind; and God saw
+     that it was good.
+
+     "And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and
+     fill the waters of the seas, and let the flying creatures
+     multiply in the earth. And the evening and the morning were
+     the fifth day."--Genesis i., 20-23.
+
+
+In these words, so full of busy, active, thronging life, we now enter
+on that part of the earth's history which has been most fully
+elucidated by geology, and we have thus an additional reason for
+carefully weighing the terms of the narrative, which here, as in other
+places, contain large and important truths couched in language of the
+simplest character.
+
+1. In accordance with the views now entertained by the best
+lexicographers, the word translated in our version "creeping things"
+has been rendered "prolific or swarming creatures." The Hebrew is
+_Sheretz_, a noun derived from the verb used in this verse to denote
+bringing forth abundantly. It is loosely translated in the Septuagint
+_Erpeta_, reptiles; and this view our English translators appear to
+have adopted, without, perhaps, any very clear notions of the
+creatures intended. The manner in which it is used in other passages
+places its true meaning beyond doubt. I select as illustrations of
+the most apposite character those verses in Leviticus in which clean
+and unclean animals are specified, and in which we have a right to
+expect the most precise zoological nomenclature that the Hebrew can
+afford. In Leviticus xi., 20-23, _insects_ are defined to be _flying
+sheretzim_, and in verse 29, etc., under the designation "_sheretzim
+of the land_," we have animals named in our version the weasel, mouse,
+tortoise, ferret, chameleon, lizard, snail, and mole. The first of
+these animals is believed to have been a burrowing creature, perhaps a
+mole; the second, from the meaning of its name, "ravager of fields,"
+is thought to have been a mouse. Some doubt, however, attends both of
+these identifications, but it appears certain that the remaining six
+species are small reptiles, principally lizards. We learn, therefore,
+that the smaller reptiles, and _perhaps_ also a few small mammals, are
+_sheretzim_. In verses 41 and 42 we are introduced to other tribes.
+"And every _sheretz_ that swarmeth on the earth shall be an
+abomination unto you; it shall not be eaten; whatsoever goeth upon the
+belly (serpents, worms, snails, etc.), and whatsoever hath more feet
+(than four) (insects, arachnidans, myriapods)." In verses 9 and 10 of
+the same chapter we have an enumeration of the _sheretzim_ of the
+waters: "Whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas
+and in the rivers, them shall ye eat. And all that have not fins and
+scales in the seas and the rivers, of all that swarm in the waters
+(all the _sheretzim_ of the waters), they shall be an abomination unto
+you." Here the general term _sheretz_ includes all the fishes and the
+invertebrate animals of the waters. From the whole of the above
+passages we learn that this is a general term for all the invertebrate
+animals and the two lower classes of vertebrates, or, in other words,
+for the whole animal kingdom except the mammalia and birds. To all
+these creatures the name is particularly appropriate, all of them
+being oviparous or ovoviviparous, and consequently producing great
+numbers of young and multiplying very rapidly. The only other
+creatures which can be included under the term are the two doubtful
+species of small mammals already mentioned. Nothing can be more fair
+and obvious than this explanation of the term, based both on etymology
+and on the precise nomenclature of the ceremonial law. We conclude,
+therefore, that the prolific animals of the fifth day's creation
+belonged to the three Cuvierian sub-kingdoms of the Radiata,
+Articulata, and Mollusca, and to the classes of Fish and Reptiles
+among the vertebrata.
+
+2. One peculiar group of _sheretzim_ is especially distinguished by
+name--the _tanninim_, or "great whales" of our version. It would be
+amusing, had we time, to notice the variety of conjectures to which
+this word has given rise, and the perplexities of commentators in
+reference to it. In our version and the Septuagint it is usually
+rendered dragon; but in this place the seventy have thought proper to
+put _Ketos_ (whale), and our translators have followed them.
+Subsequent translators and commentators have laid under contribution
+all sorts of marine monsters, including the sea-serpent, in their
+endeavors to attach a precise meaning to the word; while others have
+been content to admit that it may signify any kind or all kinds of
+large aquatic animals. The greater part of the difficulty appears to
+have arisen from confounding two distinct words, _tannin_ and _tan_,
+both names of animals; and the confusion has been increased by the
+circumstance that in two places the words have been interchanged,
+probably by errors of transcribers. _Tan_ occurs in twelve places, and
+from these we can gather that it inhabits ruined cities, deserts, and
+places to which ostriches resort, that it suckles its young, is of
+predaceous and shy habits, utters a wailing cry, and is not of large
+size, nor formidable to man. The most probable conjecture as to the
+animal intended is that of Gesenius, who supposes it to be the jackal.
+The other word (_tannin_), which is that used in the text, is applied
+as an emblem of Egypt and its kings, and also of the conquering kings
+of Babylon. It is spoken of as furious when enraged, and formidable to
+man, and is said to be an inhabitant of rivers and of the sea, but
+more especially of the Nile. In short, it is the crocodile of the
+Nile. We can easily understand the perplexity of those writers who
+suppose these two words to be identical, and endeavor to combine all
+the characters above mentioned in one animal or tribe of animals. As a
+farther illustration of the marked difference in the meanings of the
+two words, we may compare the 34th and 37th verses of the fifty-first
+chapter of Jeremiah. In the first of these verses the King of Babylon
+is represented as a "dragon" (_tannin_), which had swallowed up
+Israel. In the second it is predicted that Babylon itself shall become
+heaps, a dwelling-place for "dragons" (_tanim_). There can be no doubt
+that the animals intended here are quite different. The devouring
+_tannin_ is a huge predaceous river reptile, a fit emblem of the
+Babylonian monarch; the _tan_ is the jackal that will soon howl in his
+ruined palaces. It is interesting to know that philologists trace a
+connection between _tannin_ and the Greek _teino_, Latin _tendo_, and
+similar words, signifying to stretch or extend, in the Sanscrit,
+Gothic, and other languages, leading to the inference that the Hebrew
+word primarily denotes a lengthened or extended creature, which
+corresponds well with its application to the crocodile. Taking all the
+above facts in connection, we are quite safe in concluding that the
+creatures referred to by the word under consideration are literally
+large reptilian animals; and, from the special mention made of them,
+we may infer that, in their day, they were the lords of creation.[94]
+
+3. In verse 21 the remainder of the _sheretzim_, besides the larger
+reptiles, are included in the general expression, "Living creature
+that moveth." The term "living creature" is, literally, "creature
+having the breath of life;" the power of respiration being apparently
+in Hebrew the distinctive character of the animal. The word moveth
+(_ramash_), in its more general sense, expresses the power of
+voluntary motion, as exhibited in animals in general. In a few places,
+however, it has a more precise meaning, as in 1 Kings iv., 33, where
+the vertebrated animals are included in the four classes of "beasts,
+fowl, _creeping things_ (or reptiles, _remes_), and fishes." In the
+present connection it probably has its most general sense; unless,
+indeed, the apparent repetition in this verse relates to the
+amphibious or semi-terrestrial creatures associated with the great
+reptiles; and, in that case, the humbler reptilian animals alone may
+be meant.
+
+4. We may again note that the introduction of animal life is marked by
+the use of the word "create," for the first time since the general
+creation of the heavens and the earth. We may also note that the
+animal, as well as the plant, was created "after its kind," or
+"species by species." The animals are grouped under three great
+classes--the Remes, the Tanninim, and the Birds; but, lest any
+misconception should arise as to the relations of species to these
+groups, we are expressly informed that the species is here the true
+unit of the creative work. It is worth while, therefore, to note that
+this most ancient authority on this much controverted topic connects
+species on the one hand with the creative fiat, and on the other with
+the power of continuous reproduction.
+
+5. In addition to the great mass of _sheretzim_, so accurately
+characterized by Milton as
+
+  "----Reptile with spawn abundant,"
+
+the creation of the fifth day included a higher tribe of oviparous
+animals--the birds, the fowl or winged creature of the text. Birds
+alone, we think, must be meant here, as we have already seen that
+insects are included under the general term _sheretzim_.
+
+6. It is farther to be observed that _the waters_ give origin to the
+first animals--an interesting point when we consider the contrast here
+with the creation of plants and of the higher animals, both of which
+proceed from the earth.
+
+7. It can not fail to be observed that we have in these verses two
+different arrangements of the animals created, neither corresponding
+exactly with what modern science teaches us to regard as the true
+grouping of the animal kingdom, according to its affinities. The order
+in the first enumeration should, from the analogy of the chapter,
+indicate that of successive creation. The order of the second list
+may, perhaps, be that of the relative importance of the animals, as it
+appeared to the writer. Or there may have been a twofold division of
+the period--the earlier commencing with the creation of the humbler
+invertebrates, the later characterized by the great reptiles--which is
+the actual state of the case as disclosed by geology.
+
+8. The Creator recognizes the introduction of sentient existence and
+volition by _blessing_ this new work of his hands, and inviting the
+swarms of the newly peopled world to enjoy that happiness for which
+they were fitted, and to increase and fill the earth, inaugurating
+thus a new power destined to still higher developments.
+
+When we inquire what information geology affords respecting the period
+under consideration, the answer may be full and explicit. Geological
+discovery has carried us back to an epoch corresponding with the
+beginning of this day, and has disclosed a long and varied series of
+living beings, extending from this early period up to the introduction
+of the higher races of animals. To enter on the geological details of
+these changes, and on descriptions of the creatures which succeeded
+each other on the earth, would swell this volume into a treatise on
+pal�ontology, and would be quite unnecessary, as so many excellent
+popular works on this subject already exist. I shall, therefore,
+confine myself to a few general statements, and to marking the points
+in which Scripture and geology coincide in their respective histories
+of this long period, which appears to include the whole of the
+Pal�ozoic and Mesozoic epochs of geology, with their grand and varied
+succession of rock formations and living beings.
+
+In the Primordial or oldest fossiliferous rocks next in succession to
+those great Eozoic formations in which protozoa alone have been
+discovered, we find the remains of crustaceans, mollusks, and
+radiates--such as shrimps, shell-fish, and starfishes--which appear to
+have inhabited the bottom of a shallow ocean. Among these were some
+genera belonging to the higher forms of invertebrate life, but
+apparently as yet no vertebrated animals. Fishes were then introduced,
+and have left their remains in the upper Silurian rocks, and very
+abundantly in the Devonian and Carboniferous, in the latter of which
+also the first reptiles occur, but are principally members of that
+lower group to which the frogs and newts and their allies belong. The
+animal kingdom appears to have reached no higher than the reptiles in
+the Pal�ozoic or primary period of geology, and its reptiles are
+comparatively small and few; though fishes had attained to a point of
+perfection which they have not since exceeded. There was also,
+especially in the Carboniferous age, an abundant and luxuriant
+vegetation. The Mesozoic period is, however, emphatically the age of
+reptiles. This class then reached its climax, in the number,
+perfection, and magnitude of its species, which filled all those
+stations in the economy of nature now assigned to the mammalia. Birds
+also belong to this era, though apparently much less numerous and
+important than at present. Only a few species of small mammals, of the
+lowest or marsupial type, appear as a presage of the mammalian
+creation of the succeeding tertiary era. In these two geological
+periods, then--the Pal�ozoic and Mesozoic--we find, first, the lower
+_sheretzim_ represented by the invertebrata and the fishes, then the
+great reptiles and the birds; and it can not be denied that, if we
+admit that the Mosaic day under consideration corresponds with these
+geological periods, it would be impossible better to characterize
+their creations in so few words adapted to popular comprehension. I
+may add that all the species whose remains are found in the Pal�ozoic
+and Mesozoic rocks are extinct, and known to us only as fossils; and
+their connection with the present system of nature consists only in
+their forming with it a more perfect series than our present fauna
+alone could afford, unless, indeed, we should find reason to believe
+that any modern animals are their modified descendants. They belong to
+the same system of types, but are parts of it which have served their
+purpose and have been laid aside. The coincidences above noted between
+geology and Scripture may be summed up as follows:
+
+1. According to both records, the causes which at present regulate the
+distribution of light, heat, and moisture, and of land and water,
+were, during the whole of this period, much the same as at present.
+The eyes of the trilobite of the old Silurian rocks are fitted for the
+same conditions with respect to light with those of existing animals
+of the same class. The coniferous trees of the coal measures show
+annual rings of growth. Impressions of rain-marks have been found in
+the shales of the coal measures and Devonian system. Hills and
+valleys, swamps and lagoons, rivers, bays, seas, coral reefs and shell
+beds, have all left indubitable evidence of their existence in the
+geological record. On the other hand, the Bible affirms that all the
+earth's physical features were perfected on the fourth day, and
+immediately before the creation of animals. The land and the water
+have undergone during this long lapse of ages many minor changes.
+Whole tribes of animals and plants have been swept away and replaced
+by others, but the general aspect of inorganic nature has remained the
+same.
+
+2. Both records show the existence of vegetation during this period;
+though the geologic record, if taken alone, would, from its want of
+information respecting the third day, lead us to infer that plants are
+no older than animals, while the Bible does not speak of the nature of
+the vegetation that may have existed on the fifth day.
+
+3. Both records inform us that reptiles and birds were the higher and
+leading forms of animals, and that all the lower forms of animals
+co-existed with them. In both we have especial notice of the gigantic
+Saurian reptiles of the latter part of the period; and if we have the
+remains of a few small species of mammals in the Mesozoic rocks,
+these, like a few similar creatures apparently included under the word
+_sheretz_ in Leviticus, are not sufficiently important to negative
+the general fact of the reign of reptiles.[95]
+
+4. It accords with both records that the work of creation in this
+period was gradually progressive. Species after species was locally
+introduced, extended itself, and, after having served its purpose,
+gradually became extinct. And thus each successive rock formation
+presents new groups of species, each rising in numbers and perfection
+above the last, and marking a gradual assimilation of the general
+conditions of our planet to their present state, yet without any
+convulsions or general catastrophes affecting the whole earth at once.
+
+5. In both records the time between the creation of the first animals
+and the introduction of the mammalia as a dominant class forms a
+well-marked period. I would not too positively assert that the close
+of the fifth day accords precisely with that of the Mesozoic or
+secondary period. The well-marked line of separation, however, in many
+parts of the world, between this and the earlier tertiary rocks
+succeeding to it, points to this as extremely probable.
+
+It thus appears that Scripture and geology so far concur respecting
+the events of this period as to establish, even without any other
+evidence, a probability that the fifth day corresponds with the
+geological ages with which I have endeavored to identify it. Geology,
+however, gives us no means of measuring precisely the length of this
+day; but it gives us the impression that it occupied an enormous
+length of time, compared with which the whole human period is quite
+insignificant; and rivalling those mythical "days of the Creator"
+which we have noticed as forming a part of the Hindoo mythology.
+
+Why was the earth thus occupied for countless ages by an animal
+population whose highest members were reptiles and birds? The fact can
+not be doubted, since geology and Scripture, the research of man and
+the Word of God, concur in affirming it. We know that the lowest of
+these creatures was, in its own place, no less worthy of the Creator
+than those which we regard as the highest in the scale of
+organization, and that the animals of the ancient, equally with those
+of the modern world, abounded in proofs of the wisdom, power, and
+goodness of their Maker. Comparative anatomy has shown that these
+extinct animals, though often varying much from their modern
+representatives, are in no respect rude or imperfect; that they have
+the same appearance of careful planning and elaborate execution, the
+same combination of ornament and utility, the same nice adaptation to
+the conditions of their existence, which we observe in modern
+creatures. In addition to this, the many new and wonderful
+contrivances and combinations which they present, and their relations
+to existing objects, have greatly enlarged our views of the variety
+and harmony of the whole system of nature. They are, therefore, in
+these respects, not without their use as manifestations of the
+Creator, in this our later age.
+
+There is another reason, hinted at by Buckland, Miller, and other
+writers on this subject, which weighs much with my mind. All animals
+and plants are constructed on a few leading types or patterns, which
+are again divided into subordinate types, just as in architecture we
+have certain leading styles, and these again may admit of several
+orders, and these of farther modifications. Types are farther modified
+to suit a great variety of minor adaptations. Now we know that the
+earth is, at any one time, inadequate to display all the modifications
+of all the types. Hence our existing system of organic nature, though
+probably more complete than any that preceded it, is still only
+fragmentary. It is like what architecture would be, if all memorials
+of all buildings more than a century old were swept away. But, from
+the beginning to the end of the creative work, there has been, or will
+be, room for the whole plan. Hence fossils are little by little
+completing our system of nature; and, if all were known, would perhaps
+wholly do so. The great plan must be progressive, and all its parts
+must be perishable, except its last culminating-point and archetype,
+man. Tennyson expresses this truth in the following lines:
+
+  "The wish that of the living whole
+      No life may fail beyond the grave;
+      Derives it not from what we have
+  The likest God within the soul?
+
+  Are God and Nature then at strife,
+      That Nature lends such evil dreams?
+      So careful of the type she seems,
+  So careless of the single life.
+
+  'So careful of the type?' but no.
+      From scarped cliff and quarried stone
+      She cries, 'a thousand types are gone;
+  I care for nothing, all shall go.
+
+  'Thou makest thine appeal to me:
+      I bring to life, I bring to death:
+      The spirit does but mean the breath:
+  I know no more.' And he, shall he,
+
+  Man, her last work, who seem'd so fair,
+      Such splendid purpose in his eyes,
+      Who roll'd the psalm to wintry skies,
+  Who built him fanes of fruitless prayer,
+
+  Who trusted God was love indeed,
+      And love Creation's final law--
+      Tho' Nature, red in tooth and claw,
+  With ravine, shriek'd against his creed--
+
+  Who loved, who suffer'd countless ills,
+      Who battled for the True, the Just,
+      Be blown about the desert dust,
+  Or seal'd within the iron hills?
+
+  No more? A monster, then, a dream,
+      A discord. Dragons of the prime,
+      That tare each other in their slime,
+  Were mellow music match'd with him.
+
+  O life as futile, then, as frail!
+      O for thy voice to soothe and bless!
+      What hope of answer, or redress?
+  Behind the veil, behind the veil."
+
+The farther explanation given by evolutionists that those ancient
+forms of life may be the actual ancestors of the present animals, and
+that through all the ages the Creator was gradually perfecting his
+work by a series of descents with modification, was probably not
+before the mind of our ancient Hebrew authority, nor need we attach
+much value to it till some proof of the process has been obtained from
+Nature. A farther reason, however, which was intelligible to the
+author of Genesis, and which is fondly dwelt on in succeeding books of
+the Bible, depends on the idea that the Creator himself is not
+indifferent to the marvellous structures, instincts, and powers which
+he has bestowed upon the lower races of animals. Witness the answer
+of the Almighty to Job, when he spake out of the whirlwind to
+vindicate his own plans in creation and providence; and brought before
+the patriarch a long train of animals, explaining and dwelling on the
+structure and powers of each, in contrast with the puny efforts and
+rude artificial contrivances of man. Witness also the preservation, in
+the rocks, of the fossil remains of extinct creatures, as if he who
+made them was unwilling that the evidence of their existence should
+perish, and purposely treasured them through all the revolutions of
+the earth, that through them men might magnify his name. The Psalmist
+would almost appear to have had all these thoughts before his mind
+when he poured out his wonder in the 104th Psalm:
+
+  "O Lord, how manifold are thy works!
+  In wisdom hast thou made them all.
+  The earth is full of thy riches;
+  So is this wide and great sea,
+  Wherein are moving things innumerable,
+  Creatures both small and great.
+  There go the ships [or "floating animals"];
+  There is leviathan, which thou hast formed to sport therein:
+  That thou givest them they gather.
+  Thou openest thy hand, they are filled with good;
+  Thou hidest thy face, they are troubled;
+  Thou takest away their breath, they return to their dust.
+  Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created,
+  And thou renewest the face of the earth."
+
+There are, however, good reasons to believe that, in the plans of
+divine wisdom, the long periods in which the earth was occupied by the
+inferior races were necessary to its subsequent adaptation to the
+residence of man. To these periods our present continents gradually
+grew up in all their variety and beauty. The materials of old rocks
+were comminuted and mixed to form fertile soils,[96] and stores of
+mineral products were accumulated to enable man to earn his
+subsistence and the blessings of civilization by the sweat of his
+brow. If it pleased the Almighty during these preparatory stages to
+replenish the land and sea with living things full of life and beauty
+and happiness, who shall venture to criticise his procedure, or to say
+to Him, "What doest thou?"
+
+It would be decidedly wrong, in the present state of that which is
+popularly called science, to omit to inquire here what relation to the
+work of the fifth creative day those theories of development and
+evolution which have obtained so great currency may bear. The long
+time employed in the introduction of the lower animals, the use of the
+terms "make" and "form," instead of "create," and the expression "let
+the waters bring forth," may well be understood as countenancing some
+form of mediate creation, or of "creation by law," or "theistic
+evolution," as it has been termed; but they give no countenance to the
+idea either of the spontaneous evolution of living beings under the
+influence of merely physical causes and without creative intervention,
+or of the transmutation of one kind of animal into another. Still,
+with reference to this last idea, it is plain that revelation gives us
+no definition of species as distinguished from varieties or races, so
+that there is nothing to prevent the supposition that, within certain
+limits indicated by the expression "after its kind," animals or plants
+may have been so constituted as to vary greatly in the progress of
+geological time.
+
+If we ask whether any thing is known to science which can give even a
+decided probability to the notion that living beings are parts of an
+undirected evolution proceeding under merely dead insentient forces,
+and without intention, the answer must be emphatically no.
+
+I have elsewhere fully discussed these questions, and may here make
+some general statements as to certain scientific facts which at
+present bar the way against the hypothesis of evolution as applied to
+life, and especially against that form of it to which Darwin and his
+disciples have given so great prominence.
+
+1. The albuminous or protoplasmic material, which seems to be
+necessary to the existence of every living being, is known to us as a
+product only of the action of previously living protoplasm. Though it
+is often stated that the production of albumen from its elements is a
+process not differing from the formation of water or any other
+inorganic material from its elements, this statement is false in fact,
+since, though many so-called organic substances have been produced by
+chemical processes, no particle of either living or non-living
+organizable matter of the nature of protoplasm has ever been so
+produced. The origin, therefore, of this albuminous matter is as much
+a mystery to us at present as that of any of the chemical elements.
+
+2. Though some animals and plants are very simple in their visible
+structure, they all present vital properties not to be found in dead
+albuminous matter, and no mode is known whereby the properties of life
+can be communicated to dead matter. All the experiments hitherto made,
+and very eminently those recently performed by Pasteur, Tyndall, and
+Dallinger, lead to the conclusion that even the simplest living beings
+can be produced only from germs originating in previously living
+organisms of similar structure. The simplest living organisms are
+thus to science ultimate facts, for which it can not account except
+conjecturally.
+
+3. No case is certainly known in human experience where any species of
+animal or plant has been so changed as to assume all the characters of
+a new species. Species are thus practically to science unchangeable
+units, the origin of which we have as yet no means of tracing.
+
+4. Though the general history of animal life in time bears a certain
+resemblance to the development of the individual animal from the
+embryo, there is no reason whatever to believe that this is more than
+a mere relation of analogy, arising from the fact that in both cases
+the law of procedure is to pass from the simpler forms to the more
+complex, and from the more generalized to the more specialized. The
+external conditions and details of the two kinds of series are
+altogether different, and become more so the more they are
+investigated. This shows that the causes can not have been similar.
+
+5. In tracing back animals and groups of animals in geological time,
+we find that they always end without any link of connection with
+previous beings, and in circumstances which render any such
+connections improbable. In the work of our next creative day, the
+series of animals preceding the modern horse has been cited as a good
+instance of probable evolution; but not only are the members of the
+series so widely separated in space and time that no connection can be
+traced, but the earliest of them, the _Orohippus_, would require, on
+the theory, to have been preceded by a previous series extending so
+far back that it is impossible, under any supposition of the
+imperfection of our present knowledge, to consider such extension
+probable. The same difficulty applies to every case of tracing back
+any specific form either of animal or plant. This general result
+proves, as I have elsewhere attempted to show,[97] that the
+introduction of the various animal types must have been abrupt, and
+under some influence quite different from that of evolution.
+
+These are what I would term the five fatal objections to evolution as
+at present held, as a means of accounting for the introduction and
+succession of animals. To what extent they may be weakened or
+strengthened by the future progress of science it is impossible to
+say, but so long as they exist it is mere folly and presumption to
+affirm that modern science supports the doctrine of evolution. There
+can be no doubt, however, that the Bible leaves us perfectly free to
+inquire as to the plan and method of the Creator, and that, whatever
+discoveries we may make, we shall find that his plans are orderly,
+methodical, and continuous, and not of the nature of an arbitrary
+patchwork.
+
+Though science as yet gives us no certain laws for the introduction of
+new specific types, it indicates certain possible modes of the
+origination of varieties, races, and sub-species of previously
+existing types. One of these is that struggle for existence against
+adverse external conditions, which, however, has been harped upon too
+exclusively by the Darwinian school, and which will give chiefly
+depauperated and degraded forms. Another is that expansion under
+exceptionally favorable conditions which arises where species are
+admitted to wider new areas of geographical range and more abundant
+and varied means of sustenance. Land animals and plants must have
+experienced this in times of continental elevation; marine animals and
+plants in times of continental depression. Another is the tendency to
+what has been called reproductive retardation and acceleration which
+species undergo under conditions exceptionally unfavorable or
+favorable, and which in some modern aquatic animals produces
+differences so great that members of the same species have sometimes
+been placed in different genera. Lastly, it is conceivable that
+species may have been so constructed that after a certain number of
+generations they may spontaneously undergo either abrupt or gradual
+changes, similar to those which the individual undergoes at certain
+stages of growth. This last furnishes the only true analogy possible
+between embryology and geological succession.
+
+While, however, science is silent as to the production of new specific
+types, and only gives us indications as to the origin of varieties and
+races, it is curious that the Bible suggests three methods in which
+new organisms may be, and according to it have been introduced by the
+Creator. The first is that of immediate and direct creation, as when
+God created the great Tanninim. The second is that of mediate
+creation, through the materials previously existing, as when he said,
+"Let the land bring forth plants," or "Let the waters bring forth
+animals." The third is that of production from a previous organism by
+power other than that of ordinary reproduction, as in the origination
+of Eve from Adam, and the miraculous conception of Jesus. These are
+the only points in which its teachings approach the limits of
+speculations as to evolution, and they certainly leave scope enough
+for the legitimate inquiries of science.[98]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE HIGHER ANIMALS AND MAN.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let the land bring forth animals after their
+     kinds; the herbivora, the reptiles, and the carnivora, after
+     their kinds; and it was so. And God made carnivorous mammals
+     after their kinds, and herbivorous mammals after their
+     kinds, and every reptile of the land after its kind; and God
+     saw that it was good.
+
+     "And God said, Let us make man in our own image, after our
+     likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the
+     birds of the air, and over the herbivora and over all the
+     land. So God created man in his own image, in the image of
+     God created he him; male and female created he them. And God
+     blessed them; and God said, Be fruitful and multiply, and
+     replenish the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over
+     the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the air, and over
+     every living thing that moveth upon the earth.
+
+     "And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing
+     seed which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree
+     in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it
+     shall be for food, and to every beast of the earth and to
+     every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon
+     the earth wherein there is life, I have given every green
+     herb for meat; and it was so. And God saw every thing that
+     he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And evening and
+     morning were the sixth day."--Genesis i., 24-31.
+
+
+The creation of animals, unlike that of plants, occupies two days.
+Here our attention is restricted to the inhabitants of the _land_, and
+chiefly to their higher forms. Several new names are introduced to our
+notice, which I have endeavored to translate as literally as possible
+by introducing zoological terms where those in common use were
+deficient.
+
+1. The first tribe of animals noticed here is named _Bhemah_, "cattle"
+in our version; and in the Septuagint "quadrupeds" in one of the
+verses, and "cattle" in the other. Both of these senses are of common
+occurrence in the Scriptures, cattle or domesticated animals being
+usually designated by this word; while in other passages, as in 1
+Kings iv., 33, where Solomon is said to have written a treatise on
+"_beasts_, fowls, creeping things, and fishes," it appears to include
+all the mammalia. Notwithstanding this wide range of meaning, however,
+there are passages, and these of the greatest authority in reference
+to our present subject, in which it strictly means the herbivorous
+mammals, and which show that when it was necessary to distinguish
+these from the predaceous or carnivorous tribes this term was
+specially employed. In Leviticus xi., 22-27, we have a specification
+of all the Bhemoth that might and might not be used for food. It
+includes all the true ruminants, with the coney, the hare, and the
+hog, animals of the rodent and pachydermatous orders. The carnivorous
+quadrupeds are designated by a different generic term. In this chapter
+of Leviticus, therefore, which contains the only approach to a system
+in natural history to be found in the Bible, _bhemah_ is strictly a
+synonym of _herbivora_, including especially ungulates and rodents.
+That this is its proper meaning here is confirmed by the
+considerations that in this place it can denote but a part of the land
+quadrupeds, and that the idea of cattle or domesticated animals would
+be an anachronism. At the same time there need be no objection to the
+view that the especial capacity of ruminants and other herbivora for
+domestication is connected with the use of the word in this place.
+
+2. The word _remes_, "creeping things" in our version, as we have
+already shown, is a very general term, referring to the power of
+motion possessed by animals, especially on the surface of the ground.
+It here in all probability refers to the additional types of
+terrestrial reptiles, and other creatures lower than the mammals,
+introduced in this period.
+
+3. The compound term (_hay'th-eretz_) which I have ventured to render
+"carnivora," is literally animal of the land; but though thus general
+in its meaning, it is here evidently intended to denote a particular
+tribe of animals inhabiting the land, and not included in the scope of
+the two words already noticed. In other parts of Scripture this term
+is used in the sense of a "wild beast." In a few places, like the
+other terms already noticed, it is used of all kinds of animals, but
+that above stated is its general meaning, and perfectly accords with
+the requirements of the passage.
+
+The creation of the sixth day therefore includes--1st, the herbivorous
+mammalia; 2d, a variety of terrestrial reptilia, and other lower forms
+not included in the work of the previous day; 3d, the carnivorous
+mammalia. It will be observed that the order in the two verses is
+different. In verse 24th it is herbivora, "creeping things," and
+carnivora. In verse 25th it is carnivora, herbivora, and "creeping
+things." One of these may, as in the account of the fifth day,
+indicate the order of _time_ in the creation, and the other the order
+of _rank_ in the animals made, or there may have been two divisions of
+the work, in the earlier of which herbivorous animals took the lead,
+and in the later those that are carnivorous. In either case we may
+infer that the herbivora predominated in the earlier creations of the
+period.
+
+It is almost unnecessary to say this period corresponds with the
+Tertiary or Cainozoic era of geologists. The coincidences are very
+marked and striking. As already stated, though in the later secondary
+period there were great facilities for the preservation of mammals in
+the strata then being deposited, only a few small species of the
+humblest order have been found; and the occurrence of the higher
+orders of this class is to some extent precluded by the fact that the
+place in nature now occupied by the mammals was then provided for by
+the vast development of the reptile tribes. At the very beginning of
+the tertiary period all this was changed; most of the gigantic
+reptiles had disappeared, and terrestrial mammals of large size and
+high organization had taken their place. Perhaps no geological change
+is more striking and remarkable than the sudden disappearance of the
+reptilian fauna at the close of the mesozoic, and the equally abrupt
+appearance of numerous species of large mammals, and this not in one
+region only, but over both the great continents, and not only where a
+sudden break occurs in the series of formations, but also where, as in
+Western America, they pass gradually into each other. During the whole
+tertiary period this predominance of the mammalia continued; and as
+the mesozoic was the period of giant reptiles, so the tertiary was
+that of great mammals. It is a singular and perhaps not accidental
+coincidence that so many of the early tertiary mammals known to us are
+large herbivora, such as would be included in the Hebrew word
+_bhemah_; and that in the book of Job the hippopotamus is called
+_behemoth_, the plural form being apparently used to denote that this
+animal is the chief of the creatures known under the general term
+_bhemah_, while geology informs us that the prevailing order of
+mammals in the older tertiary period was that of the ungulates, and
+that many of the extinct creatures of this group are very closely
+allied to the hippopotamus. Behemoth thus figures in the book of Job,
+not only as at the time a marked illustration of creative power, but
+to our farther knowledge also as a singular remnant of an extinct
+gigantic race. It is at least curious that while in the fifth day
+great reptiles like those of the secondary rocks form the burden of
+the work, in the sixth we have a term which so directly reminds us of
+those gigantic pachyderms which figure so largely in the tertiary
+period. Large carnivora also occur in the tertiary formations, and
+there are some forms of reptile life, as, for example, the serpents,
+which first appear in the tertiary.
+
+I may refer to any popular text-book of geology in evidence of the
+exact conformity of this to the progress of mammalian life, as we now
+know it in detail from the study of the successive tertiary deposits.
+The following short summary from Dana, though written several years
+ago, still expresses the main features of the case:
+
+"The quadrupeds did not all come forth together. Large and powerful
+herbivorous species first take possession of the earth, with only a
+few small carnivora. These pass away. Other herbivora with a larger
+proportion of carnivora next appear. These also are exterminated; and
+so with others. Then the carnivora appear in vast numbers and power,
+and the herbivora also abound. Moreover these races attain a magnitude
+and number far surpassing all that now exist, as much so indeed, on
+all the continents, North and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and
+Australia, as the old mastodon, twenty feet long and nine feet high,
+exceeds the modern buffalo. Such, according to geology, was the age of
+mammals, when the brute species existed in their greatest
+magnificence, and brutal ferocity had free play; when the dens of
+bears and hyenas, prowling tigers and lions far larger than any now
+existing, covered Britain and Europe. Mammoths and mastodons wandered
+over the plains of North America, huge sloth-like Megatheria passed
+their sluggish lives on the pampas of South America, and elephantine
+marsupials strolled about Australia.
+
+"As the mammalian age draws to a close, the ancient carnivora and
+herbivora of that era all pass away, excepting, it is believed, a few
+that are useful to man. New creations of smaller size peopled the
+groves; the vegetation received accessions to its foliage, fruit-trees
+and flowers, and the seas brighter forms of water life. This we know
+from comparisons with the fossils of the preceding mammalian age.
+There was at this time no chaotic upturning, but only the opening of
+creation to its fullest expansion; and so in Genesis no new day is
+begun, it is still the _sixth day_."
+
+The creation of man is prefaced by expressions implying deliberation
+and care. It is not said, "Let the earth bring forth" man, but let us
+form or fashion man. This marks the relative importance of the human
+species, and the heavenly origin of its nobler immaterial part. Man is
+also said to have been "created," implying that in his constitution
+there was something new and not included in previous parts of the
+work, even in its material. Man was created, as the Hebrew literally
+reads, the shadow and similitude of God--the greatest of the visible
+manifestations of Deity in the lower world--the reflected image of his
+Maker, and, under the Supreme Lawgiver, the delegated ruler of the
+earth. Now for the first time was the earth tenanted by a being
+capable of comprehending the purposes and plans of Jehovah, of
+regarding his works with intelligent admiration, and of shadowing
+forth the excellences of his moral nature. For countless ages the
+earth had been inhabited by creatures wonderful in their structures
+and instincts, and mutely testifying, as their buried remains still
+do, to the Creator's glory; but limited within a narrow range of
+animal propensities, and having no power of raising a thought or
+aspiration toward the Being who made them. Now, however, man enters on
+the scene, and the sons of God, who had shouted for joy when the first
+land emerged from the bosom of the deep, saw the wondrous spectacle of
+a spiritual nature analogous to their own, united to a corporeal frame
+constructed on the same general type with the higher of those
+irrational creatures whose presence on earth they had so long
+witnessed.
+
+Man was to rule over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and
+the _bhemah_ or herbivorous animals. The carnivorous creatures are not
+mentioned, and possibly were not included in man's dominion. We shall
+find an explanation of this farther on. The nature of man's dominion
+we are left to infer. In his state of innocence it must have been a
+mild and gentle sway, interfering in no respect wilts the free
+exercise of the powers of enjoyment bestowed on animals by the
+Creator, a rule akin to that which a merciful man exercises over a
+domesticated animal, and which some animals are capable of repaying
+with a warm and devoted affection. Now, however, man's rule has become
+a tyranny. "The whole creation groans" because of it. He desolates the
+face of nature wherever he appears, unsettling the nice balance of
+natural agencies, and introducing remediless confusion and suffering
+among the lower creatures, even when in the might of his boasted
+civilization he professes to renovate and improve the face of nature.
+He retains enough of the image of his Maker to enable him to a great
+extent to assert his dominion, and to aspire after a restoration of
+his original paradise, but he has lost so much that the power which he
+retains is necessarily abused to selfish ends.
+
+Man, like the other creatures, was destined to be fruitful and
+multiply and replenish the earth. We are also informed in chapter
+second that he was placed in a "garden," a chosen spot in the alluvial
+plains of Western Asia, belonging to the later geological formations,
+and thus prepared by the whole series of prior geological changes,
+replenished with all things useful to him, and containing nothing
+hurtful, at least in so far as the animal creation was concerned.
+These facts, taken in connection, lead to grave questions. How is the
+happy and innocent state of man consistent with the contemporaneous
+existence of carnivorous and predaceous animals, which, as both
+Scripture and geology state, were created in abundance in the sixth
+day? How, when confined to a limited region, could he increase and
+multiply and replenish the earth? These questions, which have caused
+no little perplexity, are easily solved when brought into the light of
+our modern knowledge of nature. 1. Every large region of the earth is
+inhabited by a group of animals differing in the proportions of
+identical species, and in the presence of distinct species, from the
+groups inhabiting other districts. There is also sufficient reason to
+conclude that all animals and plants have spread from certain local
+centres of creation, in which certain groups of species have been
+produced and allowed to extend themselves, until they met and became
+intermingled with species extending from other centres. Now the
+district of Asia, in the vicinity of the Euphrates and Tigris, to
+which the Scripture assigns the origin of the human race, is the
+centre to which we can with the greatest probability trace several of
+the species of animals and plants most useful to man, and it lies near
+the confines of warmer and colder regions of distribution in the Old
+World, and also near the boundary of the Asiatic and European regions.
+At the period under consideration it may have been peopled with a
+group of animals specially suited to association with the progenitors
+of mankind. 2. To remove all zoological difficulties from the position
+of primeval man in his state of innocence, we have but to suppose, in
+accordance with all the probabilities of the case, that man was
+created along with a group of creatures adapted to contribute to his
+happiness, and having no tendency to injure or annoy; and that it is
+the formation of these creatures--the group of his own centre of
+creation--that is especially noticed in Genesis ii., 19, _et seq._,
+where God is represented as forming them out of the ground and
+exhibiting them to Adam; a passage otherwise superfluous, and indeed
+tending to confuse the meaning of the document. 3. The difficulty
+attending the early extension of the human race is at once obviated by
+the geological doctrine of the extinction of species. We know that in
+past geological periods large and important groups of species have
+become extinct, and have been replaced by new groups extending from
+new centres; and we know that this process has removed, in early
+geological periods, many creatures that would have been highly
+injurious to human interests had they remained. Now the group of
+species created with man being the latest introduced, we may infer, on
+geological grounds, that it would have extended itself within the
+spheres of older zoological and botanical districts, and would have
+replaced their species, which, in the ordinary operation of natural
+laws, may have been verging toward extinction. Thus not only man, but
+the Eden in which he dwelt, with all its animals and plants, would
+have gradually encroached on the surrounding wilderness, until man's
+happy and peaceful reign had replaced that of the ferocious beasts
+that preceded him in dominion, and had extended at least over all the
+temperate region of the earth. 4. The cursing of the ground for man's
+sake, on his fall from innocence, would thus consist in the
+permission given to the predaceous animals and the thorns and the
+briers of other centres of creation to invade his Eden; or, in his own
+expulsion, to contend with the animals and plants which were intended
+to have given way and become extinct before him. Thus the fall of man
+would produce an arrestment in the progress of the earth in that last
+great revolution which would have converted it into an Eden; and the
+anomalies of its present state consist, according to Scripture, in a
+mixture of the conditions of the tertiary with those of the human
+period. 5. Though there is good ground for believing that man was to
+have been exempted from the general law of mortality, we can not infer
+that any such exemption would have been enjoyed by his companion
+animals; we only know that he himself would have been free from all
+annoyance and injury and decay from external causes. We may also
+conclude that, while Eden was sufficient for his habitation, the
+remainder of the earth would continue, just as in the earlier tertiary
+periods, under the dominion of the predaceous mammals, reptiles, and
+birds. 6. The above views enable us on the one hand to avoid the
+difficulties that attend the admission of predaceous animals into
+Eden, and on the other the still more formidable difficulties that
+attend the attempt to exclude them altogether from the Adamic world.
+They also illustrate the geological fact that many animals,
+contemporaneous with man, extend far back into the Tertiary period.
+These are creatures not belonging to the Edenic centre of creation,
+but introduced in an earlier part of the sixth day, and now permitted
+to exist along with man in his fallen state. I have stated these
+supposed conditions of the Adamic creation briefly, and with as little
+illustration as possible, that they may connectedly strike the mind of
+the reader. Each of these statements is in harmony with the
+Scriptural narrative on the one hand, and with geology on the other;
+and, taken together, they afford an intelligible history of the
+introduction of man. If a geologist were to state, _� priori_, the
+conditions proper to the creation of any important species, he could
+only say--the preparation or selection of some region of the earth for
+it, and its production along with a group of plants and animals suited
+to it. These are precisely the conditions implied in the Scriptural
+account of the creation of Adam.[99] The difficulties of the subject
+have arisen from supposing, contrary to the narrative itself, that the
+conditions necessary for Eden must in the first instance have extended
+over the whole earth, and that the creatures with which man is in his
+present dispersion brought into contact must necessarily have been his
+companions there. One would think that many persons derive their idea
+of the first man in Eden from nursery picture-books; for the Bible
+gives no countenance to the idea that all the animals in the world
+were in Eden. On the contrary, it asserts that a selection was made
+both in the case of animals and plants, and that this Edenic
+assemblage of creatures constituted man's associates in his state of
+primeval innocence.
+
+The food of animals is specified at the close of the work of this day.
+The grant to man is every herb bearing seed, and every fruit-tree.
+That to the lower animals is more extensive--every green herb. This
+can not mean that every animal in the earth was herbivorous. It may
+refer to the group of animals associated with man in Eden, and this is
+most likely the intention of the writer; but if it includes the
+animals of the whole earth, we may be certain, from the express
+mention of carnivorous creatures in the work of the fifth and sixth
+days, that it indicates merely the general fact that the support of
+the whole animal kingdom is based on vegetation.
+
+A most important circumstance in connection with the work of the sixth
+day is that it witnessed the creation both of man and the mammalia. A
+fictitious writer would probably have exalted man by assigning to him
+a separate day, and by placing the whole animal kingdom together in
+respect to time. He would be all the more likely to do this, if
+unacquainted, as most ignorant persons as well as literary men are,
+with the importance and teeming multitudes of the lower tribes of
+animals, and with the typical identity of the human frame with that of
+the higher animals. Moses has not done so, we are at liberty to
+suppose, because the vision of creation had it otherwise; and modern
+geology has amply vindicated him in this by its disclosure of the
+intimate connection of the human with the tertiary period; and has
+shown in this as in other instances that truth and not "accommodation"
+was the object of the sacred writer. While, as already stated, many
+existing species extend far back into the tertiary period, showing
+that the earth has been visited by no universal catastrophe since the
+first creation of mammals; on the other hand, we can not with
+certainty trace any existing species back beyond the commencement of
+the tertiary era. Geology and revelation, therefore, coincide in
+referring the creation of man to the close of the period in which
+mammals were introduced and became predominant, and in establishing a
+marked separation between that period and the preceding one in which
+the lower animals held undisputed sway. This coincidence, while it
+strengthens the probability that the creative days were long periods,
+opposes an almost insurmountable obstacle to every other hypothesis
+of reconciliation with geological science.
+
+At the close of this day the Creator again reviews his work, and
+pronounces it good. Step by step the world had been evolved from a
+primeval chaos, through many successive physical changes and long
+series of organized beings. It had now reached its acme of perfection,
+and had received its most illustrious tenant, possessing an organism
+excelling all others in majesty and beauty, and an immaterial soul the
+shadow of the glorious Creator himself. Well might the angels sing,
+when the long-protracted work was thus grandly completed:
+
+                      "Thrice happy man,
+  And sons of men, whom God hath thus advanced,
+  Created in his image, there to dwell
+  And worship him, and in reward to rule
+  Over his works in earth, or sea, or air,
+  And multiply a race of worshippers
+  Holy and just; thrice happy, if they know
+  Their happiness and persevere upright."
+
+The Hebrew idea of the golden age of Eden is pure and exalted. It
+consists in the enjoyment of the favor of God, and of all that is
+beautiful and excellent in his works. God and nature are the whole.
+Nor is it merely a rude, unintelligent, sensuous enjoyment. Man
+primeval is not a lazy savage gathering acorns. He is made in the
+image of the Creator; he is to keep and dress his garden, and it is
+furnished with every plant good for food and pleasant to the sight. In
+the midst of our material civilization we need to disabuse ourselves
+of some prejudices before we can realize the fact that man, without
+the arts of life or any need of them, is not necessarily a barbarian
+or a savage. Yet even Adam must have been an agriculturist with strong
+and willing hands, and must have had some need of agricultural
+implements such as those with which the least civilized of his
+descendants have been wont to till the soil. Still, without art or
+with very little of it, he could enjoy all that is beautiful and grand
+in nature, and could rise from the observation of nature to communion
+with God. We need the more to realize this, inasmuch as there seems so
+strong a tendency to confound material civilization with higher
+culture, and to hold that man primeval must have been low and debased
+simply because he may have had no temples and no machinery. We must
+remember that he had nature, which is higher than fine art, and that
+when in harmony with his surroundings he may have had no need either
+of exhausting labor or of mechanical contrivances. Farther, in the
+contemplation of nature and in seeking after God, he had higher
+teachers than our boasted civilization can claim.
+
+Alas for fallen man, with his poor civilization gathered little by
+little from the dust of earth, and his paltry art that halts
+immeasurably behind nature. How little is he able even to appreciate
+the high estate of his great ancestor. The world of fallen men has
+worshipped art too much, reverenced and studied God and nature too
+little. The savage displays the lowest taste when he admires the rude
+figures which he paints on his face or his garments more than the
+glorious painting that adorns nature; yet even he acknowledges the
+pre-eminent excellence of nature by imitating her forms and colors,
+and by adapting her painted plumes and flowers to his own use. There
+is a wide interval, including many gradations, between this low
+position and that of the cultivated amateur or artist. The art of the
+latter makes a nearer approach to the truly beautiful, inasmuch as it
+more accurately represents the geometric and organic forms and the
+coloring of nature; and inasmuch as it devises ideal combinations not
+found in the actual world; which ideal combinations, however, are
+beautiful or monstrous just as they realize or violate the harmonies
+of nature. It is only the highest culture that brings man back to his
+primitive refinement.
+
+Art takes her true place when she sits at the feet of nature, and
+brings her students to drink in its beauties, that they may endeavor,
+however imperfectly, to reproduce them. On the other hand, the student
+of nature must not content himself with "writing Latin names on white
+paper," wherewith to label nature's productions, but must rise to the
+contemplation of the order and beauty of the Cosmos as a revelation of
+Divinity. Both will thus rise to that highest taste which will enable
+them to appreciate not only the elegance of individual forms, but
+their structure, their harmonies, their grouping and their relations,
+their special adaptation, and their places as parts of a great system.
+Thus art will attain that highest point in which it displays original
+genius, without violating natural truth and unity, and nature will be
+regarded as the highest art.
+
+Much is said and done in our time with reference to the cultivation of
+popular taste for fine art as a means of civilization; and this, so
+far as it goes, is well; but the only sure path to the highest
+taste-education is the cultivation of the study of nature. This is
+also an easier branch of education, provided the instructors have
+sufficient knowledge. Good works of art are rare and costly; but good
+works of nature are everywhere around us, waiting to be examined. Such
+education, popularly diffused, would react on the efforts of art. It
+would enable a widely extended public to appreciate real excellence,
+and would cause works of art to be valued just in proportion to the
+extent to which they realize or deviate from natural truth and unity.
+I do not profess to speak authoritatively on such subjects, but I
+confess that the strong impression on my mind is that neither the
+revered antique models, nor the practice and principles of the
+generality of modern art reformers, would endure such criticism; and
+that if we could combine popular enthusiasm for art with scientific
+appreciation of nature, a new and better art might arise from the
+union.
+
+I may appear to dwell too long upon this topic; but my excuse must be
+that it leads to a true estimate both of natural history and of the
+sacred Scriptures. The study of nature guides to those large views of
+the unity and order of creation which alone are worthy of a being of
+the rank of man, and which lead him to adequate conceptions of the
+Creator; but the truly wise recognize three grades of beauty. First,
+that of art, which, in its higher efforts, can raise ordinary minds
+far above themselves. Secondly, that of nature, which, in its most
+common objects, must transcend the former, since its artist is that
+God of whose infinite mind the genius of the artist is only a faint
+reflection. Thirdly, that pre-eminent beauty of moral goodness
+revealed only in the spiritual nature of the Supreme. The first is one
+of the natural resources of fallen man in his search for happiness.
+The second was man's joy in his primeval innocence. The third is the
+inheritance of man redeemed. It is folly to place these on the same
+level. It is greater folly to worship either or both of the first
+without regard to the last. It is true wisdom to aspire to the last,
+and to regard nature as the handmaid of piety, art as but the handmaid
+of nature.
+
+Nature to the unobservant is merely a mass of things more or less
+beautiful or interesting, but without any definite order or
+significance. An observer soon arrives at the conclusion that it is a
+series of circling changes, ever returning to the same points, ever
+renewing their courses, under the action of invariable laws. But if he
+rests here, he falls infinitely short of the idea of the Cosmos, and
+stands on the brink of the profound error of eternal succession. A
+little further progress conducts him to the inviting field of special
+adaptation and mutual relation of things. He finds that nothing is
+without its use; that every structure is most nicely adjusted to
+special ends; that the supposed ceaseless circling of nature is merely
+the continuous action of great powers, by which an infinity of
+utilities are worked out--the great fly-wheel which, in its unceasing
+and at first sight apparently aimless round, is giving motion to
+thousands of reels and spindles and shuttles, that are spinning and
+weaving, in all its varied patterns, the great web of life.
+
+But the observer, as he looks on this web, is surprised to find that
+it has in its whole extent a wondrous pattern. He rises to the
+contemplation of type in nature, a great truth to which science has
+only lately opened its eyes. He begins dimly to perceive that the
+Creator has from the beginning had a plan before his mind, that this
+plan embraced various types or patterns of existence; that on these
+patterns he has been working out the whole system of nature, adapting
+each to all the variety of uses by an infinity of minor modifications.
+That, in short, whether he study the eye of a gnat or the structure of
+a mountain chain, he sees not only objects of beauty and utility, but
+parts of far-reaching plans of infinite wisdom, by which all objects,
+however separated in time or space, are linked together.
+
+How much of positive pleasure does that man lose who passes through
+life absorbed with its wants and its artificialities, and regarding
+with a "brute, unconscious gaze" the grand revelation of a higher
+intelligence in the outer world. It is only in an approximation
+through our Divine Redeemer to the moral likeness of God that we can
+be truly happy; but of the subsidiary pleasures which we are here
+permitted to enjoy, the contemplation of nature is one of the best and
+purest. It was the pleasure, the show, the spectacle prepared for man
+in Eden, and how much true philosophy and taste shine in the simple
+words that in paradise God planted trees "pleasant to the sight," as
+well as "good for food." Other things being equal, the nearer we can
+return to this primitive taste, the greater will be our sensuous
+enjoyment, the better the influence of our pleasures on our moral
+nature, because they will then depend on the cultivation of tastes at
+once natural and harmless, and will not lead us to communion with and
+reverence for merely human genius, but will conduct us into the
+presence of the infinite perfection of the Creator.
+
+The Bible knows but one species of man. It is not said that men were
+created after their species, as we read of the groups of animals. Man
+was made, "male and female;" and in the fuller details afterwards
+given in the second chapter--where the writer, having finished his
+general narrative, commences his special history of man--but one
+primitive pair is introduced to our notice. We scarcely need the
+detailed tables of affiliation afterward given, or the declaration of
+the apostle who preached to the supposed autochthones of Athens, that
+"God has made of one blood all nations," to assure us of the
+Scriptural unity of man. If, therefore, there were any good reason to
+believe that man is not of one but several origins, we must admit
+Moses to have been very imperfectly informed. Nor, on the other hand,
+does the Bible any more than geology allow us to assign a very high
+antiquity to the origin of man relatively to that of the earth on
+which he dwells. The genealogical tables of the Bible may admit of
+some limits of difference of opinion as to the age of the human world
+or �on, and also of that of the deluge, from which man took his second
+point of departure; but they do not allow us to put the origin of man
+farther back than that of the present or modern condition of our
+continents and the present races of animals. They therefore limit us
+to the modern or quaternary period of geology. The question of man's
+antiquity, so much agitated now, demands, however, a separate and
+careful consideration; but we must first devote a few pages to the
+simple statements of the Bible respecting the Sabbath of creation and
+its relation to human history.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE REST OF THE CREATOR.
+
+
+     "And the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the
+     host of them. And on the seventh day God ended his work
+     which he had made, and he rested on the seventh day from all
+     his work which he had made. And God blessed the seventh day
+     and sanctified it, because that in it God rested from all
+     his work which he had created to make."--Genesis ii., 1-3.
+
+
+The end of the sixth day closed the work of creation properly so
+called, as well as that of forming and arranging the things created.
+The beginning of the seventh introduced a period which, according to
+the views already stated, was to be occupied by the continued increase
+and diffusion of man and the creatures under his dominion, and by the
+gradual disappearance of tribes of creatures unconnected with his
+well-being.
+
+Science in this well accords with Scripture. No proof exists of the
+production of a new species since the creation of man; and all
+geological and arch�ological evidence points to him and a few of the
+higher mammals as the newest of the creatures. There is, on the other
+hand, good evidence that several species have become extinct since his
+creation. Those who believe in the continuous evolution of animals and
+men, it is true, can see no actual termination of the process with the
+introduction of man; but even they see that the appearance of a
+rational and moral being at least changes the nature and order of the
+development. Nor can they doubt that man is the last born of nature,
+and that the whole animal creation is crowned by him as its capital or
+topmost pinnacle. The later speculators on this subject have never
+reached any truth beyond that long ago stated by the lamented Edward
+Forbes--a most careful observer and accurate reasoner on the more
+recent changes of the earth's surface. He infers, from the
+distribution of species from their centres of creation, that man is
+the latest product of creative power; or, in other words, that none of
+those species or groups of species which he had been able to trace to
+their centres, or the spots at which they probably originated, appear
+to be of later or as late origin as man. "This consideration," he
+says, "induces me to believe that the last province in time was
+completed by the coming of man, and to maintain an hypothesis that man
+stands unique in space and time, himself equal to the sum of any
+pre-existing centre of creation or of all--an hypothesis consistent
+with man's moral and social position in the world."
+
+The seventh day, then, was to have been that in which all the
+happiness, beauty, and perfection of the others were to have been
+concentrated. But an element of instability was present in the being
+who occupied the summit of the animal scale. Not regulated by blind
+and unerring instincts, but a free agent, with a high intellectual and
+moral nature, and liable to be acted on by temptation from without;
+under such influence he lost his moral balance in stretching out his
+hand to grasp the peculiar powers of Deity, and fell beyond the hope
+of self-redemption--perpetuating, by one of those laws which regulate
+the transmission of mixed corporeal and spiritual natures, his
+degradation to every generation of his species. And so God's great
+work was marred, and all his plans seemed to be foiled, when they had
+just reached their completion. Thus far science might carry us
+unaided; for there is not a true naturalist, however skeptical as to
+revealed religion, who does not feel in his inmost heart the
+disjointed state of the present relations of man to nature; the
+natural wreck that results from his artificial modes of life, the long
+trains of violations of the symmetry of nature that follow in the wake
+of his most boasted achievements. But here natural science stops; and
+just as we have found that, in tracing back the world's history, the
+Bible carries us much farther than geology, so science, having led us
+to suspect the fallen state of man, leaves us henceforth to the
+teaching of revelation. And how glorious that teaching! God did not
+find himself baffled--his resources are infinite--he had foreseen and
+prepared for all this apparent evil; and out of the moral wreck he
+proceeds to work out the grand process of _redemption_, which is the
+especial object of the seventh day, and which will result in the
+production of a new heaven and a new earth wherein dwelleth
+righteousness. In the seventh, as in the former days, the evening
+precedes the morning. For four thousand years the world groped in its
+darkness--a darkness tenanted by moral monsters as powerful and
+destructive as the old pre-Adamite reptiles. The Sun of Righteousness
+at length arose, and the darkness began to pass away; but eighteen
+centuries have elapsed, and we still see but the gray dawn of morning,
+which we yet firmly believe will brighten into a glorious day that
+shall know no succeeding night.[100]
+
+The seventh day is the modern or human era in geology; and, though it
+can not yet boast of any physical changes so great as those of past
+periods, it is still of much interest, as affording the facts on which
+we must depend for explanations of past changes; and as immediately
+connected in time with those later tertiary periods which afford so
+many curious problems to the geological student. The actual connection
+of the human with preceding periods is still involved in some
+obscurity; and, as we shall see, there has recently been a strong
+tendency to throw back the origin of man into prehistoric ages of
+enormous length, on grounds which are, however, much less certain than
+is commonly imagined. This question we have to examine; but before
+entering upon it may shortly sketch the actual import of the
+statements of the Hebrew Scriptures respecting what may be called the
+prehistoric duration of the human species. This is the more necessary,
+as the most crude notions seem very widely to prevail on the subject.
+I shall, therefore, in this place notice some general facts deducible
+from the Bible, and which may be useful in appreciating the true
+relation of the human era to those which preceded it. It will be
+understood that I shall endeavor merely to present a picture of what
+the Bible actually teaches, and which any one can verify by reading
+the book of Genesis.
+
+1. The local centre of creation of the human species, and probably of
+a group of creatures coeval with it, was Eden; a country of which the
+Scriptures give a somewhat minute geographical description. It was
+evidently a district of Western Asia; and, from its possession of
+several important rivers, rather a region or large territory than a
+limited spot, such as many, who have discussed the question of the
+site of Eden, seem to suppose. In this view it is a matter of no
+moment to fix its site more nearly than the indication of the Bible
+that it included the sources and probably large portions of the
+valleys of the Tigris, the Euphrates, and perhaps the Oxus and
+Jaxartes. Into the minor difficulties respecting the site of Eden it
+would be unprofitable to enter, and it will matter little if we accept
+that view, which, however, I think less probable, that it was placed
+in the lower part of the valley of the Euphrates. I may merely mention
+one particular of the Biblical description, because it throws light on
+the great antiquity of this geographical delineation, and has been
+strangely misconceived by expositors--the relation of those rivers to
+Cush or Ethiopia and Havilah, a tribal name derived from that of a
+grandson of Cush. On consulting the tenth chapter of Genesis, it will
+be found that the Cushites under Nimrod, very soon after the deluge,
+are stated to have pushed their migrations and conquests along the
+Tigris to the northward, and established there the first empire. It is
+probably this primitive Cushite empire, called Ethiopia in our
+translation, which in the epoch of the description of Eden occupied
+the Euphratean valley, and being bounded on one side by the river
+called Gihon, was thus believed to extend over the old site of Eden.
+Thus the Cush or Ethiopia of the description has no direct connection
+with the African Ethiopia, and speculations based on such a supposed
+connection are groundless. On the other hand this feature furnishes an
+interesting coincidence with other parts of Genesis, and throws light
+on many obscure points in the early history of man; and since this
+Cushite empire had perished even before the time of Moses, it
+indicates a still more ancient tradition respecting the primeval abode
+of our species.
+
+2. Before the deluge this region must have been the seat of a dense
+population, which, according to the Biblical account, must have made
+considerable advances in the arts, and at the same time sunk very low
+in moral debasement.[101] Whether any remains of the central portions
+of this ancient population or its works exist will probably not be
+determined with absolute certainty till we have accurate geological
+investigations of the whole country in the neighborhood of the Caspian
+Sea and along the great rivers of Western Asia, though there is
+nothing unreasonable in the belief that some of the old prehistoric
+men whose remains are discovered in caves and river gravels in Europe
+may belong to the antediluvian race. Should such remains be found, we
+might infer, from the extreme longevity and other characteristics
+assigned to the antediluvians, that their skeletons would present
+peculiarities entitling them to be considered a well-marked variety of
+the human species, and this not of a low type of physical
+organization. We may also infer that the family of man very early
+divided into two races--one retaining in greater purity the moral
+endowments of the species, the other excelling in the mechanical and
+fine arts; and that there were rude and savage outlying communities of
+men then as at present. If the so-called pal�olithic men of Europe are
+antediluvian, they were probably of such outlying tribes, and possibly
+of the mixed race which sprung up in the later antediluvian age, and
+who are described as mighty men physically, and men of violence. It
+would be quite natural that this intermixture of the Sethite and
+Cainite races should produce a race excelling both in energy and
+physical endowments--the "giants" that were in those days.[102] If any
+remains of the two central nations of the antediluvian period are ever
+discovered, we may confidently anticipate that the distinctive
+characteristics of these races may be detected in their osseous
+structures as well as in their works of art. Farther, it is to be
+inferred from notices in the fourth chapter of Genesis, that before
+the deluge there was both a nomadic and a settled population, and that
+the principal seat of the Cainite, or more debased yet energetic
+branch of the human family, was to the eastward of the site of Eden.
+No intimations are given by which the works of art of antediluvian
+times could be distinguished from those of later periods; but that
+curious summary of the treasures of antediluvian man contained in the
+notice that the land of Havilah produced gold and agate and pearl
+(Gen. ii., 12) would lead us to believe that the early antediluvian
+age was on the whole an age of stone, in which flint for weapons, and
+gold and shell wampum for ornaments, were the leading kinds of wealth.
+On the other hand, the notices of antediluvian metallurgy, and the
+building and construction of the ark, would lead us to infer that the
+later antediluvians had attained to much perfection in some
+constructive arts--a conclusion which harmonizes with the otherwise
+inexplicable perfection of such art soon after the deluge, as
+evidenced not only by the story of Babel, but also by the early works
+of the Assyrians and Egyptians.
+
+3. When the antediluvian population had fully proved itself unfit to
+enter into the divine scheme of moral renovation, it was swept away by
+a fearful physical catastrophe. The deluge might, in all its
+relations, furnish material for an entire treatise. I may remark here,
+as its most important geological peculiarity, that it was evidently a
+_local_ convulsion. The object, that of destroying the human race and
+the animal population of its peculiar centre of creation, the
+preservation of specimens of these creatures in the ark, and the
+physical requirements of the case, necessitate this conclusion, which
+is now accepted by the best Biblical expositors,[103] and which
+inflicts no violence on the terms of the record. Viewed in this light,
+the phenomena recorded in the Bible, in connection with geological
+probabilities, lead us to infer that the physical agencies evoked by
+the divine power to destroy this ungodly race were a subsidence of the
+region they inhabited, so as to admit the oceanic waters, and
+extensive atmospherical disturbances connected with that subsidence,
+and perhaps with the elevation of neighboring regions. In this case it
+is possible that the Caspian Sea, which is now more than eighty feet
+below the level of the ocean,[104] and which was probably much more
+extensive then than at present, received much of the drainage of the
+flood, and that the mud and sand deposits of this sea and the
+adjoining desert plains, once manifestly a part of its bottom, conceal
+any remains that exist of the antediluvian population. In connection
+with this, it may be remarked that, in the book of Job, Eliphaz speaks
+as if the locality of those wicked nations which existed before the
+deluge was known and accessible in his time:
+
+  "Hast thou marked the ancient way
+  Which wicked men have trodden,
+  Who were seized [by the waters] in a moment,
+  And whose foundations a flood swept away?"
+
+  --Job xxii., 15.
+
+On comparing this statement with the answer of Job in the 26th
+chapter, verse 5th, it would seem that the ungodly antediluvians were
+supposed to be still under the waters; a belief quite intelligible if
+the Caspian, which, on the latest and most probable views of the
+locality of the events of this book, was not very remote from the
+residence of Job,[105] was supposed to mark the position of the
+pre-Noachic population, as the Dead Sea afterward did that of the
+cities of the plain. Some of the dates assigned to the book of Job
+would, however, render it possible that this last catastrophe is that
+to which _he_ refers:
+
+  "The _Rephaim_ tremble from beneath
+  The waters and their inhabitants.
+  Sheol is naked before him,
+  And destruction hath no covering."
+
+The word _Rephaim_ here has been variously rendered "shades of the
+dead" and "giants." It is properly the family or national name of
+certain tribes of gigantic Hamite men (the Anakim, Emim, etc.)
+inhabiting Western Asia at a very remote period; and it must here
+refer either to them or to the still earlier antediluvian
+giants.[106]
+
+It is also an important point to be noticed here that the narrative of
+the deluge in Genesis is given as the testimony or record of an
+eye-witness, and is to be so understood; and that the terms of the
+record imply, not as usually held that all sorts of animals were taken
+into Noah's ark, but only a selection, the character of which is
+clearly indicated by a comparison of the five lists of animals given
+in the narrative. Bearing this in mind, and noticing that the writer
+tells of his own experience as to the rise of the water, the drifting
+of the ark, the disappearance of all visible shore, and the sounding
+fifteen cubits where a hill had before been, all the difficulties of
+the narrative of the deluge will at once disappear. These difficulties
+have in fact arisen from regarding the story as the composition of a
+historian, not as what it manifestly is, the log or journal of a
+contemporary, introduced with probably little change by the compiler
+of the book.
+
+After the deluge, we find the human race settled in the plains of the
+Euphrates and Tigris, attracted thither by the fertility of their
+alluvial soils. There we find them engaging in a great political
+scheme, no doubt founded on recollections of the old antediluvian
+nationalities, and on a dread of the evils which able and aspiring men
+would anticipate from that wide dispersion of the human race that
+appears to have been intended by the Creator in the new circumstances
+of the earth. They commenced accordingly the erection of a city or
+tower at Babel, in the plain of Shinar, to form a common bond of
+union, a great public work that should be a rallying-point for the
+race, and around which its patriotism might concentrate itself. The
+attempt was counteracted by an interposition of divine Providence; and
+thenceforth the diffusion of the human race proceeded unchecked,
+carrying with it everywhere the memory of the celebrated tower, which
+perpetuated itself not only in the mounds of Assyria and Babylon and
+the pyramids of Egypt, but in the teocallis and temple mounds of the
+New World. The Babel enterprise is in fact the first recorded
+development of that mound-building instinct which the earlier races
+everywhere evince, and which has been a distinguishing characteristic
+more especially of the Cushite or Turanian race, and has apparently
+made them the teachers of constructive arts to all other peoples.
+Perhaps a dread of the total decay and loss of the surviving
+antediluvian arts in construction and other matters may have been one
+impelling motive to the building of Babel. Perhaps it was connected
+with the communistic ideas of the Turanian race, and their conflict
+with the patriarchal habits of the Semites. Out of the enterprise at
+Babel, however, arose a new type of evil, which, in the forms of
+military despotism, the spirit of conquest, hero-worship, and the
+alliance of these influences with literature and the arts, has been
+handed down through every succeeding age to our own time. The name of
+Nimrod, the son of Cush, has been preserved to us in the Bible, and
+also apparently in the tablets and inscriptions of Assyria, as the
+founder of the first despotism. This bold and ambitious man,
+subsequently deified under different names, established a Hamite or
+Turanian empire, which appears to have extended its sway over the
+tribes occupying Southwestern Asia and Northeastern Africa, everywhere
+supporting its power by force of arms, and introducing a debasing
+polytheistic hero-worship, and certain forms of art probably derived
+from antediluvian times. The centre of this Cushite empire, however,
+gave way to the rising power of Assyria or the Ashurite branch of the
+sons of Shem, at a period antecedent to the dawn of profane history,
+except in its mythical form; and when the light of secular history
+first breaks upon us, we find Egypt standing forth as the only stable
+representative of the arts, the systems, and the superstitions of the
+old Cushite empire, of which it had been the southern branch; while
+other remnants of the Hamite races, included in the empire of Nimrod,
+were scattered over Western Asia, and, migrating into Europe, with or
+after the ruder but less demoralized sons of Japheth, carried with
+them their characteristic civilization and mythology, to take root in
+new forms in Greece and Italy.[107] Meanwhile the Assyrian and Persian
+(Elamite) races were growing in Middle Asia, and probably driving the
+more eastern remnants of the Nimrodic empire into India, borrowing at
+the same time their superstitions and their claims to universal
+dominion. These views, which I believe to correspond with the few
+notices in the Bible and in ancient history, and to be daily receiving
+new confirmations from the investigations of the ancient Assyrian
+monuments, enable us to understand many mysterious problems in the
+early history of man. They give us reason to suspect that the
+_principle_ of the first empire was an imitation of the antediluvian
+world, and that its arts and customs were mainly derived from that
+source. They show how it happens that Egypt, a country so far removed
+from the starting-point of man after the deluge, should appear to be
+the cradle of the arts, and they account for the Hamite and perhaps
+antediluvian elements, mixed with primeval Biblical ideas, as the
+cherubim, etc., in the old heathenism of India, Assyria, and Southern
+Europe, and which they share with Egypt, having derived them from the
+same source. They also show how it is that in the most remote
+antiquity we find two well-developed and opposite religious systems;
+the pure theism of Noah, and those who retained his faith, and the
+idolatry of those tribes which regarded with adoring veneration the
+objects and stages of the creative work, the grander powers and
+objects of nature, the mighty Cainites of the world before the flood,
+and the postdiluvian leaders who followed them in their violence,
+their cultivation of the arts, and their rebellion against God. These
+heroes were identified with imaginative conceptions of the heavenly
+bodies, animals, and other natural objects, associated with the
+fortunes of cities and nations, with particular territories, and with
+war and the useful arts, transmitted under different names to one
+country after another, and localized in each; and it is only in
+comparatively modern times that we have been able to recognize the
+full certainty of the view held long since by many ingenious writers,
+that among the greater gods of Egypt and Assyria, and of consequence
+among those also of Greece and Rome, were Nimrod, Ham, Ashur, Noah,
+Mizraim, and other worthies and tyrants of the old world; and to
+suspect that Tubalcain and Naamah, and other antediluvian names, were
+similarly honored, though subsequently overshadowed by more recent
+divinities. The later Assyrian readings of Rawlinson, Hincks, and the
+lamented George Smith, and the more recent works on Egyptian
+antiquities, are full of pregnant hints on these subjects. It would,
+however, lead us too far from our immediate subject to enter more
+fully into these questions. I have referred to them merely to point
+out connecting-links between the secular and sacred history of the
+earlier part of the human period, as a useful sequel to our comparison
+of the latter with the conclusions of science, and as furnishing hints
+which may guide the geologist in connecting the human with the
+tertiary period, and in distinguishing between the antediluvian and
+postdiluvian portions of the former.
+
+It may be said, however, that all this Biblical history, however it
+may accord with the little that remains to us of the written annals of
+early Oriental nations, is entirely at variance with those modern
+arch�ological discussions which point to an immense antiquity of the
+human race, and to a primitive barbarism out of which all human
+culture was little by little evolved; and which results of
+arch�ological investigation, while contradictory to the Hebrew
+Scriptures, are entirely in accord with the evolutionist philosophy.
+The prominence now given to such views as these renders it necessary
+that we should denote a special chapter to their discussion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+
+     "These are the families of the sons of Noah, after their
+     generations, in their nations: and by these were the nations
+     divided in the earth after the flood."--Genesis x., 32.
+
+
+The theologians and evangelical Christians of our time, and with them
+the credibility of the Holy Scriptures, are supposed by many to have
+been impaled on a zoological and arch�ological dilemma, in a manner
+which renders nugatory all attempts to reconcile the Mosaic cosmogony
+with science. The Bible, as we have seen, knows but one Adam, and that
+Adam not a myth or an ethnic name, but a veritable man; but some
+naturalists and ethnologists think that they have found decisive
+evidence that man is not of one but of several origins. The religious
+tendency of this doctrine no Christian can fail to perceive. In
+whatever way put, or under whatever disguise, it renders the Bible
+history worthless, reduces us to that isolation of race from race
+cultivated in ancient times by the various local idolatries, and
+destroys the brotherhood of man and the universality of that Christian
+atonement which proclaims that "as in Adam all die, so in Christ shall
+all be made alive."
+
+Fortunately, however, the greater weight of biological and
+arch�ological evidence is here on the side of the Bible, and philology
+comes in with strong corroborative proof. But just as the orthodox
+theologian is beginning to congratulate himself on the aid he has
+thus received, some of his new friends gravely tell him that, in order
+to maintain their view, it is necessary to believe that man has
+resided on earth for countless ages, and that it is quite a mistake to
+suppose that his starting-point is so recent as the Mosaic deluge.
+Nay, some very rampant theorists of some ethnological schools try to
+pierce Moses and his abettors with both horns of the dilemma at once,
+maintaining that men may be of different species, and yet may have
+existed for an enormous length of time as well. The recent prevalence
+of theories of evolution has, however, thrown quite into the
+background the discussions formerly active respecting the unity of
+man, but has, along with geological and arch�ological discovery, given
+increased prominence to those relating to the date of the origin of
+our species and the manner of its introduction.
+
+The Bible gives us a definite epoch, that of the deluge, about 2000 to
+3000 B.C., for all existing races of men; but this, according to it,
+was only the second starting-point of humanity, and though no family
+but that of Noah survived the terrible catastrophe, it would be a
+great error to suppose that nothing antediluvian appears in the
+subsequent history of man. Before the deluge there were arts and an
+old civilization, extending over at least two thousand years, and
+after the deluge men carried with them these heirlooms of the old
+world to commence with them new nations. This has been tacitly ignored
+by many of the writers who underrate the value of the Hebrew history.
+It may be as well for this reason to place, in a series of
+propositions, the principal points in Genesis which relate to the
+questions now before us.
+
+1. Adam and Isha, the woman, afterward called Eve (Life-giver), in
+consequence of the promise of a Redeemer, commenced a life of
+husbandry on their expulsion from Eden, which, on the ordinary views
+of the Bible chronology, may be supposed to have occurred from 4000 to
+5000 years before the Christian era; and during the lifetime of the
+primal pair, the sheep, at least, was domesticated. The Bible, of
+course, knows nothing of the imaginary continent of Lemuria, in which,
+according to some hypotheses, men are supposed to have had their birth
+from apes. A few generations after, in the time of Lamech, cattle were
+domesticated; and the metals copper and iron were applied to use--the
+latter probably meteoric iron; and hence, it may be, the Hindoo and
+Hellenic myths of Twachtrei and Heph�stos in connection with the
+thunderbolt. We learn, however, incidentally, as already mentioned, in
+the description of Eden in Genesis, chapter 2d, that there was a
+previous stone age, in which "flint, pearls or shell beads, and
+stream-gold" were the chief treasures of man, for this is implied in
+the "gold, bedolach, and onyx" of the land of Havilah. It is certain
+also, from the discoveries made in Assyria, on the site of Troy, and
+elsewhere, that the use of stone implements continued in Western Asia
+long after the deluge. In the time of Noah the distinction of clean
+and unclean beasts, and the taking of seven pairs of certain beasts
+and birds into the ark, imply that certain mammals and birds were
+domesticated.[108]
+
+2. Before the flood, as already remarked, there was a division of man
+into two nationalities or races; and there was a citizen, an
+agricultural, a pastoral, and a nomadic population. Farther, the
+remarkable progress in the arts implied in the building of such
+structures as the Tower of Babel, and other temple and palace mounds
+in Assyria, and of the pyramids of Egypt, within a few generations
+after the deluge, proves that a very advanced material civilization
+and great skill in constructive arts had been reached in antediluvian
+times.[109]
+
+3. After the deluge, the arts of the antediluvians and their citizen
+life were almost immediately revived in the plain of Shinar; but the
+plans of the Babel leaders, like those of many others who have
+attempted to force distinct tribes into one nationality, failed. The
+guilt attributed to them probably relates to the attempt to break up
+the patriarchal and tribal organization, which in these early times
+was the outward form of true religion, in favor of some sort of
+national organization, not compatible with the extension of man
+immediately over the world, and tending to consolidation into dense
+communities. It may be a question here whether the tribal communism
+which has prevailed among the American Indians and other rude races
+was the primitive form of society which the Babel-builders essayed to
+change, or whether the Semitic patriarchal system had at first
+prevailed, and the Babel difficulties were connected with a conflict
+between this and communism or despotism, both new Turanian or Aryan
+introductions. In any case, Babel, and Babylon its successor, remain
+in the subsequent Biblical literature as types of the God-defying and
+antichristian systems that have succeeded each other from the time of
+Nimrod to this day.
+
+4. The human race was scattered over the earth in family groups or
+tribes, each headed by a leading patriarch, who gave it its name.
+First, the three sons of Noah formed three main stems, and from these
+diverged several family branches. The ethnological chart in the 10th
+chapter of Genesis gives the principal branches under patriarchal and
+ethnic names; but these, of course, continued to subdivide beyond the
+space and time referred to by the sacred writer. It is simply absurd
+to object, as some writers have done, to the universality of the
+statements in Genesis, that they do not mention in detail the whole
+earth. They refer to a few generations only, and beyond this restrict
+themselves to the one branch of the human family to which the Bible
+principally relates. We should be thankful for so much of the leading
+lines of ethnological divergence, without complaining that it is not
+followed out into its minute ramifications and into all history.
+
+5. The tripartite division in Genesis x. indicates a somewhat strict
+geographical separation of the three main trunks. The regions marked
+out for Japheth include Europe and Northwestern Asia. The name
+Japheth, as well as the statements in the table, indicate a versatile,
+nomadic, and colonizing disposition as characteristic of these
+tribes.[110] The Median population, the same with a portion of that
+now often called Aryan,[111] was the only branch remaining near the
+original seats of the species, and in a settled condition. The
+outlying portions of the posterity of Japheth, on account of their
+wide dispersion, must at a very early period have fallen into
+comparative barbarism, such as we find in historic periods all over
+Western and Northern Europe and Northern Asia. Owing to their habitat,
+the Japhetites of the Bible include none of the black races, unless
+certain Indian and Australian nations are outlying portions of this
+family. The Shemite nations showed little tendency to migrate, being
+grouped about the Euphrates and Tigris valleys and neighboring
+regions. For this reason, with the exception of certain Arab tribes,
+they present no instances of barbarism, and generally retained a high
+cerebral organization, and respectable though stationary civilization,
+and they possess the oldest alphabet and literature. The posterity of
+Ham differs remarkably from the others. It spread itself over
+Southern, Central, and Eastern Asia, Southern Europe, and Northern
+Africa, and constitutes the stock alike of the Turanian and African
+races, as well as probably of the American tribes. It has all along
+displayed a great capacity for certain forms of art and
+semi-civilization, but has rarely risen to the level of the Shemite
+and Japhetite races. It established the earliest military and
+monarchical institutions, and presents at the dawn of history--in
+Assyria, in Egypt, and India--settled and arbitrary forms in politics
+and religion, of a character so much resembling that of an old and
+corrupt civilization that we can scarcely avoid supposing that Ham and
+his family had preserved more than any of the other Noachian races the
+arts and institutions of the old world before the flood. It certainly
+presents itself in early postdiluvian times as the first
+representative and teacher of art and material civilization. The
+Hamite race is remarkable for the early development of pantheism and
+hero-worship, and for the artificial character of its culture. It
+presents us with the darkest colors, and in the vast solitudes of
+Africa and Central Asia its outlying tribes must have fallen into
+comparative barbarism a few centuries after the deluge. It is farther
+to be observed that, according to the Bible, the Canaanites and other
+Hamite nations spoke languages not essentially different from those of
+the Shemites, while the Japhetite nations were to them barbarians--"a
+nation whose tongue thou shalt not understand." There was, too, at the
+date of the dispersion of Babel, already a distinction of tongues
+within each of the great races of men.
+
+6. All the divisions of the family of Noah had from the first the
+domesticated animals and the principal arts of life, and enjoyed these
+in a national capacity so soon as sufficiently numerous. The more
+scattered tribes, wandering into fresh regions, and adopting the life
+of hunters, lost the characteristics of civilization, and diverged
+widely from the primitive languages. We should thus have, according to
+the Hebrew ethnology, a central area presenting the principal stems of
+all the three races in a permanently civilized state. All around this
+area should lie aberrant and often barbarous tribes, differing most
+widely from the original type in the more distant regions, and in
+those least favorable to human health and subsistence. In these
+outlying regions, secondary centres of civilization might grow up,
+differing from that of the primitive centre, except in so far as the
+common principles of human nature and intercommunication might prevent
+this. All these conclusions, fairly deducible at once from the Mosaic
+ethnology and the theory of dispersion from a centre, are perfectly in
+accordance with observed facts, though in absolute contradiction to
+prevalent ethnological conclusions, based on these facts in connection
+with theories of development.
+
+A multitude of Bible notices might easily be quoted illustrative of
+these points, and also of the consistency of the Mosaic narrative with
+itself. One of them may suffice here. Abraham, who is said by the
+Jews to have been contemporary with Shem, as Menes by the Egyptians
+with Ham, at least lived sufficiently near to the time of the rise of
+the earliest nations to be taken as an illustration of this primitive
+condition of society. He was not a patriarch of the first or second
+rank, like Ham or Mizraim or Canaan, but a subordinate family leader
+several removes from the survivors of the deluge. Yet his tribe
+increases in comparatively few years to a considerable number. He is
+treated as an equal by the monarchs of Egypt and Philistia. He
+defeats, with a band of three or four hundred retainers, a confederacy
+of four Euphratean kings representing the embryo state of the Persian
+and Assyrian empires, and already relatively so strong that they have
+overrun much of Western Asia. All this bespeaks in a most consistent
+manner the rapid rise of many small nationalities, scattered over the
+better parts of wide regions, and still in a feeble condition, though
+inheriting from their ancestors an old civilization, and laying the
+foundations of powerful states. If we attach any historical value
+whatever to the narrative, it obviously implies that at a date of
+about two thousand years before Christ the regions afterward occupied
+by the oldest historic empires were still thinly peopled, and their
+dominant races little more than feeble tribes. This farther
+corresponds with the authentic history of all the ancient nations,
+however these may have been extended by previous mythical periods.
+About or shortly before the time of Abraham, Menes was draining for
+the first time the swamps of Egypt, Ninus or Nimrod was founding the
+Assyrian empire, the Phoenicians were founding Sidon, agriculture was
+being introduced into China, the Vedas were being written in India,
+the Persian monarchy was being founded; and, in short, all the
+historical nations of the East were originating, and this apparently
+by springing into being with an already formed civilization.
+
+Such being the Hebrew account of the date and early history of man, it
+may be proper here to compare it with such deductions from
+arch�ological and geological investigation as may seem to conflict
+with it, and at the same time to make some comparisons with the
+Turanian and Aryan traditions and speculations as to human origins.
+The special lines of investigation important here are: 1. Early
+historical records other than the Bible; 2. The diversity of human
+languages; 3. The geological evidence afforded by remains of
+prehistoric men found in caverns and other repositories. The last of
+these is at present that which has attained the greatest development.
+
+1. _Early Human History._--Had the human race everywhere preserved
+historical records, we should have had some certain evidence as to the
+places and times of origination of its tribes and peoples.
+Unfortunately this has not been the case. All savage and barbarous
+races, and many of those now civilized, have lost all records of their
+early history. Most of the so-called ancient nations are comparatively
+modern, and their history after a very short course loses itself in
+uncertain tradition and mythical fancies. The only really ancient
+nations that have given us in detail their own written history are the
+Hebrews, the Assyrians, the Egyptians, the Hindoos, and the Chinese.
+The last people, though professedly very ancient, trace their history
+from a period of barbarism--a view confirmed by their physical
+characters and the nature of their civilization; and on this account,
+if no other, their history can not be considered as of much
+arch�ological value. According to their own records, their earliest
+authentic history goes back to about 2800 B.C., and was preceded by a
+prehistoric period of uncertain duration. The astronomical deductions
+of Schlegel, which would extend their history to 17,000 years, are
+evidently altogether unreliable.[112] The early Hindoo history is
+palpably fabulous or distorted, and has been variously modified and
+changed in comparatively modern times. There is one great and very
+ancient people--the Egyptian--evidently civilized from the beginning
+of all history, that have succeeded in transmitting to us, though only
+in fragments, their primeval history; and of late years constant
+additions have been made from inscribed tablets and monuments to our
+knowledge of the ancient history of the Assyrians and Chaldeans.
+
+The Egyptian history has been gathered first from sketches by Greek
+travellers, and from fragments of the chronicles of Manetho, one of
+the later Egyptian priests; and, secondly, from the inscriptions
+deciphered on Egyptian monuments and papyri. It is still in a very
+fragmentary and uncertain state, but has been used with considerable
+effect to prove both the diversity of races of men and the pre-Noachic
+antiquity of the species. The Egyptian, in features and physical
+conformation, tended to the European form, just as the modern Fellahs
+and Berbers do; but he had a dark complexion, a somewhat elongated
+head and flattened lips, and certain negroid peculiarities in his
+limbs. His language combined many of the peculiarities of the Semitic,
+Aryan, and African tongues, indicating thereby great antiquity or else
+great intermixture, but not, as some ethnographers demand, both; most
+probably the former--the Egyptians being really the oldest civilized
+people that we certainly know, and therefore, if languages have one
+origin, likely to be near its root-stock.
+
+The actual history of Egypt begins from Menes, the first human king, a
+monarch, or rather tribal chief, who took up his abode in the flats
+and fens of Lower Egypt, certainly not very long after the deluge. His
+name has been translated "one who walks with Khem," or Ham; one,
+therefore, who was contemporary with this great patriarch and god of
+the Egyptians, which will place his time within a few centuries of the
+Biblical flood. The date of Menes has been variously placed. In
+correction of the ordinary Hebrew chronology, we have the following
+attempts:
+
+  Josephus places his reign                                2350 B.C.
+  Dr. Hales' calculation                                   2412
+  Manetho and the Monuments, as corrected by Syncellus    {2712
+  and calculated by various arch�ologists                 {to
+                                                          {2782
+  Herodotus, astronomical reduction by Rennell             2890
+  Estimate by Gliddon in "Ancient Egypt"                   2750
+  Bunsen, "Egypt's Place," etc.                            4000
+
+The truth may be somewhere near the mean of the shorter chronologies
+given in the list.[113] That of Bunsen is liable to very grave
+objections; more especially as he adds to it other views, altogether
+unsupported by historical evidence, which would carry back the deluge
+to 10,000 years B.C. It rests wholly on the chronology of Manetho, who
+lived 300 years B.C.; and who, even if the Egyptians then possessed
+authentic documents extending 3700 years before his time, may have
+erred in his rendering of them; and is farther liable to grave
+suspicions of having merely grouped the names on the monuments of his
+country arbitrarily in Sothic cycles. Farther, they rest on an
+interpretation of Manetho, which supposes his early dynasties to have
+been successive, while good reasons have been found to prove that many
+of them consist of contemporaneous petty sovereigns of parts of Egypt.
+The early parts of Manetho's lists are purely mythical, and it is
+impossible to fix the point where his authentic history commences. He
+copied from monuments which have no consecutive dates, the precise age
+of which could only be vaguely known even in his time, and which are
+different in their statements in different localities. It is only by
+making due allowance for these uncertainties that any historical value
+can be attached to these earlier dynasties of Manetho. Yet Bunsen has
+built on an uncertain interpretation of this writer, as handed down in
+a very fragmentary and evidently garbled condition, and on the equally
+or more uncertain chronology of Eratosthenes, a system differing from
+all previous belief on the subject, from the Hebrew history, and from
+all former interpretations of the monuments and Manetho.[114]
+Discarding, therefore, in the mean time, this date, and the still
+older one claimed by Mariette,[115] we may roughly estimate the date
+of Menes as 2000 to 2500 years B.C.,[116] and proceed to state some of
+the facts developed by Egyptologists.
+
+One of the most striking of these is the proof that Egypt was a new
+country in the days of Menes and several generations of his
+successors. The monuments of this period show little of the
+complicated idolatry, ritual, and caste system of later times, and are
+deficient in evidence of the refinement and variety of art afterward
+attained. They also show that these early monarchs were principally
+engaged in dyking, and otherwise reclaiming the alluvial flats; an
+evidence precisely of the same character with that which every
+traveller sees in the more recently settled districts of Canada, where
+the forest is giving way to the exertions of the farmer. Farther, in
+this primitive period, known as the "old monarchy," few domestic
+animals appear, and experiments seem to have been in progress to tame
+others, natives of the country, as the hyena, the antelope, the stork.
+Even the dog in the older dynasties is represented by one or at most
+two varieties, and the prevalent one is a wolfish-looking animal akin
+to the present wild or half-tamed dogs of the East.[117] The
+Egyptians, too, of the earlier dynasties, are more homogeneous in
+their appearance than those of the later, after conquest and migration
+had introduced new races; and the earliest monumental notice referring
+to Negro tribes does not appear until the 12th dynasty, about half-way
+between the epoch of Menes and the Christian era, nor does any
+representation of the Negro features occur until, at the earliest, the
+17th dynasty. This allows ample time--one thousand years at the
+least--for the development, under abnormal circumstances and
+isolation, of all the most strongly marked varieties of man. Still
+Egypt, even under the old monarchy, presents evidence of the
+continuation of antediluvian culture.[118]
+
+It is obvious, in short, that the whole aspect of early Egyptian
+history presents to us a people already civilized taking possession of
+that country at a period corresponding with that of the subsidence of
+the Noachian deluge, and not finding there any remains of older
+populations. Nor have any remains of such populations been found by
+modern investigation.[119]
+
+In Assyria the results of the recent discoveries, so well known
+through many learned and popular works, strikingly confirm the Hebrew
+chronology. They indicate no slow emergence from barbarism, but show
+that in Assyria as in Egypt implements of stone and metal were used
+together by a primitive people, already far advanced in civilization;
+and the oldest historical names only carry us back to cities and
+sovereigns of the Abrahamic age, while the story of the primitive
+empire of Nimrod and the traditions of the deluge seem to have
+survived in more or less mythical legends. The earliest Assyrian
+monuments would seem to belong to a Turanian race, of which
+comparatively little is known, but which may correspond with the
+primitive Cushites of Biblical story. To these, it is true, Berosus
+attaches a fabulous antiquity; but this is not confirmed by the
+monuments. These, according to the latest facts disclosed by Smith,
+Rawlinson, and others, appear to fix a date of about 1800 B.C. for the
+foundation of the Assyrian monarchy proper, and the oldest previous
+date given by Assurbampal, who reigned about B.C. 668 to 626, gives
+1635 years before his time, or say 2280 B.C., as the date of an
+Elamite king Kudarnankundi, who seems to be the leader of a primitive
+tribe, one of the oldest in the region, and who has been conjectured
+to have been the Chedorlaomer of Genesis, but was probably one of his
+predecessors.
+
+We gather from the Assyrian annals that the early Turanian kings,
+while mound-builders like their kindred elsewhere, and acquainted with
+metals and with the cuneiform writing, yet constituted comparatively
+small nations, and were much occupied with hunting and other rude
+sports, and with predatory expeditions, so as to answer very nearly to
+the Biblical conception of the early Cushite kingdom of the valley of
+the Euphrates, which was probably in the same stage of culture with
+the nations that in a later period inhabited the valley of the
+Mississippi, and are known as the Alleghans.
+
+In connection with the early history of man, much importance has been
+attached to the division of the early historic and prehistoric ages
+into the periods of Stone, Bronze, and Iron, and of the former into a
+Pal�olithic or ancient stone age, and a more modern or Neolithic stone
+age. It is plain, however, that too great importance has been attached
+to these distinctions, and that they express rather differences of
+circumstances and of culture than of age, so that they have really no
+bearing on the Biblical chronology.
+
+If pal�olithic or rudely chipped implements are the oldest known, as
+they not improbably were the first tools used by man, yet their use
+has extended in the case of rude nations all the way up to the present
+time; and in America and Northern Asia we know that their antiquity is
+but of yesterday, and that they were used with highly finished
+implements of bone, and of those softer stones that admit of being
+polished. No certain line can therefore be drawn even locally between
+a Neolithic and a Pal�olithic period, especially since in localities
+where flint implements were extensively quarried and made, as on the
+banks of rivers in Northern France and Southern England, and in such
+places as "Grimes' Graves" and Cissbury in the latter country, where
+mines were sunk in the chalk for the extraction of flints, it
+necessarily happened that vast multitudes of unfinished or spoiled
+implements and weapons were left on the ground, while the
+better-formed specimens were for the most part taken away. This
+conclusion is amply supported by similar localities in America, where
+people well acquainted with many of the arts of life have left
+quantities of strictly pal�olithic material. Wilson, Southall, and
+other writers have accumulated so many examples of this that I think
+the distinction of Pal�olithic and Neolithic ages must now be given up
+by all investigators who possess ordinary judgment. A remarkable
+instauce is the celebrated "Flint ridge" of Ohio, which was a great
+quarry of flint for implements used by the ancient mound-builders, a
+highly civilized race, as well as by the modern Indians. Here are
+found countless multitudes of pal�olithic flint implements of all the
+ordinary types, but which are merely the unfinished material of
+workers capable of producing the most exquisite implements. There can
+be scarcely a doubt that the pal�olithic implements of the European
+gravels, in so far as they are the workmanship of man, are in like
+manner merely the relics of old flint quarries.[120]
+
+Possibly a more accurate measurement of time for particular regions of
+the world might be deduced from the introduction of bronze and iron.
+If the former was, as many antiquarians suppose, a local discovery in
+Europe, and not introduced from abroad, it can give no measurement of
+time whatever. In America, as the facts detailed by Dr. Wilson show,
+while a bronze age existed in Peru, it was the copper age in the
+Mississippi Valley, and the stone age elsewhere; and these conditions
+might have co-existed for any length of time, and could give no
+indication of relative dates. On the other hand, the iron introduced
+by European commerce spread at once over the continent, and came into
+use in the most remote tribes, and its introduction into America
+clearly marks an historical epoch. With regard to bronze in Europe, we
+must bear in mind that tin was to be procured only in England and
+Spain, and in the latter in very small quantity; the mines of Saxony
+do not seem to have been known till the Middle Ages. We must further
+consider that tin ore is a substance not metallic in appearance, and
+little likely to attract the attention of savages; and that, as we
+gather from a hint of Pliny, it was probably first observed, in the
+West at least, as stream tin, in the Spanish gold washings. Lastly,
+when we place in connection with these considerations the fact that in
+the earliest times of which we have certain knowledge, the tin trade
+of Spain and England was monopolized by the Phoenicians, there seems
+to be a strong probability that the extension of the trade of this
+nation to the western Mediterranean really inaugurated the bronze
+period. The only valid argument against this is the fact that moulds
+and other indications of native bronze casting have been found in
+Switzerland, Denmark, and elsewhere; but these show nothing more than
+that the natives could recast bronze articles, just as the American
+Indians can forge fish-hooks and knives out of nails and iron hoops.
+Other considerations might be adduced in proof of this view, but our
+limits will not permit us to refer to them. The important questions
+still remain: When was this trade commenced, and how rapidly did it
+extend itself from the sea-coast across Europe? The British tin trade
+must have been in existence in the time of Herodotus, though his
+notion of the locality was not more definite than that it was in the
+extremity of the earth. The Phoenician settlements in the western
+Mediterranean must have existed as early as the time of Solomon, when
+"ships of Tarshish" was the general designation of seagoing ships for
+long voyages. How long previously these colonies existed we do not
+know; but considering the great scarcity and value of tin in those
+very ancient times, we may infer that perhaps only the Spanish, and
+not the British deposits were known thus early; or that the
+Phoenicians had only indirect access to the latter. Perhaps we may fix
+the time when these traders were able to supply the nations of Europe
+with abundance of bronze in exchange for their products, at, say 1000
+to 1200 B.C., as the earliest probable period; and possibly from one
+to two centuries would be a sufficient allowance for the complete
+penetration of the trade throughout Europe. But of course wars or
+migrations might retard or accelerate the process; and there may have
+been isolated spots in which a partial stone period extended up to
+those comparatively recent times in which first the Greek trade, and
+afterward the entire overthrow of the Carthaginian power by the
+Romans, terminated forever the age of bronze and substituted the age
+of iron. This would leave, according to our ordinary chronologies, at
+least ten or fifteen centuries for the postdiluvian stone period in
+Europe and Western Asia, a time quite sufficient in our view for all
+that part of it represented by such monuments as the Danish
+shell-heaps or the platform habitations of the Swiss lakes; leaving
+the remains of the prehistoric caverns and river gravels for the
+antediluvian period. A few facts in illustration of these points, and
+also of the Biblical history, may be mentioned here.
+
+We know perfectly that the early Chaldeans of the Euphratean valley
+were acquainted with the use of metals--bronze certainly, and at a
+very early date iron; yet flint knives and other implements of stone
+are found under circumstances which show that they were used in the
+palmy days of the Assyrian empire. The inhabitants of Egypt were
+acquainted with bronze and iron long before the date of the Exodus,
+yet the Egyptians used stone knives for some purposes up to a
+comparatively modern time. Joshua used stone knives for the purpose of
+circumcision; and according to Herodotus there were Ethiopians in the
+army of Xerxes who used stone-tipped arrows. If any antiquarian were
+to stumble on the "hill of the foreskins"--a mound under which were
+buried in all probability the multitudinous flint flakes used in the
+circumcision of the thousands of Israel--or the grave in which some of
+the Ethiopian auxiliaries of Xerxes were buried with their flint
+arrow-heads and javelins of antelopes' horn, how absurd would be the
+inference that these repositories were of the pal�olithic age. Nay, so
+late as 1870 a traveller was informed that the Bagos, a people of
+Abyssinia, still made and used stone hatchets and flint knives.[121]
+
+In Europe we find reason to believe that the Ligurians of Northwestern
+Italy were flint-folk of very rude type until they were conquered by
+the Gauls about 400 B.C.[122] Though the Gauls, Britons, and Germans
+of the age of Julius C�sar had iron weapons, yet it is evident that
+the metal was very scarce, and that bronze was more common; and in
+confirmation of this it is found that in the trenches before Alize,
+the Alesia of C�sar, where the final struggle of the Roman general
+with Vercingetorix took place, weapons of stone, bronze, and iron are
+intermixed. All over the more northern parts of Europe there is the
+best reason to believe that the use of stone and bronze continued to a
+much later period, and locally until long after the Christian era. It
+is clear that such facts as these must greatly modify our ideas of the
+probable age of the Swiss lake villages, and should induce the
+greatest caution in claiming any special antiquity for particular
+classes of implements.
+
+One of the most remarkable discoveries of modern times is that of the
+site of ancient Troy by Dr. Schliemann, and it affords clear and
+decisive evidence as to the historic value of the ages to which we
+have referred.
+
+Troy was destroyed by the Greeks perhaps about 1300 B.C., and we know
+from Homer that this was in what for the Greeks and Trojans may
+properly be termed the copper age, weapons and armor of that metal
+being in common use, and also the mode of burial by cremation. We may
+well suppose that at that early date the stone age was still in full
+force in Northern Europe and Asia, and in the mountains of
+Switzerland; and as the tin mines of England had not yet been reached,
+bronze was scarce and dear even in Eastern Europe and Asia. Now
+Schliemann has disinterred the undoubted Trojan Ilium on the hill of
+Hissarlik; but he finds it to be only one of several buried cities,
+and the succession of strata will be most clearly seen in the section
+on the following page, compiled from his clear and circumstantial
+descriptions. It is needless to say that this presents a succession of
+the stone age to one of comparatively high civilization. It also forms
+an epitome of that of the whole East, and of primitive man in general,
+in some very important respects. We have first, at a date probably
+coeval with that of the earliest monarchies of Assyria and Egypt, a
+primitive people whose arts and mode of life remind us strongly of the
+American Toltecans and Peruvians.[123] Schliemann supposes them to
+have been Aryan, but they were more probably of Turanian race. They
+must have occupied the site for a very long time. They were succeeded
+by a more cultivated people of fine physical organization, yet
+possibly still Turanians or primitive Aryans, who by trade or plunder
+had accumulated large stores of metallic wealth, and had made advances
+in the arts of life placing them on a level with the early Phoenicians
+and Egyptians, with whom they probably had intercourse. These
+
+  =====================================================================
+  |Surface.                        |
+  |                                |
+  |Fifth stratum to 6-1/2 feet.    |The Greek Ilium, with buildings
+  |                                |and objects of art characteristic
+  |                                |of the Hellenic civilization of
+  |                                |historic periods.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |Fourth stratum to 13 feet.      |A second barbarous people, but
+  |                                |probably allied to the first.
+  |                                |Very coarse pottery. Implements
+  |                                |and weapons of copper or bronze--
+  |                                |stone knives and saws.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |Third stratum to 23 feet.       |Barbarous people occupying the
+  |                                |site of Troy. Rude stone
+  |                                |implements and rude pottery.
+  |                                |Buildings of small stones and clay.
+  |                                |Some objects of pottery found here
+  |                                |would on American sites be regarded
+  |                                |as probably tobacco-pipes.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |Second stratum to 33 feet.      |Homeric Troy. Implements and
+  |                                |weapons of copper, bronze, and
+  |                                |stone. Pottery, some of it of
+  |                                |Peruvian and ancient Cypriot types.
+  |                                |Fine gold jewelry, and gold and
+  |                                |silver vessels. Armor similar to
+  |                                |that described by Homer. Stone
+  |                                |buildings and walls. This city had
+  |                                |been sacked and burned.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  | First stratum to 46 or 53 feet.|Primitive or prehistoric Troy.
+  |                                |Stone implements, polished and
+  |                                |chipped. Millstones, copper nails,
+  |                                |pottery--some with patterns
+  |                                |curiously resembling those of
+  |                                |America--bone implements,
+  | Rock.                          |terra-cotta disks. Stone buildings.
+  =====================================================================
+
+were the Trojans of the Homeric poems, and the destruction of their
+city was probably in the first instance celebrated in their own native
+songs, which Homer at a date but little later[124] wove into his
+magnificent poem, and idealized and exaggerated. The Trojans
+worshipped an owl-headed goddess--the Athena of the Homeric poems;
+and from symbols found are believed also to have had the worship of a
+sacred tree, and of fire or of the Sun. All of these are widespread
+superstitions over both the Old and New World. But while Troy
+flourished there were barbarous nations not far off still in the stone
+age; and when the city had fallen, these, possibly in successive
+hordes, took possession of the fertile plain and used the old city as
+their stronghold, perhaps till the foundation of the Greek city about
+650 B.C. I have sketched in some detail these interesting discoveries,
+as they so clearly illustrate an actual succession of ages, and so
+conclusively show the uncertainty of the classification into ages of
+stone and metal, except when taken in connection with the precise
+circumstances of each locality.
+
+I have referred above only to the question of historic or postdiluvian
+man. We have still to consider what remains exist of antediluvian man.
+These may be studied in connection with our third head of geological
+evidences of man's antiquity; for if the Mosaic narrative be true, the
+diluvial catastrophe must have constituted a physical separation
+between historic man and prehistoric; since, in so far as antediluvian
+ages are concerned, all are prehistoric or mythical everywhere except
+in the sacred history itself. Antediluvian men may thus in geology be
+Pleistocene as distinguished from modern, or Pal�ocosmic as
+distinguished from Neocosmic.[125]
+
+2. _Language in Relation to the Antiquity of Man._--In many animals
+the voice has a distinctive character; but in man it has an importance
+altogether peculiar. The gift of speech is one of his sole
+prerogatives, and identity in its mode of exercise is not only the
+strongest proof of similarity of psychical constitution, but more than
+any other character marks identity of origin. The tongues of men are
+many and various; and at first sight this diversity may, as indeed it
+often does, convey the impression of radical diversity of race. But
+modern philological investigations have shown many and unexpected
+links of connection in vocabulary or grammatical structure, or both,
+between languages apparently the most dissimilar. I do not here refer
+to the vague and fanciful parallels with which our ancestors were
+often amused, but to the results of sober and scientific inquiry.
+"Nothing," says Professor Max M�ller, "necessitates the admission of
+different independent beginnings for the material elements of the
+Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan branches of speech; nay, it is possible
+even now to point out radicals which, under various changes and
+disguises, have been current in these three branches ever since their
+first separation." Of the truth of this I have convinced myself by
+some original investigation, and also of the farther truth that of
+this radical unity of all human tongues there is more full evidence
+than many philologists are disposed to admit, and that the results of
+future study must be to connect more and more with each other the
+several main stems of language. Whether this results merely from the
+psychical unity of the human race, or from the historical derivation
+of languages from one root, is not so material as the fact of unity;
+but that the latter is implied it would not be difficult to show.[126]
+Let us examine for a little these results as they are presented to us
+by Latham, M�ller, Bunsen, and other modern philologists.
+
+A convenient starting-point is afforded by the great group of
+languages known as the Indo-European, Japhetic, or Aryan. From the
+Ganges to the west coast of Ireland, through Indian, Persian, Greek,
+Italian, German, Celt, runs one great language--the Sanscrit and the
+dark Hindoo at one extreme, the Erse and the xanthous Celt at the
+other. No one now doubts the affinity of this great belt of languages.
+No one can pretend that any one of these nations learned its language
+from another. They are all decided branches of a common stock. Lying
+in and near this area are other nations--as the Arabs, the Syrians,
+the Jews--speaking languages differing in words and structure--the
+Semitic tongues. Do these mark a different origin? The philologists
+answer in the negative, pointing to the features of resemblance which
+still remain, and above all to certain intermediate tongues of so high
+antiquity that they are rather to be regarded as root-stocks from
+which other languages diverged than as mixtures. The principal of
+these is the ancient Egyptian, represented by the inscriptions on the
+monuments of that wonderful people, and by the more modern Coptic,
+which, according to Bunsen and Latham, presents decided affinities to
+both the great classes previously mentioned, and may be regarded as
+strictly intermediate in its character. It has accordingly been
+designated by the term Sub-Semitic.[127] But it shares this character
+with all or nearly all the other African languages, which bear strong
+marks of affinity to the Egyptian and Semitic tongues. On this
+subject Dr. Latham says, "That the uniformity of languages throughout
+Africa is greater than it is either in Asia or in Europe, is a
+statement to which I have not the least hesitation in committing
+myself."[128] To the north the Indo-European area is bounded by a
+great group of semi-barbarous populations, mostly with Mongolian
+features, and speaking languages which have been grouped as Turanian.
+These Turanian languages, on the one hand, graduate without any break
+into those of the Esquimaux and American Indians; on the other,
+according to M�ller and Latham, they are united, though less
+distinctly, with the Semitic and Japhetic tongues. They not improbably
+represent in more or less altered forms the most primitive stock of
+language from which both the Semitic and Japhetic groups have
+branched. Another great area on the coasts and in the islands of the
+Pacific is overspread by the Malay, which, through the populations of
+Transgangetic India, connects itself with the great Indo-European
+line. Mr. Edkins, in his remarkable book on "China's Place in
+Philology," has collected a large amount of fact tending to show that
+the early Chinese in its monosyllabic radicals presents root-forms
+traceable into all the stocks of human speech in the Old World; and
+the American languages would have furnished him with similar lines of
+affinity. If we regard physical characters, manners, and customs, and
+mythologies, as well as mere language, it is much easier thus to link
+together nearly all the populations of the globe. In investigations of
+this kind, it is true, the links of connection are often delicate and
+evanescent; yet they have conveyed to the ablest investigators the
+strong impression that the phenomena are rather those of division of a
+radical language than of union of several radically distinct.
+
+This impression is farther strengthened when we regard several results
+incidental to these researches. Latham has shown that the languages of
+men may be regarded as arranged in lines of divergence, the extreme
+points of which are Fuego, Tasmania, Easter Island; and that from all
+these points they converge to a common centre in Western Asia, where
+we find a cluster of the most ancient and perfect languages; and even
+Haeckel is obliged to adopt in his map of the affiliation of races of
+men a similar scheme, though he, without any good historical or
+scientific evidence, extends it back into the imaginary lost continent
+of Lemuria. Farther, the languages of the various populations differ
+in proceeding from these centres in a manner pointing to degeneracy
+such as is likely to occur in small and rude tribes separating from a
+parent stock. These lines of radiation follow the most easy and
+probable lines of migration of the human race spreading from one
+centre. It must also be observed that in the primary migration of men,
+there must of necessity have been at its extreme limits outlying and
+isolated tribes, placed in circumstances in which language would very
+rapidly change; especially as these tribes, migrating or driven
+forward, would be continually arriving at new regions presenting new
+circumstances and objects. When at length the utmost limit in any
+direction was reached, the inroads of new races of population would
+press into close contact these various tribes with their different
+dialects. Where the distance was greatest before reaching this limit,
+we might expect, as in America, to find the greatest mutual variety
+and amount of difference from the original stock. After the primary
+migration had terminated, the displacements arising from secondary
+migrations and conquests, would necessarily complicate the matter by
+breaking up the original gradations of difference, and thereby
+rendering lines of migration difficult to trace.
+
+Taking all these points into the account, along with the known
+tendencies of languages in all circumstances to vary, it is really
+wonderful that philology is still able to give so decided indications
+of unity.
+
+There is, in the usual manner of speaking of these subjects, a source
+of misapprehension, which deserves special mention in this place. The
+Hebrew Scriptures derive all the nations of the ancient world from
+three patriarchs, and the names of these have often been attached to
+particular races of men and their languages; but it should never be
+supposed that these classifications are likely to agree with the Bible
+affiliation. They may to a certain extent do so, but not necessarily
+or even probably. In the nature of the case, those portions of these
+families which remained near the original centre, and in a civilized
+state, would retain the original language and features comparatively
+unchanged. Those which wandered far, fell into barbarism, or became
+subjected to extreme climatic influences, would vary more in all
+respects. Hence any general classification, whether on physical or
+philological characters, will be likely to unite, as in the Caucasian
+group of Cuvier, men of all the three primitive families, while it
+will separate the outlying and aberrant portions from their main stems
+of affiliation. Want of attention to this point has led to much
+misconception; and perhaps it would be well to abandon altogether
+terms founded on the names of the sons of Noah, except where
+historical affiliation is the point in question. It would be well if
+it were understood that when the terms Semitic, Japhetic,[129] and
+Hametic are used, direct reference is made to the Hebrew ethnology;
+and that, where other arrangements are adopted, other terms should be
+used. It is obviously unfair to apply the terms of Moses in a
+different way from that in which he uses them. A very prevalent error
+of this kind has been to apply the term Japhetic to a number of
+nations not of such origin according to the Bible; and another of more
+modern date is to extend the term Semitic to all the races descended
+from Ham, because of resemblance of language. It should be borne in
+mind that, assuming the truth of the Scriptural affiliation, there
+should be a "central" group of races and languages where the whole of
+the three families meet, and "sporadic"[130] groups representing the
+changes of the outlying and barbarous tribes.
+
+While, however, all the more eminent philologists adhere to the
+original unity of language, they are by no means agreed as to the
+antiquity of man; and some, as for instance Latham and Dr. Max M�ller,
+are disposed to claim an antiquity for our species far beyond that
+usually admitted. In so far as this affects the Bible history, it is
+important, inasmuch as this would appear to limit the possible
+antiquity of all languages to the time of the deluge. The date of this
+event has been variously estimated, on Biblical grounds, at from 1650
+B.C. (Usher) to 3155 B.C. (Josephus and Hales); but the longest of
+these dates does not appear to satisfy the demands of philology. The
+reason of this demand is the supposed length of time required to
+effect the necessary changes. The subject is one on which definite
+data can scarcely be obtained. Languages change now, even when reduced
+to a comparatively stable form by writing. They change more rapidly
+when men migrate into new climates, and are placed in contact with new
+objects. The English, the Dutch, and the German were perhaps all at
+the dawn of the medi�val era M�so-Gothic. At the same rate of change,
+allowing for greater barbarism and greater migrations, they may very
+well have been something not far from Egyptian or Sanscrit 2000 years
+before Christ. The truth is that present rates of variation afford no
+criterion for the changes that must occur in the languages of small
+and isolated tribes lapsing into or rising from barbarism, possessing
+few words, and constantly requiring to name new objects and until some
+ratio shall have been established between these conditions and those
+of modern languages, fixed by literature and by a comparatively
+stationary state of society, it is useless to make any demands for
+longer time on this ground.[131]
+
+Even in the present day, Moffat informs us that in South Africa the
+separation of parts of a tribe, for even a few months, may produce a
+notable difference of dialect. If we take the existing languages of
+civilized men whose history is known, we shall find that it is
+impossible to trace many of them back as far as the Christian era, and
+when we have passed over even half that interval, they become so
+different as to be unintelligible to those who now speak them. Where
+there are exceptions to this, they arise entirely from the effects of
+literature and artificial culture. While, therefore, there is good
+ground in philology for the belief in one primitive language, there
+seems no absolute necessity to have recourse even to the confusion of
+tongues at Babel to explain the diversities of language.[132] Farther,
+the Bible carries back the Semitic group of languages at least to the
+time of the Deluge, but it does not seem necessary on the mere ground
+of antediluvian names, to carry it any farther back, and the Assyrian
+inscriptions show the coexistence of Turanian and Semitic tongues at
+the dawn of history in the region of the Euphrates and Tigris. One or
+other of these--or a monosyllabic language underlying it--was probably
+an antediluvian tongue, and the other a very early derivative; and
+both history and philology would assign the precedence to the Turanian
+language, which was probably most akin to that which had descended
+from antediluvian times, and which at that early period of dispersion
+indicated in the Bible story of Babel, had begun to throw off its two
+great branches of the Aryan and Semitic languages. These, proceeding
+in two dissimilar lines of development, continue to exist to this day
+along with the surviving portions of the uncultivated Turanian speech.
+To this point, however, we may return under another head.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN--(_Continued._)
+
+
+     "By the word of God the heavens were from of old, and the
+     earth, formed out of water, and by means of water, by which
+     waters the world that then was, being overflowed with water,
+     perished."--2 Peter iii., 5, 6.
+
+
+3. _Geological Evidence as to the Antiquity of Man._--No geological
+fact can now be more firmly established than the ascending progression
+of animal life, whereby from the early invertebrates of the Eozoic and
+Primordial series we pass upward through the dynasties of fishes and
+reptiles and brute mammals to the reign of man. In this great series
+man is obviously the last term; and when we inquire at what point he
+was introduced, the answer must be in the later part of the great
+Cainozoic or Tertiary period, which is the latest of the whole. Not
+only have we the negative fact of the absence of his remains from all
+the earlier Tertiary formations, but the positive fact that all the
+mammalia of these earlier ages are now extinct, and that man could not
+have survived the changes of condition which destroyed them and
+introduced the species now our contemporaries. This fact is altogether
+independent of any question as to the introduction of species by
+derivation or by creation. The oldest geological period in which any
+animals nearly related in structure to man occur is that named the
+Miocene, and no traces of man have as yet been found in any deposits
+of this age. All human remains known belong either to the Pleistocene
+or Modern. Now the Pleistocene was characterized by one of those
+periods of glacial cold which have swept over the earth--by one of
+those great winters which have so chilled the continents that few
+forms of life could survive them--and man comes in at the close of
+this cold period, in what is called the Post-glacial age. Some
+geologists, it is true, hold to an interglacial warm period, in which
+man is supposed to have existed, but the evidence of this is extremely
+slender and doubtful, and it carries back in any case human antiquity
+but a very little way. I have, in my "Story of the Earth and Man,"
+shown reason for the belief, in which I find Professor Hughes, of
+Cambridge, coincides with me,[133] that the interglacial periods are
+merely an ingenious expedient to get rid of the difficulties attending
+the hypothesis of the universal glaciation of the northern hemisphere.
+
+But, though man is thus geologically modern, it is held that
+historically his existence on earth may have been very ancient,
+extending perhaps ten or twenty, or even a hundred times longer than
+the period of six or seven thousand years supposed to be proved by
+sacred history. Let us first, as plainly and simply as possible,
+present the facts supposed thus to extend the antiquity of man, and
+then inquire as to their validity and force as arguments in this
+direction.
+
+The arguments from geology in favor of a great antiquity for man may
+be summarized thus: (1) Human remains are found in caverns under very
+thick stalagmitic crusts, and in deposits of earth which must have
+accumulated before these stalagmites began to form, and when the
+caverns were differently situated with reference to the local
+drainages. (2) Remains of man are found under peat-bogs which have
+grown so little in modern times that their antiquity on the whole
+must be very great. (3) Implements, presumably made by men, are found
+in river-gravels so high above existing riverbeds that great physical
+changes must have occurred since they were accumulated. (4) One case
+is on record where a human bone is believed to have been found under a
+deposit of glacial age. (5) Human remains have been found under
+circumstances which indicate that very important changes of level have
+taken place since their accumulation. (6) Human remains have been
+found under circumstances which indicate great changes of climate as
+intervening between their date and that of the modern period. (7) Man
+is known to have existed, in Europe at least, at the same time with
+some quadrupeds formerly supposed to have been extinct before his
+introduction. (8) The implements, weapons, etc., found in the oldest
+of these repositories are different from those known to have been used
+in historic times.
+
+These several heads include, I think, all the really material evidence
+of a geological character. It is evidence of a kind not easily
+reducible into definite dates, but there can be no doubt that its
+nature, and the rapid accumulation of facts within a small number of
+years, have created a deep and widespread conviction among geologists
+and arch�ologists that we must relegate the origin of man to a much
+more remote antiquity than that sanctioned by history or by the
+Biblical chronology. I shall first review the character of this
+evidence, and then state a number of geological facts which bear in
+the other direction, and have been somewhat lost sight of in recent
+discussions. Of the facts above referred to, the most important are
+those which relate to caverns, peat-bogs, and river-gravels. We may,
+therefore, first consider the nature and amount of this evidence.
+
+That the reader may more distinctly understand the geological history
+of these more recent periods of the earth's history which are supposed
+to have witnessed the advent of man, in Western Europe at least, I
+quote the following summary from Sir Charles Lyell of the more modern
+changes in that portion of the world. These are:
+
+"First, a continental period, toward the close of which the forest of
+Cromer flourished; when the land was at least 500 feet above its
+present level, perhaps much higher. * * * The remains of _Hippopotamus
+major_ and _Rhinoceros etruscus_, found in beds of this period, seem
+to indicate a climate somewhat milder than that now prevailing in
+Great Britain. [This was a _Preglacial_ era, and may be regarded as
+belonging to the close of the Pliocene tertiary.]
+
+"Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land north of the
+Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland, was generally reduced
+to * * * an archipelago. * * * This was the period of great
+submergence and of floating ice, when the Scandinavian flora, which
+occupied the lower grounds during the first continental period, may
+have obtained exclusive possession of the only lands not covered with
+perpetual snow. [This represents the Glacial period; but according to
+the more extreme glacialists only a portion of that period.]
+
+"Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the glacial
+sea, with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid dry, and when
+the quantity of land equalled that of the first period. * * * During
+this period there were glaciers in the higher mountains of Scotland
+and Wales, and the Welsh glaciers * * * pushed before them and cleared
+out the marine drift with which some valleys had been filled during
+the period of submergence. * * * During this last period the passage
+of the Germanic flora into the British area took place, and the
+Scandinavian plants, together with northern insects, birds, and
+quadrupeds, retreated into the higher grounds. * * *
+
+"Fourthly, the next and last change comprised the breaking up of the
+land of the British area once more into numerous islands, ending in
+the present geographical condition of things. There were probably many
+oscillations of level during this last conversion of continuous land
+into islands, and such movements in opposite directions would account
+for the occurrence of marine shells at moderate heights above the
+level of the sea, notwithstanding a general lowering of the land. * * *
+During this period a gradual amelioration of temperature took place,
+from the cold of the glacial period to the climate of historical
+times."[134]
+
+The second continental period above referred to is that which appears
+on the best evidence to have been the time of the introduction of man;
+but such facts as that of the Settle Cave, and the implements of the
+breccia in Kent's Cave, if rightly interpreted, would make man
+preglacial or "interglacial."
+
+The deposits found in caverns in France, Switzerland, Germany,
+Belgium, and England have afforded a large proportion of the remains
+from which we derive our notions of the most ancient prehistoric men
+of Europe. From the Belgian caves, as explored by M. Dupont, we learn
+that there were two successive prehistoric races, both rude or
+comparatively uncivilized. The first were men of Turanian type, but of
+great bodily stature and high cerebral organization, and showing
+remarkable skill in the manufacture of implements and ornaments of
+bone and ivory. These men are believed to have been contemporary with
+the earlier postglacial mammals, as the mammoth and hairy rhinoceros,
+and to have lived at a time when the European land was more extensive
+than at present, stretching far to the west of Ireland, and connecting
+Great Britain with the Continent. The skeletons found at Cro-Magnon,
+Mentone, and elsewhere in France fully confirm the deductions of
+Dupont as to this earliest race of Pal�ocosmic, Pal�olithic, or
+antediluvian man. This grand race seems to have perished or been
+driven from Europe by the great depression of the level of the land
+which inaugurated the modern era, and which was probably accompanied
+by many oscillations of level as well as by considerable changes of
+climate. They were succeeded by a second race, equally Turanian in
+type, but of small stature, and resembling the modern Lapps. These
+were the "allophylian" peoples displaced by the historical Celts, and
+up to their time the reindeer seems to have existed abundantly in
+France and Germany. These two successive prehistoric populations have
+been termed respectively men of the "mammoth" age and men of the
+"reindeer" age. The Bible record would lead us to regard the earlier
+and gigantic men as antediluvian, and the smaller or Lappish race as
+postdiluvian. We may therefore, having already at some length
+considered the postdiluvian age, take up the mode of occurrence of the
+remains of the earlier of the two races--that of the mammoth age.
+
+The caverns themselves may be divided into those of residence, of
+sepulture, and of driftage, though one cavern has often successively
+assumed two at least of these characters. In the caverns of residence
+large accumulations have been formed of ashes, charcoal, bones, and
+other d�bris of cookery, among which are found flint and bone
+implements, the general character of which, as well as that of the
+needles, stone hammers, mortars for paint, and other domestic
+appliances, are not more dissimilar from those of the Red Indian and
+Esquimau races in North America than these are from one another, and
+in many things, as in the bone harpoons, the resemblance is very
+striking indeed. In tendency to imitative art, and in the skill of
+their delineations of animals, the prehistoric men seem to have
+surpassed all the American races except the semi-civilized
+mound-builders and the more cultivated Mexican and Peruvian nations.
+With regard to the residence of these men of the mammoth age in
+caverns, several things are indicated by American analogies to which
+some attention should be paid.
+
+It is not likely that caverns were the usual places of residence of
+the whole population. They may have been winter houses for small
+tribes and detached families of fugitives or outlaws, or they may have
+been places of resort for hunting parties at certain seasons of the
+year. The large quantities of broken and uncooked bones of particular
+species, as of the horse and reindeer, in some of the caverns, would
+farther indicate a habit of making great battues, like those of the
+American hunting tribes, at certain seasons, and of preparing
+quantities of pemmican or dried meat preserved with marrow and fat for
+future use. The number of bone needles found in some of the caves
+would seem to hint that, like the Americans, they sewed up their
+pemmican in skin bags. The multitude of flint flakes and of rude stone
+implements applicable to breaking bones certainly indicates a
+wholesale cutting of flesh and preparation of marrow. In the "Story of
+the Earth," I have suggested in connection with this that there may
+have been towns or villages of these people unknown to us, and which
+would afford higher conceptions of their progress in the arts. This
+anticipation appears recently to have been realized in the discovery
+of such a town or fortified village of the mammoth age at Soloutre, in
+France, and which seems to afford evidence that these ancient people
+had already domesticated the horse, using it as food as well as a
+beast of burden, in the manner of the Khirgis and certain other Tartar
+tribes of Central Asia.[135] This, with the undoubtedly high cerebral
+organization indicated by the skulls of the mammoth age, notably
+raises our estimate of the position of man at this early date.
+
+With regard to caves of sepulture, the same remark may be made as with
+regard to the caves of residence. They do not seem to have been the
+burial-places of large populations, but only occasional places of
+interment, few bodies being found in them, and these often interred in
+the midst of culinary d�bris, evidencing previous or contemporary
+residence. With regard to the latter, it seems to have been no
+uncommon practice with some North American tribes to bury the dead
+either in the floors of their huts or in their immediate proximity. It
+is probable, however, that the few examples known of caves of
+sepulture of this period indicate not tribal or national places of
+burial, but occasional and accidental cases, happening to hunting or
+war parties, perhaps remote from their ordinary places of residence.
+In so far as method of burial is concerned, the men of the Pal�ocosmic
+or Mammoth age seem to have buried the dead extended at full length,
+and not in the crouching posture usual with some later races. Like the
+Americans, they painted the dead man, and buried him with his robes
+and ornaments, and probably with his weapons, thus intimating their
+belief in happy hunting-grounds beyond the grave.[136] I may remark
+here that all the known interments of the mammoth age indicate a race
+of men of great cerebral capacity, with long heads and coarsely marked
+features, of large stature and muscular vigor, surpassing indeed much
+in all these respects the average man of modern Europe. These
+characteristics befit men who had to contend with the mammoth and his
+contemporaries, and to subdue the then vast wildernesses of the
+eastern continent, and they correspond with the Biblical
+characteristics of antediluvian man.
+
+Among caves of driftage may be classed some of those near Li�ge, in
+Belgium, and, partially at least, those of Kent's Hole and Brixham, in
+England. In these only disarticulated remnants of human skeletons, or
+more frequently only flint implements, some of them of doubtful
+character, have been found. In my "Story of the Earth," I have taken
+the carefully explored Kent's Cavern of Torquay as a typical example,
+and have condensed its phenomena as described by Mr. Pengelly. I now
+repeat this description, with some important emendations suggested by
+that gentleman in more recent reports and in private correspondence.
+
+The somewhat extensive and ramifying cavern of Kent's Hole is an
+irregular excavation, evidently due partly to fissures or joints in
+limestone rock, and partly to the erosive action of water enlarging
+such fissures into chambers and galleries. At what time it was
+originally cut we do not know, but it must have existed as a cavern at
+the close of the Pliocene or beginning of the Post-pliocene period,
+since which time it has been receiving a series of deposits which have
+quite filled up some of its smaller branches.
+
+First and lowest, according to Mr. Pengelly, of the deposits as yet
+known, is a "breccia," or mass of broken and rounded stones, with
+hardened red clay filling the interstices. Some of the stones are of
+the rock which forms the roof and walls of the cave, but the greater
+number, especially the rounded ones, are from more distant parts of
+the surrounding country. Many are fragments of grit from the Devonian
+beds of adjacent hills. There are also fragments of stalagmite from an
+old crust broken up when the breccia was deposited, and possibly
+belonging to Pliocene times. In this mass, the depth of which is
+unknown, are numerous bones, nearly all of one kind of animal, the
+cave bear or bears, for there may be more than one species--creatures
+which seem to have lived in Western Europe from the close of the
+Pliocene down to the modern period. They must have been among the
+earliest and most permanent tenants of Kent's Hole at a time when its
+lower chambers were still filled with water. Teeth of a lion and of
+the common fox also occur in this deposit, but rarely. Next above the
+breccia is a floor of "stalagmite," or stony carbonate of lime,
+deposited from the drippings of the roof, and in some places more than
+twelve feet thick. This also contains bones of the cave bear,
+deposited when there was less access of water to the cavern. Mr.
+Pengelly infers the existence of man at this time from the occurrence
+of chipped flints supposed to be artificial; but which, in so far as I
+can judge from the specimens described and figured, must still be
+regarded as of doubtful origin.
+
+After the old stalagmite floor above mentioned was formed, the cave
+again received deposits of muddy water and stones; but now a change
+occurs in the remains embedded. This stony clay, or "cave earth," has
+yielded an immense quantity of teeth and bones, including those of the
+elephant, rhinoceros, horse, hyena, cave bear, reindeer, and Irish
+elk. With these were found weapons of chipped flint, and harpoons,
+needles, and bodkins of bone, precisely similar to those of the North
+American Indians and other rude races. The "cave earth" is four feet
+or more in thickness. It is not stratified, and contains many fallen
+fragments of rock, rounded stones, and broken pieces of stalagmite. It
+also has patches of the excrement of hyenas, which the explorers
+suppose to indicate the temporary residence of these animals; and
+besides fragments of charcoal scattered in the mass, there is in one
+spot, near the top, a limited layer of burned wood, with remains which
+indicate the cooking and eating of repasts of animal food by man. It
+is clear that when this bed was formed the cavern was liable to be
+inundated with muddy water, carrying stones and perhaps some of the
+bones and implements, and breaking up in places the old stalagmite
+floor.[137] One of the most puzzling features, especially to those who
+take an exclusively uniformitarian view, is that the entrance of
+water-borne mud and stones implies a level of the bottom of the water
+in the neighboring valleys of nearly one hundred feet above its
+present height. The cave earth is covered by a second crust of
+stalagmite, less dense and thick than that below, and containing only
+a few bones, which are of the same general character with those
+beneath, but include a fragment of a human jaw with teeth. Evidently
+when this stalagmite was formed the influx of water-borne materials
+had ceased, or nearly so; and Mr. Pengelly appears to affirm, though
+without assigning any reason, that none of these bones could, like
+the masses of stalagmite, have been lifted from lower beds, or washed
+into the cave from without.
+
+The next bed marks a new change. It is a layer of black mould from
+three to ten inches thick. Its microscopic structure does not seem to
+have been examined; but it is probably a forest soil, introduced by
+growth, by water, by wind, and by ingress of animals, all of them
+modern, and contains works of art from the old British times before
+the Roman invasion up to the porter bottles and dropped half-pence of
+modern visitors. Lastly, in and upon the black mould are many fallen
+blocks from the roof of the cave.
+
+There can be no doubt that this cave and the neighboring one of
+Brixham have done very much to impress the minds of British geologists
+with ideas of the great antiquity of man; and they have, more than any
+other postglacial monuments, shown the existence of some animals now
+extinct up to the human age. Of precise data for determining time,
+they have, however, given nothing. The only measures which seem to
+have been applied, namely, the rate of growth of stalagmite and the
+rate of erosion of neighboring valleys, are, from the very sequence of
+the deposits, obviously worthless; and the only apparently constant
+measure, namely, the fall of blocks from the roof, seems not to have
+been applied, and Mr. Pengelly declares that it can not be practically
+used. We are therefore quite uncertain as to the number of centuries
+involved in the filling of this cave, and must remain so until some
+surer system of calculation can be devised. We may, however, attempt
+to sketch the series of events which it indicates.
+
+The animals found in Kent's Hole are all "postglacial," some of them
+of course survivors from "preglacial" times, and some of them still
+surviving. They therefore inhabited the country after it rose from the
+great glacial submergence. Perhaps the first colonists of the coast of
+Devonshire in this period were the cave bears, migrating on floating
+ice, and subsisting like the arctic bear and the black bear of
+Anti-costi, on fish, and on the garbage cast up by the sea. They may
+have found Kent's Hole a sea-side cavern, with perhaps some of its
+galleries still full of water and filling with breccia, with which the
+bones of dead bears became mixed. In the case of such a deposit as
+this breccia, however, the precise time when its materials were
+finally laid down in their present form, or the length of time
+necessary for its accumulation, can not be definitely settled. It may
+be a result of continued torrential action or of some sudden
+cataclysm. As the land rose, these creatures for the most part betook
+themselves to lower levels, and in process of time the cavern stood
+upon a hill-side, perhaps several hundreds of feet above the sea; and
+the mountain streams, their beds not yet emptied of glacial detritus,
+washed into it stones and mud, and probably bones also, while it
+appears that hyenas occupied the cave at intervals, and dragged in
+remains of mammals of many species which had now swarmed across the
+plains elevated out of the sea, and multiplied in the land. This was
+the time of the cave earth; and before its deposit was completed,
+though how long before an unstratified and therefore probably
+often-disturbed bed of this kind can not tell, man himself seems to
+have been added to the inhabitants of the British land. In pursuit of
+game he sometimes ascended the valleys beyond the cavern, or even
+penetrated into its outer chambers; or perhaps there were even in
+those days rude and savage hill-men, inhabiting the forests and
+warring with the more cultivated denizens of plains below, which are
+now deep under the waters. Their weapons, and other implements dropped
+in the cavern or lost in hunting, or buried in the flesh of wounded
+animals which crept to the streams to assuage their thirst, are those
+found in the cave earth. The absence of the human bones may merely
+show that the mighty hunters of those days were too hardy, athletic,
+and intelligent often to perish from accidental causes, and that they
+did not use this cavern for a place of burial. The fragments of
+charcoal show that they were acquainted with fire, and possibly that
+they sometimes took shelter in the cave. But the land again subsided.
+The valley of that now nameless river, of which the Rhine and the
+Thames may have alike been tributaries, disappeared under the sea; and
+perhaps some tribe, driven from the lower lands, took up its abode in
+this cave, now again near the encroaching waves, and left there the
+remains of their last repasts ere they were driven farther inland or
+engulfed in the waters. For a time the cavern may have been wholly
+submerged, and the charcoal of the extinguished fires became covered
+with its thin coating of clay. But ere long it re-emerged to form part
+of an island, long barren and desolate; and the valleys having been
+cut deeper by the receding waters, it no longer received muddy
+deposits, and the crust formed by drippings from its roof contained
+only bones and pebbles washed by rains and occasional land floods from
+its own clay deposits. Finally, the modern forests overspread the
+land, and were tenanted by the modern animals. Man returned to use the
+cavern again as a place of refuge or habitation, and to leave there
+the relics contained in the black earth. This seems at present the
+only intelligible history of this curious cave and others resembling
+it; though, when we consider the imperfection of the results obtained
+even by a large amount of labor, and the difficult and confused
+character of the deposits in this and similar caves, too much value
+should not be attached to such histories, which may at any time be
+contradicted or modified by new facts or different explanations of
+those already known. The time involved depends very much on the answer
+to the question whether we should regard the postglacial subsidence
+and re-elevation as somewhat sudden, or as occupying long ages at the
+slow rate at which some parts of our continents are now rising or
+sinking.
+
+Mr. Pengelly thinks it possible, but not proved, that the lower
+breccia of Kent's Cavern may be interglacial or preglacial in age. One
+case only is known where a human bone has been found in a cavern under
+deposits supposed to be of the nature of the glacial drift. It is that
+of the Victoria Cave, at Settle, in Yorkshire. At this place a human
+fibula was found under a layer of boulder clay. But there are too many
+chances of this bone having come into this position by some purely
+local accident to allow us to attach much importance to it until
+future discoveries shall have supplied other instances of the
+kind.[138]
+
+I may close this survey of the cave deposits with a summary of the
+results of M. Dupont, as obtained from two of the caves explored by
+him, that of Margite and that of Frontal. In the first of these
+caverns, resting on rolled pebbles which covered the floor, were four
+distinct layers of river mud deposited by inundations, and amounting
+to two yards and a half in thickness. In all of these layers were
+bones. The lowest contained rude flint implements, and bones of the
+mammoth, rhinoceros, bear, horse, chamois, reindeer, stag, and hyena.
+In the overlying deposits are some flint implements of more artistic
+form and a greater prevalence of the bones of the reindeer. In the
+second cave, that of Frontal, over a similar deposit of alluvial mud
+of the mammoth age, was found a sepulchre containing the remains of
+sixteen individuals, of the second or diminutive Lappish race before
+referred to. The door of the cave had been closed by these people with
+a slab of stone, and in front was a hearth for funeral feasts, built
+on the deposits of the mammoth age, and containing bones of animals
+all recent or now living in Belgium, and without any traces of the
+bones of the extinct quadrupeds. This burial-place belonged to the
+Neocosmic yet prehistoric race which replaced the Pal�ocosmic men of
+the mammoth age.
+
+What is the absolute antiquity of the Pal�ocosmic age in Europe? We
+have no monumental or historical chronology to answer this question,
+but only the measures of time furnished by the accumulation of
+deposits, by the deposition of stalagmite, by the gradual extinction
+of animals, and by the erosion of valleys and other physical changes.
+These somewhat loose measures have been applied in various ways, but
+the tendency of geologists, from the prevalence of uniformitarian
+views, and the prejudice created by familiarity with the long times of
+previous geologic periods, has been to assign to them too great rather
+than too little value, both as measures of time and as indicating a
+remote antiquity.
+
+With reference to the accumulation of deposits, whether derived from
+disintegration of the roof and walls of the cave, introduced by land
+floods or river inundations or by the residence of man, their rate is
+of very difficult estimation. Loose stones fallen from the roof, as in
+the case of Kent's Cave, would give a fair measure of time if we could
+be sure that the climate had continued uniform, and that there had
+been no violent earthquakes. Mr. Pengelly has, however, hopelessly
+given up this kind of evidence. Where, as in the case of many of these
+caves, land floods and river inundations have entered, these may have
+been frequent or separated by long intervals of time, and they may
+have been of great or small amount. Where, for instance, as in one of
+the Belgian caves, there are six beds of ossiferous mud, but for the
+fact that five layers of stalagmite separate them we might not have
+known whether they represent six annual inundations, or floods
+separated by many centuries from each other.
+
+In the case of the Victoria Cave at Settle, Dawkins, reasoning from
+the accumulation of two feet of detritus over British remains that may
+be supposed to be 1200 years old, gives a basis which would at the
+same rate of deposit allow about 5000 years for the date of
+pal�olithic men; but Prestwich and others, on the basis of stalagmite
+deposits, claim a vastly higher antiquity for the men who made the
+implements found in Kent's Hole and Brixham.
+
+If we now turn to these stalagmite floors, when we consider that they
+have been formed by the slow solution of limestone by rain-water
+charged with carbonic acid, and the dropping of this water on the
+floor, and when we are told that in Kent's Cavern a marked date shows
+that the stalagmite has grown at the rate of only one twentieth of an
+inch since 1688, and that there are two beds of stalagmite, one of
+which is in some places twelve feet thick, we are impressed with the
+conviction of a vast antiquity. But when we are told by Dawkins that
+the rate of deposit in Ingleborough Cave may be estimated at a quarter
+of an inch per annum, and when we consider that the present rate of
+deposit in Kent's Hole is probably very different from what it was in
+the former condition of the country, stalagmite becomes a very unsafe
+measure of time. With respect again to the accumulation of
+kitchen-midden stuff in the course of the occupancy of caverns, this
+proceeds with great rapidity, when caves are steadily occupied and it
+is not the practice to cleanse out the d�bris of fires, food, and
+bedding. Even when the occupation is temporary, a tribe of savages
+engaged with the preparation of dried meat and pemmican in a very
+short time produce a considerable heap of bones and other
+rejectamenta.
+
+Looking next to the extinction of animals, we find that the species
+found in the oldest deposits containing human remains are in part
+still extant. Others which are locally extinct we know existed in
+Europe until historical times, that is, within the last two thousand
+years. How long previously to this the others became extinct we have
+no certain means of knowing, though it seems probable that they
+disappeared gradually and successively. We have, however, farther to
+bear in mind the possibility of cataclysms or climatal changes which
+may have proved speedily fatal to many species over large areas. In
+any case we have this certain fact that, though the time elapsed has
+been sufficient for the extinction of many species, it does not seem
+to have sufficed to effect any noteworthy change on those that
+survived. Farther, we may consider that time is only one factor in
+this matter, and not the one which is the efficient cause of change,
+since we know no reason why one species of animal should not continue
+to be reproduced as long as another, but for the occurrence of
+physical changes of a prejudicial character.
+
+We have still remaining the changes which have taken place in the
+erosion of valleys since the caverns were occupied. Dupont informs us
+that the openings of some of the caverns once flooded by rivers are
+now in limestone cliffs two hundred feet above the water, while no
+appreciable lowering of the bottoms of the ravines is taking place
+now. This would in some contingencies put back the period of filling
+of the caves to an indefinite antiquity. But then the questions
+occur--Was there once more water in the rivers or more obstruction at
+their outlets, or was the erosive power greater at one time than now,
+or were the river valleys excavated in still more ancient time, and
+partly filled with mud when the water entered the caves, and may this
+mud have been since swept away? So, in like manner, the waters flowing
+in the channels near Brixham Cave and Kent's Hole were apparently
+about seventy feet higher in times of flood than at present, but the
+time involved is subject to the same doubts as in the case of the
+Belgian caves. Hughes has well remarked that elevations of the land,
+by causing rivers to form waterfalls and cascades, which they cut
+back, may greatly accelerate the rate of erosion. Farther, there is
+the best reason to believe that in the glacial period many old valleys
+were filled with clay, and that the modern cutting consisted merely in
+the removal of this clay. Belt has shown in a recent paper[139] good
+reason to believe that this is the case with the Falls of Niagara, and
+that the cutting actually effected through rock within the later
+Pleistocene and modern period has been that only of the new gorge from
+the whirlpool to Queenstown, the main part of the ravine being of
+older date and merely re-excavated. This would greatly reduce the
+ordinary estimate of time based on the cutting of the Niagara gorge.
+
+This leads us next to consider the occurrence of human remains and
+objects of art in the river-gravels themselves, and the amount of
+excavation and deposit involved in the deposition of these gravels.
+In the river-gravels of the Somme, and of many other rivers in France
+and Southern England, chipped flints and rude flint implements are
+found in so great quantity as to imply that the beds and banks of
+these streams were resorted to for flint material, and that the
+unfinished and rejected implements left in the holes and trenches, or
+on the heaps where the work was carried on, were afterward sorted by
+running water, perhaps in abnormal floods and debacles, such as occur
+in all river valleys occasionally, perhaps in that great diluvial
+catastrophe which seems to have terminated the residence of
+Pal�ocosmic man in Europe. Wilson has well shown how the heaps left by
+American tribes in and near their flint quarries would furnish the
+material for such accumulations. The time required for the erosion of
+the valleys and the deposit of the gravels has been very variously
+estimated. In the case of the Somme, which river is not appreciably
+deepening its bed, if we suppose it to have cut its wide valley to the
+depth of one hundred and fifty feet out of solid chalk since the
+so-called "high level" gravels of France and the South of England were
+deposited, the time required shades off into infinity. So Evans, in
+his work on "The Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain," looking
+upon the amount of excavation of wide and deep valleys since the stone
+implements of Bournemouth are supposed to have been deposited in
+gravel, says, "Who can fully comprehend how immensely remote was the
+epoch when that vast bay was high and dry land?" and he becomes
+poetical in delineating the view that must have met the eyes of
+"pal�olithic" man. And undoubtedly, if one is to be limited to the
+precise nature and amount of causes now at work in the district, the
+time must not only be "immensely remote," but illimitably so. The
+difficulty lies with the exaggerated uniformitarianism of the
+supposition that such causes could have produced the results. But,
+for reasons to be immediately stated, the time required is liable to
+numerous deductions; and recently Tylor, Pattison, Collard, and others
+have insisted ably on these deductions, as has also Professor Hughes,
+of Cambridge. I have myself urged them strongly in the work already
+referred to.
+
+In the first place, when we see a deep river valley in which the
+present stream is doing an almost infinitesimal amount of deepening,
+we are not to infer that this represents all its work past and
+present. In times of unusual flood it may do in one week more than in
+many previous years. Farther, if there have been elevations or
+depressions of the land, when the land has been raised the cutting
+power has at once been enormously increased, and when depressed it has
+been diminished, or filling has taken the place of cutting. Again, if
+the climate in time past has been more extreme, or the amount of
+rainfall greater, the cutting action has then been proportionally
+rapid. Perhaps no influence is greater in this respect than that which
+is known to the colonists in Northeastern America as "ice-freshets,"
+when in spring, before the ice has had time to disappear from the
+rivers, sudden thaws and rains produce great floods, which rushing
+down over the icy crust, or breaking and hurling its masses before
+them, work terrible havoc on the banks and alluvial flats, depositing
+great beds of gravel, and sweeping away immense masses that had lain
+undisturbed for centuries. Now we know that in Europe the human period
+was preceded by what has been termed the glacial age, and as it was
+passing away there must have been unexampled floods and ice-freshets,
+and a temporary "pluvial period," as it has been called, in which the
+volume of the rivers was immensely increased. Farther, it is an
+established fact that the period of the appearance of man was a time
+when the continents in the northern hemisphere were more elevated
+than at present, and when consequently the cutting action of rivers
+was at a maximum. This was again followed by a period of depression,
+accompanied probably by many local cataclysms, if not by a general
+deluge; and there are strong geological reasons to believe that this
+convulsion was connected with the disappearance from Europe of
+Pal�ocosmic man, and many of the animals his contemporaries. This view
+I advocated some time ago in my "Story of the Earth;" and more
+recently Mr. Pattison, in an able paper read before the Victoria
+Institute, has developed it in greater detail, and supported it by a
+great mass of geological authority. If the Pal�ocosmic period was one
+of continental elevation, when the greater seats of population were in
+the valleys of great rivers now covered by the German Ocean and the
+English Channel, and when the valleys of the Thames and the Somme were
+those of upland streams frequented by straggling parties and small
+tribes, and the seats of extensive flint factories for the supply of
+the plains below, and if this state of things was terminated by a
+diluvial debacle, we can account for all the phenomena of the drift
+implements without any extravagant estimate of time.
+
+I quote with much pleasure on this subject the following from the
+report of a lecture on "Geological Measures of Time," by Professor
+Hughes, before the Royal Institution of London. Hughes was, like
+myself, a companion of Sir Charles Lyell in some of his journeys,
+though belonging to a younger generation of geologists, and is an
+accurate observer and reasoner.
+
+"Another method of estimating the lapse of time is founded upon the
+supposed rate at which rivers scoop out their channels. Although no
+very exact estimates have been attempted, still the immense quantity
+of work that has been done, as compared with the slow rate at which a
+river is now excavating that same part of the valley, is often
+appealed to as a proof of a great lapse of time.
+
+"The fact of such an enormous lapse of time is not questioned, but
+this part of the evidence is challenged.
+
+"The previous considerations of the rate of accumulation of silt on
+the low lands prepares us to inquire whether there is any waste at all
+along the alluvial plains. Several examples were given to show that
+the lowering of valleys was brought about by receding rapids and
+waterfalls; for instance, following up the Rhine, its terraces could
+often be traced back to where the waterfall was seen to produce at
+once almost all the difference of level between the river reaches
+above and below it. At Schaffhausen the river terrace below the hotel
+could be traced back and found to be continuous with the river margin
+above the fall. The wide plains occurring here and there, such as the
+Mayence basin, were due to the river being arrested by the hard rocks
+of the gorges below Bingen so long that it had time to wind from side
+to side through the soft rocks above the gorges. When waterfalls cut
+back to such basins or to lakes they would recede rapidly, tapping the
+waters of the lake, eating back the soft beds of the alluvial plains,
+and probably in both cases leaving terraces as evidence, not of
+upheavals or of convulsions, but of the arrival of a waterfall which
+had been gradually travelling up the valley. So when the Rhone cuts
+back from the falls at Belgarde we shall have terraces where now is
+the shore of Geneva; so also when the Falls of Schaffhausen, and ages
+afterward when the Falls of Laufenburg have tapped the Lake of
+Constance, there will be terraces marking its previous levels. And so
+we may explain the former greater extent of the Lake of Zurich, which
+stood higher and spread wider by Utznach and Wetzikon before it was
+tapped by the arrival of waterfalls, which cut back into it and let
+its waters run off until they fell to their present level.
+
+"A small upheaval near the mouth of a river would have a similar
+effect. The Thames below London and the Somme below St. Acheul can now
+only just hand on the mud brought down from higher ground; but suppose
+an elevation of a hundred feet over those parts of England and France
+(quite imperceptible if extended over 10,000, 1000, or even 100
+years), and the rivers would tumble over soft mud and clay and chalk,
+and soon eat their way back from Sheppey to London, and from St.
+Valery to Amiens.
+
+"So when we want to estimate the age of the gravels on the top of the
+cliff at the Reculvers, or on the edge of the plateau of St. Acheul,
+we have to ask, not how long would it take the rivers to cut down to
+their present level from the height of those gravels at the rate at
+which that part of their channel is being lowered now, but how long
+would it take the Somme or Thames, which once ran at the level of
+those gravels, to cut back from where its mouth or next waterfall was
+then to where it runs over rapids now. We ought to know what movements
+of upheaval and depression there have been; what long alluvial flats
+or lakes which may have checked floods, but also arrested the
+rock-protecting gravel; how much the wash of the estuarine waves has
+helped. In fact, it is clear that observations made on the action of
+the rivers at those points now have nothing to do with the calculation
+of the age of the terraces above, and that the circumstances upon
+which the rate of recession of the waterfalls and rapids depends are
+so numerous and changeable that it is at present unsafe to attempt any
+estimate of the time required to produce the results observed."
+
+I may close this discussion by quoting from the paper of my friend Mr.
+Pattison, already referred to, the following summing up of his
+conclusions, in which I fully concur:
+
+     "We may assume it as established that there was a time when
+     England was connected with the Continent, when big animals
+     roamed in summer up the watercourses and across the uplands,
+     and man, armed only with rude stones, followed them into the
+     marshes and woods, hunted them for sustenance, and consumed
+     them in shelter of caves, then accessible from the river
+     levels. This state of things was continued until disturbed
+     by oscillations of surface, accompanied by excessive
+     rainfalls and rushes of water from the water-sheds of the
+     rivers, until the great animals were driven out or
+     destroyed, and man ceased to visit these parts. The
+     disturbances continued, the Strait of Dover was formed, the
+     configuration of the soft parts of the islands and
+     continents was fixed, action subsided, and the present state
+     of things obtained. Man resumed his residence, but with loss
+     of the mammoth and its companions. The reindeer now
+     constituted the type of a state of things which lasted down
+     to the historic period, without any other from that time to
+     this. * * *
+
+     "Chronologists are agreed that about 2000 years B.C. Abraham
+     migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and that at this time
+     Egypt at least was old in civilization. Beyond this we have
+     no positive scale of time in Scripture; for it is evident,
+     from the narrative itself, that the latter does not cover
+     the whole time. * * *
+
+     "Ussher estimates from Scripture the creation of man as
+     about 2000 years before this. During the latter portion of
+     this time civilization was proceeding under settled
+     governments in the East, interrupted, says the record and
+     tradition, by a flood. * * *
+
+     "So Lucretius:
+
+        'Thus, too, the insurgent waters once o'erpowered,
+        As fables tell, and deluged many a state;
+        Till, in its turn, the congregated waves
+        By cause more potent conquered, heaven restrain'd
+        Its ceaseless torrents, and the flood decreased.'
+
+     Barbarism covered the whole Western world; neither in the
+     2000 years before Abraham, nor in the 2000 years afterward,
+     have we any light reflected from these regions to the East.
+     In this 4000 years, or in the somewhat longer period which
+     probably will be ultimately settled as warranted by the
+     record, we place hypothetically all the phenomena of the
+     later mammalian age, including the introduction of man as a
+     hunter, the first occupation of the caves by him also, the
+     diluvial phenomena of the wide valleys, the oscillations and
+     disturbances of the earth's crust, alterations in the
+     coast-line, and physical settlement of the country; after
+     this comes the second occupation of the caves. In short, if
+     we say that, hypothetically, the whole first known human age
+     occurred within 4000 years of the Christian era, no one can
+     say that it is geologically impossible. Who can say that
+     1643 years is insufficient to comprise all the phenomena
+     that occurred during a period confessedly characterized by
+     more rapid and extensive action than at present--a period
+     during which ruptures in the earth's crust, oscillations,
+     and permanent uprising took place, and the intermittent
+     action of violent floods caused the deposit and disturbance
+     and resettlement of the gravels and brick-earth? There is
+     nothing to interfere with the prevalent opinion that man was
+     introduced here while the glacial period was dying out, and
+     while it was still furnishing flood-waters sufficient to
+     scour and re-sort the gravels of the valleys down which they
+     flowed. This supposition may be extended to both the great
+     continents."
+
+To conclude: Our mode of reconciling the Mosaic history of
+antediluvian man with the disclosures of the gravels and caves would
+be to identify Pal�ocosmic man, or man of the mammoth age, with
+antediluvian man; to suppose that the changes which closed his
+existence in Europe as well as Western Asia were those recorded in the
+Noachian deluge; and that the second colonization of the diminished
+and shrunken Europe of the modern period was effected by the
+descendants of Noah. It may be asked--Must we suppose that the Adam of
+the Bible was of the type of the coarsely featured and gigantic men of
+the European caverns? I would answer--Not precisely so; but it is
+quite possible that Adam may have been Turanian in feature. We should
+certainly suppose him to have been a man well developed in brain and
+muscle. Such men as those found in the caves would rather represent
+the ruder "Nephelim," the "giants that were in those days," than Adam
+in Eden. Farther, the new colonists of Europe after the deluge would
+no doubt be a very rude and somewhat degenerate branch of Noachid�,
+probably driven before more powerful tribes in the course of the
+dispersion. The higher races of both periods are probably to be looked
+for in Western Asia; but even there we must expect to find cave men
+like those whose remains were found by Tristram in the caves near
+Tyre, and like the Horim of Moses; and we must also expect to find the
+antediluvian age in the main an age of stone everywhere, and its arts,
+except in certain great centres of population, perhaps not more
+advanced than those of the Polynesians, or those of the agricultural
+American tribes before the discovery of America by Columbus.
+
+As a geologist, and as one who has been in the main of the school of
+Lyell, and after having observed with much care the deposits of the
+more modern periods on both sides of the Atlantic, I have from the
+first dissented from those of my scientific brethren who have
+unhesitatingly given their adhesion to the long periods claimed for
+human history, and have maintained that their hasty conclusions on
+this subject must bring geological reasoning into disrepute, and react
+injuriously on our noble science. We require to make great demands on
+time for the prehuman periods of the earth's history, but not more
+than sacred history is willing to allow for the modern or human age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS.
+
+
+     "Lo, these are but the outlines of his ways, and how faint
+     the whisper which we hear of him--the thunder of his power
+     who could understand?"--Job xxvi., 14.
+
+
+In the preceding pages I have, as far as possible, avoided that mode
+of treating my subject which was wont to be expressed as the
+"reconciliation" of Scripture and Natural Science, and have followed
+the direct guidance of the Mosaic record, only turning aside where
+some apt illustration or coincidence could be perceived. In the
+present chapter I propose to inquire what the science of the earth
+teaches on these same subjects, and to point out certain manifest and
+remarkable correspondences between these teachings and those of
+revelation. Here I know that I enter on dangerous ground, and that if
+I have been so fortunate as to carry the intelligent reader with me
+thus far, I may chance to lose him now. The Hebrew Scriptures are
+common property; no one can fairly deny me the right to study them,
+even though I do so in no clerical or theological capacity; and even
+if I should appear extreme in some of my views, or venture to be
+almost as enthusiastic as the commentators of Homer, Shakespeare, or
+Dante, I can not be very severely blamed. But the direct comparison of
+these ancient records with results of modern science is obnoxious to
+many minds on different grounds; and all the more so that so few men
+are at once students both of nature and revelation. There are, as
+yet, but few even of educated men whose range of study has included
+any thing that is practical or useful either in Hebrew literature or
+geological science. That slipshod Christianity which contents itself
+with supposing that conclusions which are false in nature may be true
+in theology is mere superstition or professional priestcraft, and has
+nothing in common with the Bible; but there are still multitudes of
+good men, trained in the verbal and abstract learning which at one
+time constituted nearly the whole of education, who regard geology as
+a mass of crude hypotheses destitute of coherence, a perpetual
+battle-ground of conflicting opinions, all destined in time to be
+swept away. It must be admitted, too, that from the nature of
+geological evidence, and from the liability to error in details, the
+solidity of its conclusions is not likely soon to be appreciated as
+fully as is desirable by the common mind; while it is unfortunately
+true that the outskirts of science are infested with hosts of
+half-informed and superficial writers, who state these conclusions
+incorrectly, or apply them in an unreasonable manner to matters on
+which they have no bearing. On the other hand, the geologist, fully
+aware of the substantial nature of the foundations of the science of
+the earth, regards it as little less than absurd to find parallels to
+its principles in an ancient theological work. Still there are
+possible meeting-points of things so dissimilar as Bible lore and
+geological exploration. If man is a being connected on the one hand
+with material nature, and on the other with the spiritual essence of
+the Creator; if that Creator has given to man powers of exploring and
+comprehending his plans in the universe, and at the same time has
+condescended to reveal to him directly his will on certain points,
+there is nothing unphilosophical or improbable in the supposition that
+the same truths may be struck out on the one hand by the action of
+the human mind on nature, and on the other by the action of the Divine
+mind on that of man. The highest and most nobly constituted minds have
+ever been striving to scale heaven above and dive into the earth
+below, that they may extort from them the secret of their origin, and
+may find what are the privileges and destinies of man himself. They
+have learned much; and if through other gifted minds, and through his
+heaven-descended Word and Spirit, God has condescended to reveal
+himself, there must surely be much in common in that which God's works
+teach to earnest inquirers and that which he directly makes known. But
+few of our greatest thinkers, whether on nature or theology, have
+reached the firm ground of this higher probability; or if they have
+reached it, have dreaded the scorn of the half-learned too much to
+utter their convictions. Still this is a position which the
+enlightened Christian and student of nature must be prepared to
+occupy, humbly and with admission of much ignorance and incapacity,
+but with bold assertion of the truth that there are meeting-points of
+nature and revelation which afford legitimate subjects of study.
+
+In entering on these subjects, we may receive certain great truths in
+reference to the history of the earth as established by geological
+evidence. In the present rapidly progressive state of the science,
+however, it is by no means easy to separate its assured and settled
+results from those that have been founded on too hasty generalization,
+or are yet immature; and at the same time to avoid overlooking new and
+important truths, sufficiently established, yet not known in all their
+dimensions. In the following summary I shall endeavor to present to
+the reader only well-ascertained general truths, without indulging in
+those deviations from accuracy for effect too often met with in
+popular books. On the other hand, we have already found that the
+Scriptures enunciate distinct doctrines on many points relating to the
+earth's early history, to which it will here be necessary merely to
+refer in general terms. Let us in the first place shortly consider the
+conclusions of geology as to the origin and progress of creation.
+
+1. The widest and most important generalization of modern geology is
+that all the materials of the earth's crust, to the greatest depth
+that man can reach, either by actual excavation or inference from
+superficial arrangements, are of such a nature as to prove that they
+are not, in their present state, original portions of the earth's
+structure; but that they are the results of the operation, during long
+periods, of the causes of change--whether mechanical, chemical, or
+vital--now in operation, on the land, in the seas, and in the interior
+of the earth. For example, the most common rocks of our continents are
+conglomerates, sandstones, shales, and slates; all of which are made
+up of the d�bris of older rocks broken down into gravel, sand, or mud,
+and then re-cemented. To these we may add limestones, which have been
+made up by the accumulation of corals and shells, or by deposits from
+calcareous springs; coal, composed of vegetable matter; and granite,
+syenite, greenstone, and trap, which are molten rocks formed in the
+manner of modern lavas. So general has been this sorting, altering,
+and disturbance of the substance of the earth's crust, that, though we
+know its structure over large portions of our continents to the depth
+of several miles, the geologist can point to no instance of a truly
+primitive rock which can be affirmed to have remained unchanged and
+_in situ_ since the beginning.
+
+"All are aware that the solid parts of the earth consist of distinct
+substances, such as clay, chalk, sand, limestone, coal, slate,
+granite, and the like; but, previously to observation, it is commonly
+imagined that all had remained from the first in the state in which we
+now see them--that they were created in their present forms and in
+their present position. The geologist now comes to a different
+conclusion; discovering proofs that the external parts of the earth
+were not all produced in the beginning of things in the state in which
+we now behold them, nor in an instant of time. On the contrary, he can
+show that they have acquired their actual condition and configuration
+gradually and at successive periods, during each of which distinct
+races of living beings have flourished on the land and in the waters;
+the remains of these creatures lying buried in the crust of the
+earth."[140]
+
+2. Having ascertained that the rocks of the earth have thus been
+produced by secondary causes, we next affirm, on the evidence of
+geology, that a distinct order of succession of these deposits can be
+ascertained; and though there are innumerable local variations in the
+nature of the rocks formed at the same period, yet there is, on the
+great scale, a regular sequence of formations over the whole earth.
+This succession is of the greatest importance in the case of aqueous
+rocks, or those formed in water; and it is evident that in the case of
+beds of sand, clay, etc., deposited in this way, the upper must be the
+more recent of any two layers. This simple principle, complicated in
+various ways by the fractures and disturbances to which the beds have
+been subjected, forms the basis of the succession of "formations" in
+geology as deduced from stratigraphical evidence.
+
+3. This regular series of formations would be of little value as a
+history of the earth were it not that nearly all the aqueous rocks
+contain remains of the contemporary animals and plants. Ever since
+the earth began to be tenanted by organized beings, the various
+accumulations formed in the bottoms of seas and at the mouths of
+rivers have entombed remains of marine animals, more especially their
+harder parts, as shells, corals, and bones, and also fragments or
+entire specimens of land animals and plants. Hence, in any rock of
+aqueous formation, we may find fossil remains of the living creatures
+that existed in the waters in which that rock was accumulated or on
+the neighboring land. If in the process of building up the continents,
+the same locality constituted in succession a part of the bottom of
+the ocean, of an inland sea, of an estuary, and a lake, we should find
+in the fossil remains entombed in the deposits of that place evidences
+of these various conditions; and thus a somewhat curious history of
+local changes might be obtained. Geology affords more extensive
+disclosures of this nature. It shows that as we descend into the older
+formations we gradually lose sight of the existing animals and plants,
+and find the remains of others not now existing; and these, in turn,
+themselves disappear, and were preceded by others; so that the whole
+living population of the earth appears to have been several times
+renewed prior to the beginning of the present order of things. This
+seems farther to have occurred in a slow and gradual manner, not by
+successive great cataclysms or clearances of the surface of the earth,
+followed by wholesale renewal. This doctrine of geological uniformity
+is, however, to be understood as limited by the equally certain fact
+that there has been progress and advance, both in the inorganic
+arrangements of the earth's surface and in its organized inhabitants,
+and that there have, in geological as in historical times, been local
+cataclysms and convulsions, as those of earthquakes and volcanoes,
+often on a very extensive scale. Farther, there are good reasons to
+believe that there have been alternations of cold or glacial periods
+and of warm periods, of periods of subsidence and re-elevation, and of
+periods of greater and less activity of certain of the leading agents
+of geological change. But as to the extent of these differences and
+their bearing on the geological history, there is still much
+uncertainty and difference of opinion.[141]
+
+In the sediment _now_ accumulating in the bottom of the waters are
+being buried remains of the existing animals and plants. A geological
+formation is being produced, and it contains the skeletons and other
+solid parts of a vast variety of creatures belonging to all climates,
+and which have lived on land as well as in fresh and salt water. Let
+us now suppose that by a series of changes, sudden or gradual, all the
+present organized beings were swept away, and that, when the earth was
+renewed by the power of the Creator, a new race of intelligent beings
+could explore those parts of the former sea basins that had been
+elevated into land. They would find the remains of multitudes of
+creatures not existing in their time; and by the presence of these
+they could distinguish the deposits of the former period from those
+that belonged to their own. They could also compare these remains with
+the corresponding parts of creatures which were their own
+contemporaries, and could thus infer the circumstances in which they
+had lived, the modes of subsistence for which they had been adapted,
+and the changes in the distribution of land and water and other
+physical conditions which had occurred. This, then, is precisely the
+place which fossil organic remains occupy in modern geology, except
+that our present system of nature rests on the ruins, not of one
+previous system, but of several.
+
+4. By the aid of the superposition of deposits and their organic
+remains, geology can divide the history of the earth into distinct
+periods. These periods are not separated by merely arbitrary
+boundaries, but to some extent mark important eras in the progress of
+our earth; though they usually pass into each other at their confines,
+and the nature of the evidence prevents us from ascertaining the
+precise length of the periods themselves, or the intervals in time
+which may separate the several monuments by which they are
+distinguished. The following table will serve to give an idea of the
+arrangement at present generally received, with some of the more
+important facts in the succession of animal and vegetable life, as
+connected with our present subject. It commences with the oldest
+periods known to geology, and gives in the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms the _first appearance_ of each class, with a few notes of the
+subsequent history of the principal forms. It must, however, be borne
+in mind that farther discoveries may extend some classes farther back
+than we at present know them, and that a more detailed table,
+descending to orders and families, would give a more precise view of
+the succession of life. Farther, the several geological formations
+would admit of much subdivision, and are represented locally by
+various kinds and different thicknesses of sediment.[142]
+
+TABULAR VIEW OF THE SUCCESSION OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND
+ORGANIC REMAINS.
+
+  ====================================================================
+  PERIODS. |    SYSTEMS OF      |   CLASSES OF ANIMALS.   |  PLANTS.
+           |    FORMATIONS.     |                         |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  I.       |Ancient Metamorphic |Eozoon and probably other|Graphite and
+  EOZOIC   |rocks of            | Protozoa.               |Iron Ores
+  PERIOD.  |Scandinavia,        |                         |representing
+           |Canada, etc.        |                         |Vegetable
+           |                    |                         |Matter.
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  II.      |Cambrian.           |_Radiata_--Hydrozoa,     |Alg�.
+  PRIMARY  |                    | Echinodermata           |
+  OR       |                    | (Cystideans).           |
+  PAL�OZOIC|                    |_Mollusca_--Brachiopoda, |
+  PERIOD.  |                    | Lamellibranchiata,      |
+           |                    | Gasteropoda, Cephalopoda|
+           |                    | (Bivalve and Univalve   |
+           |                    | Shell-fishes).          |
+           |                    |_Articulata_--Annelida,  |
+           |                    | Crustacea (Worms and    |
+           |                    | Soft Shell-fishes of the|
+           |                    | lower grades).          |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Lower Silurian.     |_Radiata_--Anthozoa      |Alg�.
+           |                    | (coral animals),        |
+           |                    | Echinodermata           |
+           |                    | (sea stars, etc.).      |
+           |                    |_Mollusca_--Polyzoa,     |
+           |                    | Tunicata.               |
+           |                    |Other Mollusks and       |
+           |                    | Articulates as before.  |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Upper Silurian.     |Radiates, Mollusks, and  |Acrogenous
+           |                    | Articulates as before.  |Land plants.
+           |                    |_Vertebrata_--First      |
+           |                    | Ganoid and Placoid      |
+           |                    | Fishes.                 |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Erian or Devonian.  |_Articulata_--Insects    |Acrogens
+           |                    | and higher Crustaceans. |and
+           |                    |_Vertebrata_--Fishes,    |Gymnosperms.
+           |                    | Ganoid and Placoid.     |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Carboniferous.      |_Mollusca_--Pulmonata    |Acrogens,
+           |                    | (Land Snails).          |Gymnosperms,
+           |                    |_Articulata_--Myriapods, |Endogens?
+           |                    | Arachnidans (Gallyworms,|
+           |                    | Spiders and Scorpions). |
+           |                    |_Vertebrata_--Batrachians|
+           |                    | or Amphibians prevalent.|
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Permian.            |_Vertebrata_--Lacertian  |
+           |                    | or Lizard-like          |
+           |                    | Reptiles.               |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  III.     |Triassic.           |_Vertebrata_--Higher     |
+  SECONDARY|                    |  Reptiles prevalent;    |
+  OR       |                    |  Marsupial Mammals.     |
+  MESOZOIC |                    |                         |
+  PERIOD.  |Jurassic.           |_Vertebrata_--Great      |Endogenous
+           |                    |  prevalence of higher   |trees.
+           |                    |  Reptiles; Fishes,      |
+           |                    |  homocerque; Earliest   |
+           |                    |  Birds.                 |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Cretaceous.         |_Vertebrata_--Decadence  |Angiospermous
+           |                    | of reign of Reptiles;   |Exogens.
+           |                    | Ordinary  Bony Fishes.  |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  IV.      |Eocene.             |_Vertebrata_--Mammals    |Exogens
+  TERTIARY |                    |  prevalent, especially  |prevalent.
+  OR       |                    |  Pachyderms; Cycloid    |
+  CAINOZOIC|                    |  and Ctenoid Fishes     |
+  PERIOD.  |                    |  prevalent.             |
+           |                    |First _living_           |Some Modern
+           |                    |  Invertebrates.         |Species
+           |                    |                         |appear.
+           |Miocene.            |Living Invertebrates more|
+           |                    |  numerous.              |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Pliocene.           |Living Invertebrates     |
+           |                    |  still  more numerous.  |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  V.       |Post-Pliocene.      |First living Mammals.    |Existing
+  POST-    |                    |Living Invertebrates     |vegetation.
+  TERTIARY |                    |  prevalent.             |
+  OR       |                    |                         |
+  MODERN   |Post-Glacial        |Man and living Mammals.  |
+  PERIOD.  |and Recent.         |                         |
+  ====================================================================
+
+
+The oldest fossil remains known are the Protozoa of the Laurentian
+rocks. In the succeeding Cambrian or Primordial rocks we find many
+extinct species of zoophytes, shell-fish, and crustaceans, and the
+alg� or sea-weeds. In the Pal�ozoic period as a whole, though numerous
+Batrachian or Amphibian reptiles existed toward its close, the higher
+orders of fishes seem to have been the dominant tribe of animals; and
+vegetation was nearly limited to cryptogams and gymnosperms. In the
+Mesozoic period, though small mammalia had been created, large
+terrestrial and marine reptiles were the ruling race, and fishes
+occupied a subordinate position; while, at the close, the higher
+orders of plants took a prominent place. In the Tertiary and Modern
+eras, the mammalia, with man, have assumed the highest or dominant
+position in nature.
+
+On this series of groups, and the succession of living beings, Sir. C.
+Lyell remarks "It is not pretended that the principal sections called
+Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary are of equivalent importance, or that
+the subordinate groups comprise monuments relating to equal portions
+of time or of the earth's history. But we can assert that they each
+relate to successive periods, during which certain animals and plants,
+for the most part peculiar to their respective eras, flourished, and
+during which different kinds of sediment were deposited."
+
+We have already, in previous chapters, noticed the parallelism of the
+succession of life in the earth as revealed in Genesis with that
+disclosed by geology; but this subject must be farther referred to in
+the sequel, and in the mean time the reader may compare for himself
+the succession of life in the table with that in the later creative
+days.
+
+5. The lapse of time embraced in the geological history of the earth
+is enormous. Fully to appreciate this it is necessary to study the
+science in detail, and to explore its phenomena as disclosed in actual
+nature. A few facts, however, out of hundreds which might have been
+selected, will suffice to indicate the state of the case. The delta
+and alluvial plain of the Mississippi have an area of more than 12,000
+square miles, and must have an average depth of about 800 feet. At the
+present rate of conveyance of sediment by the river, it has been
+calculated that a period of about 33,000 years is implied in the
+deposition of this comparatively modern formation.[143] To be quite
+safe, let us take 30,000 years, and add 50,000 more for the remainder
+of the Post-pliocene or Quaternary. We may then safely multiply this
+number by forty, for the length of the Tertiary period. We may add
+three times as much for the Mesozoic period, and this will be far
+under the truth. It will then be quite safe to assume that the
+Pal�ozoic period was three times as long as the Mesozoic and Tertiary
+together. This would give altogether, say, 51,280,000 years for the
+whole of geological time from the beginning of the Pal�ozoic, leaving
+the duration of the Eozoic and previous periods undetermined, but
+requiring perhaps nearly as much time. Great though these demands may
+seem, they would be probably far below the rigid requirements of the
+case were it not for the probability that the present rate of
+transference of material by the great river is less than it was in
+Post-pliocene and early modern times. This might enable us to reduce
+our estimate considerably within the scope of a hundred millions of
+years.[144] Take another illustration from an older formation. An
+excellent coast section at the Joggins, in Nova Scotia, exhibits in
+the coal formation proper a series of beds with erect trunks and roots
+of trees _in situ_, amounting to nearly 100. About 100 forests have
+successively grown, partially decayed, and been entombed in muddy and
+sandy sediment. In the same section, including in all about 14,000
+feet of beds, there are 76 seams of coal, each of which can be proved
+to have taken more time for its accumulation than that required for
+the growth of a forest. Supposing all these separate fossil soils and
+coals to have been formed with the greatest possible rapidity, forty
+thousand years would be a very moderate calculation for this portion
+of the Carboniferous system; and for aught that we know thousands of
+years may be represented by a single fossil soil. But this is the age
+of only one member of the Carboniferous system, itself only a member
+of the great Pal�ozoic group, and we have made no allowance for the
+abrasion from previous rocks and deposition of the immense mass of
+sandy and muddy sediment in which the coals and forests are imbedded,
+and which is vastly greater than the deltas of the largest modern
+rivers.
+
+Considerations of a physical rather than of a geological nature also
+give us long periods for the probable existence of the earth, though
+they serve to correct somewhat the extravagant estimates of some
+theorists. Croll has based an interesting calculation on the amount of
+erosion of the land by rivers. That of the Mississippi amounts to one
+foot in 6000 years. That of the Ganges gives one foot in 2358 years,
+the average being, say, one foot in 4179 years. Some smaller rivers
+give a much shorter time; but the average of two great rivers, one
+draining a very large area of the western and another of the eastern
+hemisphere, and in very different climates and geographical
+conditions, will probably be the most reliable datum. Croll, however,
+prefers the Mississippi rate.[145] If we estimate the proportion of
+land to water as 576 to 1390, this will give for the entire area of
+the ocean a rate of deposition of one foot in 14,400 years. Now the
+entire thickness of all the stratified rocks is estimated at 72,000
+feet; and at this rate the enormous time of 1,036,800,000 years would
+be necessary. But we have no right to assume that deposition has been
+going on uniformly over the entire sea-bottom. On the contrary, the
+greater part of it takes place within a belt of about one hundred
+miles from the coasts, and the deposit of calcareous and other matters
+over the remainder will scarcely make up for the portions of this belt
+on which no deposit is taking place. This will give an area of deposit
+of about 11,650,000 square miles, consequently only one twelfth of the
+above time, or about 86,400,000 years, would be required. This can be
+but a very rough calculation; but it has the merit of squaring very
+nearly with the calculations derived from physical considerations,
+more especially by Sir William Thomson, which limit the possible
+existence of the earth's solid crust to one hundred millions of years.
+Similar conclusions have also been deduced from what is known of the
+physical constitution of the sun. Croll's own ingenious theory of
+glacial periods produced by the varying eccentricity of the earth's
+orbit, along with the precession of the equinoxes, would give,
+according to him, about 80,000 years ago for the date of the Glacial
+period, and for the beginning of the Tertiary period about 3,000,000
+years ago.
+
+It would thus appear that physical and geological science conspire in
+assigning a great antiquity to the earth, but not an unlimited
+antiquity. They agree in restricting the ages that have elapsed since
+the introduction of life within one hundred millions of years. I
+confess, however, that a consideration of the fact that all our
+geological measures of erosion and deposition seem to be based on
+cases which refer to what may be termed minimum action leads me to
+believe that the actual time will fall very far within this limit. For
+example, if we were to suppose an elevation of the land drained by the
+Mississippi even to a small amount, its cutting power would be vastly
+increased for a long time. The same effect would result from a
+subsidence and re-elevation, or from any cause increasing the amount
+of rainfall or deposition of snows in winter. Now we know that such
+things have occurred in the past, while we have no reason to believe
+that the amount of action was ever much less than at present. Similar
+considerations apply to nearly all our geological measures of time;
+and there has been a tendency to exaggerate these, as if geologists
+were entitled to demand unlimited time, and to stretch the doctrine of
+uniformity to the utmost.
+
+6. During the whole time referred to by geology, the great laws both
+of inorganic and organic nature have been the same as at present. The
+evidence of light and darkness, of sunshine and shower, of summer and
+winter, and of all the known igneous and aqueous causes of change,
+extends back almost, and in some of these cases altogether, to the
+beginning of the Pal�ozoic period. In like manner the animals and
+plants of the oldest rocks are constructed on the same physiological
+and anatomical principles with existing tribes, and they can be
+arranged in the same genera, orders, or classes, though specifically
+distinct. The revolutions of the globe have involved no change of the
+general laws of matter; and though it is possible that geology has
+carried us back to the time when the laws that regulate life began to
+operate, it does not show that they were less perfect than now, and it
+indicates no trace of the beginning of the inorganic laws. Geological
+changes have resulted not from the institution of new laws, but from
+new _dispositions_, under existing laws and general arrangements.
+There is every reason to believe that in the inorganic world these
+dispositions have required no new creative interpositions during the
+time to which geology refers, but merely the continued action of the
+properties bestowed on matter when first produced. In the organic
+world the case is different.
+
+7. In the succession of animal and vegetable life we find a constant
+improvement and advance by the introduction of new types of being. We
+have already given a general outline of this advancement of organized
+nature. It has consisted in the introduction, from time to time, of
+new and more highly organized beings, so as at once to increase the
+variety of nature, and to provide for the elevation of the summit of
+the graduated scale of life to higher and higher points. At the same
+time, in each successive period, it has been the law of creation that
+the forms of life then dominant should attain their highest
+development, and should then be succeeded by more advanced types. For
+instance, in the earlier Pal�ozoic period we have molluscous animals
+and fishes, then apparently the highest forms of life, appearing with
+a very advanced organization, not surpassed, if even equalled, in
+modern times. In the latter part of the same period, some lower forms
+of vegetable life, now restricted to a comparatively humble place,
+were employed to constitute magnificent forests. In the Mesozoic
+period, again, reptiles attained to their highest point in
+organization and variety of form and employment, while mammalia had as
+yet scarcely appeared.[146]
+
+8. If now we ask in what manner the succession of life on the earth
+has been produced, two apparently opposite hypotheses rise before us.
+The one is that of introduction of new species by creative acts, the
+other that of development of new species by changes of those
+previously existing. In one respect the difference of these views is
+little more than one of expression, for the meaning of the statements
+depends on what we understand by a species and what by a mere varietal
+form, and also on what we understand by creation and what we mean by
+development. Twenty years ago nearly all geologists were believers in
+creation, though it must be admitted without precisely understanding
+what they meant by the term. Now, the great impression produced by
+Darwin's speculations and the prevalence of the evolutionist
+philosophy have produced a leaning in the other direction. More
+recently, however, the absurdities into which the extreme
+evolutionists find themselves driven have produced a reaction; and we
+hope that views consistent with revelation, or at least with Theism,
+will again be in the ascendant, and that present controversies will
+serve to give more precise and definite views than heretofore of the
+relation of nature to God. As illustrations of the opinions prevalent
+before the rise of the development theory, I may quote from Pictet and
+Bronn, two of the most eminent pal�ontologists.
+
+Pictet says, in the introduction to his "Trait� de Pal�ontologie:" "It
+seems to me impossible that we should admit, as an explanation of the
+phenomena of successive faunas, the passage of species into one
+another; the limits of such transitions of species, even supposing
+that the lapse of a vast period of time may have given them a
+character of reality much greater than that which the study of
+existing nature leads us to suppose, are still infinitely within those
+differences which distinguish two successive faunas. Lastly, we can
+least of all account by this theory for the appearance of new _types_,
+to explain the introduction of which we must necessarily, in the
+present state of science, recur to the idea of distinct creations
+posterior to the first."
+
+The following are the general conclusions of Bronn, in his elaborate
+and most valuable essay, presented to the French Academy in 1856, as
+summarized in a notice of the work in the Journal of the Geological
+Society:
+
+"1. The first productions of this power in the oldest Neptunian strata
+of the earth consisted of Plants, Zoophytes, Mollusks, Crustaceans,
+and perhaps even Fish; the simultaneous appearance of which,
+therefore, contradicts the assumption that the more perfect organic
+forms arose out of the gradual transformation in time of the more
+imperfect forms.
+
+"2. The same power which produced the first organic forms has
+continued to operate in intensively as well as extensively increasing
+activity during the whole subsequent geological period, up to the
+final appearance of man; but here also can no traces be found of a
+gradual transformation of old species and genera into new; but the new
+have everywhere appeared as new without the co-operation of the
+former.
+
+"3. In the succession of the different forms of plants and animals, a
+certain regular course and plan is perceptible, which is quite
+independent of chance. While all species possess only a limited
+duration, and must sooner or later disappear, they make way for
+subsequent new ones, which not only almost always offer an equivalent,
+in number, organization, and duties to be performed, for those which
+have disappeared, but which are also generally more varied, and
+therefore more perfect, and always maintain an equilibrium with each
+other in their stage of organization, their mode of life, and
+functions. There always exists, therefore, a certain fixed relation
+between the newly arising and the disappearing forms of organic life.
+
+"4. A similar relation necessarily exists between the newly arising
+organic forms and the outward conditions of life which prevailed at
+their first appearance on the earth's surface, or at the place of
+their appearance.
+
+"5. A fixed plan appears to be the basis of the whole series of
+development of organic forms, in so far as man makes his first
+appearance at its close, when he finds every thing prepared that is
+necessary to his own existence and to his progressive development and
+improvement--which would not have been possible had he appeared at a
+former period.
+
+"6. Such a regular progress in carrying out the same plan from the
+beginning to the end of a period of millions of years can only be
+accounted for in one of two ways. Either this course of successive
+development during millions of years has been the regular immediate
+result of the systematic action of a conscious Creator, who on every
+occasion settled and carried out not only the order of appearance,
+formation, organization, and terrestrial object of each of the
+countless numbers of species of plants and animals, but also the
+number of the first individuals, the place of their settlement in
+every instance, although it was in his power to create every thing at
+once--or there existed some natural power hitherto entirely unknown to
+us, which by means of its own laws formed the species of plants and
+animals, and arranged and regulated all those countless individual
+conditions; which power, however, must in this case have stood in the
+most immediate connection with, and in perfect subordination to, those
+powers which caused the gradually progressing perfection of the crust
+of the earth, and the gradual development of the outward conditions of
+life for the constantly increasing numbers and higher classes of
+organic forms in consequence of this perfection. Only in this way can
+we explain how the development of the organic world could have
+regularly kept pace with that of the inorganic. Such a power, although
+we know it not, would not only be in perfect accordance with all the
+other functions of nature, but the Creator, who regulated the
+development of organic nature by means of such a force so implanted in
+it, as he guides that of the inorganic world by the mere co-operation
+of attraction and affinity, must appear to us more exalted and
+imposing than if we assumed that he must always be giving the same
+care to the introduction and change of the vegetable and animal world
+on the surface of the earth as a gardener daily bestows on each
+individual plant in the arrangement of his garden.
+
+"7. We therefore believe that all species of plants and animals were
+originally produced by some natural power unknown to us, and not by
+transformation from a few original forms, and that that power was in
+the closest and most necessary connection with those powers and
+circumstances which effected the perfection of the earth's surface."
+
+Barrande also, probably the greatest living pal�ontologist of Europe,
+adheres substantially to these views; as Agassiz did, and I believe
+Hall and Dana still do, in America.
+
+I have, for my own part, seen no reason to dissent from these views,
+though in the sequel I shall endeavor to present some considerations
+which may tend to reconcile with them some of the hypotheses of a
+contrary nature now held. It must be admitted, however, that the
+majority of geologists and biologists have abandoned these views of
+Pictet and Bronn, and have gone over to the evolutionist philosophy,
+with how little reason I have endeavored to show elsewhere,[147] and
+shall farther illustrate in the Appendix. Let it be observed, however,
+that even evolution does not affect the grand idea of the unity of
+nature, or the fact that the plan of the Creator in the organic world
+was so vast that it required the whole duration of our planet, in all
+its stages of physical existence, to embrace the whole. There is but
+one system of organic nature; but, to exhibit the whole of it, not
+only all the climates and conditions now existing are required, but
+those also of all past geological periods. Further, the progress of
+nature being mainly in the direction of differentiation of functions
+once combined, it has a limit backward in the most general forms and
+conditions, and forward in the most specialized. This is the history
+of the individual and probably also of the type, of the world itself
+and of the universe; and for this reason material nature necessarily
+lacks the eternity of its author.
+
+It appears, from the above facts and reasonings, that geology informs
+us--1. That the materials of our existing continents are of secondary
+origin, as distinguished from primitive or coeval with the beginning.
+2. That a chronological order of formation of these rocks can be made
+out. 3. That the fossil remains contained in the rocks constitute a
+chronology of animal and vegetable existence. 4. That the history of
+the earth may be divided in this way into distinct periods, all
+pre-Adamite. 5. That the pre-Adamite periods were of enormous
+duration. 6. That during these periods the existing general laws of
+nature were in force, though the dispositions of inorganic nature were
+different in different periods, and the animals and plants of
+successive periods were also different from each other. 7. The
+introduction of new species of animals and of plants, while indicating
+advance in the perfection of nature, does not prove spontaneous
+development, but rather a definite plan and law of creation.
+
+The parallelism of these conclusions of careful inductive inquiry into
+the structure of the earth's crust, with the results which we have
+already obtained from revelation, may be summed up under the following
+heads:
+
+1. Scripture and Science both testify to the great fact that there was
+a beginning--a time when none of all the parts of the fabric of the
+universe existed; when the Self-Existent was the sole occupant of
+space. The Scriptures announce in plain terms this great truth, and
+thereby rise at once high above atheism, pantheism, and materialism,
+and lay a broad and sure foundation for a pure and spiritual theology.
+Had the pen of inspiration written but the words, "In the beginning
+God created the heavens and the earth," and added no more, these words
+alone would have borne the impress of their heavenly birth, and would,
+if received in faith, have done much for the progress of the human
+mind. These words contain a negation of hero-worship, star-worship,
+animal-worship, and every other form of idolatry. They still more
+emphatically deny atheism and materialism, and point upward from
+nature to its spiritual Creator--the One, the Triune, the Eternal, the
+Self-Existent, the All-Pervading, the Almighty. They call upon us, as
+with a voice of thunder, to bow down before that Awful Being of whom
+it can be said that he created the heavens and the earth. They thus
+embody the whole essence of natural theology, and most appropriately
+stand at the entrance of Holy Scripture, referring us to the works
+which men behold, as the visible manifestation of the attributes of
+the Being whose spiritual nature is unveiled in revelation. Scripture
+thus begins with the announcement of a great ultimate fact, to which
+science conducts us with but slow and timid steps. Yet science, and
+especially geological science, can bear witness to this great truth.
+The materialist, reasoning on the fancied stability of natural things,
+and their inscription within invariable laws, concludes that matter
+must be eternal. No, replies the geologist, certainly not in its
+present form. This is but of recent origin, and was preceded by other
+arrangements. Every existing species can be traced back to a time when
+it was not; so can the existing continents, mountains, and seas. Under
+our processes of investigation the present melts away like a dream,
+and we are landed on the shores of past and unknown worlds. But I
+read, says the objector, that you can see "no evidence of a beginning,
+no prospect of an end." It is true, answers geology; but, in so
+saying, it is not intended that the present state of things had not an
+ascertained beginning, but that there has been a great and, so far as
+we know, unlimited series of changes carried on under the guidance of
+intelligence. These changes we have traced back very far, without
+being able to say that we have reached the first. We can trace back
+man and his contemporaries to their origin, and we can reach the
+points at which still older dynasties of life began to exist. Knowing,
+then, that all these had a beginning, we infer that if others preceded
+them they also had a beginning. But, says another objector, is not the
+present the child of the past? Are not all the creatures that inhabit
+the earth the lineal descendants of creatures of past periods, or may
+not the whole be parts of one continual succession, under the
+operation of an eternal law of development? No, answers geology,
+species are immutable, except within narrow limits, and do not pass
+into each other, in tracing them toward their origin. On the contrary,
+they appear at once in their most perfect state, and continue
+unchanged till they are forced off the stage of existence to give
+place to other creatures. The origin of species is a mystery, and
+belongs to no natural law that has yet been established. Thus, then,
+stands the case at present. Scripture asserts a beginning and a
+creation. Science admits these, as far as the objects with which it is
+conversant extend, and the notions of eternal succession and
+spontaneous development, discountenanced both by theology and science,
+are obliged to take refuge in those misty regions where modern
+philosophical skepticism consorts with the shades of departed
+heathenism.[148]
+
+2. Both records exhibit the progressive character of creation, and in
+much the same aspect. The Almighty might have called into existence,
+by one single momentary act, a world complete in all its parts. From
+both Scripture and geology we know that he has not done so--why we
+need not inquire, though we can see that the process employed was
+that best adapted to show forth the variety of his resources and the
+infinitely varied elements that enter into the perfect whole.
+
+The Scripture history may be viewed as dividing the progress of the
+creation into two great periods, the later of which only is embraced
+in the geological record. The first commences with the original chaos,
+and reaches to the completion of inorganic nature on the fourth day.
+Had we any geological records of the first of these periods, we should
+perceive the evidences of slow mutations, tending to the sorting and
+arrangement of the materials of the earth, and to produce distinct
+light and darkness, sea and land, atmosphere and cloud, out of what
+was originally a mixture of the whole. We should also, according to
+the Scriptural record, find this period interlocking with the next, by
+the intervention of a great vegetable creation, before the final
+adjustment of the earth's relations to the other bodies of our system.
+The second period is that of the creative development of animal life.
+From both records we learn that various ranks or gradations existed
+from the first introduction of animals; but that on the earlier stages
+only certain of the lower forms of animals were present; that these
+soon attained their highest point, and then gradually, on each
+succeeding platform, the variety of nature in its higher--the
+vertebrate--form increased, and the upper margin of animal life
+attained a more and more elevated point, culminating at length in man;
+while certain of the older forms were dropped, as no longer required.
+
+In the oldest fossiliferous rocks next to the Eozoic, which so far
+have afforded only Protozoa--e. g., the Cambrian and Lower
+Silurian--we find the mollusca represented mainly by their highest
+and lowest classes, by allies of the cuttle-fish and nautilus, and by
+the lowest bivalve shell-fishes. The Articulata are represented by the
+highest marine class--the crustaceans--and by the lowest--the worms,
+which have left their marks on some of the lowest fossiliferous beds.
+The Radiata, in like manner, are represented by species of their
+highest class--the starfishes, etc.--and by some of their simpler
+polyp forms. At the very beginning, then, of the fossiliferous series,
+the three lower sub-kingdoms exhibit species of their most elevated
+aquatic classes, though not of the very highest orders in those
+classes. The vertebrated sub-kingdom has, as far as yet known, no
+representative in these lowest beds. In the Upper Silurian series,
+however, we find remains of fishes; and in the succeeding Devonian and
+carboniferous rocks the fishes rise to the highest structures of their
+class; and we find several species of reptiles, representing the next
+of the vertebrated classes in ascending order. Here a very remarkable
+fact meets us. Before the close of the Pal�ozoic period the three
+lower sub-kingdoms and the fishes had already attained the highest
+perfection of which their types are capable. Multitudes of new species
+and genera were added subsequently, but none of them rising higher in
+the scale of organization than those which occur in the Pal�ozoic
+rocks. Thenceforth the progressive improvement of the animal kingdom
+consisted in the addition, first of the reptile, which attained its
+highest perfection and importance in the Mesozoic period, and then of
+the bird and mammal, which did not attain their highest forms till the
+Modern period. This geological order of animal life, it is scarcely
+necessary to add, agrees perfectly with that sketched by Moses, in
+which the lower types are completed at once, and the progress is
+wholly in the higher.
+
+In the inspired narrative we have already noticed some peculiarities,
+as, for instance, the early appearance of a highly developed flora,
+and the special mention of great reptiles in the work of the fifth
+day, which correspond with the significant fact that high types of
+structure appeared at the very introduction of each new group of
+organized beings--a fact which, more than any other in geology, shows
+that, in the organic department, elevation has always been a strictly
+_creative_ work, and that there is in the constitution of animal
+species no innate tendency to elevation, but that on the contrary we
+should rather suspect a tendency to degeneracy and ultimate
+disappearance, requiring that the fiat of the Creator should after a
+time go out again to "renew the face of the earth." In the natural as
+in the moral world, the only law of progress is the will and the power
+of God. In one sense, however, progress in the organic world has been
+dependent on, though not caused by, progress in the inorganic. We see
+in geology many grounds for believing that each new tribe of animals
+or plants was introduced just as the earth became fitted for it; and
+even in the present world we see that regions composed of the more
+ancient rocks, and not modified by subsequent disturbances, present
+few of the means of support for man and the higher animals; while
+those districts in which various revolutions of the earth have
+accumulated fertile soils or deposited useful minerals are the chief
+seats of civilization and population. In like manner we know that
+those regions which the Bible informs us were the cradle of the human
+race and the seats of the oldest nations are geologically among the
+most recent parts of the existing continents, and were no doubt
+selected by the Creator partly on that account for the birthplace of
+man. We thus find that the Bible and the geologists are agreed not
+only as to the fact and order of progress, but also as to its manner
+and use.
+
+3. Both records agree in affirming that since the beginning there has
+been but one great system of nature. We can imagine it to have been
+otherwise. Our existing nature might have been preceded by a state of
+things having no connection with it. The arrangements of the earth's
+surface might have been altogether different; races of creatures might
+have existed having no affinity with or resemblance to those of the
+present world, and we might have been able to trace no present
+beneficial consequences as flowing from these past states of our
+planet. Had geology made such revelations as these, the consequences
+in relation to natural theology and the credibility of Scripture would
+have been momentous. The Mosaic narrative could scarcely, in that
+case, have been interpreted in such a manner as to accord with
+geological conclusions. The questions would have arisen--Are there
+more creative Powers than one? If one, is He an imperfect or
+capricious being who changes his plans of operation? The divine
+authority of the Scriptures, as well as the unity and perfections of
+God, might thus have been involved in serious doubts. Happily for us,
+there is nothing of this kind in the geological history of the earth;
+as there is manifestly nothing of it in that which is revealed in
+Scripture.
+
+In the Scripture narrative each act of creation prepares for the
+others, and in its consequences extends to them all. The inspired
+writer announces the introduction of each new part of creation, and
+then leaves it without any reference to the various phases which it
+assumed as the work advanced. In the grand general view which he
+takes, the land and seas first made represent those of all the
+following periods. So do the first plants, the first invertebrate
+animals, the first fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals. He thus
+assures us that, however long the periods represented by days of
+creation, the system of nature was one from the beginning. In like
+manner in the geological record each of the successive conditions of
+the earth is related to those which precede and those which follow, as
+part of a series. So also a uniform plan of construction pervades
+organic nature, and uniform laws the inorganic world in all periods.
+We can thus include in one system of natural history all animals and
+plants, fossil as well as recent, and can resolve all inorganic
+changes into the operation of existing laws. The former of these facts
+is in its nature so remarkable as almost to warrant the belief of
+special design. Naturalists had arranged the existing animals and
+plants, without any reference to fossil species, in kingdoms,
+sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, families, and genera. Geological
+research has added a vast number of species not now existing in a
+living state; yet all these fossils can be inserted within the limits
+of recognized groups. We do not require to add a new kingdom,
+sub-kingdom, or class; but, on the contrary, all the fossil genera and
+species go into the existing divisions, in such a manner as to fill
+them up precisely where they are most deficient, thus occupying what
+would otherwise be gaps in the existing system of nature. The
+principal difficulty which they occasion to the zoologist and botanist
+is that, by filling the intervals between genera previously widely
+separated, they give to the whole a degree of continuity which renders
+it more difficult to decide where the boundaries separating the groups
+should be placed.
+
+We also find that the animals and plants of the earlier periods often
+combined in one form powers and properties afterward separated in
+distinct groups; thus in the earlier formations the sauroid fishes
+unite peculiarities afterward divided between the fish and reptiles,
+constituting what Agassiz has called a synthetic type. Again, the
+series of creatures in time accords with the ranks which a study of
+their types of structure induces the naturalist to assign them in his
+system; and also within each of the great sub-kingdoms presents many
+points of accordance with the progress of the embryonic development of
+the individual animal. Nor is this contradictory to the statement that
+the earlier representatives of types are often of high and perfect
+organization, for the progress both in geological time and in the life
+of the individual is so much one of specialization that an immature
+animal often presents points of affinity to higher forms that
+disappear in the adult. In connection with this, earlier organic forms
+often appear to foreshadow and predict others that are to succeed them
+in time, as the winged and marine reptiles of the Mesozoic foreshadow
+the birds and cetaceans. Agassiz has admirably illustrated these links
+of connection between the past and the present in the essay on
+classification prefixed to his "Contributions to the Natural History
+of America." In reference to "prophetic" types, he says: "They appear
+now like a prophecy in those earlier times of an order of things not
+possible with the earlier combinations then prevailing in the animal
+kingdom, but exhibiting in a later period in a striking manner the
+antecedent consideration of every step in the gradation of animals."
+
+4. The periods into which geology divides the history of the earth are
+different from those of Scripture, yet when properly understood there
+is a marked correspondence. Geology refers only to the fifth and sixth
+days of creation, or, at most, to these with parts of the fourth and
+seventh, and it divides this portion of the work into several eras,
+founded on alternations of rock formations and changes in organic
+remains. The nature of geological evidence renders it probable that
+many apparently well-marked breaks in the chain may result merely from
+deficiency in the preserved remains; and consequently that what appear
+to the geologist to be very distinct periods may in reality run
+together. The only natural divisions that Scripture teaches us to look
+for are those between the fifth and sixth days, and those which within
+these days mark the introduction of new animal forms, as, for
+instance, the great reptiles of the fifth day. We have already seen
+that the beginning of the fifth day can be referred almost with
+certainty to the Pal�ozoic period. The beginning of the sixth day may
+with nearly equal certainty be referred to that of the Tertiary era.
+The introduction of great reptiles and birds in the fifth day
+synchronizes and corresponds with the beginning of the Mesozoic
+period; and that of man at the close of the sixth day with the
+commencement of the Modern era in geology. These four great
+coincidences are so much more than we could have expected, in records
+so very different in their nature and origin, that we need not pause
+to search for others of a more obscure character. It may be well to
+introduce here a tabular view of this correspondence between the
+geological and Biblical periods, extending it as far as either record
+can carry us, and thus giving a complete general view of the origin
+and history of the world as deduced from revelation and science. In
+comparing this table with that on page 330, it will be observed that
+the latter refers to the last half of the creative week only, the
+earlier half being occupied with physical changes which, however
+probable inferentially, are not within the scope of geological
+observation.
+
+PARALLELISM OF THE SCRIPTURAL COSMOGONY WITH THE ASTRONOMICAL AND
+GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH.
+
+  ====================================================================
+                                    |
+            BIBLICAL �ONS.          |  PERIODS DEDUCED FROM SCIENTIFIC
+                                    |        CONSIDERATIONS.
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  The Beginning.                    |Creation of Matter.
+                                    |
+  _First Day._--Earth mantled by    |Condensation of Planetary Bodies
+   the Vaporous Deep--Production    |  from a nebulous mass--Hypothesis
+   of Light.                        |  of original incandescence.
+                                    |
+  _Second Day._--Earth covered by   |Primitive Universal Ocean, and
+   the Waters--Formation of the     |  establishment of Atmospheric
+   Atmosphere.                      |  equilibrium.
+                                    |
+  _Third Day._--Emergence of Dry    |Elevation of the land which
+   Land--Introduction of            |  furnished the materials of the
+   Vegetation.                      |  oldest rocks--Eozoic Period of
+                                    |  Geology?
+                                    |
+  _Fourth Day._--Completion of the  |Metamorphism of Eozoic rocks and
+   arrangements of the Solar System.|  disturbances preceding the
+                                    |  Cambrian epoch--Present
+                                    |  arrangement of Seasons--Dominion
+                                    |  of "Existing Causes" begins.
+                                    |
+  _Fifth Day._--Invertebrates and   |Pal�ozoic Period--Reign of
+   Fishes, and afterward great      |  Invertebrates and Fishes.
+   Reptiles and Birds created.      |Mesozoic Period--Reign of
+                                    |  Reptiles.
+                                    |
+  _Sixth Day._--Introduction of     |Tertiary Period--Reign of Mammals.
+   Mammals--Creation of Man and     |Post-Tertiary--Existing Mammals
+   Edenic Group of Animals.         |  and Man.
+                                    |
+  _Seventh Day._--Cessation of Work |Period of Human History.
+   of Creation--Fall and Redemption |
+   of Man.                          |
+                                    |
+  _Eighth Day._--New Heavens and    |
+   Earth to succeed the Human Epoch |
+   --"The Rest (Sabbath) that       |
+   remains to the People of God."   |
+   [149]                            |
+======================================================================
+
+_Note._--The above table is identical with that published in "Archaia"
+in 1860, and which the author sees no reason now to change.
+
+
+5. In both records the ocean gives birth to the first dry land, and it
+is the sea that is first inhabited, yet both lead at least to the
+suspicion that a state of igneous fluidity preceded the primitive
+universal ocean. In Scripture the original prevalence of the ocean is
+distinctly stated, and all geologists are agreed that in the early
+fossiliferous periods the sea must have prevailed much more
+extensively than at present. Scripture also expressly states that the
+waters were the birthplace of the earliest animals, and geology has as
+yet discovered in the whole Silurian series no terrestrial animal,
+though marine creatures are extremely abundant; and though
+air-breathing creatures are found in the later Pal�ozoic, they are,
+with the exception of insects, of that semi-amphibious character which
+is proper to alluvial flats and the deltas of rivers. It is true that
+the negative evidence collected by geology does not render it
+altogether impossible that terrestrial animals, even mammals, may have
+existed in the earliest periods; yet there are, as already pointed
+out, some positive indications opposed to this. The Scripture,
+however, commits itself to the statement that the higher land animals
+did not exist so early, though it must be observed that there is
+nothing in the Mosaic narrative adverse to the existence of birds,
+insects, and reptiles in the earlier Pal�ozoic periods. I have said
+that the Bible, which informs us of a universal ocean preceding the
+existence of land, also gives indications of a still earlier period of
+igneous fluidity or gaseous expansion. Geology also and astronomy have
+their reasonings and speculations as to the prevalence of such
+conditions. Here, however, both records become dim and obscure, though
+it is evident that both point in the same direction, and combine those
+aqueous and igneous origins which in the last century afforded so
+fertile ground of one-sided dispute.
+
+6. Both records concur in maintaining what is usually termed the
+doctrine of existing causes in geology. Scripture and geology alike
+show that since the beginning of the fifth day, or Pal�ozoic period,
+the inorganic world has continued under the dominion of the same
+causes that now regulate its changes and processes. The sacred
+narrative gives no hint of any creative interposition in this
+department after the fourth day; and geology assures us that all the
+rocks with which it is acquainted have been produced by the same
+causes that are now throwing down detritus in the bottom of the
+waters, or bringing up volcanic products from the interior of the
+earth. This grand generalization, therefore, first worked out in
+modern times by Sir Charles Lyell, from a laborious collection of the
+changes occurring in the present state of the world, was, as a
+doctrine of divine revelation, announced more than three thousand
+years ago by the Hebrew lawgiver; not for scientific purposes, but as
+a part of the theology of the Hebrew monotheism.
+
+7. Both records agree in assuring us that death prevailed in the world
+ever since animals were introduced. The punishment threatened to Adam,
+and considerations connected with man's state of innocence, have led
+to the belief that the Bible teaches that the lower animals, as well
+as man, were exempt from death before the fall. When, however, we find
+the great _tanninim_, or crocodilian reptiles, created in the fifth
+day, and beasts of prey on the sixth, we need entertain no doubt on
+the subject, in so far as Scripture is concerned. The geological
+record is equally explicit. Carnivorous creatures, with the most
+formidable powers of destruction, have left their remains in all parts
+of the geological series; and indeed, up to the introduction of man,
+the carnivorous fishes, reptiles, and quadrupeds were the lords and
+tyrants of the earth. There can be little doubt, however, that the
+introduction of man was the beginning of a change in this respect. A
+creature destitute of offensive weapons, and subsisting on fruits, was
+to rule by the power of intellect. As already hinted, it is probable
+that in Eden he was surrounded by a group of inoffensive animals, and
+that those creatures which he had cause to dread would have
+disappeared as he extended his dominion. In this way the law of
+violent death and destruction which prevailed under the dynasties of
+the fish, the reptile, and the carnivorous mammifer would ultimately
+have been abrogated; and under the milder sway of man life and peace
+would have reigned in a manner to which our knowledge of pre-Adamite
+and present nature may afford no adequate key. Be this as it may, on
+the important point of the original prevalence of death among the
+lower animals both records are at one.
+
+8. In the department of "final causes," as they have been termed,
+Scripture and geology unite in affording large and interesting views.
+They illustrate the procedure of the All-wise Creator during a long
+succession of ages, and thus enable us to see the effects of any of
+his laws, not only at one time, but in far distant periods. To reject
+the consideration of this peculiarity of geological science would be
+the extremest folly, and would involve at once a misinterpretation of
+the geologic record and a denial of the agency of an intelligent
+Designer as revealed in Scripture, and indicated by the succession of
+beings. Many of the past changes of the earth acquire their full
+significance only when taken in connection with the present wants of
+the earth's inhabitants; and along the whole course of the geological
+history the creatures that we meet with are equally rich in the
+evidences of nice adaptation to circumstances and wonderful
+contrivances for special ends, with their modern representatives. As
+an example of the former, how wonderful is the connection of the
+great vegetable accumulations of the ancient coal swamps, and the
+bands and nodules of iron-stone which were separated from the
+ferruginous sands or clays in their vicinity by the action of this
+very vegetable matter, with the whole fabric of modern civilization,
+and especially with the prosperity of that race which, in our time,
+stands in the front of the world's progress. In a very ancient period,
+wide swamps and deltas, teeming with vegetable life, and which, if
+they now existed, would be but pestilent breeders of miasmata, spread
+over large tracts of the northern hemisphere, on which marine animals
+had previously accumulated thick sheets of limestone. Vast beds of
+vegetable matter were collected by growth in these swamps, and the
+waste particles that passed off in the form of organic acids were
+employed in concentrating the oxide of iron in underlying clays and
+sands. In the lapse of ages the whole of these accumulations were
+buried deep in the crust of the earth; and long periods succeeded,
+when the earth was tenanted by reptilian and other creatures,
+unconscious of the treasures beneath them. The modern period arrived.
+The equable climate of the coal era had passed away. Continents were
+prepared for the residence of man, and the edges of the old
+carboniferous beds were exposed by subterranean movements, and laid
+bare by denudation. Man was introduced, fell from his state of
+innocence, and was condemned to earn his subsistence by the sweat of
+his brow; and now for the first time appears the use of these buried
+coal swamps. They now afford at once the materials of improvement in
+the arts and of comfortable subsistence in extreme climates, and
+subjects of surpassing interest to the naturalist. Similar instances
+may be gleaned by the natural theologian from nearly every part of the
+geological history.
+
+Lastly. Both records represent man as the last of God's works, and the
+culminating-point of the whole creation. We have already had occasion
+to refer to this as a result of zoology, geology, and Scriptural
+exegesis, and may here confine ourselves to the moral consequences of
+this great truth. Man is the capital of the column; and, if marred and
+defaced by moral evil, the symmetry of the whole is to be restored,
+not by rejecting him altogether, like the extinct species of the
+ancient world, and replacing him by another, but by re-casting him in
+the image of his Divine Redeemer. Man, though recently introduced, is
+to exist eternally. He is, in one or another state of being, to be
+witness of all future changes of the earth. He has before him the
+option of being one with his Maker, and sharing in a future glorious
+and finally renovated condition of our planet, or of sinking into
+endless degradation. Such is the great spiritual drama of man's fate
+to be acted out on the theatre of the world. Every human being must
+play his part in it, and the present must decide what that part shall
+be. The Bible bases these great foreshadowings of the future on its
+own peculiar evidence; yet I may venture humbly to maintain that its
+harmony with natural science, as far as the latter can ascend, gives
+to the Word of God a pre-eminent claim on the attention of the
+naturalist. The Bible, unlike every other system of religious
+doctrine, fears no investigation or discussion. It courts these.
+"While science," says a modern divine,[150] "is fatal to superstition,
+it is fortification to a Scriptural faith. The Bible is the bravest of
+books. Coming from God, and conscious of nothing but God's truth, it
+awaits the progress of knowledge with calm security. It watches the
+antiquary ransacking among classic ruins, and rejoices in every medal
+he discovers and every inscription he deciphers; for from that rusty
+coin or corroded marble it expects nothing but confirmations of its
+own veracity. In the unlocking of an Egyptian hieroglyphic or the
+unearthing of some implement it hails the resurrection of so many
+witnesses; and with sparkling elation it follows the botanist as he
+scales Mount Lebanon, or the zoologist as he makes acquaintance with
+the beasts of the Syrian desert; or the traveller as he stumbles on a
+long-lost Petra or Nineveh or Babylon. And from the march of time it
+fears no evil, but calmly abides the fulfilment of those prophecies
+and the forthcoming of those events with whose predicted story
+inspiration has already inscribed its page. It is not light but
+darkness which the Bible deprecates; and if men of piety were also men
+of science, and if men of science were to search the Scriptures, there
+would be more faith in the earth, and also more philosophy."
+
+The reader has, I trust, found in the preceding pages sufficient
+evidence that the Bible has nothing to dread from the revelations of
+geology, but much to hope in the way of elucidation of its meaning and
+confirmation of its truth. If convinced of this, I trust that he will
+allow me now to ask for the warnings, promises, and predictions of the
+Book of God his entire confidence; and, in conclusion, to direct his
+attention to the glorious prospects which it holds forth to the human
+race, and to every individual of it who, in humility and
+self-renunciation, casts himself in faith on that Divine Redeemer who
+is at once the creator of the heavens and the earth, and the brother
+and the friend of the penitent and the contrite. That same old book,
+which carries back our view to those ancient conditions of our planet
+which preceded not only the creation of man, but the earliest periods
+of which science has cognizance, likewise carries our minds forward
+into the farthest depths of futurity, and shows that all present
+things must pass away. It reveals to us a new heaven and a new earth,
+which are to replace those now existing; when the Eternal Son of God,
+the manifestation of the Father equally in creation and redemption,
+shall come forth conquering and to conquer, and shall sweep away into
+utter extinction all the blood-stained tyrannies of the present earth,
+even as he has swept away the brute dynasties of the pre-Adamite
+world, and shall establish a reign of peace, of love, and of holiness
+that shall never pass away: when the purified sons of Adam, rejoicing
+in immortal youth and happiness, shall be able to look back with
+enlarged understandings and grateful hearts on the whole history of
+creation and redemption, and shall join their angelic brethren in the
+final and more ecstatic repetition of that hymn of praise with which
+the heavenly hosts greeted the birth of our planet. May God in his
+mercy grant that he who writes and they who read may "stand in their
+lot at the end of the days" and enjoy the full fruition of these
+glorious prospects.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+A.--TRUE AND FALSE EVOLUTION.
+
+The term "evolution" need not in itself be a bugbear on theological
+grounds. The Bible writers would, I presume, have no objection to it
+if understood to mean the development of the plans of the Creator in
+nature. That kind of evolution to which they would object, and to
+which enlightened reason also objects, is the spontaneous evolution of
+nothing into atoms and force, and of these into all the wonderful and
+complicated plan of nature, without any guiding mind. Farther,
+biological and pal�ontological science, as well as the Bible, object
+to the derivation of living things from dead matter by merely natural
+means, because this can not be proved to be possible, and to the
+production of the series of organic forms found as fossils in the
+rocks of the earth by the process of struggle for existence and
+survival of the fittest, because this does not suffice to account for
+the complex phenomena presented by this succession. With reference to
+the testimony of pal�ontology, I have in other publications developed
+this very fully; and would here merely quote the summing up of the
+argument, as given in my Address of 1875 before the American
+Association for the Advancement of Science:
+
+"I have thus far said nothing of the bearing of the prevalent ideas of
+descent with modification on this wonderful procession of life. None
+of these of course can be expected to take us back to the origin of
+living beings; but they also fail to explain why so vast numbers of
+highly organized species struggle into existence simultaneously in one
+age and disappear in another; why no continuous chain of succession in
+time can be found gradually blending species into each other; and why
+in the natural succession of things degradation under the influence of
+external conditions and final extinction seem to be laws of organic
+existence. It is useless here to appeal to the imperfection of the
+record or to the movements or migrations of species. The record is now
+in many important parts too complete, and the simultaneousness of the
+entrance of the faunas and floras too certainly established, and
+moving species from place to place only evades the difficulty. The
+truth is that such hypotheses are at present premature, and that we
+require to have larger collections of facts. Independently of this,
+however, it appears to me that from a philosophical point of view it
+is extremely probable that all theories of evolution as at present
+applied to life are fundamentally defective in being too partial in
+their character; and perhaps I can not better group the remainder of
+the facts to which I wish to refer than by using them to illustrate
+this feature of most of the later attempts at generalization on this
+subject.
+
+"First, then, these hypotheses are too partial in their tendency to
+refer numerous and complex phenomena to one cause, or to a few causes
+only, when all trustworthy analogy would indicate that they must
+result from many concurrent forces and determinations of force. We
+have all no doubt read those ingenious, not to say amusing,
+speculations in which some entomologists and botanists have indulged
+with reference to the mutual relations of flowers and haustellate
+insects. Geologically the facts oblige us to begin with cryptogamous
+plants and mandibulate insects, and out of the desire of insects for
+non-existent honey, and the adaptations of plants to the requirements
+of non-existent suctorial apparatus, we have to evolve the marvellous
+complexity of floral form and coloring, and the exquisitely delicate
+apparatus of the mouths of haustellate insects. Now when it is borne
+in mind that this theory implies a mental confusion on our part
+precisely similar to that which in the department of mechanics
+actuates the seekers for perpetual motion, that we have not the
+smallest tittle of evidence that the changes required have actually
+occurred in any one case, and that the thousands of other structures
+and relations of the plant and the insect have to be worked out by a
+series of concurrent evolutions so complex and absolutely incalculable
+in the aggregate that the cycles and epicycles of the Ptolemaic
+astronomy were child's play in comparison, we need not wonder that the
+common-sense of mankind revolts against such fancies, and that we are
+accused of attempting to construct the universe by methods that would
+baffle Omnipotence itself, because they are simply absurd. In this
+aspect of them indeed such speculations are necessarily futile,
+because no mind can grasp all the complexities of even any one case,
+and it is useless to follow out an imaginary line of development which
+unexplained facts must contradict at every step. This is also no doubt
+the reason why all recent attempts at constructing 'Phylogenies' are
+so changeable, and why no two experts can agree about the details of
+any of them.
+
+"A second aspect in which such speculations are too partial is in the
+unwarranted use which they make of analogy. It is not unusual to find
+such analogies as that between the embryonic development of the
+individual animal and the succession of animals in geological time
+placed on a level with that reasoning from analogy by which geologists
+apply modern causes to explain geological formations. No claim could
+be more unfounded. When the geologist studies ancient limestones built
+up of the remains of corals, and then applies the phenomena of modern
+coral reefs to explain their origin, he brings the latter to bear on
+the former by an analogy which includes not merely the apparent
+results, but the causes at work, and the conditions of their action,
+and it is on this that the validity of his comparison depends, in so
+far as it relates to similarity of mode of formation. But when we
+compare the development of an animal from an embryo cell with the
+progress of animals in time, though we have a curious analogy as to
+the steps of the process, the conditions and causes at work are known
+to be altogether dissimilar, and therefore we have no evidence
+whatever as to identity of cause, and our reasoning becomes at once
+the most transparent of fallacies. Farther, we have no right here to
+overlook the fact that the conditions of the embryo are determined by
+those of a previous adult, and that no sooner does this hereditary
+potentiality produce a new adult animal than the terrible external
+agencies of the physical world, in presence of which all life exists,
+begin to tell on the organism, and after a struggle of longer or
+shorter duration it succumbs to death, and its substance returns into
+inorganic nature--a law from which even the longer life of the species
+does not seem to exempt it. All this is so plain and manifest that it
+is extraordinary that evolutionists will continue to use such partial
+and imperfect arguments. Another example may be taken from that
+application of the doctrine of natural selection to explain the
+introduction of species in geological time, which is so elaborately
+discussed by Sir C. Lyell in the last edition of his 'Principles of
+Geology.' The great geologist evidently leans strongly to the theory,
+and claims for it the 'highest degree of probability;' yet he
+perceives that there is a serious gap in it, since no modern fact has
+ever proved the origin of a new species by modification. Such a gap,
+if it existed in those grand analogies by which we explain geological
+formations through modern causes, would be admitted to be fatal.
+
+"A third illustration of the partial character of these hypotheses may
+be taken from the use made of the theory deduced from modern physical
+discoveries, that life must be merely a product of the continuous
+operation of physical laws. The assumption, for it is nothing more,
+that the phenomena of life are produced merely by some arrangement of
+physical forces, even if it be admitted to be true, gives only a
+partial explanation of the possible origin of life. It does not
+account for the fact that life as a force or combination of forces is
+set in antagonism to all other forces. It does not account for the
+marvellous connection of life with organization. It does not account
+for the determination and arrangement of forces implied in life. A
+very simple illustration may make this plain. If the problem to be
+solved were the origin of the mariner's compass, one might assert that
+it is wholly a physical arrangement both as to matter and force.
+Another might assert that it involves mind and intelligence in
+addition. In some sense both would be right. The properties of
+magnetic force and of iron or steel are purely physical, and it might
+even be within the bounds of possibility that somewhere in the
+universe a mass of natural loadstone may have been so balanced as to
+swing in harmony with the earth's magnetism. Yet we would surely be
+regarded as very credulous if we could be induced to believe that the
+mariner's compass has originated in that way. This argument applies
+with a thousandfold greater force to the origin of life, which
+involves even in its simplest forms so many more adjustments of force
+and so much more complex machinery.
+
+"Fourthly, these hypotheses are partial, inasmuch as they fail to
+account for the vastly varied and correlated interdependencies of
+natural things and forces, and for the unity of plan which pervades
+the whole. These can be explained only by taking into the account
+another element from without. Even when it professes to admit the
+existence of a God, the evolutionist reasoning of our day contents
+itself altogether with the physical or visible universe, and leaves
+entirely out of sight the power of the unseen and spiritual, as if
+this were something with which science has nothing to do, but which
+belongs only to imagination or sentiment. So much has this been the
+case, that when recently a few physicists and naturalists have turned
+to this aspect of the case, they have seemed to be teaching new and
+startling truths, though only reviving some of the oldest and most
+permanent ideas of our race. From the dawn of human thought it has
+been the conclusion alike of philosophers, theologians, and the
+common-sense of mankind that the seen can be explained only by
+reference to the unseen, and that any merely physical theory of the
+world is necessarily partial. This, too, is the position of our sacred
+Scriptures, and is broadly stated in their opening verse; and indeed
+it lies alike at the basis of all true religion and all sound
+philosophy, for it must necessarily be that 'the things that are seen
+are temporal, the things that are unseen eternal.' With reference to
+the primal aggregation of energy in the visible universe, with
+reference to the introduction of life, with reference to the soul of
+man, with reference to the heavenly gifts of genius and prophecy, with
+reference to the introduction of the Saviour himself into the world,
+and with reference to the spiritual gifts and graces of God's
+people--all these spring not from sporadic acts of intervention, but
+from the continuous action of God and the unseen world, and this we
+must never forget is the true ideal of creation in Scripture and in
+sound theology. Only in such exceptional and little influential
+philosophies as that of Democritus, and in the speculations of a few
+men carried off their balance by the brilliant physical discoveries of
+our age, has this necessarily partial and imperfect view been adopted.
+Never, indeed, was its imperfection more clear than in the light of
+modern science.
+
+"Geology, by tracing back all present things to their origin, was the
+first science to establish on a basis of observed facts the necessity
+of a beginning and end of the world. But even physical science now
+teaches us that the visible world is a vast machine for the
+dissipation of energy; that the processes going on in it must have had
+a beginning in time, and that all things tend to a final and helpless
+equilibrium. This necessity implies an unseen power, an invisible
+universe, in which the visible universe must have originated, and to
+which its energy is ever returning. The hiatus between the seen and
+the unseen may be bridged over by the conceptions of atomic vortices
+of force, and by the universal and continuous ether; but whether or
+not, it has become clear that the conception of the unseen as existing
+has become necessary to our belief in the possible existence of the
+physical universe itself, even without taking life into the account.
+
+"It is in the domain of life, however, that this necessity becomes
+most apparent; and it is in the plant that we first clearly perceive a
+visible testimony to that unseen which is the counterpart of the seen.
+Life in the plant opposes the outward rush of force in our system,
+arrests a part of it on its way, fixes it as potential energy, and
+thus, forming a mere eddy, so to speak, in the process of dissipation
+of energy, it accumulates that on which animal life and man himself
+may subsist, and asserts for a time supremacy over the seen and
+temporal on behalf of the unseen and eternal. I say for a time,
+because life is, in the visible universe, as at present constituted,
+but a temporary exception, introduced from that unseen world where it
+is no longer the exception, but the eternal rule. In a still higher
+sense, then, than that in which matter and force testify to a Creator,
+organization and life, whether in the plant, the animal, or man, bear
+the same testimony, and exist as outposts put forth in the succession
+of ages from that higher heaven that surrounds the visible universe.
+In them, too, Almighty power is no doubt conditioned or limited by
+law, yet they bear more distinctly upon them the impress of their
+Maker; and, while all explanations of the physical universe which
+refuse to recognize its spiritual and unseen origin must necessarily
+be partial and in the end incomprehensible, this destiny falls more
+quickly and surely on the attempt to account for life and its
+succession on merely materialistic principles.
+
+"Here again, however, I must remind you that creation, as maintained
+against such materialistic evolution, whether by theology, philosophy,
+or Holy Scripture, is necessarily a continuous, nay, an eternal
+influence, not an intervention of disconnected acts. It is the true
+continuity, which includes and binds together all other continuity.
+
+"It is here that natural science meets with theology, not as an
+antagonist, but as a friend and ally in its time of greatest need; and
+I must here record my belief that neither men of science nor
+theologians have a right to separate what God in Holy Scripture has
+joined together, or to build up a wall between nature and religion,
+and write upon it 'no thoroughfare.' The science that does this must
+be impotent to explain nature, and without hold on the higher
+sentiments of man. The theology that does this must sink into mere
+superstition.
+
+"In conclusion, can we formulate a few of the general laws, or perhaps
+I had better call them general conclusions, respecting life, in which
+all pal�ontologists may agree? Perhaps it is not possible to do this
+at present satisfactorily, but the attempt may do no harm. We may,
+then, I think, make the following affirmations:
+
+"1. The existence of life and organization on the earth is not
+eternal, nor even coeval with the beginning of the physical universe,
+but may possibly date from Laurentian or immediately pre-Laurentian
+times.
+
+"2. The introduction of new species of animals and plants has been a
+continuous process, not necessarily in the sense of derivation of one
+species from another, but in the higher sense of the continued
+operation of the cause or causes which introduced life at first. This,
+as already stated, I take to be the true theological or Scriptural as
+well as scientific idea of what we ordinarily and somewhat loosely
+term creation.
+
+"3. Though thus continuous, the process has not been uniform; but
+periods of rapid production of species have alternated with others in
+which many disappeared and few were introduced. This may have been an
+effect of physical cycles reacting on the progress of life.
+
+"4. Species, like individuals, have greater energy and vitality in
+their younger stages, and rapidly assume all their varietal forms, and
+extend themselves as widely as external circumstances will permit.
+Like individuals also, they have their periods of old age and decay,
+though the life of some species has been of enormous duration in
+comparison with that of others; the difference appearing to be
+connected with degrees of adaptation to different conditions of life.
+
+"5. Many allied species, constituting groups of animals and plants,
+have made their appearance at once in various parts of the earth, and
+these groups have obeyed the same laws with the individual and the
+species in culminating rapidly, and then slowly diminishing, though a
+large group once introduced has rarely disappeared altogether.
+
+"6. Groups of species, as genera and orders, do not usually begin with
+their highest or lowest forms, but with intermediate and generalized
+types, and they show a capacity for both elevation and degradation in
+their subsequent history.
+
+"7. The history of life presents a progress from the lower to the
+higher, and from the simpler to the more complex, and from the more
+generalized to the more specialized. In this progress new types are
+introduced and take the place of the older ones, which sink to a
+relatively subordinate place and become thus degraded. But the
+physical and organic changes have been so correlated and adjusted that
+life has not only always maintained its existence, but has been
+enabled to assume more complex forms, and that older forms have been
+made to prepare the way for newer, so that there has been on the whole
+a steady elevation culminating in man himself. Elevation and
+specialization have, however, been secured at the expense of vital
+energy and range of adaptation, until the new element of a rational
+and inventive nature was introduced in the case of man.
+
+"8. In regard to the larger and more distinct types, we can not find
+evidence that they have, in their introduction, been preceded by
+similar forms connecting them with previous groups; but there is
+reason to believe that many supposed representative species in
+successive formations are really only races or varieties.
+
+"9. In so far as we can trace their history, specific types are
+permanent in their characters from their introduction to their
+extinction, and their earlier varietal forms are similar to their
+later ones.
+
+"10. Pal�ontology furnishes no direct evidence, perhaps never can
+furnish any, as to the actual transformation of one species into
+another, or as to the actual circumstances of creation of a species,
+but the drift of its testimony is to show that species come in _per
+saltum_, rather than by any slow and gradual process.
+
+"11. The origin and history of life can not, any more than the origin
+and determination of matter and force, be explained on purely material
+grounds, but involve the consideration of power referable to the
+unseen and spiritual world.
+
+"Different minds may state these principles in different ways, but I
+believe that, in so far as pal�ontology is concerned, in substance
+they must hold good, at least as steps to higher truths."
+
+
+B.--EVOLUTION AND CREATION BY LAW.
+
+Evolutionist writers have a great horror of what they term
+"intervention." But they should be informed that the idea of a
+planning Creator does not involve intervention in an extraordinary or
+miraculous sense, any more than what we call the ordinary operations
+of nature. It is a common but childish prejudice that every discovery
+of a secondary cause diminishes so much of what is to be referred to
+the agency of God. On the contrary, such discoveries merely aid us in
+comprehending the manner of his action. But when evolutionists, in
+their zeal to get rid of creative intervention, trace all things to
+the interaction of insensate causes, they fall into the absurdity of
+believing in absolute unmitigated chance as the cause of perfect
+order. Evidences of this may be found by the score in Darwin's works
+on the origin of species. I quote, however, from another and usually
+clear thinker, Wallace, in a review of the Duke of Argyll's "Reign of
+Law," which appeared some years ago, but represents very well this
+phase of thought:
+
+"'It is curious,' says the Duke of Argyll, 'to observe the language
+which this most advanced disciple of pure naturalism [Mr. Darwin]
+instinctively uses, when he has to describe the complicated structure
+of this curious order of plants [the Orchids]. Caution in ascribing
+intentions to nature does not seem to occur to him as possible.
+Intention is the one thing which he does see, and which, when he does
+not see, he seeks for diligently until he finds it. He exhausts every
+form of words and of illustration by which intention or mental purpose
+can be described. 'Contrivance'--'curious contrivance'--'beautiful
+contrivance'--these are expressions which occur over and over again.
+Here is one sentence describing the parts of a particular species:
+'the labellum is developed into a long nectary, _in order_ to attract
+lepidoptera, and we shall presently give reason for suspecting that
+the nectar is _purposely_ so lodged that it can be sucked only slowly,
+_in order_ to give time for the curious chemical quality of this
+viscid matter setting hard and dry.'" Many other examples of similar
+expressions are quoted by the duke, who maintains that no explanation
+of these "contrivances" has been or can be given, except on the
+supposition of a personal contriver, specially arranging the details
+of each case, although causing them to be produced by the ordinary
+processes of growth and reproduction.
+
+"Now there is a difficulty in this view of the origin of the structure
+of orchids which the duke does not allude to. The majority of
+flowering plants are fertilized, either without the agency of insects,
+or, when insects are required, without any very important modification
+of the structure of the flower. It is evident, therefore, that flowers
+might have been formed as varied, fantastic, and beautiful as the
+orchids, and yet have been fertilized by insects in the same manner as
+violets or clover or primroses, or a thousand other flowers. The
+strange springs and traps and pitfalls found in the flowers of orchids
+can not be necessary _per se_, since exactly the same end is gained in
+ten thousand other flowers which do not possess them. Is it not, then,
+an extraordinary idea to imagine the Creator of the universe
+_contriving_ the various complicated parts of these flowers as a
+mechanic might contrive an ingenious toy or a difficult puzzle? Is it
+not a more worthy conception that they are some of the results of
+those general laws which were so co-ordinated at the first
+introduction of life upon the earth as to result necessarily in the
+utmost possible development of varied forms?"
+
+A moment's thought is sufficient to show that there is no essential
+difference between the Creator contriving every detail of the
+structure of an orchid and his producing it through some intermediate
+cause, or his commanding it into existence by his almighty word. The
+same mental process, so to speak, of the contriver is implied in
+either case. But there is an immeasurable difference between any of
+those ideas and that of the orchid producing its parts spontaneously
+under the operation of insensate physical law, whatever that may be,
+alone. Again, in the same review, Wallace writes:
+
+"The uncertainty of opinion among naturalists as to which are species
+and which varieties is one of Mr. Darwin's very strong arguments that
+these two names can not belong to things quite distinct in nature and
+origin. The reviewer says that this argument is of no weight, because
+the works of man present exactly the same phenomena, and he instances
+patent inventions, and the excessive difficulty of determining whether
+they are new or old. I accept the analogy, and maintain that it is all
+in favor of Mr. Darwin's views; for are not all inventions of the same
+kind directly affiliated to a common ancestor. Are not improved
+steam-engines or clocks the lineal descendants of some existing
+steam-engine or clock? Is there ever a new creation in art or science
+any more than in nature? Did ever patentee absolutely originate any
+complete and entire invention no portion of which was derived from any
+thing that had been made or described before? It is, therefore, clear
+that the difficulty of distinguishing the various classes of
+inventions which claim to be new is of the same nature as the
+difficulty of distinguishing varieties and species, because neither
+are absolute new creations, but both are alike descendants of
+pre-existing forms, from which and from each other they differ by
+varying and often imperceptible degrees. It appears, then, that
+however plausible this writer's objections may seem, whenever he
+descends from generalities to any specific statement his supposed
+difficulties turn out to be in reality strongly confirmatory of Mr.
+Darwin's view."
+
+Now that improved steam-engines are lineal descendants of other
+steam-engines is absolute nonsense, in any other aspect than that the
+structure of one suggested the structure of another to a contriving
+mind. We need not affirm this of God; but we may affirm that the plans
+of the creative mind constitute the true link of connection between
+the different states and developments of inorganic and organic
+objects. This is the real meaning of creation by law, as distinguished
+from mere chance on the one hand, and arbitrary and capricious
+intervention on the other. Both of these extremes are equally
+illogical; and it can not be too frequently repeated that divine
+revelation avoids both by maintaining with equal firmness the agency
+of the Creator, and that agency not capricious, but according to plan
+and purpose; embracing not merely the action of the divine mind
+itself, but under it of all the forces and material things created.
+
+
+C.--MODES OF CREATION.
+
+A question often asked, but not easily answered, with reference to the
+creation of animals and plants, is--What was its precise method, and
+to what extent is such intervention conceivable. This is, it is true,
+not a properly scientific question, since science can not inform us of
+the act of creation. Nor is it properly a theological one, since
+revelation appeals to our faith in the facts, without giving us much
+information as to the mode. It can, therefore, be answered only
+conjecturally, except in so far as the law or plan of creation can be
+inferred from what is known, either from science or revelation, as to
+the history of life.
+
+We may, in the first place, assume that law or plan must characterize
+creation. The Scriptural idea of it is not reconcilable with the
+supposition of a series of arbitrary acts any more than the scientific
+idea. The nature of these laws, as disclosed by Pal�ontology, has been
+already considered in a preceding part of this Appendix. What we may
+conjecture as to the nature of the creative act itself, from a
+comparison of nature and revelation, may be summed up as follows:
+
+1. If we reduce organized beings to their ultimate organisms--cells or
+plastids--and with Spencer and Haeckel suppose these to be farther
+divisible into still smaller particles or plastidules, each composed
+of several complex particles of albumen or protoplasm, we may suppose
+the primary act of creation to consist in the aggregation of molecules
+of albuminous matter into such plastidules bearing the same relations,
+as "manufactured articles," to the future cell that inorganic
+molecules bear to crystals, and possessing within themselves the
+potencies of organic forms. This is the nearest approach that we can
+make to the primary creative act, and its scientific basis is merely
+hypothetical, while revelation gives us no intimation as to any such
+constitution of organized matter.
+
+2. The formul� in Genesis, "Let the land produce," and "Let the waters
+produce," imply some sort of mediate creation through the agency of
+the land and the waters, but of what sort we have no means of knowing.
+They include, however, the idea of the origin of the lower and humbler
+forms of life from material pre-existing in inorganic nature, and also
+the idea of the previous preparation of the land and the waters for
+the sustenance of the creatures produced.
+
+3. The expression in the case of man--"out of the dust"--would seem to
+intimate that the human body was constituted of merely elementary
+matter, without any previous preparation in organic forms. It may,
+however, be intended merely to inform us that, while the spirit is in
+the image of God, the bodily frame is "of the earth earthy," and in no
+respect different in general nature from that of the inferior animals.
+
+4. The Bible indicates some ways in which creatures may be modified or
+changed into new species, or may give rise to new forms of life. The
+human body is, we are told, capable of transformation into a new or
+spiritual body, different in many important respects, and the future
+general prevalence of this change is an article of religious faith.
+The Bible represents the woman as produced from the man by a species
+of fission, not known to us as a natural possibility, except in some
+of the lower forms of life. The birth of the Saviour is represented as
+having been by parthenogenesis, and if it had pleased God that Jesus
+was to remain on earth as the progenitor of a new and higher type of
+man to replace that now existing, this might be regarded as the
+introduction of a new species. To what extent the Creator may have so
+acted on the constitution of organized beings as to produce changes of
+this kind we have no means of knowing; but if he have done so, we may
+be sure that it has been in accordance with some definite plan or law.
+
+5. We have a right to infer from Scripture that there must be some
+creative law which provides for the introduction of species, _de
+novo_, from unorganized matter, and which has been or is called into
+action by conditions as yet altogether unknown to us, and as yet
+inimitable, and therefore in some sense miraculous. Whether we shall
+ever by scientific investigation discover the law of this kind of
+divine intervention it is impossible to say. That all the theories of
+spontaneous generation and derivation hitherto promulgated are but
+wild guesses at it is but too evident.
+
+6. Since in inorganic nature we meet with such ultimate facts as atoms
+of different kinds and with different properties; and ether of
+non-atomic constitution, all of which seem to be necessary to the
+existence of the world as it is, we may expect in like manner to find
+at the basis of organic structures and phenomena varied kinds of
+ultimate organisms and forces, probably much more complicated than
+those of inorganic nature. The broad simplicity of existing theories
+of derivation and evolution is thus in itself a presumption against
+their truth, except as very partial explanations.
+
+7. We have no right to consider the species "after their kinds" of
+revelation as coincident with the species recognized by science. Many
+of these may be merely races, the production of which in the course of
+time and in special circumstances may fall within the powers of
+created species, and which may merely be the phases of such species in
+time and place. Only the accumulation of vast additional stores of
+facts can enable us to have any certain opinion on this point, and
+till it is settled the doctrine of derivation must remain purely
+hypothetical.
+
+8. The inference of evolutionists that because certain forms of life
+succeed each other in geological time, they must have been derived
+from each other, has an aspect of truth and simplicity; but the idea
+of law or plan in creation suggests that the link of connection may be
+of a less direct nature than mere descent with modification. This has
+been referred to under a previous head.
+
+9. In the scheme of revelation all the successions and changes of
+organized beings, just as much as their introduction at first, belong
+to the will and plan of God. Revelation opposes no obstacle to any
+scientific investigation of the nature and method of this plan, nor
+does it contemplate the idea that any discoveries of this kind in any
+way isolate the Creator from his works. Farther, inasmuch as God is
+always present in all his works, one part of his procedure can
+scarcely be considered an "intervention" any more than another.
+
+10. As an illustration of the hypothetical condition of this subject,
+and of the views which may be taken as to its details, I quote from a
+memoir of my own certain conclusions with reference to the origin of
+the species of land plants which are found in the older geological
+formations. The conclusions stated are at the end of a detailed
+consideration of these plants and the circumstances of their
+occurrence:
+
+"(1.) Some of the forms reckoned as specific in the Devonian and
+Carboniferous formations may be really derivative races. There are
+indications that such races may have originated in one or more of the
+following ways: (_a_) By a natural tendency in synthetic types to
+become specialized in the direction of one or other of their
+constituent elements. In this way such plants as _Arthrostigma_ and
+_Psilophyton_ may have assumed new varietal forms. (_b_) By embryonic
+retardation or acceleration,[151] whereby certain species may have had
+their maturity advanced or postponed, thus giving them various grades
+of perfection in reproduction and complexity of structure. The fact
+that so many Erian and Carboniferous plants seem to be on the confines
+of the groups of Acrogens and Gymnosperms may be supposed favorable
+to such exchanges. (_c_) The contraction and breaking up of floras
+which occurred in the Middle Erian and Lower Carboniferous may have
+been eminently favorable to the production of such varietal forms as
+would result from what has been called the 'struggle for existence.'
+(_d_) The elevation of a great expanse of new land at the close of the
+Middle Erian and the beginning of the Coal period would, by permitting
+the extension of series over wide areas and fertile soils, and by
+removing the pressure previously existing, be eminently favorable to
+the production of new, and especially of improved, varieties.
+
+"(2.) Whatever importance we may attach to the above supposed causes
+of change, we still require to account for the origin of our specific
+types. This may forever elude our observation, but we may at least
+hope to ascertain the external conditions favorable to their
+production. In order to attain even to this it will be necessary to
+inquire critically, with reference to every acknowledged species, what
+its claims to distinctness are, so that we may be enabled to
+distinguish specific types from mere varieties. Having attained to
+some certainty in this, we may be prepared to inquire whether the
+conditions favorable to the appearance of new varieties were also
+those favorable to the creation of new types, or the reverse--whether
+these conditions were those of compression or expansion, or to what
+extent the appearance of new types may be independent of any external
+conditions, other than those absolutely necessary for their existence.
+I am not without hope that the further study of fossil plants may
+enable us thus to approach to a comprehension of the laws of the
+creation, as distinguished from those of the continued existence of
+species.
+
+"In the present state of our knowledge we have no good ground either
+to limit the number of specific types beyond what a fair study of our
+material may warrant, or to infer that such primitive types must
+necessarily have been of low grade, or that progress in varietal forms
+has always been upward. The occurrence of such an advanced and
+specialized type as that of _Syringoxylon_ in the Middle Devonian
+should guard us against these errors. The creative process may have
+been applicable to the highest as well as to the lowest forms, and
+subsequent deviations must have included degradation as well as
+elevation. I can conceive nothing more unreasonable than the statement
+sometimes made that it is illogical or even absurd to suppose that
+highly organized beings could have been produced except by derivation
+from previously existing organisms. This is begging the whole question
+at issue, depriving science of a noble department of inquiry on which
+it has as yet barely entered, and anticipating by unwarranted
+assertions conclusions which may perhaps suddenly dawn upon us through
+the inspiration of some great intellect, or may for generations to
+come baffle the united exertions of all the earnest promoters of
+natural science. Our present attitude should not be that of
+dogmatists, but that of patient workers content to labor for a harvest
+of grand generalizations which may not come till we have passed away,
+but which, if we are earnest and true to nature and its Creator, may
+reward even some of us."[152]
+
+
+D.--PRESENT CONDITION OF THEORIES OF LIFE.
+
+One of the most learned and ingenious essays on this subject recently
+published[153] states on its first page that all the varieties of
+opinion may be summed up under two heads:
+
+"1. Those which require the addition to ordinary matter of an
+immaterial or spiritual essence, substance, or power, general or
+local, whose presence is the efficient cause of life; and,
+
+"2. Those which attribute the phenomena of life solely to the mode of
+combination of the ordinary material elements of which the organism is
+composed, without the addition of any such immaterial essence, power,
+or force."
+
+It is quite true that physiologists have up to this time argued out
+these two alternatives, and that at present the second is probably the
+more prevalent. It is however also true that neither includes or can
+possibly include the whole truth, and that enlightened theism may
+enable us to hold both, or all that is true in either. Undoubtedly we
+must hold that a higher spiritual power or Creator is necessary to the
+existence of life; but then this is necessary also to the existence of
+dead matter and force. So that if physiologists think proper to trace
+the whole phenomena of life to material causes, they do not on that
+account in any way invalidate the evidence for a spiritual Creator,
+nor for a spiritual element in the higher nature of man. Yet so
+inconceivably shallow is much of the biological reasoning of the day,
+that it is quite common to find physiologists referring all life to
+spontaneous and uncaused material agencies, because they have
+concluded that the arrangements of matter and force are sufficient to
+explain it; and, on the other hand, to find theistic writers accusing
+physiology of materialism, if it finds the causes of vital phenomena
+in material forces, as if God could be present only in those processes
+which we can not understand.
+
+What we really know as to the material basis of life may be summed up
+in a few words. Chemically, life is based on compounds of the
+albuminous group. These are highly complex in a molecular point of
+view, and seem to be formed in nature only where certain structures,
+those of the vegetable cell, exist under certain conditions. These
+albuminous substances do not necessarily possess vital properties.
+They may exist in a dead state just as other substances. Under certain
+conditions, however, those of forming part of a so-called living
+organism, they present phenomena of mechanical movement and molecular
+change, and of transformation or transmission of force, which enable
+them to transform themselves into various kinds of tissues, to nourish
+these when formed, and to establish a consensus of action between
+different parts of the organism; and these properties are vastly
+varied in detail according to the kind of organism in which they take
+place, and the conditions under which the organism exists. The
+actually living matter presents no distinct structure recognizable by
+the microscope, and can not be distinguished chemically from ordinary
+albumen or protoplasm; but when living it must either exist in some
+peculiar and complex molecular arrangement unknown as yet to chemistry
+and physics, or must be actuated by some force or form of force called
+vital, and not as yet isolated or reduced to known laws or
+correlation. It does not concern theism or theology which of these may
+eventually prove to be the true view, or if it should be found, which
+is quite possible, that there is no real difference between them. In
+any case it is certain that in the lower animals, and in the merely
+physiological properties of man himself, living matter may act
+independently of any higher spiritual nature in the individual, though
+of course not independently of the higher power of God, which gave
+matter its properties and sustains them in their action. It is farther
+certain that in man the spiritual nature dominates and controls the
+vital, except when under abnormal conditions the latter unduly gains
+the mastery, and quenches altogether the spirit. In the language of
+the Bible, the merely vital endowments of the man belong to the flesh
+([Greek: sarx]), and to the rational mind or soul ([Greek: psych�]).
+The higher nature which man derives directly from God is the spirit
+([Greek: pneuma]). Either of these parts of the complex humanity is
+capable of life ([Greek: z��]) and of immortality. Either of them is
+capable of being in a state of death, though the import of this
+differs in its application to each. In Genesis, the body is composed
+of the ordinary earth-materials--the "dust of the ground." The higher
+nature is seen in the "shadow and likeness of God," and in the
+inbreathing of the Divine Spirit whereby man became a "living soul" in
+a higher sense than that in which the animals possess the ordinary
+"breath of life." With these views agree the later doctrines of the
+Bible as to the "trichotomy" of "body, soul, and spirit" in man, and
+of the added influence of the Spirit of God as acting on humanity.
+
+
+E.--RECENT FACTS AS TO THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+Several recent statements as to new facts supposed to prove a
+preglacial antiquity for our species have been promulgated in
+scientific journals; but so great doubt rests upon them that they do
+not invalidate the statement that the earliest human remains belong to
+the postglacial age. I may refer to the following:
+
+A very remarkable discovery was made in 1875 by Professor Rutimeyer,
+of Basle. In a brown coal deposit of Tertiary, or at least of
+"interglacial" age--whatever that may mean in Switzerland--he found
+some fragments of wood so interlaced as to resemble wattle or
+basket-work. Steenstrup has, however, re-examined the evidence, and
+adduces strong reasons for the conclusion that the alleged human
+workmanship is really that of beavers.
+
+The Swedish geologists have shown that there is no properly
+Pal�olithic age in Scandinavia, and that even the reindeer had
+probably disappeared from Denmark and Sweden before their occupation
+by man. Some facts, however, seemed to indicate a residence of man in
+Sweden before the great post-pliocene subsidence. One of the most
+important of these is the celebrated hut of Sodertelge, referred to in
+this connection by Lyell. Recent observations have, however, shown
+that this hut was really covered by a landslip, and that its age may
+not be greater than eight centuries. Torel has recently explained this
+in the Proceedings of the Arch�ological Congress of Stockholm.
+
+The human bone found in the Victoria Cave at Settle, apparently under
+a patch of boulder-clay, has been regarded as a good evidence of the
+preglacial origin of man. It has, however, always appeared to readers
+of the description as a very doubtful case; and Professor Hughes, of
+Cambridge, has recently expressed the opinion that the drift covering
+the bone may be merely a "pocket" of that material disengaged from a
+cavity in the limestone by the wearing of the cliff.
+
+The same geologist has also shown reason to believe that the supposed
+case of the occurrence of pal�olithic implements under boulder-clay
+near Brandon, discovered by Mr. Skertchley, and paraded by Geikie as a
+demonstration of the "interglacial" antiquity of man, in accordance
+with his system of successive glacial periods, is really an error, and
+has no foundation in the facts of the case.
+
+Mr. Pengelly has endeavored to maintain the value of the deposit of
+stalagmite as a means of establishing dates, in his "Notes of Recent
+Notices of the Geology of Devonshire," Part I., 1874; but, I confess,
+with little success. He urges, in opposition to the Ingleborough Cave,
+that at Cheddar, where, according to him, no appreciable deposit
+whatever is taking place on the existing stalagmite. But this, of
+course, is evidence not applicable to the case in hand, as in the
+Cheddar case no stalagmite crust whatever would be produced. There
+are, no doubt, crevices and caves in which old stalagmite is even
+being removed or diminished in thickness. He farther asserts that in
+Kent's Cave teeth of the cave bear and other extinct animals are found
+covered by not more than an inch and a half of stalagmite, and
+consequently that if this were deposited at the rate of a quarter of
+an inch per annum--the supposed rate on the "Jockey Cap" at
+Ingleborough--these animals must have lived in Devonshire only six
+years ago, which is, of course, absurd. But he fails to perceive that
+this mode of occurrence is quite intelligible on the supposition of a
+rapid decrease in the amount of deposition in the later part of the
+stalagmite period. He farther refers to the fact that the thicker
+masses of stalagmite, which correspond to the places of more active
+drip of water, are in the same position in both crusts of stalagmite.
+This shows that the sources of water containing bicarbonate of lime
+have been the same from the first; but it proves nothing as to the
+rate of deposit.
+
+Mr. Pengelly's own estimate of the rate of deposit gives, however, a
+length of time which is sufficient to show that there must be error
+somewhere in his calculations. He states the aggregate thickness of
+the two crusts at twelve feet, and then, assuming a rate of deposit of
+0.05 inch in 250 years, or one inch in 5000 years, he arrives at the
+conclusion that the whole deposit required 720,000 years for its
+formation. He is "willing to suppose" the mechanical deposits to have
+accumulated more rapidly; but allowing one fourth of the time for
+them, we have nearly a million of years claimed for the residence of
+man in Devonshire, which, independently of other considerations, would
+push back the Pal�ozoic trilobites and corals of that county into the
+primitive reign of fire, and which in point of fact amounts to a
+_reductio ad absurdum_ of the whole argument.
+
+Professor Hughes[154] refers, as a case of rapid deposition of matter
+akin to stalagmite, to the deposit of travertine in the old Roman
+aqueduct of the Pont du Gard, near Avignon, where a thickness of
+fourteen inches seems to have accumulated in about 800 years. Mr. J.
+Carey has given in _Nature_, December 18, 1873, another instance where
+a deposit 0.75 inch thick was formed in fifteen years in a lead mine
+in Durham. Mr. W. B. Clarke in the same journal gives a case where in
+a cave at Brixton, known as Poole's Hole, a deposit one eighth of an
+inch in thickness was formed in six months. Such examples show how
+unsafe it is to reason as to the rate of deposit in by-gone times, and
+when climatal and local conditions may have been very different from
+those at present subsisting.
+
+In an able address before the biological section of the British
+Association in 1876, Wallace adduces the following considerations as
+bearing on these questions; and these are well worthy of attention as
+showing that it is the necessities of evolution rather than of
+geological facts that demand the assumption of a great antiquity for
+man, and induce so many writers to accept any evidence for this,
+however doubtful: (1) The great cerebral development of the so-called
+Pal�olithic men, which shows no indications of graduating into
+inferior races. (2) The great variety of the implements of these
+ancient men, and the excellence of their carvings on bone and ivory,
+point to a similar conclusion. (3) Man is not related to any existing
+species of ape, but in various ways to several different species. (4)
+There is an accumulation of evidence to show that the earliest
+historical races excelled in many processes in the arts and in many
+kinds of culture. He instances the wonderful mechanical and
+engineering skill evidenced in the pyramids of Egypt in proof of this.
+His conclusion is either that the origin of man by development from
+apes must be pushed much farther back than any geologists at present
+hold, and I may add far beyond any probable date, or that he must have
+originated by some "distinct and higher agency"--which last is no
+doubt the true conclusion.
+
+Haeckel, in his recent work, the "History of Creation," sketches the
+development of man from a monad, in twenty-two stages; but he has to
+admit that stage twenty-first, or that of the "Ape-like man," nowhere
+exists, either recent or fossil. He has to assume that this missing
+link has perished in the submergence of an imaginary continent of
+Lemuria, in the Indian Ocean; and it is instructive to observe that,
+after deducting this, his affiliation of the races of men, as
+indicated in a map of the distribution of the species, is in the main
+very similar to that with which we are familiar in ordinary
+collections of maps illustrative of the Bible.
+
+The Post-glacial, Pal�ocosmic, or Pal�olithic men of Europe are not
+improbably antediluvian; and as to their precise date we know little.
+As to postdiluvian man, Canon Rawlinson has recently pointed out[155]
+the remarkable convergence of all historic dates toward a time between
+2000 to 3000 years B.C., or about the date of the Biblical deluge,
+which may reasonably be inferred to have occurred about 3200 B.C. He
+gives the following summary of historical origins as ascertained from
+the best data, and which accord with the representation of the Bible
+that in the time of Abraham the great monarchies of Egypt and the East
+were scarcely more powerful than the nomad tribe led by that
+patriarch:
+
+  Oldest date of Babylon       2300 B.C.
+    "     "      Assyria       1500
+    "     "      Iran          1500
+    "     "      India         1200
+    "     "      China         1154
+    "     "      Phoenicia   1700
+    "     "      Troad         2000
+    "     "      Egypt         2760
+  Sept. date of Deluge         3200
+
+He rejects, of course, the fabulous chronologies of Egypt, China, and
+India as mythical, or referring to prehuman and antediluvian periods.
+It is to be observed that while these dates place the origins of the
+oldest civilized nations at periods considerably subsequent to the
+deluge, they do not prevent us from supposing that these nations
+commenced their existence wills an advanced civilization borrowed from
+antediluvian times, which is indeed a fair conclusion from the
+Biblical history, independently of the monumental evidence referred to
+by Wallace in a previous paragraph.
+
+The Duke of Argyll, in his excellent little work "Primeval Man," in
+which he discusses the arguments in favor of primitive savagery
+advanced by Sir J. Lubbock in opposition to the views of Archbishop
+Whately in his lecture on the "Origin of Civilization," shows that
+there is no necessity to suppose a slow progress of mankind in the
+arts extending over indefinite ages; and his argument in this respect
+connects itself with the facts as to the high cerebral organization of
+Pal�ocosmic men referred to above by Wallace. In summing up one
+division of his argument, he truly remarks: "If we assume with the
+supporters of the savage-theory that man has himself invented all that
+he now knows, then the very earliest inventions of our race must have
+been the most wonderful of all, and the richest in the fruits they
+bore. The man who first discovered the use of fire, and the use of
+those grasses which we now know under the name of corn, were
+discoverers compared with whom, as regards the value of their ideas to
+the world, Faraday and Wheatstone are but the inventors of ingenious
+toys. It may possibly be true, as Whately argues, that man never could
+have discovered these things without divine instruction. If so, it is
+fatal to the savage theory. But it is equally fatal to that theory if
+we assume the opposite position, and suppose that the noblest
+discoveries ever made by man were made by him in primeval times."
+
+I may add that this is true, however far into antiquity we may stretch
+back these primeval times.
+
+Professor E. S. Morse, in his address to the American Association, in
+1876, as vice-president, takes as a theme the contributions of
+American zoologists to theories of evolution, and closes with those
+which refer to what he modestly terms "man's lowly origin." These
+contributions he sums up under three heads, as bearing on the
+following points: "1. That in his earlier stages he reveals certain
+persistent characters of the ape; 2. That the more ancient men reveal
+more ape-like features than the present existing men; and, 3. That
+certain characteristics pertaining to early men still persist in the
+inferior races of men." Under the first head he gives contributions to
+the well-known fact that embryonic stages of the human being, like
+those of other high types, approximate to forms permanent in lower
+types. This is a fact inseparable from the law of reproduction; and as
+has been already shown in the text, absolutely without logical
+significance as even an analogical argument in favor of evolution.
+Under the second and third heads, he refers to cases of exceptional
+skulls and bones belonging to idiots and degraded races of men, as
+showing tendencies to lower forms, which as a matter of course they
+do, though with essential differences still marking them as human; and
+he assumes without any proof that these were relatively more common in
+primitive times, and that they are cases of reversion to a previous
+simian stage, instead of being results of abnormal conditions in the
+individual or variety. He sums up these arguments in the following
+paragraph:
+
+"If we take into account the rapidly accumulating data of European
+naturalists concerning primitive man, with the mass of evidence
+presented in these notes, we find an array of facts which irresistibly
+point to a common origin with animals directly below us, and these
+evidences are found in the massive skulls with coarse ridges for
+muscular attachments, the rounding of the base of the nostrils, the
+early ossification of the nasal bones, the small cranial capacity in
+certain forms, the prominence of the frontal crest, the posterior
+position of the _foramen magnum_, the approximation of the temporal
+ridges, the lateral flattening of the tibia, the perforation of the
+humerus, the tendency of the pelvis to depart from its usual
+proportions; and, associated with all these, a rudeness of culture and
+the evidence of the manifestation of the coarsest instincts. He must
+be blind, indeed, who can not recognize the bearing of such grave and
+suggestive modifications."
+
+Yet Professor Morse knows that there is no true specific or even
+generic kinship between man and any species of ape; that the phenomena
+of idiocy and degeneracy have no real resemblance to those of distinct
+specific types; that the resemblances of man to apes, such as they
+are, point not in a direct manner to any stock of apes, but in a
+desultory way to several; and consequently that, if derived from any
+such animals, it must be from some stock altogether unknown to us as
+yet, either among recent or fossil animals. Farther, as Cope, himself
+an evolutionist, admits, while we can trace the skeletons of Eocene
+mammals through several directions of specialization in succeeding
+Tertiary times, man presents the phenomenon of an unspecialized
+skeleton which can not fairly be connected with any of these lines.
+Lastly, his quotation from Fiske, with reference to the supposed
+effect of a protracted infancy to develop the moral characteristics of
+man, though accompanied with the usual unfair and unreasonable sneer
+(which a naturalist like Morse should have been ashamed to quote)
+against men "still capable of believing that the human race was
+created by miracle in a single day," is the feeblest possible attempt
+to bridge over the gap between the spiritual nature of man and the
+merely psychical nature of brutes.
+
+It is plain that if American naturalists have done nothing more in
+favor of the lowly origin of man than that which Professor Morse has
+been able, evidently with much industry and pains, to gather, we need
+not for the present abandon our claims to a higher origin. It is
+farther significant in connection with this that Professor Huxley, in
+his lectures in New York, while resting his case as to the lower
+animals mainly on the supposed genealogy of the horse, which has often
+been shown to amount to no certain evidence,[156] avoided altogether
+the discussion of the origin of man from apes, now obviously
+complicated with so many difficulties that both Wallace and Mivart
+are staggered by them. Professor Thomas, in his recent lectures,[157]
+admits that there is no lower man known than the Australian, and that
+there is no known link of connection with the monkeys; and
+Haeckel[158] has to admit that the penultimate link in his phylogeny,
+the ape-like man, is absolutely unknown.
+
+In Chapter XIII. I have not touched on the question of the absolute
+origin of language--this not being necessary to my argument. On this
+interesting subject, however, we have, in the naming of the animals by
+the first man, recorded in the second chapter of Genesis, not only the
+primary truth of his superiority to them, but a farther indication
+that the roots of human speech, other than interjectional, lie in
+onomatopoeia, and especially in the voices of animals, and that the
+gift of speech was not the slow growth of ages, but an endowment of
+man from the first, just as much as any of his other powers or
+properties. An interesting discussion of this subject will be found in
+the concluding chapters of Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," second edition.
+Farther, the so-called "tallies" found with the bones of Pal�ocosmic
+men in European caves, and illustrated in the admirable work of
+Christy and Lartet, show that the rudiments even of writing were
+already in possession of the oldest race of men known to arch�ology or
+geology. (See Wilson, _op. cit._, vol. ii., p. 54.)
+
+I have not noticed, except incidentally, the alleged discoveries of
+very ancient human remains in America, as they all appear very
+problematical. There is, however, some evidence of the coexistence of
+man with the mastodon and other postglacial animals in Illinois and
+elsewhere.
+
+
+F.--BEARING OF GLACIAL PERIODS UPON THE INTERPRETATION OF
+GENESIS.
+
+Whatever views may be taken as to that period of cold which occurs at
+the close of the Tertiary and beginning of the Modern period, it can
+not be held to have constituted any such break as to be considered, as
+it was at one time, an equivalent for the Biblical chaos. This is
+proved by the survival through this period of a very large proportion
+of the animals and plants still existing in the northern hemisphere.
+The chronological system of animals and plants has been continuous, as
+the Bible represents it, since their first appearance on earth.
+
+It is further remarkable that while there is geological evidence of
+climates colder than the present in the temperate regions, there is
+equally good proof of warmer climates even within the arctic circle
+than those of the cold temperate regions at present. It is difficult
+to account for these vicissitudes of climate, and much controversy
+exists on the subject; but it seems certain that in the earlier
+Tertiary and Cretaceous periods, for example, the supplies of heat and
+light were so diffused over the earth as to permit the growth of a
+temperate vegetation in Greenland, and even in Spitzbergen.
+Geologists, however unwillingly, have been obliged to admit this as
+one of those great possibilities, altogether unexpected beforehand,
+which have been developed in the history of our planet. Various modes
+of explaining this succession of cold and warm periods have been
+adopted, all more or less hypothetical. Lyell has argued that it may
+be explained by a different distribution of land and water and of the
+ocean currents. Croll accounts for it by the varying eccentricity of
+the earth's orbit, in connection with the precession of the equinoxes.
+Evans by a shifting of the axis of rotation of the earth. Drayson,
+Bell, Warring, and others, by a change in the inclination of the
+earth's axis. Others by the secular diminution of the internal heat of
+the earth, and of that of the sun. Others by the supposed recurrence
+of periods in which the sun gives more or less heat, or in which the
+earth is passing through colder or warmer regions of space. As the
+subject is of interest with reference to possible correspondences of
+these great summers and winters of the earth with the stages of the
+creative work, it may be well to notice shortly the relative merits of
+these theories.
+
+(1.) The hypothesis of Croll is one of the most ingenious and
+elaborate of the whole; but it has two great defects. One is that the
+causes alleged are so uncertain and so complicated that it is
+difficult to estimate their real value. Another is that it proves too
+much, namely, a regular succession of cold and warm periods throughout
+geological time, of which we have no good evidence, and which is on
+many grounds improbable.
+
+(2.) That the earth's axis of rotation has continued unchanged
+throughout the whole of the geological ages seems proved by the fact
+that the principal lines of crumpling and upheaval from the Laurentian
+period downward are arranged in great circles of the earth tangent to
+the polar circle; and that the lines of deposit of sediment in the
+Pal�ozoic age are coincident with the present direction of the arctic
+currents.
+
+(3.) Astronomers consider it improbable that the obliquity of the
+ecliptic has materially changed, and serious differences of opinion
+exist as to the effects which a greater or less obliquity would
+produce on climate. It seems certain, however, that a less obliquity
+would occasion a more uniform distribution of heat and light
+throughout the year; and this, co-operating with other causes leading
+to a warm climate, might enable a temperate vegetation to approach the
+pole more closely than at present.
+
+(4.) That the energy of the sun's radiation and the internal heat of
+the earth have been slowly decreasing seems certain; but it is now
+generally admitted that these changes are so gradual that little
+effect can have been produced by them, except in the older geological
+periods, and that they can have no connection with the great glacial
+period of the Post-pliocene.
+
+(5.) It is otherwise with the hypothesis that the sun's heat may, like
+that of some variable stars, have increased and diminished. There is,
+of course, no direct evidence of this, except the small differences
+observed in cycles of eleven and fifty-five years from the greater or
+less development of sunspots, and the analogy of observed variable
+stars. Still it is a possible cause of variations of climate. It might
+also aid in accounting for the extraordinary evidences of desert
+conditions and desiccation presented by the salt deposits of different
+geological periods in temperate latitudes.
+
+(6.) The theory of the passage of the earth through zones of space of
+variable temperature is now generally abandoned, as there seems no
+reason to believe that such differences exist.
+
+(7.) The theory of Lyell that changes in the distribution of land and
+water may, with the possible co-operation of other causes, have
+produced the observed diversities of climate, is that which seems best
+to meet the conditions presented. It is based on the known properties
+of land and water as to the absorption, radiation, and convection of
+heat, and on the remarkable diversities of climate in similar
+latitudes arising from this cause at present. Farther, it accords with
+the known fact that very great changes of level have occurred in
+connection with the glacial period. This theory undoubtedly embraces a
+true cause, admitted by all geologists, and it dispenses with the
+necessity of believing in the recurrence of glacial periods at regular
+intervals. It farther accords best with the evidence afforded by
+fossils, and especially by fossil plants. It has also the merit of
+directing due attention to the diversities of geographical conditions
+at different periods, and of dealing with causes of change operating
+within the earth itself. The only doubt with respect to it is its
+sufficiency to explain the changes which have occurred, and the view
+entertained of this will depend very much on the interpretation of the
+facts as to the intensity of the last glacial period. If moderate
+views can be taken of this, and if means can be found, by a less
+obliquity of the ecliptic or otherwise, to furnish a continuous supply
+of light in the arctic regions, the difficulties which have been
+alleged against it would disappear.
+
+(8.) In connection with former periods of cold and warmth, and with
+the existence of temperate and tropical vegetation in polar latitudes,
+we should not forget that view which takes into account the probable
+effects of different conditions of the atmosphere, and the greater
+quantity of carbonic acid present in it, in early geological periods.
+This would, of course, best apply to the pal�ozoic floras, in so far
+as our present knowledge extends; but there may have been similar
+conditions in later periods. Dr. Sterry Hunt thus states this
+hypothesis:
+
+"The agency of plants in purifying the primitive atmosphere was long
+since pointed out by Brongniart, and our great stores of fossil fuel
+have been derived from the decomposition, by the ancient vegetation,
+of the excess of carbonic acid of the early atmosphere, which through
+this agency was exchanged for oxygen gas. In this connection the
+vegetation of former periods presents the curious phenomenon of plants
+allied to those now growing beneath the tropics flourishing within the
+polar circles. Many ingenious hypotheses have been proposed to account
+for the warmer climate of earlier times, but are at best
+unsatisfactory, and it appears to me that the true solution of the
+problem may be found in the constitution of the early atmosphere, when
+considered in the light of Dr. Tyndall's beautiful researches on
+radiant heat. He has found that the presence of a few hundredths of
+carbonic-acid gas in the atmosphere, while offering almost no obstacle
+to the passage of the solar rays, would suffice to prevent almost
+entirely the loss by radiation of obscure heat, so that the surface of
+the land beneath such an atmosphere would become like a vast
+orchard-house, in which the conditions of climate necessary to a
+luxuriant vegetation would be extended even to the polar regions."
+
+It is obvious that, in the production of complex effects of this kind,
+various causes, whether astronomical or connected with the mutations
+of the earth's crust, may have co-operated, and probably in all
+extreme cases did co-operate.
+
+In any case it is evident that the vicissitudes of climate and the
+great pulsations of the crust, which have raised and depressed
+portions of the surface and changed the position of its covering of
+waters, have been potent agents in the hands of the Creator in
+effecting the changes and succession of living beings, which are thus,
+as Genesis intimates, children of the waters and of the land, and of
+the influences of the heavens. It is also interesting in this
+connection to observe that the occurrence of such periods of general
+warm climate as that in the Miocene shows that it would have been
+possible for man, under certain conditions, to have extended himself
+far more widely in his Edenic state than we can conceive of in the
+present condition of the earth. The modern world is perhaps even in
+this way "cursed" for man's sake.
+
+
+G.--DR. STERRY HUNT ON THE CHEMISTRY OF THE PRIMEVAL EARTH.
+
+On looking back to the reference to this subject in Chapter V., I
+think it may be desirable to present to the reader in some more
+definite manner the conditions of a forming world; and I can not do
+this in any other way so well as by quoting the words of Dr. Sterry
+Hunt, as given in the abstract of his lecture on this subject
+delivered before the Royal Institution of London in 1867:
+
+"This hypothesis of the nature of the sun and of the luminous process
+going on at its surface is the one lately put forward by Faye, and,
+although it has met with opposition, appears to be that which accords
+best with our present knowledge of the chemical and physical
+conditions of matter, such as we must suppose it to exist in the
+condensing gaseous mass which, according to the nebular hypothesis,
+should form the centre of our solar system. Taking this, as we have
+already done, for granted, it matters little whether we imagine the
+different planets to have been successively detached as rings during
+the rotation of the primal mass, as is generally conceived, or whether
+we admit with Chacornac a process of aggregation or concretion,
+operating within the primal nebular mass, resulting in the production
+of sun and planets. In either case we come to the conclusion that our
+earth must at one time have been in an intensely heated gaseous
+condition, such as the sun now presents, self-luminous, and with a
+process of condensation going on at first at the surface only, until
+by cooling it must have reached the point where the gaseous centre
+was exchanged for one of combined and liquefied matter.
+
+"Here commences the chemistry of the earth, to the discussion of which
+the foregoing considerations have been only preliminary. So long as
+the gaseous condition of the earth lasted, we may suppose the whole
+mass to have been homogeneous; but when the temperature became so
+reduced that the existence of chemical compounds at the centre became
+possible, those which were most stable at the elevated temperature
+then prevailing would be first formed. Thus, for example, while
+compounds of oxygen with mercury or even with hydrogen could not
+exist, oxides of silicon, aluminium, calcium, magnesium, and iron
+might be formed and condense in a liquid form at the centre of the
+globe. By progressive cooling, still other elements would be removed
+from the gaseous mass, which would form the atmosphere of the
+non-gaseous nucleus. We may suppose an arrangement of the condensed
+matters at the centre according to their respective specific
+gravities, and thus the fact that the density of the earth as a whole
+is about twice the mean density of the matters which form its solid
+surface may be explained. Metallic or metalloidal compounds of
+elements, grouped differently from any compounds known to us, and far
+more dense, may exist in the centre of the earth.
+
+"The process of combination and cooling having gone on until those
+elements which are not volatile in the heat of our ordinary furnaces
+were condensed into a liquid form, we may here inquire what would be
+the result, upon the mass, of a further reduction of temperature. It
+is generally assumed that in the cooling of a liquid globe of mineral
+matter, congelation would commence at the surface, as in the case of
+water; but water offers an exception to most other liquids, inasmuch
+as it is denser in the liquid than in the solid form. Hence ice floats
+on water, and freezing water becomes covered with a layer of ice,
+which protects the liquid below. With most other matters, however,
+and notably with the various mineral and earthy compounds analogous to
+those which may be supposed to have formed the fiery-fluid earth,
+numerous and careful experiments show that the products of
+solidification are much denser than the liquid mass; so that
+solidification would have commenced at the centre, whose temperature
+would thus be the congealing point of these liquid compounds. The
+important researches of Hopkins and Fairbairn on the influence of
+pressure in augmenting the melting-point of such compounds as contract
+in solidifying are to be considered in this connection.
+
+"It is with the superficial portions of the fused mineral mass of the
+globe that we have now to do; since there is no good reason for
+supposing that the deeply seated portions have intervened in any
+direct manner in the production of the rocks which form the
+superficial crust. This, at the time of its first solidification,
+presented probably an irregular, diversified surface from the result
+of contraction of the congealing mass, which at last formed a liquid
+bath of no great depth surrounding the solid nucleus. It is to the
+composition of this crust that we must direct our attention, since
+therein would be found all the elements (with the exception of such as
+were still in the gaseous form) now met with in the known rocks of the
+earth. This crust is now everywhere buried beneath its own ruins, and
+we can only from chemical considerations attempt to reconstruct it. If
+we consider the conditions through which it has passed, and the
+chemical affinities which must have come into play, we shall see that
+these are just what would now result if the solid land, sea, and air
+were made to react upon each other under the influence of intense
+heat. To the chemist it is at once evident that from this would result
+the conversion of all carbonates, chlorides, and sulphates into
+silicates, and the separation of the carbon, chlorine, and sulphur in
+the form of acid gases, which, with nitrogen, watery vapor, and a
+probable excess of oxygen, would form the dense primeval atmosphere.
+The resulting fused mass would contain all the bases as silicates, and
+must have much resembled in composition certain furnace-slags or
+volcanic glasses. The atmosphere, charged with acid gases, which
+surrounded this primitive rock must have been of immense density.
+Under the pressure of such a high barometric column, condensation
+would take place at a temperature much above the present boiling-point
+of water, and the depressed portions of the half-cooled crust would be
+flooded with a highly heated solution of hydrochloric acid, whose
+action in decomposing the silicates is easily intelligible to the
+chemist. The formation of chlorides of the various bases, and the
+separation of silica, would go on until the affinities of the acid
+were satisfied, and there would be a separation of silica, taking the
+form of quartz, and the production of a sea-water holding in solution,
+besides the chlorides of sodium, calcium, and magnesium, salts of
+aluminium and other metallic bases. The atmosphere, being thus
+deprived of its volatile chlorine and sulphur compounds, would
+approximate to that of our own time, but differ in its greater amount
+of carbonic acid.
+
+"We next enter into the second phase in the action of the atmosphere
+upon the earth's crust. This, unlike the first, which was subaqueous,
+or operative only on the portion covered with the precipitated water,
+is sub-aerial, and consists in the decomposition of the exposed parts
+of the primitive crust under the influence of the carbonic acid and
+moisture of the air, which convert the complex silicates of the crust
+into a silicate of alumina, or clay, while the separated lime,
+magnesia, and alkalies, being converted into carbonates, are carried
+down into the sea in a state of solution.
+
+"The first effect of these dissolved carbonates would be to
+precipitate the dissolved alumina and the heavy metals, after which
+would result a decomposition of the chloride of calcium of the
+sea-water, resulting in the production of carbonate of lime or
+limestone, and chloride of sodium or common salt. This process is one
+still going on at the earth's surface, slowly breaking down and
+destroying the hardest rocks, and, aided by mechanical processes,
+transforming them into clays; although the action, from the
+comparative rarity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, is less
+energetic than in earlier times, when the abundance of this gas, and a
+higher temperature, favored the chemical decomposition of the rocks.
+But now, as then, every clod of clay formed from the decay of a
+crystalline rock corresponded to an equivalent of carbonic acid
+abstracted from the atmosphere, and equivalents of carbonate of lime
+and common salt formed from the chloride of calcium of the
+sea-water."[159]
+
+
+H.--TANNIN AND BHEMAH.
+
+The following synopsis of the instances of the occurrence of the words
+_tannin_ and _tan_ will serve to show the propriety of the meaning,
+"great reptiles," assigned in the text to the former, as well as to
+illustrate the utility in such cases of "comparing Scripture with
+Scripture:"
+
+                            1. TANNIN.
+
+  Exod. vii., 9.--Take thy rod and  Probably a serpent, though perhaps
+  cast it before Pharaoh, and it a  crocodile.
+  shall become a _serpent_.         (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+
+  Deut. xxxii., 33.--Their vine is  Probably a species of serpent.
+  the poison of _dragons_.          (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+
+  Job vii., 12.--Am I a sea, or a   Michaelis and others think,
+  _whale_, that thou settest a      probably correctly, that the Nile
+  watch over me.                    and the crocodile, both objects of
+                                    vigilance to the Egyptians, are
+                                    intended.
+                                    (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+
+  Psa. lxxiv., 14.--Thou didst      Evidently refers to the destruction
+  divide the sea by thy strength.   of the Egyptians in the Red
+  Thou breakest the heads of the    Sea, under emblem of the crocodile.
+  _dragons_ in the waters.          (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+
+  Psa. xci., 13.--The young lion    The association shows that a
+  and the _dragon_ thou shalt       powerful carnivorous animal is
+  trample under foot.               meant.
+                                    (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+
+  Psa. cxlviii., 7.--Praise the     Evidently an aquatic creature.
+  Lord, ye _dragons_ and all deeps. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+
+  Isa. xxvii., 1.--He shall slay    A large predaceous aquatic animal
+  the _dragon_ in the midst of the  (the crocodile), used here as
+  sea [river].                      an emblem of Egypt.
+                                    (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+
+  Isa. li., 9.--Hath cut Rahab and  Same as above.
+  wounded the _dragon_.
+
+  Jer. li., 34.--[Nebuchadnezzar]   A large predaceous animal.
+  hath swallowed me up as a         (Septuagint, [Greek: "drak�n."])
+  _dragon_.
+
+  Ezek. xxix., 3.--Pharaoh, king    In the Hebrew _tanim_ appears by
+  of Egypt, the great _dragon_      mistake for _tannin_. This is
+  that lieth in the rivers.         clearly the crocodile of the Nile.
+                                    Verses 4 and 5 show that it is a
+                                    large aquatic animal with _scales_.
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "drak�n."])
+
+                            2. TAN.
+
+  Psa. xliv., 19.--Thou hast sore   Some understand this of shipwreck;
+  broken us in the place of         but, more probably, the
+  _dragons_.                        place of dragons is the desert.
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "kak�sis."])
+
+  Isa. xxxiv., 13.--[Bozrah in      An animal inhabiting ruins, and
+  Idumea] shall be a habitation of  associated with the ostrich.
+  _dragons_ and a court of owls [or (Septuagint, [Greek: "seir�n."])
+  ostriches].
+
+  Isa. xliii., 20.--The wild        Evidently an animal of the dry
+  beasts shall honor me,            deserts.
+  the _dragons_ and the ostriches,  (Septuagint, [Greek: "seir�n."])
+  because I give water in the
+  wilderness.
+
+  Isa. xiii., 22.--Dragons in       Represented as inhabiting the
+  their pleasant palaces.           ruins of Babylon, and associated
+                                    with wild beasts of the desert.
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "xchinos."])
+
+  Isa. xxxv., 7.--And the parched   An animal making its lair or nest
+  ground shall become a pool, and   in dry, parched places.
+  the thirsty land springs of       (Septuagint, [Greek: "hornis."])
+  water; in the habitation of
+  _dragons_, where each lay, shall
+  be grass with reeds and rushes.
+
+  Job xxx., 29.--I am a brother of  The association indicates an animal
+  _dragons_ and a companion of      of the desert, and the context
+  ostriches.                        that its cry is mournful.
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "seir�n."])
+
+  Jer. ix., 11; x., 22.--I will     Same as above. See also Jeremiah
+  make Jerusalem heaps, a den of    xlix., 33; li., 37; and Mal. i., 3,
+  _dragons_.                        where the word is in the female
+                                    form (_tanoth_).
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "drak�n"] and
+                                    [Greek: "strouthos."])
+
+  Lam. iv., 3.--Even the            In the Hebrew text the word is
+  _sea-monsters_ draw out the       _tannin_, evidently an error for
+  breast, they give suck to their   _tanim_. The suckling of young, and
+  young ones. The daughter of my    association of ostriches, agree with
+  people is become cruel, like      this. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+  the ostriches in the wilderness.
+
+  Micah i., 8.--I will make a       The wailing cry accords with the
+  wailing like the _dragons_, and   view of Gesenius that the jackal is
+  mourning like the owls            meant.
+  [ostriches].                      (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak�n].")
+
+We learn from the above comparative view that the _tannin_ is an
+aquatic animal of large size, and predaceous, clothed with scales, and
+a fit emblem of the monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. In two places it
+is possible that some species of serpent is denoted by it. We must
+suppose, therefore, that in Genesis i. it denotes large crocodilian
+and perhaps serpentiform reptiles. The _tan_ is evidently a small
+mammal of the desert.
+
+I omitted to notice in the text a criticism of my explanation of the
+word _bhemah_ in "Archaia," made in Archdeacon Pratt's "Scripture and
+Science not at Variance" (edition of 1872). He opposes to the meaning
+of "herbivorous animals" which I have sought to establish, two
+exceptional passages. In one of these, Deut. xxviii., 26, the word is
+used in its most general sense for all beasts, which the context shows
+can not be its meaning in Gen. i. In the other, Prov. xxx., 30, he
+says it is applied to the lion. The actual expression used, however,
+merely implies that the lion is "mighty among _bhemah_," the
+comparison being probably between the strength of the lion and that of
+oxen, antelopes, and other strong and active creatures. It does not
+affirm that the lion is one of the _bhemah_. While I have every
+respect for the erudition of Archdeacon Pratt, and highly value his
+book, I must regard this objection as an example of a style of
+biblical exposition much to be deprecated, though too often employed.
+
+
+I.--ANCIENT MYTHOLOGIES.
+
+The current views respecting the relations of ancient mythologies with
+each other and with the Bible have been continually shifting and
+oscillating between extremes. The latest and at present most popular
+of these extreme views is that so well expounded by Dr. Max M�ller in
+his various essays on these subjects, and which traces at least the
+Indo-European theogony to a mere personification of natural objects.
+The views given in the text are those which to the author appear alone
+compatible with the Bible, and with the relations of Semitic and Aryan
+theology; but, as the subject is generally regarded from a quite
+different point of view, a little further explanation may be
+necessary.
+
+1. According to the Bible, spiritual monotheism is the primitive faith
+of man, and with this it ranks the doctrine of a malignant spirit or
+being opposed to God, and of a primitive state of perfection and
+happiness. It is scarcely necessary to say that these doctrines may be
+found as sub-strata in all the ancient theologies.
+
+2. In the Hebrew theology the fall introduces the new doctrine of a
+mediator or deliverer, human and divine, and an external symbolism,
+that of the cherubic forms, composite figures made up of parts of the
+man, the lion, the ox, and the eagle. These forms are referred back to
+Eden, where they are manifestly the emblems of the perfections of the
+Deity, lost to man by the fall, and now opposed to his entrance into
+Eden and access to the tree of life, the symbol of his immortal
+happiness. Subsequently the cherubim are the visible indications of
+the presence of God in the tabernacle and temple; and in the
+Apocalypse they reappear as emblems of the Divine perfections, as
+reflected in the character of man redeemed. The cherubim, as guardians
+of the sacred tree, and of sacred places in general, appear in the
+worship of the Assyrians and Egyptians, as the winged lions and bulls
+of the former, and the sphinx of the latter. They can also be
+recognized in the sepulchral monuments of Greek Asia and of Etruria.
+Farther, it was evidently an easy step to proceed from these cherubic
+figures to the adoration of sacred animals. But the cherubic emblems
+were connected with the idea of a coming Redeemer, and this was with
+equal ease perverted into hero-worship. Every great conqueror,
+inventor, or reformer was thus recognized as in some sense the "coming
+man," just as Eve supposed she saw him in her first-born. In addition
+to this, the sacredness of the first mother as the mother of the
+promised seed of the woman, led to the introduction of female deities.
+
+3. The earliest ecclesiastical system was the patriarchal, and this
+also admitted of corruption into idolatry. The great patriarch,
+venerable by age and wisdom, when he left this earth for the spirit
+world, was supposed there, in the presence of God, to be the special
+guardian of his children on earth. Some of the gods of Egypt and of
+Greece were obviously of this character, and in China and Polynesia we
+see at this day this kind of idolatry in a condition of active
+vitality.
+
+4. As stated in the text, the mythology of Egypt and Greece bears
+evident marks of having personified certain cosmological facts akin to
+those of the Hebrew narrative of creation. In this way ancient
+idolators disposed of the prehistoric and pre-Adamite world, changing
+it into a period of gods and demigods. This is very apparent in the
+remarkable Assyrian Genesis recovered by the late George Smith from
+the clay tablets found in the ruined palace of Assurbanipal.
+
+5. In all rude and imaginative nations, which have lost the distinct
+idea of the one God, the Creator, nature becomes more or less a
+source of superstitions. Its grand and more rare phenomena of
+volcanoes, earthquakes, thunder-storms, eclipses, become supernatural
+portents; and as the idea of power associates itself with them, they
+are personified as actual agents and become gods. In like manner, the
+more constant and useful objects and processes of nature become
+personified as beneficent deities. This may be, to a great extent, the
+character of the Aryan theology; but, except where all ideas of
+primitive religion and traditions of early history have been lost, it
+can not be the whole of the religion of any people. The Bible
+negatively recognizes this source of idolatry, in so constantly
+referring all natural phenomena to the divine decree. In connection
+with this, it is worthy of remark that rude man tends to venerate the
+new animal forms of strange lands. Something of this kind has probably
+led some of the American Indians to give a sort of divine honor to the
+bear. It was in Egypt that man first became familiar with the strange
+and gigantic fauna of Africa, whose effect on his mind in primitive
+times we may gather from the book of Job. In Egypt, consequently,
+there must have been a strong natural tendency to the adoration of
+animals.
+
+The above origins of idolatry and mythology, as stated or implied in
+the Bible, of course assume that the Semitic monotheistic religion is
+the primitive one. The first deviations from it probably originated in
+the family of Ham. A city of the Rephaim of Bashan was in the days of
+Abraham named after Ashtoreth Karnaim--the two-horned Astarte, a
+female divinity and prototype of Diana, and perhaps an historic
+personage, in whom both the moon and the domestic ox were rendered
+objects of worship. This is the earliest Bible notice of
+idolatry.[160] In Egypt a mythology of complex diversity existed at
+least as far back. We must remember, however, that Egypt is Cush as
+well as Mizraim, and its idolatry is probably to be traced, in the
+first instance, to the Nimrodic empire, from which, as from a common
+centre, certain new and irreligious ideas seem to have been propagated
+among all the branches of the human family. It is quite probable that
+the correspondences between Egyptian, Greek, and Hindoo myths go back
+as far as to the time when the first despotism was erected on the
+plain of Shinar, and when able but ungodly men set themselves to erect
+new political and social institutions on the ruins of all that their
+fathers had held sacred. In addition to this, the mythology and
+language of the Aryans alike bear the impress of the innovating and
+restless spirit of the sons of Japhet.
+
+I have stated the above propositions to show that the Bible affords a
+rational and connected theory of the origin of the false religions of
+antiquity; and to suggest as inquiries in relation to every form of
+mythology--how much of it is primitive monotheism, how much
+cherub-worship, how much hero-worship, how much ancestor-worship, how
+much distorted cosmogony, how much pure idealism and superstition,
+since all these are usually present. I may be allowed further to
+remind the reader how much evidence we have, even in modern times, of
+the strong tendency of the human mind to fall into one or another of
+these forms of idolatry; and to ask him to reflect that really the
+only effectual conservative element is that of revelation. How strong
+an argument is this for the necessity to man of an inspired rule of
+religious faith.
+
+[The above note was in substance contained in the Appendix to
+"Archaia" in 1860, and its correctness has, I think, been confirmed by
+subsequent discoveries.]
+
+
+K.--ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN TEXTS.
+
+Progress is continually being made in the decipherment and publication
+of these, and new facts are coming to light in consequence as to the
+religions of the early postdiluvian period.
+
+According to the late George Smith and to Mr. Sayce, in their
+contributions to Bagster's "Records of the Past," the earliest
+monumental history of Babylonia reveals two races, the Akkadian or
+Urdu, a Turanian race, with an agglutinate language of the Finnish or
+Tartar type, and the Sumir or Keen-gi, believed to be Shemitic. The
+race of Akkad seems to have invented the cuneiform writing at a very
+early period, and it no doubt represents the primitive Cushites of the
+Bible, to whom is attributed the empire of Nimrod, whose first cities
+were Babel and Erech and Akkad and Calneh. Very ancient inscriptions
+of this early Chaldean or Cushite race exist, probably earlier than
+the time of Abraham. That of king Urukh, who is called "a very ancient
+king," on an inscription of Nabonadius, 555 B.C., represents himself
+as building temples to several gods and goddesses, so that in his time
+there was already a developed polytheism, unless, indeed, he was
+himself the inventor or introducer of much of it. Yet one can gather
+from the probably contemporary Creation and Deluge tablets translated
+by Mr. Smith, that a Supreme God was still recognized, and that the
+subordinate deities, though their worship was probably gaining in
+importance, were still only local and created beings. Yet it was
+undoubtedly from this embryo idolatry that Abraham dissented, and was
+thus led to leave his native land.
+
+In like manner, in the early Egyptian Hymn to Amen Ra, translated by
+Mr. Goodwin, though we have the gods mentioned, they are inferior
+beings, and not higher in position than the angels of the Old
+Testament, while Ra himself is "Lord of Eternity, Maker Everlasting,"
+and is praised as
+
+    "Chief creator of the whole earth,
+    Supporter of affairs above every god,
+    In whose goodness the gods rejoice."
+
+Thus, although there can be little doubt that Ra was a sun-god, there
+can be as little that he is the Il or El of the Shemitic peoples, and
+that his worship represents that of the one God, the Creator. It seems
+probable also that there was an esoteric doctrine of this kind among
+the priests and the educated, however gross the polytheism of the
+vulgar. In short, the state of things in Assyria and Egypt was not
+dissimilar from that prevailing at this day in India, where learned
+men may fall back upon the ancient Vedas, and maintain that their
+religion is monotheistic, while the common people worship innumerable
+gods. All this points to a primitive monotheism, just as the peculiar
+forms of adoration given to saints and the Virgin Mary in the Greek
+and Roman churches historically imply a primitive Christianity on
+which these newer beliefs and rites have been engrafted.
+
+
+L.--SPECIES AND VARIETAL FORMS WITH REFERENCE TO THE UNITY OF
+MAN.
+
+In the concluding chapters of "Archaia" the nature of species, as
+distinguished from varieties, was discussed, and specially applied to
+the varieties and races of man. This discussion has been omitted from
+the text of the present work; but, in an abridged form, is introduced
+here, with especial reference to those more recent views of this
+subject now prevalent in consequence of the growth of the philosophy
+of evolution; but which I feel convinced must, with the progress of
+science, return nearer to the opinions held by me in 1860, and
+summarized below.
+
+We can determine species only by the comparison of individuals. If all
+these agree in all their characters except those appertaining to sex,
+age, and other conditions of the individual merely, we say that they
+belong to the same species. If all species were invariable to this
+extent, there could be no practical difficulty, except that of
+obtaining specimens for comparison. But in the case of very many
+species there are minor differences, not sufficient to establish
+specific diversity, but to suggest its possibility; and in such cases
+there is often great liability to error. In cases of this kind we have
+principally two criteria: first, the nature and amount of the
+differences; secondly, their shading gradually into each other, or the
+contrary. Under the first of these we inquire--Are they no greater in
+amount than those which may be observed in individuals of the same
+parentage? Are they no greater than those which occur in other species
+of similar structure or habits? Do they occur in points known in
+other species to be readily variable, or in points that usually remain
+unchanged? Are none of them constant in the one supposed species, and
+constantly absent in the other? Under the second we ask--Are the
+individuals presenting these differences connected together by others
+showing a series of gradations uniting the extremes by minute degrees
+of difference? If we can answer these questions--or such of them as we
+have the means of answering--in the affirmative, we have no hesitation
+in referring all to the same species. If obliged to answer all or many
+in the negative, we must at least hesitate in the identification; and
+if the material is abundant, and the distinguishing characters clear
+and well defined, we conclude that there is a specific difference.
+
+Species determined in this way must possess certain general properties
+in common:
+
+1. Their individuals must fall within a certain range of uniform
+characters, wider or narrower in the case of different species.
+
+2. The intervals between species must be distinctly marked, and not
+slurred over by intermediate gradations.
+
+3. The specific characters must be invariably transmitted from
+generation to generation, so that they remain equally distinct in
+their limits if traced backward or forward in time, in so far as our
+observation may extend.
+
+4. Within the limits of the species there is more or less liability to
+variation; and this, though perhaps developed by external
+circumstances, is really inherent in the species, and must necessarily
+form a part of its proper description.
+
+5. There is also a physiological distinction between species, namely,
+that the individuals are sterile with one another, whereas this does
+not apply to varieties; and though Darwin has labored to break down
+this distinction by insisting on rare exceptional cases, and
+suggesting many supposed ways by which varieties of the same species
+might possibly attain to this kind of distinctness, the difference
+still remains as a fact in nature; though one not readily available in
+practically distinguishing species.
+
+These general properties of species will, I think, be admitted by all
+naturalists as based on nature, and absolutely necessary to the
+existence of natural history as a science, independently of any
+hypotheses as to the possible changes of specific forms in the lapse
+of time. I now proceed to give a similar summary of the laws of the
+varieties which may exist--always be it observed, within the limits of
+the species.
+
+1. The limits of variation are very different in different species.
+There are many in which no well-marked variations have been observed.
+There are others in which the variations are so marked that they have
+been divided, even by skilful naturalists, into distinct species or
+even genera. I do not here refer to differences of age and sex. These
+in many animals are so great that nothing but actual knowledge of the
+relation that subsists would prevent the individuals from being
+entirely separated from one another. I refer merely to the varieties
+that exist in adults of the same sex, including, however, those that
+depend on arrest of development, and thus make the adult of one
+variety resemble in some respects the young of another; as, for
+instance, in the hornless oxen, and beardless individuals among men.
+If we inquire as to the causes on which the greater or less
+disposition to vary depends, we must, in the first place, confess our
+ignorance, by saying that it appears to be in a great measure
+constitutional, or dependent on minute and as yet not distinctly
+appreciable structural, physiological, and psychical characters.
+Darwin states that Pallas long ago suggested, from the known facts
+that the seeds of hybrid plants and grafted trees are very variable,
+the theory that mixture of breeds tends to produce variability; but
+Darwin does not seem to attach much importance to this, and admits our
+inability to explain the origin of these differences.[161] We know,
+however, certain properties of species that are always or usually
+connected with great liability to variation. The principal of these
+are the following: 1. The liability to vary is, in many cases, not
+merely a specific peculiarity; it is often general in the members of a
+genus or family. Thus the cats, as a family, are little prone to vary;
+the wolves and foxes very much so. 2. Species that are very widely
+distributed over the earth's surface are usually very variable. In
+this case the capacity to vary probably adapts the creature to a great
+variety of circumstances, and so enables it to be widely distributed.
+It must be observed here that hardiness and variability of
+constitution are more important to extensive distribution than mere
+locomotive powers, for matters have evidently been so arranged in
+nature that, where the habitat is suitable, colonists will find their
+way to it, even in the face of difficulties almost insurmountable. 3.
+Constitutional liability to vary is sometimes connected with or
+dependent on extreme simplicity of structure, in other cases on a high
+degree of intelligence and consequent adaptation to various modes of
+subsistence. Those minute, simply organized, and very variable
+creatures, the Foraminifera, exemplify the first of these apparent
+causes; the crafty wolves furnish examples of the second. 4.
+Susceptibility to variation is farther modified by the greater or less
+adaptability of the digestive and locomotive organs to varied kinds of
+food and habitat. The monkeys, intelligent, imitative, and active, are
+nevertheless very limited in range and variability, because they can
+comfortably subsist only in forests, and in the warmer regions of the
+earth. The hog, more sluggish and less intelligent, has an omnivorous
+appetite, and no very special requirements of habitat, and so can vary
+greatly and extend over a large portion of the earth. Farther, in
+connection with this subject it may be observed that the conditions
+favorable to variation are also in the case of the higher animals
+favorable to domestication, while it may also be affirmed that, other
+things being equal, animals in a domesticated state are much more
+liable to vary than those in a wild state, and this independent of
+intentional selection. Darwin admits this, and gives many examples of
+it.
+
+2. Varieties may originate in two different ways. In the case of wild
+animals it is generally supposed that they are gradually induced by
+the slow operation of external influences; but it is certain that in
+domesticated animals they often appear suddenly and unexpectedly, and
+are not on that account at all less permanent. A large proportion of
+our breeds of domestic animals appear to originate in this way. A very
+remarkable instance is that of the "Niata" cattle of the Banda
+Orientale, described by Darwin in his "Voyage of a Naturalist." These
+cattle are believed to have originated about a century ago among the
+Indians to the south of the La Plata, and the breed propagates itself
+with great constancy. "They appear," says Darwin, "externally to hold
+nearly the same relation to other cattle which bull-dogs hold to other
+dogs. Their forehead is very short and broad, with the nasal end
+turned up, and the upper lip much drawn back; their lower jaws project
+outward; when walking they carry their heads low on a short neck, and
+their hinder legs are rather longer compared with the front legs than
+is usual." It is farther remarkable in respect to this breed that it
+is, from its conformation of head, less adapted to the severe droughts
+of those regions than the ordinary cattle, and can not, therefore, be
+regarded as an adaptation to circumstances. In his later work on
+animals under domestication, Darwin gives many other instances of the
+origination of breeds of cattle and other animals in this abrupt and
+mysterious manner, and without any selection, though he strongly leans
+to the conclusion that slow and gradual changes are the most frequent
+causes of variation. It is to be observed, however, that very slow
+changes are in more danger of being accidentally diverted or
+obliterated by crossing, and that the first stages of an incipient
+change may be too unimportant to be permanent.
+
+Many writers on the subject of the Unity of Man assume that any marked
+variety must require a long time for its production. Our experience in
+the case of the domestic animals teaches the reverse of this view; a
+very important point too often overlooked.
+
+3. The duration or permanence of varieties is very different. Some
+return at once to the normal type when the causes of change are
+removed. Others perpetuate themselves nearly as invariably as species,
+and are named races. It is these races only that we are likely to
+mistake for true species, since here we have that permanent
+reproduction which is one of the characteristics of the species. The
+race, however, wants the other characteristics of species as above
+stated; and it differs essentially in having branched from a primitive
+species, and in not having an independent origin. It is quite evident
+that in the absence of historical evidence we must be very likely to
+err by supposing races to have really originated in distinct
+"primordial forms." Such error is especially likely to arise if we
+overlook the fact of the sudden origination of such races, and their
+great permanency if kept distinct. There are two facts which deserve
+especial notice, as removing some of the difficulty in such cases. One
+is that well-marked races usually originate only in domesticated
+animals, or in wild animals which, owing to accidental circumstances,
+are placed in abnormal circumstances. Another is, that there always
+remains a tendency to return, in favorable circumstances, to the
+original type. This tendency to reversion is much underrated by Darwin
+and his followers; yet they constantly recur to it as a means of
+proving possible derivation, and their writings abound in examples of
+it. Perhaps the most remarkable of these reversions are those which
+occur when varieties destitute of all the markings of the original
+stock are crossed and reproduce those markings, which Darwin shows to
+occur in pigeons and domestic fowls. The domesticated races usually
+require a certain amount of care to preserve them in a state of
+purity, both on this account and on account of the readiness with
+which they intermix with other varieties of the same species. Many
+very interesting facts in illustration of these points might be
+adduced. The domesticated hog differs in many important characters
+from the wild boar. In South America and the West Indies it has
+returned, in three centuries or less, to its original form.[162] The
+horse is probably not known in a state originally wild, but it has run
+wild in America and in Siberia. In the prairies of North America,
+according to Catlin[163] they still show great varieties of color. The
+same is the case in Sable Island, off the coast of Nova Scotia[164]
+where herds of wild horses have existed since an early period in the
+settlement of America. In South America and Siberia they have assumed
+a uniform chestnut or bay color. In the plains of Western America they
+retain the dimensions and vigor of the better breeds of domesticated
+horses. In Sable Island they have already degenerated to the level of
+Highland ponies; but in all countries where they have run wild, the
+elongated and arched head, high shoulders, straight back, and other
+structural characters probably of the original wild horse, have
+appeared. We also learn from such instances that, while races among
+domesticated animals may appear suddenly, they revert to the original
+type, when unmixed, comparatively slowly; and this especially when the
+variation is in the nature of degeneracy.
+
+4. Some characters are more subject to variation than others. In the
+higher animals variation takes place very readily in the color and
+texture of the skin and its appendages. This, from its direct relation
+to the external world, and ready sympathy with the condition of the
+digestive organs, might be expected to take the lead. In those
+domesticated animals which are little liable to vary in other
+respects, as the cat and duck, the color very readily changes. Next
+may be placed the stature and external proportions, and the form of
+such appendages as the external ear and tail. All these characters are
+very variable in domestic animals. Next we may place the form of the
+skull, which, though little variable in the wild state, is nearly
+always changed by domestication. Psychological functions, as the
+so-called instincts of animals, are also very liable to change, and to
+have these changes perpetuated in races. Very remarkable instances of
+this have been collected by Sir C. Lyell[165] and Dr. Prichard.
+Lastly, important physiological characters, as the period of
+gestation, etc., and the structure of the internal organs connected
+with the functions of nutrition, respiration, etc., are little liable
+to change, and remain unaffected by the most extreme variations in
+other points; and it is, no doubt, in these more essential and
+internal parts that the tendency survives to return under favorable
+circumstances to the original type.
+
+5. Varieties or races of the same species are fully reproductive with
+each other, which is not the case with true species. Mutual sterility
+of varieties of the same species is an exceptional peculiarity, if it
+ever truly exist; and, on the other hand, the cross-fertilization of
+varieties of the same species, whether in animals or plants, tends to
+vigorous life, and also to return to the primitive or average type. On
+the other hand, intermixture of distinct species rarely, if ever,
+occurs freely in nature. It is generally a result of artificial
+contrivance. Again, hybrids produced from species known to be distinct
+are either wholly barren, or barren _inter se_, reproducing only with
+one of the original stocks, and rapidly returning to it; or if ever
+fertile _inter se_, which is somewhat doubtful, rapidly run out. It
+has been maintained by Pallas and others, and Darwin leans to this
+idea, that there is still another possibility, namely, that of the
+perfect and continued fertility of such mixed races, especially after
+long domestication; but their proofs are derived principally from the
+intermixture of the races of dogs and of poultry, which are cases
+actually in dispute at present, as to the original unity or diversity
+of the so-called species.
+
+If we apply these considerations to man, our conclusion must be that,
+even in his bodily frame, he is not merely specifically but ordinally
+distinct from other animals, and that the differences between races of
+men are varietal rather than specific. This view is confirmed by the
+following facts:
+
+1. The case of man is not that of a wild animal; and it presents many
+points of difference even from the case of the domesticated lower
+animals. According to the Bible history, man was originally fitted to
+subsist on fruits, to inhabit a temperate climate, and to be exempt
+from the necessity of destroying or contending with other animals.
+This view unquestionably accords very well with his organization. He
+still subsists principally on vegetable food, is most numerous in the
+warmer regions of the earth; and, when so subsisting in these regions,
+is naturally peaceful and timid. On the whole, however, his habits of
+life are artificial--more so than those of any domesticated animal. He
+is, therefore, in the conditions most favorable to variation. Again,
+man possesses more than merely animal instincts. His mental powers
+permit him to devise means of locomotion, of protection, of
+subsistence, far superior to those of any mere animal; and his
+dominant will, insatiable in its desires, bends the bodily frame to
+uses and exposes it to external influences more various than any
+inferior animal can dream of. Man is also more educable and plastic in
+his constitution than other animals, owing both to his being less
+hemmed in by unchanging instincts, and to his physical frame being
+less restricted in its adaptations. If a single species, he is also
+more widely distributed than any other; and there are even single
+races which exceed in their extent of distribution nearly all the
+inferior animals. Nor is there anything in his structure specially to
+limit him to plains, or hills, or forests, or coasts, or inland
+regions. All the causes which we can suppose likely to produce
+variation thus meet in man, who is himself the producer of most of the
+distinct races that we observe in the lower animals. If, therefore, we
+condescend to compare man with these creatures, it must be under
+protest that what we learn from them must be understood with reference
+to his greater capabilities.
+
+2. The races of men are deficient in some of the essential characters
+of species. It is true that they are reproduced with considerable
+permanency; though a great many cases of spontaneous change, of
+atavism, or return to the character of progenitors, and of slow
+variation under changed conditions, have been recorded. But the most
+manifest deficiency in true specific characters is in the invariable
+shading-off of one race into another, and in the entire failure of
+those who maintain the distinction of species in the attempt
+accurately to define their number and limits. The characters run into
+each other in such a manner that no natural arrangement based on the
+whole can apparently be arrived at; and when one particular ground is
+taken, as color, or shape of skull, the so-called species have still
+no distinct limits; and all the arrangements formed differ from each
+other, and from the deductions of philology and history. Thus, from
+the division of Virey into two species, on the entirely arbitrary
+ground of facial angle, to that of Bory de St. Vincent into fifteen,
+we have a great number and variety of distinctions, all incapable of
+zoological definition; or, if capable of definition, eminently
+unnatural. There are, in short, no missing links between the varieties
+of men corresponding to that which obtains between man and lower
+animals.
+
+3. The races of men differ in those points in which the higher animals
+usually vary with the greatest facility. The physical characters
+chiefly relied on have been color, character of hair, and form of
+skull, together with diversities in stature and general proportion.
+These are precisely the points in which our domestic races are most
+prone to vary. The manner in which these characters differ in the
+races of men may be aptly illustrated by a few examples of the
+arrangements to which they lead.
+
+Dr. Pickering, of the U. S. Exploring Expedition[166]--who does not,
+however, commit himself to any specific distinctions--has arranged the
+various races of men on the very simple and obvious ground of color.
+He obtains in this way four races--the White, the Brown, the
+Blackish-brown, the Black. The distinction is easy; but it divides
+races historically, philologically, and structurally alike; and unites
+those which, on other grounds, would be separated. The white race
+includes the Hamite Abyssinian, the Semitic Arabian, the Japhetic
+Greek. The Ethiopian or Berber is separated from the cognate
+Abyssinian, and the dark Hindoo from the paler races speaking like him
+tongues allied to the Sanscrit. The Papuan, on the other hand, takes
+his place with the Hindoo; while the allied Australian must be content
+to rank with the Negro; and the Hottentot is promoted to a place
+beside the Malay. It is unnecessary to pursue any farther the
+arrangement of this painstaking and conscientious inquirer. It
+conclusively demonstrates that the color of the varieties of the human
+race must be arbitrary and accidental, and altogether independent of
+unity or diversity of origin.
+
+Some use has been made, by the advocates of diversity of species, of
+the quality of the hair in the different races. That of the Negro is
+said to be flat in its cross section--in this respect approaching to
+wool; that of the European is oval; and that of the Mongolian and
+American round.[167] The subject has as yet been very imperfectly
+investigated; but its indications point to no greater variety than
+that which occurs in many domesticated animals--as, for instance, the
+hog and sheep. Nay, Dr. Carpenter states[168]--and the writer has
+satisfied himself of the fact by his own observation--that it does not
+exceed the differences in the hair from different parts of the body of
+the same individual. The human hair, like that of mammals in general,
+consists of three tissues: an outer cortical layer, marked by
+transverse stri�, having in man the aspect of delicate lines, but in
+many other animals assuming the character of distinct joints or
+prominent serrations; a layer of elongated, fibrous cells, to which
+the hair owes most of its tenacity; and an inner cylinder of rounded
+cells. In the proportionate development of these several parts, in the
+quantity of coloring matter present, and in the transverse section,
+the human hair differs very considerably in different parts of the
+body. It also differs very markedly in individuals of different
+complexions. Similar but not greater differences obtain in the hair of
+the scalp in different races; but the flatness of the Negro's hair
+connects itself inseparably with the oval of the hair of the ordinary
+European, and this with the round observed in some other races. It
+generally holds that curled and frizzled hair is flatter than that
+which is lank and straight; but this is not constant, for I have found
+that the waved or frizzled hair of the New Hebrideans, intermediate
+apparently between the Polynesians and Papuans, is nearly circular in
+outline, and differs from European hair mainly in the greater
+development of the fibrous structure and the intensity of the color.
+Large series of comparisons are required; but those already made point
+to variation rather than specific difference. Some facts also appear
+to indicate very marked differences as occurring in the same race from
+constant exposure or habitual covering; and also the occasional
+appearance of the most abnormal forms, without apparent cause, in
+individuals. The differences depending on greater or less abundance or
+vigor of growth of the hair are obviously altogether trivial, when
+compared with such examples as the hairless dogs of Chili and hairless
+cattle of Brazil, or even with the differences in this respect
+observed in individuals of the same race of men.
+
+Confessedly the most important differences of the races of men are
+those of the skeleton, in all parts of which variations of proportion
+occur, and are of course more or less communicated to the muscular
+investments. Of these, as they exist in the pelvis, limbs, etc., I
+need say nothing; for, manifest though they are, they all fall far
+within the limits of variation in familiar domestic animals, and also
+of hereditary malformation or defect of development occurring in the
+European nations, and only requiring isolation for its perpetuation as
+a race. The differences in the skull merit more attention, for it is
+in this and in its enclosed brain that man most markedly differs from
+the lower animals, as well as race from race. It is in the form rather
+than in the mere dimensions of the skull that we should look for
+specific differences; and here, adopting the vertical method of
+Blumenbach as the most characteristic and valuable, we find a greater
+or less antero-posterior diameter--a greater or less development of
+the jaws and bones of the face. The skull of the normal European, or
+Caucasian of Cuvier, is round oval; and the jaws and cheek-bones
+project little beyond its anterior margin, when viewed from above. The
+skull of the Mongolian of Cuvier is nearly round, and the cheek-bones
+and jaws project much more strongly in front and at the sides. The
+Negro skull is lengthened from back to front; the jaws project
+strongly, or are prognathous; but the cheek-bones are little
+prominent. For the extremes of these varieties, Retzius proposed the
+names of brachy-kephalic or short-headed, and dolicho-kephalic or
+long-headed, which have come into general use. The differences
+indicated by these terms are of great interest, as distinctive marks
+of many of the unmixed races of men; but, when pushed to extremes,
+lead to very incorrect generalizations--as Professor D. Wilson has
+well shown in his paper on the supposed uniformity of type in the
+American races--a doctrine which he fully refutes by showing that
+within a very narrow geographical range this primitive and unmixed
+race presents very great differences of cranial form.[169] Exclusive
+of idiots, artificially compressed heads, and deformities, the
+differences between the brachy-kephalic and dolicho-kephalic heads
+range from equality in the parietal and longitudinal diameter to the
+proportion of about 14 to 24. As stated by some ethnologists, these
+differences appear quite characteristic and distinct; but, so soon as
+we attempt any minute discrimination, all confidence in them as
+specific characters disappears. In our ordinary European races similar
+differences, and nearly as extensive, occur. The dolicho-kephalic head
+is really only an immature form perpetuated; and appears not only in
+the Negro, but in the Esquimau, and in certain ancient and modern
+Celtic races. The brachy-kephalic head, in like manner, is
+characteristic of certain tribes and portions of tribes of Americans,
+but not of all; of many northern Asiatic nations; of certain Celtic
+and Scandinavian tribes; and often appears in the modern European
+races as an occasional character. Farther, as Retzius has well shown,
+the long heads and prominent jaws are not always associated with each
+other; and his classification is really the testimony of an able
+observer against the value of these characters. He shows that the
+Celtic and Germanic races (in part) have long heads and straight jaws;
+while the Negroes, Australians, Oceanians, Caribs, Greenlanders, etc.,
+have long heads and prominent jaws. The Laplanders, Finns, Turks,
+Sclaves, Persians, etc., have short heads and straight jaws; while the
+Tartars, Mongolians, Incas, Malays, Papuans, etc., have short heads
+and prominent jaws.
+
+Another defect in the argument often based on the diverse forms of
+heads is its want of acknowledgment of the ascertained and popularly
+known fact that these forms in different tribes or individuals of the
+same race are markedly influenced by culture and habits of life. In
+all races ignorance and debasement tend to induce a prognathous form,
+while culture tends to the elevation of the nasal bones, to an
+orthognathous condition of the jaws, and to an elevation and expansion
+of the cranium.[170]
+
+Again, no adequate allowance has been made in the case of these forms
+of skull for the influence of modes of nurture in infancy. Dr. Morton,
+observing that the brachy-kephalic American skull was often unequal
+sided, and the occiput much flattened, suggests that this is "an
+exaggeration of the natural form produced by the pressure of the
+cradle-board in common use among the American natives." Dr. Wilson has
+noticed the same unsymmetrical character in brachy-kephalic skulls in
+British barrows, and has suspected some artificial agency in infancy;
+and says, in reference to the American instances, "I think it
+extremely probable that further investigation will tend to the
+conclusion that the vertical or flattened occiput, instead of being a
+typical characteristic, pertains entirely to the class of artificial
+modifications of the natural cranium familiar to the American
+ethnologist."
+
+While the points in which the races of men vary are those in which
+lower animals are most liable to undergo change, the several races
+display a remarkable constancy in those which are usually less
+variable. Prichard and Carpenter have well shown this in relation to
+physiological points, as, for instance, the age of arriving at
+maturity, the average and extreme duration of life, and the several
+periods connected with reproduction. The coincidence in these points
+alone is by many eminent physiologists justly regarded as sufficient
+evidence of the unity of the species.
+
+4. It may also be affirmed, in relation to the varieties of man, that
+they do not exceed in amount or extent those observed in the lower
+animals. If with Frederick Cuvier, Dr. Carpenter, and many other
+naturalists, we regard the dog as a single species, descended in all
+probability from the wolf, we can have no hesitation in concluding
+that this animal far exceeds man in variability.[171] But this is
+denied by many, not without some show of reason; and we may,
+therefore, select some animal respecting which little doubt can be
+entertained. Perhaps the best example is the common hog (_Sus
+scrofa_), an undoubted descendant of the wild boar, and a creature
+especially suitable for comparison with man, inasmuch as its possible
+range of food is very much the same with his, which is not the case
+with any other of our domesticated animals; and as its headquarters as
+a species are in the same regions which have supported the greatest
+and oldest known communities of men. We may exclude from our
+comparison the Chinese hog, by some regarded as a distinct species
+(_Sus Indicus_), though no wild original is known, and it breeds
+freely with the common hog. The color of the domestic hog varies, like
+that of man, from white to black; and in the black hog the skin as
+well as the hair partakes of the dark color. The abundance and
+quality of the hair vary extremely; the stature and form are equally
+variable, much more so than in man. Blumenbach long ago remarked that
+the difference between the skull of the ordinary domestic hog and that
+of the wild boar is quite equal to that observed between the Negro and
+European skulls. Darwin shows that it is much greater, and illustrates
+this by an amusing pair of portraits. The breeds of swine even differ
+in directions altogether unparalleled in man. For instance, both in
+America and Europe solid-hoofed swine have originated and become a
+permanent variety; and there is said to be another variety with five
+toes.[172] These are the more remarkable, because, in the American
+instances, there can be no doubt that it is the common hog which has
+assumed these abnormal forms.
+
+5. All varieties or races of men intermix freely, in a manner which
+strongly indicates specific unity. We hold here, as already stated,
+that no good case of a permanent race arising from intermixture of
+distinct species of the lower animals has been adduced; but there is
+another fact in relation to this subject which the advocates of
+specific diversity would do well to study. Even in varieties of those
+domestic animals which are certainly specifically identical, as the
+hog, the sheep, the ox--although crosses between the varieties may
+easily be produced--they are not readily maintained, and sometimes
+tend to die out. What are called good crosses lead to improved energy,
+and continual breeding in and in of the same variety leads to
+degeneracy and decay; but, on the other hand, crosses of certain
+varieties are proved by experience to be of weakly and unproductive
+quality; and every practical book on cattle contains remarks on the
+difficulty of keeping up crosses without intermixture with one of the
+pure breeds. It would thus appear that very unlike varieties of the
+same species display in this respect, in an imperfect manner, the
+peculiarities of distinct species. It is on this principle that I
+would in part account for some of the exceptional facts which occur in
+mixed races of men.
+
+What, then, are the facts in the case of man? In producing crosses of
+distinct species, as in the case of the horse and ass, breeders are
+obliged to resort to expedients to overcome the natural repugnance to
+such intermixture. In the case of even the most extreme varieties of
+man, if such repugnance exists, it is voluntarily overcome, as the
+slave population of America testifies abundantly. By far the greater
+part of the intermixtures of races of men tend to increase of vital
+energy and vigor, as in the case of judicious crosses of some domestic
+animals. Where a different result occurs, we usually find sufficient
+secondary causes to account for it. I shall refer to but one such
+case--that of the half-breed American Indian. In so far as I have had
+opportunities of observation or inquiry, these people are prolific,
+much more so than the unmixed Indian. They are also energetic, and
+often highly intellectual; but they are of delicate constitution,
+especially liable to scrofulous diseases, and therefore not
+long-lived. Now this is precisely the result which often occurs in
+domestic animals, where a highly cultivated race is bred with one that
+is of ruder character and training; and it very probably results from
+the circumstance that the progeny may inherit too much of the delicacy
+of the one parent to endure the hardships congenial to the other; or,
+on the other hand, too much of the wild nature of the ruder parent to
+subsist under the more delicate nurture of the more cultivated. This
+difficulty does not apply to the intermixture of the Negro and the
+European, though between the pure races this is a cross too abrupt to
+be likely to be in the first instance successful.
+
+6. The races of man may have originated in the same manner with the
+breeds of our domesticated animals. There are many facts which render
+it probable that they did originate in this way. Take color, for
+instance. The fair varieties of man occur only in the northern
+temperate zone, and chiefly in the equable climates of that zone. In
+extreme climates, even when cold, dusky and yellow colors appear. The
+black and blackish-brown colors are confined to the inter-tropical
+regions, and appear in such portions of all the great races of mankind
+as have been long domiciled there. Diet and degree of exposure have
+also evidently very much to do with form, stature, and color. The
+deer-eating Chippewayan of certain districts of North America is a
+better developed man than his compatriots who subsist principally on
+rabbits and such meaner fare; and excess of carbonaceous food, and
+deficiency of perspiration or of combustion in the lungs, appear
+everywhere to darken the skin.[173] The Negro type in its extreme form
+is peculiar to low and humid river valleys of tropical Africa. In
+Australasia similar characters appear in men of a very different race
+in similar circumstances. The Mongolian type reappears in South
+Africa. The Esquimau is like the Fuegian. The American Indian, both of
+South and North America, resembles the Mongol; but in several of the
+middle regions of the American continent men appear who approximate to
+the Malay. Everywhere and in all races coarse features and deviations
+from the oval form of skull are observed in rude populations. Where
+men have sunk into a child-like simplicity, the elongated forms
+prevail. Where they have become carnivorous, aggressive, and actively
+barbarous, the brachy-kephalic forms abound. These and many other
+considerations tend to the conclusion that these varieties are
+inseparably connected with external conditions. It may still be
+asked--Were not the races created as they are, with especial reference
+to these conditions? I answer no--because the differences are of a
+character in every respect like those that appear in other true
+species as the results of influences from without.
+
+Farther, not only have we varieties of man resulting from the slow
+operation of climatal and other conditions, but we have the sudden
+development of races. One remarkable instance may illustrate my
+meaning. It is the hairy family of Siam, described by Mr. Crawford and
+Mr. Yule.[174] The peculiarities here consisted of a fine silky coat
+of hair covering the face and less thickly the whole body, with at the
+same time the entire absence of the canine and molar teeth. The person
+in whom these characters originated was sent to Ava as a curiosity
+when five years old. He married at twenty-two, his wife being an
+ordinary Burmese woman. One of two children who survived infancy had
+all the characters of the father. This was a girl; and on her marriage
+the same characters reappeared in one of two boys constituting her
+family when seen by Mr. Yule. Here was a variety of a most extreme
+character, originating without apparent cause, and capable of
+propagation for three generations, even when crossed with the ordinary
+type. Had it originated in circumstances favorable to the preservation
+of its purity, it might have produced a tribe or nation of hairy men,
+with no teeth except incisors. Such a tribe would, with some
+ethnologists, have constituted a new and very distinct species; and
+any one who had suggested the possibility of its having originated
+within a few generations as a variety would have been laughed at for
+his credulity. It is unnecessary to cite any further instances. I
+merely wish to insist on the necessity of a rigid comparison of the
+variations which appear in man, either suddenly or in a slow or
+secular manner, with the characters of the so-called races or species.
+
+7. If we turn from the merely physical constitution of man, and
+inquire as to his psychical and spiritual endowments, it would be easy
+to show, as Dr. Carpenter and others have done, in opposition to
+Darwin, that on the one hand an impassable barrier separates man from
+the lower animals, and that on the other there is an essential unity
+among the races of men. But this subject I have discussed fully in the
+concluding chapters of my "Story of the Earth."
+
+If man is thus so very variable, and if many of his leading varieties
+have existed for a very long time, does not the fact that we have but
+one species afford very strong evidence that species change only
+within fixed limits, and do not pass over into new specific types.
+Viewed in this way, variability within the specific limits becomes in
+itself one of the strongest arguments against the doctrine of descent
+with modification as a mode of origination of new species.
+
+Let us now add to all this the farther consideration, so well
+illustrated in the "Reliqui� Aquitanic�" of Christy and Lartet, that
+the oldest-known men of the caves and gravels may be placed in one of
+the varieties, and this the most widely distributed, of modern man,
+and we have a further argument which tells most strongly against the
+assumption either of the extreme antiquity or of the unlimited
+variability of the human species.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Argyll's "Primeval Man."]
+
+[Footnote 2: Essays on Theism, 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 3: John i., 9.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Hebrews xi., 3.]
+
+[Footnote 5: I avail myself of the condensed translation in Bancroft's
+"Native Races," vol. iii. The original French translation of Brasseur du
+Bourbourg is more full.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The Feathered Serpent is perhaps the representative of the
+Dragon and Serpent in the Semitic version; but has not the same evil
+import, and his color gave sacredness to blue and green stones, as the
+turquois and emerald, both in North and South America, and perhaps also
+in Asia and Africa.]
+
+[Footnote 7: I do not think it necessary to attach any value to the
+doubts of certain schools of criticism as to the Mosaic authorship of
+the Pentateuch. Whatever quibbles may be raised on isolated texts, no
+rational student can doubt that we have in these books a collection of
+authentic documents of the Exodus. They are absolutely inexplicable on
+any other supposition.]
+
+[Footnote 8: "Cosmos," Ott�'s translation.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Hamilton, "Royal Preacher."]
+
+[Footnote 10: Harvey, "Nereis Boreali Americana."]
+
+[Footnote 11: Osburn, "Monumental History of Egypt."]
+
+[Footnote 12: On this subject I may refer naturalists to the intimate
+acquaintance with animals and their habits, indicated by manner of their
+use as sacred emblems, and as symbols in hieroglyphic writing. Another
+illustration is afforded by the Mosaic narrative of the miracles and
+plagues connected with the exodus. The Egyptian king, on this occasion,
+consulted the _philosophers_ and _augurs_. These learned men evidently
+regarded the serpent-rod miracle as but a more skilful form of one of
+the tricks of serpent-charmers. They showed Pharaoh the possibility of
+reddening the Nile water by artificial means, or perhaps by the
+development of red alg� in it. They explained the inroad of frogs on
+natural principles, probably referring to the immense abundance
+ordinarily of the ova and tadpoles of these creatures compared with that
+of the adults. But when the dust of the land became gnats ("lice" in our
+version), this was a phenomenon beyond their experience. Either the
+species was unknown to them, or its production out of the dry ground was
+an anomaly, or they knew that no larv� adequate to explain it had
+previously existed. In the case of this plague, therefore, comparatively
+insignificant and easily simulated, they honestly confessed--"This is
+the finger of God." No better evidence could be desired that the savans
+here opposed to Moses were men of high character and extensive
+observation. Many other facts of similar tendency might be cited both
+from Moses and the Egyptian monuments.]
+
+[Footnote 13: That in Genesis, chap. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Kitto's Cyclop�dia, art. "Creation."]
+
+[Footnote 15: Much that is very silly has been written as to the extent
+of the supposed "optical view" taken by the Hebrew writers; many worthy
+literary men appearing to suppose that _scientific_ views of nature must
+necessarily be different from those which we obtain by the evidence of
+our senses. The very contrary is the fact; and so long as any writers
+state correctly what they observe, without insisting on any fanciful
+hypotheses, science has no fault to find with them. What science most
+detests is the ignorant speculations of those who have not observed at
+all, or have observed imperfectly. It is a leading excellence of the
+Hebrew Scriptures that they state facts without giving any theories to
+account for them. It is, on the contrary, the circumstance that
+unscientific writers will not be content to be "optical," but must
+theorize, that spoils much of our modern literature, especially in its
+descriptions of nature.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Prof. Hitchcock.]
+
+[Footnote 17: McCosh, "Typical Forms and Special Ends."]
+
+[Footnote 18: I adopt that view of the date of Job which makes it
+precede the Exodus, because the religious ideas of the book are
+patriarchal, and it contains no allusions to the Hebrew history or
+institutions. Were I to suggest an hypothesis as to its origin, it would
+be that it was written or found by Moses when in exile, and published
+among his countrymen in Egypt, to revive their monotheistic religion,
+and cheer them under the apparent desertion of their God and the evils
+of their bondage.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Tyndall seems to hold this.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Newton.]
+
+[Footnote 21: John v., 17; Rom. viii., 22; Heb. i., 2; 2 Peter iii.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Heb. i., 2.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Eph. iii., 9.]
+
+[Footnote 24: 1 Tim. i., 17.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Eph. iv., 11.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Job xxxviii. and xxxix.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Romans i., 20.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Essays on Theism.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Herschel, Dissertation on the Study of Natural Philosophy;
+Maxwell, Lecture before the British Association.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Carpenter, "Human Physiology."]
+
+[Footnote 31: Asah.]
+
+[Footnote 32: McDonald, "Creation and the Fall."]
+
+[Footnote 33: Literally, "ages" or "time-worlds," as they have been
+called.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Genesis i., 8, 26-28.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Job xxxviii., 37.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Gen. i., 14; Deut. xvii., 3.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Gen. xxviii., 17; Job xv., 15; Psa. ii., 4.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Not "created," as some read. The verb is _kana_, not
+_bara_.]
+
+[Footnote 39: The usual Septuagint rendering is _Abyssus_.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Smith, "Assyrian Genesis." Brasseur de Bourbourg's
+translation of the "Popol Vuh" of the ancient Central American Indians.]
+
+[Footnote 41: It is impossible to avoid recognizing in the Greek
+Theogony, as it appears in Hesiod and the Orphic poems, an inextricable
+intermingling of a cosmogony akin to that of Moses with legendary
+stories of deceased ancestors; and this has, I must confess, always
+appeared to me to be a more rational way of accounting for it than its
+reference to mere nature-myths. Chaos, or space, for the chaos of Hesiod
+differs from that of Ovid, came first, then Gaea, the earth, and
+Tartarus, or the lower world. Chaos gave birth to Erebos (identical with
+the Hebrew Ereb or Erev, evening) and Nyx, or night. These again give
+birth to Aether, the equivalent of the Hebrew expanse or firmament, and
+to Hemera, the day, and then the heavenly bodies were perfected. So far
+the legend is apparently based on some primitive history of creation,
+not essentially different from that of the Bible. But the Greek Theogony
+here skips suddenly to the human period; and under the fables of the
+marriage of Gaea and Uranos, and the Titans, appears to present to us
+the antediluvian world, with its intermarriages of the sons of God and
+men, and its Nephelim or Giants, with their mechanic arts and their
+crimes. Beyond this, in Kronos and his three sons, and in the strange
+history of Zeus, the chief of these, we have a coarse and fanciful
+version of the story of the family of Noah, the insult offered by Ham to
+his father, and the subsequent quarrels and dispersion of mankind. The
+Zeus of Homer appears to be the elder of the three, or Japheth, the real
+father of the Greeks, according to the Bible; but in the time of Hesiod
+Zeus was the youngest, perhaps indicating that the worship of the
+Egyptian Zeus, Ammon or Ham, had already supplanted among the Greeks
+that of their own ancestor. But it is curious that even in the Bible,
+though Japhet is said to be the greater, he is placed last in the lists.
+After the introduction of Greek savans and literati to Egypt, about B.C.
+660, they began to regard their own mythology from this point of view,
+though obliged to be reserved on the subject. The cosmology of Thales,
+the astronomy of Anaxagoras, and the history of Herodotus afford early
+evidence of this, and it abounds in later writers. I may refer the
+reader to Grote (History of Greece, vol. i.) for an able and agreeable
+summary of this subject; and may add that even the few coincidences
+above pointed out between Greek mythology and the Bible, independently
+of the multitudes of more doubtful character to be found in the older
+writers on this subject, appear very wonderful, when we consider that
+among the Greeks these vestiges of primitive religion, whether brought
+with them from the East or received from abroad, must have been handed
+down for a long time by oral tradition among the people; but obscure
+though they may be, the circumstance that some old writers have ridden
+the resemblances to death affords no excuse for the prevailing neglect
+of them in more modern times.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Pages 21, 22, and 109, _supra_.]
+
+[Footnote 43: The minor planets discovered in more recent times between
+Mars and Jupiter form an exception to this; but they are of little
+importance, and exceptional in other respects as well. To give their
+arrangement and the motions of the satellites of Uranus, would require
+the further assumption of some unknown disturbing cause.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Nichol's "Planetary System."]
+
+[Footnote 45: Proctor's Lectures, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 46: This translation is as literal as is consistent with the
+bold abruptness of the original. The last idea is that of a cylindrical
+seal rolling over clay, and leaving behind a beautiful impression where
+all before was a blank.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Professor Dana thus sums up the various meanings of the
+word _day_ in Genesis: "_First_, in verse 5, the _light_ in general is
+called day, the darkness night. _Second_, in the same verse, _evening
+and morning_ make the first day, before the sun appears. _Third_, in
+verse 14, day stands for _twelve hours_, or the period of daylight, as
+dependent on the sun. _Fourth_, same verse, in the phrase "days and
+seasons," day stands for a period of _twenty-four hours_. _Fifth_, at
+the close of the account, in verse 4 of the second chapter, day means
+the _whole period of creation_. These uses are the same that we have in
+our own language."
+
+Warring, in his book "The Miracle of To-day," has suggested that the
+Mosaic days are _epochal_ days, each considered as the close and
+culmination of a period. This is an ingenious suggestion, and very well
+coincides with the day-period theory as defended in the text.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Psalm xc.]
+
+[Footnote 49: It may be desirable to give here, in a slightly
+paraphrased version, but strictly in accordance with the views of the
+best expositors, the essential part of the passage in Hebrews, chap.
+iv.:
+
+"For God hath spoken in a certain place" (Gen. ii., 2) of the seventh
+day in this wise--'And God did rest on the seventh day from all his
+works;' and in this place again--'They shall not enter into my rest'
+(Psa. xcv., 11). Seeing, therefore, it still remaineth that some enter
+therein, and they to whom it (God's Sabbatism) was first proclaimed
+entered not in, because of disobedience (in the fall, and afterward in
+the sin of the Israelites in the desert), again he fixes a certain day,
+saying in David's writings, long after the time of Joshua--'To-day, if
+ye hear his voice, harden not your hearts.' For if Joshua had given them
+rest in Canaan, he would not afterward have spoken of another day. There
+is therefore yet reserved a keeping of a Sabbath for the people of God.
+For he that is entered into his rest (that is, Jesus Christ, who has
+finished his work and entered into his rest in heaven), he himself also
+rested from his own works, as God did from his own. Let us therefore
+earnestly strive to enter into that rest."
+
+It is evident that in this passage God's Sabbatism, the rest intended
+for man in Eden and for Israel in Canaan, Christ's rest in heaven after
+finishing his work, and the final heavenly rest of Christ's people, are
+all indefinite periods mutually related, and can not possibly be natural
+days.]
+
+[Footnote 50: For the benefit of those who may value ancient authorities
+in such matters, and to show that such views may rationally be
+entertained independently of geology, I quote the following passage from
+Origen: "Cuinam qu�so sensum habenti convenienter videbitur dictum, quod
+dies prima et secunda et tertia, in quibus et vespera nominatur, et
+mane, fuerint sine sole, et sine luna et sine stellis: prima autern dies
+sine coelo." So St. Augustine expressly states his belief that the
+creative days could not be of the ordinary kind: "Qui dies, cujusmodi
+sint, aut perdifficile nobis, aut etiam impossibile est cogitare, quanto
+magis discere." Bede also remarks, "Fortassis hic diei nomen, totius
+temporis nomen est, et omnia volumina seculorum hoc vocabulo includit."
+Many similar opinions of old commentators might be quoted. It is also
+not unworthy of note that the cardinal number is used here, "one day"
+for first day; and though the Hebrew grammarians have sought to found on
+this, and a few similar passages, a rule that the cardinal may be
+substituted for the ordinal, many learned Hebraists insist that this use
+of the cardinal number implies singularity and peculiarity as well as
+mere priority.]
+
+[Footnote 51: It is to be observed, however, that on the so-called
+literal day hypothesis the first Sabbath was not man's seventh day, but
+rather his first, since he must have been created toward the close of
+the sixth day.]
+
+[Footnote 52: "Footprints of the Creator."]
+
+[Footnote 53: This idea occurs in Lord Bacon's "Confession of Faith,"
+and De Luc also maintains that the Creator's Sabbath must have been of
+long continuance.]
+
+[Footnote 54: See the quotation from Job, _supra_.]
+
+[Footnote 55: This is not strictly correct, as many animals, especially
+of the lower tribes, extend back to the early tertiary periods, long
+before the creation of man; a fact which of itself is irreconcilable
+with the Mosaic narrative on the theory of literal or ordinary days.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Since this was written, the bones of many Batrachian
+reptiles have been found in the Carboniferous, both in Europe and
+America. No reptilian remains have yet been found in the Devonian
+rocks.]
+
+[Footnote 57: _Biblical Repository_, 1856. See also an excellent paper
+by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, _Bibliotheca Sacra_, 1867.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Rhode, quoted by McDonald, "Creation and the Fall," p. 62;
+Eusebius, Chron. Arm.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Suidas, Lexicon--"Tyrrenia."]
+
+[Footnote 60: Diodorus Siculus, bk. i. Prichard, Egyptian Mythology.]
+
+[Footnote 61: "Asiatic Researches."]
+
+[Footnote 62: This name is exactly identical in meaning with the Hebrew
+Jehovah Elohim.]
+
+[Footnote 63: M�ller, Sanscrit Literature.]
+
+[Footnote 64: The theology of the Institutes is clearly primitive
+Semitic in its character; and therefore, if the Bible is true, must be
+older than the Aryan theogony of the Rig-Veda, as expounded by M�ller,
+whatever the relative age of the documents.]
+
+[Footnote 65: "Recent Advances in Physical Science."]
+
+[Footnote 66: Croll's "Climate and Time" contains some interesting facts
+as to this.]
+
+[Footnote 67: See the discussion of this in the author's "Story of the
+Earth," and in Sir William Thomson's British Association Address, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Daniell's Meteorological Essays; Prout's Bridgewater
+Treatise; art. "Meteorology," Encyc. Brit.; "Maury's Physical Geography
+of the Sea."]
+
+[Footnote 69: Kaemtz, "Course of Meteorology."]
+
+[Footnote 70: Encyc. Brit., art. "Meteorology."]
+
+[Footnote 71: It is not meant that the word _rakiah_ occurs in these
+passages, but to show how by other words the idea of stretching out or
+extension rather than solidity is implied. The verb in the first two
+passages is _nata_, to spread out.]
+
+[Footnote 72: See also Humboldt, "Cosmos," vol. ii., pt. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Heb., "they refine."]
+
+[Footnote 74: "His pavilion round about him was dark waters and thick
+clouds of the skies," Psa. xviii. This expression explains that in the
+text.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Or "He darkens the depths of the sea."]
+
+[Footnote 76: Translation of these lines much disputed and very
+difficult. Gesenius and Conant render it, "His thunder tells of him; to
+the herds even of him who is on high."]
+
+[Footnote 77: I take advantage of this long quotation to state that in
+the case of this and other passages quoted from the Old Testament I have
+carefully consulted the original; but have availed myself freely of the
+renderings of such of the numerous versions and commentaries as I have
+been able to obtain, whenever they appeared accurate and expressive, and
+have not scrupled occasionally to give a free translation where this
+seemed necessary to perspicuity. In the book of Job, I have consulted
+principally the translation appended to Barnes's Commentary, Conant's
+translation, 1857, and those of Tayler Lewis and Evans in Schaff's
+edition of Lange, 1874.]
+
+[Footnote 78: The word is one of those that pervade both Semitic and
+Indo-European tongues: Sanscrit, _ahara_; Pehlevi, _arta_; Latin,
+_terra_; German, _Erde_; Gothic, _airtha_; Scottish, _yird_; English,
+_earth_.--Gesenius.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Psalm xcv.]
+
+[Footnote 80: Gesenius.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Perhaps "changed," metamorphosed, as by fire. Conant has
+"destroyed."]
+
+[Footnote 82: "Dust" in our version, literally lumps or "nuggets."]
+
+[Footnote 83: The vulgar and incorrect idea that the vulture "scents the
+carrion from afar," so often reproduced by later poets, has no place in
+the Bible poetry. It is the bird's keen eye that enables him to find his
+prey.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Lyell's "Principles of Geology."]
+
+[Footnote 85: Stanford, London, 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 86: In further explanation of these general geological
+changes, see "The Story of the Earth and Man," by the author.]
+
+[Footnote 87: "Tenera herba, sine semine saltem
+conspicuo."--Rosenm�ller, "Scholia."]
+
+[Footnote 88: Haughton, Address to the Geological Society, Dublin.]
+
+[Footnote 89: See McDonald, "Creation and the Fall." Professor Guyot, I
+believe, deserves the credit of having first mentioned, on the American
+side of the Atlantic, the doctrine respecting the introduction of plants
+advocated in this chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 90: "Eozoic" of this work. Professor Dana in the latest
+edition of his Manual uses the name "Archaean."]
+
+[Footnote 91: This may refer to an eclipse, but from the character of
+the preceding verses more probably to the obscurity of a tempest. It is
+remarkable that eclipses, which so much strike the minds of men and
+affect them with superstitious awe, are not distinctly mentioned in the
+Old Testament, though referred to in the prophetical parts of the New
+Testament.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Perhaps rather the high places of the waters, referring to
+the atmospheric waters.]
+
+[Footnote 93: The rendering "sweet influences" in our version may be
+correct, but the weight of argument appears to favor the view of
+Gesenius that the close bond of union between the stars of this group is
+referred to. I think it is Herder who well unites both views, the
+Pleiades being bound together in a sisterly union, and also ushering in
+the spring by their appearance above the horizon. Conant applies the
+whole to the seasons, the bands of Orion being in this view those of
+winter.]
+
+[Footnote 94: It would be unfair to suppress the farther probability
+that the writer intends specially to indicate that the sacred crocodile
+of the Nile was itself a creature of Jehovah, and among the humbler of
+those creatures.]
+
+[Footnote 95: The interesting discovery, by Mr. Beale and others, of
+several species of mammalia in the Purbeck, and that of Professor Emmons
+of a mammal in rocks of similar age in the Southern States of America,
+do not invalidate this statement; for all these, like the _Microlestes_
+of the German trias and the _Amphitherium_ of the Stonesfeld slate, are
+small marsupials belonging to the least perfect type of mammals. The
+discovery of so many species of these humbler creatures, goes far to
+increase the improbability of the existence of the higher mammals.]
+
+[Footnote 96: It is very interesting, in connection with this, to note
+that nearly all the earliest and greatest seats of population and
+civilization have been placed on the more modern geological deposits, or
+on those in which stores of fuel have been accumulated by the growth of
+extinct plants.]
+
+[Footnote 97: See Appendix.]
+
+[Footnote 98: See Appendix for farther discussion of this subject.]
+
+[Footnote 99: See Lyell, Principles of Geology, "Introduction of
+Species."]
+
+[Footnote 100: For the exposition of the details of the fall, I beg to
+refer the reader to McDonald's "Creation and the Fall," to Kitto's
+"Antediluvians and Patriarchs," and to Kurtz's "History of the Old
+Covenant."]
+
+[Footnote 101: The Bible specifies, perhaps only as the principal of
+these arts, music and musical instruments by Jubal, metallurgy by
+Tubalcain, the domestication of cattle and the nomade life by Jabal. It
+is highly probable that these inventors are introduced into the Mosaic
+record for a theological reason, to point out the folly of the worship
+rendered to Phtha, Heph�stos, Vulcan, Horus, Phoebus, and other
+inventors, either traditionary representatives of the family of Lamech,
+or other heroes wrongly identified with them. Very possibly their sister
+Naamah, "the beautiful," is introduced for the same reason, as the true
+original of some of the female deities of the heathen.]
+
+[Footnote 102: I can not for a moment entertain the monstrous
+supposition of many expositors that the "sons of God" of these passages
+are angels, and the "Nephelim" hybrids between angels and men.]
+
+[Footnote 103: See Lange's "Commentary on Genesis."]
+
+[Footnote 104: The Russian surveys of 1836 made it one hundred and eight
+English feet; but later authorities reduce it to eighty-three feet six
+inches below the Black Sea.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Kitto's "Bible Illustrations"--Book of Job.]
+
+[Footnote 106: See article "Rephaim" in Kitto's "Journal of Sacred
+Literature." But Gesenius and others regard it, not as an ethnic name,
+but as a term for the "shades" or spirits of the dead. See Conant on
+Job.]
+
+[Footnote 107: On the Biblical view of this subject, the so-called
+Aryan mythology, common to India and Greece, is either a derivative from
+the Cushite civilization, or a spontaneous growth of the Japetic stock
+scattered by the Cushite empire. The Semitic and Hamitic mythologies are
+derived from the primeval cherubic worship of Eden, corrupted and mixed
+with deification of natural objects and stages of the creative work, and
+with adoration of deified ancestors and heroes.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Genesis 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th chapters. See also our
+previous remarks on the deluge.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Genesis iv.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Japheth is "enlargement," his sons are Scythians and
+inhabitants of the isles, varying in language and nationality; and Noah
+predicts, "God shall enlarge Japheth, he shall dwell in the tents of
+Shem, Ham shall be his servant." These are surely characteristic
+ethnological traits for a period so early. On the rationalist view, it
+may be supposed that this prediction was not written until the
+characters in question had developed themselves; but since the greatest
+enlargement of Japheth has occurred since the discovery of America,
+there would be quite as good ground for maintaining that Noah's prophecy
+was interpolated after the time of Columbus.]
+
+[Footnote 111: The language of this people, the stem of the
+Indo-European languages, is, though in a later form, probably that of
+the Aryan or Persepolitan part of the trilingual inscriptions at
+Behistun and elsewhere in Persia.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Edkins, "China's Place in Philology."]
+
+[Footnote 113: Reginald S. Poole has adduced very ingenious arguments,
+monumental, astronomical, and mythological, for the date B.C. 2717.]
+
+[Footnote 114: It is curious that almost simultaneously with the
+appearance of Bunsen's scheme a similiar view was attempted to be
+maintained on geological grounds. In a series of borings in the delta of
+the Nile, undertaken by Mr. Horner, there was found a piece of pottery
+at a depth which appeared to indicate an antiquity of 13,371 years. But
+the basis of the calculation is the rate of deposit (3-1/2 inches per
+century) calculated for the ground around the statue of Rameses II. at
+Memphis, dated at 1361 B.C.; and Mr. Sharpe has objected that no mud
+could have been deposited around that statue from its erection until the
+destruction of Memphis, perhaps 800 years B.C. Farther, we have to take
+into account the natural or artificial changes of the river's bed, which
+in this very place is said to have been diverted from its course by
+Menes, and which near Cairo is now nearly a mile from its former site.
+The liability to error and fraud in boring operations is also very well
+known. It has farther been suggested that the deep cracks which form in
+the soil of Egypt, and the sinking of wells in ancient times, are other
+probable causes of error; and it is stated that pieces of burnt brick,
+which was not in use in Egypt until the Roman times, have been found at
+even greater depths than the pottery referred to by Mr. Horner. This
+discovery, at first sight so startling, and vouched for by a geologist
+of unquestioned honor and ability, is thus open to the same doubts with
+the Guadaloupe skeletons, the human bones in ossiferous caverns, and
+that found in the mud of the Mississippi; all of which have, on
+examination, proved of no value as proofs of the geological antiquity of
+man.]
+
+[Footnote 115: 5004 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Perhaps the earliest certain date in Egyptian history is
+that of Thothmes III. of the eighteenth dynasty, ascertained by Birch on
+astronomical evidence as about 1445 B.C. (about 1600, Manetho); and it
+seems nearly certain that before the eighteenth dynasty, of which this
+king was the fifth sovereign, there was no settled general government
+over all Egypt.]
+
+[Footnote 117: The Egyptians seem, like our modern cattle-breeders, to
+have taken pride in the initiation and preservation of varieties. Their
+sacred bull, Apis, was required to represent one of the varieties of the
+ox; and one can scarcely avoid believing that some of their deified
+ancestors must have earned their celebrity as tamers or breeders of
+animals. At a later period, the experiments of Jacob with Laban's flock
+furnish a curious instance of attempts to induce variation.]
+
+[Footnote 118: See for evidence of these views early notices in Genesis,
+and Lenormant and Osburne on Egyptian Monuments and History.]
+
+[Footnote 119: There is no good reason to believe the flint implements
+mentioned by Delano�e and others, as found on the banks of the Nile, to
+be older than the historic period.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Wilson, "Prehistoric Man," 2d edition, p. 68.]
+
+[Footnote 121: Southall has accumulated a great number of these facts in
+his book on the antiquity of man.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Professor Issel, quoted in _Popular Science Monthly_.]
+
+[Footnote 123: Wilson has remarked the striking similarity of the
+pottery of these people to American fictile wares. This similarity
+applies also to the early Cyprian art.]
+
+[Footnote 124: I agree with Gladstone's conclusions as to the date and
+country of Homer.]
+
+[Footnote 125: I suggested these terms in my lectures published under
+the title "Nature and the Bible," 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Since these words were written I have read the remarkable
+book of Edkins on the Chinese language, which supplies much additional
+information.]
+
+[Footnote 127: Donaldson has pointed out (British Association
+Proceedings, 1851) links of connection between the Slavonian or
+Sarmatian tongues and the Semitic languages, which in like manner
+indicate the primitive union of the two great branches of languages.]
+
+[Footnote 128: "Man and his Migrations." See also "Descriptive
+Ethnology," where the Semitic affinities are very strongly brought out.]
+
+[Footnote 129: I can scarcely except such terms as "Japetic" and
+"Japetid�," for Iapetus can hardly be any thing else than a traditional
+name borrowed from Semitic ethnology, or handed down from the Japhetic
+progenitors of the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 130: See art. "Philology," Encyc. Brit.]
+
+[Footnote 131: Grammatical structure is no doubt more permanent than
+vocabulary, yet we find great changes in the latter, both in tracing
+cognate languages from one region to another, and from period to period.
+The Indo-Germanic languages in Europe furnish enough of familiar
+instances.]
+
+[Footnote 132: It is fair, however, to observe that the Bible refers the
+first great divergence of language to a divine intervention at the Tower
+of Babel. The precise nature of this we do not know; but it would tend
+to diminish the time required.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Lecture in the Royal Institution, March 24, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 134: "Antiquity of Man," 4th ed.]
+
+[Footnote 135: Southall, _Op. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 136: The Mentone skeleton described by Dr. Rivi�re gives
+evidence of these facts.]
+
+[Footnote 137: Mr. Pengelly declines to admit this; but assigns no cause
+for the breaking up of portions of the old floor, which he merely refers
+in general terms to "natural causes."]
+
+[Footnote 138: This whole subject of supposed preglacial or interglacial
+men is still in great confusion and uncertainty, and is complicated with
+questions, still debated, as to the ages of the supposed glacial and
+postglacial deposits.]
+
+[Footnote 139: _Quarterly Journal of Science_, April, 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Lyell's "Manual of Elementary Geology."]
+
+[Footnote 141: For a full discussion of this subject, see the "Story of
+the Earth and Man."]
+
+[Footnote 142: Such a table, with an admirable exposition of the entire
+succession, as at present known, is given in the Appendix to Lyell's
+"Students' Manual of Geology."]
+
+[Footnote 143: Lyell, basing his calculations on the surveys of Messrs.
+Humphreys and Abbott, but others give very different estimates.]
+
+[Footnote 144: A perfectly parallel example is that of the growth of the
+peninsula of Florida in the modern period, by the same processes now
+adding to its shores; and this has afforded to Professor Agassiz a still
+more extended measure of the Post-tertiary period.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Reade, of Liverpool, has recently given a much slower
+rate--one foot in 13,000 years--as a result of recent English surveys;
+but I have not seen his precise data, and the result certainly differs
+from those of all other observations.]
+
+[Footnote 146: I am quite aware that it may be objected to all this that
+it is based on merely negative evidence; but this is not strictly the
+case. There are positive indications of these truths. For example, in
+the Mesozoic epoch the lacertian reptiles presented huge elephantine
+carnivorous and herbivorous species--the Megalosaurus, Iguanodon, etc.;
+flying species, with hollow bones and ample wings--the Pterodactyles;
+and aquatic whale-like species--Pliosaurus, Ichthyosaurus, etc. These
+creatures actually filled the offices now occupied by the mammals; and,
+though lacertian in their affinities, they must have had circulatory,
+respiratory, and nervous systems far in advance of any modern reptiles
+even of the order of Loricates.]
+
+[Footnote 147: "Story of the Earth"--concluding chapters.]
+
+[Footnote 148: This was written in 1860 for the first edition of
+"Archaia." I see no reason to change it now, and its vindication will
+be, found in the Appendix.]
+
+[Footnote 149: Heb. iv., 9; 2 Peter iii., 13.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Hamilton.]
+
+[Footnote 151: In the manner illustrated by Hyatt and Cope.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Report on Fossil Plants of the Upper Silurian and
+Devonian, 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 153: Drysdale's "Protoplasmic Theories of Life."]
+
+[Footnote 154: Lecture before the Royal Institution of London.]
+
+[Footnote 155: _Leisure Hour_, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 156: See critique in _International Review_, January, 1877.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Reported in _Nature_, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 158: "History of Creation."]
+
+[Footnote 159: See also Hunt, "Chemical and Geological Essays," p. 35.]
+
+[Footnote 160: Except, perhaps, Job xxxi., 27.]
+
+[Footnote 161: "Animals and Plants under Domestication," p. 406.]
+
+[Footnote 162: Prichard. This is admitted by Darwin, who gives other
+examples, though he insists much on the climatal variations which still
+remain in feral pigs.]
+
+[Footnote 163: "North American Indians."]
+
+[Footnote 164: Haliburton's "Nova Scotia;" Gilpin's Lecture on Sable
+Island.]
+
+[Footnote 165: "Principles of Geology;" "Natural History of Man." See
+also a very able article on the "Varieties of Man," by Dr. Carpenter, in
+Todd's Cyclop�dia.]
+
+[Footnote 166: "The Races of Men," etc. Boston, 1848.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Browne, of Philadelphia, quoted by Kneeland and others.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Todd's Cyclop�dia, art. "Varieties of Man."]
+
+[Footnote 169: "Prehistoric Man."]
+
+[Footnote 170: Carpenter in Todd's Cyclop�dia.]
+
+[Footnote 171: For an interesting inquiry into the origin of the dog,
+see the article in Todd's Cyclop�dia already referred to; and the
+subject is fully discussed by Darwin, who leans to the theory of the
+diversity of origin in dogs.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Prichard, Bachman, Cabell.]
+
+[Footnote 173: A curious note, by Dr. John Rae, on the change of
+complexion in the Sandwich Islanders, consequent on the introduction of
+clothing, may be found in the "Montreal Medical Chronicle," 1856, and
+the "Canadian Journal" for the same year.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Latham's "Descriptive Ethnology."]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Abraham, 25, 270.
+
+Abrahamic Genesis, 18.
+
+Abyss, 104.
+
+"Accommodation," theory of, 61.
+
+Adaptation in nature, 78.
+
+�ons of creation, 132.
+
+Agassiz on prophetic types, 350.
+  on species, 342.
+
+Animals, higher, creation of the, 230.
+  lower, creation of the, 211.
+
+Antediluvians, 253.
+
+Antiquity of man, 263, 386.
+  of man, geological evidence of the, 294.
+  of man, history in relation to the, 271.
+  of man, language in relation to the, 285.
+  of the earth, 154, 331.
+
+_Aretz_ (earth), 94, 175.
+
+Argyll, Duke of, on creation by law, 373.
+  Duke of, on the origin of civilization, 391.
+
+Aryan race, 16, 267.
+
+Assyrian Genesis, 19, 108.
+  Texts, 412.
+
+Astronomy of the Bible, 207.
+
+Atmosphere, constitution of the, 157.
+  creation of the, 160.
+
+Augustine on creative days, 134.
+
+_Aur_ (light), 115.
+
+
+Babel, 258, 266.
+
+_Bara_ (create), 90.
+
+Beaumont, De, on continents, 184.
+
+Bede on creative days, 133.
+
+Beginning, the, 87, 95.
+
+_Behemoth_, 233.
+
+_Bhemah_ (herbivores), 231, 406.
+
+Birds, creation of, 216, 219.
+
+Bronn on the origin of species, 339.
+
+Bronze, age of, 279.
+
+Bunsen's chronology, 273.
+
+
+Cainozoic period, 331.
+
+Carnivora, creation of, 232.
+
+Caverns, human remains in, 298.
+
+Centres of creation, 238.
+
+Chaos, 100, 107.
+  chemistry of, 112.
+
+Chinese language, 288.
+
+Comparisons and conclusions, 322.
+
+"Conflict of the Bible with science," 44.
+
+Continents, their origin, 182.
+
+Cosmogony, Assyrian, 108.
+  Egyptian, 106, 198.
+  Greek, 109.
+  Hebrew, its character, 70.
+  Hebrew, its objects, 35.
+  Hebrew, its origin, 46.
+  Indian, 110, 148.
+  Persian, 147.
+  Phoenician, 107.
+
+Cranial characters of primitive men, 298.
+
+Creation, 90.
+  by law, 373.
+  centres of, 238.
+  days of, 115.
+  modes of, 375, 377.
+  of birds, 216, 219.
+  of carnivora, 232.
+  of great reptiles, 213.
+  of herbivora, 231.
+  of higher animals, 230.
+  of lower animals, 211.
+  of man, 235.
+  of plants, 186.
+
+Croll, calculations of erosion, 334.
+  glacial theory of, 396.
+
+
+Dana on creation of plants, 196.
+  on creative days, 144.
+  on tertiary fauna, 234.
+
+Darwin on species, 338.
+
+Day of creation, first, 115.
+  of creation, second, 157.
+  of creation, third, 174.
+  of creation, fourth, 199.
+  of creation, fifth, 211.
+  of creation, sixth, 230.
+  of creation, seventh, 249.
+
+Days of creation, 115.
+  of creation compared with geological periods, 155.
+  prophetic, 65.
+
+Death before the fall, 355.
+
+"Deep," the, 104.
+
+Deluge, the, 256.
+
+_Desh�_ (herbage), 186.
+
+Design in nature, 78.
+
+Desolate void, 100.
+
+Drysdale on theories of life, 383.
+
+Dupont on Belgian caves, 308.
+
+
+Earth, the, 94, 102, 175.
+  its foundations, 177.
+
+Ecclesiastes, chap. i., 74.
+
+Eden, conditions of, 237, 252.
+  site of, 237-252.
+
+Edkins on the Chinese language, 286, 288.
+
+Egypt, early history of, 272.
+
+Egyptian Cosmogony, 106, 198.
+  Texts, 412.
+
+_Elohim_, 89, 97.
+
+Evans on the erosion of valleys, 313.
+
+Evening of creative days, 138.
+
+Evolution as applied to animals, 226, 363.
+
+Excavation of valleys, 315.
+
+Exodus xxiv., 10, 163.
+
+
+Fall of man, 250.
+
+Final causes, 355.
+
+Firmament, the, 162.
+
+Fluidity, original, of the earth, 110.
+
+Forbes on creation of man, 250.
+
+Foundations of the earth, 177.
+
+Frontal, cave of, 308.
+
+
+Genesis, chap. i., translated, 66.
+  chap. i., 1, 87.
+  chap. i., 2, 100.
+  chap. i., 3 to 5, 115.
+  chap. i., 6 to 8, 157.
+  chap. i., 10 to 11, 174.
+  chap. i., 14 to 19, 199.
+  chap. i., 20 to 23, 211.
+  chap. i., 24 to 31, 230.
+  chap. ii., 1 to 3, 299.
+  chap. iv., 23, 46.
+  chap. x., 22, 263.
+  the Abrahamic, 18.
+  the Assyrian, 20.
+  the Mosaic, 27.
+  the Quich�, 22.
+
+Geology, principles of, 325.
+
+Glacial periods, theories of, 395.
+
+God, personality of, 11.
+
+"Grass" in Genesis i., 186.
+
+Greek myths, 109.
+
+Green on the forms of continents, 184.
+
+
+Haeckel on the affiliation of races, 289.
+  on man and apes, 389.
+
+Hamite races, 268.
+
+Harmony of revelation and science, 342.
+
+Havilah, productions of, 255.
+
+_Hay'th-eretz_ (wild beast), 232.
+
+Heavens, the, 92, 165.
+
+Herbivora, creation of, 231.
+
+Hindoos, cosmogony of the, 149.
+
+Hitchcock on creative days, 141.
+
+Horner on the alluvium of the Nile, 274.
+
+Hughes on the excavation of valleys, 315.
+  on interglacial periods, 295.
+  on stalagmite, 388.
+  on the Victoria Cave, 387.
+
+Humboldt on Hebrew poetry, 39.
+
+Hunt on the chemistry of the primeval earth, 400.
+
+Hurakon, 107.
+
+Hut of Sodertelge, 386.
+
+
+Ice-freshets in America, 314
+
+Incandescence of the earth, 110, 119.
+
+India, cosmogony of, 149.
+
+
+Japhetic races, 267, 268.
+
+Jehovah, 96.
+
+Job ix., 5, 176.
+  ix., 9, 206.
+  xxii., 15, 257.
+  xxviii., 179.
+  xxviii., 26, 73.
+  xxxvi., 166.
+  xxxvii., 14, 161.
+  xxxviii., 166, 177, 206.
+
+Jones, Sir W., on Indian cosmogony, 149.
+
+
+Kent's Cavern, 302.
+
+Kurtz on days of vision, 49.
+
+
+Lamech, his poem, 46.
+
+Land, its creation, 174.
+  geological history of, 182.
+
+Languages, unity of, 285, 291.
+
+La Place, nebular hypothesis of, 119.
+
+Latham on African languages, 288.
+  on the radiation of languages, 289.
+
+Laws of nature, in the Bible, 73.
+
+Lemuria, 289.
+
+Leviticus xi., 212.
+
+Life, succession of, 331, 337.
+  theories of, 383.
+
+Light, 115, 121.
+
+Logos, 96.
+
+Luminaries, 199.
+
+Lyell on the cause of the glacial period, 397.
+  on the delta of the Mississippi, 333.
+  on the pleistocene period, 297.
+
+
+Mammals, creation of, 231.
+
+Mammoth age, 299.
+
+Man, antiquity of, 386.
+  creation of, 235.
+  neocosmic, 285.
+  pal�ocosmic, 285, 319.
+
+Man, unity of, 263, 414.
+
+Manetho, chronology of, 273.
+
+Margite, cave of, 308.
+
+Menes, his epoch, 273.
+
+Mesozoic period, 218, 331.
+
+Miller on creative days, 135.
+
+Mining noticed in the Bible, 179.
+
+Mississippi, delta of the, 333.
+
+Mist watering the ground, 189.
+
+Modern period of geology, 251.
+
+Modes of creation, 377.
+
+Moffatt on African languages, 292.
+
+Morse on the evolution of man, 391.
+
+Mosaic Genesis, 27.
+
+M�ller's classification of religions, 14.
+
+Mythology, ancient, its origin, 408.
+  of the atmosphere, 171.
+  as related to the Bible, 109, 261.
+
+
+Nature, study of, 244.
+
+Neocosmic man, 285.
+
+"Neolithic" men, 278.
+
+Niagara, excavation of, 312.
+
+Nimrod, 259.
+
+Noah, sons of, 266.
+
+
+Pal�ocosmic men, 285, 319.
+
+"Pal�olithic" men, 278.
+
+Pal�ozoic animals, 217.
+  period, 231.
+
+Parallelism of Scripture and geology, 343.
+
+Pattison on the antiquity of man, 318.
+
+Pengelly on Kent's Cavern, 302.
+  on stalagmite, 387.
+
+Periods, creative, 126.
+  geological, 330.
+
+Persians, cosmogony of the, 147.
+
+Philological evidence of the antiquity of man, 285.
+
+Pictet on the origin of species, 339.
+
+Pierce on the forms of continents, 184.
+
+Pillars of the earth, 177.
+
+Plants, creation of, 186.
+
+Plastids and plastidules, 377.
+
+Pratt, Archdeacon, on _bhemah_, 406.
+
+Prayer and law, 171.
+
+Progress in nature, 75, 337.
+
+Proverbs, viii., 74, 96, 176.
+
+Psalm viii., 208.
+  viii., 1, 94.
+  xviii., 178.
+  xix., 208.
+  xc., 108.
+  civ., 164, 175, 178, 224.
+  cxix., 90, 74.
+  cxix., 20, 176.
+  cxxxix., 84.
+  cxlvii., 208.
+  cxlviii., 6, 73.
+
+Purpose in nature, 78.
+
+
+Quich� Genesis, 22, 107.
+
+
+_Rakiah_ (the expanse), 162.
+
+Rawlinson on historical dates, 390.
+
+Reconciliation of the Bible and geology, 342.
+
+Reindeer age, 299.
+
+Religion, Aryan, 16.
+  Turanian, 15.
+  Semitic, 16.
+
+_Remes_ (creeping things), 215.
+
+_Rephaim_, 257.
+
+Reptiles, 213, 215.
+
+Revelation, idea of, 12.
+
+River valleys, excavation of, 314.
+
+Ruach Elohim, 106.
+
+Rutimeyer on interglacial men, 386.
+
+
+Sabbath, the, as related to ages of creation, 130.
+  of the Creator, 249.
+
+Schliemann on Troy, 282.
+
+_Shamayim_ (heavens), 92.
+
+Shemite races, 16.
+
+_Sheretz_ (swarming creature), 211.
+
+Somme, gravels of the, 313.
+
+Song of creation, 66.
+
+Species, Agassiz on, 61.
+  Bronn on, 339.
+  distinct from varieties, 414.
+  in Genesis i., 215.
+  origin of, 368, 378.
+
+Spirit of God in creation, 106.
+
+Stalagmite, deposition of, 310, 385.
+
+_Stereoma_, 162.
+
+Stone, ages of, 281.
+
+
+Table of Biblical periods, 352.
+  of geological periods, 330.
+
+Tait, Prof., on the age of the earth, 154.
+
+_Tannin_ (great reptile), 213, 405.
+
+Tennyson on types in nature, 222.
+
+Theories of the origin of genesis, 51.
+
+Thomson, Sir Wm., on the age of the earth, 154.
+
+Time, geological, 321, 332.
+
+Torel on the Sodertelge hut, 386.
+
+Troy, as described by Schliemann, 282.
+
+Type in nature, 82, 222.
+
+
+Unity of man, 263, 414.
+  of nature, 36.
+
+Universe, the unseen, 11.
+
+
+Variation, laws of, 414.
+
+Veda, its cosmogony, 110.
+
+Vegetation, its creation, 186.
+  of Eozoic period, 192.
+
+Victoria Cave, 386.
+
+Vision of creation, 65.
+
+Void, the, 100.
+
+
+Wallace on evolution, 373.
+  on primitive man, 389.
+
+Waters above the heavens, 159.
+
+"Whales, great," 213.
+
+Wilson on American skulls, 427.
+  on ancient pottery, 283.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+By PRINCIPAL DAWSON.
+
+
+EARTH AND MAN. The Story of the Earth and Man. By J. W. DAWSON,
+LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal and Vice-Chancellor of McGill
+University, Montreal. With Twenty Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $1
+50.
+
+     An admirable book. It is a clear and interesting _r�sum�_ of
+     the results of geological investigation, told in simple
+     language, devoid of technicalities. The unscientific reader
+     will obtain more knowledge of geology in one hour's reading
+     of this book than he will in a week's study of more
+     elaborate and professional books upon the same subject. It
+     is vigorously written, and with a certain picturesqueness
+     that is exceedingly attractive. The chapters upon primitive
+     man are peculiarly interesting.--_Saturday Evening Gazette_,
+     Boston.
+
+     The pleasantly written volume before us tells the story of
+     the paleontology and physical geography of the earth in
+     prehuman ages, and closes with a discussion of the theories
+     of the appearance, late in geological time, of man upon the
+     earth. Dr. Dawson's sketch of paleontology will, we feel
+     sure, be found interesting by all readers.--_Athen�um_,
+     London.
+
+     Since Hugh Miller's time no scientific geologist has done
+     more than Principal Dawson to extend popular interest in
+     this branch of study, to secure attention to its educational
+     value, or to remove misapprehensions which exist in some
+     quarters as to the relations of science and Scripture on
+     geological questions.--_Leisure Hour_, London.
+
+     We have read his book with profound interest. It is
+     intelligible, candid, modest.--_Boston Transcript._
+
+
+ORIGIN OF THE WORLD. The Origin of the World, according to
+Revelation and Science. By J. W. DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
+&c. 12mo, Cloth.
+
+       *     *     *     *     *
+
+PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK.
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS _will send either of the above works by mail,
+postage prepaid, to any part of the United Slates, on receipt of
+the price._
+
+By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
+
+
+SKETCHES OF CREATION: a Popular View of some of the Grand
+Conclusions of the Sciences in Reference to the History of Matter
+and of Life. Together with a Statement of the Intimations of
+Science respecting the Primordial Condition and the Ultimate
+Destiny of the Earth and the Solar System. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
+LL.D. With Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00.
+
+
+A GEOLOGICAL CHART: exhibiting the Classification and Relative Positions
+of the Rocks, and the Various Phenomena of Stratigraphical Geology;
+together with an Indication of Geological Equivalents, the most
+important American and Foreign Synonyms, the Economical Products of the
+Rocks, and numerous Typical Localities; with an Actual Section from the
+Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains, near the Parallel of Thirty-nine
+Degrees. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL.D. Mounted on roller, $10 00.
+
+_With a Key._ 8vo, Paper, 25 cents.
+
+
+THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION; its Data, its Principles, its
+Speculations, and its Theistic Bearings. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
+LL.D. 12mo, Cloth, $1 00.
+
+
+RECONCILIATION OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
+LL.D. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00.
+
+
+_Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, New York._
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS _will send any of the above works by mail,
+postage prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of
+the price._
+
+
+
+
+
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+Revelation and Science, by John William Dawson
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the World According to
+Revelation and Science, by John William Dawson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
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+Title: The Origin of the World According to Revelation and Science
+
+Author: John William Dawson
+
+Release Date: July 2, 2010 [EBook #33049]
+
+Language: English
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD ***
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+<p>[Transcriber's note: All footnotes are renumbered and moved to the end of
+the text before the index.]</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h4 style="margin-top: 8em;">THE</h4>
+<h1>ORIGIN OF THE WORLD,</h1>
+<h4>ACCORDING TO</h4>
+<h2>REVELATION AND SCIENCE.</h2>
+
+<h3 class="smcap" style="margin-top: 2em;">By J. W. DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,</h3>
+
+<h6>PRINCIPAL AND VICE-CHANCELLOR OF M'GILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL; AUTHOR OF<br />
+"ACADIAN GEOLOGY," "THE STORY OF THE EARTH AND MAN," "LIFE'S DAWN ON<br />
+EARTH," ETC.</h6>
+
+
+<p style="text-align:center; margin-top: 2em;">"Speak to the Earth, and it shall teach thee."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 20em;">&mdash;<i>Job.</i></span><br />
+<span class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<img src="images/icon.jpg" width="286" height="171" alt="" title="" /></span><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+<h3>NEW YORK:</h3>
+<h4>HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,</h4>
+<h6>FRANKLIN SQUARE.</h6>
+<h5>1877.</h5>
+
+
+<h4 style="text-align:center; margin-top: 2em;">TO HIS EXCELLENCY<br />
+<big><big>THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF DUFFERIN,<br />
+K.P., K.C.B., E</big>TC.,</big><br />
+GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF CANADA,<br /><br />
+<i><big>This Work is Respectfully Dedicated</big></i>,<br /><br />
+AS A SLIGHT TRIBUTE OF ESTEEM TO ONE WHO GRACES THE<br />
+HIGHEST POSITION IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA BY HIS<br />
+EMINENT PERSONAL QUALITIES, HIS REPUTATION AS<br />
+A STATESMAN AND AN AUTHOR, AND HIS KIND<br />
+AND ENLIGHTENED PATRONAGE OF EDUCATION,<br />
+LITERATURE, AND SCIENCE.</h4>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="margin-top: 4em;"><big>PREFACE.</big>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>The scope of this work is in the main identical with that of
+"Archaia," published in 1860; but in attempting to prepare a new
+edition brought up to the present condition of the subject, it was
+found that so much required to be rewritten as to make it essentially
+a new book, and it was therefore decided to give it a new name, more
+clearly indicating its character and purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The intention of this new publication is to throw as much light as
+possible on the present condition of the much-agitated questions
+respecting the origin of the world and its inhabitants. To students of
+the Bible it will afford the means of determining the precise import
+of the biblical references to creation, and of their relation to what
+is known from other sources. To geologists and biologists it is
+intended to give some intelligible explanation of the connection of
+the doctrines of revealed religion with the results of their
+respective sciences.</p>
+
+<p>A still higher end to which the author would gladly contribute is that
+of aiding thoughtful men perplexed with the apparent antagonisms of
+science and religion, and of indicating how they may best harmonize
+our great and growing knowledge of nature with our old and cherished
+beliefs as to the origin and destiny of man.</p>
+
+<p>In aiming at these results, it has not been thought necessary to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span>
+assume a controversial attitude or to stand on the defensive, either
+with regard to religion or science, but rather to attempt to arrive at
+broad and comprehensive views which may exhibit those higher harmonies
+of the spiritual and the natural which they derive from their common
+Author, and which reach beyond the petty difficulties arising from
+narrow or imperfect views of either or both. Such an aim is too high
+to be fully attained, but in so far as it can be reached we may hope
+to rescue science from a dry and barren infidelity, and religion from
+mere fruitless sentiment or enfeebling superstition.</p>
+
+<p>Since the publication of "Archaia," the subject of which it treats has
+passed through several phases, but the author has seen no reason to
+abandon in the least degree the principles of interpretation on which
+he then insisted, and he takes a hopeful view as to their ultimate
+prevalence. It is true that the wide acceptance of hypotheses of
+"evolution" has led to a more decided antagonism than heretofore
+between some of the utterances of scientific men and the religious
+ideas of mankind, and to a contemptuous disregard of revealed religion
+in the more shallow literature of the time; but, on the other hand, a
+barrier of scientific fact and induction has been slowly rising to
+stem this current of crude and rash hypothesis. Of this nature are the
+great discoveries as to the physical constitution and probable origin
+of the universe, the doctrine of the correlation and conservation of
+forces, the new estimates of the age of the earth, the overthrow of
+the doctrine of spontaneous generation, the high bodily and mental
+type of the earliest known men, the light which philology has thrown
+on the unity of language, our growing knowledge of the uniformity of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span>
+the constructive and other habits of primitive men, and of the
+condition of man in the earlier historic time, the greater
+completeness of our conceptions as to the phenomena of life and their
+relation to organizable matters&mdash;all these and many other aspects of
+the later progress of science must tend to bring it back into greater
+harmony with revealed religion.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side, there has been a growing disposition on the part of
+theologians to inquire as to the actual views of nature presented in
+the Bible, and to separate these from those accretions of obsolete
+philosophy which have been too often confounded with them. With
+respect to the first chapter of Genesis more especially, there has
+been a decided growth in the acceptance of those principles for which
+I contended in 1860. In illustration of this I may refer to the fact
+that in 1862 it was precisely on these principles that Dr. McCaul
+conducted his able defence of the Mosaic record of creation in the
+"Aids to Faith," which may almost be regarded as an authoritative
+expression of the views of orthodox Christians in opposition to those
+of the once notorious "Essays and Reviews." Equally significant is the
+adoption of this method of interpretation by Dr. Tayler Lewis in his
+masterly "Special Introduction" to the first chapter of Genesis, in
+the American edition of Lange's Commentary, edited by Dr. Philip
+Schaff; and the manifest approval with which the lucid statement of
+the relations of Geology and the Bible by Dr. Arnold Guyot, was
+received by the great gathering of divines at the Convention of the
+Evangelical Alliance in New York, in 1873, bears testimony to the same
+fact. The author has also had the honor of being invited to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>
+illustrate this mode of reconciliation to the students of two of the
+most important theological colleges in America, in lectures afterwards
+published and widely circulated.</p>
+
+<p>The time is perhaps nearer than we anticipate when Natural Science and
+Theology will unite in the conviction that the first chapter of
+Genesis "stands alone among the traditions of mankind in the wonderful
+simplicity and grandeur of its words," and that "the meaning of these
+words is always a meaning ahead of science&mdash;not because it anticipates
+the results of science, but because it is independent of them, and
+runs as it were round the outer margin of all possible discovery."
+<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>In the Appendix the reader will find several short essays on special
+points collateral to the general subject, and important in the
+solution of some of its difficulties, but which could not be
+conveniently included in the text. More especially I would refer to
+the summaries given in the Appendix of the present state of our
+knowledge as to the origin of life, of species, and of man&mdash;topics not
+discussed in much detail in the body of the work, both because of the
+wide fields of controversy to which they lead, and because I have
+treated of them somewhat fully in a previous work, "The Story of the
+Earth and Man," in which the detailed history of life as disclosed by
+science was the main subject in hand.</p>
+
+<p><span style="float: right;">J. W. D.</span><br /></p>
+
+<p><i><small><span style="float:left;">May, 1877.</span></small></i><br /></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p style="text-align:center;font-size:150%;">CONTENTS.</p>
+<hr style="width:10%;" />
+
+
+
+<table width="75%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Table of Contents">
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">THE MYSTERY OF ORIGINS AND ITS SOLUTIONS.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">Reality of the Unseen.&mdash;Personality of God.&mdash;
+Possibility of a Revelation of Origins.&mdash;Turanian, Aryan, and Semitic Solutions of the Mystery.&mdash;
+The Abrahamic Genesis.&mdash;The Mosaic Genesis</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_9">Page 9</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">Objects to be Attained by a Revelation of Origins.&mdash;Its Method and
+Structure.&mdash;Vision of Creation.&mdash;Translation of the First Chapter of Genesis</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS (<i>continued</i>).</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">Character of the Revelation and its Views of Nature.&mdash;Natural Law.&mdash;
+Progress and Development.&mdash;Purpose and Use.&mdash;Type or Pattern</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">THE BEGINNING.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">The Universe not eternal.&mdash;Its Creation.&mdash;The Heavens.&mdash;The Earth.&mdash;
+The Creator, Elohim.&mdash;The Beginning very Remote in Time</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">THE DESOLATE VOID.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">Characteristics of Biblical Chaos.&mdash;The Primitive Deep.&mdash;The Divine
+Spirit.&mdash;The Breath of God.&mdash;Chaos in other Cosmogonies.&mdash;Chemical
+and Physical Conditions of the Primitive Chaos</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">LIGHT AND CREATIVE DAYS.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">What is Implied in Cosmic Light.&mdash;Its Gradual Condensation.&mdash;Day and
+Night.&mdash;Days of Creation.&mdash;Their Nature and Length.&mdash;They are
+Olams, &AElig;ons or Time-worlds.&mdash;Objections to this View Answered.&mdash;Confirmations from Extraneous Sources.</td>
+<td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">THE ATMOSPHERE.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">Its Present Constitution.&mdash;Waters Above and Below.&mdash;The "Expanse"
+of Genesis not a Solid Arch.&mdash;Mythology of the Atmosphere.&mdash;
+Superstitions connected with it Opposed by the Bible.</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">THE DRY LAND AND THE FIRST PLANTS.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">The Earth of the Bible is the Dry Land.&mdash;Its Elevation and Support
+above the Waters.&mdash;Structure of the Continents arranged from the first.&mdash; The First Vegetation.&mdash;Its Nature.&mdash;
+Introduction of Life.&mdash; Organization and Reproduction.&mdash;Objections considered.&mdash; Geological Indications.</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">LUMINARIES.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">How Introduced.&mdash;What Implied in this.&mdash;Dominion of Existing Causes.
+&mdash;Astronomy of the Hebrews.&mdash;Not Connected with Astrology</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">THE LOWER ANIMALS.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">The Sheretzim, or Swarmers.&mdash;Their Origin from the Waters.&mdash;
+The Great Reptiles.&mdash;Their Creation.&mdash;Coincidences with Geology.&mdash; Hypotheses of Evolution</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">THE HIGHER ANIMALS AND MAN.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">The Placental Mammals.&mdash;The Principal Groups of these.&mdash;
+Man, how Introduced.&mdash;His Early Condition.&mdash;His Relations to Nature</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">THE REST OF THE CREATOR.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">The Sabbath of Creation.&mdash;The Modern Period.&mdash;Its Early History.
+&mdash;The Fall and Antediluvian Man.&mdash;Postdiluvian Extension of Men</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">Biblical Account of his Introduction and Early History.&mdash;
+Historical Testimony with respect to his Unity and Antiquity.&mdash;Testimony of Language</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN (<i>continued</i>).</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">Geological Evidence of Antiquity of Man.&mdash;General Conditions of
+Post-glacial and Modern Periods.&mdash;Remains of Man in Caverns, in River-gravels, etc.&mdash;Pal&aelig;ocosmic and Neocosmic Men</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;">COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;">Geological Chronology.&mdash;Table of Succession of Life.&mdash;Points of
+Agreement of the Two Records.&mdash;Parallelism of Genesis and Physical
+Science with Reference to the Origin and Early History of the World.&mdash;Conclusion</td>
+ <td style="text-align:right;font-size:100%;"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Appendices">
+
+ <tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:140%;">APPENDICES.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">A.&mdash;True and False Evolution</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">B.&mdash;Evolution and Creation by Law.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">C.&mdash;Modes of Creation.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_377">377</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">D.&mdash;Theories of Life.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">E.&mdash;Recent Facts as to the Antiquity of Man.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">F.&mdash;Glacial Periods in Connection with Genesis</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">G.&mdash;Chemistry of the Primeval Earth.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_400">400</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">H.&mdash;Tannin and Bhemah.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">I.&mdash;Ancient Mythologies.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_408">408</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">K.&mdash;Assyrian and Egyptian Texts.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_412">412</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:left;">L.&mdash;Species and Varieties in Connection with Evolution and the Unity of Man.</td><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Footnotes">
+ <tr><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td style="text-align:right;"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1>THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD.</h1>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">THE MYSTERY OF ORIGINS AND ITS SOLUTIONS.</span><br /><br />
+
+<span  style="font-size:50%;">"The things that are seen are temporal."&mdash;<span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Paul.</span></span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Have we or can we have any certain solution of those two great
+questions&mdash;Whence are all things? and Whither do all things tend?
+No thinking man is content to live merely in a transitory
+present, ever emerging out of darkness and ever returning thither
+again, without knowing any thing of the origin and issue of the
+world and its inhabitants. Yet it would seem that to-day men are
+as much in uncertainty on these subjects as at any previous time.
+It even appears as if all our added knowledge would only, for a
+time at least, deprive us of the solutions to which we trusted,
+and give no others in their room. Christians have been accustomed
+to rest on the cosmogony and prophecy of the Bible; but we are
+now frankly told on all hands that these are valueless, and that
+even ministers of religion more or less "sacrifice their
+sincerity" in making them the basis of their teachings. On the
+other hand, we are informed that nothing can be discerned in the
+universe beyond matter and force, and that it is by a purely
+material and spontaneous evolution that all things exist. But
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+when we ask as to the origin of matter and force, and the laws
+which regulate them&mdash;as to the end to which their movement is
+tending, as to the manner in which they have evolved the myriad
+forms of life and the human intelligence itself&mdash;the only answer
+is that these are "insoluble mysteries."</p>
+
+<p>Are we, then, to fall back on the real or imagined revelations
+and traditions of the past, and to endeavor to find in them some
+foothold of assurance; or are we to wait till further progress in
+science may have cleared up some of the present mysteries?
+Whatever may be said of the former alternative, all honest
+students of science will unite with me in the admission that the
+latter is hopeless. We need not seek to belittle the magnificent
+triumphs of modern science. They have been real and stupendous.
+But it is of their very nature to conduct us to ultimate facts
+and laws of which science can give no explanation; and the
+further we push our inquiries the more insuperably does the wall
+of mystery rise before us. It is true we can furnish the
+materials for philosophical speculations which may be built on
+scientific facts and principles; but these are in their nature
+uncertain, and must constantly change as knowledge advances. They
+can not solve for us the great practical problems of our origin
+and destiny.</p>
+
+<p>In these circumstances no apology is needed for a thorough and
+careful inquiry into those foundations of religious belief which
+rest on the idea of a revelation of origins and destinies made to
+man from without, and on which we may build the superstructure of
+a rational religion, giving guidance for the present and hope for
+the future. In the following pages I propose to enter upon so
+much of this subject as relates to the origin and earliest
+history of the world, in so far as these are treated of in the
+Bible and in the traditions of the more ancient nations; and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+this with reference to the present standpoint of science in
+relation to these questions.</p>
+
+<p>To discuss such questions at all, certain preliminary admissions
+are necessary. These are: (1) The reality of an unseen universe,
+spiritual rather than material in its nature. (2) The existence
+of a personal God, or of a great Universal Will. (3) The
+possibility of communication taking place between God and man. I
+do not propose to attempt any proof of these positions, but it
+may be well to explain what they mean.</p>
+
+<p>(1) That the great machine for the dissipation of energy, in
+which we exist, and which we call the universe, must have a
+correlative and complement in the unseen, is a conclusion now
+forced upon physicists by the necessities of the doctrine of the
+conservation of force. In short, it seems that, unless we admit
+this conclusion, we can not believe in the possible existence of
+the material universe itself, and must sink into absolute
+nihilism. This doctrine is expressed by the apostle Paul in the
+statement, "The things that are seen are temporal, but the things
+that are not seen are eternal," and it has been ably discussed by
+the authors of the remarkable work, "The Unseen Universe." That
+this unseen world is spiritual&mdash;that is, not subject to the same
+material laws with the visible universe&mdash;is also a fair deduction
+from physical science, as well as a doctrine of Scripture. I
+prefer the term spiritual to supernatural, because the first is
+the term used in the Bible, and because the latter has had
+associated with it ideas of the miraculous and abnormal, not
+implied at all in the idea of the spiritual, which in some
+important senses may be more natural than the material.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The idea of a personal God implies not merely the existence
+of an unknown absolute power, as Herbert Spencer seems to hold,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+or of "an Eternal, not ourselves, that makes for righteousness,"
+as Matthew Arnold puts it, but of a Being of whom we can affirm
+will, intelligence, feeling, self-consciousness, not certainly
+precisely as they occur in us, but in a higher and more perfect
+form, of which our own consciousness furnishes the type, or
+"image and shadow," as Moses long ago phrased it. On the one
+hand, it is true that we can not fully comprehend such a personal
+God, because not limited by the conditions which limit us. On the
+other hand, it is clear that our intellect, as constituted, can
+furnish us with no ultimate explanation of the universe except in
+the action of such a primary personal will. In the Bible the
+absolute personality of God is expressed by the title "I am." His
+intimate relation to us is indicated by the expression, "In him
+we live, and move, and have our being." His all-pervading essence
+is stated as "the fullness of him that filleth all in all." His
+relative personality is shadowed forth by the attribution to him
+of love, anger, and other human feelings and sentiments, and by
+presenting him in the endearing relation of the universal Father.</p>
+
+<p>(3) With reference to the possibility of communication between
+God and man, it may truly be said that such communication is not
+only possible, but infinitely probable. God is not only near to
+us, but we are in him, and, independently of the testimony of
+revelation, it has been felt by all classes of men, from the
+rudest and most primitive savages up to our great English
+philosopher, John Stuart Mill, that if there is a God, he can not
+be excluded from communion with his intelligent creatures, either
+directly or through the medium of ministering spirits.
+<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+Farther, placed as man is in the midst of complex and to him
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+inexplicable phenomena, involved in a conflict of good and evil,
+happiness and misery, to which the wisest and the greatest minds
+have found no issue, subject to be degraded by low passions and
+tempted to great extremes of evil, and himself weak, impulsive,
+and vacillating, there seems the most urgent need for divine
+communication. It may be said that these are conflicts and
+problems which God has left man to decide and solve for himself
+by his own reason. But when we consider how slow this process is,
+and how imperfect even now, after the experience of ages, we seem
+to need some intervention that shall stimulate the human mind,
+and impel it forward with greater rapidity. Farther, it would
+appear only right that an intelligent and accountable being,
+placed in a world like this, should have some explanation of his
+origin and destiny given him at first, and that, if he should
+perchance go astray, a helping hand should be extended to him.</p>
+
+<p>Practically it is an historical fact that all the great impulses
+given to humanity have been by men claiming divine guidance or
+inspiration, and professing to bring light and truth from the
+unseen world. It would be too much to say that all these prophets
+and reformers have been inspired of heaven; but scarcely too much
+to say that they have either received a message of God, or have
+been permitted to transmit to our world messages for weal or woe
+from powers without in subordination to him. Farther, we shall
+have reason in the sequel to see that in far back prehistoric
+times there must have been impulses given to mankind, and
+revelations made to them, as potent as those which have acted in
+later historic periods. In Holy Scripture the Word of God is
+represented as "enlightening every man;
+<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+" and with reference to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+our present subject we are told that "by faith we understand that
+the ages of the world were constituted by the Word of God, so
+that the visible things were not made of those which appear."
+<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+In other words, that the will of God has been active and
+operative as the sole cause throughout all ages of the world's
+creation and history, and that the visible universe is not a mere
+product of its own phenomena. We may call this faith, if we
+please, an intuition or instinct, a God-given gift, or a product
+of our own thought acting on evidence afforded by the outer
+world; but in any case it seems to be the sole possible solution
+of the mystery of origins.</p>
+
+<p>These points being premised, we are in a position to inquire as
+to the teaching of our own Holy Scriptures, and in this inquiry
+we can easily take along with them all other revelations,
+pretended or true, that deal with our subject.</p>
+
+<p>Max M&uuml;ller, in his lectures on the Science of Religion, rejects
+the ordinary division into natural and revealed, and adopts a
+threefold grouping, corresponding to the great division of
+languages into Turanian, Aryan, and Semitic. With some
+modification and explanation, this classification will serve well
+our present purpose. As to natural and revealed religions, if we
+regard our own as revealed, we must admit an element of
+revelation in all others as well. According to the Hebrew
+Scriptures revelation began in Eden, and was continued more or
+less in all successive ages up to the apostolic times.
+Consequently the earlier revelations of the antediluvian and
+postdiluvian times must have been the common property of all
+races, and must have been associated with whatever elements of
+natural religion they had. When, therefore, we call our religion
+distinctively a revealed one, we must admit that traces of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+same revelation may be found in all others. On the other hand,
+when we characterize our religion as Hebrew or Semitic, we must
+bear in mind that in its earlier stages it was not so limited;
+but that, if as old as it professes to be, it must include a
+substratum common to it with the old religions of the Turanians
+and Aryans. Neglect of these very simple considerations often
+leads to great confusion in the minds both of Christians and
+unbelievers, as to the relation of Christianity to heathenism,
+and especially to the older and more primitive forms of
+heathenism.</p>
+
+<p>The Turanian stock, of which the Mongolian peoples of Northern
+Asia may be taken as the type, includes also the American races,
+and the oldest historical populations of Western Asia and of
+Europe; and they are the peoples who, in their physical features
+and their art tendencies, most nearly resemble the prehistoric
+men of the caves and gravels. They largely consist of the
+populations which the Bible affiliates with Ham. They are
+remarkable for their permanent and stationary forms of
+civilization or barbarism, and for the languages least developed
+in grammatical structure. These people had and still have
+traditions of the creation and early history of man similar to
+those in the earlier Biblical books; but the connection of their
+religions with that of the Bible breaks off from the time of
+Abraham; and the earlier portions of revelation which they
+possessed became disintegrated into a polytheism which takes very
+largely the form of animism, or of attributing some special
+spiritual indwelling to all natural objects, and also that of
+worship of ancestors and heroes. The portion of primitive
+theological belief to which they have clung most persistently is
+the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, which in all their
+religious beliefs occupies a prominent place, and has always been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+connected with special attention to rites of sepulture and
+monuments to the dead. Their version of the revelation of
+creation appears most distinctly in the sacred book of the
+Quich&eacute;s of Central America, and in the creation myths of the
+Mexicans, Iroquois, Algonquins, and other North American tribes;
+and it has been handed down to us through the Semitic Assyrians
+from the ancient Chald&aelig;o-turanian population of the valley of the
+Euphrates.</p>
+
+<p>The Aryan races have been remarkable for their changeable and
+versatile character. Their religious ideas in the most primitive
+times appear to have been not dissimilar from those of the
+Turanians; and the Indians, Persians, Greeks, Scandinavians, and
+Celts have all gone some length in developing and modifying
+these, apparently by purely human imaginative and intellectual
+materials. But all these developments were defective in a moral
+point of view, and had lost the stability and rational basis
+which proceed from monotheism. Hence they have given way before
+other and higher faiths; and at this day the more advanced
+nations of the Aryan, or in Scriptural language the Japhetic
+stock, have adopted the Semitic faith; and, as Noah long ago
+predicted, "dwell in the tents of Shem." No indigenous account of
+the genesis of things remains among the Aryan races, with the
+exception of that in the Avesta, and in some ancient Hindoo
+hymns, and these are merely variations of the Turanian or Semitic
+cosmogony. God has given to the Aryans no special revelations of
+his will, and they would have been left to grope for themselves
+along the paths of science and philosophy, but for the advent
+among them of the prophets of "Jehovah the God of Shem."</p>
+
+<p>It is to the Semitic race that God has been most liberal in his
+gift of inspiration. Gathering up and treasuring the old common
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+inheritance of religion, and eliminating from it the accretions
+of superstition, the children of Abraham at one time stood alone,
+or almost alone, as adherents of a belief in one God the Creator.
+Their theology was added to from age to age by a succession of
+prophets, all working in one line of development, till it
+culminated in the appearance of Jesus Christ, and then proceeded
+to expand itself over the other races. Among them it has
+undergone two remarkable phases of retrograde development&mdash;the
+one in Mohammedanism, which carries it back to a resemblance to
+its own earlier patriarchal stage, the other in Roman and Greek
+ecclesiasticism, which have taken it back to the Levitical
+system, along with a strong color of paganism. Still its original
+documents survive, and retain their hold on large portions of the
+more enlightened Aryan nations, while through their means these
+documents have entered on a new career of conquest among the
+Semites and Turanians. They are, however, it must be admitted,
+among the Aryan races of Europe, growing in a somewhat
+uncongenial soil; partly because of the materialistic
+organization of these races, and partly because of the abundant
+remains of heathenism which still linger among them; and it is
+possible that they may not realize their full triumphs over
+humanity till the Semitic races return to the position of
+Abraham, and erect again in the world the standard of
+monotheistic faith, under the auspices of a purified
+Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>It follows from this hasty survey that it is the Semitic solution
+of the question of origins, as contained in the Hebrew
+Scriptures, that mainly concerns us; and in the first place we
+must consider the foundation and historical development of this
+solution, as many misconceptions prevail on these points. We may
+discuss these subjects under the heads of the Abrahamic Genesis
+and the Mosaic Genesis, and may in a subsequent chapter consider
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+the results of these in the Genesis of the later Scripture
+writers.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center; margin-top: 3em;">THE ABRAHAMIC GENESIS.</p>
+
+<p>It has been a favorite theory with some learned men that the
+earlier parts of the book of Genesis existed as ancient documents
+even in the time of Moses, and were incorporated by him in his
+work, and attempts have been made to separate, on various
+grounds, the older from the newer portions. Until lately,
+however, these attempts have been altogether conjectural and
+destitute of any positive basis of arch&aelig;ological fact. A new and
+interesting aspect has been given to them by the recent readings
+of the inscriptions on clay tablets found at Nineveh, and to
+which especial attention has been given by the late Mr. G. Smith,
+of the Arch&aelig;ological Department of the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Assurbanipal, king of Assyria, one of the kings known to the
+Greeks by the name of Sardanapalus, reigned at Nineveh about B.C.
+673. He was a grandson of the Biblical Sennacherib, and son of
+Esarhaddon, and it seems that he had inherited from his fathers a
+library of Chaldean and Assyrian literature, written not on
+perishable paper or parchment, but on tablets of clay, and
+containing much ancient lore of the nations inhabiting the
+valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. Assurbanipal, living when
+the Assyrian empire had attained to the acme of its greatness,
+had leisure to become a greater patron of learning than any
+preceding king. His scribes ransacked the record chambers of the
+oldest temples in the world; and Babel, Erech, Accad, and Ur had
+to yield up their treasures of history and theology to diligent
+copyists, who transcribed them in beautiful arrow-head characters
+on new clay tablets, and deposited them in the library of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+great king. It would appear that, at the same time, these
+documents were edited, archaic forms of expression translated,
+and lacun&aelig; caused by decay or fracture repaired. They were also
+inscribed with legends stating the sources whence they had been
+derived.</p>
+
+<p>The empire of Assyria went down in blood, and its palaces were
+destroyed with fire, but the imperishable clay tablets which had
+formed the treasure of their libraries remained, more or less
+broken it is true, among the ruins. Exhumed by Layard and Smith,
+they are now among the collections of the British Museum, and
+their decipherment is throwing a new and strange light on the
+cosmogony and religions of the early East. Though the date of the
+writing of these tablets is comparatively modern, being about the
+time of the later kings of Judah, the original records from which
+they were transcribed profess to have been very ancient&mdash;some of
+them about 1600 years before the time of Assurbanipal, so that
+they go back to a time anterior to that of the early Hebrew
+patriarchs. Their genuineness has been endorsed, in one case, by
+the discovery by Mr. Loftus, in the city of Senkereh, of an
+apparent original, bearing date about 1600 years before Christ,
+and other inscriptions of equal or greater antiquity have been
+found in the ruins of Ur, on the Euphrates. Nor does there seem
+any reason to doubt that the scribes of Assurbanipal faithfully
+transcribed the oldest records extant in their time. Their care
+and diligence are also shown by the fact that where different
+versions of these records existed in different cities, they have
+made copies of these variant manuscripts, instead of attempting
+to reduce them to one text. The subjects treated of in the
+Nineveh tablets are very various, but those that concern our
+present purpose are the documents relating to the creation, the
+fall of man, and the deluge, of which considerable portions have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+been recovered, and have been translated by Mr. Smith.</p>
+
+<p>These documents carry us back to a time when the Turanian
+religions had not yet been separated from the Semitic. The early
+Chaldeans, termed Cushites in the Bible, and who under Nimrod
+seem to have established the first empire in that region, are now
+known to have been Turanian; and among them apparently arose at a
+very early period a literature and a mythology. The Chaldeans
+were politically subjugated by the Semitic Assyrians, but they
+retained their religious predominance; and until a comparatively
+late period existed as a learned and priestly caste. To these
+primitive <i>Chasdim</i> were undoubtedly due the creation legends
+collected by the scribes of Assurbanipal. They were obtained in
+the old Chaldean cities, in the temples under the guardianship of
+Chaldean priests; and their date carries them back to a time
+anterior to the Assyrian conquest, and in which Chaldean kings
+still reigned. Here, then, we have an important connecting link
+between the cosmogonies of the Turanian and Semitic races; and
+leaving out of sight for the present the legends of the deluge
+and other matters allied to it, we may inquire as to the nature
+and contents of the Assyrian and Chaldean record of creation.</p>
+
+<p>The Assyrian Genesis is similar in order and arrangement to that
+in our own Bible, and gives the same general order of the
+creative work. Its days, however, of creation, as indeed there is
+good internal evidence to prove those of Moses also are, seem to
+be periods or ages. It treats of the creation of gods, as well as
+of the universe, and thus introduces a polytheistic system; and
+it seems to recognize, like the Avesta, a primitive principle of
+evil, presiding over chaos, and subsequently introducing evil
+among men. These points may be illustrated by an extract from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+Mr. Smith's translation. It relates to the earlier part of the
+work:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left:2em;">"When above were not raised the heavens,<br />
+And below on the earth a plant had not grown up<br />
+The deep also had not broken up its boundaries<br />
+Chaos (or water) Tiamat (the sea or abyss) was the producing mother<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">of them all</span><br />
+These waters at the beginning were ordained<br />
+But a tree had not grown a flower had not unfolded<br />
+When the gods had not sprung up any one of them<br />
+A plant had not grown and order did not exist<br />
+Were made also the great gods<br />
+The gods Lahma and Lahamu they caused to come * * *<br />
+And they grew * * *<br />
+The gods Sar and Kisar were made<br />
+A course of days and a long time passed<br />
+The god Anu * * *<br />
+The gods Sar and * * *"</p>
+
+<p>Here the first existences are Chaos (Mummu, or confusion) and
+Tiamat, which is the Thalatth of Berosus, representing the sea or
+primitive abyss, but also recognized as a female deity or first
+mother. Then we have Lahma and Lahamu, which represent power or
+motion in nature, and are the equivalents of the Divine Spirit
+moving on the face of the waters in our Genesis. Next we have the
+production of Sar or Iloar and Kisar, representing the expanse or
+firmament. Sar is supposed to be the god Assur of the Assyrians,
+a great weather god, and after whom their nation and its founder
+were named. The next process is the creation of the heaven and
+the earth, represented by Anu and Anatu. Anu was always one of
+the greater gods, and was identified with the higher or starry
+heavens. In succeeding tablets to this we find Bel or Belus
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+introduced, as the agent in the creation of animals and of men;
+and he is the true Demiurgus or Mediator of the Assyrian system.
+Next we have the introduction of Hea or Saturn, who is the
+equivalent of the Biblical Adam, and of Ishtar, mother of men,
+who is the Isba or Eve of Genesis. The rest of this legend
+evidently relates to deified men, among whom are Merodach, Nebo,
+and other heroes.</p>
+
+<p>The first remark that we may make on this Assyrian Genesis is
+that, while it resembles generally the Mosaic account of
+creation, it also strongly resembles the old cosmogonies of the
+Egyptians and Persians, and those of the widely scattered
+Turanians of Northern Asia and of America. As an extreme
+illustration of this, and to obviate the necessity of digression
+at this point of our inquiry, I introduce here some extracts from
+the Popul Vuh, or sacred book of the Quich&eacute; Indians of Central
+America, an undoubted product of prehistoric religion in the
+western continent.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;">"And the heaven was formed, and all the signs thereof set in
+their angle and alignment, and its boundaries fixed toward
+the four winds by the Creator and Former, and Mother and
+Father of life and existence&mdash;he by whom all move and
+breathe, the Father and Cherisher of the peace of nations
+and of the civilization of his people&mdash;he whose wisdom has
+projected the excellence of all that is on the earth or in
+the lakes or in the sea."</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;">"Behold the first word and the first discourse. There was
+yet no man nor any animal, * * * nothing was but the
+firmament. The face of the earth had not yet appeared over
+the peaceful sea, and all the space of heaven * * * nothing
+but immobility and silence in the night."</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;">"Alone also the Creator, the Former, the Dominator, the
+Feathered Serpent&mdash;those that engender, those that give
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+being&mdash;they are upon the water like a growing light. They
+are enveloped in green and blue, and therefore their name is
+Gucumatz."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;">"Lo now how the heavens exist, how exists also the Heart of
+Heaven; such is the name of God. It is thus that he is
+called. And they spake, they consulted together and
+meditated; they mingled their words and their opinions."</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;">"And the creation [of the earth] was verily after this wise.
+Earth, they said, and on the instant it was formed; like a
+cloud or a fog was its beginning. Then the mountains rose
+over the water like great fishes; in an instant the
+mountains and the plains were visible, and the cypress and
+the pine appeared. Then was the Gucumatz filled with joy,
+crying out: Blessed be thy coming, O Heart of Heaven,
+Hurakan, Thunderbolt. Our work and our labor has
+accomplished its end."</p>
+
+<p>This corresponds to the work of the first four creative days; and
+next details are given as to the introduction of animals, with
+which, however, the Creator is represented as dissatisfied,
+because they could not know or invoke the Creator. They are
+therefore condemned to be subject to be devoured one of another.
+Again there is a council in heaven, and the gods determine to
+make man. But he also is imperfect, for he has speech without
+intelligence: so he is condemned to be destroyed by water. A new
+council is held, and a second race of men produced; but this
+fails in the capacity for religious worship&mdash;"they forgot the
+Heart of Heaven." These were partly destroyed by fire and partly
+converted into apes. Lastly another council is held, and perfect
+men created. Then follows a remarkable series of stories relating
+to the early history and migrations of men.</p>
+
+<p>It is known that similar creation myths existed among the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+Mexicans and other early civilized nations of America, and in
+ruder and more grotesque forms even among the semi-barbarous and
+hunter tribes. Their connection with the ancient Semitic and
+Turanian revelations of Asia is unquestionable.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus in the Assyrian Genesis a relic of early religious
+belief belonging to a period when such widely separated stocks as
+the Assyrian and American were still one: to a period, therefore,
+presumably long anterior to that of Moses. Yet at this very early
+period the central portions at least of the Turanian race had
+already devised some means of recording their traditions in
+writing&mdash;probably the arrow-head writing, afterwards used by the
+Assyrians, had already been invented. Again, at this early period
+a complex polytheism had already sprung up, and this was
+connected with cosmological ideas, inasmuch as the primitive
+abyss, the firmament, the starry heavens, the principle of life,
+were all subordinate gods; and so were also some of the earliest
+of the patriarchs of the human race. It is possible, however,
+that this was among the early Chaldeans an exoteric
+representation for the vulgar, and that the priestly caste may
+have understood it in a monotheistic sense. In any case, the idea
+of a Supreme Creator remains behind the whole. Farther, in the
+early Chaldean record we have a more detailed and expanded
+document than that of the Hebrew Genesis, probably intended for
+the popular ear, and to include as much as possible of the
+current mythology. As an example, I quote the following in
+relation to the creation of the moon, being apparently a part of
+the narrative of that creative period corresponding with the
+fourth day of Genesis:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">"In its mass [that is, of the lower chaos] he made a boiling,<br />
+The God Uru [the moon] he caused to rise out, the night he overshadowed.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+To fix it also for the light of the night until the shining of the day,<br />
+That the month might not be broken and in its amount be regular.<br />
+At the beginning of the month at the rising of the night,<br />
+His horns are breaking through to shine in the heavens.<br />
+On the seventh day to a circle he begins to swell,<br />
+And stretches toward the dawn farther."</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the historical connection of all this with Abraham
+and with the Hebrew Scriptures. The early life of the "Father of
+the Faithful" belongs to the time when Turanian and Semitic
+elements were mingled in the Euphratean valley. Himself of the
+stock of Shem, he dwelt in Ur of the Chaldees, a city in whose
+ruins, now known by the name of Mugheir, Chaldean inscriptions
+have been found of a date anterior to that of the patriarch. In
+the time of Abraham a polytheistic religion already existed in
+Ur, for we are told that his father "served other gods." Further,
+the legends of the creation and the deluge, and the antediluvian
+age, with the history of Nimrod and other postdiluvian heroes,
+existed in a written form; and, strange though this may seem,
+there can be little doubt that Abraham, before he left Ur of the
+Chaldees, had read the same creation legends that have so
+recently been translated and published by Mr. Smith. But
+Abraham's relation to these was of a peculiar kind. With a
+spiritual enlightenment beyond that of his age, he dissented from
+the Turanian animism and polytheism, and maintained that pure and
+spiritual monotheism which, according to the Bible, had been the
+original faith of the sons of Noah. But he was overborne by the
+tendencies of his time, and probably by the royal and priestly
+influence then dominant in Chaldea, and he went forth from his
+native land in search of a country where he might have freedom to
+worship God. It is thus that Abraham appears as the earliest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+reformer, the first of those martyrs of conscience who fear not
+to differ from the majority, the father and prototype of the
+faithful of every age, and the earliest apostle of the
+monotheistic faith which still reigns among all the higher races
+of men.</p>
+
+<p>Did Abraham take with him in his pilgrimage the records of his
+people? It is scarcely possible to doubt that he did, and this
+probably in a written form, but purified from the polytheism and
+inane imaginations accreted upon them; or perhaps he had access
+to still older and more primitive records anterior to the rise of
+the Turanian superstitions. In any case we may safely infer that
+Abraham and his tribe carried with them the substance of all that
+part of Genesis which contains the history of the world up to his
+time, and that this would be a precious heir-loom of his family,
+until it was edited and incorporated in the Pentateuch by his
+great descendant Moses. It seems plain, therefore, that the
+original prophet or seer to whom the narrative of creation was
+revealed lived before Abraham, but we need not doubt that the
+latter had the benefit of divine guidance in his noble stand
+against the idolatry of his age, and in his selection of the
+documents on which his own theology was based. These
+considerations help us to understand the persistence of Hebrew
+monotheism in the presence of the idolatries of Canaan and Egypt,
+since these were closely allied to the Chaldean system against
+which Abraham had protested. They also explain the recognition by
+Abraham, as co-religionists, of such monotheistic personages as
+Melchisedec, king of Salem. They further illustrate the nature of
+the religious basis in his people's beliefs on which Moses had to
+work, and on which he founded his theocratic system.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving this part of the subject, I would observe that the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+view above given; while it explains the agreement between the
+Hebrew Genesis and other ancient religious beliefs, is in strict
+accordance with the teachings of Genesis itself. The history
+given there implies monotheism and knowledge of God as the
+Creator and Redeemer, in antediluvian and early postdiluvian
+times, a decadence from this into a systematic polytheism at a
+very early date, the protest and dissent of Abraham, his call of
+God to be the upholder of a purer faith, and the maintenance of
+that faith by his descendants. Besides this, any careful reader
+of Genesis and of the book of Job, which, whatever its origin,
+must be more ancient than the Mosaic law, will readily discover
+indications that Abraham and the patriarchs were in the
+possession of documents and traditions of the same purport with
+those in the early chapters of Genesis, and that these were to
+them their only sacred literature. The reader of the Pentateuch
+must carry this idea with him, if he would have any clear
+conception of the unity and symmetry of these remarkable books.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center; margin-top: 3em;">THE MOSAIC GENESIS.</p>
+
+<p>In the period of 400 years intervening between Abraham's
+departure from Ur and the exodus of Israel from Egypt, no great
+prophetic mind, like that of the Father of the Faithful, appeared
+among the Hebrews. But then arose Moses, the greatest figure in
+all antiquity before the advent of Christ, and who was destined
+to give permanence and world-wide prevalence to the faith for
+which Abraham had sacrificed so much. Under the leadership of
+Moses, the Abrahamid&aelig;, now reduced to the condition of a serf
+population, emancipated themselves from Egyptian bondage, and,
+after forty years of wandering desert life, settled themselves
+permanently on the hills and in the valleys of Palestine. The
+voice of the ruling race, indistinctly conveyed to us from that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+distant antiquity, maintains that the fugitive slaves were an
+abject and contemptible herd; but the leader of the exodus
+informs us that, though cruelly trodden down by a haughty despot,
+they were of noble parentage, the heirs of high hopes and
+promises. Their migration is certainly the most remarkable
+national movement in the world's history&mdash;remarkable, not merely
+in its events and immediate circumstances, but in its remote
+political, literary, and moral results. The rulers of Egypt,
+polished, enlightened, and practical men, were yet the devotees
+of a complicated system of hero and animal worship, like that
+from which Abraham dissented, and derived in great part from the
+"animism" which caused some of the oldest nations of the world to
+associate a spiritual indwelling with the natural objects
+surrounding them; or, if they had ceased to believe in this, they
+had sunk into a materialistic devotion to the good things of the
+present world, combined with a superstitious belief in the
+efficacy of priestly absolution.</p>
+
+<p>The slaves, leaving all this behind them, rose in their religious
+opinions to the pure and spiritual monotheism of the great father
+of their race; and their leader presented to them a law
+unequalled up to our time in its union of justice, patriotism,
+and benevolence, and established among them, for the first time
+in the world's history, a free constitutional republic. Nor is
+this all; unexampled though such results are elsewhere in the
+case of serfs suddenly emancipated. The Hebrew lawgiver has
+interwoven his institutions in a great historical composition,
+including the grand and simple cosmogony of the patriarchs, a
+detailed account of the affiliation and ethnological relations of
+the races of men, and a narrative of the fortunes of his own
+people; intimating not only that they were a favored and chosen
+race, but that of them was to arise a great Deliverer, who would
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+bless all nations with pardon and with peace,
+<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+ and would solve
+once for all those great problems of the relations of man to God
+and the unseen world, which in the time of Moses as in our own
+were the most momentous of all, and gave to questions of origins
+all their practical value.</p>
+
+<p>The lawgiver passed to his rest. His laws and literature,
+surviving through many vicissitudes, have produced in each
+succeeding age a new harvest of poetry and history, leavened with
+their own spirit. In the mean time the learning and the
+superstition of Egypt faded from the eyes of men. The splendid
+political and military organizations of Assyria, Babylon, Persia,
+and Macedon arose and crumbled into dust. The wonderful
+literature of Greece blazed forth and expired. That of Rome, a
+reflex and copy of the former, had reached its culminating point;
+and no prophet had arisen among any of these Gentile nations to
+teach them the truth of God. The world, with all its national
+liberties crushed out, its religion and its philosophy corrupted
+and enfeebled to the last degree by an endless succession of
+borrowings and intermixtures, lay prostrate under the iron heel
+of Rome. Then appeared among the now obscure remnant of Israel,
+one who announced himself as the Prophet like unto Moses,
+promised of old; but a prophet whose mission it was to redeem not
+Israel only, but the whole world, and to make all who will
+believe, children of faithful Abraham. Adopting the whole of the
+sacred literature of the Hebrews, and proving his mission by its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+words, he sent forth a few plain men to write its closing books,
+and to plant it on the ruins of all the time-honored beliefs of
+the nations&mdash;beliefs supported by a splendid and highly organized
+priestly system and by despotic power, and gilded by all the
+highest efforts of poetry and art.</p>
+
+<p>The story is a very familiar one; but it is marvellous beyond all
+others. Nor is the modern history of the Bible less wonderful.
+Exhumed from the rubbish of the Middle Ages, it has entered on a
+new career of victory. It has stimulated the mind of modern
+Europe to all its highest efforts, and has been the charter of
+its civil and religious liberties. Its wondrous revelation of all
+that man most desires to know, in the past, in the present, and
+in his future destinies, has gone home to the hearts of men in
+all ranks of society and in all countries. In many great nations
+it is the only rule of religious faith. In every civilized
+country it is the basis of all that is most valuable in religion.
+Where it has been withheld from the people, civilization in its
+highest aspects has languished, and superstition, priestcraft,
+and tyranny have held their ground or have perished under the
+assaults of a heartless and inhuman infidelity. Where it has been
+a household book, education has necessarily flourished, liberty
+has taken root, and the higher nature of man has been developed
+to the full. Driven from many other countries by tyrannical
+interference with liberty of thought and discussion, or by a
+short-sighted ecclesiasticism, it has taken up its special abode
+with the greatest commercial nations of our time; and, scattered
+by their agency broadcast over the world, it is read by every
+nation under heaven in its own tongue, and is slowly but surely
+preparing the way for wider and greater changes than any that
+have heretofore resulted from its influence. Explain it as we
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+may, the Bible is a great literary miracle; and no amount of
+inspiration or authority that can be claimed for it is more
+strange or incredible than the actual history of the book. Yet no
+book has ever thrown itself into so decided antagonism with all
+the great forces of evil in the world. Tyranny hates it, because
+the Bible so strongly maintains the individual value and rights
+of man as man. The spirit of caste dislikes it for the same
+reason. Anarchical license, on the other hand, finds nothing but
+discouragement in it. Priestcraft gnashes its teeth at it, as the
+very embodiment of private judgment in religion, and because it
+so scornfully ignores human authority in matters of conscience,
+and human intervention between man and his Maker. Skepticism
+sneers at it, because it requires faith and humility, and
+threatens ruin to the unbeliever. It launches its thunders
+against every form of violence or fraud or allurement that seeks
+to profit by wrong or to pander to the vices of mankind; all
+these consequently are its foes. On the other hand, by its
+uncompromising stand with reference to certain scientific and
+historical facts, it has appeared to oppose the progress of
+thought and speculation; though, as we shall see, it has been
+unfairly accused in this last respect.</p>
+
+<p>With its antagonism to the evil that is in the world we have at
+present nothing to do, except to caution the student of this
+venerable literature against the prejudices which interested and
+unscrupulous foes seek to cultivate. Its doctrine of the origin
+of man and of the world, and the relation of this to modern
+scientific and historical results, is that which now claims our
+attention; and this more especially in the relation which the
+Mosaic cosmogony, considered as an early revelation from God, may
+be found to bear to the facts which modern scientific research
+has elicited from the universe itself. The aspects in which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+apparent conflicts present themselves are threefold. At one time
+it was not unusual to impugn the historical accuracy of the
+Pentateuch on the evidence of the Greek historians; and on many
+points scarcely any corroborative evidence could be cited in
+favor of the Hebrew writers. In our own time much of this
+difficulty has been removed, and an immense amount of learned
+research has been reduced to waste paper, by the circumstance
+that the monuments of Egypt and Assyria have risen up to bear
+testimony in favor of the Bible; and scarcely any sane man now
+doubts the value of the Hebrew history. The battle-ground has in
+consequence been shifted farther back, to points concerning the
+affiliation of the races of men, the absolute antiquity of man's
+residence on the earth, and the condition of prehistoric men;
+questions on which we can scarcely expect to find, at least for a
+long time, any decisive monumental or scientific evidence.
+Secondly, the Bible commits itself to certain cosmological
+doctrines and statements respecting the system of nature, and
+details of that system, more or less approaching to the domain
+which geology occupies in its investigations of the past history
+of the earth; and at every stage in the progress of modern
+science, independently of the mischief done by smatterers and
+skeptics, earnest bigotry on the one hand, and earnest scientific
+enthusiasm on the other, have come into collision. One
+stumbling-block after another has, it is true, been removed by
+mutual concession and farther enlightenment, and by the removal
+of false traditional interpretations of the sacred records, as
+well as by farther discoveries in relation to nature. But the
+field of conflict has thereby apparently only changed; and we
+still have some Christians in consequence regarding the
+revelations of natural science with suspicion, and some
+scientific men cherishing a sullen resentment against what they
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+regard as an intolerant intermeddling of theology with the domain
+of legitimate investigation. Lastly, the great growth of physical
+science, and the tendency to take partial views of the universe
+as if it were comprehended in mere matter and force, with
+similarly partial views of the doctrines of continuity and the
+conservation of forces, along with the growth of a belief in
+spontaneous evolution as a philosophical dogma, have placed many
+scientific minds in a position which makes them treat the whole
+question of the origin and destiny of man and of the world with
+absolute indifference.</p>
+
+<p>There can nevertheless be no question that the whole subject is
+at the present moment in a more satisfactory state than ever
+previously; that much has been done for the solution of
+difficulties; that many theologians admit the great service which
+in many cases science has rendered to the interpretation of the
+Bible, and that most naturalists feel themselves free from undue
+trammels. Above all, there is a very general disposition to admit
+the distinctness and independence of the fields of revelation and
+natural science, the possibility of their arriving at some of the
+same truths, though in very different ways, and the folly of
+expecting them fully and manifestly to agree in the present state
+of our information. The literature of this kind of natural
+history has also become very extensive, and there are few persons
+who do not at least know that there are methods of reconciling
+the cosmogony of Moses with that obtained from the study of
+nature. For this very reason the time is favorable for an
+unprejudiced discussion of the questions involved; and for
+presenting on the one hand to naturalists a summary of what the
+Bible does actually teach respecting the early history of the
+earth and man, and on the other to those whose studies lie in the
+book which they regard as the Word of God, rather than in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+material universe which they regard as his work, a view of the
+points in which the teaching of the Bible comes into contact with
+natural science at its present stage of progress. These are the
+ends which I propose to myself in the following pages, and which
+I shall endeavor to pursue in a spirit of fair and truthful
+investigation; having regard on the one hand to the claims and
+influence of the venerable Book of God, and on the other to the
+rights and legitimate results of modern scientific inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>The plan which I have proposed to myself in this part of my
+subject is to take the statements of Genesis in their order, and
+consider what they import, and how they appear to harmonize with
+what we know from other sources. This will occupy some space, but
+it will save time in dealing with the remaining parts of the
+subject. Before entering upon it, I propose to devote one chapter
+to the answers to three questions which concern the whole
+doctrine of revealed religion, whether Semitic, Turanian, or
+Aryan. These are: (1) <i>Why</i> the origin of things should be
+revealed; (2) <i>How</i> it could be revealed; and (3) <i>What</i> would
+require to be revealed in order to form the basis of a rational
+theism.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><br />
+<span style="font-size:70%;">OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS.</span><br /></h2>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;font-weight:bold;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+"There are two books from which I collect my divinity;
+besides that written one of God, another of his servant
+nature&mdash;that universal and public manuscript that lies
+expansed unto the eyes of all."&mdash;<span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Sir T. Browne.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>There are some questions, simple enough in themselves, respecting
+the general character and object of the references to nature and
+creation in the Scriptures, which yet are so variously and
+vaguely answered that they deserve some consideration before
+entering on the detailed study of the subject. These are: (1) The
+object of the introduction of such subjects into the Hebrew
+sacred books&mdash;the <i>why</i> of the revelation of origins. (2) The
+origin, character, and structure of the narrative of creation and
+other cosmological statements in those books&mdash;the <i>how</i> of the
+revelation. (3) The character of the Biblical cosmogony, and
+general views of nature to which it leads&mdash;the <i>what</i> of the
+revelation.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>The Object of the Introduction of a Cosmogony in the
+Bible.</i>&mdash;Man, even in his rudest and most uncivilized state, does
+not limit his mental vision to his daily wants. He desires to
+live not merely in the present, but in the future also and the
+past. This is a psychological peculiarity which, as much as any
+other, marks his separation from the lower animals, and which in
+his utmost degradation he never wholly loses. Whatever may be
+fancied as to imagined prehistoric nations, it is certain that no
+people now existing, or historically known to us, is so rude as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+to be destitute of some hopes or fears in reference to the
+future, some traditions as to the distant past. Every religious
+system that has had any influence over the human mind has
+included such ideas. Nor are we to regard this as an accident. It
+depends on fixed principles in our constitution, which crave as
+their proper aliment such information; and if it can not be
+obtained, the mind, rather than want it, invents for itself. We
+might infer from this very circumstance that a true religion,
+emanating from the Creator, would supply this craving; and might
+content ourselves with affirming that, on this ground alone, it
+behooved revelation to have a cosmogony.</p>
+
+<p>But the religion of the Hebrews especially required to be
+explicit as to the origin of the earth and all things therein.
+Its peculiar dogma is that of one only God, the Creator,
+requiring the sole homage of his creatures. The heathen for the
+most part acknowledged in some form a supreme god, but they also
+gave divine honors to subordinate gods, to deceased ancestors and
+heroes, and to natural phenomena, in such a manner as practically
+to obscure their ideas of the Creator, or altogether to set aside
+his worship. The influence of such idolatry was the chief
+antagonism which the Hebrew monotheism had to encounter; and we
+learn from the history of the nation how often the worshippers of
+Jehovah were led astray by its allurements. To guard against this
+danger, it was absolutely necessary that no place should be left
+for the introduction of polytheism, by placing the whole work of
+creation and providence under the sole jurisdiction of the One
+God. Moses consequently takes strong ground on these points. He
+first insists on the creation of all things by the fiat of the
+Supreme. Next he specifies the elaboration and arrangement of all
+the powers of inanimate nature, and the introduction of every
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+form of organic existence, as the work of the same First Cause.
+Lastly, he insists on the creation of a primal human pair, and on
+the descent from them of all the branches of the human race,
+including of course those ancestors and magnates who up to his
+time had been honored with apotheosis; and on the same principle
+he explains the golden age of Eden, the fall, the cherubic
+emblems, the deluge, and other facts in human history interwoven
+by the heathen with their idolatries. He thus grasps the whole
+material of ancient idolatry, reduces it within the compass of
+monotheism, and shows its relation to the one true primitive
+religion, which was that not only of the Hebrews, but of right
+that of the whole world, whose prevailing polytheism consisted in
+perversions of its truth or unity. For such reasons the early
+chapters of Genesis are so far from being of the character of
+digressions from the scope and intention of the book, that they
+form a substratum of doctrine absolutely essential to the Hebrew
+faith, and equally so to its development in Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>The references to nature in the Bible, however, and especially in
+its poetical books, far exceed the absolute requirements of the
+reasons above stated; and this leads to another and very
+interesting view, namely, the tendency of monotheism to the
+development of truthful and exalted ideas of nature. The Hebrew
+theology allowed no attempt at visible representations of the
+Creator or of his works for purposes of worship. It thus to a
+great extent prevented that connection of imitative art with
+religion which flourished in heathen antiquity, and has been
+introduced into certain forms of Christianity. But it cultivated
+the higher arts of poetry and song, and taught them to draw their
+inspiration from nature as the only visible revelation of Deity.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+Hence the growth of a healthy "physico-theology," excluding all
+idolatry of natural phenomena, and all superstitious dread of
+them as independent powers, but inviting to their examination as
+manifestations of God, and leading to conceptions of the unity of
+plan in the cosmos, of which polytheism, even in its highest
+literary efforts, was quite incapable. In the same manner the
+Bible has always proved itself an active stimulant of natural
+science, connecting such studies, as it does, with our higher
+religious sentiments; while polytheism and materialism have acted
+as repressive influences, the one because it obscures the unity
+of nature, the other because, in robbing it of its presiding
+Divinity, it gives a cold and repulsive, corpse-like aspect,
+chilling to the imagination, and incapable of attracting the
+general mind.</p>
+
+<p>Naturalists should not forget their obligations to the Bible in
+this respect, and should on this very ground prefer its teachings
+to those of modern pantheism and positivism, and still more to
+those of mere priestly authority. Very few minds are content with
+simple materialism, and those who must have a God, if they do not
+recognize the Jehovah of the Hebrew Scriptures as the Creator and
+Supreme Ruler of the universe, are too likely to seek for him in
+the dimness of human authority and tradition, or of pantheistic
+philosophy; both of them more akin to ancient heathenism than to
+modern civilization, and in their ultimate tendencies, if not in
+their immediate consequences, quite as hostile to progress in
+science as to evangelical Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>Every student of human nature is aware of the influence in favor
+of the appreciation of natural beauty and sublimity which the
+Bible impresses on those who are deeply imbued with its teaching;
+even where that same teaching has induced what may be regarded as
+a puritanical dislike of imitative art, at least in its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+religious aspects. On the other hand, naturalists can not refuse
+to acknowledge the surpassing majesty of the views of nature
+presented in the Bible. No one has expressed this better than
+Humboldt: "It is characteristic of the poetry of the Hebrews
+that, as a reflex of monotheism, it always embraces the universe
+in its unity, comprising both terrestrial life and the luminous
+realms of space; it dwells but rarely on the individuality of
+phenomena, preferring the contemplation of great masses. The
+Hebrew poet does not depict nature as a self-dependent object,
+glorious in its individual beauty, but always as in relation or
+subjection to a higher spiritual power. Nature is to him a work
+of creation and order&mdash;the living expression of the omnipresence
+of the Divinity in the visible world." In reference to the 104th
+Psalm, which may be viewed as a poetical version of the narrative
+of creation in Genesis, the same great writer remarks: "We are
+astonished to find in a lyrical poem of such a limited compass,
+the whole universe&mdash;the heavens and the earth&mdash;sketched with a
+few bold touches. The calm and toilsome life of man, from the
+rising of the sun to the setting of the same, when his daily work
+is done, is here contrasted with the moving life of the elements
+of nature. This contrast and generalization in the conception of
+the mutual action of natural phenomena, and the retrospection of
+an omnipresent invisible Power, which can renew the earth or
+crumble it to dust, constitute a solemn and exalted rather than a
+gentle form of poetic creation."
+<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we admit the source of inspiration claimed by the Hebrew
+poets, we shall not be surprised that they should thus write of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+nature. We shall only lament that so many pious and learned
+interpreters of Scripture have been too little acquainted with
+nature to appreciate the natural history of the Book of God, or
+adequately to illustrate it to those who depend on their
+teaching; and that so many naturalists have contented themselves
+with wondering at the large general views of the Hebrew poets,
+without considering that they are based on a revelation of the
+nature and order of the creative work which supplied to the
+Hebrew mind the place of those geological wonders which have
+astonished and enlarged the minds of modern nations. A modern
+divine, himself well read in nature, truly says: "If men of piety
+were also men of science, and if men of science were to read the
+Scriptures, there would be more faith on the earth and also more
+philosophy."
+<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+ In a similar strain the patient botanist of the
+marine alg&aelig; thus pleads for the joint claims of the Bible and
+nature: "Unfortunately it happens that in the educational course
+prescribed to our divines natural history has no place, for which
+reason many are ignorant of the important bearings which the book
+of nature has on the book of revelation. They do not consider,
+apparently, that both are from God&mdash;both are his faithful
+witnesses to mankind. And if this be so, is it reasonable to
+suppose that either, without the other, can be fully understood?
+It is only necessary to glance at the absurd commentaries in
+reference to natural objects which are to be found in too many
+annotations of the Holy Scriptures to be convinced of the benefit
+which the clergy would themselves derive from a more extended
+study of the works of creation. And to missionaries especially, a
+minute familiarity with natural objects must be a powerful
+assistance in awakening the attention of the savage, who, after
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+his manner, is a close observer, and likely to detect a fallacy
+in his teacher, should the latter attempt a practical
+illustration of his discourse without sufficient knowledge. These
+are not days in which persons who ought to be our guides in
+matters of doctrine can afford to be behind the rest of the world
+in knowledge; nor can they safely sneer at the knowledge which
+puffeth up, until, like the apostle, they have sounded its depths
+and proved its shallowness."
+<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+ It is truly much to be desired
+that divines and commentators, instead of trying to distort the
+representations of nature in the Bible into the supposed
+requirements of a barbarous age, or of setting aside modern
+discoveries as if they could have no connection with Scripture
+truth, would study natural objects and laws sufficiently to bring
+themselves in this respect to the level of the Hebrew writers.
+Such knowledge would be cheaply purchased even by the sacrifice
+of a part of their verbal and literary training. It is well that
+this point is now attracting the attention of the Christian
+world, and it is but just to admit that some of our more eminent
+religious writers have produced noble examples of accurate
+illustrations of Scripture derived from nature. In any case, the
+Bible itself can not be charged with any neglect of the claims of
+nature or with any narrow tendency to place material and
+spiritual things in antagonism to one another.</p>
+
+<p>Another reason why a revelation from God must deal with the
+origins of things, is that such revelation is, like creation, in
+its own nature progressive. It is given little by little to
+successive generations of men, and must proceed from the first
+rudiments of religious truth onward to its higher developments
+with the growth of humanity from age to age. Hence the teachings
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+in the early chapters of Genesis are of the simplest and most
+child-like character, and the first of these early teachings is
+necessarily that of God the Creator, just as our elementary
+catechisms for children have been wont to begin with the
+question, "Who made you?" In this way man is led in the most
+direct and simple way to the feet of the Universal Father, and a
+foundation is laid whereon further religious teaching adapted to
+the growth of the individual mind and to the growing
+complications of human society can be built. But again, alike in
+the earliest and simplest as in the more advanced states of the
+human mind, if spiritual things are to be taught, it must be
+through the medium of material things. We have no language to
+express in any direct way spiritual truths; they must be given to
+us in terms of the natural. We have not yet learned the tongue of
+the immortals, and probably can not learn it in this world. The
+word "spirit" itself, which we borrow from the Latin, the Greek
+<i>Pneuma</i>, the Hebrew <i>Ruah</i>, primarily all agree in signifying
+breath or wind. We have to speak of our own breath when we mean
+our spiritual nature, of God's breath when we mean his spiritual
+nature, and so of all other things not obvious to our senses.
+There is constant danger in this that the material shall be taken
+for the spiritual of which it is the symbol, the figure for the
+reality, the creature for the Creator, and this danger is best
+counteracted by a decided testimony in relation to the origin of
+all material things in the will of the spiritual and eternal God.
+Thus the Bible writers are enabled to use a free and bold manner
+of speech respecting divine things. Their expressions at one time
+appear pantheistic and at another anthropomorphic; they see God
+in every thing, and use with the utmost freedom natural emblems
+to indicate his perfections and procedure, and our relations to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+him. In this way there is life and action in their teaching, and
+it is removed as far as possible from a dry, abstract theology,
+while equally remote from any tinge of idolatry or superstition.</p>
+
+<p>It may, however, be objected that by the introduction of a
+cosmogony the Bible exposes itself to a conflict with science,
+and that thereby injury results both to science and to religion.
+This is a grave charge, and one that has evidently had much
+weight with many minds, since it has been the subject of entire
+treatises designed to illustrate the history of the conflict or
+to explain its nature. The revelation of God's will to man for
+his moral guidance, if necessary at all, was necessary before the
+rise of natural science. Men could not do without the knowledge
+of the unity of nature and of the unity of God, until these great
+truths could be worked out by scientific induction. Perhaps they
+might never have been so worked out. Therefore a revealed book of
+origins has a right to precedence in this matter. Nor need it in
+any way come into conflict with the science subsequently to grow
+up. Science does not deal so much with the origin of nature as
+with its method and laws, and all that is necessary on the part
+of a revelation, to avoid conflict with it, is to confine itself
+to statements of phenomena and to avoid hypotheses. This is
+eminently the course of the Bible. In its cosmogony it shuns all
+embellishments and details, and contents itself with the fact of
+creation and a slight sketch of its order; and in their
+subsequent references to nature the sacred writers are strictly
+phenomenal in their statements, and refer every thing directly to
+the will of God, without any theory as to secondary causes and
+relations. They are thus decided and positive on the points with
+reference to which it behooves revelation to testify, and
+absolutely non-committal on the points which belong to the
+exclusive domain of science.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+What, then, are we to say of the imaginary "conflict of science
+with religion," of which so much has been made? Simply that it
+results largely from misapprehension and from misuse of terms.
+True religion, which consists in practical love to God and to our
+fellow-men, can have no conflict with science. True science is
+its fast ally. The Bible, considered as a revelation of spiritual
+truth to man for his salvation and enlightenment, can have no
+conflict with science. It promotes the study of nature, rendering
+it honorable by giving it the dignity of an inquiry into the ways
+of God, and rendering it safe by separating it from all ideas of
+magic and necromancy. It gives a theological basis to the ideas
+of the unity of nature and of natural law. The conflict of
+science, when historically analyzed, is found to have been
+fourfold&mdash;with the Church, with theology, with superstition, and
+with false or imperfect science and philosophy. Religious men may
+have identified themselves from time to time with these
+opponents, but that is all; and much more frequently the
+opposition has been by bad men more or less professing religious
+objects. Organizations calling themselves "the Church," and whose
+warrant from the Bible is often of the slenderest, have denounced
+and opposed and persecuted new scientific truths; but they have
+just as often denounced the Bible itself, and religious doctrines
+founded on it. Theology claims to be itself one of the sciences,
+and as such it is necessarily imperfect and progressive, and may
+at any time be more or less in conflict with other sciences; but
+theology is not religion, and may often have very little in
+common either with true religion or the Bible. When discussions
+arise between theology and other sciences, it is only a pity that
+either side should indulge in what has been called the <i>odium
+theologicum</i>, but which is unfortunately not confined to divines.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+Superstition, considered as the unreasonable fear of natural
+agencies, is a passive rather than an active opponent of science.
+But revelation, which affirms unity, law, and a Father's hand in
+nature, is the deadly foe of superstition, and no people who have
+been readers of the Bible and imbued with its spirit have ever
+been found ready to molest or persecute science. Work of this
+sort has been done only by the ignorant, superstitious, and
+priest-ridden votaries of systems which withhold the Bible from
+the people, and detest it as much as they dislike science.
+Perhaps the most troublesome opposition to science, or rather to
+the progress of science, has sprung from the tenacity with which
+men hold to old ideas. These, which may have been at one time the
+best science attainable, root themselves in popular literature,
+and even in learned bodies and in educational books and
+institutions. They become identified with men's conceptions both
+of nature and religion, and modify their interpretations of the
+Bible itself. It thus becomes a most difficult matter to wrench
+them from men's minds, and their advocates are too apt to invoke
+in their defense political, social, and ecclesiastical powers,
+and to seek to support them by the authority of revelation, when
+this may perhaps be quite as favorable to the newer views opposed
+to them. All these conflicts are, however, necessary incidents in
+human progress, which comes only by conflict; and there is reason
+to believe that they would be as severe in the absence of
+revealed religion as in its presence, were it not that the
+absence of revelation seems often to produce a fixity and
+stagnation of thought unfavorable to any new views, and
+consequently to some extent to any intellectual conflict. It has
+been, indeed, to the disinterment of the Bible in the Reformation
+of the fifteenth century that the world owes, more than to any
+other cause, the immense growth of modern science, and the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+freedom of discussion which now prevails. The Protestant idea of
+individual judgment in matters of religion is thoroughly
+Biblical, for the Bible everywhere appeals to men in this way;
+and this idea is the strongest guarantee that the world possesses
+for intellectual liberty in other matters.</p>
+
+<p>We conclude, therefore, on all these grounds, that it was
+necessary that a revelation from God should take strong and
+positive ground on the question of the origin of the universe.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>The Origin, Method, and Structure of the Scriptural
+Cosmogony.</i>&mdash;A respectable physicist, but somewhat shallow
+naturalist and theologian, whose works at one time attracted much
+attention, has said of the first chapter of Genesis: "It can not
+be history&mdash;it may be poetry." Its claims to be history we shall
+investigate under another head, but it is pertinent to our
+present inquiry to ask whether it can be poetry. That its
+substance or matter is poetical no one who has read it once can
+believe; but it can not be denied that in its form it approaches
+somewhat to that kind of thought-rhythm or parallelism which
+gives so peculiar a character to Hebrew poetry. We learn from
+many Scripture passages, especially in the Proverbs, that this
+poetical parallelism need not necessarily be connected with
+poetical thought; that in truth it might be used, as rhyme is
+sometimes with us, to aid the memory. The oldest acknowledged
+verse in Scripture is a case in point. Lamech, who lived before
+the flood, appears to have slain a man in self-defense, or at
+least in an encounter in which he himself was wounded; and he
+attempts to define the nature of the crime in the following
+words:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;">"Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;<br />
+Ye wives of Lamech, hearken to my speech:&mdash;<br />
+
+I have slain a man to my wounding,<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+And a young man to my hurt;<br />
+If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold,<br />
+Truly Lamech seventy and seven fold."</p>
+
+<p>All this is prosaic enough in matter, but the form into which it
+is thrown gives it a certain dignity, and impresses it on the
+memory; which last object was probably what the author of this
+sole fragment of antediluvian literature had in view. He
+succeeded too&mdash;for the sentiment was handed down, probably
+orally; and Moses incorporates it in his narration, perhaps on
+account of its interest as the first record of the distinction
+between willful murder like that of Cain, and justifiable
+homicide. It is interesting also to observe the same parallelism
+of style, no doubt with the same objects, in many old Egyptian
+monumental inscriptions, which, however grandiloquent, are
+scarcely poetical.
+<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+ It also appears in that ancient record of
+creation and the deluge recently rescued from the clay tablets of
+Nineveh.</p>
+
+<p>Now in the first chapter of Genesis, and the first three verses
+of chapter second, being the formal general narrative of
+creation, on which, as we shall see, every other statement on the
+subject in the Bible is based, we have this peculiar parallelism
+of style. If we ask why, the answer must, I think, be&mdash;to give
+dignity and symmetry to what would otherwise be a dry abstract,
+and still more to aid memory. This last consideration, perhaps
+indicating that this chapter, like the apology of Lamech, had
+been handed down orally for a long period, connects itself with
+the theory of the pre-Abrahamic origin of these documents to
+which reference has already been made.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the narrative, however, in no way impairs its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+precision or accuracy of statement. On this Eichhorn well says:
+"There lies at the foundation of the first chapter a carefully
+designed plan, all whose parts are carried out with much art,
+whereby its appropriate place is assigned to every idea;" and we
+may add, whereby every idea is expressed in the simplest and
+fewest words, yet with marvellous accuracy, amounting to an
+almost scientific precision of diction, for which both the form
+into which it is thrown and the homogeneous and simple character
+of the Hebrew language are very well adapted. Much of this indeed
+remains in the English version, though our language is less
+perfectly suited than the Hebrew for the concise announcement of
+general truths of this description. Our translators have,
+however, deviated greatly from the true sense of many important
+words, especially where they have taken the Septuagint
+translation for their guide, as in the words "firmament,"
+"whales," "creeping things," etc. These errors will be noticed in
+subsequent pages. In the mean time I may merely add that the
+labors of the ablest Biblical critics give us every reason to
+conclude that the received text of Genesis preserves, almost
+without an iota of change, the beautiful simplicity of its first
+chapter; and that we now have it in a more perfect state than
+that in which it was presented to the translators of most of the
+early versions. It must also be admitted that the object in view
+was best served by that direct reference to the creative fiat,
+and ignoring of all secondary causes, which are conspicuous in
+this narrative. This is indeed the general tone of the Bible in
+speaking of natural phenomena; and this mode of proceeding is in
+perfect harmony with its claims to divine authority. Had not this
+course been chosen, no other could have been adopted, in strict
+consistency with truth, short of a full revelation of the whole
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+system of nature, in the details of all its laws and processes.
+This we now know would have been impossible, and, if possible,
+useless or even mischievous.</p>
+
+<p>Regarded from this point of view&mdash;the plenary inspiration of the
+book&mdash;the Scriptural references to creation profess to furnish a
+very general outline, for theological purposes, of the principal
+features of a vast region unexplored when they were written, and
+into which human research has yet penetrated along only a few
+lines. Natural science, in following out these lines of
+observation, has reached some of the objects delineated in the
+Scriptural sketch; of others it has obtained distant glimpses;
+many are probably unknown, and we can appreciate the true value
+and dimensions relatively to the whole of very few. So vast
+indeed are the subjects of the bold sketch of the Hebrew prophet,
+that natural science can not pretend as yet so to fill in the
+outline as quite to measure the accuracy of its proportions. Yet
+the lines, though few, are so boldly drawn, and with so much
+apparent unity and symmetry, that we almost involuntarily admit
+that they are accurate and complete. This may appear to be
+underrating the actual progress of science relatively to this
+great foreshadowing outline; but I know that those most deeply
+versed in the knowledge of nature will be the least disposed to
+quarrel with it, whatever skepticism they may entertain as to the
+greater general completeness of the inspired record.</p>
+
+<p>Another point which deserves a passing notice here is the theory
+of Dr. Kurtz and others, that the Mosaic narrative represents a
+vision of creation, analogous to those prophetic visions which
+appear in the later books of Scripture. This is beyond all
+question the most simple and probable solution of the origin of
+the document, when viewed as inspired, but we shall have to recur
+to it on a future page.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+But with respect to the precise origin of this cosmogony, the
+question now arises, Is it really in substance a revelation from
+God to man? We must not disguise from ourselves that this
+deliberate statement of an order of creation in so far challenges
+comparison with the results of science, and this in a very
+different way from that which applies to the incidental
+references to nature in the Bible. Further, inasmuch as it
+relates to events which transpired before the creation of man, it
+is of the nature of prophecy rather than of history. It is, in
+short, either an inspired revelation of the divine procedure in
+creation, or it is a product of human imagination or research, or
+a deliberate fraud.</p>
+
+<p>To no part of the Bible do these alternatives more strictly apply
+than to its first chapter. This "can not be history" in the
+strict acceptation of the term. It relates to events which no
+human eye witnessed, respecting which no human testimony could
+give any information. It represents the creation of man as the
+last of a long series of events, of which it professes to inform
+us. The knowledge of these events can not have been a matter of
+human experience. If at all entitled to confidence, the narrative
+must, therefore, be received as an inspired document, not handed
+down by any doubtful tradition, but existing as originally
+transfused into human language from the mind of the Author of
+nature himself. This view is in no way affected by the
+hypothesis, already mentioned, that the first chapters of Genesis
+were compiled by Moses from more ancient documents. This merely
+throws back the revelation to a higher antiquity, and requires us
+to suppose the agency of two inspired men instead of one.</p>
+
+<p>It would be out of place here to enter into any argument for the
+inspiration of Scripture, or to attempt to define the nature of
+that inspiration. I merely wish to impress on the mind of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+reader that without the admission of its reality, or at least its
+possibility, our present inquiry becomes merely a matter of
+curious antiquarian research. We must also on this ground
+distinguish between the claims of the Scriptures and those of
+tradition or secular history, when they refer to the same facts.
+The traditions and cosmogonies of some ancient nations have many
+features in common with the Bible narrative; and, on the
+supposition that Moses compiled from older documents, they may be
+portions of this more ancient sacred truth, but clothed in the
+varied garments of the fanciful mythological creeds which have
+sprung up in later and more degenerate times. Such fragments may
+safely be received as secondary aids to the understanding of the
+authentic record, but it would be folly to seek in them for the
+whole truth. They are but the scattered masses of ore, by tracing
+which we may sometimes open up new and rich portions of the vein
+of primitive lore from which they have been derived. It is,
+however, quite necessary here formally to inquire if there are
+any hypotheses short of that of plenary inspiration which may
+allow us to attach any value whatever to this most ancient
+document. I know but two views of this kind that are worthy of
+any attention.</p>
+
+<p>1. The Mosaic account of creation may be a result of ancient
+scientific inquiries, analogous to those of modern geology.</p>
+
+<p>2. It may be an allegorical or poetical mythus, not intended to
+be historical, but either devised for some extraneous purpose, or
+consisting of the conjectures of some gifted intellect.</p>
+
+<p>These alternatives we may shortly consider, though the materials
+for their full discussion can be furnished only by facts to be
+subsequently stated. I am not aware that the first of these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+views has been maintained by any modern writer. Some eminent
+scientific men are, however, disposed to adopt such an
+explanation of the ancient Hindoo hymns, as well as of the
+cosmogony of Pythagoras, which bears evidence of this origin; and
+it may be an easy step to infer that the Hebrew cosmogony was
+derived from some similar source. Not many years ago such a
+supposition would have been regarded as almost insane. Then the
+science of antiquity was only another name for the philosophy of
+Greece and Rome. But in recent times we have seen Egypt disclose
+the ruins of a mighty civilization, more grand and massive though
+less elegant than that of Greece, and which had reached its acme
+ere Greece had received its alphabet&mdash;a civilization which,
+according to the Scripture history, is derived from that of the
+primeval Cushite empire, which extended from the plains of Shinar
+over all Southeastern Asia, but was crushed at its centre before
+the dawn of secular history. We have now little reason to doubt
+that Moses, when he studied the learning of Egypt, held converse
+with men who saw more clearly and deeply into nature's mysteries
+than did Thales or Pythagoras, or even Aristotle.
+<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+ Still later
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+the remnants of old Nineveh have been exhumed from their long
+sepulture, and antiquaries have been astonished by the discovery
+that knowledge and arts, supposed to belong exclusively to far
+more recent times, were in the days of the early Hebrew kings,
+and probably very long previously, firmly established on the
+banks of the Tigris. Such discoveries, when compared with hints
+furnished by the Scriptures, tend greatly to exalt our ideas of
+the state of civilization at the time when they were written; and
+we shall perceive, in the course of our inquiry, many additional
+reasons for believing that the ancient Israelites were much
+farther advanced in natural science than is commonly supposed.</p>
+
+<p>We have, however, no positive proof of such a theory, and it is
+subject to many grave objections. The narrative itself makes no
+pretension to a scientific origin, it quotes no authority, and it
+is connected with no philosophical speculations or deductions. It
+bears no internal evidence of having been the result of inductive
+inquiry, but appeals at once to faith in the truth of the great
+ultimate doctrine of absolute creation, and then proceeds to
+detail the steps of the process, in the manner of history as
+recorded by a witness, and not in the manner of science tracing
+back effects to their causes. Farther, it refers to conditions of
+our planet respecting which science has even now attained to no
+conclusions supported by evidence, and is not in a position to
+make dogmatic assertions. The tone of all the ancient cosmogonies
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+has in these respects a resemblance to that of the Scriptures,
+and bears testimony to a general impression pervading the mind of
+antiquity that there was a divine and authoritative testimony to
+the facts of creation, distinct from history, philosophical
+speculation, or induction.</p>
+
+<p>One of the boldest and simplest methods of this kind is that
+followed by the authors of the "Types of Mankind," in the attempt
+to assign a purely human origin to Genesis 1st. These writers
+admit the greater antiquity of the first chapter, though
+assigning the whole of the book to a comparatively modern date.
+They say:</p>
+
+<p>"The 'document Jehovah'
+<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+ does not especially concern our
+present subject; and it is incomparable with the grander
+conception of the more ancient and unknown writer of Genesis 1st.
+With extreme felicity of diction and conciseness of plan, the
+latter has defined the most philosophical views of antiquity upon
+<i>cosmogony</i>; in fact so well that it has required the
+pal&aelig;ontological discoveries of the nineteenth century&mdash;at least
+2500 years after his death&mdash;to overthrow his <i>septenary</i>
+arrangement of 'Creation;' which, after all, would still be
+correct enough in great principles, were it not for one
+individual oversight and one unlucky blunder; not exposed,
+however, until long after his era, by post-Copernican astronomy.
+The oversight is where he wrote (Gen. i. 6-8), 'Let there be
+<i>raqui&ecirc;</i>,' <i>i. e.</i>, a <i>firmament</i>; which proves that his notions
+of 'sky' (solid like the concavity of a copper basin, with
+<i>stars</i> set as brilliants in the metal) were the same as those of
+adjacent people of his time&mdash;indeed, of all men before the
+publication of Newton's 'Principia' and of Laplace's 'M&eacute;canique
+C&eacute;leste.' The blunder is where he conceives that <i>aur</i>, 'light,'
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+and <i>iom</i>, 'day' (Gen. i. 14-18), could have been physically
+possible <i>three whole days</i> before the 'two great luminaries,'
+<i>Sun</i> and <i>Moon</i>, were created. These venial errors deducted, his
+majestic song beautifully illustrates the simple process of
+ratiocination through which&mdash;often without the slightest
+historical proof of intercourse&mdash;different 'Types of Mankind,' at
+distinct epochas, and in countries widely apart, had arrived,
+naturally, at cosmogonic conclusions similar to the doctrines of
+that Hebraical school of which his harmonic and melodious numbers
+remain a magnificent memento.</p>
+
+<p>"That process seems to have been the following: The ancients
+knew, as we do, that man <i>is</i> upon the earth; and they were
+persuaded, as we are, that his appearance was preceded by
+unfathomable depths of time. Unable (as we are still) to measure
+periods antecedent to man by any <i>chronological</i> standard, the
+ancients rationally reached the tabulation of some events
+anterior to man through <i>induction</i>&mdash;a method not original with
+Lord Bacon, because known to St. Paul; 'for his unseen things
+from the creation of the world, his power and Godhead, are
+clearly seen, <i>being understood by the things that are made</i>'
+(Rom. i., 20). Man, they felt, could not have lived upon earth
+without <i>animal</i> food; ergo, 'cattle' preceded him, together with
+birds, reptiles, fishes, etc. Nothing living, they knew, could
+have existed without light and heat; ergo, the <i>solar system</i>
+antedated animal life, no less than the <i>vegetation</i>
+indispensable for animal support. But terrestrial plants can not
+grow without <i>earth</i>; ergo, that dry land had to be separated
+from pre-existent 'waters.' Their geological speculations
+inclining rather to the <i>Neptunian</i> than to the <i>Plutonian</i>
+theory&mdash;for Werner ever preceded Hutton&mdash;the ancients found it
+difficult to 'divide the waters from the waters' without
+interposing a metallic substance that 'divided the waters which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+were <i>under</i> the firmament from the waters that were <i>above</i> the
+firmament;' so they inferred, logically, that a <i>firmament</i> must
+have been actually created for this object. [<i>E.g.</i>, 'The
+<i>windows</i> of the skies' (Gen. vii., 11); 'the waters <i>above</i> the
+skies' (Psa. cxlviii., 4).] Before the 'waters' (and here is the
+peculiar error of the genesiacal bard) some of the ancients
+claimed the pre-existence of <i>light</i> (a view adopted by the
+writer of Genesis 1st); while others asserted that 'chaos'
+prevailed. Both schools united, however, in the conviction that
+DARKNESS&mdash;<i>Erebus</i>&mdash;anteceded all other <i>created things</i>. What,
+said these ancients, can have existed before the 'darkness?' <i>Ens
+entium</i>, the CREATOR, was the humbled reply. <i>Elohim</i> is the
+Hebrew vocal expression of that climax; to define whose
+attributes, save through the phenomena of creation, is an attempt
+we leave to others more presumptuous than ourselves."</p>
+
+<p>The problem here set to the "unknown" author of Genesis is a hard
+one&mdash;given the one fact that "man is" to find in detail how the
+world was formed in a series of preceding ages of vast duration.
+Is it possible that such a problem could have been so worked out
+as to have endured the test of three thousand years, and the
+scrutiny of modern science? But there is an "oversight" in one
+detail, and a "blunder" in another. By reference farther on, the
+reader will find under the chapters on "Light" and the
+"Atmosphere" that the oversight and blunder are those not of the
+writer of Genesis, but of the learned American ethnologists in
+the nineteenth century; a circumstance which cuts in two ways in
+defense of the ancient author so unhappily unknown to his modern
+critics.</p>
+
+<p>The second of the alternatives above referred to, the mythical
+hypothesis, has been advanced and ably supported, especially on
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+the continent of Europe, and by such English writers as are
+disposed to apply the methods of modern rationalistic criticism
+to the Bible. In one of its least objectionable forms it is thus
+stated by Professor Powell:</p>
+
+<p>"The narrative, then, of six periods of creation, followed by a
+seventh similar period of rest and blessing, was clearly designed
+by adaptation to their conceptions to enforce upon the Israelites
+the institution of the Sabbath; and in whatever way its details
+may be interpreted, it can not be regarded as an <i>historical</i>
+statement of the <i>primeval</i> institution of a Sabbath; a
+supposition which is indeed on other grounds sufficiently
+improbable, though often adopted. * * * If, then, we would avoid
+the alternative of being compelled to admit what must amount to
+impugning the truth of those portions at least of the Old
+Testament, we surely are bound to give fair consideration to the
+only suggestion which can set us entirely free from all the
+difficulties arising from the geological contradiction which does
+and must exist against any conceivable interpretation which
+retains the assertion of the historical character of the details
+of the narrative, as referring to the distinct transactions of
+each of the seven periods. * * * The one great fact couched in
+the general assertion that all things were created by the sole
+power of one Supreme Being is the whole of the representation to
+which an historical character can be assigned. As to the
+particular form in which the descriptive narrative is conveyed,
+we merely affirm that it can not be history&mdash;it may be
+poetry."
+<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>The general ground on which this view is entertained is the
+supposed irreconcilable contradiction between the literal
+interpretation of the Mosaic record and the facts of geology.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+The real amount of this difficulty we are not, in the present
+stage of our inquiry, prepared to estimate. We can, however,
+readily understand that the hypothesis depends on the supposition
+that the narrative of creation is posterior in date to the Mosaic
+ritual, and that this plain and circumstantial series of
+statements is a fable designed to support the Sabbatical
+institution, instead of the rite being, as represented in the
+Bible itself, a commemoration of the previously recorded fact.
+This is, fortunately, a gratuitous assumption, contrary to the
+probable date of the documents, as deduced from internal evidence
+and from comparison with the Assyrian and other cosmogonies; and
+it also completely ignores the other manifest uses mentioned
+under our first head. If proved, it would give to the whole the
+character of a pious fraud, and would obviously render any
+comparison with the geological history of the earth altogether
+unnecessary. While, therefore, it must be freely admitted that
+the Mosaic narrative can not be history, in so far at least as
+history is a product of human experience, we can not admit that
+it is a poetical mythus, or, in other words, that it is destitute
+of substantial truth, unless proved by good evidence to be so;
+and, when this is proved, we must also admit that it is quite
+undeserving of the credit which it claims as a revelation from
+God.</p>
+
+<p>Since, therefore, the events recorded in the first chapter of
+Genesis were not witnessed by man; since there is no reason to
+believe that they were discovered by scientific inquiry; and
+since, if true, they can not be a poetical myth, we must, in the
+mean time, return to our former supposition that the Mosaic
+cosmogony is a direct revelation from the Creator. In this
+respect, the position of this part of the earth's Biblical
+history resembles that of prophecy. Writers <i>may</i> accurately
+relate contemporary events, or those which belong to the human
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+period, without inspiration; but the moment that they profess
+accurately to foretell the history of the future, or to inform us
+of events which preceded the human period, we must either believe
+them to be inspired, or reject them as impostors or fanatics.
+Many attempts have been made to find intermediate
+standing-ground, but it is so precarious that the nicest of our
+modern critical balancers have been unable to maintain themselves
+upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus determined that the Mosaic cosmogony, in its grand
+general features, must either be inspired or worthless, we have
+further to inquire to what extent it is necessary to suppose that
+the particular details and mode of expression of the narrative,
+and the subsequent allusions to nature in the Bible, must be
+regarded as entitled to this position. We may conceive them to
+have been left to the discretion of the writers; and, in that
+case, they will merely represent the knowledge of nature actually
+existing at the time. On the other hand, their accuracy may have
+been secured by the divine afflatus. Few modern writers have been
+disposed to insist on the latter alternative, and have rather
+assumed that these references and details are accommodated to the
+state of knowledge at the time. I must observe here, however,
+that a careful consideration of the facts gives to a naturalist a
+much higher estimate of the real value of the observations of
+nature embodied in the Scriptures than that which divines have
+ordinarily entertained; and, consequently, that if we suppose
+them of human origin, we must be prepared to modify the views
+generally entertained of early Oriental simplicity and ignorance.
+The truth is, that a large proportion of the difficulties in
+Scriptural natural history appear to have arisen from want of
+such accommodation to the low state of the knowledge of nature
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+among translators and expositors; and this is precisely what we
+should expect in a veritable revelation. Its moral and religious
+doctrines were slowly developed, each new light illuminating
+previous obscurities. Its human history comes out as evidence of
+its truth, when compared with monumental inscriptions; and why
+should not the All-wise have constructed as skilfully its
+teachings respecting his own works? There can be no doubt
+whatever that the Scripture writers intended to address
+themselves to the common mind, which now as then requires simple
+and popular teaching, but they were under obligation to give
+truthful statements; and we need not hesitate to say, with Dr.
+Chalmers, in reference to a book making such claims as those of
+the Bible: "There is no argument, saving that grounded on the
+usages of popular language, which would tempt us to meddle with
+the literalities of that ancient and, as appears to us,
+authoritative document, any farther than may be required by those
+conventionalities of speech which spring from 'optical'
+impressions of nature."
+<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Attempt as we may to disguise it, any other view is totally
+unworthy of the great Ruler of the universe, especially in a
+document characterized as emphatically <i>the truth</i>, and in a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+moral revelation, in which statements respecting natural objects
+need not be inserted, unless they could be rendered at once
+truthful and illustrative of the higher objects of the
+revelation. The statement often so flippantly made that the Bible
+was not intended to teach natural history has no application
+here. <i>Spiritual</i> truths are no doubt shadowed forth in the Bible
+by material emblems, often but rudely resembling them, because
+the nature of human thought and language render this necessary,
+not only to the unlearned, but in some degree to all; but this
+principle of adaptation can not be applied to plain material
+facts. Yet a confusion of these two very distinct cases appears
+to prevail almost unaccountably in the minds of many expositors.
+They tell us that the Scriptures ascribe bodily members to the
+immaterial God, and typify his spiritual procedure by outward
+emblems; and this they think analogous to such doctrines as a
+solid firmament, a plane earth, and others of a like nature,
+which they ascribe to the sacred writers. We shall find that the
+writers of the Scriptures had themselves much clearer views, and
+that, even in poetical language, they take no such liberties with
+truth.</p>
+
+<p>As an illustration of the extent to which this doctrine of
+"accommodation" carries us beyond the limits of fair
+interpretation, I cite the following passage from one of the
+ablest and most judicious writers on the subject:
+<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+ "It was the
+opinion of the ancients that the earth, at a certain height, was
+surrounded by a transparent hollow sphere of solid matter, which
+they called the firmament. When rain descended, they supposed
+that it was through windows or holes made in the crystalline
+curtain suspended in mid-heavens. To these notions the language
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+of the Bible is frequently conformed. * * * But the most decisive
+example I have to give on this subject is derived from astronomy.
+Until the time of Copernicus no opinion respecting natural
+phenomena was thought better established than that the earth is
+fixed immovably in the centre of the universe, and that the
+heavenly bodies move diurnally round it. To sustain this view the
+most decisive language of Scripture might be quoted. God is there
+said to have '<i>established the foundations of the earth, so that
+they could not be removed forever</i>' and the sacred writers
+expressly declare that the heavenly bodies <i>arise and set</i>, and
+nowhere allude to any proper motion of the earth."</p>
+
+<p>Will it be believed that, with the exception of the poetical
+expression, "windows of heaven," and the common forms of speech
+relating to sunrise and sunset, the above "decisive" instances of
+accommodation have no foundation whatever in the language of
+Scripture. The doctrine of the rotation of solid celestial
+spheres around the earth belongs to a Greek philosophy which
+arose after the Hebrew cosmogony was complete; and though it
+occurs in the Septuagint and other ancient versions, it is not
+based on the Hebrew original. In truth, we know that those
+Grecian philosophers&mdash;of the Ionic and Pythagorean schools&mdash;who
+lived nearest the times of the Hebrew writers, and who derived
+the elements of their science from Egypt and Western Asia, taught
+very different doctrines. How absurd, then, is it thus to fasten
+upon the sacred writers, contrary to their own words, the views
+of a school of astronomy which probably arose long after their
+time, when we know that more accurate ideas prevailed nearer
+their epoch. Secondly, though there is some reason for stating
+that the "ancients," though certainly not those of Israel,
+believed in celestial spheres supporting the heavenly bodies, I
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+suspect that the doctrine of a solid vault <i>supporting the
+clouds</i>, except as a mere poetical or mythological fancy, is a
+product of the imagination of the theologians and closet
+philosophers of a more modern time. The testimony of men's senses
+appears to be in favor of the whole universe revolving around a
+plane earth, though the oldest astronomical school with which we
+are acquainted suspected that this is an illusion; but the
+every-day observation of the most unlettered man who treads the
+fields and is wet with the mists and rains must convince him that
+there is no <i>sub-nubilar</i> solid sphere. If, therefore, the Bible
+had taught such a doctrine, it would have shocked the
+common-sense even of the plain husbandmen to whom it was
+addressed, and could have found no fit audience except among a
+portion of the literati of comparatively modern times. Thirdly,
+with respect to the foundations of the earth, I may remark that
+in the tenth verse of Genesis there occurs a definition as
+precise as that of any lexicon&mdash;"and God called the <i>dry land</i>
+earth;" consequently it is but fair to assume that the earth
+afterwards spoken of as supported above the waters is the dry
+land or continental masses of the earth, and no geologist can
+object to the statement that the dry land is supported above the
+waters by foundations or pillars.</p>
+
+<p>We shall find in our examination of the document itself that all
+the instances of such accommodation which have been cited by
+writers on this subject are as baseless as those above referred
+to. It is much to be regretted that so many otherwise useful
+expositors have either wanted that familiarity with the aspects
+of external nature by which all the Hebrew writers are
+characterized, or have taken too little pains to ascertain the
+actual meaning of the references to creation which they find in
+the Bible. I may further remark that if
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+such instances of
+accommodation could be found in the later poetical books, it
+would be extremely unfair to apply them as aids in the
+interpretation of the plain, precise, and unadorned statements of
+the first chapters of Genesis. There is, however, throughout even
+the higher poetry of the Bible, a truthful representation and
+high appreciation of nature for which we seek in vain in any
+other poetry, and we may fairly trace this in part to the
+influence of the cosmogony which appears in its first chapter.
+The Hebrew was thus taught to recognize the unity of nature as
+the work of an Almighty Intelligence, to regard all its
+operations as regulated by his unchanging law or "decree," and to
+venerate it as a revelation of his supreme wisdom and goodness.
+On this account he was likely to regard careful observation and
+representation with as scrupulous attention as the modern
+naturalist. Nor must we forget that the Old Testament literature
+has descended to us through two dark ages&mdash;that of Greek and
+Roman polytheism and of Middle Age barbarism&mdash;and that we must
+not confound its tenets with those of either. The religious ideas
+of both these ages were favorable to certain forms of literature
+and art, but eminently unfavorable to the successful prosecution
+of the study of nature. Hence we have a right to expect in the
+literature of the golden age of primeval monotheism more affinity
+with the ideas of modern science than in any intermediate time;
+and the truthful delineation which the claims of the Bible to
+inspiration require might have been, as already hinted, to a
+certain extent secured merely by the reflex influence of its
+earlier statements, without the necessity of our supposing that
+illustrations of this kind in the later books came directly from
+the Spirit of God.</p>
+
+<p>Our discussion of this part of the subject has necessarily been
+rather desultory, and the arguments adduced must depend for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+their full confirmation on the results of our future inquiries.
+The conclusions arrived at may be summed up as follows: 1. That
+the Mosaic cosmogony must be considered, like the prophecies of
+the Bible, to claim the rank of inspired teaching, and must
+depend for its authority on the maintenance of that claim. 2.
+That the incidental references to nature in other parts of
+Scripture indicate, at least, the influence of these earlier
+teachings, and of a pure monotheistic faith, in creating a high
+and just appreciation of nature among the Hebrew people.</p>
+
+<p>It is now necessary to inquire in what precise form this
+remarkable revelation of the origin of the world has been given.
+I have already referred to the hypothesis that it represents a
+vision of creation presented to the mind of a seer, as if in a
+series of pictures which he represents to us in words. This is
+perhaps the most intelligible conception of the manner of
+communication of a revelation from God; and inasmuch as it is
+that referred to in other parts of the Bible as the mode of
+presentation of the future to inspired prophets, there can be no
+impropriety in supposing it to have been the means of
+communicating the knowledge of the unknown past. We may imagine
+the seer&mdash;perhaps some aboriginal patriarch, long before the time
+of Moses&mdash;perhaps the first man himself&mdash;wrapt in ecstatic
+vision, having his senses closed to all the impressions of the
+present time, and looking as at a moving procession of the events
+of the earth's past history, presented to him in a series of
+apparent days and nights. In the first chapter of Genesis he
+rehearses this divine vision to us, not in poetry, but in a
+series of regularly arranged parts or strophes, thrown into a
+sort of rhythmical order fitted to impress them on the memory,
+and to allow them to be handed down from mouth to mouth, perhaps
+through successive generations
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+of men, before they could be
+fixed in a written form of words. Though the style can scarcely
+be called poetical, since its expressions are obviously literal
+and unadorned by figures of speech, the production may not
+unfairly be called the Song or Ballad of Creation, and it
+presents an Archaic simplicity reminding us of the compositions
+of the oldest and rudest times, while it has also an artificial
+and orderly arrangement, much obscured by its division into
+verses and chapters in our Bibles. It is undoubtedly also
+characterized by a clearness and grandeur of expression very
+striking and majestic, and which shows that it was written by and
+intended for men of no mean and contracted minds, but who could
+grasp the great problems of the origin of things, and comprehend
+and express them in a bold and vigorous manner. It may be well,
+before proceeding farther, to present to the reader this ancient
+document in a form more literal and intelligible, and probably
+nearer to its original dress, than that in which we are most
+familiar with it in our English Bibles:</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center; margin-top: 3em;">THE ABORIGINAL SONG OF CREATION.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beginning.</i></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;">In the Beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth,<br />
+And the Earth was formless and empty,<br />
+And darkness on the surface of the deep,<br />
+And the Breath of God moved on the Surface of the Waters.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Day One.</i></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Let Light be,"<br />
+And Light was.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And God saw the Light that it was good.</span><br />
+And God called the Light Day,<br />
+And the darkness he called Night.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And Evening was and Morning was&mdash;Day one.</span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Day Second.</i></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Let there be an Expanse in the midst of the waters,<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+And let it divide the waters from the waters."<br />
+And God made the Expanse,<br />
+And divided the waters below the Expanse from the waters above the Expanse.<br />
+And it was so.<br />
+And God called the Expanse Heavens.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And Evening was and Morning was, a Second Day.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Day Third.</i></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Let the waters under the Heavens be gathered into one place,<br />
+And let the Dry Land appear."<br />
+And it was so,<br />
+And God called the Dry Land Earth,<br />
+And the gathering of waters called he Seas.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And God saw that it was good.</span><br />
+<i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Let the earth shoot forth herbage,<br />
+The Herb yielding seed and the fruit-tree yielding fruit containing seed after its kind, on the earth."<br />
+And it was so.<br />
+And the earth brought forth herbage,<br />
+The Herb yielding seed and the Tree yielding fruit whose seed is in it after its kind,<br />
+And God saw that it was good.<br />
+And Evening was and Morning was, a Third Day.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Day Fourth.</i></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Let there be Luminaries in the Expanse of Heaven,<br />
+To divide the day from the night,<br />
+And let them be for Signs and for Seasons,<br />
+And for Days and for Years.<br />
+And let them be Luminaries in the Expanse of Heaven<br />
+To give light on the earth."<br />
+And it was so.<br />
+And God made two great Luminaries,<br />
+The greater Luminary to rule the day,<br />
+The lesser Luminary to rule the night,<br />
+The Stars also.<br />
+
+And God placed them in the Expanse of Heaven<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+To give light upon the earth,<br />
+And to rule over the day and over the night,<br />
+And to divide the light from the darkness.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And God saw that it was good.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And Evening was and Morning was, a Fourth Day.</span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Day Fifth.</i></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Let the waters swarm<br />
+with swarmers, having life,<br />
+And let winged animals fly over the earth on the<br />
+surface of the expanse of heaven."<br />
+And God created great Reptiles,<br />
+And every living thing that moveth,<br />
+With which the waters swarmed after their kind,<br />
+And every winged bird after its kind.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And God saw that it was good.</span><br />
+And God blessed them, saying&mdash;<br />
+"Be fruitful and multiply,<br />
+And fill the waters of the sea;<br />
+And let birds multiply in the land."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And Evening was and Morning was, a Fifth Day.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Day Sixth.</i></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Let the Land bring forth living things after their kind,<br />
+Herbivores and smaller mammals and Carnivores after their kind."<br />
+And it was so.<br />
+And God made all Carnivores after their kind,<br />
+And all Herbivores after their kind,<br />
+And all minor mammals after their kind.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And God saw that it was good.</span><br />
+<i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Let us make man in our image, after our likeness,<br />
+And let him have dominion over the fish in the sea<br />
+And over the birds of the heavens,<br />
+And over the Herbivora,<br />
+And over the Earth,<br />
+And over all the minor animals that creep upon the earth."<br />
+And God created man in his own image,<br />
+In the image of God created he him,<br />
+
+Male and female created he them.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+And God blessed them.<br />
+And God said unto them&mdash;<br />
+"Be fruitful and multiply,<br />
+And replenish the earth and subdue it,<br />
+And have dominion over the fishes of the sea<br />
+And over the birds of the air,<br />
+And over all the animals that move upon the earth."<br />
+<i>And God said</i>&mdash;"Behold, I have given you all herbs yielding seed,<br />
+Which are on the surface of the whole earth,<br />
+And every tree with fruit having seed,<br />
+They shall be unto you for food.<br />
+And to all the animals of the land<br />
+And to all the birds of the heavens,<br />
+And to all things moving on the land having the breath of life,<br />
+I have given every green herb for food."<br />
+And it was so.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And God saw every thing that he had made,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">and behold it was very good.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -1em;">And Evening was and Morning was, a Sixth Day.</span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Day Seventh.</i></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;">Thus the Heavens and the Earth were finished,<br />
+And all the hosts of them.<br />
+And on the seventh day God ended the work which he had made,<br />
+And he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made.<br />
+And God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it,<br />
+Because that in it he rested from all his work that he had created and made.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><br />
+<span style="font-size:70%;">OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS&mdash;<i>Continued.</i></span><br /><br />
+</h2>
+
+<table style="font-size:70%;text-align:center;font-weight:bold;" summary="prose by Milton.">
+<tr><td style="text-align: right;padding-right:20%;">"What if earth</td></tr>
+<tr><td style="text-align: left;">Be but a shadow of heaven, and things therein</td></tr>
+<tr><td style="text-align: left;">Each to the other like; more than on earth is thought."</td></tr>
+<tr><td style="font-variant: small-caps;text-align: right;">Milton.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>(3) <i>Character of the Biblical Cosmogony, and general Views of
+Nature which it Contains or to which it Leads.</i>&mdash;Much of what
+appertains to the character of the revelation of origins has been
+anticipated under previous heads. We have only to read the Song
+of Creation, as given in the last chapter, to understand its
+power and influence as a beginning of religious doctrine. The
+revelation was written for plain men in the infancy of the world.
+Imagine Chaldean or Hebrew shepherd listening to these majestic
+lines from the lips of some ancient patriarch, and receiving them
+as truly the words of God. What a grand opening to him of both
+the seen and unseen worlds! Henceforth he has no superstitious
+dread of the stars above, or of the lightning and thunder, or of
+the dark woods and flowing waters beneath. They are all the works
+of the one Creator, the same Creator who is his own Maker, in
+whose image and shadow he is made. He can look up now to the
+heavens or around upon the earth, and see in all the handiwork of
+God, and can worship God through all. He can see that the power
+that cares
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+for the birds and the flowers of the field cares for
+him. He is no longer the slave and sport of unknown and dreadful
+powers; they are God's workmanship and under his control&mdash;nay,
+God has given him a mission to subdue and rule over them. So
+these noble words raise him to a new manhood, and emancipate him
+from the torture of endless fears, and open to him vast new
+fields of thought and inquiry, which may enrich him with
+boundless treasures of new religious and intellectual wealth.
+Imagine still farther that he wanders into those great cities
+which are the seats of the idolatries of his time. He enters
+magnificent temples, sees elaborately decorated altars, huge
+images, gorgeous ceremonials, priests gay in vestments and
+imposing in numbers. He is invited to bow down before the bull
+Apis, to worship the statue of Belus or of Ishtar, of Osiris or
+of Isis. But this is not in his book of origins. All these things
+are contrivances of man, not works of God, and their aim is to
+invite him to adore that which is merely his fellow-creature,
+that which he has the divine commission to subdue and rule. So
+our primitive Puritan turns away. He will rather raise an altar
+of rough stones in the desert, and worship the unseen yet real
+Creator, the God that has no local habitation in temples made
+with hands, yet is everywhere present. Such is the moral
+elevation to which this revelation of origins raises humanity;
+and when there was added to it the farther history of primeval
+innocence, of the fall, and of the promise of a Redeemer, and of
+the fate of the godless antediluvians, there was a whole system
+of religion, pure and elevating, and placing the Abrahamid&aelig;, who
+for ages seem alone to have held to it, on a plane of spiritual
+vantage immeasurably above that of other nations. Farther, every
+succeeding prophet whose works are included in the sacred canon,
+following up these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+doctrines in the same spirit, and added new
+treasures of divine knowledge from age to age.</p>
+
+<p>But admitting all this, it may be asked, Are these ancient
+records of any value to us? May we not now dispense with them,
+and trust to the light of science? The infinitely varied and
+discordant notions of our modern literature on these great
+questions of origin, the incapacity of any philosophical system
+to reach the common mind for practical purposes, and the baseless
+character of any religious system which does not build on these
+great primitive truths, give a sufficient answer. Farther, we may
+affirm that the greatest and widest generalizations of our modern
+science have, in so far as they are of practical importance, been
+anticipated in the revelations of the Bible, and that in the
+cosmogony of Genesis and its continuation in the other sacred
+books we have general views of the universe as broad as those of
+any philosophies, ancient or modern. This is a hard test for our
+revelation, but it can be endured, and we may shortly inquire
+what we find in the Bible of such great general truths.</p>
+
+<p>Many may be disposed to admit the accurate delineation of natural
+facts open to human observation in the sacred Scriptures, who may
+not be prepared to find in these ancient books any general views
+akin to those of the ancient philosophers, or to those obtained
+by inductive processes in modern times. Yet views of this kind
+are scattered through the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures, and
+are a natural outgrowth and development of the great facts and
+principles asserted in the first chapter of Genesis. They resolve
+themselves, almost as a matter of course, into the two leading
+ideas of order and adaptation. I have already quoted the eloquent
+admission by Baron Humboldt of the presence of these ideas of the
+cosmos in Psalm civ. They are both
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+conspicuous in the narrative
+of creation, and equally so in a great number of other passages.
+"Order is heaven's first law; and the second is like unto
+it&mdash;that every thing serves an end. This is the sum of all
+science. These are the two mites, even all that she hath, which
+she throws into the treasury of the Lord; and, as she does so in
+faith, Eternal Wisdom looks on and approves the deed."
+<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+ These two mites, lawfully acquired by science, by her independent
+exertions, she may, however, recognize as of the same coinage
+with the treasure already laid up in the rich storehouse of the
+Hebrew literature; but in a peculiar and complex form, which may
+be illustrated under the following general statements:</p>
+
+<p>1. The Scriptures assert invariable natural law, and constantly
+recurring cycles in nature. Natural law is expressed as the
+ordinance or decree of Jehovah. From the oldest of the Hebrew
+books I select the following examples:
+<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:15em;">"When he made a decree for the rain,<br />
+And a way for the thunder-flash."<br />
+<span style="margin-left:10em;">&mdash;Job xxviii., 26.</span><br /><br />
+
+"Knowest thou the ordinances of the heavens?<br />
+Canst thou establish a dominion even over the earth?"<br />
+<span style="margin-left:10em;">&mdash;Job xxxviii., 33.</span></p>
+
+<p>The later books give us such views as the following:</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:15em;">"He hath established them [the heavens] for ever and ever;<br />
+He hath made a decree which shall not pass."<br />
+<span style="margin-left:10em;">&mdash;Psa. cxlviii., 6.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:15em;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+"Thou art forever, O Jehovah, thy word is established in the heavens;<br />
+Thou hast established the earth, and it abideth;<br />
+They continue this day according to thine ordinances, for all are thy servants."<br />
+<span style="margin-left:10em;">&mdash;Psa. cxix., 90.</span></p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:15em;">"When he established the clouds above;<br />
+When he strengthened the fountains of the deep;<br />
+When he gave to the sea his decree,<br />
+That the waters should not pass his commandment;<br />
+When he appointed the foundations of the earth."<br />
+<span style="margin-left:10em;">&mdash;Prov. viii., 28.</span></p>
+
+<p>Many similar instances will be found in succeeding pages; and in
+the mean time we may turn to the idea of recurring cycles, which
+forms the starting-point of the reasonings of Solomon on the
+current of human affairs, in the book of Ecclesiastes: "One
+generation passeth away, and another generation cometh; but the
+earth abideth for the ages. The sun ariseth, and the sun goeth
+down, and hasteneth to its place whence it arose. The wind goeth
+toward the south, and turneth unto the north. It whirleth about
+continually, and returneth again according to its circuits. All
+the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea doth not overflow; unto
+the place whence the rivers came, thither they return again." I
+might fill pages with quotations more or less illustrative of the
+statement in proof of which the above texts are cited; but enough
+has been given to show that the doctrine of the Bible is not that
+of fortuitous occurrence, or of materialism, or of pantheism, or
+of arbitrary supernaturalism, but of invariable natural law
+representing the decree of a wise and unchanging Creator. It is a
+common but groundless and shallow charge against the Bible that
+it teaches an "arbitrary supernaturalism." What it does teach is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+that all nature is regulated by the laws of God, which like
+himself are unchanging, but which are so complex in their
+relations and adjustments that they allow of infinite variety,
+and do not exclude even miraculous intervention, or what appears
+to our limited intelligence as such. In opposition to this, it is
+true, some physicists have held that natural law is a fatal
+necessity.
+<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+ If they mean by this a merely hypothetical
+necessity that certain effects must follow if certain laws act,
+this is in accordance with the Biblical view, for nothing can
+resist the will of God. But if they mean an absolute necessity
+that these laws can not be suspended or counteracted by higher
+laws, or by the will of the Creator, they assert what is not only
+contrary to Scripture, but absurd, for "blind metaphysical
+necessity, which is the same always and everywhere, could produce
+no variety of things."
+<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
+ It could lead merely to a dead and
+inert equilibrium. On the hypothesis of mere physical necessity,
+the universe either never could have existed, or must have come
+to an end infinite ages ago, which is the same thing. Only on the
+hypothesis of law proceeding from an intelligent will can we
+logically account for nature.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Bible recognizes progress and development in nature. At
+the very outset we have this idea embodied in the gradual
+elaboration of all things in the six creative periods, rising
+from the formless void of the beginning, through successive
+stages of inorganic and organic being, up to Eden and to man.
+Beyond this point the work of creation stops; but there is to be
+an occupation and improvement of the whole earth by man spreading
+from Eden. This process is arrested or impeded by sin and the
+fall. Here commences
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+the special province of the Bible, in
+explaining the means of recovery from the fall, and of the
+establishment of a new spiritual and moral kingdom, and finally
+of the restoration of Eden in a new heaven and earth. All this is
+moral, and relates to man, in so far as the present state of
+things is concerned; but we have the commentary of Jesus: "My
+Father worketh hitherto, and I work;" the remarkable statement of
+Paul, that the whole creation is involved in the results of man's
+moral fall and restoration, and the equally remarkable one that
+the Redeemer is also the maker of the "worlds" or ages of the
+earth's physical progress, as well as of the future "new heaven
+and new earth." Peter also rebukes indignantly those scoffers who
+maintained that all things had remained as they are since the
+beginning; and refers to the creation week and to the deluge as
+earnests of the great changes yet in store for the earth.
+<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is indeed curious to observe how in our version of the Bible
+this idea of progress in the universe, or of "time-worlds," as it
+has been called, has been variously replaced by the words "world"
+and "eternity," owing to the defective ideas prevalent at the
+time when the translation was made. In the Hebrew Scriptures the
+term <i>Olam</i>, "age," and in the New Testament the equivalent term
+<i>Ai[=o]n</i> have been thus treated, and their real significance
+much obscured. Thus when it is said, "by faith we understand that
+the <i>worlds</i> were framed," or "by him God made the <i>worlds</i>,"
+<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+or that certain of God's plans have been hid "from the beginning
+of the <i>world</i>,"
+<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
+ the reference is not to worlds in space, but
+to worlds in time, or ages of God's working in the universe. So
+also these ages of God's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+working are given to us as our only
+intelligible type of eternity, of which absolutely we can have no
+conception. Thus God's "eternal purpose" is his purpose of the
+ages. So when he is the "King eternal,"
+<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
+ and in that capacity
+gives to his people "life everlasting," he is the King of the
+ages, and gives life of the ages. So in the noble hymn attributed
+to Moses (Psalm xc.), where our version has, "from everlasting to
+everlasting thou art God,"
+<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+ the original is, "from age to age
+thou art, O God." It has perhaps been a defect of our modern
+science that it has familiarized us merely with the existence of
+worlds in space, and not with their existence in time. It is only
+in comparatively modern times that the developments of
+chronological geology and of physical astronomy have brought
+before us, not only the long ages in which the earth was passing
+through its formative stages, but also the fact that still longer
+&aelig;ons are embraced in the history of the other bodies of our solar
+system, and of the starry orbs and nebul&aelig;. These grand
+conceptions were already embodied in the Hebrew revelation, and
+were used there as the means of giving some faint approach to a
+conception of the unlimited existence of God himself, of the ages
+in which his creative work has been going on, and of the future
+life he has prepared for his redeemed people.</p>
+
+<p>Such views of development and progress are not unknown to many
+ancient cosmogonies and philosophical systems, but they had no
+stable foundation in observed fact until the rise of modern
+geology and physical astronomy; which enable us to affirm that,
+in addition to those changeless physical laws which cause the
+bodies of the universe to wheel in unvarying cycles, and all
+natural powers to reproduce themselves, and, in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+addition to those organic laws which produce unceasing successions of living
+individuals, there is a higher law of progress. We can now trace
+back man, the animals and plants his contemporaries, and others
+which preceded them, our continents and mountain ranges, and the
+solid rocks of which they are composed&mdash;nay, the very fabric of
+the solar system itself&mdash;to their several origins at distinct
+points of time; and can maintain that since the earth began to
+wheel around the sun, no succeeding year has seen it precisely as
+it was in the year before. The old Hebrew record affirms, and I
+presume scarcely any sane man really doubts, that this law of
+progress emanates from the mind and power of one creative Being.
+When men see in natural law only recurring cycles, they may be
+pardoned for falling even into the absurdity of believing in
+eternal succession; but when they see change and progress, and
+this in a uniform direction, overmastering recurring cycles, and
+introducing new objects and powers not accounted for by previous
+objects or powers, they are brought very near to the presence of
+the Spiritual Creator. And hence, although no science can reach
+back to the act of creation, this doctrine is much more strongly
+held in our day by geologists than by physicists. It is quite
+true that the idea of creative acts has been superseded to a
+great extent by that of "creation by law," or by that of
+"evolution." Still behind all there lies a primary creative
+power; and the validity of these ideas and their bearing on
+theism and creation we shall have to discuss in the sequel. In
+one thing only does the Bible here part company with natural
+science. The Bible goes on into the future, and predicts a final
+condition of our planet, of which science can from its
+investigations learn nothing.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Bible recognizes purpose, use, and special adaptation in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+nature. It is, in short, full of natural theology, akin in some
+respects to that which has been so elaborately worked out by so
+many modern writers. Numerous passages in support of this will
+occur to every one who has read the Scriptures. It is necessary
+here, however, to direct attention to a distinction very obvious
+in Scripture, but not always attended to by writers on this
+subject. The Bible maintains the true "final cause" of all nature
+to be, not its material and special adaptations or its value to
+man, but the pleasure or satisfaction of the Creator himself. In
+the earlier periods of Creation, before man was upon the earth,
+God contemplates his work and pronounces it good. The heavenly
+hosts praise him, saying, "Thou hast created all things, and for
+thy pleasure they are and were created." Further, the Bible
+represents intelligences higher than man as sharing in the
+delight which may be derived from the contemplation of God's
+works. When the earth first rose from the waters to greet the
+light, "the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God
+shouted for joy." There are many things in nature that strongly
+impress the naturalist with this same view, that the Creator
+takes pleasure in his works; and, like human genius in its
+highest efforts, rejoices in production, even if no sentient
+being should be ready to sympathize. The elaborate structures of
+fossils, of which we have only fragmentary remains, the profusion
+of natural objects of surpassing beauty that grow and perish
+unseen by us, the delicate microscopic mechanism of nearly all
+organic structures, point to other reasons for beauty and order
+than those that concern man, or the mere utilities of human
+beings; and though there are now naturalists who deny absolutely
+that beauty is an object in nature, and assign even the colors of
+flowers and insects to utility alone, and this of a very low
+order, this doctrine is so
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+repulsive to our higher sentiments
+that there is little danger of its general acceptance; while the
+slightest consideration shows that the utilities referred to
+could have been secured without any of this consummate beauty
+associated with them, and our perception of and delight in which
+mark in a way beyond the ability of skepticism to cavil at our
+own spiritual kinship with the Author of all this profusion of
+beauty. Yet man is represented as the chief created being for
+whom this earth has been prepared and designed. He obtains
+dominion over it. A chosen spot is prepared for him, in which not
+only his wants but his tastes are consulted; and, being made in
+the image of his Maker, his &aelig;sthetic sentiments correspond with
+the beauties of the Maker's work, and he finds there also food
+for his reason and imagination. This view of the subject, as well
+as others already referred to, is finely represented in the
+address of the Almighty to Job.
+<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Bible also very often refers to the special adaptations of
+natural objects and laws to each other, and to the promotion of
+the happiness of sentient creatures lower than man. The 104th
+Psalm is replete with notices of such adaptations, and so is the
+address to Job; and indeed this view seems hardly ever absent
+from the minds of the Hebrew writers, but has its highest
+applications in the lilies of the field, that toil not neither do
+they spin, and the sparrows that are sold for a farthing, yet the
+heavenly Father has clothed the one with surpassing beauty, and
+provides food for the other, nor allows it to fail without his
+knowledge. I may, by way of farther illustration, merely name a
+few of the adaptations referred to in Job xxxviii. and the
+following chapters. The winds and the clouds are so arranged as
+to afford the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+required supplies of moisture to the wilderness
+where no man is, to "cause the bud of the tender herb to spring
+forth." For similar objects the tempest is ordered, and the
+clouds arranged "by wisdom." The adaptations of the wild ass, the
+wild goat, the ostrich, the migratory birds, the horse, the
+hippopotamus, the crocodile, to their several habitats, modes of
+life, and uses in nature, are most vividly sketched and applied
+as illustrations of the consummate wisdom of the Creator, which
+descends to the minutest details of organization and habit.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be observed here that in holding this doctrine of use
+and adaptation in nature, the Bible is only consistent with its
+own theory of rational theism. The Monotheist can not refer
+nature to a conflict of antagonistic powers and forces. He must
+recognize in it a unity of plan; and even those things which
+appear aberrant, irregular, or noxious must have their place in
+this plan. Hence in the Bible God is maker not only of the day
+but of the night, not only of the peaceful cattle but of the
+voracious crocodile, not only of the sunshine and shower but of
+the tornado and the earthquake. Further, in all these things God
+is manifested, so that we may learn "his eternal power and
+divinity
+<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>
+ from the things which he has made," and in all these
+also there are emblems of his relations to us. This argument from
+design is in truth the only proof the Bible condescends to urge
+for the existence of God; and it is the only one in which in his
+later days our great English philosopher Mill could see any
+validity.
+<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>If the reader happens to be familiar with the objections to the
+doctrine of final causes, or teleology, in nature, urged in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+our day by Spencer, Haeckel, and others, he will have seen from the
+foregoing statements that these objections are in themselves
+baseless, or inapplicable to this doctrine as maintained in the
+Bible. There is no consistency in the position of men who, when
+they dig a rudely chipped flint out of a bed of gravel,
+immediately infer an intelligent workman, and who refuse to see
+any indication of a higher intelligence in the creation of the
+workman himself. It is a blind philosophy which professes to see
+in primal atoms the "promise and potency of mind," and which
+fails to perceive that such potency is more inconceivable than
+the evidence of primary and supreme mind. The men who maintain
+that wings were not planned for flight, but that flight has
+produced wings, and thousands of like propositions, are simply
+amusing themselves with paradoxes to which may very properly be
+applied the strange word devised by Haeckel to express his theory
+of nature&mdash;<i>Dysteleology</i>, or purposelessness. It is to be borne
+in mind, however, that the teleology of the Bible is not of that
+narrow kind which would make man the sole object of nature, and
+the supreme judge of its adaptations. Inasmuch as God's plan goes
+over all the ages past and future, and relates to the welfare of
+all sentient beings known or unknown to us, and also to his own
+sovereign pleasure as the supreme object, we may not be in a
+position either to understand or profit by all its parts, and
+hence may expect to find many mysteries, and many things that we
+can not at present reconcile with God's wisdom and goodness. We
+know but "parts of his ways," the "fullness of his power who can
+understand." "His judgments are unsearchable," "his ways are past
+finding out."</p>
+
+<p>4. The law of type or pattern in nature is distinctly indicated
+in the Bible. This is a principle only recently understood
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+by naturalists, but it has more or less dimly dawned on the minds of
+many great thinkers in all ages. Nor is this wonderful, for the
+idea of type is scarcely ever absent from our own conceptions of
+any work that we may undertake. In any such work we anticipate
+recurring daily toil, like the returning cycles of nature. We
+look for progress, like that of the growth of the universe. We
+study adaptation both of the several parts to subordinate uses,
+and of the whole to some general design. But we also keep in view
+some pattern, style, or order, according to which the whole is
+arranged, and the mutual relations of the parts are adjusted. The
+architect must adhere to some order of architecture, and to some
+style within that order. The potter, the calico-printer, and the
+silversmith must equally study uniformity of pattern in their
+several manufactures. The Almighty Worker has exhibited the same
+idea in his works. In the animal kingdom, for instance, we have
+four or more leading types of structure. Taking any one of
+these&mdash;the vertebrate, for example&mdash;we have a uniform general
+plan, embracing the vertebral column constructed of the same
+elements; the members, whether the arm of man, the limb of the
+quadruped, or the wing of the bat or the bird, or the
+swimming-paddle of the whale, built of the same bones. In like
+manner all the parts of the vertebral column itself in the same
+animal, whether in the skull, the neck, or the trunk, are
+composed of the same elementary structures. These types are
+farther found to be sketched out&mdash;first in their more general,
+and then in their special features&mdash;in proceeding from the lower
+species of the same type to the higher, in proceeding from the
+earlier to the later stages of embryonic development, and in
+proceeding from the more ancient to the more recent creatures
+that have succeeded each other in geological time. Man, the
+highest of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+vertebrates, is thus the archetype, representing
+and including all the lower and earlier members of the vertebrate
+type. The above are but trite and familiar examples of a doctrine
+which may furbish and has furnished the material of volumes.
+There can be no question that the Hebrew Bible is the oldest book
+in which this principle is stated. In the first chapter of
+Genesis we have specific type in the creation of plants and
+animals after their kinds or species, and in the formation of man
+in the image and likeness of the Creator; and, as we shall find
+in the sequel, there are some curious ideas of higher and more
+general types in the grouping of the creatures referred to. The
+same idea is indicated in the closing chapters of Job, where the
+three higher classes of the vertebrates are represented by a
+number of examples, and the typical likeness of one of these&mdash;the
+hippopotamus&mdash;to man, seems to be recognized. Dr. McCosh has
+quoted, as an illustration of the doctrine of types, a very
+remarkable passage from Psalm cxxxix.:</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:2em;">"I will praise Thee, for I am fearfully and wonderfully made.<br />
+Marvellous are thy works,<br />
+And that my soul knoweth right well.<br />
+My substance was not hid from Thee,<br />
+When I was made in secret,<br />
+And curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth:<br />
+Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being imperfect;<br />
+And in thy book all my members were written,<br />
+Which in continuance were fashioned when as yet there was none of them."</p>
+
+<p>It would too much tax the faith of many to ask them to believe
+that the writer of the above passage, or the Spirit that inspired
+him, actually meant to teach&mdash;what we now know so well from
+geology&mdash;that the prototypes of all the parts of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+archetypal human structure may be found in those fossil remains of extinct
+animals which may, in nearly every country, be dug up from the
+rocks of the earth. No objection need, however, be taken to our
+reading in it the doctrine of embryonic development according to
+a systematic type.</p>
+
+<p>Science, it is true, or rather I should perhaps say philosophical
+speculation, has sometimes pushed this idea of plan into that of
+a spontaneous genetic evolution of things in time, without any
+creative superintendence or definite purpose. This way of viewing
+the matter is, however, as we shall have occasion to see, both
+bald and irrational, and wants the symmetry and completeness of
+that style of thought which grasps at once progress and plan and
+adaptation, as emanating from a Supreme Will. The question of how
+the plan has been worked out will come up for detailed
+consideration farther on. In the mean time we have before us the
+fact that the Bible represents the cosmos as not the product of a
+blind conflict of self-existent forces, but as the result of the
+production and guidance of these forces by infinite wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>It is more than curious that this idea of type, so long existing
+in an isolated and often depised form, as a theological thought
+in the imagery of Scripture, should now be a leading idea of
+natural science; and that while comparative anatomy teaches us
+that the structures of all past and present lower animals point
+to man, who, as Professor Owen expresses it, has had all his
+parts and organs "sketched out in anticipation in the inferior
+animals," the Bible points still farther forward to an exaltation
+of the human type itself into what even the comparative anatomist
+might perhaps regard as among the "possible modifications of it
+beyond those realized in this little orb of ours," could he but
+learn its real nature.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+Under the foregoing heads, of the object, the structure, the
+authority, and the general cosmical views of the Scripture, I
+have endeavored to group certain leading thoughts important as
+preliminary to the study of the subject; and, in now entering on
+the details of the Old Testament cosmogony, I trust the reader
+will pardon me for assuming, as a working hypothesis, that we are
+studying an inspired book, revealing the origin of nature, and
+presenting accurate pictures of natural facts and broad general
+views of the cosmos, at least until in the progress of our
+inquiry we find reason to adopt lower views; and that he will, in
+the mean time, be content to follow me in that careful and
+systematic analysis which a work claiming such a character surely
+demands.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">THE BEGINNING.</span><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:50%;">"In the beginning Elohim created the heavens and the earth."&mdash;Genesis i., 1.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>It is a remarkable and instructive fact that the first verse of
+the Hebrew sacred writings speaks of the material
+universe&mdash;speaks of it as a whole, and as originating in a power
+outside of itself. The universe, then, in the conception of this
+ancient writer, is not eternal. It had a beginning, but that
+beginning in the indefinite and by us unmeasured past. It did not
+originate fortuitously, or by any merely accidental conflict of
+self-existent material atoms, but by an act&mdash;an act of will on
+the part of a Being designated by that name which among all the
+Semitic peoples represented the ultimate, eternal, inscrutable
+source of power and object of awe and veneration. With the
+simplicity and child-like faith of an archaic age, the writer
+makes no attempt to combat any objections or difficulties with
+which this great fundamental truth may be assailed. He feels its
+axiomatic force as the basis of all true religion and sound
+philosophy, and the ultimate fact which must ever bar our further
+progress in the investigation of the origin of things&mdash;the
+production from non-existence of the material universe by the
+eternal self-existent God.</p>
+
+<p>It did not concern him to know what might be the nature of that
+unconditioned self-existence; for though, like our
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+ideas of space and time, incomprehensible, it must be assumed. It did not
+concern him to know how matter and force subsist, or what may be
+the difference between a material universe cognizable by our
+senses and the absolute want of all the phenomena of such a
+universe or of whatever may be their basis and essence. Such
+questions can never be answered, yet the succession of these
+phenomena must have had a commencement somewhere in time. How
+simple and how grand is his statement! How plain and yet how
+profound its teachings!</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the writer grasps firmly the essence of the
+question as to the beginning of things, and covers the whole
+ground which advanced scientific or philosophical speculation can
+yet traverse. That the universe must have had a beginning no one
+now needs to be told. If any philosophical speculator ever truly
+held that there has been an endless succession of phenomena,
+science has now completely negatived the idea by showing us the
+beginning of all things that we know in the present universe, and
+by establishing the strongest probabilities that even its
+ultimate atoms could not have been eternal. But the question
+remains&mdash;If there was a beginning, what existed in that
+beginning? To this question many partial and imperfect answers
+have been given, but our ancient record includes them all.</p>
+
+<p>If any one should say, "In the beginning was nothing." Yes, says
+Genesis, there was, it is true, nothing of the present matter and
+arrangements of nature. Yet all was present potentially in the
+will of the Creator.</p>
+
+<p>"In the beginning were atoms," says another. Yes, says Genesis,
+but they were created; and so says modern science, and must say
+of ultimate particles determined by weight and measure, and
+incapable of modification in their essential
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+properties&mdash;"They have the properties of a manufactured article."
+<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>"In the beginning were forces," says yet another. True, says
+Genesis; but all forces are one in origin&mdash;they represent merely
+the fiat of the eternal and self-existent. So says science, that
+force must in the ultimate resort be an "expression of Will."
+<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>"In the beginning was Elohim," adds our old Semitic authority,
+and in him are the absolute and eternal thought and will, the
+Creator from whom and by whom and in whom are all things.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the simple familiar words, "In the beginning God created the
+heaven and the earth," answer all possible questions as to the
+origin of things, and include all under the conception of theism.
+Let us now look at these pregnant words more particularly as to
+their precise import and significance.</p>
+
+<p>The divine personality expressed by the Hebrew Elohim may be
+fairly said to include all that can be claimed for the
+pantheistic conception of "dynamis," or universal material power.
+Lange gives this as included in the term Elohim, in his
+discussion of this term in his book on Genesis. It has been aptly
+said that if, physically speaking, the fall of a sparrow produces
+a gravitative effect that extends throughout the universe, there
+can be no reason why it should be unknown to God. God is thus
+everywhere, and always. Yet he is everywhere and always present
+as a personality knowing and willing. From his thought and will
+in the beginning proceeded the universe. By him it was created.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+What, then, is creation in the sense of the Hebrew writer. The
+act is expressed by the verb <i>bara</i>, a word of comparatively rare
+occurrence in the Scriptures, and employed to denote absolute
+creation, though its primary sense is to cut or carve, and it is
+indeed a near relative of our own English word "pare." If, says
+Professor Stuart, of Andover, this word "does not mean to create
+in the highest sense, then the Hebrews had no word by which they
+could designate this idea." Yet, like our English "create," the
+word is used in secondary and figurative senses, which in no
+degree detract from its force when strictly and literally used.
+Since, however, these secondary senses may often appear to
+obscure the primitive meaning, we must examine them in detail.</p>
+
+<p>In the first chapter of Genesis, after the general statement in
+verse 1, other verbs signifying to <i>form</i> or <i>make</i> are used to
+denote the elaboration of the separate parts of the universe, and
+the word "create" is found in only two places, when it refers to
+the introduction of "great whales" (reptiles) and of man. These
+uses of the word have been cited to disprove its sense of
+absolute creation. It must be observed, however, that in the
+first of these cases we have the earliest appearance of animal
+life, and in the second the introduction of a rational and
+spiritual nature. Nothing but pure materialism can suppose that
+the elements of vital and spiritual being were included in the
+matter of the heavens and the earth as produced in the beginning;
+and as the Scripture writers were not materialists, we may infer
+that they recognized, in the introduction of life and reason,
+acts of absolute creation, just as in the origin of matter
+itself. In Genesis ii. and iii. we have a form of expression
+which well marks the distinction between creation and making. God
+is there said to have rested from all his works which he "created
+and made"
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+&mdash;literally, created "for or in reference to making,"
+the word for making being one of those already referred to.
+<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
+The force of this expression consists in its intimating that God
+had not only finished the work of <i>creation</i>, properly so called,
+but also the elaboration of the various details of the universe,
+as formed or fashioned out of the original materials. Of a
+similar character is the expression in Isaiah xlii., 5, "Jehovah,
+he that <i>created</i> the heavens and spread them out;" and that in
+Psalm cxlviii., 5, "He commanded and they were <i>created</i>, he hath
+also established them for ever and ever."</p>
+
+<p>In as far as I am aware, the word <i>bara</i> in all the remaining
+instances of its occurrence in the Pentateuch refers to the
+creation of man, with the following exceptions: Exodus xxxiv.,
+10, "I will do (create) marvels, such as have not been seen in
+all the earth;" Numbers xvi., 30, "If the Lord make a new thing
+(create a creation), and the earth open her mouth and swallow
+them up." These verses are types of a class of expressions in
+which the proper term for creation is applied to the production
+of something new, strange, and marvellous; for instance, "Create
+in me a clean heart, O Lord;" "Behold, I create new heavens and a
+new earth." It is, however, evidently an inversion of sound
+exposition to say that these secondary or figurative meanings
+should determine the primary and literal sense in Genesis i. On
+the contrary, we should rather infer that the sacred writers in
+these cases selected the proper word for creation, to express in
+the most forcible manner the novel and thorough character of the
+changes to which they refer, and their direct dependence on the
+Divine will. By such expressions we are in effect referred back
+to the original use
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+of the word, as denoting the actual creation
+of matter by the command of God, in contradistinction from those
+arrangements which have been effected by the gradual operation of
+secondary agents, or of laws attached to matter at its creation.
+It has been farther observed
+<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+ that in the Hebrew Scriptures
+this word <i>bara</i> is applied to God only as an agent, not to any
+human artificer; a fact which is very important with reference to
+its true significance. Viewing creation in this light, we need
+not perplex ourselves with the question whether we should
+consider Genesis i., 1, to refer to the essence of matter as
+distinguished from its qualities. We may content ourselves with
+the explanation given by Paul in the eleventh of Hebrews: "By
+faith we are certain that the worlds
+<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+ were created by the
+decree of God, so that that which <i>is seen</i> was made of that
+which <i>appears not</i>." Or, with reference to the other uses of the
+word, if the first introduction of animal life was a creation,
+and if the introduction of the rational nature of man was a
+creation, we may suppose that the original creation was in like
+manner the introduction or first production of those entities
+which we call matter and force, and which to science now are as
+much ultimate facts as they were to Moses.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>nature</i> of the act of creation being thus settled, its
+<i>extent</i> may be ascertained by an examination of the terms heaven
+and earth.</p>
+
+<p>
+The word "heavens" (<i>shamayim</i>) has in Hebrew as in English a
+variety of significations. Of material heavens there are, in the
+quaint language of Poole, "<i>tres regiones, ubi aves, ubi nubes,
+ubi sidera</i>;" or (1) the atmosphere or firmament;
+<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+(2) the region of clouds in the upper part of the atmosphere;
+<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>
+(3) the depths of space comprehending the starry orbs.
+<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+Besides these we have the "heaven of heavens," the abode of God and spiritual
+beings.
+<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
+The application of the term "heaven" to the
+atmosphere will be considered when we reach the 6th and 7th
+verses. In the mean time we may accept the word in this place as
+including the material heavens in the widest sense: (1.) Because
+it is not here, as in verse 8th, restricted to the atmosphere by
+the terms of the narrative; this restriction in verse 8th in fact
+implying the wider sense of the word in preceding verses. (2.)
+Because the atmospheric firmament, elsewhere called heaven,
+divides the waters above from those below, whereas it is evident
+that all these waters, and of consequence the materials of the
+atmosphere itself, are included in the earth of the following
+verse. (3.) Because in verse 14th the sidereal heavens are spoken
+of as arranged from pre-existing materials, which refers their
+actual creation back to this passage.</p>
+
+<p>
+In the words now under consideration we therefore regard the
+heavens as including the whole material universe beyond the
+limits of our earth. That this sense of the word is not unknown
+to the writers of Scripture, and that they had enlarged and
+rational views of the star-spangled abysses of space, will appear
+from the terms employed by Moses in his solemn warning against
+the Sab&aelig;an idolatry, in Deuteronomy iv.: "And lest thou lift up
+thine eyes to the heavens, and when thou seest the sun and the
+moon and the stars, even all the host of the heavens, shouldest
+be incited to worship them and serve them which Jehovah thy God
+hath appointed to all
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+nations under the whole heavens." To the
+same effect is the expression of the awe and wonder of the poet
+king of Israel in Psalm viii.:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 3em;font-size:90%;">"When I consider the heavens, the work of thy fingers,<br />
+The moon and the stars which thou hast ordained;<br />
+What is man that thou art mindful of him?"</p>
+
+<p>I may observe, however, that throughout the Scriptures the word
+in question is much more frequently applied to the atmospheric
+than to the sidereal heavens. The reason of this appears in the
+terms of verse 8th.</p>
+
+<p>If we have correctly referred the term "heavens" to the whole of
+extramundane space, then the word "earth" must denote our globe
+as a distinct world, with all the liquid and aeriform substances
+on its surface. The arrangement of the whole universe under the
+heads "heaven" and "earth" has been derided as a division into
+"infinity and an atom;" but when we consider the relative
+importance of the earth to us, and that it constitutes the
+principal object of the whole revelation to which this is
+introductory, the absurdity disappears, and we recognize the
+classification as in the circumstances natural and rational. The
+word "earth" (<i>aretz</i>) is, however, generally used to denote the
+dry land, or even a region or district of country. It is indeed
+expressly restricted to the dry land in verse 10th; but as in the
+case of the parallel limitation of the word "heaven," we may
+consider this as a hint that its previous meaning is more
+extended. That it is really so, appears from the following
+considerations: (1.) It includes the deep, or the material from
+which the sea and atmosphere were afterwards formed. (2.) The
+subsequent verses show that at the period in question no dry land
+existed. If instances of a similar meaning from other parts of
+Scripture are required, I give
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+the following: Genesis ii., 1 to
+4, "Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the
+host of them;" "these are the generations of the heavens and the
+earth.' In this general summary of the creative work, the earth
+evidently includes the seas and all that is in them, as well as
+the dry land; and the whole expression denotes the universe. The
+well-known and striking remark of Job, "Who hangeth the earth
+upon nothing," is also a case in point, and must refer to the
+whole world, since in other parts of the same book the dry land
+or continental masses of the earth are said, and with great truth
+and propriety, to be supported above the waters on pillars or
+foundations. The following passages may also be cited as
+instances of the occurrence of the idea of the whole world
+expressed by the word "earth:" Exodus x., 29, "And Moses said
+unto him, As soon as I am gone out of the city, I will spread
+abroad my hands unto the Lord, and the thunder shall cease,
+neither shall there be any more hail; that thou mayest know the
+earth is the Lord's;" Deuteronomy x., 14, "Behold, the heaven and
+the heaven of heavens is the Lord's, the earth also, and all that
+therein is."</p>
+
+<p>The material universe was brought into existence in the
+"beginning"&mdash;a term evidently indefinite as far as regards any
+known epoch, and implying merely priority to all other recorded
+events. It can not be the first day, for there is no expressed
+connection, and the work of the first day is distinct from that
+of the beginning. It can not be a general term for the whole six
+days, since these are separated from it by that chaotic or
+formless state to which we are next introduced. The beginning,
+therefore, is the threshold of creation&mdash;the line that separates
+the old tenantless condition of space from the world-crowded
+galaxies of the existing universe. The only other information
+respecting it that we have in Scripture
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+is in that fine
+descriptive poem in Proverbs viii., in which the Wisdom of God
+personified&mdash;who may be held to represent the Almighty Word, or
+Logos, introduced in the formula "God said," and afterward
+referred to in Scripture as the manifested or conditioned Deity,
+the Mediator between man and the otherwise inaccessible Divinity,
+the agent in the work of creation as well as in that of
+redemption&mdash;narrates the origin of all created things:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"Jehovah possessed
+<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+ me, the beginning of his way,<br />
+Before his work of old.<br />
+I was set up from everlasting,<br />
+From the beginning, before the earth was;<br />
+When there were no deeps I was brought forth,<br />
+When there were no fountains abounding in water."</p>
+
+<p>The beginning here precedes the creation of the earth, as well as
+of the deep which encompassed its surface in its earliest
+condition. The beginning, in this point of view, stretches back
+from the origin of the world into the depths of eternity. It is
+to us emphatically <i>the</i> beginning, because it witnessed the
+birth of our material system; but to the eternal Jehovah it was
+but the beginning of a great series of his operations, and we
+have no information of its absolute duration. From the time when
+God began to create the celestial orbs, until that time when it
+could be said that he had created the heavens and the earth,
+countless ages may have rolled along, and myriads of worlds may
+have passed through various stages of existence, and the creation
+of our planetary system may have been one of the last acts of
+that long beginning.</p>
+
+<p>The author of creation is Elohim, or God in his general
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+aspect to nature and man, and not in that special aspect in reference to
+the Hebrew commonwealth and to the work of redemption indicated
+by the name Jehovah (<i>Iaveh</i>). We need not enter into the
+doubtful etymology of the word; but may content ourselves with
+that supported by many, perhaps the majority of authorities,
+which gives it the meaning of "Object of dread or adoration," or
+with that preferred by Gesenius, which makes it mean the "Strong
+or mighty one." Its plural form has also greatly tried the
+ingenuity of the commentators. After carefully considering the
+various hypotheses, such as that of the plural of majesty of the
+Rabbins, and the primitive polytheism supposed by certain
+Rationalists, I can see no better reason than an attempt to give
+a grammatical expression to that plurality in unity indicated by
+the appearance of the Spirit or breath of God and his Word, or
+manifested will and power, as distinct agents in the succeeding
+verses. This was probably always held by the Hebrews in a general
+form; and was by our Saviour and his apostles specialized in that
+trinitarian doctrine which enables both John and Paul explicitly
+to assert the agency of the second person of the Trinity in the
+creative work.</p>
+
+<p>This elementary trinitarian idea of the first chapter of Genesis
+may be further stated thus: The name Elohim expresses the
+absolute unconditioned will and reason&mdash;the Godhead. The
+manifestation of God in creative power, and in the framing and
+ordering of the cosmos, is represented by the formula "God
+said"&mdash;the equivalent of the Divine Word. The further
+manifestation of God in love of and sympathy with his work is
+represented by the Breath of God, and by the expression, "God saw
+that it was good"&mdash;operations these of the Divine Spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The aboriginal root of the word Elohim probably lies far
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+back of the Semitic literature, and comes from the natural exclamations
+"al," "lo," "la," which arise from the spontaneous action of the
+human vocal organs in the presence of any object of awe or
+wonder. The plural form may in like manner be simply equivalent
+to our terms Godhead or Divinity, implying all that is
+essentially God without specification or distinction of
+personalities. As Dr. Tayler Lewis well remarks in his
+"Introduction to Genesis," we should not dismiss such plurals as
+mere <i>usus loquendi</i>. The plural form of the name of God, of the
+heavens (literally, the "heights"), of the <i>olamim</i>, or
+time-worlds, of the word for life in Genesis (lives), indicates
+an idea of vastness and diversity not measurable by speech, which
+must have been impressed on the minds of early men, otherwise
+these forms would not have arisen. God, heaven, time, life, were
+to them existences stretching outward to infinity, and not to be
+denoted by the bare singular form suitable to ordinary objects.</p>
+
+<p>Fairly regarding, then, this ancient form of words, we may hold
+it as a clear, concise, and accurate enunciation of an ultimate
+doctrine of the origin of things, which with all our increased
+knowledge of the history of the earth we are not in a position to
+replace with any thing better or more probable. On the other
+hand, this sublime dogma of creation leaves us perfectly free to
+interrogate nature for ourselves, as to all that it can reveal of
+the duration and progress of the creative work. But the positive
+gain which comes from this ancient formula goes far beyond these
+negative qualities. If received, this one word of the Old
+Testament is sufficient to deliver us forever from the
+superstitious dread of nature, and to present it to us as neither
+self-existent nor omnipotent, but as the mere handiwork of a
+spiritual Creator to whom we are kin; as not a product of chance
+or caprice, but as the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+result of a definite plan of the
+All-wise; as not a congeries of unconnected facts and processes,
+but as a cosmos, a well-ordered though complex machine, designed
+by Him who is the Almighty and the supreme object of reverence.
+Had this verse alone constituted the whole Bible, this one
+utterance would, wherever known and received, have been an
+inestimable boon to mankind; proclaiming deliverance to the
+captives of every form of nature-worship and idolatry, and fixing
+that idea of unity of plan in the universe which is the fruitful
+and stable root of all true progress in science. We owe profound
+thanks to the old Hebrew prophet for these words&mdash;words which
+have broken from the necks of once superstitious Aryan races
+chains more galling than those of Egyptian bondage.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">THE DESOLATE VOID.</span><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:50%;">"And the earth was desolate and empty,
+and darkness was upon the surface of the deep; and the Spirit of God
+moved on the surface of the waters."&mdash;Genesis i., 2.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>We have here a few bold outlines of a dark and mysterious
+scene&mdash;a condition of the earth of which we have no certain
+intimation from any other source, except the speculations based
+on modern discoveries in physical science. It was "unshaped and
+empty," formless and uninhabited. The words thus translated are
+sufficiently plain in their meaning. The first is used by Isaiah
+to denote the desolation of a ruined city, and in Job and the
+Psalms as characteristic of the wilderness or desert. Both in
+connection are employed by Isaiah to express the destruction of
+Idumea, and by Jeremiah in a powerful description of the ruin of
+nations by God's judgments. When thus united, they form the
+strongest expression which the Hebrew could supply for solitary,
+uninhabited desolation, like that of a city reduced to heaps of
+rubbish, and to the silence and loneliness of utter decay.</p>
+
+<p>In the present connection these words inform us that the earth
+was in a chaotic state, and unfit for the residence of organized
+beings. The words themselves suggest the important question: Are
+they intended to represent this as the original condition of the
+earth? Was it a scene of desolation and confusion when it sprang
+from the hand of its Creator?
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+or was this state of ruin consequent on convulsions which may have been preceded by a very
+different condition, not mentioned by the inspired historian?
+That it may have been so is rendered possible by the circumstance
+that the words employed are generally used to denote the ruin of
+places formerly inhabited, and by the want of any necessary
+connection in time between the first and second verses. It has
+even been proposed, though this does violence to the
+construction, to read "and the earth became" desolate and empty.
+Farther, it seems, <i>&agrave; priori</i>, improbable that the first act of
+creative power should have resulted in the production of a mere
+chaos. The crust of the earth also shows, in its alternations of
+strata and organic remains, evidence of a great series of changes
+extending over vast periods, and which might, in a revelation
+intended for moral purposes, with great propriety be omitted.</p>
+
+<p>For such reasons some eminent expositors of these words are
+disposed to consider the first verse as a title or introduction,
+and to refer to this period the whole series of geological
+changes; and this view has formed one of the most popular
+solutions of the apparent discrepancies between the geological
+and Scriptural histories of the world. It is evident, however,
+that if we continue to view the term "earth" as including the
+whole globe, this hypothesis becomes altogether untenable. The
+subsequent verses inform us that at the period in question the
+earth was covered by a universal ocean, possessed no atmosphere
+and received no light, and had not entered into its present
+relations with the other bodies of our system. No conceivable
+convulsions could have effected such changes on an earth
+previously possessing these arrangements; and geology assures us
+that the existing laws and dispositions in these respects have
+prevailed from the earliest periods to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+which it can lead us back, and that the modern state of things was not separated from
+those which preceded it by any such general chaos. To avoid this
+difficulty, which has been much more strongly felt as these facts
+have been more and more clearly developed by modern science, it
+has been held that the word earth may denote only a particular
+region, temporarily obscured and reduced to ruin, and about to be
+fitted up, by the operations of the six days, for the residence
+of man; and that consequently the narrative of the six days
+refers not to the original arrangement of the surface, relations,
+and inhabitants of our planet, but to the retrieval from ruin and
+repeopling of a limited territory, supposed to have been in
+Central Asia, and which had been submerged and its atmosphere
+obscured by aqueous or volcanic vapors. The chief support of this
+view is the fact, previously noticed, that the word earth is very
+frequently used in the signification of region, district,
+country; to which may be added the supposed necessity for
+harmonizing the Scriptures with geological discovery, and at the
+same time viewing the days of creation as literal solar days.</p>
+
+<p>Can we, however, after finding that in verse 1st the term earth
+must mean the whole world, suddenly restrict it in verse 2d to a
+limited region. Is it possible that the writer who in verse 10th
+for the first time intimates a limitation of the meaning of this
+word, by the solemn announcement, "And God called the <i>dry land</i>
+earth," should in a previous place use it in a much more limited
+sense without any hint of such restriction. The case stands thus:
+A writer uses the word earth in the most general sense; in the
+next sentence he is supposed, without any intimation of his
+intention, to use the same word to denote a region or country,
+and by so doing entirely to change the meaning of his whole
+discourse from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+that which would otherwise have attached to it.
+Yet the same writer when, a few sentences farther on, it becomes
+necessary for him to use the word earth to denote the dry land as
+distinguished from the seas, formally and with an assertion of
+divine authority, intimates the change of meaning. Is not this
+supposition contrary not only to sound principles of
+interpretation, but also to common-sense; and would it not tend
+to render worthless the testimony of a writer to whose diction
+such inaccuracy must be ascribed. It is in truth to me surprising
+beyond measure that such a view could ever have obtained
+currency; and I fear it is to be attributed to a determination,
+at all hazards and with any amount of violence to the written
+record, to make geology and religion coincide. Must we then throw
+aside this simple and convenient method of reconciliation,
+sanctioned by Chalmers, Smith, Harris, King, Hitchcock, and many
+other great or respectable names, and on which so many good men
+complacently rest. Truth obliges us to do so, and to confess that
+both geology and Scripture refuse to be reconciled on this basis.
+We may still admit that the lapse of time between the beginning
+and the first day may have been great; but we must emphatically
+deny that this interval corresponds with the time indicated by
+the series of fossiliferous rocks.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving this part of the subject, I may remark that the
+desolate and empty condition of the earth was not necessarily a
+chaotic mass of confusion&mdash;<i>rudis indigestaque moles</i>; but in
+reality, when physically considered, may have been a more
+symmetrical and homogeneous condition than any that it
+subsequently assumed. If the earth were first a vast globe of
+vapor, then a liquid spheroid, and then acquired a crust not yet
+seamed by fissures or broken by corrugations, and eventually
+covered with a universal ocean, then in each of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+these early conditions it would, in regard to its form, be a more perfect
+globe than at any succeeding time. That something of this kind is
+the intention of our historian is implied in his subsequent
+statements as to the absence of land and the prevalence of a
+universal ocean in the immediately succeeding period, which imply
+that the crust had not yet been ruptured or disturbed, but
+presented an even and uniform surface, no part of which could
+project above the comparatively thin fluid envelope.</p>
+
+<p>The second clause introduces a new object&mdash;"<i>the deep</i>." Whatever
+its precise nature, this is evidently something included in the
+earth of verse 1st, and created with it. The word occurs in other
+parts of the Hebrew Scriptures in various senses. It often
+denotes the sea, especially when in an agitated state (Psa.
+xlii., 8; Job xxxviii., 10). In Psalm cxxxv., however, it is
+distinguished from the sea: "Whatsoever the Lord pleased, that
+did he in heaven, in the earth, in the seas, and <i>in all deeps</i>."
+In other cases it has been supposed to refer to interior recesses
+of the earth, as when at the deluge "the fountains of the great
+deep" are said to have been broken up. It is probable, however,
+that this refers to the ocean. In some places it would appear to
+mean the atmosphere or its waters; as Prov. viii., 27-29, "When
+he prepared the heavens, I was there; when he described a circle
+on the face of the deep, when he established the clouds above,
+when he strengthened the fountains of the deep." The Septuagint
+in this passage reads "throne on the winds" and "fountains under
+the heaven."
+<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>
+ Though we can not attach much value to these
+readings, there seems little reason to doubt that the author of
+this passage understands by the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+deep the atmospheric waters, and not the sea, which he mentions separately. The same meaning must
+be attached to the word in another passage of the Book of
+Proverbs: "The Lord in wisdom hath founded the earth, by
+understanding hath he established the heavens; by his knowledge
+the depths are broken up, and the clouds drop down the small
+rain."</p>
+
+<p>In the passage now under consideration, it would seem that we
+have both the deep and the waters mentioned, and this not in a
+way which would lead us to infer their identity. The darkness on
+the surface of the deep and the Spirit of God on the face of the
+waters seem to refer to the condition of two distinct objects at
+the same time. Neither can the word here refer to subterranean
+cavities, for the ascription of a surface to these, and the
+statement that they were enveloped in darkness, would in this
+case have neither meaning nor use. For these reasons I am induced
+to believe that the locality of the deep or abyss is to be
+sought, not in the universal ocean or the interior of the earth,
+but in the vaporous or aeriform mass mantling the surface of our
+nascent planet, and containing the materials out of which the
+atmosphere was afterward elaborated. This is a view leading to
+important consequences: one of which is that the darkness on the
+surface of the deep can not have been, as believed by the
+advocates of a local chaos, a mere atmospheric obscuration; since
+even at the <i>surface</i> of what then represented the atmosphere
+darkness prevailed. "God covered the earth with the deep as with
+a garment, and the waters stood above the hills," and without
+this outer garment was the darkness of space destitute of
+luminaries, at least of those greater ones which are of primary
+importance to us. We learn from the following verses that there
+was no layer of clear atmosphere
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+in this misty deep, separating the clouds from the ocean waters.</p>
+
+<p>The last clause of the verse has always been obscure, and perhaps
+it is still impossible to form a clear idea of the operation
+intended to be described. We are not even certain whether it is
+intended to represent any thing within the compass of ordinary
+natural laws, or to denote a direct intervention of the Creator,
+miraculous in its nature and confined to one period. It is
+possible that the general intention of the statement may be to
+the effect that the agency of the divine power in separating the
+waters from the incumbent vapors had already commenced&mdash;that the
+Spirit which would afterward evoke so many wonders out of the
+chaotic mass was already acting upon it in an unseen and
+mysterious way, preparing it for its future destiny.</p>
+
+<p>Some commentators, both Jewish and Christian, are, however,
+disposed to view the <i>Ruach Elohim</i>, Spirit, or breath of God, as
+meaning a wind of God, or mighty wind, according to a well-known
+Hebrew idiom. The word in its primary sense means wind or breath,
+and there are undoubted instances of the expression "wind of God"
+for a great or strong wind. For example, Isaiah xl., 7: "The
+grass withereth because the wind of the Lord bloweth upon it;"
+see also 2 Kings ii., 16. Such examples, however, are very rare,
+and by no means sufficient of themselves to establish this
+interpretation. Those who hold this view do so mainly in
+consideration of the advantage which it affords in attaching a
+definite meaning to the expression. Many of them are not,
+however, aware of its precise import in a cosmical point of view.
+A violent wind, before the formation of the atmosphere, and the
+establishment of the laws which regulate the suspension and
+motions of aqueous vapors and clouds, must have been merely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+an agitation of the confused misty and vaporous mass of the deep;
+since, as Ainsworth&mdash;more careful than modern interpreters&mdash;long
+ago observed, "winde (which is the moving of the aier) was not
+created till the second day, that the firmament was spred, and
+the aier made." Such an agitation is by no means improbable. It
+would be a very likely accompaniment of a boiling ocean, resting
+on a heated surface, and of excessive condensation of moisture in
+the upper regions of the atmosphere; and might act as an
+influential means of preparing the earth for the operations of
+the second day. It is curious also that the Phoenician
+cosmogony is said to have contained the idea of a mighty wind in
+connection with this part of creation, and the idea of seething
+or commotion in the primitive chaos also occurs in the Assyrian
+tablets of creation, while the Quich&eacute; legend represents Hurakon,
+the storm-god, as specially concerned in the creative work.
+<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+On the other hand, the verb used in the text rather expresses
+hovering or brooding than violent motion, and this better
+corresponds with the old fable of the mundane egg, which seems to
+have been derived from the event recorded in this verse. The more
+evangelical view, which supposes the Holy Spirit to be intended,
+is also more in accordance with the general scope of the
+Scripture teachings on this subject; and the opposite idea is, as
+Calvin well says, "too frigid" to meet with much favor from
+evangelical theologians.</p>
+
+<p>Chaos, the equivalent of the Hebrew "desolation and emptiness,"
+figures largely in all ancient cosmogonies. That of the Egyptians
+is interesting, not only from its resemblance to the Hebrew
+doctrine, but also from its probable
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+connection with the cosmogony of the Greeks. Taking the version of Diodorus Siculus,
+which though comparatively modern, yet corresponds with the hints
+derived from older sources, we find the original chaos to have
+been an intermingled condition of elements constituting heaven
+and earth. This is the Hebrew "deep." The first step of progress
+is the separation of these; the fiery particles ascending above,
+and not only producing light, but the revolution of the heavenly
+bodies&mdash;a curious foreshadowing of the nebular hypothesis of
+modern astronomy. After these, in the terms of the lines quoted
+by Diodorus from Euripides, plants, birds, mammals, and finally
+man are produced, not however by a direct creative fiat, but by
+the spontaneous fecundity of the teeming earth. The Phoenician
+cosmogony attributed to Sancuniathon has the void, the deep, and
+the brooding Spirit; and one of the terms employed, "baau," is
+the same with the Hebrew "bohu," void, if read without the
+points. The Babylonians, according to Berosus, believed in a
+chaos&mdash;which, however, like the literal-day theory of some
+moderns, produced many monsters before Belus intervened to
+separate heaven and earth. But the Assyrian legend found in the
+Nineveh tablets is very precise in its intimation of the Chaos or
+<i>Tiamat</i>, the mother of all things; and, farther, it recognizes
+this personified chaos as the principle of evil, whose "dragon"
+becomes the tempter of the progenitors of mankind, exactly like
+the Biblical serpent. This "dragon of the abyss" is thus
+identical in name and function with the evil principle even of
+the last book of the New Testament, and we have in this also
+probably the origin of the Ahriman of the Avesta. Thus in these
+Eastern theologies the primeval chaos becomes the type of evil as
+opposed to the order, beauty, and goodness of the creation of
+God&mdash;a very natural association; but one kept in the background
+by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+the Hebrew Scriptures, as tending to a dualistic belief
+subversive of monotheism. The Greek myth of Chaos, and its
+children Erebus and Night, who give birth to Aether and Day, is
+the same tradition, personified after the fanciful manner of a
+people who, in the primitive period of their civilization, had no
+profound appreciation of nature, but were full of human
+sympathies.
+<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
+ Lastly, in a hymn translated by Dr.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+ Max M&uuml;ller from the Rig-Veda, a work probably far older than the Institutes
+of Menu, we have such utterances as the following:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"Nor aught nor nought existed: yon bright sky<br />
+Was not, nor heaven's broad woof outstretched above.<br />
+What covered all? what sheltered? what concealed?<br />
+Was it the water's fathomless abyss? * * *<br />
+Darkness there was, and all at first was veiled<br />
+In gloom profound&mdash;an ocean without light;<br />
+The germ that still lay covered in the husk<br />
+Burst forth, one nature, from the fervent heat."</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the state of our planet which we have just
+been considering is one of which we can scarcely form any
+adequate conception, and science can in no way aid us, except by
+suggesting hypotheses or conjectures. It is remarkable, however,
+that nearly all the cosmological theories which have been devised
+contain some of the elements of the inspired narrative. The words
+of Moses appear to suggest a heated and cooling globe, its crust
+as yet unbroken by internal forces, covered by a universal ocean,
+on which rested a mass of confused vaporous substances; and it is
+of such materials, thus combined by the sacred historian, that
+cosmologists have built up their several theories, aqueous or
+igneous, of the early state of the earth. Geology, as a science
+of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+observation and induction, does not carry us back to this
+period. It must still and always say, with Hutton, that it can
+find "no trace of a beginning, no prospect of an end"&mdash;not
+because there has been no beginning or will be no end, but
+because the facts which it collects extend neither to the one nor
+the other. Geology, like every other department of natural
+history, can but investigate the facts which are open to
+observation, and reason on these in accordance with the known
+laws and arrangements of existing nature. It finds these laws to
+hold for the oldest period to which the rocky archives of the
+earth extend. Respecting the origin of these general laws and
+arrangements, or the condition of the earth before they
+originated, it knows nothing. In like manner a botanist may
+determine the age of a forest by counting the growth rings of the
+oldest trees, but he can tell nothing of the forests that may
+have preceded it, or of the condition of the surface before it
+supported a forest. So the arch&aelig;ologist may on Egyptian monuments
+read the names and history of successive dynasties of kings, but
+he can tell nothing of the state of the country and its native
+tribes before those dynasties began or their monuments were
+built. Yet geology at least establishes a probability that a time
+was when organized beings did not exist, and when many of the
+arrangements of the surface of our earth had not been perfected;
+and the few facts which have given birth to the theories
+promulgated on this subject tend to show that this pre-geological
+condition of the earth may have been such as that described in
+the words now under consideration. I may remark, in addition,
+that if the words of Moses imply the cooling of the globe from a
+molten or intensely heated state down to a temperature at which
+water could exist on its surface, the known rate of cooling of
+bodies of the dimensions and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+materials of the earth shows that
+the time included in these two verses of Genesis must have been
+enormous, amounting it may be to many millions of years.</p>
+
+<p>There are two other sciences besides geology which have in modern
+times attempted to penetrate into the mysteries of the primitive
+abyss, at least by hypothetical explanations&mdash;astronomy and
+chemistry. The magnificent nebular hypothesis of La Place, which
+explains the formation of the whole solar system by the
+condensation of a revolving mass of gaseous matter, would
+manifestly bring our earth to the condition of a fluid body, with
+or without a solid crust, and surrounded by a huge atmosphere of
+its more volatile materials, gradually condensing itself around
+the central nucleus. Chemistry informs us that this vaporous mass
+would contain not only the atmospheric air and water, but all the
+carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, and other elements,
+volatile in themselves, or forming volatile compounds with oxygen
+or hydrogen, that are now imprisoned in various states of
+combination in the solid crust of the earth. Such an
+atmosphere&mdash;vast, dark, pestilential, and capable in its
+condensation of producing the most intense chemical action&mdash;is a
+necessity of an earth condensing from a vaporous and incandescent
+state. Thus, in so far as scientific speculation ventures to
+penetrate into the genesis of the earth, its conclusions are at
+one with the Mosaic cosmogony and with the traditions of most
+ancient nations as to the primitive existence of a
+chaos&mdash;formless and void, in which "nor aught nor nought
+existed."</p>
+
+<p>Some of the details of the Mosaic vision of the primeval chaos
+may be supplied by the probabilities established by physics and
+chemistry. Our first idea of the earth would be a vast vaporous
+ball, recently spun out from the general mass of vapors forming
+the nebula which once represented the solar
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+system. This huge cloud, whirling its annual round about the still vaporous centre
+of the system, would consist of all the materials now
+constituting the solid rocks as well as those of the seas and
+atmosphere, their atoms kept asunder by the force of heat,
+preventing not only their mechanical union, but even their
+chemical combination. But heat is being radiated on all sides
+into space, and the opposing force of gravitation is little by
+little gathering the particles toward the centre. At length a
+liquid nucleus is formed, while upon this are being precipitated
+showers of condensing matter from the still vast atmosphere to
+add to its volume. As this process advances, a new brilliancy is
+given to the feebly shining vapors by the incandescence of solid
+particles in the upper layers of the atmosphere, and in this
+stage our earth would be a little sun, a miniature of that which
+now forms the centre of our system, and which still, by virtue of
+its greater mass, continues in this state. But at length, by
+further cooling, this brilliancy is lost, and the still fluid
+globe is surrounded by a vast cloudy pall, in which condensing
+vapors gather in huge dark masses, and amid terrible electrical
+explosions, pour, in constantly increasing, acid, corrosive
+rains, upon the heated nucleus, combining with its materials, or
+again flashing into vapors. Thus darkness dense and gross would
+settle upon the vaporous deep, and would continue for long ages,
+until the atmosphere could be finally cleared of its superfluous
+vapors. In the mean time a crust of slag or cinder has been
+forming upon the molten nucleus. Broken again and again by the
+heaving of the seething mass, it at length sets permanently, and
+finally allows some portion of the liquid rain condensed upon it
+to remain as a boiling ocean. Then began the reign of the waters,
+under which the first stratified rocks were laid down by the
+deposit of earthy and saline matter suspended or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+dissolved in the heated sea. Such is the picture which science presents to us
+of the genesis of the earth, and so far as we can judge from his
+words, such must have been the picture presented to the mental
+vision of the ancient seer of creation; but he could discern also
+that mysterious influence, the "breath of Elohim," which moved on
+the face of the waters, and prepared for the evolution of land
+and of life from their bosom. He saw&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"An earth&mdash;formless and void;<br />
+A vaporous abyss&mdash;dark at its very surface;<br />
+A universal ocean&mdash;the breath of God hovering over it."</p>
+
+<p>How could such a scene be represented in words? since it
+presented none of the familiar features of the actual world. Had
+he attempted to dilate upon it, he would, in the absence of the
+facts furnished by modern science, have been obliged, like the
+writers of some of the less simple and primitive cosmogonies
+already quoted,
+<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+ to adopt the feeble expedient of enumerating
+the things not present. He wisely contents himself with a few
+well-chosen words, which boldly sketch the crude materials of a
+world hopeless and chaotic but for the animating breath of the
+Almighty, who has created even that old chaos out of which is to
+be worked in the course of the six creative days all the variety
+and beauty of a finished world.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the reader will perceive how this reticence of the
+author of Genesis strengthens the argument for the primitive age
+of the document, and for the vision-theory as to its origin; and
+will also observe that, in the conception of this ancient writer,
+the "promise and potency" of order and life reside not alone in
+the atoms of a vaporous world, but also in the will of its
+Creator.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br/><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">LIGHT AND CREATIVE DAYS.</span><br/><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:50%;">"And God said, Let light be,
+and light was; and God saw the light that it was good, and separated the
+light from the darkness; and God called the light Day; and the darkness
+he called Night. And Evening was and Morning was&mdash;Day one."&mdash;
+Genesis i., 3-5.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Light is the first element of order and perfection introduced
+upon our planet&mdash;the first innovation on the old r&eacute;gime of
+darkness and desolation. There is a beautiful propriety in this,
+for the Hebrew <i>Aur</i> (light) should be viewed as including heat
+and electricity as well as light; and these three forces&mdash;if they
+are really distinct, and not merely various movements of one and
+the same ether&mdash;are in themselves, or the proximate causes of
+their manifestation, the prime movers of the machinery of nature,
+the vivifying forces without which the primeval desolation would
+have been eternal. The statement presented here is, however, a
+bold one. Light without luminaries, which were afterward
+formed&mdash;independent light, so to speak, shining all around the
+earth&mdash;is an idea not likely to have occurred in the days of
+Moses to the framer of a fictitious cosmogony, and yet it
+corresponds in a remarkable manner with some of the theories
+which have grown out of modern induction.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the Hebrew word translated "light" includes the
+vibratory movements which we call heat and electricity as well. I
+make this statement, not intending to assert that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+the Hebrews experimented on these forces in the manner of modern science, and
+would therefore be prepared to understand their laws or
+correlations as fully as we can. I give the word this general
+sense simply because throughout the Bible it is used to denote
+the solar light and heat, and also the electric light of the
+thunder-cloud: "the light of His cloud," "the bright light which
+is in the clouds." The absence of "<i>aur</i>," therefore, in the
+primeval earth, is the absence of solar radiation, of the
+lightning's flash, and of volcanic fires. We shall in the
+succeeding verses find additional reasons for excluding all these
+phenomena from the darkness of the primeval night.</p>
+
+<p>The light of the first day can not reasonably be supposed to have
+been in any other than a visible and active state. Whether light
+be, as supposed by the older physicists, luminous matter radiated
+with immense velocity, or, as now appears more probable, merely
+the undulations of a universally diffused ether, its motion had
+already commenced. The idea of the matter of light as distinct
+from its power of affecting the senses does not appear in the
+Scriptures any farther than that the Hebrew name is probably
+radically identical with the word ether now used to express the
+undulating medium by which light is propagated; and if it did,
+the general creation of matter being stated in verse 1, and the
+notice of the separation of light and darkness being distinctly
+given in the present verse, there is no place left for such a
+view here. For this reason, that explanation of these words which
+supposes that on the first day the <i>matter</i> of light, or the
+ether whose motions produce light, was created, and that on the
+fourth day, when luminaries were appointed, it became visible by
+beginning to undulate, must be abandoned; and the connection
+between these two statements must be sought in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+some other group of facts than that connected with the existence of the matter of
+light as distinct from its undulations.</p>
+
+<p>What, then, was the nature of the light which on the first day
+shone without the presence of any local luminary? It must have
+proceeded from luminous matter diffused through the whole space
+of the solar system, or surrounding our globe as with a mantle.
+It was "clothed with light as with a garment,"<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:90%;margin-left: 2em;">"Sphered in a radiant cloud, for yet the sun was not."</span><br /><br />
+
+We have already rejected the hypothesis that the primeval night
+proceeded from a temporary obscuration of the atmosphere; and the
+expression, "God said, Let light be," affords an additional
+reason, since, in accordance with the strict precision of
+language which everywhere prevails in this ancient document, a
+mere restoration of light would not be stated in such terms. If
+we wish to find a natural explanation of the mode of illumination
+referred to, we must recur to one or other of the suppositions
+mentioned above, that the luminous matter formed a nebulous
+atmosphere, slowly concentrating itself toward the centre of the
+solar system, or that it formed a special envelope of our earth,
+which subsequently disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>We may suppose this light-giving matter to be the same with that
+which now surrounds the sun, and constitutes the stratum of
+luminous substance which, by its wondrous and unceasing power of
+emitting light, gives him all his glory. To explain the division
+of the light from the darkness, we need only suppose that the
+luminous matter, in the progress of its concentration, was at
+length all gathered within the earth's orbit, and then, as one
+hemisphere only would be
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+illuminated at a time, the separation of light from darkness, or of day from night, would be
+established. This hypothesis, suggested by the words themselves,
+affords a simple and natural explanation of a statement otherwise
+obscure.</p>
+
+<p>It is an instructive circumstance that the probabilities
+respecting the early state of our planet, thus deduced from the
+Scriptural narrative, correspond very closely with the most
+ingenious and truly philosophical speculation ever hazarded
+respecting the origin of our solar system. I refer to the
+cosmical hypothesis of La Place, which was certainly formed
+without any reference to the Bible; and by persons whose views of
+the Mosaic narrative are of that shallow character which is too
+prevalent, has been suspected as of infidel tendency. La Place's
+theory is based on the following properties of the solar system,
+which will be found referred to in this connection in many
+popular works on astronomy: 1. The orbits of the planets are
+nearly circular. 2. They revolve nearly in the plane of the sun's
+equator.
+<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>
+ 3. They all revolve round the sun in one direction,
+which is also the direction of the sun's rotation. 4. They rotate
+on their axes also, as far as is known, in the same direction. 5.
+Their satellites, with the exception of those of Uranus and
+Neptune, revolve in the same direction. Now all these
+coincidences can scarcely have been fortuitous, and yet they
+might have been otherwise without affecting the working of the
+system; and, farther, if not fortuitous, they correspond
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+precisely with the results which would flow from the condensation
+of a revolving mass of nebulous matter. La Place, therefore,
+conceived that in the beginning the matter of our system existed
+in the condition of a mass of vaporous material, having a central
+nucleus more or less dense, and the whole rotating in a uniform
+direction. Such a mass must, "in condensing by cold, leave in the
+plane of its equator zones of vapor composed of substances which
+required an intense degree of cold to return to a liquid or solid
+state. These zones must have begun by circulating round the sun
+in the form of concentric rings, the most volatile molecules of
+which must have formed the superior part, and the most condensed
+the inferior part. If all the nebulous molecules of which these
+rings are composed had continued to cool without disuniting, they
+would have ended by forming a liquid or solid ring. But the
+regular constitution which all parts of the ring would require
+for this, and which they would have needed to preserve when
+cooling, would make this phenomenon extremely rare. Accordingly
+the solar system presents only one instance of it&mdash;that of the
+rings of Saturn. Generally the ring must have broken into several
+parts which have continued to circulate round the sun, and with
+almost equal velocity, while at the same time, in consequence of
+their separation, they would acquire a rotatory motion round
+their respective centres of gravity; and as the molecules of the
+superior part of the ring&mdash;that is to say, those farthest from
+the centre of the sun&mdash;had necessarily an absolute velocity
+greater than the molecules of the inferior part which is nearest
+it, the rotatory motion common to all the fragments must always
+have been in the same direction with the orbitual motion.
+However, if after their division one of these fragments has been
+sufficiently superior to the others to unite
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+them to it by its attraction, they will have formed only a mass of vapor, which, by
+the continual friction of all its parts, must have assumed the
+form of a spheroid, flattened at the poles and expanded in the
+direction of its equator."
+<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>
+ Here, then, are rings of vapor
+left by the successive retreats of the atmosphere of the sun,
+changed into so many planets in the condition of vapor,
+circulating round the central orb, and possessing a rotatory
+motion in the direction of their revolution, while the solar mass
+was gradually contracting itself round its centre and assuming
+its present organized form. Such is a general view of the
+hypothesis of La Place, which may also be followed out into all
+the known details of the solar system, and will be found to
+account for them all. Into these details, however, we can not now
+enter. Let us now compare this ingenious speculation with the
+Scripture narrative. In both we have the raw material of the
+heavens and the earth created before it assumed its distinct
+forms. In both we have that state of the planets characterized as
+without form and void, the condensing nebulous mass of La Place's
+theory being in perfect correspondence with the Scriptural
+"deep." In both it is implied that the permanent mutual relations
+of the several bodies of the system must have been perfected long
+after their origin. Lastly, supposing the luminous atmosphere of
+our sun to have been of such a character as to concentrate itself
+wholly around the centre of the system, and that as it became
+concentrated it acquired its intense luminosity, we have in both
+the production of light from the same cause; and in both it would
+follow that the concentration of this matter within the orbit of
+the earth would effect the separation of day from night, by
+illuminating
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+alternately the opposite sides of the earth. It is
+true that the theory of La Place does not provide for any such
+special condensation of luminous matter, nor for any precise
+stage of the process as that in which the arrangements of light
+and darkness should be completed; but under his hypothesis it
+seems necessary to account in some such way for the sole
+luminosity of the sun; and the point of separation of day and
+night must have been a marked epoch in the history of the process
+for each planet. The theory of accretion of matter which has in
+modern times been associated with that of La Place would equally
+well accord with the indications in our Mosaic record.
+<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is further to be observed that so long as the material of the
+earth constituted a part of the great vaporous mass, it would be
+encompassed with its diffused light, and that after it had been
+left outside the contracting solar envelope, it might still
+retain some independent luminosity in its atmosphere, a trace of
+which may still exist in the auroral displays of the upper strata
+of the air. The earth might thus at first be in total darkness.
+It might then be dimly lighted by the surrounding nebulosity, or
+by a luminous envelope in its own atmosphere. Then it might, as
+before explained, relapse into the darkness of its misty mantle,
+and as this cleared away and the light of the sun increased and
+became condensed, the latter would gradually be installed into
+his office as the sole orb of day. It is quite evident that we
+thus have a sufficient hypothetical explanation of the light of
+the first of the creative &aelig;ons; and this is all that in the
+present state of science we can expect. "Where is the way where
+light dwelleth? and as for darkness, where is the place thereof,
+that thou shouldest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+take it to the bound thereof, and know the
+way to the house thereof?"</p>
+
+<p>For the reasons above given, we must regard the hypothesis of the
+great French astronomer as a wonderful approximation to the grand
+and simple plan of the construction of our system as revealed in
+Scripture. Nor must we omit to notice that the telescope and the
+spectroscope reveal to us in the heavens gaseous nebular bodies
+which may well be new systems in progress of formation, and in
+which the Creator is even now dividing the light from the
+darkness. Still another thought in connection with this subject
+is that the theory of a condensing system affords a measure of
+the aggregate time occupied in the work of creation. Sir William
+Thomson's well-known calculations give us one hundred millions of
+years as the possible age of the earth as a planetary globe; but
+calculations of the sun's heat as produced by gravitation alone
+would give a much less time. We have, however, a right to assume
+an original heated condition of the vaporous mass from which the
+sun was formed. Still the date above given would seem to be a
+maximum rather than a minimum age for the solar system.</p>
+
+<p>"God saw the light that it was good," though it illuminated but a
+waste of lifeless waters. It was good because beautiful in
+itself, and because God saw it in its relations to long trains of
+processes and wonderful organic structures on which it was to act
+as a vivifying agency. Throughout the Scriptures light is not
+only good, but an emblem of higher good. In Psalm civ. God is
+represented as "clothing himself with light as with a garment;"
+and in many other parts of these exquisite lyrics we have similar
+figures. "The Lord is my light and salvation;" "Lift up the light
+of thy countenance upon me;" "The entrance of thy law giveth
+light;" "The path of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+just is as a shining light." And the
+great spiritual Light of the world, the "only begotten of the
+Father," the mediator alike in creation and redemption, is
+himself the "Sun of Righteousness." Perhaps the noblest Scripture
+passage relating to the blessing of light is one in the address
+of Jehovah to Job, which is unfortunately so imperfectly
+translated in the English version as to be almost unintelligible:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 1em;font-size:90%;">"Hast thou in thy lifetime given law to the morning,<br />
+Or caused the dawn to know its place,<br />
+That it may enclose the horizon in its grasp,<br />
+And chase the robbers before it:<br />
+It rolls along as the seal over the clay,<br />
+Causing all things to stand forth in gorgeous apparel."
+<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 19.5em;">Job xxxviii., 12.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>The concluding words, "Day one," bring us to the consideration of
+one of the most difficult problems in this history, and one on
+which its significance in a great measure depends&mdash;the meaning of
+the word <i>day</i>, and the length of the days of creation.</p>
+
+<p>In pursuing this investigation, I shall refrain from noticing in
+detail the views of the many able modern writers who, from
+Cuvier, De Luc, and Jameson, down to Hugh Miller, Donald
+McDonald, and Tayler Lewis, have maintained the period theory, or
+those equally numerous and able writers who have supported the
+opposite view. I acknowledge obligations to them all, but prefer
+to direct my attention immediately to the record itself.</p>
+
+<p>The first important fact that strikes us is one which has
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+not received the attention it deserves, viz., that the word <i>day</i> is
+evidently used in three senses in the record itself. We are told
+(verse 5th) that God called the <i>light</i>, that is, the diurnal
+continuance of light, day. We are also informed that the
+<i>evening</i> and the <i>morning</i> were the first day. Day, therefore,
+in one of these clauses is the light as separated from the
+darkness, which we may call the <i>natural day</i>; in the other it is
+the whole time occupied in the creation of light and its
+separation from the darkness, whether that was a <i>civil or
+astronomical day</i> of twenty-four hours or some longer period. In
+other words, the daylight, to which God is represented as
+restricting the use of the term day, is only a part of a day of
+creation, which included both light and darkness, and which might
+be either a civil day or a longer period, but could not be the
+natural day intervening between sunrise and sunset, which is the
+<i>ordinary</i> day of Scripture phraseology. Again, in the 4th verse
+of chapter ii., which begins the second part of the history, the
+whole creative week is called one day&mdash;"In the day that Jehovah
+Elohim made the earth and the heavens." Such an expression must
+surely in such a place imply more than a mere inadvertence on the
+part of the writer or writers.</p>
+
+<p>To pave the way for a right understanding of the day of creation,
+it may be well to consider, in the first place, the manner in
+which the <i>shorter day</i> is introduced. In the expression, "God
+<i>called</i> the light day," we find for the first time the Creator
+naming his works, and we may infer that some important purpose
+was to be served by this. The nature of this purpose we ascertain
+by comparison with other instances of the same kind occurring in
+the chapter. God called the darkness night, the firmament heaven,
+the dry land earth, the gathered waters seas. In all these cases
+the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+purpose seems to have been one of verbal definition, perhaps
+along with an assertion of sovereignty. It was necessary to
+distinguish the diurnal darkness from that unvaried darkness
+which had been of old, and to discriminate between the limited
+waters of an earth having dry land on its surface and those of
+the ancient universal ocean. This is effected by introducing two
+new terms, night and seas. In like manner it was necessary to
+mark the new application of the term earth to the dry land, and
+that of heaven to the atmosphere, more especially as these were
+the senses in which the words were to be popularly used. The
+intention, therefore, in all these cases was to affix to certain
+things names different from those which they had previously borne
+in the narrative, and to certain terms new senses differing from
+those in which they had been previously used. Applying this
+explanation here, it results that the probable reason for calling
+the light day is to point out that the word occurs in two senses,
+and that while it was to be the popular and proper term for the
+natural day, this sense must be distinguished from its other
+meaning as a day of creation. In short, we may take this as a
+plain and authoritative declaration <i>that the day of creation is
+not the day of popular speech</i>. We see in this a striking
+instance of the general truth that in the simplicity of the
+structure of this record we find not carelessness, but studied
+and severe precision, and are warned against the neglect of the
+smallest peculiarities in its diction.</p>
+
+<p>What, then, is the day of creation, as distinguished by Moses
+himself from the natural day. The general opinion, and that which
+at first sight appears most probable, is that it is merely the
+ordinary civil day of twenty-four hours. Those who adopt this
+view insist on the impropriety of diverting the word from its
+usual sense. Unfortunately, however, for this argument,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+the word is not very frequently used in the Scriptures for the whole
+twenty-four hours of the earth's revolution. Its etymology gives
+it the sense of the time of glowing or warmth, and in accordance
+with this the divine authority here limits its meaning to the
+daylight. Accordingly throughout the Hebrew Scriptures <i>yom</i> is
+generally the natural and not the civil day; and where the latter
+is intended, the compound terms "day and night" and "evening and
+morning" are frequently used. Any one who glances over the word
+"day" in a good English concordance can satisfy himself of this
+fact. But the sense of natural day from sunrise to sunset is
+expressly excluded here by the context, as already shown; and all
+that we can say in favor of the interpretation that limits the
+day of creation to twenty-four hours, is that next to the use of
+the word for the natural day, which is its true popular meaning,
+its use for the civil day is perhaps the most frequent. It is
+therefore by no means a statement of the whole truth to affirm,
+as many writers have done, that the civil day is <i>the ordinary</i>
+meaning of the term. At the same time we may admit that this is
+<i>one</i> of its ordinary meanings, and therefore may be its meaning
+here. Another argument frequently urged is that the day of
+creation is said to have had an evening and morning. We shall
+consider this more fully in the sequel, and in the mean time may
+observe that it appears rather hazardous to attribute an ordinary
+evening and morning to a day which, on the face of the record,
+preceded the formation and arrangement of the luminaries which
+are "for days and for years."
+<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+But it may be affirmed that in the Bible long and undefined
+periods are indicated by the word "day." In many of these cases
+the word is in the plural: as Genesis iv., 3, "And after days it
+came to pass," rendered in our version "in process of time;"
+Genesis xl., 4, "days in ward," rendered "a season." Such
+instances as these are not applicable to the present question,
+since the plural may have the sense of indefinite time, merely by
+denoting an undetermined number of natural days. Passages in
+which the singular occurs in this sense are those which strictly
+apply to the case in hand, and such are by no means rare. A very
+remarkable example is that in Genesis ii., 4, already mentioned,
+where we find, "In the day when Jehovah Elohim made the earth and
+the heavens." This day must either mean the beginning, or must
+include the whole six days; most probably the latter, since the
+word "made" refers not to the act of creation, properly so
+called, but to the elaborating processes of the creative week;
+and occurring as this does immediately after the narrative of
+creation, it seems almost like an intentional intimation of the
+wide import of the creative days. It has been objected, however,
+that the expression "in the day" is properly a compound adverb,
+having the force of "when" or "at the time." But the learned and
+ingenious authors who urge this objection have omitted to
+consider the relative probabilities as to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+whether the adverbial use had arisen while the word <i>yom</i> meant simply a day, or
+whether the use of the noun for long periods was the reason of
+the introduction of such an adverbial expression. The
+probabilities are in favor of the latter, for it is not likely
+that men would construct an adverb referring to indefinite time
+from a word denoting one of the most precisely limited portions
+of time, unless that word had also a second and more unlimited
+sense. Admitting, therefore, that the phrase is an adverb of
+time, its use so early as the date of the composition of Genesis,
+to denote a period longer than a literal day, seems to imply that
+this indefinite use of the word was of high antiquity, and
+probably preceded the invention of any term by which long periods
+could be denoted.</p>
+
+<p>This use of the word "day" is, however, not limited to cases of
+the occurrence of the formula "in the day." The following are a
+few out of many instances that might be quoted: Job xviii., 20,
+"They that come after him shall be astonished at his day;" Job
+xv., 32, "It shall be accomplished before his <i>time</i>;" Judges
+xviii., 30, "Until the day of the captivity of the land;" Deut.
+i., 39, "And your children which in that day had no knowledge of
+good and evil;" Gen. xxxix., 10, "And it came to pass about that
+time" (on that day). We find also abundance of such expressions
+as "day of calamity," "day of distress," "day of wrath," "day of
+God's power," "day of prosperity." In such passages the word is
+evidently used in the sense of era or period of time, and this in
+prose as well as poetry.</p>
+
+<p>There is a remarkable passage in the Psalms, which conveys the
+idea of a day of God as distinct from human or terrestrial days:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"Before the mountains were brought forth,<br />
+
+Or ever thou hadst formed the earth and the world,<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+Even from everlasting to everlasting, thou art God.<br />
+Thou turnest man to destruction,<br />
+And sayest, Return, ye children of men;<br />
+For a thousand years are in thy sight as yesterday when it is past,<br />
+And as a watch in the night."
+<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is a singular coincidence that the authorship of this Psalm is
+attributed to Moses, and that its style and language correspond
+with the songs credited to him in Deuteronomy. It is farther to
+be observed that the reference is to the long periods employed in
+creation as contrasted with the limited space of years allotted
+to man. Its meaning, too, is somewhat obscured by the inaccurate
+translation of the third line. In the original it is, "From
+<i>olam</i> to <i>olam</i> thou art, O El"&mdash;that is, "from age to age."
+These long ages of creation, constituting a duration to us
+relatively eternal, were so protracted that even a thousand years
+are but as a watch in the night. If this Psalm is rightly
+attributed to the author of the first chapter of Genesis, it
+seems absolutely certain that he understood his own creative days
+as being <i>Olamim</i> or &aelig;ons. The same thought occurs in the Second
+Epistle of Peter: "One day is with the Lord as a thousand years,
+and a thousand years as one day."</p>
+
+<p>That the other writers of the Old Testament understood the
+creative days in this sense, might be inferred from the entire
+absence of any reference to the work of creation as short, since
+it occupied only six days. Such reference we may find in modern
+writers, but never in the Scriptures. On the contrary, we receive
+the impression of the creative work as long continued. Thus the
+divine Wisdom says in Prov. viii., The Lord possessed me "from
+the beginning of his way before
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+his works of old, from everlasting, before the antiquities of the earth." So in Psalm
+cxlv., God's kingdom relatively to nature and providence is a
+kingdom "of all ages." In Psalm civ., which is a poetical version
+of the creative work, and the oldest extant commentary on Genesis
+i., it is evident that there was no idea in the mind of the
+writer of a short time, but rather of long consecutive processes;
+and I may remark here that the course of the narrative itself in
+Genesis i., implies time for the replenishing of the earth with
+various forms of being in preparation for others, exactly as in
+Psalm civ.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps one of the most conclusive arguments in favor of the
+length of the creative days is that furnished by the seventh day
+and the institution of the Sabbath. In Genesis the seventh day is
+not said to have had any evening or morning, nor is God said to
+have resumed his work on any eighth day. Consequently the seventh
+day of creation must be still current. Now in the fourth
+commandment the Israelites are enjoined to "remember the
+Sabbath-day," because "in six days God created the heavens and
+the earth." Observe here that the Sabbath is to be remembered as
+an institution already known. Observe farther that the
+commandment is placed in the middle of the Decalogue, a solitary
+piece of apparently arbitrary ritual amid the plainest and most
+obvious moral duties. Observe also that the reason given&mdash;namely,
+God's six days' work and seventh day's rest&mdash;seems at first sight
+both far-fetched and trivial, as an argument for abstaining from
+work in a seventh part of our time. How is all this to be
+explained? Simply, I think, on the supposition that the Lawgiver,
+and those for whom he legislated, knew beforehand the history of
+creation and the fall, as we have them recorded in Genesis, and
+knew that God's days are &aelig;ons. The argument is not, "God worked
+on six natural days, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+rested on the seventh; do you therefore the same." Such an argument could have no moral or religious
+force, more especially as it could not be affirmed that God
+habitually works and rests in this way. The argument reaches far
+deeper and higher. It is this. God created the world in six of
+his days, and on the seventh rested, and invited man in Eden to
+enter on his rest as a perpetual Sabbath of happiness. But man
+fell, and lost God's Sabbath. Therefore a weekly Sabbath was
+prescribed to him as a memorial of what he had lost, and a pledge
+of what God has promised in the renewal of life and happiness
+through our Saviour. Thus the Sabbath is the central point of the
+moral law&mdash;the Gospel in the Decalogue&mdash;the connection between
+God and man through the promise of redemption. It is this and
+this alone that gives it its true religious significance, but is
+lost on the natural-day theory. It would farther seem that this
+view of the law was that of our Lord himself, and was known to
+the Jews of his time, for, when blamed for healing a man on the
+Sabbath, he says, "My Father worketh hitherto, and I work"&mdash;an
+argument whose force depended on the fact that God continues to
+work in his providence throughout his long Sabbath, which has
+never been broken except by man. Farther, the writer of the
+Epistle to the Hebrews takes this view in arguing as to the rest
+or Sabbatism that remains to the people of God. His argument
+(chap. iv., 4) may be stated thus: God finished his work and
+entered into his rest. Man, in consequence of the fall, failed to
+do so. He has made several attempts since, but unsuccessfully.
+Now Christ has finished his work, and has entered into his
+Sabbath, and through him we may enter into that rest of God which
+otherwise we can not attain to. This does not, it is true, refer
+to the keeping of a Sabbath-day; but it implies an understanding
+of the reference to God's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+olamic Sabbath, and also implies that
+Christ, having entered into his Sabbatism in heaven, gives us a
+warrant for the Christian Sabbath or Lord's day, which has the
+same relation to Christ's present Sabbatism in heaven that the
+old Sabbath had to God's rest from his work of creation.
+<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>We may add to these considerations the use of the Greek term
+<i>Ai[=o]n</i> in the New Testament, for what may be called
+time-worlds as distinguished from space-worlds. For example, take
+the expression in Heb. i., 2: "His Son, by whom he made the
+worlds," or, literally, "constituted the &aelig;ons"&mdash;the long
+time-worlds of the creation. For God's worlds must exist in time
+as well as in space, and both may to our minds alike appear as
+infinities. If, then, we find that Moses himself seems to have
+understood his creative days as &aelig;ons, that the succeeding Old
+Testament writers favor the same view, that this view is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+essential to the true significance of the Sabbath and the Lord's
+day, and that it is sustained by Christ and his apostles, there
+is surely no need for our clinging to a medi&aelig;val notion which has
+no theological value, and is in opposition to the facts of
+nature. On the contrary, should not even children be taught these
+grand truths, and led to contemplate the great work of Him who is
+from &aelig;on to &aelig;on, and to think of that Sabbatism which he prepared
+for us, and which he still offers to us in the future, in
+connection with the succession of worlds in time revealed by
+geology, and which rivals in grandeur and perhaps exceeds in
+interest the extension of worlds in space revealed by astronomy.
+In truth, we should bear in mind that the great revelations of
+astronomy have too much habituated us to think of space-worlds
+rather than time-worlds, while the latter idea was evidently
+dominant with the Biblical writers as it is also with modern
+geologists. Viewed as &aelig;ons&mdash;divine days, or time-worlds&mdash;the days
+of creation are thus a reality for all ages; and connect
+themselves with the highest moral teachings of the Bible in
+relation to the fall of man and God's plan for his restoration,
+begun in this seventh &aelig;on of the world's long history, and to be
+completed in that second divine Sabbatism, secured by the work of
+redemption, the final "rest" of the "new heavens and new earth,"
+which remains for the people of God.</p>
+
+<p>But supposing that the inspired writer intended to say that the
+world was formed in six long periods of time, could not he have
+used some other word than <i>yom</i> that would have been liable to
+fewer doubts. There are words which might have been used, as, for
+instance, <i>eth</i>, time, season, or <i>olam</i>, age, ancient time,
+eternity. The former, however, has about it a want of precision
+as to its beginning and end which unfits it for this use; the
+latter we have already seen is used as equivalent to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+creative <i>yom</i>. On the whole, I am unable to find any instance
+which would justify me in affirming that, on the supposition that
+Moses intended long periods, he could have better expressed the
+idea than by the use of the word <i>yom</i>, more especially if he and
+those to whom he wrote were familiar with the thought, preserved
+to us in the mythology of the Hindoos and Persians, and probably
+widely diffused in ancient Asia, that a working day of the
+Creator immeasurably transcends a working day of man.
+<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>Many objections to the view which I have thus endeavored to
+support from internal evidence will at once occur to every
+intelligent reader familiar with the literature of this subject.
+I shall now attempt to give the principal of these objections a
+candid consideration.</p>
+
+<p>(1.) It is objected that the time occupied in the work of
+creation is given as a reason for the observance of the seventh
+day as a Sabbath; and that this requires us to view the days of
+creation as literal days. "For in six days Jehovah made the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+heaven and the earth, the sea and all that in them is, and rested
+on the seventh day; therefore Jehovah blessed the Sabbath-day and
+sanctified it." The argument used here is, however, as we have
+already seen, one of analogy. Because God rested on his seventh
+day, he blessed and sanctified it, and required men in like
+manner to sanctify their seventh day.
+<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>
+ Now, if it should appear that the working day of God is not the same with the
+working day of man, and that the Sabbath of God is of
+proportionate length to his working day, the analogy is not
+weakened; more especially as we find the same analogy extended to
+the seventh year. If it should be said, God worked in the
+creation of the world in six long ages, and rested on the
+seventh, therefore man, in commemoration of this fact, and of his
+own loss of an interest in God's rest by the fall, shall sanctify
+the seventh of his working days, the argument is stronger, the
+example more intelligible, than on the common supposition. This
+objection is, in fact, a piece of pedantic hyperorthodoxy which
+has too long been handed about without investigation. I may add
+to what has been already said in reference to it, the following
+vigorous thrust by Hugh Miller:
+<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>"I can not avoid thinking that many of our theologians attach a
+too narrow meaning to the remarkable reason attached to the
+fourth commandment by the divine Lawgiver. "God rested on the
+seventh day," says the text, "from all his work which he had
+created and made; and God blessed the seventh day and sanctified
+it." And such is the reason given in the Decalogue why man should
+rest on the Sabbath-day. God
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+rested on the Sabbath-day and
+sanctified it; and therefore man ought also to rest on the
+Sabbath and keep it holy. But I know not where we shall find
+grounds for the belief that the Sabbath-day during which God
+rested was merely commensurate with one of the Sabbaths of
+short-lived man&mdash;a brief period measured by a single revolution
+of the earth on its axis. We have not, as has been shown, a
+shadow of evidence that he resumed his work of creation on the
+morrow; the geologist finds no trace of post-Adamic creation; the
+theologian can tell us of none. God's Sabbath of rest may still
+exist; the work of redemption may be the work of his Sabbath-day.
+That elevatory process through successive acts of creation, which
+engaged him during myriads of ages, was of an ordinary week-day
+character; but when the term of his moral government began, the
+elevatory process peculiar to it assumed the divine character of
+the Sabbath. This special view appears to lend peculiar emphasis
+to the reason embodied in the commandment. The collation of the
+passage with the geologic record seems, as if by a species of
+retranslation, to make it enunciate as its injunction, "Keep this
+day, not merely as a day of memorial related to a past fact, but
+also as a day of co-operation with God in the work of elevation,
+in relation both to a present fact and a future purpose." "God
+keeps his Sabbath," it says, "in order that he may save; keep
+yours also that ye may be saved." It serves besides to throw
+light on the prominence of the Sabbatical command, in a digest of
+law of which no jot or tittle can pass away until the fulfillment
+of all things. During the present dynasty of probation and trial,
+that special work of both God and man on which the character of
+the future dynasty depends is the Sabbath-day work of saving and
+being saved.</p>
+
+<p>"The common objection to that special view which regards
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+the days of creation as immensely protracted periods of time,
+furnishes a specimen, if not of reasoning in a circle, at least
+of reasoning from a mere assumption. It first takes for granted
+that the Sabbath-day during which God rested was a day of but
+twenty-four hours, and then argues from the supposition that, in
+order to keep up the proportion between the six previous working
+days and the seventh day of rest, which the reason annexed to the
+fourth commandment demands, these previous days must also have
+been twenty-four hours each. It would, I have begun to suspect,
+square better with the ascertained facts, and be at least equally
+in accordance with Scripture, to reverse the process, and argue
+that because God's working days were immensely protracted
+periods, his Sabbath also must be an immensely protracted period.
+The reason attached to the law of the Sabbath seems to be simply
+a reason of proportion: the objection to which I refer is an
+objection palpably founded on considerations of proportion, and
+certainly were the reason to be divested of proportion, it would
+be divested also of its distinctive character as a reason. Were
+it as follows, it could not be at all understood: "Six days shalt
+thou labor, etc.; but on the seventh day shalt thou do no labor,
+etc.; for in six immensely protracted periods of several thousand
+years each did the Lord make the heavens and the earth, etc.; and
+then rested during a brief day of twenty-four hours; therefore
+the Lord blessed the brief day of twenty-four hours and hallowed
+it." This, I repeat, would not be reason. All, however, that
+seems necessary to the integrity of the reason, in its character
+as such, is that the proportion of six parts to seven should be
+maintained. God's periods may be periods expressed algebraically
+by letters symbolical of unknown quantities, and man's periods by
+letters symbolical of quantities well known; but
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+if God's Sabbath be equal to one of his six working days, and man's
+Sabbath equal to one of his six working days, the integrity of
+proportion is maintained."</p>
+
+<p>Not only does this view of the case entirely remove the
+objection, but, as we have already seen, it throws a new light on
+the nature and reason of the Sabbath. No good reason, except that
+of setting an example, can be assigned for God's resting for a
+literal day. But if God's Sabbath of rest from natural creation
+is still in progress, and if our short Sabbaths are symbolical of
+the work of that great Sabbath in its present gray morning and in
+its coming glorious noon, then may the Christian thank this
+question, incidentally raised by geology and its long periods,
+for a ray of light which shines along the whole course of
+Scripture history, from the first Sabbath up to that final "rest
+which remaineth for the people of God."
+<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p>(2.) It is objected that evening and morning are ascribed to the
+first day. This has been already noticed; it may here be
+considered more fully. The word evening in the original is
+literally the darkening, the sunset, the dusk. Morning is the
+<i>opening</i> or <i>breaking forth</i> of light&mdash;the daybreak. It must not
+be denied that the explanation of these terms is attended with
+some difficulty, but this is not at all lessened by narrowing the
+day to twenty-four hours. The first operation of the first day
+was the creation of light; next we have the Creator contemplating
+his work and pronouncing it to be good; then we have the
+separation of the light and darkness, previously, it is to be
+presumed, intermixed; and all this without the presence of a sun
+or other luminary. Which of these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+operations occupied the evening, and which the morning, if the day consisted of but
+twenty-four hours, beginning, according to Hebrew custom, in the
+evening? Was the old primeval darkness the evening or night, and
+the first breaking forth of light morning? This is almost the
+only view compatible with the Hebrew civil day beginning at
+evening, but it would at once lengthen the day beyond twenty-four
+hours, and contradict the terms of the record. Again, were the
+separated light and darkness the morning and evening? If so, why
+is the evening mentioned first, contrary to the supposed facts of
+the case? why, indeed, are the evening and morning mentioned at
+all, since on that supposition this is merely a repetition?
+Lastly, shall we adopt the ingenious expedient of dividing the
+evening and morning between two days, and maintaining that the
+evening belongs to the first and the morning to the second day,
+which would deprive the first day of a morning, and render the
+creative days, whatever their length, altogether different from
+Hebrew natural or civil days? It is unnecessary to pursue such
+inquiries farther, since it is evident that the terms of the
+record will not agree with the supposition of natural evening and
+morning. This is of itself a strong presumption against the
+hypothesis of civil days, since the writer was under no necessity
+so to word these verses that they would not give any rational or
+connected sense on the supposition of natural evening and
+morning, unless he wished to be otherwise understood.</p>
+
+<p>But what is the meaning of evening and morning, if these days
+were long periods? Here fewer difficulties meet us. First: It is
+readily conceivable that the beginning and end of a period named
+a day should be called evening and morning. But what made the use
+of these divisions necessary or appropriate? I answer that nature
+and revelation both give
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+grounds at least to suspect that the
+evening, or earlier part of each period, was a time of
+comparative inaction, sometimes even of retrogression, and that
+the latter part of each period was that of its greatest activity
+and perfection. Thus, on the views stated in a former chapter, in
+the first day there was a time when luminous matter, either
+gradually concentrating itself toward the sun, or surrounding the
+earth itself, shed a dim but slowly increasing light; then there
+were day and night, the light increasing in intensity as, toward
+the end of the period, the luminous matter became more and more
+concentrated around the sun. So in our own seventh day, the
+earlier part was a time of deplorable retrogression, and though
+the Sun of Righteousness has arisen, we have seen as yet only a
+dim and cloudy morning. On the theory of days of vision, as
+expounded by Hugh Miller, in the "Testimony of the Rocks," in one
+of his noblest passages, the evening and night fall on each
+picture presented to the seer like the curtain of a stage.
+Secondly: Though the explanation stated above is the most
+probable, the hypothesis of long periods admits of another,
+namely, that the writer means to inform us that evening and
+morning, once established by the separation of light from
+darkness, continued without cessation throughout the remainder of
+the period&mdash;rolling from this time uninterruptedly around our
+planet, like the seal cylinder over the clay.
+<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
+ This explanation is, however, less applicable to the following days
+than to the first. Nor does this accord with the curious fact
+that the seventh day, which, on the hypothesis of long periods,
+is still in progress, is not said to have had an evening or
+morning.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) It is objected that the first chapter of Genesis "is not a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+poem nor a piece of oratorical diction," but a simple prosaic
+narrative, and consequently that its terms must be taken in a
+literal sense. In answer to this, I urge that the most truly
+literal sense of the word, namely, the <i>natural</i> day, is excluded
+by the terms of the narrative; and that the word may be received
+as a literal day of the Creator, in the sense of one of his
+working periods, without involving the use of poetical diction,
+and in harmony with the wording of plain prosaic passages in
+other parts of the Bible. Examples of this have already been
+given. It is, however, true that, though the first chapter of
+Genesis is not strictly poetical, it is thrown into a metrical
+form which admits of some approach to a figurative expression in
+the case of a term of this kind.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) It has been urged that in cases where day is used to denote
+period, as in the expressions "day of calamity," etc., the
+adjuncts plainly show that it can not mean an ordinary day. In
+answer to this, I merely refer to the internal evidence already
+adduced, and to the deliberate character of the statements, in
+the manner rather of the description of processes than of acts.
+The difficulties attending the explanation of the evening and the
+morning, and the successive creation of herbivorous and
+carnivorous animals, are also strong indications which should
+serve here to mark the sense, just as the context does in the
+cases above referred to.</p>
+
+<p>(5.) In Professor Hitchcock's valuable and popular "Religion of
+Geology," I find some additional objections, which deserve notice
+as specimens of the learned trifles which pass current among
+writers on this subject, much to the detriment of sound
+Scriptural literature. I give them in the words of the author. 1.
+"From Genesis ii., 5 compared with Genesis i., 11 and 12, it
+seems that it had not rained on the earth till the third day; a
+fact altogether probable if the days were of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+twenty-four hours,
+but absurd if they were long periods." It strikes us that the
+absurdity here is all on the side of the short days. Why should
+any prominence be given to a fact so common as the lapse of two
+ordinary days without rain, more especially if a region of the
+earth and not the whole is referred to, and in a document
+prepared for a people residing in climates such as those of Egypt
+and Palestine. But what could be more instructive and
+confirmatory of the truth of the narrative than the fact that in
+the two long periods which preceded the formation and clearing up
+of the atmosphere or firmament, on which rain depends, and the
+elevation of the dry land, which so greatly modifies its
+distribution, there had been no rain such as now occurs. This is
+a most important fact, and one of the marked coincidences of the
+record with scientific truth. The objection, therefore, merely
+shows that the ordinary day hypothesis tends to convert one of
+the finest internal harmonies of this wonderful history into an
+empty and, in some respects, absurd commonplace. 2. "This
+hypothesis (that days are long periods) assumes that Moses
+describes the creation of all the animals and plants that have
+ever lived on our globe. But geology decides that the species now
+living, since they are not found in the rocks any lower than man
+is,
+<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
+ could not have been contemporaneous with those in the
+rocks, but must have been created when man was&mdash;that is, in the
+sixth day. Of such a creation no mention is made in Genesis; the
+inference is that Moses does not describe the creation of the
+existing races, but only of those that lived thousands of years
+earlier, and whose
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+existence was scarcely suspected till modern
+times. Who will admit such an absurdity?" In answer to this
+objection, I remark that it is based on a false assumption. The
+hypothesis of long periods does not require us to assume that
+Moses notices all the animals and plants that have ever lived,
+but on the contrary that he informs us only of the <i>first
+appearance</i> of each great natural type in the animal and
+vegetable kingdoms; just as he informs us of the first appearance
+of dry land on the third day, but says nothing of the changes
+which it underwent on subsequent days. Thus plants were created
+on the third day, and though they may have been several times
+destroyed and renewed as to genera and species, we infer that
+they continued to exist in all the succeeding days, though the
+inspired historian does not inform us of the fact. So also many
+tribes of animals were created in the early part of the fifth
+day, and it is quite unnecessary for us to be informed that these
+tribes continued to exist through the sixth day. If the days were
+long periods, the inspired writer could not have adopted any
+other course, unless he had been instructed to write a treatise
+on Pal&aelig;ontology, and to describe the fauna and flora of each
+successive period with their characteristic differences. 3.
+"Though there is a general resemblance between the order of
+creation as described in Genesis and by geology, yet when we look
+at the details of the creation of the organic world, as required
+by this hypothesis, we find manifest discrepancy. Thus the Bible
+represents plants only to have been created on the third day, and
+animals not till the fifth; and hence at least the lower half of
+the fossiliferous rocks ought to contain nothing but vegetables.
+Whereas in fact the lower half of these rocks, all below the
+carboniferous, although abounding in animals, contain scarcely
+any plants, and these in the lowest strata fucoids or sea-weeds.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+But the Mosaic account evidently describes flowering and
+seed-bearing plants, not flowerless and seedless alg&aelig;. Again,
+reptiles are described in Genesis as created on the fifth day;
+but reptilia and batrachians existed as early as the time when
+the lower carboniferous and even old red sandstone were in course
+of deposition, as their tracks on those rocks in Nova Scotia and
+Pennsylvania evince.
+<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>
+ In short, if we maintain that Moses
+describes fossils as well as living species, we find discrepancy
+instead of correspondence between his order of creation and that
+of geology." In this objection it is assumed that the geological
+history of the earth goes back to the third day of creation, or,
+in other words, to the dawn of organic life. None of the greater
+authorities in geology would, however, now venture to make such
+an assertion, and the progress of geology is rapidly making the
+contrary more and more probable. The fact is that, on the
+supposition that the days of creation are long periods, the whole
+series of the fossiliferous rocks belongs to the fifth and sixth
+days; and that for the early plant creation of the third day, and
+the great physical changes of the fourth, geology has nothing as
+yet to show, except a mass of metamorphosed eozoic rocks which
+have hitherto yielded no fossils except a few Protozoa; but which
+contain vast quantities of carbon in the form of graphite, which
+may be the remains of plants.</p>
+
+<p>I have much pleasure in quoting, as a further answer to these
+objections, the following from Professor Dana:
+<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>"Accepting the account in Genesis as true, the seeming
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+discrepancy between it and geology rests mainly here: Geology
+holds, and has held from the first, that the progress of creation
+was mainly through secondary causes; for the existence of the
+science presupposes this. Moses, on the contrary, was thought to
+sustain the idea of a simple fiat for each step. Grant this first
+point to science, and what farther conflict is there? <i>The
+question of the length of time</i>, it is replied. But not so; for
+if we may take the record as allowing more than six days of
+twenty-four hours, the Bible then places no limit to time. <i>The
+question of the days and periods</i>, it is replied again. But this
+is of little moment in comparison with the first principle
+granted. Those who admit the length of time and stand upon days
+of twenty-four hours have to place geological time <i>before</i> the
+six days, and then assume a chaos and reordering of creation, on
+the six-day and fiat principle, after a previous creation that
+had operated for a long period through secondary causes. Others
+take days as periods, and thus allow the required time, admitting
+that creation was one in progress, a grand whole, instead of a
+<i>first</i> creation excepting man by one method, and a <i>second</i> with
+man by the other. This is now the remaining question between the
+theologians and geologists; for all the minor points, as to the
+exact interpretation of each day, do not affect the general
+concordance or discordance of the Bible and science.</p>
+
+<p>"On this point geology is now explicit in its decision, and
+indeed has long been so. It proves that there was no return to
+chaos, no great revolution, that creation was beyond doubt one in
+its progress. We know that some geologists have taken the other
+view. But it is only in the capacity of theologians, and not as
+geologists. The Rev. Dr. Buckland, in placing the great events of
+geology between the first and second verses of the Mosaic
+account, did not pretend that there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+was a geological basis for
+such an hypothesis; and no writer since has ever brought forward
+the first fact in geology to support the idea of a rearrangement
+just before man; not one solitary fact has ever been appealed to.
+The conclusion was on Biblical grounds, and not in any sense on
+geological. The best that Buckland could say, when he wrote
+twenty-five years since, was that geology did not absolutely
+disprove such an hypothesis; and that can not be said now.</p>
+
+<p>"It is often asserted, in order to unsettle confidence in these
+particular teachings of geology, that geology is a changing
+science. In this connection the remark conveys an erroneous
+impression. Geology is a progressive science; and all its
+progress tends to establish more firmly these two principles: (1)
+The slow progress of creation through secondary causes, as
+explained; and (2) the progress by periods analogous to the days
+of Genesis."</p>
+
+<p>I have, I trust, shown that the principal objections to the
+lengthening of the Mosaic days into great cosmical periods are of
+a character too light and superficial to deserve any regard. I
+shall now endeavor to add to the internal evidence previously
+given some considerations of an external character which support
+this view.</p>
+
+<p>1. The fact that the creation was progressive, that it proceeded
+from the formation of the raw material of the universe, through
+successive stages, to the perfection of living organisms, if we
+regard the analogy of God's operations as disclosed in the
+geological history of the earth and in the present course of
+nature, must impress us with a suspicion that long periods were
+employed in the work. God might have prepared the earth for man
+in an instant. He did not choose to do so, but on the contrary
+proceeded step by step; and the record he has given us does not
+receive its full significance
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+nor attain its full harmony with
+the course of geological history, unless we can understand each
+day of the creative week as including a long succession of ages.</p>
+
+<p>2. We have, as already explained, reason to believe that the
+seventh day at least has been of long duration. At the close of
+the sixth, God rested from all his work of material creation, and
+we have as yet no evidence that he has resumed it. Neither
+theologians nor evolutionists will, I presume, desire to maintain
+that any strictly creative acts have occurred in the modern
+period of geology. We know that the present day, if it is the
+seventh, has lasted already for at least six thousand years, and,
+if we may judge from the testimony of prophecy, has yet a long
+space to run, before it merges in that "new heaven and new earth"
+for which all believers look, and which will constitute the first
+day of an endless sabbatism.</p>
+
+<p>3. The philosophical and religious systems of many ancient
+nations afford intimations of the somewhat extensive prevalence
+in ancient times of the notion of long creative periods,
+corresponding to the Mosaic days. These notions, in so far as
+they are based on truth, are probably derived from the Mosaic
+narrative itself, or from the primitive patriarchal documents
+which may have formed the basis of that narrative. They are, no
+doubt, all more or less garbled versions, and can not be regarded
+as of any authority, but they serve to show what was the
+interpretation of the document in a very remote antiquity. I have
+collected from a variety of sources the following examples:</p>
+
+<p>The ancient mythology of Persia appears to have had six creative
+periods, each apparently of a thousand years, and corresponding
+very nearly with the Mosaic days.
+<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>
+ The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+ Chaldeans had a similar system, to which in a previous chapter we have already
+referred. The Etruscans possessed a history of the creation,
+somewhat resembling that of the Bible, and representing the
+creation as occupying six periods of a thousand years each.
+<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians believed that the world had been subject to a
+series of destructions and renewals, the intervals between which
+amounted to 120,000 years, or, according to other authorities, to
+300,000 or 360,000 years. This system of destruction and renewal
+the Egyptian priests appear to have wrought out into considerable
+detail, but though important truths may be concealed under their
+mysterious dogmas, it will not repay us to dwell on the fragments
+that remain of them. There can be no doubt, however, that at
+least the basis of the Egyptian cosmogony must have been the
+common property of all the Hamite nations, of which Egypt was the
+greatest and most permanent; and therefore in all probability
+derived from the ideas of creation which were current not long
+after the Deluge. The Egyptians appear also, as already stated,
+to have had a physical cosmogony, beginning with a chaos in which
+heaven and earth were mingled, and from which were evolved fiery
+matters which ascended into the heavens, and moist earthy matters
+which formed the earth and the sea; and from these were produced,
+by the agency of solar heat, the various animals. The terms of
+this cosmogony, as it is given by Diodorus Siculus, indicate the
+belief of long formative periods.
+<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Hindoos have a somewhat extended, though, according to the
+translations, a not very intelligible cosmogony. It
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+plainly, however, asserts long periods of creative work, and is
+interesting as an ancient cosmogony preserved entire and without
+transmission through secondary channels. The following is a
+summary, in so far as I have been able to gather it, from the
+translation of the Institutes of Menu by Sir W. Jones.
+<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<p>The introduction to the Institutes represents Menu as questioned
+by the "divine sages" respecting the laws that should regulate
+all classes or castes. He proceeds to detail the course of
+creation, stating that the "Self-existing Power,
+<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>
+undiscovered, but making this world discernible, He whom the mind
+alone can perceive, whose essence eludes the external senses, who
+has no visible parts, who exists from eternity, even the soul of
+all being, whom no being can comprehend, shone forth in person."</p>
+
+<p>After giving this exalted view of the Creator, the writer
+proceeds to state that the Self-existent created the waters, and
+then an egg, from which he himself comes forth as Brahma the
+forefather of spirits. "The waters are called Nara because they
+are the production of <i>Nara</i>, the spirit of God, and since they
+were his first <i>Ayana</i>, or place of motion, he thence is named
+<i>Narayana</i>, or moving on the waters. In the egg Brahma remained a
+year, and caused the egg to divide, forming the heaven above and
+the earth beneath, and the subtile ether, the eight regions, and
+the receptacle of waters between. He then drew forth from the
+supreme soul mind with all its powers and properties." The rest
+of the account appears to be very confused, and I confess to a
+great extent unintelligible
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+to me. There follows, however, a
+continuation of the narrative, stating that there is a succession
+of seven Menus, each of whom produces and supports the earth
+during his reign. It is in the account of these successive Menus
+that the following statement respecting the days and years of
+Brahma occurs:</p>
+
+<p>"A day of the Gods is equal to a year. Four thousand years of the
+Gods are called a Critya or Satya age. Four ages are an age of
+the Gods. <i>One thousand divine ages (equal to more than four
+millions of human years) are a day of Brahma the Creator.</i>
+Seventy-two divine ages are one manwantara. * * * The aggregate
+of four ages they call a divine age, and believe that in every
+thousand such ages, or in every day of Brahma, fourteen Menus are
+successively invested with the sovereignty of the earth. Each
+Menu they suppose transmits his authority to his sons and
+grandsons during a period of seventy-two divine ages, and such a
+period they call a manwantara. Thirty such days (of the Creator),
+or calpas, constitute a month of Brahma; twelve such months one
+of his years, and 100 such years his age, of which they assert
+that fifty years have elapsed. We are thus, according to the
+Hindoos, in the first day or calpa of the fifty-first year of
+Brahma's life, and in the twenty-eighth divine age of the
+<i>seventh manwantara</i> of that day. In the present day of Brahma
+the first Menu was named the Son of the Self-existent, and by him
+the institutes of religion and civil duties are said to have been
+delivered. In his time occurred a new creation called the <i>Lotos</i>
+creation." Of five Menus who succeeded him, Sir William could
+find little but the names, but the accounts of the seventh are
+very full, and it appears that in his reign the earth was
+destroyed by a flood. Sir William suggests that the first Menu
+may represent the creation, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+that the seventh may be Noah.
+The name Menu or Manu is equivalent to "man," and signifies "the
+intelligent."
+<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this Hindoo cosmogony we have many points of correspondence
+with the Scripture narrative: for instance, the Self-existent
+Creator; the agency of the Son of God and the Holy Spirit; the
+absolute creation of matter; the hovering of the Spirit over the
+primeval waters; the sevenfold division of the creative process;
+and the idea of days of the Creator of immense duration. If we
+suppose the day of Brahma in the Hindoo cosmogony to represent
+the Mosaic day, then it amounts to no less than 4,320,000 years;
+or if, with Sir W. Jones, we suppose the manwantara to represent
+the Mosaic day, its duration will be 308,571 years; and the total
+antiquity of the earth, without counting the undefined
+"beginning," will be either more than twenty-five or than two
+millions of years. It would be folly, however, to suppose that
+these Hindoo numbers, which are probably purely conjectural, or
+based on astronomical cycles, make any near approximation to the
+facts of the case. The Institutes of Menu are probably in their
+present form not of great antiquity, but there are other Hindoo
+documents of greater age which maintain similar views, and it is
+probable that the account of the creation in the Institutes is at
+least an imperfect version of the original narrative as it
+existed among the earliest colonists of India.
+<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>
+ It corresponds
+in many points with the oldest notions on these subjects that
+remain to us in the wrecks of the mythology of Egypt and other
+ancient
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+nations, and it aids in proving that the fabulous ages
+of gods and demigods in the ancient mythologies <i>are really
+pre-Adamite</i>; and belong not to human history, but to the work of
+creation. It also shows that the idea of long creative periods as
+equivalents of the Mosaic days must, in the infancy of the
+postdiluvian world, have been very widely diffused. Such evidence
+is, no doubt, of small authority in the interpretation of
+Scripture; but it must be admitted that serious consideration is
+due to a method of interpretation which thus tends to bring the
+Mosaic account into harmony with the facts of modern science, and
+with the belief of almost universal antiquity, and at the same
+time gives it its fullest significance and most perfect internal
+symmetry of parts. It is also very interesting to note the wide
+diffusion among the most ancient nations of cosmological views
+identical in their main features with those of the Bible,
+proving, almost beyond doubt, that these views had some common
+and very ancient source, and commanded universal belief among the
+primitive tribes of men.</p>
+
+<p>I have hitherto in this part of the discussion avoided detailed
+reference to what may be regarded as the "prophetic day" view of
+the narrative of creation. This may be shortly stated as follows:
+In the prophetical parts of Scripture the prophet sees in vision,
+as in a picture or acted scene, the events that are to come to
+pass, and in consequence represents years or longer periods by
+days of vision. Now the revelation of the pre-Adamite past is in
+its nature akin to that of the unknown future; and Moses may have
+seen these wondrous events in vision&mdash;in visions of successive
+days&mdash;under the guise of which he presents geological time. Some
+things in the form of the narrative favor this view, and it
+certainly affords the most clearly intelligible theory as to the
+mode in which such a revelation may have been made to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+man. It is advocated by Kurtz, by the author of an excellent little work,
+the "Harmony of the Mosaic and Geological Records," by Hugh
+Miller, and more recently by Tayler Lewis. To these writers I
+must refer for its more full illustration, and for the grand
+pictorial view which it gives of the vision of the creative week.</p>
+
+<p>In reviewing the somewhat lengthy train of reasoning into which
+the term "day" has led us, it appears that from internal evidence
+alone it can be rendered probable that the day of creation is
+neither the natural nor the civil day. It also appears that the
+objections urged against the doctrine of day-periods are of no
+weight when properly scrutinized, and that it harmonizes with the
+progressive nature of the work, the evidence of geology, and the
+cosmological notions of ancient nations. I do not suppose that
+this position has been incontrovertibly established; but I
+believe that every serious difficulty has been removed from its
+acceptance; and with this, for the present, I remain satisfied.
+Every step of our subsequent progress will afford new criteria of
+its truth or fallacy.</p>
+
+<p>One further question of some interest is&mdash;What, according to the
+theory of long creative days and the testimony of geology, would
+be the length and precise cosmical nature of these days? With
+regard to the first part of the question, we do not know the
+actual value of our geological ages in time; but it is probable
+that each great creative &aelig;on may have extended through millions
+of years. As to the nature of the days, this may have been
+determined by direct volitions of the Creator, or indirectly by
+some of those great astronomical cycles which arise from the
+varying eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or the diminution of
+the velocity of its rotation, or by its gradual cooling.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to these points, science has as yet little
+information
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+to give. Sir William Thomson has, indeed, indicated
+for the time since the earth's crust first began to form a period
+of between one and two hundred millions of years; but Professor
+Guthrie Tait, on the other hand, argues that ten or fifteen
+millions of years are probably sufficient,
+<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
+ and Lockyer has suggested an hypothesis of successive rekindlings of the solar
+heat which might give a more protracted time than that of
+Thomson. Some of the hypotheses of derivation current, but which
+are based rather on philosophical speculation than on scientific
+fact, would also require a longer time than that allowed by
+Thomson; and it is to be regretted that some geologists, by
+giving credence to such hypotheses of derivation, and by loose
+reasoning on the time required for the denudation and deposition
+of rocks, have been induced to commit themselves to very
+extravagant estimates as to geological time. On the whole, it is
+evident that only the most vague guesses can at present be based
+on the facts in our possession, though the whole time required
+has unquestionably been very great, the deposition of the series
+of stratified rocks probably requiring at least the greater part
+of the minimum time allowed by Thomson.
+<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>As to the cosmical nature of the periods, while some geologists
+appear to regard the whole of geological time as a continuous
+evolution without any breaks, it is evidently more in accordance
+with facts to hold that there have been cycles of repose and
+activity succeeding each other, and that these have been of
+different grades. In the succession of deposits it is plain that
+periods of depression and upheaval common to all the continental
+masses have succeeded each other at
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+somewhat regular intervals,
+and that within these periods there have been alternations of
+colder and warmer climates. These, however, are not equal to the
+creative days of our record, for they are greatly more numerous.
+They are but the vastly protracted hours of these almost endless
+days. Beyond and above these there is another grade of geological
+period, marked not by mere gradual elevation and depression of
+the continental areas, but by vast crumplings of the earth's
+crust and enormous changes of level. Such a great movement
+unquestionably closed the Eozoic period of geology. Another of
+less magnitude occurred in what is termed the Permian age at the
+end of the Pal&aelig;ozoic. A third terminated the Mesozoic age, and
+introduced the Tertiary or Kainozoic. Perhaps we should reckon
+the glacial age, though characterized by far less physical change
+than the others, as a fourth. The possible physical causes which
+have been suggested for such greater disturbances are the
+collapses of the crust in equatorial regions, which may be
+supposed to have resulted at long intervals of time, from the
+gradual retardation of the earth's rotation caused by the tides,
+or the similar collapses and other changes due to the shrinkages
+of the earth's interior caused by its gradual cooling, and to the
+unequal deposition of material by water on different parts of its
+surface.
+<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>
+ The more full discussion of these points belongs,
+however, to a future chapter.</p>
+
+<p>These greater movements of the crust, would, as already stated,
+coincide to some extent with the later creative days in the
+manner indicated below:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+<table summary="crust movements">
+<tr>
+<td>Collapse of crust at close of Eozoic Time,</td><td>}</td>
+<td>Close of Fourth &AElig;on, and beginning of Fifth.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Collapse in Permian Period and end of Pal&aelig;ozoic Time,</td><td>}</td>
+<td>Middle of Fifth &AElig;on.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Great subsidence and collapse at close of Mesozoic Age,</td><td>}</td>
+<td>Close of Fifth &AElig;on, and beginning of Sixth.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Great subsidence of the Pleistocene or Glacial Age,</td><td>}</td>
+<td>End of Sixth &AElig;on.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>The question recurs&mdash;Why are God's days so long? He is not like
+us, a being of yesterday. He is "from Olam to Olam," and even in
+human history one day is with him as a thousand years; and we who
+live in these later days of the world know full well how slow the
+march of his plan has been even in human history. We shall know
+in the endless ages of a future eternity that even to us these
+long creative days may at last become but as watches in the
+night.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">THE ATMOSPHERE.</span><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:50%;">"And God said, Let there be an expanse between the waters;
+and let it separate the waters from the waters. And God made the expanse, and separated
+the waters which are under the expanse from the waters which are over the expanse: and
+it was so. And God called the expanse Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the
+second day."&mdash;Genesis i. 6-8.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>At the opening of the period to which we are now introduced the
+earth was covered by the waters, and these were in such a
+condition that there was no distinction between the seas and the
+clouds. No atmosphere separated them, or, in other words, dense
+fogs and mists everywhere rested on the surface of the primeval
+ocean. To understand as far as possible the precise condition of
+the earth's surface at this period, it will be necessary to
+notice the present constitution of the atmosphere, especially in
+its relations to aqueous vapor.</p>
+
+<p>The regular and constant constituents of the atmosphere are the
+elements oxygen and nitrogen, which, at the temperature and
+pressure existing on the surface of our globe, are permanently
+aeriform or gaseous. Beside these gases, the air always contains
+a quantity of the vapor of water in a perfectly aeriform and
+transparent condition. This vapor is not, however, permanently
+gaseous. At all temperatures below 212 degrees it tends to the
+liquid state; and its elastic force, which preserves its
+particles in the separated state of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+vapor, increases or
+diminishes at a more rapid rate than the increase or diminution
+of temperature. Hence the quantity of vapor that can be suspended
+in clear air depends on the temperature of the air itself. As the
+temperature of the air rises, its power of sustaining vapor
+increases more rapidly than its temperature; and as the
+temperature of the air falls, the elastic force of its contained
+vapor diminishes in a greater ratio, until it can exist as an
+invisible vapor no longer, but becomes condensed into minute
+bubbles or globules, forming cloud, mist, or rain. Two other
+circumstances operate along with these properties of air and
+vapor. The heat radiated from the earth's surface causes the
+lower strata of air to be, in ordinary circumstances, warmer than
+the higher; and, on the other hand, warm air, being lighter than
+that which is colder, the warm layer of air at the surface
+continually tends to rise through and above the colder currents
+immediately over it. Let us consider the operation of the causes
+thus roughly sketched in a column of calm air. The lower portion
+becomes warmed, and if in contact with water takes up a quantity
+of its vapor proportioned to the temperature, or in ordinary
+circumstances somewhat less than this proportion. It then tends
+to ascend, and as it rises and becomes mixed with colder air it
+gradually loses its power of sustaining moisture, and at a height
+proportioned to the diminution of temperature and the quantity of
+vapor originally contained in the air, it begins to part with
+water, which becomes condensed in the form of mist or cloud; and
+the surface at which this precipitation takes place is often
+still more distinctly marked when two masses or layers of air at
+different temperatures become intermixed; in which case, on the
+principle already stated, the mean temperature produced is unable
+to sustain the vapor proper to the two extremes, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+moisture is
+precipitated. It thus happens that layers of cloud accumulate in
+the atmosphere, while between them and the surface there is a
+stratum of clear air. Fogs and mists are in the present state of
+nature exceptional appearances, depending generally on local
+causes, and showing what the world might be but for that
+balancing of temperature and the elastic force of vapor which
+constitutes the atmospheric firmament.
+<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>The quantity of water thus suspended over the earth is enormous.
+"When we see a cloud resolve itself into rain, and pour out
+thousands of gallons of water, we can not comprehend how it can
+float in the atmosphere."
+<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>
+ The explanation is&mdash;1st, the
+extreme levity of the minute globules, which causes them to fall
+very slowly; 2d, they are supported by currents of air,
+especially by the ascending currents developed both in still air
+and in storms; 3dly, clouds are often dissolving on one side and
+forming on another. A cloud gradually descending may be
+dissolving away by evaporation at the base as fast as new matter
+is being added above. On the other hand, an ascending warm
+current of air may be constantly depositing moisture at the base
+of the cloud, and this may be evaporating under the solar rays
+above. In this case a cloud is "merely the visible form of an
+aerial space, in which certain processes are at the moment in
+equilibrium, and all the particles in a state of upward
+movement."
+<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>
+ But so soon as condensation markedly exceeds
+evaporation, rain falls, and the atmosphere discharges its vast
+load of water&mdash;how vast we may gather from the fact
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+that the
+waters of all the rivers are but a part of the overflowings of
+the great atmospheric reservoir. "God binds up the waters in his
+thick cloud, and the cloud is not rent under them." It is thus
+that the terrestrial waters are divided into those above and
+those below that expanse of clear air in which we live and move,
+exempt from the dense, dark mists of the earth's earlier state,
+yet enjoying the benefits of the cloudy curtain that veils the
+burning sun, and of the cloudy reservoirs that drop down rain to
+nourish every green thing.</p>
+
+<p>We have no reason to suppose that the laws which regulate
+mixtures of gases and vapors did not prevail in the period in
+question. It is probable that these laws are as old as the
+creation of matter; but the condition of our earth up to the
+second day must have been such as prevented them from operating
+as at present. Such a condition might possibly be the result of
+an excessive evaporation occasioned by internal heat. The
+interior of the earth still remains in a heated state, and
+includes large subterranean reservoirs of melted rock, as is
+proved by the increase of temperature in deep mines and borings,
+and by the widely extended phenomena of hot springs and volcanic
+action. At the period in question the internal temperature of the
+earth was probably vastly greater than at present, and perhaps
+the whole interior of the globe may have been in a state of
+igneous fluidity. At the same time the external solid crust may
+have been thin, and it was not fractured and thickened in places
+by the upheaval of mountain chains or the deposition of great and
+unequal sheets of sediment; for, as I may again remind the
+reader, the primitive chaos did not consist of a confused
+accumulation of rocky masses, but the earth's crust must then
+have been more smooth and unbroken than at any subsequent period.
+This being the internal condition of the earth, it is quite
+conceivable,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+without any violation of the existing laws of
+nature, that the waters of the ocean, warmed by internal heat,
+may have sent up a sufficient quantity of vapor to keep the lower
+strata of air in a constant state of saturation, and to occasion
+an equally constant precipitation of moisture from the colder
+strata above. This would merely be the universal operation of a
+cause similar to that which now produces fogs at the northern
+limit of the Atlantic Gulf Stream, and in other localities where
+currents of warm water flow under or near to cooler air. Such a
+state of things is more conceivable in a globe covered with
+water, and consequently destitute of the dry and powerfully
+radiating surfaces which land presents, and receiving from
+without the rays, not of a solar orb, but of a comparatively
+feeble and diffused luminous ether. The continued action of these
+causes would gradually cool the earth's crust and its incumbent
+waters, until the heat from without preponderated over that from
+within, when the result stated in the text would be effected.</p>
+
+<p>The statements of our primitive authority for this condition of
+the earth might also be accounted for on the supposition that the
+permanently gaseous part of the atmosphere did not at the period
+in question exist in its present state, but that it was on the
+second day actually elaborated and caused to take its place in
+separating the atmospheric from the oceanic waters. The first is
+by far the more probable view; but we may still apply to such
+speculations the words of Elihu, the friend of Job:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"Stand still and consider the wonderful works of God.<br />
+Dost thou know when God disposes them,<br />
+And the lightning of his cloud shines forth?<br />
+Dost thou know the poising of the dark clouds,<br />
+The wonderful works of the Perfect in knowledge?"</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+We may now consider the words in which this great improvement in
+the condition of the earth is recorded. The Hebrew term for the
+atmosphere is <i>Rakiah</i>, literally, something expanded or beaten
+out&mdash;an expanse. It is rendered in our version "firmament," a
+word conveying the notion of support and fixity, and in the
+Septuagint "<i>Stereoma</i>," a word having a similar meaning. The
+idea conveyed by the Hebrew word is not, however, that of
+<i>strength</i>, but of <i>extent</i>; or as Milton&mdash;the most accurate of
+expositors of these words&mdash;has it:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;font-size:90%;">"The firmament, expanse of liquid, pure,<br />
+Transparent, elemental air, diffused<br />
+In circuit to the uttermost convex<br />
+Of this great round."</p>
+
+<p>That this was really the way in which this word was understood by
+the Hebrews appears from several passages of the Bible. Job says
+of God, "Who alone <i>spreadeth</i> out the heavens."
+<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>
+ David, in the 104th Psalm, which is a poetical paraphrase of the history of
+creation, speaks of the Creator as "<i>stretching</i> out the heavens
+as a curtain." In later writers, as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
+similar expressions occur. The notion of a solid or arched
+firmament was probably altogether remote from the minds of these
+writers. Such beliefs may have prevailed at the time when the
+Septuagint translation was made, but I have no hesitation in
+affirming that no trace of them can be found in the Old
+Testament. In proof of this, I may refer to some of the passages
+which have been cited as affording the strongest instances of
+this kind of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+"accommodation." In Exodus xxiv., 10, we are told,
+"And they saw the God of Israel, and under his feet as it were a
+paved work of sapphire, and as it were the heaven itself in its
+clearness." This is evidently a comparison of the pavement seen
+under the feet of Jehovah to a sapphire in its color, and to the
+heavens in its transparency. The intention of the writer is not
+to give information respecting the heavens, or to liken them
+either to a pavement or a sapphire; all that we can infer is that
+he believed the heavens to be clear or transparent. Job mentions
+the "pillars of heaven," but the connection shows that this is
+merely a poetical expression for lofty mountains. The earthquake
+causes these pillars of heaven to "tremble." We are informed in
+the book of Job that God "ties up his waters in his thick cloud,
+and the cloud is not rent under them." We are also told of the
+"treasures of snow and the treasures of hail," and rain is called
+the "bottles of heaven," and is said to be poured out of the
+"lattices of heaven." I recognize in all these mere poetical
+figures, not intended to be literally understood. Some learned
+writers wish us to believe that the intention of the Bible in
+these places is actually to teach that the clouds are contained
+in skin bottles, or something similar, and that they are emptied
+through hatches in a solid firmament. To found such a belief,
+however, on a few figurative statements, seems ridiculous,
+especially when we consider that the writers of the Scriptures
+show themselves to be well acquainted with nature, and would not
+be likely on any account to deviate so far from the ordinary
+testimony of the senses; more especially as by doing so they
+would enable every unlettered man who has seen a cloud gather on
+a mountain's brow or dissolve away before increasing heat to
+oppose the evidence of his senses to their statements, and
+perhaps to reject them with scorn as a barefaced
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+imposture. But, lastly, we are triumphantly directed to the question of Elihu in
+his address to Job:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;font-size:90%;">"Hast thou with him stretched out the sky,<br />
+Which is firm and like a molten mirror?"</p>
+
+<p>But the word translated sky here is not "<i>rakiah</i>," or
+"<i>shamayim</i>," but another signifying the <i>clouds</i>, so that we
+should regard Elihu as speaking of the apparent firmness or
+stability, and the beautiful reflected tints of the clouds. His
+words may be paraphrased thus: "Hast thou aided Him in spreading
+out those clouds, which appear so stable and self-sustaining, and
+so beautifully reflect the sunlight?"
+<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>
+ The above passages form
+the only authority which I can find in the Scriptures for the
+doctrine of a solid firmament, which may therefore be
+characterized as a modern figment of men more learned in books
+but less acquainted with nature than the Scripture writers. As a
+contrast to all such doctrines I may quote the sublime opening of
+the poetical account of creation in Psalm civ., which we may also
+take here as elsewhere as the oldest and most authoritative
+commentary on the first chapter of Genesis:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;font-size:90%;">"Bless the Lord, O my soul!<br />
+O Lord, my God, thou art very great:<br />
+Thou art clothed with honor and majesty,<br />
+Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment,<br />
+Who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain (of a tent),<br />
+<i>Who layest the beams of thy chambers in the waters,<br />
+Who makest the clouds thy chariots,<br />
+Who walkest upon the wings of the wind</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The waters here are those above the firmament, the whole
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+of this
+part of the Psalm being occupied with the heavens; and there is
+no place left for the solid firmament, of which the writer
+evidently knew nothing. He represents God as laying his chambers
+on the waters, instead of on the supposed firmament, and as
+careering in cloudy chariots on the wings of the wind, instead of
+over a solid arch. For all the above reasons, we conclude that
+the "expanse" of the verses under consideration was understood by
+the writers of the book of God to be <i>aerial</i>, not <i>solid</i>; and
+the "establishment of the clouds above," as it is finely called
+in Proverbs, is the effect of those meteorological laws to which
+I have already referred, and which were now for the first time
+brought into operation by the divine Legislator. The Hebrew
+theology was not of a kind to require such expedients as that of
+solid heavenly arches; it recurred at once to the will&mdash;the
+decree&mdash;of Jehovah; and was content to believe that through this
+efficient cause the "rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not
+full," for "to the place whence the rivers came, thither they
+return again," through the agency of those floating clouds, "the
+waters above the heavens," which "pour down rain according to the
+vapor thereof."</p>
+
+<p>God called the expanse "Heaven." In former chapters we have
+noticed that heaven in the popular speech of the Hebrews, as in
+our own, had different meanings, applying alike to the cloudy,
+the astral, and the spiritual heavens. The Creator here sanctions
+its application to the aerial expanse; and accordingly throughout
+the Scriptures it is used in this way; <i>rakiah</i> occurs very
+rarely, as if it had become nearly obsolete, or was perhaps
+regarded as a merely technical or descriptive term. The divine
+sanction for the use of the term heaven for the atmosphere is, as
+already explained,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+to indicate that this popular use is not to
+interfere with its application to the whole universe beyond our
+earth in verse 1st.</p>
+
+<p>The poetical parts of the Bible, and especially the book of Job,
+which is probably the most ancient of the whole, abound in
+references to the atmosphere and its phenomena. I may quote a few
+of these passages, to enable us to understand the views of these
+subjects given in the Bible, and the meaning attached to the
+creation of the atmosphere, in very ancient periods. In Job, 38th
+chapter, we have the following:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;font-size:90%;">"In what way is the lightning distributed,<br />
+And how is the east wind spread abroad over the earth?<br />
+Who hath opened a channel for the pouring rain,<br />
+Or a way for the thunder-flash?<br />
+To cause it to rain on the land where no man is,<br />
+In the desert where no one dwells;<br />
+To saturate the desolate and waste ground,<br />
+And to cause the bud of the tender herb to spring forth."</p>
+
+<p>Here we have the unequal and unforeseen distribution of
+thunder-storms, beyond the knowledge and power of man, but under
+the absolute control of God, and designed by him for beneficent
+purposes. Equally fine are some of the following lines:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;font-size:90%;">"Dost thou lift up thy voice to the clouds,<br />
+That abundance of waters may cover thee?<br />
+Dost thou send forth the lightnings, and they go,<br />
+And say unto thee, Here are we?<br />
+Who can number the clouds by wisdom,<br />
+Or cause the bottles of heaven to empty themselves?<br />
+When the dust groweth into mire,<br />
+And the clods cleave fast together?"</p>
+
+<p>In the 36th and 37th chapters of the same book we have a grand
+description of atmospheric changes in their relation
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+to man and his works. The speaker is Elihu, who in this ancient book most
+favorably represents the knowledge of nature that existed at a
+time probably anterior to the age of Moses&mdash;a knowledge far
+superior to that which we find in the works of many modern poets
+and expositors, and accompanied by an intense appreciation of the
+grandeur and beauty of natural objects:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;font-size:90%;">"For he draweth up the drops of water,<br />
+Rain is condensed
+<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>
+ from his vapor,<br />
+Which the clouds do drop,<br />
+And distill upon man abundantly.<br />
+Yea, can any understand the distribution of the clouds<br />
+Or the thundering of his tabernacle.
+<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a><br />
+Behold he spreadeth his lightning upon it,<br />
+He covereth it as with the depths of the sea.
+<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a><br />
+By these he executes judgment on the people,<br />
+By these also he giveth food in abundance;<br />
+His hands he covers with the lightning,<br />
+And commands it (against the enemy) in its striking;<br />
+He uttereth to it his decree,
+<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a><br />
+Concerning the herd as well as proud man.<br />
+At this also my heart trembles,<br />
+And bounds out of its place;<br />
+Hear attentively the thunder of his voice,<br />
+And the loud sound that goes from his mouth.<br />
+He directs it under the whole heavens,<br />
+And his lightning to the ends of the earth.<br />
+After it his voice roareth,<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+He thundereth with the voice of his majesty;<br />
+And delays not (the tempest) when his voice is heard.<br />
+God thundereth marvellously with his voice,<br />
+He doeth wonders which we can not comprehend;<br />
+For he saith to the snow, Be thou on the earth.<br />
+Also to the pouring rain, even the great rain of his might.<br />
+He sealeth up the hand of every man,<br />
+That all men may know his work.<br />
+Then the beasts go to their dens,<br />
+And remain in their caverns.<br />
+Out of the south cometh the whirlwind<br />
+And cold out of the north,<br />
+By the breath of God the frost is produced<br />
+And the breadth of waters becomes bound;<br />
+With moisture he loads the thick cloud,<br />
+He spreads the cloud of his lightning,<br />
+And it is turned about by his direction,<br />
+To execute his pleasure on the face of the world;<br />
+Whether for correction, for his land, or for mercy,<br />
+He causeth it to come.<br />
+Hearken unto this, O Job,<br />
+Stand still and consider the wonderful works of God.<br />
+Dost thou know when God disposes these things,<br />
+And the lightning of his cloud flashes forth?<br />
+Dost thou know the poising of the clouds,<br />
+The wonderful work of the Perfect in knowledge?<br />
+When thy garments become warm<br />
+When he quieteth the earth by the south wind;<br />
+Hast thou with him spread out the clouds<br />
+Firm and like a molten mirror?"
+<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+It would not be easy to find, in the poetry of any nation or
+time, a description of so many natural phenomena, so fine in
+feeling or truthful in delineation. It should go far to dispel
+the too prevalent ideas of early Oriental ignorance, and should
+lead to a more full appreciation of these noble pictures of
+nature, unsurpassed in the literature of any people or time. I
+trust that the previous illustrations are sufficient to show, not
+only that the <i>stereoma</i>, or solid firmament of the Septuagint,
+is not to be found in Scripture, but that the positive doctrine
+of the Bible on the subject is of a very different character. For
+instance, in the above extract from the book of Job, Elihu speaks
+of the poising or suspension of the clouds as inscrutable, and
+tells us that God draws up water into the clouds, and pours down
+rain according to the vapor thereof; he also speaks of the clouds
+as being scattered before the brightness of the sun; and notices,
+in truthful as well as exalted language, the nature and
+succession of the lightning's flash, the thunder, and the
+precipitation of rain that follows. Solomon also informs us that
+the "establishment of the clouds above" is due to the law or will
+of Jehovah. Finally, in this connection, the divine sanction
+given to the use of the term heaven for the atmosphere may in
+itself be regarded as an intimation that no definite barrier
+separates our film of atmosphere from the boundless abyss of
+heaven without.</p>
+
+<p>Of this period natural science gives us no intimation. In the
+earliest geological epochs organic life, dry land, and an
+atmosphere already existed. At the period now under consideration
+the two former had not been called into existence, and the latter
+was in process of elaboration from the materials
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+of the primeval deep. If the formation of the atmosphere in its existing
+conditions was, as already hinted, a result of the gradual
+cooling of the earth, then this period must have been of great
+length, and the action of the heated waters on the crust of the
+globe may have produced thick layers of detrital matter destined
+to form the first soils of the succeeding &aelig;on. We know nothing,
+however, of these primitive strata, and most of them must have
+been removed by denuding agencies in succeeding periods, or
+restored by subterranean heat to the crystalline state. The
+events and results of this day may be summed up as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"At the commencement of the period the earth was enveloped by a
+misty or vaporous mantle. In its progress those relations of air
+and vapor which cause the separation of the clouds from the earth
+by a layer of clear air, and the varied alternations of sunshine
+and rain, were established. At the close of the period the newly
+formed atmosphere covered a universal ocean; and there was
+probably a very regular and uniform condition of the atmospheric
+currents, and of the processes of evaporation and condensation."</p>
+
+<p>But while we must affirm that no idea of a solid atmospheric
+vault can be detected in the Bible, and while we may also affirm
+that such an idea would have been altogether foreign to its tone,
+which invariably refers all things not to secondary machinery,
+but to the will and fiat of the Supreme, we must not forget that
+a most important moral purpose was to be served by the assertion
+of the establishment of the atmospheric expanse. Among all
+nations the phenomena of the atmosphere have had important
+theological and mythological relations. The ever-changing and
+apparently capricious aspects of the atmosphere and its clouds,
+the terrible effects of storms, and the balmy influence of
+sunshine and calm, deeply
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+impress the minds of simple and
+superstitious men, and this all the more that in their daily life
+and expeditions they are constantly subjected to the effects of
+atmospheric vicissitudes. Hence the greatest gods of all the
+ancient nations are weather-gods&mdash;rulers of the atmospheric
+heavens&mdash;displaying their anger in the thunder-storm and tornado.
+It is likely that in most cases, as in many barbarous tribes of
+modern times, these weather-gods were malevolent beings
+contending against the genial influences of the heavenly Sun-god;
+but in nearly every case their supposed practical importance has
+elevated them, as in the case of the Olympian Zeus, the
+Scandinavian Thor, and the American Hurakon, to the place of
+supreme divinity. This was one of the superstitions which the
+Hebrew monotheism had to overcome. Hence the atmosphere is
+affirmed to be under Jehovah's law, and all its phenomena are
+attributed to his power. The value of this as cutting at the root
+of the most widespread superstitions it is easy to understand,
+and it has a farther value in teaching that even the apparently
+unstable and capricious air is a thing established from the first
+and amenable to the ordinance of God. How difficult it has been
+to eradicate superstitious views of the atmosphere may be learned
+from the fact that St. Paul, in writing to the enlightened
+citizens of Ephesus, could speak of the power which the heathen
+worshipped as the "Prince of the powers of the air," and it is
+also evidenced by the abundant notions of this kind which have
+survived from the Middle Ages among the more ignorant part of the
+people even in lands called Christian.</p>
+
+<p>While, however, the Bible affirms the atmosphere to be subject to
+law, it does not carry this into the domain of physical
+necessity, and affirm with some modern materialistic philosophers
+that it is useless to pray for rain. It is God who gives
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+rain from heaven and fruitful seasons, and what he gives he can
+withhold. Perhaps no part of our subject can better than this
+illustrate the rational distinction between a mere physical
+fatalism, or a mere superstitious fear of capricious nature, and
+that belief in a divine Lawgiver which lies between these
+extremes. Modern science may smile at the poor Indian, who in his
+fear invokes Hurakon or Tlaloc or the terrible Thunder-bird, and
+may even despise that nobler worship of the great Phoenician
+Sun-god, the source and fountain of all light and life; against
+which, though it was the grandest of all the old idolatries,
+Elijah waged war to the death. But may it not equally deride the
+faith of Elijah himself, when, after three years of drought, he
+prayed in the sight of assembled Israel for rain? It may do so if
+physical law amounts to an invariable necessity, and if there is
+no supreme Will behind it. But if natural laws are the expression
+of the divine will, if these laws are multiform and complicated
+in their relations, and regulate vastly varied causes interacting
+with each other, and if the action and welfare of man come within
+the scope of these laws, then there is nothing irrational in the
+supposition that God, without any capricious or miraculous
+intervention, may have so correlated the myriad adjustments of
+his creation as that, while it is his usual rule that rain falls
+alike on the evil and on the good, he may make its descent at
+particular times and places to depend on the needs and requests
+of his own children. In truth the belief in law is essential to
+the philosophical conception of prayer. If the universe were a
+mere chaos of chances, or if it were a result of absolute
+necessity, there would be no place for intelligent prayer; but if
+it is under the control of a Lawgiver, wise and merciful, not a
+mere manager of material machinery, but a true Father of all,
+then we can go to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+such a being with our requests, not in the
+belief that we can change his great plans, or that any advantage
+could result from this if it were possible, but that these plans
+may be made in his boundless wisdom and love to meet our
+necessities. There is also in the Bible the farther promise that,
+if we are truly the children of God, regulating our conduct by
+his will and enlightened by his spirit, we shall know how to pray
+for what is in accordance with his divine purpose, and how to
+receive with gladness whatever he sees fit to give. While,
+therefore, the Biblical doctrine as to natural law emancipates us
+from fears of angry storm-demons, it draws us near to a heavenly
+Father, whose power is above all the tempests of earth, and who,
+while ruling by law, has regulated all things in conformity with
+the higher law of love. When God had made the atmosphere, he saw
+that it was good, and the highest significance is given to this
+by the consideration that God is love. The position of the Bible
+is thus the true mean between superstitions at once unhappy and
+debasing, and a materialistic infidelity that would reduce the
+universe to a dead, remorseless machine, in which we must
+struggle for a precarious existence till we are crushed between
+its wheels.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">THE DRY LAND AND THE FIRST PLANTS.</span><br /></h2>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;text-align:left;text-indent:3em;font-weight:bold;">
+"And God said, Let the waters under the heavens be
+gathered into one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.  And God
+called the dry land earth, and the gathering of waters called he seas; and God
+saw that it was good.</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;text-align:left;text-indent:3em;font-weight:bold;">
+"And God said, Let the earth bring forth the springing herb, the herb bearing seed,
+and the fruit tree yielding fruit, after its kind, whose seed is in it on the earth:
+and it was so. And the earth brought forth the tender herb, the herb yielding seed,
+and the tree bearing fruit whose seed is in it, after its kind; and God saw that it
+was good."&mdash;Genesis i., 10, 11.</p>
+
+<p>These are events sufficiently simple and intelligible in their
+general character. Geology shows us that the emergence of the dry
+land must have resulted from the elevation of parts of the bed of
+the ancient universal ocean, and that the agent employed in such
+changes is the bending and crumpling of the outer crust of the
+earth, caused by lateral pressure, and operating either in a slow
+and regular manner or by sudden paroxysms. It farther informs us
+that the existing continents consist of stratified or bedded
+masses, more or less inclined, fissured and irregularly elevated,
+and usually supported by crystalline rocks which have been
+produced among them, or forced up beneath or through them by
+internal agencies, and which truly constitute the pillars and
+foundations of the earth. These elevations, it is true, were
+successive, and belong to different periods; but the appearance
+of the first dry land is that intended here.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+The elevation of the dry land is more frequently referred to in
+Scripture than any other cosmological fact; and while all have
+been misapprehended, the statements on this subject have been
+even more unjustly dealt with than others. In the text, the word
+"earth" (<i>aretz</i>
+<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>
+) is, by divine sanction, narrowed in meaning
+to the dry land; but while some expositors are quite willing to
+restrict it to this, or even a more limited sense, in the first
+and second verses of this chapter, almost the only verses in the
+Bible where the terms of the narrative make such a restriction
+inadmissible, they are equally ready to understand it as meaning
+the whole globe in places where the explanatory clause in the
+verse now under consideration teaches us that we should
+understand the land only, as distinguished from the sea. I may
+quote some of these passages, and note the views they give;
+always bearing in mind that, after the intimation here given, we
+must understand the term "earth" as applying <i>only to the
+continents</i> or <i>dry land</i>, unless where the context otherwise
+fixes the meaning. We may first turn to Psalm civ.:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"Thou laidst the foundations of the earth,<br />
+That it should never be removed;<br />
+Thou coveredst it with the deep as with a garment;<br />
+The waters stood above the mountains;<br />
+At thy rebuke they fled;<br />
+At the sound of thy thunder they hasted away;<br />
+Mountains ascended, valleys descended<br />
+To the place thou hast appointed for them:<br />
+Thou hast appointed them bounds that they may not pass,<br />
+That they return not again to cover the earth."</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+The position of these verses in this "the hymn of creation"
+leaves no doubt that they refer to the events we are now
+considering. I have given above the literal reading of the line
+that refers to the elevation of mountains and subsidence of
+valleys; admitting, however, that the grammatical construction
+gives an air of probability to the rendering in our version,
+"they go up by the mountains, they go down by the valleys,"
+which, on the other hand, is rendered very improbable by the
+sense. In whichever sense we understand this line, the picture
+presented to us by the Psalmist includes the elevation of the
+mountains and continents, the subsidence of the waters into their
+depressed basins, and the firm establishment of the dry land on
+its rocky foundations, the whole accompanied by a feature not
+noticed in Genesis&mdash;the voice of God's thunder&mdash;or, in other
+words, electrical and volcanic explosions. The following
+quotations refer to the same subject:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"Before the mountains were settled,<br />
+Before the hills was I (the Wisdom of God) brought forth;<br />
+While as yet he had not made the earth,<br />
+Nor the plains, nor the higher parts of the habitable world.<br />
+When he gave the sea his decree<br />
+That the waters should not pass his limits,<br />
+When he determined the foundations of the earth."<br />
+<span style="margin-left:15em;">&mdash;Proverbs viii., 25.</span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 7em;font-size:90%;">"Thou hast established the earth, and it endureth,<br />
+According to thy decrees they continue this day,<br />
+For all are thy servants."<br />
+<span style="margin-left:15em;">&mdash;Psalm cxix., 90.</span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 9em;font-size:90%;">"Who shaketh the earth out of its place,<br />
+And its pillars tremble."<br />
+<span style="margin-left:15em;">&mdash;Job ix., 6.</span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 7em;font-size:90%;">"Where wast thou when I founded the earth?<br />
+Declare, if thou hast knowledge.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
+Who hath fixed the proportion thereof, if thou knowest?<br />
+Who stretched the line upon it?<br />
+Upon what are its foundations settled?<br />
+Or who laid its corner-stone,<br />
+When the morning stars sang together,<br />
+And all the sons of God shouted for joy?<br />
+Who shut up the sea with doors<br />
+In its bursting forth as from the womb?<br />
+When I made the cloud its garment,<br />
+And swathed it in thick darkness,<br />
+I measured out for it my limit,<br />
+And fixed its bars and doors;<br />
+And said, Thus far shalt thou come, but no farther,<br />
+And here shall thy proud waves be stayed."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;">&mdash;Job xxxviii., 4.</span></p>
+
+<p>In these passages the foundation of the earth at first, as well
+as the shaking of its pillars by the earthquake, are connected
+with what we usually call natural law&mdash;the decree of the
+Almighty&mdash;the unchanging arrangements of an unchangeable Creator,
+whose "hands formed the dry land."
+<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>
+ This is the ultimate cause
+not only of the elevation of the land, but of all other natural
+things and processes. The naturalist does not require to be
+informed that the details, in so far as they are referred to in
+the above passages, are perfectly in accordance with what we know
+of the nature and support of continental masses. Geological
+observation and mathematical calculation have in our day combined
+their powers to give clear views of the manner in which the
+fractured strata of the earth are wedged and arched together, and
+supported by internal igneous masses upheaved from beneath, and
+subsequently cooled and hardened. A general view of these facts
+which we have learned from scientific inquiry, the Hebrews
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+gleaned with nearly as much precision from the short account of
+the elevation of the land in Genesis, and from the later comments
+of their inspired poets. From the same source our own great poet,
+Milton, learned these cosmical facts, before the rise of geology,
+and expressed them in unexceptionable terms:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 7em;font-size:90%;"><span style="margin-left:5em;">"The mountains huge appear</span><br />
+Emergent, and their broad bare backs upheave<br />
+Into the clouds, their tops ascend the sky.<br />
+So high as heaved the tumid hills, so low<br />
+Down sunk a hollow bottom, broad and deep,<br />
+Capacious bed of waters."</p>
+
+<p>In further illustration of the opinions of the Scripture writers
+respecting the nature of the earth, and the disturbances to which
+it is liable, I quote the following passages. The first is from
+the magnificent description of Jehovah descending to succor his
+people amid the terrors of the earthquake, the volcano, and the
+thunder-storm, in Psalm xviii.:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"Then shook and trembled the earth,<br />
+The foundations of the hills moved and were shaken,<br />
+Because he was angry.<br />
+Smoke went up from his nostrils,<br />
+Fire from his mouth devoured,<br />
+Coals were kindled by it.<br />
+Then were seen the channels of the waters,<br />
+And the foundations of the world were discovered,<br />
+At thy rebuke&mdash;O Jehovah&mdash;<br />
+At the blast of the breath of thy nostrils."</p>
+
+<p>In another place in the Psalms we find volcanic action thus
+tersely sketched:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15em;font-size:90%;text-indent:-.5em;">"He looketh on the earth and it trembleth,<br />
+He toucheth the hills and they smoke."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">&mdash;Psalm civ., 32.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+Perhaps the most remarkable discourse on this subject in the
+whole Bible is that in Job xxviii., in which mining operations
+are introduced as an illustration of the difficulty of obtaining
+true wisdom. This passage is interesting both from its extreme
+antiquity, and the advancement in knowledge and practical skill
+which it indicates. It presents, however, many difficulties; and
+its details have almost entirely lost their true significance in
+our common English version:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"Surely there is a vein for silver,<br />
+And a place for the gold which men refine;<br />
+Iron is taken from the earth,<br />
+And copper is molten from the ore.<br />
+To the end of darkness and to all extremes man searcheth,<br />
+For the stones of darkness and the shadow of death.<br />
+He opens a passage [shaft] from where men dwell,<br />
+Unsupported by the foot, they hang down and swing to and fro.
+<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a><br />
+The earth&mdash;out of it cometh bread;<br />
+And beneath, it is overturned as by fire.
+<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a><br />
+Its stones are the place of sapphires,<br />
+And it hath lumps
+<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> of gold.<br />
+The path (thereto) the bird of prey hath not known,<br />
+The vulture's eye hath not seen it.
+<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a><br />
+The wild beasts' whelps have not trodden it,<br />
+The lion hath not passed over it.<br />
+Man layeth his hand on the hard rock,<br />
+He turneth up the mountains from their roots,<br />
+He cutteth channels [<i>adits</i>] in the rocks,<br />
+His eye seeth every precious thing.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+He restraineth the streams from trickling,<br />
+And bringeth the hidden thing to light.<br />
+But where shall wisdom be found,<br />
+And where is the place of understanding?"</p>
+
+<p>This passage, incidentally introduced, gives us a glimpse of the
+knowledge of the interior of the earth and its products, as it
+existed in an age probably anterior to that of Moses. It brings
+before us the repositories of the valuable metals and gems&mdash;the
+mining operations, apparently of some magnitude and difficulty,
+undertaken in extracting them&mdash;and the wonderful structure of the
+earth itself, green and productive at the surface, rich in
+precious metals beneath, and deeper still the abode of intense
+subterranean fires. The only thing wanting to give completeness
+to the picture is some mention of the fossil remains buried in
+the earth; and, as the main thought is the eager and successful
+search for useful minerals, this can hardly be regarded as a
+defect. The application of all this is finer than almost any
+thing else in didactic poetry. Man can explore depths of the
+earth inaccessible to all other creatures, and extract thence
+treasures of inestimable value; yet, after thus exhausting all
+the natural riches of the earth, he too often lacks that highest
+wisdom which alone can fit him for the true ends of his spiritual
+being. How true is all this, even in our own wonder-working days!
+A poet of to-day could scarcely say more of subterranean wonders,
+or say it more truthfully and beautifully; nor could he arrive at
+a conclusion more pregnant with the highest philosophy than the
+closing words:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;font-size:90%;">"The fear of the Lord, that is wisdom;<br />
+And to depart from evil is understanding."
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+The emergence of the dry land is followed by a repetition of the
+approval of the Creator. "God saw that it was good." To our view
+that primeval dry land would scarcely have seemed good. It was a
+world of bare, rocky peaks, and verdureless valleys&mdash;here active
+volcanoes, with their heaps of scori&aelig; and scarcely cooled lava
+currents&mdash;there vast mudflats, recently upheaved from the bottom
+of the waters&mdash;nowhere even a blade of grass or a clinging
+lichen. Yet it was good in the view of its Maker, who could see
+it in relation to the uses for which he had made it, and as a fit
+preparatory step to the new wonders he was soon to introduce.
+Then too, as we are informed in Job xxxviii., "The morning stars
+sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy." We also,
+when we think of the beautiful variety of the terrestrial
+surface, the character and composition of its soils, the variety
+of climate and exposure resulting from its degrees of elevation,
+the arrangements for the continuance of springs and streams, and
+many other beneficial provisions connected with the merely
+mechanical arrangements of the dry land, may well join in the
+tribute of praise to the All-wise Creator. There is, however, a
+farther thought suggested by the approval of the great Artificer.
+In this wondrous progress of creation, it seems as if every thing
+at first was in its best estate. No succeeding state could
+parallel the unbroken symmetry of the earth in the fluid and
+vaporous condition of the "deep." Before the elevation of the
+land, the atmospheric currents and the deposition of moisture
+must have been surpassingly regular. The first dry land may have
+presented crags and peaks and ravines and volcanic cones in a
+more marvellous and perfect manner than any succeeding
+continents&mdash;even as the dry and barren moon now, in this respect,
+far surpasses the earths. In the progress of organic
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+life, geology gives similar indications, in the variety and magnitude
+of many animal types on their first introduction; so that this
+may very possibly be a law of creation.</p>
+
+<p>During the emergence of the first dry land, large quantities of
+detrital matter must have been deposited in the waters, and in
+part elevated into land. All of these beds would, probably, be
+destitute of organic remains; but if such beds were formed and
+still remain, they are probably unknown to us, for the oldest
+formations that we know&mdash;those of the Eozoic age&mdash;contain traces
+of such remains. It has, indeed, been suggested that these most
+ancient organisms are, as it were, overlooked in the history of
+creation, or regarded as equivalent to those shapeless monsters
+and animals of the darkness that are referred to in the older
+Turanian versions of this story of creation. I doubt very much,
+however, if this is a fair interpretation of our ancient record;
+but we shall be in a better position to discuss it when we come
+to the actual introduction of animals.</p>
+
+<p>Modern analogy would induce us to believe that the land was not
+elevated suddenly; but either by a series of small paroxysms, as
+in the case of Chili, or by a gradual and imperceptible movement,
+as in the case of Sweden&mdash;two of the most remarkable modern
+instances of elevation of land&mdash;accompanied, however, in the case
+of the last by local subsidence.
+<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>
+ In either of these ways the
+seas and rivers would have time to smooth the more rugged
+inequalities, to widen the ravines into valleys, and to spread
+out sediment in the lower grounds; thus fitting the surface for
+the habitation of plants and animals. We must not suppose,
+however, that the dry land had any close resemblance to that now
+existing in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+its form or distribution. Geology amply proves that
+since the first appearance of dry land, its contour has
+frequently been changed, and probably also its position. Hence
+nearly all our present land consists of rocks which have been
+formed under the waters, long after the period now under
+consideration, and have been subsequently hardened and elevated;
+and since all the existing high mountain ranges are of a
+comparatively late age, it is probable that this primeval dry
+land was low, as well as, in the earlier part of the period at
+least, of comparatively small extent. It is, however, by no means
+certain that there may not have been a greater expanse of land
+toward the close of this period than that which afterwards
+existed in those older periods of animal life to which the
+earliest fossiliferous rocks of the geologist carry us back;
+since, as already hinted, it seems to be a rule in creation that
+each new object shall be highly developed of its kind at its
+first appearance, and since there have been in geological time
+many great subsidences as well as elevations. Neither must we
+forget that the oldest land has been subjected throughout
+geological time to wearing and degrading agencies, and that from
+its waste the later formations have been mainly derived.</p>
+
+<p>It would be wrong, however, to omit to state that, though we may
+know at present no remains of the first dry land, we are not
+ignorant of its general distribution; for the present continents
+show, in the arrangement of their formations and mountain chains,
+evidence that they are parts of a plan sketched out from the
+beginning. It has often been remarked by physical geographers
+that the great lines of coast and mountain ranges are generally
+in directions approaching to northeast and southwest, or
+northwest and southeast, and that where they run in other
+directions, as in the case of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+south of Europe and Asia, they
+are much broken by salient and re-entering angles, formed by
+lines having these directions. Professor R. Owen, of Tennessee,
+and Professor Pierce, of Harvard College, were, I believe, the
+first to point out that these lines are in reality parts of great
+circles tangent to the polar circles, and the latter to suggest a
+theory of their origin, based on the action of solar heat and the
+seasons on a cooling earth. This has been more fully stated by
+Mr. W. Lowthian Green in his curious book, "Vestiges of the
+Molten Globe."
+<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>
+ It would appear that the great circles in
+question are in reality at right angles to the line of direction
+of the attraction of the sun and moon at the period of either
+solstice, and when they happen to be in conjunction or opposition
+at these periods; and that such circles would be the lines on
+which the thin crust of a cooling globe would be most likely to
+be ruptured by its internal tidal-wave. Whatever the cause of the
+phenomenon, it is evident that in the formation of its surface
+inequalities the earth has cracked&mdash;so to speak&mdash;along two series
+of great circles tangent to the polar circles; and that these,
+with certain subordinate lines of fracture running north and
+south and east and west, have determined the forms of the
+continents from their origin.</p>
+
+<p>M. Elie de Beaumont, and after him most other geologists, have
+attributed the elevation of the continents and the upheaval and
+plication of mountain chains to the secular refrigeration of the
+earth, causing its outer shell to become too capacious for its
+contracting interior mass, and thus to break or bend, and to
+settle toward the centre. This view would well accord with the
+terms in which the elevation of the land is mentioned throughout
+the Bible, and especially with the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+general progress of the work
+as we have gleaned it from the Mosaic narrative; since from the
+period of the desolate void and aeriform deep to that now before
+us secular refrigeration must have been steadily in progress. Let
+us also observe here that the earliest fractures of the crust
+would determine the first coast lines, and the first slopes along
+which sedimentary matter would descend from the land and be
+deposited in the sea. They would also modify the direction of the
+ocean currents. Thus the deposition of new formations would be
+directed by these old lines, as would also to some extent the
+course of all subsequent fractures and plications. Thus it
+happens that the lines of outcrop of the oldest rocks first
+raised out of the waters already marked out the forms of the
+continents, and that the later formations appear rather as
+fillings-up and extensions of the skeleton established by the
+first dry land. Farther, the lines of plication first established
+along the borders of the continents formed resisting walls along
+which, in the continued contraction of the earth, pressure was
+exerted from the ocean bed, widening and elevating these lines of
+upheaval, and still farther fixing the general forms of the
+continents, and giving variety to their surfaces. In the progress
+of geological time there have also been successive depressions
+and re-elevations of the continental plateaus, subjecting them
+alternately to the wearing and disintegrating action of the
+atmosphere and its waters, and to the influence of waves and
+ocean currents, and especially to that of the deep-seated polar
+currents which have throughout geological ages been loading the
+submerged areas of the earth's surface with the products of the
+waste caused by frost and ice in the polar regions. These causes
+again have been progressively increasing the oblateness of the
+earth's figure, and, along with the slackening of its rotation,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+preparing the way for those periodical collapses in the
+equatorial and temperate regions which form the boundaries of
+some of our most important geological periods.
+<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>
+ Throughout all
+these changes the great general plan of the continents, first
+sketched out when the "foundations of the earth" were laid,
+before Eozoic time, was being elaborated.</p>
+
+<p>The same creative period that witnessed the first appearance of
+dry land saw it also clothed with vegetation; and it is quite
+likely that this is intended to teach that no time was lost in
+clothing the earth with plants&mdash;that the first emerging portions
+received their vegetable tenants as they became fitted for
+them&mdash;and that each additional region, as it rose above the
+surface of the waters, in like manner received the species of
+plants for which it was adapted. What was the nature of this
+earliest vegetation? The sacred writer specifies three
+descriptions of plants as included in it; and, by considering the
+terms which he uses, some information on this subject may be
+gained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Desh&eacute;</i>, translated "grass" in our version, is derived from a
+verb signifying to spring up or bud forth; the same verb, indeed,
+used in this verse to denote "bringing forth," literally causing
+to spring up. Its radical meaning is, therefore, vegetation in
+the act of sprouting or springing forth; or, as connected with
+this, young and delicate herbage. Thus, in Job xxxviii., "To
+satisfy the desolate and waste ground, and to cause the bud of
+the <i>young herbage</i> to spring forth." Here the reference is, no
+doubt, to the bulbous and tuberous rooted plants of the desert
+plains, which, fading away in the summer drought, burst forth
+with magical rapidity on the setting-in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+of rain. The following
+passages are similar: Psalm xxiii., "He maketh me to lie down in
+green pastures" (literally, young or <i>tender herbage</i>);
+Deuteronomy xxiii., "Small rain upon the <i>tender herb</i>;" Isaiah
+xxxvii., "<i>Grass</i> on the house-tops." The word is also used for
+herbage such as can be eaten by cattle or cut down for fodder,
+though even in these cases the idea of young and tender herbage
+is evidently included; "Fat as a heifer at <i>grass</i>" (Jer.
+xiv.)&mdash;that is, feeding on young succulent grass, not that which
+is dry and parched. "Cut down as the grass, or wither as the
+green herb," like the soft, tender grass, soon cut down and
+quickly withering. With respect to the use of the word in this
+place, I may remark: 1. It is not here correctly translated by
+the word "grass;" for grass bears seed, and is, consequently, a
+member of the second class of plants mentioned. Even if we set
+aside all idea of inspiration, it is obviously impossible that
+any one living among a pastoral or agricultural people could have
+been ignorant of this fact. 2. It can scarcely be a general term,
+including all plants when in a young or tender state. The idea of
+their springing up is included in the verb, and this was but a
+very temporary condition. Besides, this word does not appear to
+be employed for the young state of shrubs or trees. 3. We thus
+appear to be shut up to the conclusion that <i>desh&eacute;</i> here means
+those plants, mostly small and herbaceous, which bear no proper
+seeds;
+<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a>
+ in other words, the Cryptogamia&mdash;as fungi, mosses,
+lichens, ferns, etc. The remaining words are translated with
+sufficient accuracy in our version. They denote seed-bearing or
+phoenogamous herbs and trees. The special mention of the
+fructification of plants is probably intended not only for
+distinction, but also
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+to indicate the new power of organic
+reproduction now first introduced on the surface of our planet,
+and to mark its difference from the creative act itself. That
+this new and wondrous phenomenon should be so stated is thus in
+strict scientific propriety, and it is precisely the point that
+would be seized by an intelligent spectator of the visions of
+creation, who had previously witnessed only the accretion and
+disintegration of mineral substances, and to whom this marvellous
+power of organic reproduction would be in every respect a new
+creation.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of plants in the three great classes of
+cryptogams, seed-bearing herbs, and fruit-bearing trees differs
+in one important point&mdash;viz., the separation of herbaceous plants
+from trees&mdash;from modern botanical classification. It is, however,
+sufficiently natural for the purposes of a general description
+like this, and perhaps gives more precise ideas of the meaning
+intended than any other arrangement equally concise and popular.
+It is also probable that the object of the writer was not so much
+a natural-history classification as an account of the <i>order</i> of
+creation, and that he wishes to affirm that the introduction of
+these three classes of plants on the earth corresponded with the
+order here stated. This view renders it unnecessary to vindicate
+the accuracy of the arrangement on botanical grounds, since the
+historical order was evidently better suited to the purpose in
+view, and in so far as the earlier appearance of cryptogamous
+plants is concerned, it is in strict accordance with geological
+fact.</p>
+
+<p>A very important truth is contained in the expression "after its
+kind"&mdash;that is, after its <i>species</i>; for the Hebrew "<i>min</i>," used
+here, has strictly this sense, and, like the Greek <i>idea</i> and the
+Latin <i>species</i>, conveys the notion of form as well as that of
+kind. It is used to denote species of animals,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+in Leviticus i., 14, and in Deuteronomy xiv., 15. We are taught by this statement
+that plants were created each kind by itself; and that creation
+was not a sort of slump-work to be perfected by the operation of
+a law of development, as fancied by some modern speculators. In
+this assertion of the distinctness of species, and the production
+of each as a distinct part of the creative plan, revelation
+tallies perfectly with the conclusions of natural science, which
+lead us to believe that each species, as observed by us, is
+permanently reproductive, variable within narrow limits, and
+incapable of permanent intermixture with other species; and
+though hypotheses of modification by descent, and of the
+production of new species by such modification, may be formed,
+they are not in accordance with experience, and are still among
+the unproved speculations which haunt the outskirts of true
+science. We shall be better prepared, however, to weigh the
+relations of such hypotheses to our revelation of origins when we
+shall have reached the period of the introduction of animal life.</p>
+
+<p>Some additional facts contained in the recapitulation of the
+creative work in Chapter II. may very properly be considered
+here, as they seem to refer to the climatal conditions of the
+earth during the growth of the most ancient vegetation, and
+before the final adjustment of the astronomical relations of the
+earth on the fourth day. "And every shrub of the land before it
+was on the earth, and every herb of the land before it sprung up.
+For the Lord God had not caused it to rain on the earth, and
+there was not a man to till the ground; but a mist ascended from
+the earth and watered the whole surface of the ground." This has
+been supposed to be a description of the state of the earth
+during the whole period anterior to the fall of man. There is,
+however, no Scripture evidence of this; and geology informs us
+that rain fell as at
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+present far back in the Pal&aelig;ozoic period,
+countless ages before the creation of man or the existing
+animals. Although, however, such a condition of the earth as that
+stated in these verses has not been known in any geological
+period, yet it is not inconceivable, but in reality corresponds
+with the other conditions of nature likely to have prevailed on
+the third day, as described in Genesis. The land of this period,
+we may suppose, was not very extensive nor very elevated. Hence
+the temperature would be uniform and the air moist. The luminous
+and calorific matter connected with the sun still occupied a
+large space, and therefore diffused heat and light more uniformly
+than at present. The internal heat of the earth may still have
+produced an effect in warming the oceanic waters. The combined
+operation of these causes, of which we, perhaps, have some traces
+as late as the Carboniferous period, might well produce a state
+of things in which the earth was watered, not by showers of rain,
+but by the gentle and continued precipitation of finely divided
+moisture, in the manner now observed in those climates in which
+vegetation is nourished for a considerable part of the year by
+nocturnal mists and copious dews. The atmosphere, in short, as
+yet partook in some slight degree of the same moist and misty
+character which prevailed before the "establishment of the clouds
+above"&mdash;the airy firmament of the second day. The introduction of
+these explanatory particulars by the sacred historian furnishes
+an additional argument for the theory of long periods. That
+vegetation should exist for two or three natural days without
+rain or the irrigation which is given in culture, was, as already
+stated, a circumstance altogether unworthy of notice; but the
+growth during a long period of a varied and highly organized
+flora, without this advantage, and by the aid of a special
+natural provision afterward discontinued,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+was in all respects so
+remarkable and so highly illustrative of the expedients of the
+divine wisdom that it deserved a prominent place.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the words of the inspired writer include
+plants belonging to all the great subdivisions of the vegetable
+kingdom. This earliest vegetation was not rude or incomplete, or
+restricted to the lower forms of life. It was not even, like that
+of the coal period, solely or mainly cryptogamous or
+gymnospermous. It included trees bearing fruit, as well as
+lichens and mosses, and it received the same stamp of approbation
+bestowed on other portions of the work&mdash;"it was good." We have a
+good right to assume that its excellence had reference not only
+to its own period, but to subsequent conditions of the earth.
+Vegetation is the great assimilating power, the converter of
+inorganic into organic matter suitable for the sustenance of
+animals. In like manner the lower tribes of plants prepare the
+way for the higher. We should therefore have expected <i>&agrave; priori</i>
+that vegetation would have clothed the earth before the creation
+of animals, and a sufficient time before it to allow soils to be
+accumulated, and surplus stores of organic matter to be prepared
+in advance: this consideration alone would also induce us to
+assign a considerable duration to the third day. After the
+elevation of land, and the draining off from it of the saline
+matter with which it would be saturated, a process often very
+tedious, especially in low tracts of ground, the soil would still
+consist only of mineral matter, and must have been for a long
+period occupied by plants suited to this condition of things, in
+order that sufficient organic matter might be accumulated for the
+growth of a more varied vegetation; a consideration which perhaps
+illustrates the order of the plants in the narrative.</p>
+
+<p>It may be objected to the above views that, however accordant
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+with chemical and physiological probabilities, they do not
+harmonize with the facts of geology; since the earliest
+fossiliferous formations contain almost exclusively the remains
+of animals, which must therefore have preceded, or at least been
+coeval with, the earliest forms of terrestrial vegetation. This
+objection is founded on well-ascertained facts, but facts which
+may have no connection with the third day of creation when
+regarded as a long period. The oldest geological formations are
+of marine origin, and contain remains of marine animals, with
+those of plants supposed to be allied to the existing alg&aelig; or
+sea-weeds. Geology can not, however, assure us either that no
+land plants existed contemporaneously with these earliest
+animals, or that no land flora preceded them. These oldest
+fossiliferous rocks may mark the commencement of animal life, but
+they testify nothing as to the existence or non-existence of a
+previous period of vegetation alone. Farther, the rocks which
+contain the oldest remains of life exist as far as yet known in a
+condition so highly metamorphic as almost to preclude the
+possibility of their containing any distinguishable vegetable
+fossils; yet they contain vast deposits of carbon in the form of
+graphite, and if this, like more modern coaly matter, was
+accumulated by vegetable growth, it must indicate an exuberance
+of plants in these earliest geological periods, but of plants as
+yet altogether unknown to us. It is possible, therefore, that in
+these Eozoic rocks we may have remnants of the formations of the
+third Mosaic day; and if we should ever be so fortunate as to
+find any portion of them containing vegetable fossils, and these
+of species differing from any hitherto known, either in a fossil
+state or recent, and rising higher, in elevation and complexity
+of type, than the flora of the succeeding Silurian and
+Carboniferous eras, we may then suppose that we have penetrated
+to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+the monuments of this third creative &aelig;on. The only other
+alternative by which these verses can be reconciled with geology
+is that adopted by the late Hugh Miller, who supposes that the
+plants of the third day are those of the Carboniferous period;
+but, besides the apparent anachronism involved in this, we now
+know that the coal flora consisted mainly of cryptogams allied to
+ferns and club-mosses, and of gymnosperms allied to the pines and
+cycads, the higher orders of plants being almost entirely
+wanting. For these reasons we are shut up to the conclusion that
+this flora of the third day must have its place before the
+Pal&aelig;ozoic period of geology.</p>
+
+<p>To those who are familiar with the vast lapse of time required by
+the geological history of the earth, it may be startling to
+ascribe the whole of it to three or four of the creative days.
+If, however, it be admitted that these days were periods of
+unknown duration, no reason remains for limiting their length any
+farther than the facts of the case require. If in the strata of
+the earth which are accessible to us we can detect the evidence
+of its existence for myriads of years, why may not its Creator be
+able to carry our view back for myriads more. It may be humbling
+to our pride of knowledge, but it is not on any scientific ground
+improbable, that the oldest animal remains known to geology
+belong to the middle period of the earth's history, and were
+preceded by an enormous lapse of ages in which the earth was
+being prepared for animal existence, but of which no records
+remain, except those contained in the inspired history.</p>
+
+<p>It would be quite unphilosophical for geology to affirm either
+that animal life must always have existed, or that its earliest
+animals are necessarily the earliest organic beings. To use, with
+a slight modification, the words of an able thinker
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+on these subjects,
+<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a>
+ "For ages the prejudice prevailed that the
+historical period, or that which is coeval with the life of man,
+exhausted the whole history of the globe. Geologists removed that
+prejudice," but must not substitute "another in its place, viz.,
+that geological time is coeval with the globe itself, or that
+organic life always existed on its surface."</p>
+
+<p>A second doubt as to the existence of this primitive flora may be
+based on the statement that it included the highest forms of
+plants. Had it consisted only of low and imperfect vegetables,
+there might have been much less difficulty in admitting its
+probability. Farther, we find that even in the Carboniferous
+period scarcely any plants of the higher orders flourished, and
+there was a preponderance of the lower forms of the vegetable
+kingdom. We have, however, in geological chronology, many
+illustrations of the fact that the progress of improvement has
+not been continuous or uninterrupted, and that the preservation
+of the flora and fauna of many geological periods has been very
+imperfect. Hence the occurrence in one particular stratum or
+group of strata of few or low representatives of animal and
+vegetable life affords no proof that a better state of things may
+not have existed previously. We also find, in the case of
+animals, that each tribe attained to its highest development at
+the time when, in the progress of creation, it occupied the
+summit of the scale of life. Analogy would thus lead us to
+believe that when plants alone existed, they may have assumed
+nobler forms than any now existing, or that tribes now
+represented by few and humble species may at that time have been
+so great in numbers and development as to fill all the offices of
+our present complicated flora, as well as, perhaps, some of those
+now occupied
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+by animals. We have this principle exemplified in
+the Carboniferous flora, by the magnitude of its arborescent
+club-mosses, and the vast variety of its gymnosperms. For this
+reason we may anticipate that if any remains of this early
+plant-creation should be disinterred, they will prove to be among
+the most wonderful and interesting geological relics ever
+discovered, and will enlarge our views of the compass and
+capabilities of the vegetable kingdom, and especially of its
+lower forms.</p>
+
+<p>A farther objection is the uselessness of the existence of plants
+for a long period, without any animals to subsist on or enjoy
+them, and even without forming any accumulation of fossil fuel or
+other products useful to man. The only direct answer to this has
+already been given. The previous existence of plants may have
+been, and probably was, essential to the comfort and subsistence
+of the animals afterwards introduced. Independently of this,
+however, we have an analogous case in the geological history of
+animals, which prevents this fact from standing alone. Why was
+the earth tenanted so long by the inferior races of animals, and
+why were so much skill and contrivance expended on their
+structures, and even on their external ornament, when there was
+no intelligent mind on earth to appreciate their beauties. Even
+in the present world we may as well ask why the uninhabited
+islands of the ocean are found to be replete with luxuriant
+vegetable life, why God causes it to rain in the desert where
+human foot never treads, or why he clothes with a marvellous
+exuberance of beautiful animal and plant forms the depths of the
+sea. We can but say that these things seemed and seem good to the
+Creator, and may serve uses unknown to us; and this is precisely
+what we must be content to say respecting the plant-creation of
+the Eozoic period.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+Some writers
+<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a>
+ on this subject have suggested that the cosmical
+use of this plant-creation was the abstraction from the
+atmosphere of an excess of carbonic acid unfavorable to the
+animal life subsequently to be introduced. This use it may have
+served, and when its effects had been gradually lost through
+metamorphism and decay, that second great withdrawal of carbon
+which took place in the Carboniferous period may have been
+rendered necessary. The reasons afforded by natural history for
+supposing that plants preceded animals are thus stated by
+Professor Dana:</p>
+
+<p>"The proof from science of the existence of plants before animals
+is inferential, and still may be deemed satisfactory. Distinct
+fossils have not been found, all that ever existed in the
+azoic
+<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a>
+ rocks having been obliterated. The arguments in the
+affirmative are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"1. The existence of limestone rocks among the other beds,
+similar limestones in later ages having been of organic origin;
+also the occurrence of carbon in the shape of graphite, graphite
+being, in known cases in rocks, a result of the alteration of the
+carbon of plants.</p>
+
+<p>"2. The fact that the cooling earth would have been fitted for
+vegetable life for a long age before animals could have existed;
+the principle being exemplified everywhere that the earth was
+occupied at each period with the highest kinds of life the
+conditions allowed.</p>
+
+<p>"3. The fact that vegetation subserved an important purpose
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+in the coal-period in ridding the atmosphere of carbonic acid for
+the subsequent introduction of land animals, suggests a valid
+reason for believing that the same great purpose, the true
+purpose of vegetation, was effected through the ocean before the
+<i>waters</i> were fitted for animal life.</p>
+
+<p>"4. Vegetation being directly or mediately the food of animals,
+it must have had a previous existence. The latter part of the
+azoic age in geology we therefore regard as the age when the
+plant kingdom was instituted, the latter half of the third day in
+Genesis. However short or long the epoch, it was one of the great
+steps of progress."</p>
+
+<p>In concluding the examination of the work of the third day, I
+must again remind the reader that, on the theory of long creative
+periods, the words under consideration must refer to the first
+introduction of vegetation, in forms that have long since ceased
+to exist. Geology informs us that in the period of which it is
+cognizant the vegetation of the earth has been several times
+renewed, and that no plants of the older and middle geological
+periods now exist. We may therefore rest assured that the
+vegetable species, and probably also many of the generic and
+family forms of the vegetation of the third day, have long since
+perished, and been replaced by others suited to the changed
+condition of the earth. It is indeed probable that during the
+third and fourth days themselves there might be many removals and
+renewals of the terrestrial flora, so that perhaps every species
+created at the commencement of the introduction of plants may
+have been extinct before the close of the period. Nevertheless it
+was marked by the introduction of vegetation, which in one or
+another set of forms has ever since clothed the earth.</p>
+
+<p>At the commencement of the third day the earth was still covered
+by the waters. As time advanced islands and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+mountain-peaks arose
+from the ocean, vomiting forth the molten and igneous materials
+of the interior of the earth's crust. Plains and valleys were
+then spread around, rivers traced out their beds, and the ocean
+was limited by coasts and divided by far-stretching continents.
+At the command of the Creator plants sprung from the soil&mdash;the
+earliest of organized structures&mdash;at first probably few and
+small, and fitted to contend against the disadvantages of soils
+impregnated with saline particles and destitute of organic
+matter; but as the day advanced increasing in number, magnitude,
+and elevation, until at length the earth was clothed with a
+luxuriant and varied vegetation, worthy the approval of the
+Creator, and the admiring song of the angelic "sons of God."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">LUMINARIES.</span><br /></h2>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;text-align:left;text-indent:2em;font-weight:bold;">"And God said, Let there be luminaries in the expanse
+of heaven, to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs and for seasons,
+and for days and for years. And let them be for luminaries in the expanse of heaven,
+to give light on the earth: and it was so.</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:70%;text-align:left;text-indent:2em;font-weight:bold;">
+"And God made two great luminaries, the greater luminary to
+preside over the day, the lesser luminary to preside over
+the night. He made the stars also. And God placed them in
+the expanse of heaven to give light on the earth, and to
+preside over the day and over the night, and to separate the
+light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good. And
+the evening and the morning were the fourth day."&mdash;Genesis
+i., 14-19.</p>
+
+
+<p>After so long a sojourn on the earth, we are in these verses
+again carried to the heavens. Every scientific reader is struck
+with the position of this remarkable statement, interrupting as
+it does the progress of the organic creation, and constituting a
+break in the midst of the terrestrial history which is the
+immediate subject of the narrative; thus, in effect, as has often
+been remarked, dividing the creative week into two portions. Why
+was the completion of the heavenly bodies so long delayed? Why
+were light and vegetation introduced previously? If we can not
+fully answer these questions, we may at least suppose that the
+position of these verses is not accidental, though certainly not
+that which would have been chosen for its own sake by any
+fabricator of systems ancient or modern. Let us inquire, however,
+what are the precise terms of the record.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+1. The word here used to denote the objects produced clearly
+distinguishes them from the product of the first day's creation.
+Then God said, "Let <i>light</i> be;" he now says, "Let <i>luminaries</i>
+or light-bearers be." We have already seen that the light of the
+first day may have emanated from an extended luminous mass, at
+first occupying the whole extent of the solar system, and more or
+less attached to the several planetary bodies, and afterwards
+concentrated within the earth's orbit. The verses now under
+consideration inform us that the process of concentration was now
+complete, that our great central luminary had attained to its
+perfect state. This process of concentration may have been
+proceeding during the whole of the intervening time, or it may
+have been completed at once by some more rapid process of the
+nature of a direct interposition of creative power.</p>
+
+<p>2. The division of light from darkness is expressed by the same
+terms, and is of the same nature with that on the first day. This
+separation was now produced in its full extent by the perfect
+condensation of the luminiferous matters around the sun.</p>
+
+<p>3. The heavenly bodies are said to be intended for <i>signs</i>&mdash;that
+is, for marks or indications&mdash;either of the seasons, days, and
+years afterwards mentioned, or of the majesty and power of the
+true God, as the Creator of objects so grand and elevated as to
+become to the ignorant heathen objects of idolatrous worship; or
+perhaps of the earthly events they are supposed to influence. The
+arrangements now perfected for the first time enabled natural
+days, seasons, and years to have their limits accurately marked.
+Previously to this period there had been no distinctly marked
+seasons, and consequently no natural separation of years, nor
+were the limits of days at all accurately defined.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+4. The terms <i>expanse</i> and <i>heaven</i>, previously applied to the
+atmosphere, are here combined to denote the more distant starry
+and planetary heavens. There is no ambiguity involved in this,
+since the writer must have well known that no one could so far
+mistake as to suppose that the heavenly bodies are placed in that
+atmospheric expanse which supports the clouds.</p>
+
+<p>5. The luminaries were <i>made</i> or appointed to their office on the
+fourth day. They are not said to have been created, being
+included in the creation of the beginning. They were now
+completed, and fully fitted for their work. An important part of
+this fitting seems to have been the setting or placing them in
+the heavens, conveying to us the impression that the mutual
+relations and regular motions of the heavenly bodies were now for
+the first time perfected.</p>
+
+<p>6. The stars are introduced in a parenthetical manner, which
+leaves it doubtful whether we are merely informed in general
+terms that they are works of God, as well as those heavenly
+bodies which are of more importance to us, or that they were
+arranged as heavenly luminaries useful to our earth on the fourth
+day. The term includes the fixed stars, and it is by no means
+probable that these were in any way affected by the work referred
+to the fourth day, any farther than their appearance from our
+earth is concerned. This view is confirmed by the language of the
+104th Psalm, which in this part of the work mentions the sun and
+moon alone, without the fixed stars or planets.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the changes referred to this period related to
+the whole solar system, and resulted in the completion of that
+system in the form which it now bears, or at least in the final
+adjustment of the motions and relations of the earth; and we have
+reason to believe that the condensation
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
+of the luminous envelope
+around the sun was one of the most important of these changes. On
+the hypothesis of La Place, already referred to as most in
+accordance with the earlier stages of the work, there seems to be
+no especial reason why the completion of the process of
+elaboration of the sun and planets should be accelerated at this
+particular stage. We can easily understand, however, that those
+closing steps which brought the solar system into a state of
+permanent and final equilibrium would form a marked epoch in the
+work; and we can also understand that now, on the eve of the
+introduction of animal life, there is a certain propriety in the
+representation of the Creator interfering to close up the merely
+inorganic part of his great work, and bring this department at
+least to its final perfection. The fourth day, then, in
+geological language, marks <i>the complete introduction of
+"existing causes" in inorganic nature</i>, and we henceforth find no
+more creative interference, except in the domain of organization.
+This accords admirably with the deductions of modern geology, and
+especially with that great principle so well expounded by Sir
+Charles Lyell, and which forms the true basis of modern
+geological reasonings&mdash;that we should seek in existing causes of
+change for the explanation of the appearances of the rocks of the
+earth's crust. Geology probably carries us back to the
+introduction of animal life; and shows us that since that time
+land, sea, and atmosphere, summer and winter, day and night&mdash;all
+the great inorganic conditions affecting animal life&mdash;have
+existed as at present, and have been subject to modifications the
+same in kind with those which they now experience, though perhaps
+different in degree. In this ancient record we find in like
+manner that the period immediately preceding the creation of
+animals witnessed the completion of all the great general
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+arrangements on which these phenomena depend. The Bible,
+therefore, and science agree in the truth that existing causes
+have been in full force since the creation of animals; and that
+since that period the exercise of creative power has been limited
+to the organic world. This has a curious bearing, not often
+thought of, on modern theories of evolution as compared with the
+teaching of the Bible. In one important sense, absolute creation,
+in so far as the inorganic universe is concerned, is in our
+Mosaic narrative limited to the production of matter and force at
+first. All else is called making, forming, or appointing. Thus
+the production of all the arrangements of the waters, the
+atmosphere, the earth, and the heavens, in the work of the first
+four days, and even the introduction of plants, may be correctly
+termed an evolution or development from preformed materials, with
+the single exception that the reproductive power and specific
+diversities of plants are recognized as entirely new facts.
+Creation is properly resumed when animal life is introduced.
+Hence, in so far as a comparison with the terms of Genesis is
+concerned, hypotheses as to the evolution of animal life from
+inorganic matter are in a different position from hypotheses as
+to the previous evolution of the parts of inorganic nature; and
+still more so from statements as to the progress of inorganic
+nature subsequent to the introduction of animals; since within
+that period, which really includes the whole of geological time,
+absolutely no creation whatever in the domain of inanimate nature
+is affirmed in the Biblical record to have taken place. On the
+contrary, all the arrangements of inorganic nature are
+represented as finally completed before the creation of animals.</p>
+
+<p>The obliquity of the earth's axis, which gives us the changes of
+the seasons, is apparently included in the arrangements
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+of the fourth creative day. The cause of this obliquity, and the time
+when it may have attained to its present amount, have been
+fertile themes of discussion. It is clear, however, that if this
+obliquity was established, as appears to be stated here, before
+the introduction of animal life, it can have no bearing on the
+changes of climate of which we have evidence in geological time
+since the dawn of animal life, unless, indeed, it is capable of
+greater variation than astronomers admit; and the same remark
+applies to supposed changes in the position of the poles
+themselves. There is, however, nothing in this record to oppose
+the idea of any secular changes in these arrangements under the
+laws appointed in the fourth creative period.</p>
+
+<p>The record relating to the fourth day is silent respecting the
+mundane history of the period; and geology gives no very certain
+information concerning it. If, however, we assume that any of the
+Eozoic or pre-eozoic rocks are deposits of this or the preceding
+period, we may infer from the disturbances and alteration which
+these have suffered, prior to the deposition of the Cambrian and
+Silurian, that during or toward the close of this day the crust
+of the earth was affected by great movements. There is another
+consideration also leading to important conclusions in relation
+to this period. In the earliest fossiliferous rocks there seems
+to be good evidence that the dry land contemporary with the seas
+in which they were formed was of very small extent. Now, since on
+the third day a very plentiful and highly developed vegetation
+was produced, we may infer that during that period the extent of
+dry land was considerable, and was probably gradually increasing.
+If, then, the Cambrian and Silurian systems, so rich in marine
+organic remains, belong to the commencement of the fifth day, we
+must conclude that during
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+the fourth much of the land previously
+existing had been again submerged. In other words, during the
+third day the extent of terrestrial surface was increasing, on
+the fourth day it diminished, and on the fifth it again
+increased, and probably has on the whole continued to increase up
+to the present time. One most important geological consequence of
+this is that the marine animals of the fifth day probably
+commenced their existence on sea bottoms which were the old soil
+surfaces of submerged continents previously clothed with
+vegetation, and which consequently contained much organic matter
+fitted to form a basis of support for the newly created animals.
+</p>
+
+<p>I shall close my remarks on the fourth day by a few quotations
+from those passages of Scripture which refer to the objects of
+this day's work. I have already referred to that beautiful
+passage in Deuteronomy where the Israelites are warned against
+the crime of worshipping those heavenly bodies which the Lord God
+hath "divided to every nation under the whole heaven." In the
+book of Job also we find that the heavenly bodies were in his day
+regarded as signal manifestations of the power of God, and that
+several of the principal constellations had received names:</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:5em;">"He commandeth the sun, and it shineth not;<br />
+He sealeth up the stars;
+<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a><br />
+He alone spreadeth out the heavens,<br />
+And walketh on the high waves of the sea;
+<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
+He maketh Arcturus, Orion,<br />
+The Pleiades, and the hidden chambers of the south;<br />
+Who doeth great things past finding out;<br />
+Yea, marvellous things beyond number."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;">&mdash;Job ix., 9.</span></p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:5em;">
+"Canst thou tighten the bonds of the Pleiades,
+<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a><br />
+Or loose the bands of Orion?<br />
+Canst thou bring forth the Mazzaroth in their season,<br />
+Or lead forth Arcturus and its sons?<br />
+Knowest thou the laws of the heavens,<br />
+Or hast thou appointed their dominion over the earth?"<br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;">&mdash;Job xxxviii., 31.</span></p>
+
+<p>I may merely remark on these passages that the chambers of the
+south are supposed to be those parts of the southern heavens
+invisible in the latitude in which Job resided. The bonds of
+Pleiades and of Orion probably refer to the apparently close
+union of the stars of the former group, and the wide separation
+of those of the latter; a difference which, to the thoughtful
+observer of the heavens, is more striking than most instances of
+that irregular grouping of the stars which still forms a question
+in astronomy, from the uncertainty whether it is real, or only an
+optical deception arising from stars at different distances
+coming nearly into a line with each other. I have seen in some
+recent astronomical work this very instance of the Pleiades and
+Orion taken as a marked illustration of this problematical fact
+in astronomy. <i>Mazzaroth</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+are supposed by modern expositors to be the signs of the Zodiac.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, the Hebrew books give us little information as to
+the astronomical theories of the time when they were written.
+They are entirely non-committal as to the nature of the
+connections and revolutions of the heavenly bodies; and indeed
+regard these as matters in their time beyond the grasp of the
+human mind, though well known to the Creator and regulated by his
+laws. From other sources we have facts leading to the belief that
+even in the time of Moses, and certainly in that of the later
+Biblical writers, there was not a little practical astronomy in
+the East, and some good theory. The Hindoo astronomy professes to
+have observations from 3000 B.C., and the arguments of Baily and
+others, founded on internal evidence, give some color of truth to
+the claim. The Chaldeans at a very early period had ascertained
+the principal circles of the sphere, the position of the poles,
+and the nature of the apparent motions of the heavens as the
+results of revolution on an inclined axis. The Egyptian astronomy
+we know mainly from what the Greeks borrowed from it. Thales, 640
+B.C., taught that the moon is lighted by the sun, and that the
+earth is spherical, and the position of its five zones.
+Pythagoras, 580 B.C., knew, in addition to the sphericity of the
+earth, the obliquity of the ecliptic, the identity of the evening
+and morning star, and that the earth revolves round the sun. This
+Greek astronomy appears immediately after the opening of Egypt to
+the Greeks; and both these philosophers studied in that country.
+Such knowledge, and more of the same character, may therefore
+have existed in Egypt at a much earlier period.</p>
+
+<p>The Psalms abound in beautiful references to the creation of the
+fourth day</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:5em;">
+:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+"When I consider the heavens, the work of thy fingers,<br />
+The moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained;<br />
+What is man, that thou art mindful of him?<br />
+Or the son of man, that thou visitest him?"<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;">&mdash;Psalm viii.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:10em;">
+"Who telleth the number of the stars,<br />
+Who calleth them all by their names.<br />
+Great is our Lord, and of great praise;<br />
+His understanding is infinite.<br />
+The Lord lifteth up the meek;<br />
+He casteth the wicked to the ground."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">&mdash;Psalm cxlvii.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:3em;">
+"The heavens declare the glory of God,<br />
+The firmament showeth his handiwork;<br />
+Day unto day uttereth speech,<br />
+Night unto night showeth knowledge.<br />
+They have no speech nor language,<br />
+Their voice is not heard;<br />
+Yet their line is gone out to all the earth,<br />
+And their words to the end of the world.<br />
+In them hath he set a pavilion for the sun,<br />
+Which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber,<br />
+And rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race.<br />
+Its going forth is from the end of the heavens,<br />
+And its circuit unto the end of them.<br />
+And there is nothing hid from the heat thereof."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;">&mdash;Psalm xix.</span></p>
+
+<p>These are excellent illustrations of the truth of the Scripture
+mode of treating natural objects, in connection with their Maker.
+It is but a barren and fruitless philosophy which sees the work
+and not its author&mdash;a narrow piety which loves God but despises
+his works. The Bible holds forth the golden mean between these
+extremes, in a strain of lofty poetry and acute perception of the
+great and beautiful, whether seen in the Creator or reflected
+from his works.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+The work of this day opens up a wide field for astronomical
+illustration, more especially in relation to the wisdom and
+benevolence of the Creator as displayed in the heavens; but it
+would be foreign to our present purpose to enter into these.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well, however, to think for a moment of the importance
+of the facts suggested by the writer of Genesis in mentioning the
+use of the heavenly bodies as signs of time. To what extent
+civilization or even the continued existence of man as an
+intelligent being would have been possible without the marks of
+subdivision of time given by the great astronomical clock of the
+universe, it is almost impossible for us to imagine. Without such
+marks of time, in any case, the whole fabric of human culture
+must have been different from what it is. Farther, in connection
+with this, it is a grand thought of our early revelation that all
+these heavenly bodies, however magnificent, and however they
+might seem to the heathen to be objects of worship, are but marks
+on God's clock, parts of a mere machine which keeps time for us,
+and is therefore our servant, as the children of the great
+Artificer, and not our ruler. The idea has been termed an
+astrological one; but astrology as a means of divination has no
+place in the record. The heavenly bodies are under the law of the
+Creator, and their function relatively to us is to give light and
+to give time. Astrological divination is an outgrowth of the
+Sab&aelig;an idolatry, and held in abomination by the monotheistic
+author of Genesis. His object may be summed up in the following
+general statements:</p>
+
+<p>1. The heavenly hosts and their arrangements are the work of
+Jehovah, and are regulated wholly by his laws or ordinances; a
+striking illustration of the recognition by the Hebrew writer
+both of creative interference, and that stable,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+natural law which too often withdraws the mind of the philosopher from the
+ideas of creation and of providence.</p>
+
+<p>2. The heavenly bodies have a relation to the earth&mdash;are parts of
+the same plan, and, whatever other uses they were made to serve,
+were made for the benefit of man.</p>
+
+<p>3. The general physical arrangements of the solar system were
+perfected before the introduction of animals on our planet.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">THE LOWER ANIMALS.</span><br /></h2>
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-indent:3em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;">
+"And God said, Let the waters swarm with swarming living
+creatures, and let birds fly on the surface of the expanse
+of heaven. And God created great reptiles, and every living
+moving thing, which the waters brought forth abundantly,
+after their kind, and every bird after its kind; and God saw
+that it was good.</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-indent:3em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;">
+"And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and
+fill the waters of the seas, and let the flying creatures
+multiply in the earth. And the evening and the morning were
+the fifth day."&mdash;Genesis i., 20-23.</p>
+
+
+<p>In these words, so full of busy, active, thronging life, we now
+enter on that part of the earth's history which has been most
+fully elucidated by geology, and we have thus an additional
+reason for carefully weighing the terms of the narrative, which
+here, as in other places, contain large and important truths
+couched in language of the simplest character.</p>
+
+<p>1. In accordance with the views now entertained by the best
+lexicographers, the word translated in our version "creeping
+things" has been rendered "prolific or swarming creatures." The
+Hebrew is <i>Sheretz</i>, a noun derived from the verb used in this
+verse to denote bringing forth abundantly. It is loosely
+translated in the Septuagint <i>Erpeta</i>, reptiles; and this view
+our English translators appear to have adopted, without, perhaps,
+any very clear notions of the creatures intended. The manner in
+which it is used in other passages places its true meaning beyond
+doubt. I select as illustrations of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+most apposite character those verses in Leviticus in which clean and unclean animals are
+specified, and in which we have a right to expect the most
+precise zoological nomenclature that the Hebrew can afford. In
+Leviticus xi., 20-23, <i>insects</i> are defined to be <i>flying
+sheretzim</i>, and in verse 29, etc., under the designation
+"<i>sheretzim of the land</i>," we have animals named in our version
+the weasel, mouse, tortoise, ferret, chameleon, lizard, snail,
+and mole. The first of these animals is believed to have been a
+burrowing creature, perhaps a mole; the second, from the meaning
+of its name, "ravager of fields," is thought to have been a
+mouse. Some doubt, however, attends both of these
+identifications, but it appears certain that the remaining six
+species are small reptiles, principally lizards. We learn,
+therefore, that the smaller reptiles, and <i>perhaps</i> also a few
+small mammals, are <i>sheretzim</i>. In verses 41 and 42 we are
+introduced to other tribes. "And every <i>sheretz</i> that swarmeth on
+the earth shall be an abomination unto you; it shall not be
+eaten; whatsoever goeth upon the belly (serpents, worms, snails,
+etc.), and whatsoever hath more feet (than four) (insects,
+arachnidans, myriapods)." In verses 9 and 10 of the same chapter
+we have an enumeration of the <i>sheretzim</i> of the waters:
+"Whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas and
+in the rivers, them shall ye eat. And all that have not fins and
+scales in the seas and the rivers, of all that swarm in the
+waters (all the <i>sheretzim</i> of the waters), they shall be an
+abomination unto you." Here the general term <i>sheretz</i> includes
+all the fishes and the invertebrate animals of the waters. From
+the whole of the above passages we learn that this is a general
+term for all the invertebrate animals and the two lower classes
+of vertebrates, or, in other words, for the whole animal kingdom
+except the mammalia and birds. To all these creatures the name
+is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+particularly appropriate, all of them being oviparous or
+ovoviviparous, and consequently producing great numbers of young
+and multiplying very rapidly. The only other creatures which can
+be included under the term are the two doubtful species of small
+mammals already mentioned. Nothing can be more fair and obvious
+than this explanation of the term, based both on etymology and on
+the precise nomenclature of the ceremonial law. We conclude,
+therefore, that the prolific animals of the fifth day's creation
+belonged to the three Cuvierian sub-kingdoms of the Radiata,
+Articulata, and Mollusca, and to the classes of Fish and Reptiles
+among the vertebrata.</p>
+
+<p>2. One peculiar group of <i>sheretzim</i> is especially distinguished
+by name&mdash;the <i>tanninim</i>, or "great whales" of our version. It
+would be amusing, had we time, to notice the variety of
+conjectures to which this word has given rise, and the
+perplexities of commentators in reference to it. In our version
+and the Septuagint it is usually rendered dragon; but in this
+place the seventy have thought proper to put <i>Ketos</i> (whale), and
+our translators have followed them. Subsequent translators and
+commentators have laid under contribution all sorts of marine
+monsters, including the sea-serpent, in their endeavors to attach
+a precise meaning to the word; while others have been content to
+admit that it may signify any kind or all kinds of large aquatic
+animals. The greater part of the difficulty appears to have
+arisen from confounding two distinct words, <i>tannin</i> and <i>tan</i>,
+both names of animals; and the confusion has been increased by
+the circumstance that in two places the words have been
+interchanged, probably by errors of transcribers. <i>Tan</i> occurs in
+twelve places, and from these we can gather that it inhabits
+ruined cities, deserts, and places to which ostriches resort,
+that it suckles
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+its young, is of predaceous and shy habits,
+utters a wailing cry, and is not of large size, nor formidable to
+man. The most probable conjecture as to the animal intended is
+that of Gesenius, who supposes it to be the jackal. The other
+word (<i>tannin</i>), which is that used in the text, is applied as an
+emblem of Egypt and its kings, and also of the conquering kings
+of Babylon. It is spoken of as furious when enraged, and
+formidable to man, and is said to be an inhabitant of rivers and
+of the sea, but more especially of the Nile. In short, it is the
+crocodile of the Nile. We can easily understand the perplexity of
+those writers who suppose these two words to be identical, and
+endeavor to combine all the characters above mentioned in one
+animal or tribe of animals. As a farther illustration of the
+marked difference in the meanings of the two words, we may
+compare the 34th and 37th verses of the fifty-first chapter of
+Jeremiah. In the first of these verses the King of Babylon is
+represented as a "dragon" (<i>tannin</i>), which had swallowed up
+Israel. In the second it is predicted that Babylon itself shall
+become heaps, a dwelling-place for "dragons" (<i>tanim</i>). There can
+be no doubt that the animals intended here are quite different.
+The devouring <i>tannin</i> is a huge predaceous river reptile, a fit
+emblem of the Babylonian monarch; the <i>tan</i> is the jackal that
+will soon howl in his ruined palaces. It is interesting to know
+that philologists trace a connection between <i>tannin</i> and the
+Greek <i>teino</i>, Latin <i>tendo</i>, and similar words, signifying to
+stretch or extend, in the Sanscrit, Gothic, and other languages,
+leading to the inference that the Hebrew word primarily denotes a
+lengthened or extended creature, which corresponds well with its
+application to the crocodile. Taking all the above facts in
+connection, we are quite safe in concluding that the creatures
+referred to by the word under consideration are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
+literally large reptilian animals; and, from the special mention made of them, we
+may infer that, in their day, they were the lords of
+creation.
+<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<p>3. In verse 21 the remainder of the <i>sheretzim</i>, besides the
+larger reptiles, are included in the general expression, "Living
+creature that moveth." The term "living creature" is, literally,
+"creature having the breath of life;" the power of respiration
+being apparently in Hebrew the distinctive character of the
+animal. The word moveth (<i>ramash</i>), in its more general sense,
+expresses the power of voluntary motion, as exhibited in animals
+in general. In a few places, however, it has a more precise
+meaning, as in 1 Kings iv., 33, where the vertebrated animals are
+included in the four classes of "beasts, fowl, <i>creeping things</i>
+(or reptiles, <i>remes</i>), and fishes." In the present connection it
+probably has its most general sense; unless, indeed, the apparent
+repetition in this verse relates to the amphibious or
+semi-terrestrial creatures associated with the great reptiles;
+and, in that case, the humbler reptilian animals alone may be
+meant.</p>
+
+<p>4. We may again note that the introduction of animal life is
+marked by the use of the word "create," for the first time since
+the general creation of the heavens and the earth. We may also
+note that the animal, as well as the plant, was created "after
+its kind," or "species by species." The animals are grouped under
+three great classes&mdash;the Remes, the Tanninim, and the Birds; but,
+lest any misconception should arise as to the relations of
+species to these groups, we are expressly informed that the
+species is here the true unit of the creative work. It is worth
+while, therefore, to note that this most ancient
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
+authority on this much controverted topic connects species on the one hand
+with the creative fiat, and on the other with the power of
+continuous reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>5. In addition to the great mass of <i>sheretzim</i>, so accurately
+characterized by Milton as</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">"&mdash;&mdash;Reptile with spawn abundant,"</p>
+
+<p>the creation of the fifth day included a higher tribe of
+oviparous animals&mdash;the birds, the fowl or winged creature of the
+text. Birds alone, we think, must be meant here, as we have
+already seen that insects are included under the general term
+<i>sheretzim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>6. It is farther to be observed that <i>the waters</i> give origin to
+the first animals&mdash;an interesting point when we consider the
+contrast here with the creation of plants and of the higher
+animals, both of which proceed from the earth.</p>
+
+<p>7. It can not fail to be observed that we have in these verses
+two different arrangements of the animals created, neither
+corresponding exactly with what modern science teaches us to
+regard as the true grouping of the animal kingdom, according to
+its affinities. The order in the first enumeration should, from
+the analogy of the chapter, indicate that of successive creation.
+The order of the second list may, perhaps, be that of the
+relative importance of the animals, as it appeared to the writer.
+Or there may have been a twofold division of the period&mdash;the
+earlier commencing with the creation of the humbler
+invertebrates, the later characterized by the great
+reptiles&mdash;which is the actual state of the case as disclosed by
+geology.</p>
+
+<p>8. The Creator recognizes the introduction of sentient existence
+and volition by <i>blessing</i> this new work of his hands, and
+inviting the swarms of the newly peopled world to enjoy
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
+that happiness for which they were fitted, and to increase and fill
+the earth, inaugurating thus a new power destined to still higher
+developments.</p>
+
+<p>When we inquire what information geology affords respecting the
+period under consideration, the answer may be full and explicit.
+Geological discovery has carried us back to an epoch
+corresponding with the beginning of this day, and has disclosed a
+long and varied series of living beings, extending from this
+early period up to the introduction of the higher races of
+animals. To enter on the geological details of these changes, and
+on descriptions of the creatures which succeeded each other on
+the earth, would swell this volume into a treatise on
+pal&aelig;ontology, and would be quite unnecessary, as so many
+excellent popular works on this subject already exist. I shall,
+therefore, confine myself to a few general statements, and to
+marking the points in which Scripture and geology coincide in
+their respective histories of this long period, which appears to
+include the whole of the Pal&aelig;ozoic and Mesozoic epochs of
+geology, with their grand and varied succession of rock
+formations and living beings.</p>
+
+<p>In the Primordial or oldest fossiliferous rocks next in
+succession to those great Eozoic formations in which protozoa
+alone have been discovered, we find the remains of crustaceans,
+mollusks, and radiates&mdash;such as shrimps, shell-fish, and
+starfishes&mdash;which appear to have inhabited the bottom of a
+shallow ocean. Among these were some genera belonging to the
+higher forms of invertebrate life, but apparently as yet no
+vertebrated animals. Fishes were then introduced, and have left
+their remains in the upper Silurian rocks, and very abundantly in
+the Devonian and Carboniferous, in the latter of which also the
+first reptiles occur, but are principally members of that lower
+group to which the frogs and newts and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+their allies belong. The animal kingdom appears to have reached no higher than the
+reptiles in the Pal&aelig;ozoic or primary period of geology, and its
+reptiles are comparatively small and few; though fishes had
+attained to a point of perfection which they have not since
+exceeded. There was also, especially in the Carboniferous age, an
+abundant and luxuriant vegetation. The Mesozoic period is,
+however, emphatically the age of reptiles. This class then
+reached its climax, in the number, perfection, and magnitude of
+its species, which filled all those stations in the economy of
+nature now assigned to the mammalia. Birds also belong to this
+era, though apparently much less numerous and important than at
+present. Only a few species of small mammals, of the lowest or
+marsupial type, appear as a presage of the mammalian creation of
+the succeeding tertiary era. In these two geological periods,
+then&mdash;the Pal&aelig;ozoic and Mesozoic&mdash;we find, first, the lower
+<i>sheretzim</i> represented by the invertebrata and the fishes, then
+the great reptiles and the birds; and it can not be denied that,
+if we admit that the Mosaic day under consideration corresponds
+with these geological periods, it would be impossible better to
+characterize their creations in so few words adapted to popular
+comprehension. I may add that all the species whose remains are
+found in the Pal&aelig;ozoic and Mesozoic rocks are extinct, and known
+to us only as fossils; and their connection with the present
+system of nature consists only in their forming with it a more
+perfect series than our present fauna alone could afford, unless,
+indeed, we should find reason to believe that any modern animals
+are their modified descendants. They belong to the same system of
+types, but are parts of it which have served their purpose and
+have been laid aside. The coincidences above noted between
+geology and Scripture may be summed up as follows:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+1. According to both records, the causes which at present
+regulate the distribution of light, heat, and moisture, and of
+land and water, were, during the whole of this period, much the
+same as at present. The eyes of the trilobite of the old Silurian
+rocks are fitted for the same conditions with respect to light
+with those of existing animals of the same class. The coniferous
+trees of the coal measures show annual rings of growth.
+Impressions of rain-marks have been found in the shales of the
+coal measures and Devonian system. Hills and valleys, swamps and
+lagoons, rivers, bays, seas, coral reefs and shell beds, have all
+left indubitable evidence of their existence in the geological
+record. On the other hand, the Bible affirms that all the earth's
+physical features were perfected on the fourth day, and
+immediately before the creation of animals. The land and the
+water have undergone during this long lapse of ages many minor
+changes. Whole tribes of animals and plants have been swept away
+and replaced by others, but the general aspect of inorganic
+nature has remained the same.</p>
+
+<p>2. Both records show the existence of vegetation during this
+period; though the geologic record, if taken alone, would, from
+its want of information respecting the third day, lead us to
+infer that plants are no older than animals, while the Bible does
+not speak of the nature of the vegetation that may have existed
+on the fifth day.</p>
+
+<p>3. Both records inform us that reptiles and birds were the higher
+and leading forms of animals, and that all the lower forms of
+animals co-existed with them. In both we have especial notice of
+the gigantic Saurian reptiles of the latter part of the period;
+and if we have the remains of a few small species of mammals in
+the Mesozoic rocks, these, like a few similar creatures
+apparently included under the word <i>sheretz</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+in Leviticus, are not sufficiently important to negative the general fact of the
+reign of reptiles.
+<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<p>4. It accords with both records that the work of creation in this
+period was gradually progressive. Species after species was
+locally introduced, extended itself, and, after having served its
+purpose, gradually became extinct. And thus each successive rock
+formation presents new groups of species, each rising in numbers
+and perfection above the last, and marking a gradual assimilation
+of the general conditions of our planet to their present state,
+yet without any convulsions or general catastrophes affecting the
+whole earth at once.</p>
+
+<p>5. In both records the time between the creation of the first
+animals and the introduction of the mammalia as a dominant class
+forms a well-marked period. I would not too positively assert
+that the close of the fifth day accords precisely with that of
+the Mesozoic or secondary period. The well-marked line of
+separation, however, in many parts of the world, between this and
+the earlier tertiary rocks succeeding to it, points to this as
+extremely probable.</p>
+
+<p>It thus appears that Scripture and geology so far concur
+respecting the events of this period as to establish, even
+without any other evidence, a probability that the fifth day
+corresponds with the geological ages with which I have endeavored
+to identify it. Geology, however, gives us no
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+means of measuring precisely the length of this day; but it gives us the impression
+that it occupied an enormous length of time, compared with which
+the whole human period is quite insignificant; and rivalling
+those mythical "days of the Creator" which we have noticed as
+forming a part of the Hindoo mythology.</p>
+
+<p>Why was the earth thus occupied for countless ages by an animal
+population whose highest members were reptiles and birds? The
+fact can not be doubted, since geology and Scripture, the
+research of man and the Word of God, concur in affirming it. We
+know that the lowest of these creatures was, in its own place, no
+less worthy of the Creator than those which we regard as the
+highest in the scale of organization, and that the animals of the
+ancient, equally with those of the modern world, abounded in
+proofs of the wisdom, power, and goodness of their Maker.
+Comparative anatomy has shown that these extinct animals, though
+often varying much from their modern representatives, are in no
+respect rude or imperfect; that they have the same appearance of
+careful planning and elaborate execution, the same combination of
+ornament and utility, the same nice adaptation to the conditions
+of their existence, which we observe in modern creatures. In
+addition to this, the many new and wonderful contrivances and
+combinations which they present, and their relations to existing
+objects, have greatly enlarged our views of the variety and
+harmony of the whole system of nature. They are, therefore, in
+these respects, not without their use as manifestations of the
+Creator, in this our later age.</p>
+
+<p>There is another reason, hinted at by Buckland, Miller, and other
+writers on this subject, which weighs much with my mind. All
+animals and plants are constructed on a few leading types or
+patterns, which are again divided into subordinate
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
+types, just as in architecture we have certain leading styles, and these
+again may admit of several orders, and these of farther
+modifications. Types are farther modified to suit a great variety
+of minor adaptations. Now we know that the earth is, at any one
+time, inadequate to display all the modifications of all the
+types. Hence our existing system of organic nature, though
+probably more complete than any that preceded it, is still only
+fragmentary. It is like what architecture would be, if all
+memorials of all buildings more than a century old were swept
+away. But, from the beginning to the end of the creative work,
+there has been, or will be, room for the whole plan. Hence
+fossils are little by little completing our system of nature;
+and, if all were known, would perhaps wholly do so. The great
+plan must be progressive, and all its parts must be perishable,
+except its last culminating-point and archetype, man. Tennyson
+expresses this truth in the following lines:</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left: 30%;">"The wish that of the living whole<br />
+<span style="margin-left:2em;">No life may fail beyond the grave;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left:2em;">Derives it not from what we have</span><br />
+The likest God within the soul?<br /><br />
+
+Are God and Nature then at strife,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">That Nature lends such evil dreams?</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">So careful of the type she seems,</span><br />
+So careless of the single life.<br /><br />
+
+'So careful of the type?' but no.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">From scarped cliff and quarried stone</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">She cries, 'a thousand types are gone;</span><br />
+I care for nothing, all shall go.<br /><br />
+
+'Thou makest thine appeal to me:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">I bring to life, I bring to death:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The spirit does but mean the breath:</span><br />
+I know no more.' And he, shall he,<br /><br />
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
+Man, her last work, who seem'd so fair,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Such splendid purpose in his eyes,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Who roll'd the psalm to wintry skies,</span><br />
+Who built him fanes of fruitless prayer,<br /><br />
+
+Who trusted God was love indeed,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">And love Creation's final law&mdash;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tho' Nature, red in tooth and claw,</span><br />
+With ravine, shriek'd against his creed&mdash;<br /><br />
+
+Who loved, who suffer'd countless ills,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Who battled for the True, the Just,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Be blown about the desert dust,</span><br />
+Or seal'd within the iron hills?<br /><br />
+
+No more? A monster, then, a dream,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A discord. Dragons of the prime,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">That tare each other in their slime,</span><br />
+Were mellow music match'd with him.<br /><br />
+
+O life as futile, then, as frail!<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">O for thy voice to soothe and bless!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">What hope of answer, or redress?</span><br />
+Behind the veil, behind the veil."</p>
+
+<p>The farther explanation given by evolutionists that those ancient
+forms of life may be the actual ancestors of the present animals,
+and that through all the ages the Creator was gradually
+perfecting his work by a series of descents with modification,
+was probably not before the mind of our ancient Hebrew authority,
+nor need we attach much value to it till some proof of the
+process has been obtained from Nature. A farther reason, however,
+which was intelligible to the author of Genesis, and which is
+fondly dwelt on in succeeding books of the Bible, depends on the
+idea that the Creator himself is not indifferent to the
+marvellous structures, instincts, and powers which he has
+bestowed upon the lower races of animals.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>
+Witness the answer of the Almighty to Job, when he spake out of the whirlwind to
+vindicate his own plans in creation and providence; and brought
+before the patriarch a long train of animals, explaining and
+dwelling on the structure and powers of each, in contrast with
+the puny efforts and rude artificial contrivances of man. Witness
+also the preservation, in the rocks, of the fossil remains of
+extinct creatures, as if he who made them was unwilling that the
+evidence of their existence should perish, and purposely
+treasured them through all the revolutions of the earth, that
+through them men might magnify his name. The Psalmist would
+almost appear to have had all these thoughts before his mind when
+he poured out his wonder in the 104th Psalm:</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left: 10%;">"O Lord, how manifold are thy works!<br />
+In wisdom hast thou made them all.<br />
+The earth is full of thy riches;<br />
+So is this wide and great sea,<br />
+Wherein are moving things innumerable,<br />
+Creatures both small and great.<br />
+There go the ships [or "floating animals"];<br />
+There is leviathan, which thou hast formed to sport therein:<br />
+That thou givest them they gather.<br />
+Thou openest thy hand, they are filled with good;<br />
+Thou hidest thy face, they are troubled;<br />
+Thou takest away their breath, they return to their dust.<br />
+Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created,<br />
+And thou renewest the face of the earth."</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, good reasons to believe that, in the plans of
+divine wisdom, the long periods in which the earth was occupied
+by the inferior races were necessary to its subsequent adaptation
+to the residence of man. To these periods our present continents
+gradually grew up in all their variety and beauty. The materials
+of old rocks were comminuted and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
+mixed to form fertile soils,
+<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>
+and stores of mineral products were accumulated to
+enable man to earn his subsistence and the blessings of
+civilization by the sweat of his brow. If it pleased the Almighty
+during these preparatory stages to replenish the land and sea
+with living things full of life and beauty and happiness, who
+shall venture to criticise his procedure, or to say to Him, "What
+doest thou?"</p>
+
+<p>It would be decidedly wrong, in the present state of that which
+is popularly called science, to omit to inquire here what
+relation to the work of the fifth creative day those theories of
+development and evolution which have obtained so great currency
+may bear. The long time employed in the introduction of the lower
+animals, the use of the terms "make" and "form," instead of
+"create," and the expression "let the waters bring forth," may
+well be understood as countenancing some form of mediate
+creation, or of "creation by law," or "theistic evolution," as it
+has been termed; but they give no countenance to the idea either
+of the spontaneous evolution of living beings under the influence
+of merely physical causes and without creative intervention, or
+of the transmutation of one kind of animal into another. Still,
+with reference to this last idea, it is plain that revelation
+gives us no definition of species as distinguished from varieties
+or races, so that there is nothing to prevent the supposition
+that, within certain limits indicated by the expression "after
+its kind," animals or plants may have been so constituted as to
+vary greatly in the progress of geological time.</p>
+
+<p>If we ask whether any thing is known to science which can
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
+give even a decided probability to the notion that living beings are
+parts of an undirected evolution proceeding under merely dead
+insentient forces, and without intention, the answer must be
+emphatically no.</p>
+
+<p>I have elsewhere fully discussed these questions, and may here
+make some general statements as to certain scientific facts which
+at present bar the way against the hypothesis of evolution as
+applied to life, and especially against that form of it to which
+Darwin and his disciples have given so great prominence.</p>
+
+<p>1. The albuminous or protoplasmic material, which seems to be
+necessary to the existence of every living being, is known to us
+as a product only of the action of previously living protoplasm.
+Though it is often stated that the production of albumen from its
+elements is a process not differing from the formation of water
+or any other inorganic material from its elements, this statement
+is false in fact, since, though many so-called organic substances
+have been produced by chemical processes, no particle of either
+living or non-living organizable matter of the nature of
+protoplasm has ever been so produced. The origin, therefore, of
+this albuminous matter is as much a mystery to us at present as
+that of any of the chemical elements.</p>
+
+<p>2. Though some animals and plants are very simple in their
+visible structure, they all present vital properties not to be
+found in dead albuminous matter, and no mode is known whereby the
+properties of life can be communicated to dead matter. All the
+experiments hitherto made, and very eminently those recently
+performed by Pasteur, Tyndall, and Dallinger, lead to the
+conclusion that even the simplest living beings can be produced
+only from germs originating in previously living organisms of
+similar structure. The simplest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+living organisms are thus to science ultimate facts, for which it can not account except
+conjecturally.</p>
+
+<p>3. No case is certainly known in human experience where any
+species of animal or plant has been so changed as to assume all
+the characters of a new species. Species are thus practically to
+science unchangeable units, the origin of which we have as yet no
+means of tracing.</p>
+
+<p>4. Though the general history of animal life in time bears a
+certain resemblance to the development of the individual animal
+from the embryo, there is no reason whatever to believe that this
+is more than a mere relation of analogy, arising from the fact
+that in both cases the law of procedure is to pass from the
+simpler forms to the more complex, and from the more generalized
+to the more specialized. The external conditions and details of
+the two kinds of series are altogether different, and become more
+so the more they are investigated. This shows that the causes can
+not have been similar.</p>
+
+<p>5. In tracing back animals and groups of animals in geological
+time, we find that they always end without any link of connection
+with previous beings, and in circumstances which render any such
+connections improbable. In the work of our next creative day, the
+series of animals preceding the modern horse has been cited as a
+good instance of probable evolution; but not only are the members
+of the series so widely separated in space and time that no
+connection can be traced, but the earliest of them, the
+<i>Orohippus</i>, would require, on the theory, to have been preceded
+by a previous series extending so far back that it is impossible,
+under any supposition of the imperfection of our present
+knowledge, to consider such extension probable. The same
+difficulty applies to every case of tracing back any specific
+form either of animal or plant. This general result proves, as I
+have elsewhere attempted to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+show,
+<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a>
+that the introduction of
+the various animal types must have been abrupt, and under some
+influence quite different from that of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>These are what I would term the five fatal objections to
+evolution as at present held, as a means of accounting for the
+introduction and succession of animals. To what extent they may
+be weakened or strengthened by the future progress of science it
+is impossible to say, but so long as they exist it is mere folly
+and presumption to affirm that modern science supports the
+doctrine of evolution. There can be no doubt, however, that the
+Bible leaves us perfectly free to inquire as to the plan and
+method of the Creator, and that, whatever discoveries we may
+make, we shall find that his plans are orderly, methodical, and
+continuous, and not of the nature of an arbitrary patchwork.</p>
+
+<p>Though science as yet gives us no certain laws for the
+introduction of new specific types, it indicates certain possible
+modes of the origination of varieties, races, and sub-species of
+previously existing types. One of these is that struggle for
+existence against adverse external conditions, which, however,
+has been harped upon too exclusively by the Darwinian school, and
+which will give chiefly depauperated and degraded forms. Another
+is that expansion under exceptionally favorable conditions which
+arises where species are admitted to wider new areas of
+geographical range and more abundant and varied means of
+sustenance. Land animals and plants must have experienced this in
+times of continental elevation; marine animals and plants in
+times of continental depression. Another is the tendency to what
+has been called reproductive retardation and acceleration which
+species undergo under
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
+conditions exceptionally unfavorable or
+favorable, and which in some modern aquatic animals produces
+differences so great that members of the same species have
+sometimes been placed in different genera. Lastly, it is
+conceivable that species may have been so constructed that after
+a certain number of generations they may spontaneously undergo
+either abrupt or gradual changes, similar to those which the
+individual undergoes at certain stages of growth. This last
+furnishes the only true analogy possible between embryology and
+geological succession.</p>
+
+<p>While, however, science is silent as to the production of new
+specific types, and only gives us indications as to the origin of
+varieties and races, it is curious that the Bible suggests three
+methods in which new organisms may be, and according to it have
+been introduced by the Creator. The first is that of immediate
+and direct creation, as when God created the great Tanninim. The
+second is that of mediate creation, through the materials
+previously existing, as when he said, "Let the land bring forth
+plants," or "Let the waters bring forth animals." The third is
+that of production from a previous organism by power other than
+that of ordinary reproduction, as in the origination of Eve from
+Adam, and the miraculous conception of Jesus. These are the only
+points in which its teachings approach the limits of speculations
+as to evolution, and they certainly leave scope enough for the
+legitimate inquiries of science.
+<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:90%;">THE HIGHER ANIMALS AND MAN.</span><br /></h2>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-indent:3em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;">
+"And God said, Let the land bring forth animals
+after their kinds; the herbivora, the reptiles, and the carnivora, after their
+kinds; and it was so. And God made carnivorous mammals after their kinds,
+and herbivorous mammals after their kinds, and every reptile of the land after
+its kind; and God saw that it was good.</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-indent:3em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;">
+"And God said, Let us make man in our own image, after our likeness; and
+let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, and over
+the herbivora and over all the land. So God created man in his own image,
+in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.
+And God blessed them; and God said, Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish
+the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over
+the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-indent:3em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;">
+"And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing
+seed which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree
+in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it
+shall be for food, and to every beast of the earth and to
+every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon
+the earth wherein there is life, I have given every green
+herb for meat; and it was so. And God saw every thing that
+he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And evening and
+morning were the sixth day."&mdash;Genesis i., 24-31.</p>
+
+
+<p>The creation of animals, unlike that of plants, occupies two
+days. Here our attention is restricted to the inhabitants of the
+<i>land</i>, and chiefly to their higher forms. Several new names are
+introduced to our notice, which I have endeavored to translate as
+literally as possible by introducing zoological terms where those
+in common use were deficient.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
+1. The first tribe of animals noticed here is named <i>Bhemah</i>,
+"cattle" in our version; and in the Septuagint "quadrupeds" in
+one of the verses, and "cattle" in the other. Both of these
+senses are of common occurrence in the Scriptures, cattle or
+domesticated animals being usually designated by this word; while
+in other passages, as in 1 Kings iv., 33, where Solomon is said
+to have written a treatise on "<i>beasts</i>, fowls, creeping things,
+and fishes," it appears to include all the mammalia.
+Notwithstanding this wide range of meaning, however, there are
+passages, and these of the greatest authority in reference to our
+present subject, in which it strictly means the herbivorous
+mammals, and which show that when it was necessary to distinguish
+these from the predaceous or carnivorous tribes this term was
+specially employed. In Leviticus xi., 22-27, we have a
+specification of all the Bhemoth that might and might not be used
+for food. It includes all the true ruminants, with the coney, the
+hare, and the hog, animals of the rodent and pachydermatous
+orders. The carnivorous quadrupeds are designated by a different
+generic term. In this chapter of Leviticus, therefore, which
+contains the only approach to a system in natural history to be
+found in the Bible, <i>bhemah</i> is strictly a synonym of
+<i>herbivora</i>, including especially ungulates and rodents. That
+this is its proper meaning here is confirmed by the
+considerations that in this place it can denote but a part of the
+land quadrupeds, and that the idea of cattle or domesticated
+animals would be an anachronism. At the same time there need be
+no objection to the view that the especial capacity of ruminants
+and other herbivora for domestication is connected with the use
+of the word in this place.</p>
+
+<p>2. The word <i>remes</i>, "creeping things" in our version, as we have
+already shown, is a very general term, referring to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
+power of motion possessed by animals, especially on the surface of the
+ground. It here in all probability refers to the additional types
+of terrestrial reptiles, and other creatures lower than the
+mammals, introduced in this period.</p>
+
+<p>3. The compound term (<i>hay'th-eretz</i>) which I have ventured to
+render "carnivora," is literally animal of the land; but though
+thus general in its meaning, it is here evidently intended to
+denote a particular tribe of animals inhabiting the land, and not
+included in the scope of the two words already noticed. In other
+parts of Scripture this term is used in the sense of a "wild
+beast." In a few places, like the other terms already noticed, it
+is used of all kinds of animals, but that above stated is its
+general meaning, and perfectly accords with the requirements of
+the passage.</p>
+
+<p>The creation of the sixth day therefore includes&mdash;1st, the
+herbivorous mammalia; 2d, a variety of terrestrial reptilia, and
+other lower forms not included in the work of the previous day;
+3d, the carnivorous mammalia. It will be observed that the order
+in the two verses is different. In verse 24th it is herbivora,
+"creeping things," and carnivora. In verse 25th it is carnivora,
+herbivora, and "creeping things." One of these may, as in the
+account of the fifth day, indicate the order of <i>time</i> in the
+creation, and the other the order of <i>rank</i> in the animals made,
+or there may have been two divisions of the work, in the earlier
+of which herbivorous animals took the lead, and in the later
+those that are carnivorous. In either case we may infer that the
+herbivora predominated in the earlier creations of the period.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost unnecessary to say this period corresponds with the
+Tertiary or Cainozoic era of geologists. The coincidences are
+very marked and striking. As already stated, though in the later
+secondary period there were great facilities
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+for the preservation of mammals in the strata then being deposited, only
+a few small species of the humblest order have been found; and
+the occurrence of the higher orders of this class is to some
+extent precluded by the fact that the place in nature now
+occupied by the mammals was then provided for by the vast
+development of the reptile tribes. At the very beginning of the
+tertiary period all this was changed; most of the gigantic
+reptiles had disappeared, and terrestrial mammals of large size
+and high organization had taken their place. Perhaps no
+geological change is more striking and remarkable than the sudden
+disappearance of the reptilian fauna at the close of the
+mesozoic, and the equally abrupt appearance of numerous species
+of large mammals, and this not in one region only, but over both
+the great continents, and not only where a sudden break occurs in
+the series of formations, but also where, as in Western America,
+they pass gradually into each other. During the whole tertiary
+period this predominance of the mammalia continued; and as the
+mesozoic was the period of giant reptiles, so the tertiary was
+that of great mammals. It is a singular and perhaps not
+accidental coincidence that so many of the early tertiary mammals
+known to us are large herbivora, such as would be included in the
+Hebrew word <i>bhemah</i>; and that in the book of Job the
+hippopotamus is called <i>behemoth</i>, the plural form being
+apparently used to denote that this animal is the chief of the
+creatures known under the general term <i>bhemah</i>, while geology
+informs us that the prevailing order of mammals in the older
+tertiary period was that of the ungulates, and that many of the
+extinct creatures of this group are very closely allied to the
+hippopotamus. Behemoth thus figures in the book of Job, not only
+as at the time a marked illustration of creative power, but to
+our farther knowledge also as a singular remnant
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
+of an extinct gigantic race. It is at least curious that while in the fifth day
+great reptiles like those of the secondary rocks form the burden
+of the work, in the sixth we have a term which so directly
+reminds us of those gigantic pachyderms which figure so largely
+in the tertiary period. Large carnivora also occur in the
+tertiary formations, and there are some forms of reptile life,
+as, for example, the serpents, which first appear in the
+tertiary.</p>
+
+<p>I may refer to any popular text-book of geology in evidence of
+the exact conformity of this to the progress of mammalian life,
+as we now know it in detail from the study of the successive
+tertiary deposits. The following short summary from Dana, though
+written several years ago, still expresses the main features of
+the case:</p>
+
+<p>"The quadrupeds did not all come forth together. Large and
+powerful herbivorous species first take possession of the earth,
+with only a few small carnivora. These pass away. Other herbivora
+with a larger proportion of carnivora next appear. These also are
+exterminated; and so with others. Then the carnivora appear in
+vast numbers and power, and the herbivora also abound. Moreover
+these races attain a magnitude and number far surpassing all that
+now exist, as much so indeed, on all the continents, North and
+South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, as the old
+mastodon, twenty feet long and nine feet high, exceeds the modern
+buffalo. Such, according to geology, was the age of mammals, when
+the brute species existed in their greatest magnificence, and
+brutal ferocity had free play; when the dens of bears and hyenas,
+prowling tigers and lions far larger than any now existing,
+covered Britain and Europe. Mammoths and mastodons wandered over
+the plains of North America, huge sloth-like Megatheria passed
+their sluggish
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
+lives on the pampas of South America, and
+elephantine marsupials strolled about Australia.</p>
+
+<p>"As the mammalian age draws to a close, the ancient carnivora and
+herbivora of that era all pass away, excepting, it is believed, a
+few that are useful to man. New creations of smaller size peopled
+the groves; the vegetation received accessions to its foliage,
+fruit-trees and flowers, and the seas brighter forms of water
+life. This we know from comparisons with the fossils of the
+preceding mammalian age. There was at this time no chaotic
+upturning, but only the opening of creation to its fullest
+expansion; and so in Genesis no new day is begun, it is still the
+<i>sixth day</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The creation of man is prefaced by expressions implying
+deliberation and care. It is not said, "Let the earth bring
+forth" man, but let us form or fashion man. This marks the
+relative importance of the human species, and the heavenly origin
+of its nobler immaterial part. Man is also said to have been
+"created," implying that in his constitution there was something
+new and not included in previous parts of the work, even in its
+material. Man was created, as the Hebrew literally reads, the
+shadow and similitude of God&mdash;the greatest of the visible
+manifestations of Deity in the lower world&mdash;the reflected image
+of his Maker, and, under the Supreme Lawgiver, the delegated
+ruler of the earth. Now for the first time was the earth tenanted
+by a being capable of comprehending the purposes and plans of
+Jehovah, of regarding his works with intelligent admiration, and
+of shadowing forth the excellences of his moral nature. For
+countless ages the earth had been inhabited by creatures
+wonderful in their structures and instincts, and mutely
+testifying, as their buried remains still do, to the Creator's
+glory; but limited within a narrow range of animal propensities,
+and having no power of raising a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
+thought or aspiration toward the Being who made them. Now, however, man enters on the scene,
+and the sons of God, who had shouted for joy when the first land
+emerged from the bosom of the deep, saw the wondrous spectacle of
+a spiritual nature analogous to their own, united to a corporeal
+frame constructed on the same general type with the higher of
+those irrational creatures whose presence on earth they had so
+long witnessed.</p>
+
+<p>Man was to rule over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air,
+and the <i>bhemah</i> or herbivorous animals. The carnivorous
+creatures are not mentioned, and possibly were not included in
+man's dominion. We shall find an explanation of this farther on.
+The nature of man's dominion we are left to infer. In his state
+of innocence it must have been a mild and gentle sway,
+interfering in no respect wilts the free exercise of the powers
+of enjoyment bestowed on animals by the Creator, a rule akin to
+that which a merciful man exercises over a domesticated animal,
+and which some animals are capable of repaying with a warm and
+devoted affection. Now, however, man's rule has become a tyranny.
+"The whole creation groans" because of it. He desolates the face
+of nature wherever he appears, unsettling the nice balance of
+natural agencies, and introducing remediless confusion and
+suffering among the lower creatures, even when in the might of
+his boasted civilization he professes to renovate and improve the
+face of nature. He retains enough of the image of his Maker to
+enable him to a great extent to assert his dominion, and to
+aspire after a restoration of his original paradise, but he has
+lost so much that the power which he retains is necessarily
+abused to selfish ends.</p>
+
+<p>Man, like the other creatures, was destined to be fruitful and
+multiply and replenish the earth. We are also informed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
+in chapter second that he was placed in a "garden," a chosen spot in
+the alluvial plains of Western Asia, belonging to the later
+geological formations, and thus prepared by the whole series of
+prior geological changes, replenished with all things useful to
+him, and containing nothing hurtful, at least in so far as the
+animal creation was concerned. These facts, taken in connection,
+lead to grave questions. How is the happy and innocent state of
+man consistent with the contemporaneous existence of carnivorous
+and predaceous animals, which, as both Scripture and geology
+state, were created in abundance in the sixth day? How, when
+confined to a limited region, could he increase and multiply and
+replenish the earth? These questions, which have caused no little
+perplexity, are easily solved when brought into the light of our
+modern knowledge of nature. 1. Every large region of the earth is
+inhabited by a group of animals differing in the proportions of
+identical species, and in the presence of distinct species, from
+the groups inhabiting other districts. There is also sufficient
+reason to conclude that all animals and plants have spread from
+certain local centres of creation, in which certain groups of
+species have been produced and allowed to extend themselves,
+until they met and became intermingled with species extending
+from other centres. Now the district of Asia, in the vicinity of
+the Euphrates and Tigris, to which the Scripture assigns the
+origin of the human race, is the centre to which we can with the
+greatest probability trace several of the species of animals and
+plants most useful to man, and it lies near the confines of
+warmer and colder regions of distribution in the Old World, and
+also near the boundary of the Asiatic and European regions. At
+the period under consideration it may have been peopled with a
+group of animals specially suited to association with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+the progenitors of mankind. 2. To remove all zoological difficulties
+from the position of primeval man in his state of innocence, we
+have but to suppose, in accordance with all the probabilities of
+the case, that man was created along with a group of creatures
+adapted to contribute to his happiness, and having no tendency to
+injure or annoy; and that it is the formation of these
+creatures&mdash;the group of his own centre of creation&mdash;that is
+especially noticed in Genesis ii., 19, <i>et seq.</i>, where God is
+represented as forming them out of the ground and exhibiting them
+to Adam; a passage otherwise superfluous, and indeed tending to
+confuse the meaning of the document. 3. The difficulty attending
+the early extension of the human race is at once obviated by the
+geological doctrine of the extinction of species. We know that in
+past geological periods large and important groups of species
+have become extinct, and have been replaced by new groups
+extending from new centres; and we know that this process has
+removed, in early geological periods, many creatures that would
+have been highly injurious to human interests had they remained.
+Now the group of species created with man being the latest
+introduced, we may infer, on geological grounds, that it would
+have extended itself within the spheres of older zoological and
+botanical districts, and would have replaced their species,
+which, in the ordinary operation of natural laws, may have been
+verging toward extinction. Thus not only man, but the Eden in
+which he dwelt, with all its animals and plants, would have
+gradually encroached on the surrounding wilderness, until man's
+happy and peaceful reign had replaced that of the ferocious
+beasts that preceded him in dominion, and had extended at least
+over all the temperate region of the earth. 4. The cursing of the
+ground for man's sake, on his fall from innocence, would
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>
+thus consist in the permission given to the predaceous animals and the
+thorns and the briers of other centres of creation to invade his
+Eden; or, in his own expulsion, to contend with the animals and
+plants which were intended to have given way and become extinct
+before him. Thus the fall of man would produce an arrestment in
+the progress of the earth in that last great revolution which
+would have converted it into an Eden; and the anomalies of its
+present state consist, according to Scripture, in a mixture of
+the conditions of the tertiary with those of the human period. 5.
+Though there is good ground for believing that man was to have
+been exempted from the general law of mortality, we can not infer
+that any such exemption would have been enjoyed by his companion
+animals; we only know that he himself would have been free from
+all annoyance and injury and decay from external causes. We may
+also conclude that, while Eden was sufficient for his habitation,
+the remainder of the earth would continue, just as in the earlier
+tertiary periods, under the dominion of the predaceous mammals,
+reptiles, and birds. 6. The above views enable us on the one hand
+to avoid the difficulties that attend the admission of predaceous
+animals into Eden, and on the other the still more formidable
+difficulties that attend the attempt to exclude them altogether
+from the Adamic world. They also illustrate the geological fact
+that many animals, contemporaneous with man, extend far back into
+the Tertiary period. These are creatures not belonging to the
+Edenic centre of creation, but introduced in an earlier part of
+the sixth day, and now permitted to exist along with man in his
+fallen state. I have stated these supposed conditions of the
+Adamic creation briefly, and with as little illustration as
+possible, that they may connectedly strike the mind of the
+reader.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
+Each of these statements is in harmony with the
+Scriptural narrative on the one hand, and with geology on the
+other; and, taken together, they afford an intelligible history
+of the introduction of man. If a geologist were to state, <i>&agrave;
+priori</i>, the conditions proper to the creation of any important
+species, he could only say&mdash;the preparation or selection of some
+region of the earth for it, and its production along with a group
+of plants and animals suited to it. These are precisely the
+conditions implied in the Scriptural account of the creation of
+Adam.
+<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>
+The difficulties of the subject have arisen from
+supposing, contrary to the narrative itself, that the conditions
+necessary for Eden must in the first instance have extended over
+the whole earth, and that the creatures with which man is in his
+present dispersion brought into contact must necessarily have
+been his companions there. One would think that many persons
+derive their idea of the first man in Eden from nursery
+picture-books; for the Bible gives no countenance to the idea
+that all the animals in the world were in Eden. On the contrary,
+it asserts that a selection was made both in the case of animals
+and plants, and that this Edenic assemblage of creatures
+constituted man's associates in his state of primeval innocence.</p>
+
+<p>The food of animals is specified at the close of the work of this
+day. The grant to man is every herb bearing seed, and every
+fruit-tree. That to the lower animals is more extensive&mdash;every
+green herb. This can not mean that every animal in the earth was
+herbivorous. It may refer to the group of animals associated with
+man in Eden, and this is most likely the intention of the writer;
+but if it includes the animals of the whole earth, we may be
+certain, from the express
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
+mention of carnivorous creatures in
+the work of the fifth and sixth days, that it indicates merely
+the general fact that the support of the whole animal kingdom is
+based on vegetation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A most important circumstance in connection with the work of the
+sixth day is that it witnessed the creation both of man and the
+mammalia. A fictitious writer would probably have exalted man by
+assigning to him a separate day, and by placing the whole animal
+kingdom together in respect to time. He would be all the more
+likely to do this, if unacquainted, as most ignorant persons as
+well as literary men are, with the importance and teeming
+multitudes of the lower tribes of animals, and with the typical
+identity of the human frame with that of the higher animals.
+Moses has not done so, we are at liberty to suppose, because the
+vision of creation had it otherwise; and modern geology has amply
+vindicated him in this by its disclosure of the intimate
+connection of the human with the tertiary period; and has shown
+in this as in other instances that truth and not "accommodation"
+was the object of the sacred writer. While, as already stated,
+many existing species extend far back into the tertiary period,
+showing that the earth has been visited by no universal
+catastrophe since the first creation of mammals; on the other
+hand, we can not with certainty trace any existing species back
+beyond the commencement of the tertiary era. Geology and
+revelation, therefore, coincide in referring the creation of man
+to the close of the period in which mammals were introduced and
+became predominant, and in establishing a marked separation
+between that period and the preceding one in which the lower
+animals held undisputed sway. This coincidence, while it
+strengthens the probability that the creative days were long
+periods, opposes an almost insurmountable
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
+obstacle to every other hypothesis of reconciliation with geological science.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of this day the Creator again reviews his work, and
+pronounces it good. Step by step the world had been evolved from
+a primeval chaos, through many successive physical changes and
+long series of organized beings. It had now reached its acme of
+perfection, and had received its most illustrious tenant,
+possessing an organism excelling all others in majesty and
+beauty, and an immaterial soul the shadow of the glorious Creator
+himself. Well might the angels sing, when the long-protracted
+work was thus grandly completed:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;text-indent:10em;font-size:90%">"Thrice happy man,<br />
+And sons of men, whom God hath thus advanced,<br />
+Created in his image, there to dwell<br />
+And worship him, and in reward to rule<br />
+Over his works in earth, or sea, or air,<br />
+And multiply a race of worshippers<br />
+Holy and just; thrice happy, if they know<br />
+Their happiness and persevere upright."</p>
+
+<p>The Hebrew idea of the golden age of Eden is pure and exalted. It
+consists in the enjoyment of the favor of God, and of all that is
+beautiful and excellent in his works. God and nature are the
+whole. Nor is it merely a rude, unintelligent, sensuous
+enjoyment. Man primeval is not a lazy savage gathering acorns. He
+is made in the image of the Creator; he is to keep and dress his
+garden, and it is furnished with every plant good for food and
+pleasant to the sight. In the midst of our material civilization
+we need to disabuse ourselves of some prejudices before we can
+realize the fact that man, without the arts of life or any need
+of them, is not necessarily a barbarian or a savage. Yet even
+Adam must have been an agriculturist with strong and willing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
+hands, and must have had some need of agricultural implements
+such as those with which the least civilized of his descendants
+have been wont to till the soil. Still, without art or with very
+little of it, he could enjoy all that is beautiful and grand in
+nature, and could rise from the observation of nature to
+communion with God. We need the more to realize this, inasmuch as
+there seems so strong a tendency to confound material
+civilization with higher culture, and to hold that man primeval
+must have been low and debased simply because he may have had no
+temples and no machinery. We must remember that he had nature,
+which is higher than fine art, and that when in harmony with his
+surroundings he may have had no need either of exhausting labor
+or of mechanical contrivances. Farther, in the contemplation of
+nature and in seeking after God, he had higher teachers than our
+boasted civilization can claim.</p>
+
+<p>Alas for fallen man, with his poor civilization gathered little
+by little from the dust of earth, and his paltry art that halts
+immeasurably behind nature. How little is he able even to
+appreciate the high estate of his great ancestor. The world of
+fallen men has worshipped art too much, reverenced and studied
+God and nature too little. The savage displays the lowest taste
+when he admires the rude figures which he paints on his face or
+his garments more than the glorious painting that adorns nature;
+yet even he acknowledges the pre-eminent excellence of nature by
+imitating her forms and colors, and by adapting her painted
+plumes and flowers to his own use. There is a wide interval,
+including many gradations, between this low position and that of
+the cultivated amateur or artist. The art of the latter makes a
+nearer approach to the truly beautiful, inasmuch as it more
+accurately represents the geometric and organic forms and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>
+the coloring of nature; and inasmuch as it devises ideal combinations
+not found in the actual world; which ideal combinations, however,
+are beautiful or monstrous just as they realize or violate the
+harmonies of nature. It is only the highest culture that brings
+man back to his primitive refinement.</p>
+
+<p>Art takes her true place when she sits at the feet of nature, and
+brings her students to drink in its beauties, that they may
+endeavor, however imperfectly, to reproduce them. On the other
+hand, the student of nature must not content himself with
+"writing Latin names on white paper," wherewith to label nature's
+productions, but must rise to the contemplation of the order and
+beauty of the Cosmos as a revelation of Divinity. Both will thus
+rise to that highest taste which will enable them to appreciate
+not only the elegance of individual forms, but their structure,
+their harmonies, their grouping and their relations, their
+special adaptation, and their places as parts of a great system.
+Thus art will attain that highest point in which it displays
+original genius, without violating natural truth and unity, and
+nature will be regarded as the highest art.</p>
+
+<p>Much is said and done in our time with reference to the
+cultivation of popular taste for fine art as a means of
+civilization; and this, so far as it goes, is well; but the only
+sure path to the highest taste-education is the cultivation of
+the study of nature. This is also an easier branch of education,
+provided the instructors have sufficient knowledge. Good works of
+art are rare and costly; but good works of nature are everywhere
+around us, waiting to be examined. Such education, popularly
+diffused, would react on the efforts of art. It would enable a
+widely extended public to appreciate real excellence, and would
+cause works of art to be valued just in proportion to the extent
+to which they realize
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+or deviate from natural truth and unity. I
+do not profess to speak authoritatively on such subjects, but I
+confess that the strong impression on my mind is that neither the
+revered antique models, nor the practice and principles of the
+generality of modern art reformers, would endure such criticism;
+and that if we could combine popular enthusiasm for art with
+scientific appreciation of nature, a new and better art might
+arise from the union.</p>
+
+<p>I may appear to dwell too long upon this topic; but my excuse
+must be that it leads to a true estimate both of natural history
+and of the sacred Scriptures. The study of nature guides to those
+large views of the unity and order of creation which alone are
+worthy of a being of the rank of man, and which lead him to
+adequate conceptions of the Creator; but the truly wise recognize
+three grades of beauty. First, that of art, which, in its higher
+efforts, can raise ordinary minds far above themselves. Secondly,
+that of nature, which, in its most common objects, must transcend
+the former, since its artist is that God of whose infinite mind
+the genius of the artist is only a faint reflection. Thirdly,
+that pre-eminent beauty of moral goodness revealed only in the
+spiritual nature of the Supreme. The first is one of the natural
+resources of fallen man in his search for happiness. The second
+was man's joy in his primeval innocence. The third is the
+inheritance of man redeemed. It is folly to place these on the
+same level. It is greater folly to worship either or both of the
+first without regard to the last. It is true wisdom to aspire to
+the last, and to regard nature as the handmaid of piety, art as
+but the handmaid of nature.</p>
+
+<p>Nature to the unobservant is merely a mass of things more or less
+beautiful or interesting, but without any definite order or
+significance. An observer soon arrives at the conclusion
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>
+that it is a series of circling changes, ever returning to the same
+points, ever renewing their courses, under the action of
+invariable laws. But if he rests here, he falls infinitely short
+of the idea of the Cosmos, and stands on the brink of the
+profound error of eternal succession. A little further progress
+conducts him to the inviting field of special adaptation and
+mutual relation of things. He finds that nothing is without its
+use; that every structure is most nicely adjusted to special
+ends; that the supposed ceaseless circling of nature is merely
+the continuous action of great powers, by which an infinity of
+utilities are worked out&mdash;the great fly-wheel which, in its
+unceasing and at first sight apparently aimless round, is giving
+motion to thousands of reels and spindles and shuttles, that are
+spinning and weaving, in all its varied patterns, the great web
+of life.</p>
+
+<p>But the observer, as he looks on this web, is surprised to find
+that it has in its whole extent a wondrous pattern. He rises to
+the contemplation of type in nature, a great truth to which
+science has only lately opened its eyes. He begins dimly to
+perceive that the Creator has from the beginning had a plan
+before his mind, that this plan embraced various types or
+patterns of existence; that on these patterns he has been working
+out the whole system of nature, adapting each to all the variety
+of uses by an infinity of minor modifications. That, in short,
+whether he study the eye of a gnat or the structure of a mountain
+chain, he sees not only objects of beauty and utility, but parts
+of far-reaching plans of infinite wisdom, by which all objects,
+however separated in time or space, are linked together.</p>
+
+<p>How much of positive pleasure does that man lose who passes
+through life absorbed with its wants and its artificialities, and
+regarding with a "brute, unconscious gaze" the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>
+grand revelation of a higher intelligence in the outer world. It is only in an
+approximation through our Divine Redeemer to the moral likeness
+of God that we can be truly happy; but of the subsidiary
+pleasures which we are here permitted to enjoy, the contemplation
+of nature is one of the best and purest. It was the pleasure, the
+show, the spectacle prepared for man in Eden, and how much true
+philosophy and taste shine in the simple words that in paradise
+God planted trees "pleasant to the sight," as well as "good for
+food." Other things being equal, the nearer we can return to this
+primitive taste, the greater will be our sensuous enjoyment, the
+better the influence of our pleasures on our moral nature,
+because they will then depend on the cultivation of tastes at
+once natural and harmless, and will not lead us to communion with
+and reverence for merely human genius, but will conduct us into
+the presence of the infinite perfection of the Creator.</p>
+
+<p>The Bible knows but one species of man. It is not said that men
+were created after their species, as we read of the groups of
+animals. Man was made, "male and female;" and in the fuller
+details afterwards given in the second chapter&mdash;where the writer,
+having finished his general narrative, commences his special
+history of man&mdash;but one primitive pair is introduced to our
+notice. We scarcely need the detailed tables of affiliation
+afterward given, or the declaration of the apostle who preached
+to the supposed autochthones of Athens, that "God has made of one
+blood all nations," to assure us of the Scriptural unity of man.
+If, therefore, there were any good reason to believe that man is
+not of one but several origins, we must admit Moses to have been
+very imperfectly informed. Nor, on the other hand, does the Bible
+any more than geology allow us to assign a very high antiquity
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
+to the origin of man relatively to that of the earth on which he
+dwells. The genealogical tables of the Bible may admit of some
+limits of difference of opinion as to the age of the human world
+or &aelig;on, and also of that of the deluge, from which man took his
+second point of departure; but they do not allow us to put the
+origin of man farther back than that of the present or modern
+condition of our continents and the present races of animals.
+They therefore limit us to the modern or quaternary period of
+geology. The question of man's antiquity, so much agitated now,
+demands, however, a separate and careful consideration; but we
+must first devote a few pages to the simple statements of the
+Bible respecting the Sabbath of creation and its relation to
+human history.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.<br/><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">THE REST OF THE CREATOR.</span><br /></h2>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-indent:3em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;">"And the
+heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them.
+And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made, and he
+rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made.
+And God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because that in it
+God rested from all  his work which he had created to make."&mdash;Genesis ii., 1-3.</p>
+
+
+<p>The end of the sixth day closed the work of creation properly so
+called, as well as that of forming and arranging the things
+created. The beginning of the seventh introduced a period which,
+according to the views already stated, was to be occupied by the
+continued increase and diffusion of man and the creatures under
+his dominion, and by the gradual disappearance of tribes of
+creatures unconnected with his well-being.</p>
+
+<p>Science in this well accords with Scripture. No proof exists of
+the production of a new species since the creation of man; and
+all geological and arch&aelig;ological evidence points to him and a few
+of the higher mammals as the newest of the creatures. There is,
+on the other hand, good evidence that several species have become
+extinct since his creation. Those who believe in the continuous
+evolution of animals and men, it is true, can see no actual
+termination of the process with the introduction of man; but even
+they see that the appearance of a rational and moral being at
+least changes the nature and order of the development. Nor can
+they doubt
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
+that man is the last born of nature, and that the
+whole animal creation is crowned by him as its capital or topmost
+pinnacle. The later speculators on this subject have never
+reached any truth beyond that long ago stated by the lamented
+Edward Forbes&mdash;a most careful observer and accurate reasoner on
+the more recent changes of the earth's surface. He infers, from
+the distribution of species from their centres of creation, that
+man is the latest product of creative power; or, in other words,
+that none of those species or groups of species which he had been
+able to trace to their centres, or the spots at which they
+probably originated, appear to be of later or as late origin as
+man. "This consideration," he says, "induces me to believe that
+the last province in time was completed by the coming of man, and
+to maintain an hypothesis that man stands unique in space and
+time, himself equal to the sum of any pre-existing centre of
+creation or of all&mdash;an hypothesis consistent with man's moral and
+social position in the world."</p>
+
+<p>The seventh day, then, was to have been that in which all the
+happiness, beauty, and perfection of the others were to have been
+concentrated. But an element of instability was present in the
+being who occupied the summit of the animal scale. Not regulated
+by blind and unerring instincts, but a free agent, with a high
+intellectual and moral nature, and liable to be acted on by
+temptation from without; under such influence he lost his moral
+balance in stretching out his hand to grasp the peculiar powers
+of Deity, and fell beyond the hope of
+self-redemption&mdash;perpetuating, by one of those laws which
+regulate the transmission of mixed corporeal and spiritual
+natures, his degradation to every generation of his species. And
+so God's great work was marred, and all his plans seemed to be
+foiled, when they had just reached their completion.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
+Thus far science might carry us unaided; for there is not a true
+naturalist, however skeptical as to revealed religion, who does
+not feel in his inmost heart the disjointed state of the present
+relations of man to nature; the natural wreck that results from
+his artificial modes of life, the long trains of violations of
+the symmetry of nature that follow in the wake of his most
+boasted achievements. But here natural science stops; and just as
+we have found that, in tracing back the world's history, the
+Bible carries us much farther than geology, so science, having
+led us to suspect the fallen state of man, leaves us henceforth
+to the teaching of revelation. And how glorious that teaching!
+God did not find himself baffled&mdash;his resources are infinite&mdash;he
+had foreseen and prepared for all this apparent evil; and out of
+the moral wreck he proceeds to work out the grand process of
+<i>redemption</i>, which is the especial object of the seventh day,
+and which will result in the production of a new heaven and a new
+earth wherein dwelleth righteousness. In the seventh, as in the
+former days, the evening precedes the morning. For four thousand
+years the world groped in its darkness&mdash;a darkness tenanted by
+moral monsters as powerful and destructive as the old pre-Adamite
+reptiles. The Sun of Righteousness at length arose, and the
+darkness began to pass away; but eighteen centuries have elapsed,
+and we still see but the gray dawn of morning, which we yet
+firmly believe will brighten into a glorious day that shall know
+no succeeding night.
+<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>The seventh day is the modern or human era in geology; and,
+though it can not yet boast of any physical changes so
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>
+great as those of past periods, it is still of much interest, as affording
+the facts on which we must depend for explanations of past
+changes; and as immediately connected in time with those later
+tertiary periods which afford so many curious problems to the
+geological student. The actual connection of the human with
+preceding periods is still involved in some obscurity; and, as we
+shall see, there has recently been a strong tendency to throw
+back the origin of man into prehistoric ages of enormous length,
+on grounds which are, however, much less certain than is commonly
+imagined. This question we have to examine; but before entering
+upon it may shortly sketch the actual import of the statements of
+the Hebrew Scriptures respecting what may be called the
+prehistoric duration of the human species. This is the more
+necessary, as the most crude notions seem very widely to prevail
+on the subject. I shall, therefore, in this place notice some
+general facts deducible from the Bible, and which may be useful
+in appreciating the true relation of the human era to those which
+preceded it. It will be understood that I shall endeavor merely
+to present a picture of what the Bible actually teaches, and
+which any one can verify by reading the book of Genesis.</p>
+
+<p>1. The local centre of creation of the human species, and
+probably of a group of creatures coeval with it, was Eden; a
+country of which the Scriptures give a somewhat minute
+geographical description. It was evidently a district of Western
+Asia; and, from its possession of several important rivers,
+rather a region or large territory than a limited spot, such as
+many, who have discussed the question of the site of Eden, seem
+to suppose. In this view it is a matter of no moment to fix its
+site more nearly than the indication of the Bible that it
+included the sources and probably large portions of the valleys
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>
+of the Tigris, the Euphrates, and perhaps the Oxus and Jaxartes.
+Into the minor difficulties respecting the site of Eden it would
+be unprofitable to enter, and it will matter little if we accept
+that view, which, however, I think less probable, that it was
+placed in the lower part of the valley of the Euphrates. I may
+merely mention one particular of the Biblical description,
+because it throws light on the great antiquity of this
+geographical delineation, and has been strangely misconceived by
+expositors&mdash;the relation of those rivers to Cush or Ethiopia and
+Havilah, a tribal name derived from that of a grandson of Cush.
+On consulting the tenth chapter of Genesis, it will be found that
+the Cushites under Nimrod, very soon after the deluge, are stated
+to have pushed their migrations and conquests along the Tigris to
+the northward, and established there the first empire. It is
+probably this primitive Cushite empire, called Ethiopia in our
+translation, which in the epoch of the description of Eden
+occupied the Euphratean valley, and being bounded on one side by
+the river called Gihon, was thus believed to extend over the old
+site of Eden. Thus the Cush or Ethiopia of the description has no
+direct connection with the African Ethiopia, and speculations
+based on such a supposed connection are groundless. On the other
+hand this feature furnishes an interesting coincidence with other
+parts of Genesis, and throws light on many obscure points in the
+early history of man; and since this Cushite empire had perished
+even before the time of Moses, it indicates a still more ancient
+tradition respecting the primeval abode of our species.</p>
+
+<p>2. Before the deluge this region must have been the seat of a
+dense population, which, according to the Biblical account, must
+have made considerable advances in the arts, and at the same time
+sunk very low in moral debasement.
+<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+Whether any remains of the central portions of this ancient population or its works
+exist will probably not be determined with absolute certainty
+till we have accurate geological investigations of the whole
+country in the neighborhood of the Caspian Sea and along the
+great rivers of Western Asia, though there is nothing
+unreasonable in the belief that some of the old prehistoric men
+whose remains are discovered in caves and river gravels in Europe
+may belong to the antediluvian race. Should such remains be
+found, we might infer, from the extreme longevity and other
+characteristics assigned to the antediluvians, that their
+skeletons would present peculiarities entitling them to be
+considered a well-marked variety of the human species, and this
+not of a low type of physical organization. We may also infer
+that the family of man very early divided into two races&mdash;one
+retaining in greater purity the moral endowments of the species,
+the other excelling in the mechanical and fine arts; and that
+there were rude and savage outlying communities of men then as at
+present. If the so-called pal&aelig;olithic men of Europe are
+antediluvian, they were probably of such outlying tribes, and
+possibly of the mixed race which sprung up in the later
+antediluvian age, and who are described as mighty men physically,
+and men of violence. It would be quite natural that this
+intermixture
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+of the Sethite and Cainite races should produce a
+race excelling both in energy and physical endowments&mdash;the
+"giants" that were in those days.
+<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>
+If any remains of the two central nations of the antediluvian period are ever discovered,
+we may confidently anticipate that the distinctive
+characteristics of these races may be detected in their osseous
+structures as well as in their works of art. Farther, it is to be
+inferred from notices in the fourth chapter of Genesis, that
+before the deluge there was both a nomadic and a settled
+population, and that the principal seat of the Cainite, or more
+debased yet energetic branch of the human family, was to the
+eastward of the site of Eden. No intimations are given by which
+the works of art of antediluvian times could be distinguished
+from those of later periods; but that curious summary of the
+treasures of antediluvian man contained in the notice that the
+land of Havilah produced gold and agate and pearl (Gen. ii., 12)
+would lead us to believe that the early antediluvian age was on
+the whole an age of stone, in which flint for weapons, and gold
+and shell wampum for ornaments, were the leading kinds of wealth.
+On the other hand, the notices of antediluvian metallurgy, and
+the building and construction of the ark, would lead us to infer
+that the later antediluvians had attained to much perfection in
+some constructive arts&mdash;a conclusion which harmonizes with the
+otherwise inexplicable perfection of such art soon after the
+deluge, as evidenced not only by the story of Babel, but also by
+the early works of the Assyrians and Egyptians.</p>
+
+<p>3. When the antediluvian population had fully proved itself
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
+unfit to enter into the divine scheme of moral renovation, it was
+swept away by a fearful physical catastrophe. The deluge might,
+in all its relations, furnish material for an entire treatise. I
+may remark here, as its most important geological peculiarity,
+that it was evidently a <i>local</i> convulsion. The object, that of
+destroying the human race and the animal population of its
+peculiar centre of creation, the preservation of specimens of
+these creatures in the ark, and the physical requirements of the
+case, necessitate this conclusion, which is now accepted by the
+best Biblical expositors,
+<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a>
+and which inflicts no violence on
+the terms of the record. Viewed in this light, the phenomena
+recorded in the Bible, in connection with geological
+probabilities, lead us to infer that the physical agencies evoked
+by the divine power to destroy this ungodly race were a
+subsidence of the region they inhabited, so as to admit the
+oceanic waters, and extensive atmospherical disturbances
+connected with that subsidence, and perhaps with the elevation of
+neighboring regions. In this case it is possible that the Caspian
+Sea, which is now more than eighty feet below the level of the
+ocean,
+<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>
+and which was probably much more extensive then than
+at present, received much of the drainage of the flood, and that
+the mud and sand deposits of this sea and the adjoining desert
+plains, once manifestly a part of its bottom, conceal any remains
+that exist of the antediluvian population. In connection with
+this, it may be remarked that, in the book of Job, Eliphaz speaks
+as if the locality of those wicked nations
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
+which existed before the deluge was known and accessible in his time:</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:20%;">"Hast thou marked the ancient way<br />
+Which wicked men have trodden,<br />
+Who were seized [by the waters] in a moment,<br />
+And whose foundations a flood swept away?"<br />
+<span style="margin-left:15em;">&mdash;Job xxii., 15.</span></p>
+
+<p>On comparing this statement with the answer of Job in the 26th
+chapter, verse 5th, it would seem that the ungodly antediluvians
+were supposed to be still under the waters; a belief quite
+intelligible if the Caspian, which, on the latest and most
+probable views of the locality of the events of this book, was
+not very remote from the residence of Job,
+<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>
+was supposed to mark the position of the pre-Noachic population, as the Dead Sea
+afterward did that of the cities of the plain. Some of the dates
+assigned to the book of Job would, however, render it possible
+that this last catastrophe is that to which <i>he</i> refers:</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:20%;">"The <i>Rephaim</i> tremble from beneath<br />
+The waters and their inhabitants.<br />
+Sheol is naked before him,<br />
+And destruction hath no covering."</p>
+
+<p>The word <i>Rephaim</i> here has been variously rendered "shades of
+the dead" and "giants." It is properly the family or national
+name of certain tribes of gigantic Hamite men (the Anakim, Emim,
+etc.) inhabiting Western Asia at a very remote period; and it
+must here refer either to them or to the still earlier
+antediluvian giants.
+<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>
+It is also an important point to be noticed here that the
+narrative of the deluge in Genesis is given as the testimony or
+record of an eye-witness, and is to be so understood; and that
+the terms of the record imply, not as usually held that all sorts
+of animals were taken into Noah's ark, but only a selection, the
+character of which is clearly indicated by a comparison of the
+five lists of animals given in the narrative. Bearing this in
+mind, and noticing that the writer tells of his own experience as
+to the rise of the water, the drifting of the ark, the
+disappearance of all visible shore, and the sounding fifteen
+cubits where a hill had before been, all the difficulties of the
+narrative of the deluge will at once disappear. These
+difficulties have in fact arisen from regarding the story as the
+composition of a historian, not as what it manifestly is, the log
+or journal of a contemporary, introduced with probably little
+change by the compiler of the book.</p>
+
+<p>After the deluge, we find the human race settled in the plains of
+the Euphrates and Tigris, attracted thither by the fertility of
+their alluvial soils. There we find them engaging in a great
+political scheme, no doubt founded on recollections of the old
+antediluvian nationalities, and on a dread of the evils which
+able and aspiring men would anticipate from that wide dispersion
+of the human race that appears to have been intended by the
+Creator in the new circumstances of the earth. They commenced
+accordingly the erection of a city or tower at Babel, in the
+plain of Shinar, to form a common bond of union, a great public
+work that should be a rallying-point for the race, and around
+which its patriotism might concentrate itself. The attempt was
+counteracted by an interposition of divine Providence; and
+thenceforth the diffusion of the human race proceeded unchecked,
+carrying with it everywhere the memory of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
+celebrated tower, which perpetuated itself not only in the mounds of Assyria and
+Babylon and the pyramids of Egypt, but in the teocallis and
+temple mounds of the New World. The Babel enterprise is in fact
+the first recorded development of that mound-building instinct
+which the earlier races everywhere evince, and which has been a
+distinguishing characteristic more especially of the Cushite or
+Turanian race, and has apparently made them the teachers of
+constructive arts to all other peoples. Perhaps a dread of the
+total decay and loss of the surviving antediluvian arts in
+construction and other matters may have been one impelling motive
+to the building of Babel. Perhaps it was connected with the
+communistic ideas of the Turanian race, and their conflict with
+the patriarchal habits of the Semites. Out of the enterprise at
+Babel, however, arose a new type of evil, which, in the forms of
+military despotism, the spirit of conquest, hero-worship, and the
+alliance of these influences with literature and the arts, has
+been handed down through every succeeding age to our own time.
+The name of Nimrod, the son of Cush, has been preserved to us in
+the Bible, and also apparently in the tablets and inscriptions of
+Assyria, as the founder of the first despotism. This bold and
+ambitious man, subsequently deified under different names,
+established a Hamite or Turanian empire, which appears to have
+extended its sway over the tribes occupying Southwestern Asia and
+Northeastern Africa, everywhere supporting its power by force of
+arms, and introducing a debasing polytheistic hero-worship, and
+certain forms of art probably derived from antediluvian times.
+The centre of this Cushite empire, however, gave way to the
+rising power of Assyria or the Ashurite branch of the sons of
+Shem, at a period antecedent to the dawn of profane history,
+except in its mythical form; and when the light of secular
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
+history first breaks upon us, we find Egypt standing forth as the
+only stable representative of the arts, the systems, and the
+superstitions of the old Cushite empire, of which it had been the
+southern branch; while other remnants of the Hamite races,
+included in the empire of Nimrod, were scattered over Western
+Asia, and, migrating into Europe, with or after the ruder but
+less demoralized sons of Japheth, carried with them their
+characteristic civilization and mythology, to take root in new
+forms in Greece and Italy.
+<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>
+Meanwhile the Assyrian and Persian (Elamite) races were growing in Middle Asia, and probably
+driving the more eastern remnants of the Nimrodic empire into
+India, borrowing at the same time their superstitions and their
+claims to universal dominion. These views, which I believe to
+correspond with the few notices in the Bible and in ancient
+history, and to be daily receiving new confirmations from the
+investigations of the ancient Assyrian monuments, enable us to
+understand many mysterious problems in the early history of man.
+They give us reason to suspect that the <i>principle</i> of the first
+empire was an imitation of the antediluvian world, and that its
+arts and customs were mainly derived from that source. They show
+how it happens that Egypt, a country so far removed from the
+starting-point of man after the deluge, should appear to be the
+cradle of the arts, and they account for the Hamite and perhaps
+antediluvian elements, mixed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
+with primeval Biblical ideas, as
+the cherubim, etc., in the old heathenism of India, Assyria, and
+Southern Europe, and which they share with Egypt, having derived
+them from the same source. They also show how it is that in the
+most remote antiquity we find two well-developed and opposite
+religious systems; the pure theism of Noah, and those who
+retained his faith, and the idolatry of those tribes which
+regarded with adoring veneration the objects and stages of the
+creative work, the grander powers and objects of nature, the
+mighty Cainites of the world before the flood, and the
+postdiluvian leaders who followed them in their violence, their
+cultivation of the arts, and their rebellion against God. These
+heroes were identified with imaginative conceptions of the
+heavenly bodies, animals, and other natural objects, associated
+with the fortunes of cities and nations, with particular
+territories, and with war and the useful arts, transmitted under
+different names to one country after another, and localized in
+each; and it is only in comparatively modern times that we have
+been able to recognize the full certainty of the view held long
+since by many ingenious writers, that among the greater gods of
+Egypt and Assyria, and of consequence among those also of Greece
+and Rome, were Nimrod, Ham, Ashur, Noah, Mizraim, and other
+worthies and tyrants of the old world; and to suspect that
+Tubalcain and Naamah, and other antediluvian names, were
+similarly honored, though subsequently overshadowed by more
+recent divinities. The later Assyrian readings of Rawlinson,
+Hincks, and the lamented George Smith, and the more recent works
+on Egyptian antiquities, are full of pregnant hints on these
+subjects. It would, however, lead us too far from our immediate
+subject to enter more fully into these questions. I have referred
+to them merely to point out connecting-links
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
+between the secular and sacred history of the earlier part of the human period, as a
+useful sequel to our comparison of the latter with the
+conclusions of science, and as furnishing hints which may guide
+the geologist in connecting the human with the tertiary period,
+and in distinguishing between the antediluvian and postdiluvian
+portions of the former.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said, however, that all this Biblical history, however
+it may accord with the little that remains to us of the written
+annals of early Oriental nations, is entirely at variance with
+those modern arch&aelig;ological discussions which point to an immense
+antiquity of the human race, and to a primitive barbarism out of
+which all human culture was little by little evolved; and which
+results of arch&aelig;ological investigation, while contradictory to
+the Hebrew Scriptures, are entirely in accord with the
+evolutionist philosophy. The prominence now given to such views
+as these renders it necessary that we should denote a special
+chapter to their discussion.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.</span><br /></h2>
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-align:left;text-indent:3em;font-weight:bold;">"These are
+the families of the sons of Noah, after their generations, in their
+nations: and by these were the nationsdivided in the earth after
+the flood."&mdash;Genesis x., 32.</p>
+
+
+<p>The theologians and evangelical Christians of our time, and with
+them the credibility of the Holy Scriptures, are supposed by many
+to have been impaled on a zoological and arch&aelig;ological dilemma,
+in a manner which renders nugatory all attempts to reconcile the
+Mosaic cosmogony with science. The Bible, as we have seen, knows
+but one Adam, and that Adam not a myth or an ethnic name, but a
+veritable man; but some naturalists and ethnologists think that
+they have found decisive evidence that man is not of one but of
+several origins. The religious tendency of this doctrine no
+Christian can fail to perceive. In whatever way put, or under
+whatever disguise, it renders the Bible history worthless,
+reduces us to that isolation of race from race cultivated in
+ancient times by the various local idolatries, and destroys the
+brotherhood of man and the universality of that Christian
+atonement which proclaims that "as in Adam all die, so in Christ
+shall all be made alive."</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, however, the greater weight of biological and
+arch&aelig;ological evidence is here on the side of the Bible, and
+philology comes in with strong corroborative proof. But just as
+the orthodox theologian is beginning to congratulate himself
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>
+on the aid he has thus received, some of his new friends gravely
+tell him that, in order to maintain their view, it is necessary
+to believe that man has resided on earth for countless ages, and
+that it is quite a mistake to suppose that his starting-point is
+so recent as the Mosaic deluge. Nay, some very rampant theorists
+of some ethnological schools try to pierce Moses and his abettors
+with both horns of the dilemma at once, maintaining that men may
+be of different species, and yet may have existed for an enormous
+length of time as well. The recent prevalence of theories of
+evolution has, however, thrown quite into the background the
+discussions formerly active respecting the unity of man, but has,
+along with geological and arch&aelig;ological discovery, given
+increased prominence to those relating to the date of the origin
+of our species and the manner of its introduction.</p>
+
+<p>The Bible gives us a definite epoch, that of the deluge, about
+2000 to 3000 B.C., for all existing races of men; but this,
+according to it, was only the second starting-point of humanity,
+and though no family but that of Noah survived the terrible
+catastrophe, it would be a great error to suppose that nothing
+antediluvian appears in the subsequent history of man. Before the
+deluge there were arts and an old civilization, extending over at
+least two thousand years, and after the deluge men carried with
+them these heirlooms of the old world to commence with them new
+nations. This has been tacitly ignored by many of the writers who
+underrate the value of the Hebrew history. It may be as well for
+this reason to place, in a series of propositions, the principal
+points in Genesis which relate to the questions now before us.</p>
+
+<p>1. Adam and Isha, the woman, afterward called Eve (Life-giver),
+in consequence of the promise of a Redeemer, commenced a life of
+husbandry on their expulsion from Eden,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+which, on the ordinary views of the Bible chronology, may be supposed to have occurred
+from 4000 to 5000 years before the Christian era; and during the
+lifetime of the primal pair, the sheep, at least, was
+domesticated. The Bible, of course, knows nothing of the
+imaginary continent of Lemuria, in which, according to some
+hypotheses, men are supposed to have had their birth from apes. A
+few generations after, in the time of Lamech, cattle were
+domesticated; and the metals copper and iron were applied to
+use&mdash;the latter probably meteoric iron; and hence, it may be, the
+Hindoo and Hellenic myths of Twachtrei and Heph&aelig;stos in
+connection with the thunderbolt. We learn, however, incidentally,
+as already mentioned, in the description of Eden in Genesis,
+chapter 2d, that there was a previous stone age, in which "flint,
+pearls or shell beads, and stream-gold" were the chief treasures
+of man, for this is implied in the "gold, bedolach, and onyx" of
+the land of Havilah. It is certain also, from the discoveries
+made in Assyria, on the site of Troy, and elsewhere, that the use
+of stone implements continued in Western Asia long after the
+deluge. In the time of Noah the distinction of clean and unclean
+beasts, and the taking of seven pairs of certain beasts and birds
+into the ark, imply that certain mammals and birds were
+domesticated.
+<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. Before the flood, as already remarked, there was a division of
+man into two nationalities or races; and there was a citizen, an
+agricultural, a pastoral, and a nomadic population. Farther, the
+remarkable progress in the arts implied in the building of such
+structures as the Tower of Babel, and other temple and palace
+mounds in Assyria, and of the pyramids
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
+of Egypt, within a few generations after the deluge, proves that a very advanced
+material civilization and great skill in constructive arts had
+been reached in antediluvian times.
+<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>3. After the deluge, the arts of the antediluvians and their
+citizen life were almost immediately revived in the plain of
+Shinar; but the plans of the Babel leaders, like those of many
+others who have attempted to force distinct tribes into one
+nationality, failed. The guilt attributed to them probably
+relates to the attempt to break up the patriarchal and tribal
+organization, which in these early times was the outward form of
+true religion, in favor of some sort of national organization,
+not compatible with the extension of man immediately over the
+world, and tending to consolidation into dense communities. It
+may be a question here whether the tribal communism which has
+prevailed among the American Indians and other rude races was the
+primitive form of society which the Babel-builders essayed to
+change, or whether the Semitic patriarchal system had at first
+prevailed, and the Babel difficulties were connected with a
+conflict between this and communism or despotism, both new
+Turanian or Aryan introductions. In any case, Babel, and Babylon
+its successor, remain in the subsequent Biblical literature as
+types of the God-defying and antichristian systems that have
+succeeded each other from the time of Nimrod to this day.</p>
+
+<p>4. The human race was scattered over the earth in family groups
+or tribes, each headed by a leading patriarch, who gave it its
+name. First, the three sons of Noah formed three main stems, and
+from these diverged several family branches. The ethnological
+chart in the 10th chapter of Genesis gives the principal branches
+under patriarchal and ethnic names
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>
+but these, of course, continued to subdivide beyond the space and time referred to by
+the sacred writer. It is simply absurd to object, as some writers
+have done, to the universality of the statements in Genesis, that
+they do not mention in detail the whole earth. They refer to a
+few generations only, and beyond this restrict themselves to the
+one branch of the human family to which the Bible principally
+relates. We should be thankful for so much of the leading lines
+of ethnological divergence, without complaining that it is not
+followed out into its minute ramifications and into all history.</p>
+
+<p>5. The tripartite division in Genesis x. indicates a somewhat
+strict geographical separation of the three main trunks. The
+regions marked out for Japheth include Europe and Northwestern
+Asia. The name Japheth, as well as the statements in the table,
+indicate a versatile, nomadic, and colonizing disposition as
+characteristic of these tribes.
+<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>
+The Median population, the
+same with a portion of that now often called Aryan,
+<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>
+was the only branch remaining near the original seats of the species, and
+in a settled condition. The outlying portions of the posterity of
+Japheth, on account of their wide dispersion, must at a very
+early period have fallen into comparative barbarism,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>
+such as we find in historic periods all over Western and Northern Europe and
+Northern Asia. Owing to their habitat, the Japhetites of the
+Bible include none of the black races, unless certain Indian and
+Australian nations are outlying portions of this family. The
+Shemite nations showed little tendency to migrate, being grouped
+about the Euphrates and Tigris valleys and neighboring regions.
+For this reason, with the exception of certain Arab tribes, they
+present no instances of barbarism, and generally retained a high
+cerebral organization, and respectable though stationary
+civilization, and they possess the oldest alphabet and
+literature. The posterity of Ham differs remarkably from the
+others. It spread itself over Southern, Central, and Eastern
+Asia, Southern Europe, and Northern Africa, and constitutes the
+stock alike of the Turanian and African races, as well as
+probably of the American tribes. It has all along displayed a
+great capacity for certain forms of art and semi-civilization,
+but has rarely risen to the level of the Shemite and Japhetite
+races. It established the earliest military and monarchical
+institutions, and presents at the dawn of history&mdash;in Assyria, in
+Egypt, and India&mdash;settled and arbitrary forms in politics and
+religion, of a character so much resembling that of an old and
+corrupt civilization that we can scarcely avoid supposing that
+Ham and his family had preserved more than any of the other
+Noachian races the arts and institutions of the old world before
+the flood. It certainly presents itself in early postdiluvian
+times as the first representative and teacher of art and material
+civilization. The Hamite race is remarkable for the early
+development of pantheism and hero-worship, and for the artificial
+character of its culture. It presents us with the darkest colors,
+and in the vast solitudes of Africa and Central Asia its outlying
+tribes must have fallen into comparative
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
+barbarism a few centuries after the deluge. It is farther to be observed that,
+according to the Bible, the Canaanites and other Hamite nations
+spoke languages not essentially different from those of the
+Shemites, while the Japhetite nations were to them barbarians&mdash;"a
+nation whose tongue thou shalt not understand." There was, too,
+at the date of the dispersion of Babel, already a distinction of
+tongues within each of the great races of men.</p>
+
+<p>6. All the divisions of the family of Noah had from the first the
+domesticated animals and the principal arts of life, and enjoyed
+these in a national capacity so soon as sufficiently numerous.
+The more scattered tribes, wandering into fresh regions, and
+adopting the life of hunters, lost the characteristics of
+civilization, and diverged widely from the primitive languages.
+We should thus have, according to the Hebrew ethnology, a central
+area presenting the principal stems of all the three races in a
+permanently civilized state. All around this area should lie
+aberrant and often barbarous tribes, differing most widely from
+the original type in the more distant regions, and in those least
+favorable to human health and subsistence. In these outlying
+regions, secondary centres of civilization might grow up,
+differing from that of the primitive centre, except in so far as
+the common principles of human nature and intercommunication
+might prevent this. All these conclusions, fairly deducible at
+once from the Mosaic ethnology and the theory of dispersion from
+a centre, are perfectly in accordance with observed facts, though
+in absolute contradiction to prevalent ethnological conclusions,
+based on these facts in connection with theories of development.</p>
+
+<p>A multitude of Bible notices might easily be quoted illustrative
+of these points, and also of the consistency of the Mosaic
+narrative with itself. One of them may suffice here.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+Abraham, who is said by the Jews to have been contemporary with Shem, as
+Menes by the Egyptians with Ham, at least lived sufficiently near
+to the time of the rise of the earliest nations to be taken as an
+illustration of this primitive condition of society. He was not a
+patriarch of the first or second rank, like Ham or Mizraim or
+Canaan, but a subordinate family leader several removes from the
+survivors of the deluge. Yet his tribe increases in comparatively
+few years to a considerable number. He is treated as an equal by
+the monarchs of Egypt and Philistia. He defeats, with a band of
+three or four hundred retainers, a confederacy of four Euphratean
+kings representing the embryo state of the Persian and Assyrian
+empires, and already relatively so strong that they have overrun
+much of Western Asia. All this bespeaks in a most consistent
+manner the rapid rise of many small nationalities, scattered over
+the better parts of wide regions, and still in a feeble
+condition, though inheriting from their ancestors an old
+civilization, and laying the foundations of powerful states. If
+we attach any historical value whatever to the narrative, it
+obviously implies that at a date of about two thousand years
+before Christ the regions afterward occupied by the oldest
+historic empires were still thinly peopled, and their dominant
+races little more than feeble tribes. This farther corresponds
+with the authentic history of all the ancient nations, however
+these may have been extended by previous mythical periods. About
+or shortly before the time of Abraham, Menes was draining for the
+first time the swamps of Egypt, Ninus or Nimrod was founding the
+Assyrian empire, the Phoenicians were founding Sidon,
+agriculture was being introduced into China, the Vedas were being
+written in India, the Persian monarchy was being founded; and, in
+short, all the historical nations of the East
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+were originating, and this apparently by springing into being with an already
+formed civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the Hebrew account of the date and early history of
+man, it may be proper here to compare it with such deductions
+from arch&aelig;ological and geological investigation as may seem to
+conflict with it, and at the same time to make some comparisons
+with the Turanian and Aryan traditions and speculations as to
+human origins. The special lines of investigation important here
+are: 1. Early historical records other than the Bible; 2. The
+diversity of human languages; 3. The geological evidence afforded
+by remains of prehistoric men found in caverns and other
+repositories. The last of these is at present that which has
+attained the greatest development.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Early Human History.</i>&mdash;Had the human race everywhere
+preserved historical records, we should have had some certain
+evidence as to the places and times of origination of its tribes
+and peoples. Unfortunately this has not been the case. All savage
+and barbarous races, and many of those now civilized, have lost
+all records of their early history. Most of the so-called ancient
+nations are comparatively modern, and their history after a very
+short course loses itself in uncertain tradition and mythical
+fancies. The only really ancient nations that have given us in
+detail their own written history are the Hebrews, the Assyrians,
+the Egyptians, the Hindoos, and the Chinese. The last people,
+though professedly very ancient, trace their history from a
+period of barbarism&mdash;a view confirmed by their physical
+characters and the nature of their civilization; and on this
+account, if no other, their history can not be considered as of
+much arch&aelig;ological value. According to their own records, their
+earliest authentic history goes back to about 2800 B.C., and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+was preceded by a prehistoric period of uncertain duration. The
+astronomical deductions of Schlegel, which would extend their
+history to 17,000 years, are evidently altogether
+unreliable.
+<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a>
+The early Hindoo history is palpably fabulous or
+distorted, and has been variously modified and changed in
+comparatively modern times. There is one great and very ancient
+people&mdash;the Egyptian&mdash;evidently civilized from the beginning of
+all history, that have succeeded in transmitting to us, though
+only in fragments, their primeval history; and of late years
+constant additions have been made from inscribed tablets and
+monuments to our knowledge of the ancient history of the
+Assyrians and Chaldeans.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian history has been gathered first from sketches by
+Greek travellers, and from fragments of the chronicles of
+Manetho, one of the later Egyptian priests; and, secondly, from
+the inscriptions deciphered on Egyptian monuments and papyri. It
+is still in a very fragmentary and uncertain state, but has been
+used with considerable effect to prove both the diversity of
+races of men and the pre-Noachic antiquity of the species. The
+Egyptian, in features and physical conformation, tended to the
+European form, just as the modern Fellahs and Berbers do; but he
+had a dark complexion, a somewhat elongated head and flattened
+lips, and certain negroid peculiarities in his limbs. His
+language combined many of the peculiarities of the Semitic,
+Aryan, and African tongues, indicating thereby great antiquity or
+else great intermixture, but not, as some ethnographers demand,
+both; most probably the former&mdash;the Egyptians being really the
+oldest civilized people that we certainly know, and therefore, if
+languages have one origin, likely to be near its root-stock.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
+The actual history of Egypt begins from Menes, the first human
+king, a monarch, or rather tribal chief, who took up his abode in
+the flats and fens of Lower Egypt, certainly not very long after
+the deluge. His name has been translated "one who walks with
+Khem," or Ham; one, therefore, who was contemporary with this
+great patriarch and god of the Egyptians, which will place his
+time within a few centuries of the Biblical flood. The date of
+Menes has been variously placed. In correction of the ordinary
+Hebrew chronology, we have the following attempts:</p>
+
+<table cellspacing="0" border="1" summary="Egypt chronology">
+<tr><td>Josephus places his reign</td><td>2350 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dr. Hales' calculation</td><td>2412</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Manetho and the Monuments, as corrected by Syncellus<br />
+and calculated by various arch&aelig;ologists</td><td>2712<br />to<br />2782</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Herodotus, astronomical reduction by Rennell</td><td>2890</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Estimate by Gliddon in "Ancient Egypt"</td><td>2750</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bunsen, "Egypt's Place," etc.</td><td>4000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The truth may be somewhere near the mean of the shorter
+chronologies given in the list.
+<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>
+That of Bunsen is liable to
+very grave objections; more especially as he adds to it other
+views, altogether unsupported by historical evidence, which would
+carry back the deluge to 10,000 years B.C. It rests wholly on the
+chronology of Manetho, who lived 300 years B.C.; and who, even if
+the Egyptians then possessed authentic documents extending 3700
+years before his time, may have erred in his rendering of them;
+and is farther liable to grave suspicions of having merely
+grouped the names on the monuments of his country arbitrarily in
+Sothic cycles. Farther,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>
+they rest on an interpretation of Manetho, which supposes his early dynasties to have been
+successive, while good reasons have been found to prove that many
+of them consist of contemporaneous petty sovereigns of parts of
+Egypt. The early parts of Manetho's lists are purely mythical,
+and it is impossible to fix the point where his authentic history
+commences. He copied from monuments which have no consecutive
+dates, the precise age of which could only be vaguely known even
+in his time, and which are different in their statements in
+different localities. It is only by making due allowance for
+these uncertainties that any historical value can be attached to
+these earlier dynasties of Manetho. Yet Bunsen has built on an
+uncertain interpretation of this writer, as handed down in a very
+fragmentary and evidently garbled condition, and on the equally
+or more uncertain chronology of Eratosthenes, a system differing
+from all previous belief on the subject, from the Hebrew history,
+and from all former interpretations of the monuments and
+Manetho.
+<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>
+Discarding, therefore,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+in the mean time, this date, and the still older one claimed by Mariette,
+<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a>
+we may roughly estimate the date of Menes as 2000 to 2500 years
+B.C.,
+<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>
+and proceed to state some of the facts developed by
+Egyptologists.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most striking of these is the proof that Egypt was a
+new country in the days of Menes and several generations of his
+successors. The monuments of this period show little of the
+complicated idolatry, ritual, and caste system of later times,
+and are deficient in evidence of the refinement and variety of
+art afterward attained. They also show that these early monarchs
+were principally engaged in dyking, and otherwise reclaiming the
+alluvial flats; an evidence precisely of the same character with
+that which every traveller sees in the more recently settled
+districts of Canada, where the forest is giving way to the
+exertions of the farmer. Farther, in this primitive period, known
+as the "old monarchy," few domestic animals appear, and
+experiments seem to have been in progress to tame others, natives
+of the country, as the hyena, the antelope, the stork. Even the
+dog in the older dynasties is represented by one or at most two
+varieties, and the prevalent one is a wolfish-looking animal akin
+to the present wild or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>
+half-tamed dogs of the East.
+<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>
+The Egyptians, too, of the earlier dynasties, are more homogeneous in
+their appearance than those of the later, after conquest and
+migration had introduced new races; and the earliest monumental
+notice referring to Negro tribes does not appear until the 12th
+dynasty, about half-way between the epoch of Menes and the
+Christian era, nor does any representation of the Negro features
+occur until, at the earliest, the 17th dynasty. This allows ample
+time&mdash;one thousand years at the least&mdash;for the development, under
+abnormal circumstances and isolation, of all the most strongly
+marked varieties of man. Still Egypt, even under the old
+monarchy, presents evidence of the continuation of antediluvian
+culture.
+<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is obvious, in short, that the whole aspect of early Egyptian
+history presents to us a people already civilized taking
+possession of that country at a period corresponding with that of
+the subsidence of the Noachian deluge, and not finding there any
+remains of older populations. Nor have any remains of such
+populations been found by modern investigation.
+<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Assyria the results of the recent discoveries, so well known
+through many learned and popular works, strikingly confirm the
+Hebrew chronology. They indicate no slow emergence
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+from barbarism, but show that in Assyria as in Egypt implements of
+stone and metal were used together by a primitive people, already
+far advanced in civilization; and the oldest historical names
+only carry us back to cities and sovereigns of the Abrahamic age,
+while the story of the primitive empire of Nimrod and the
+traditions of the deluge seem to have survived in more or less
+mythical legends. The earliest Assyrian monuments would seem to
+belong to a Turanian race, of which comparatively little is
+known, but which may correspond with the primitive Cushites of
+Biblical story. To these, it is true, Berosus attaches a fabulous
+antiquity; but this is not confirmed by the monuments. These,
+according to the latest facts disclosed by Smith, Rawlinson, and
+others, appear to fix a date of about 1800 B.C. for the
+foundation of the Assyrian monarchy proper, and the oldest
+previous date given by Assurbampal, who reigned about B.C. 668 to
+626, gives 1635 years before his time, or say 2280 B.C., as the
+date of an Elamite king Kudarnankundi, who seems to be the leader
+of a primitive tribe, one of the oldest in the region, and who
+has been conjectured to have been the Chedorlaomer of Genesis,
+but was probably one of his predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>We gather from the Assyrian annals that the early Turanian kings,
+while mound-builders like their kindred elsewhere, and acquainted
+with metals and with the cuneiform writing, yet constituted
+comparatively small nations, and were much occupied with hunting
+and other rude sports, and with predatory expeditions, so as to
+answer very nearly to the Biblical conception of the early
+Cushite kingdom of the valley of the Euphrates, which was
+probably in the same stage of culture with the nations that in a
+later period inhabited the valley of the Mississippi, and are
+known as the Alleghans.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the early history of man, much importance
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+has been attached to the division of the early historic and
+prehistoric ages into the periods of Stone, Bronze, and Iron, and
+of the former into a Pal&aelig;olithic or ancient stone age, and a more
+modern or Neolithic stone age. It is plain, however, that too
+great importance has been attached to these distinctions, and
+that they express rather differences of circumstances and of
+culture than of age, so that they have really no bearing on the
+Biblical chronology.</p>
+
+<p>If pal&aelig;olithic or rudely chipped implements are the oldest known,
+as they not improbably were the first tools used by man, yet
+their use has extended in the case of rude nations all the way up
+to the present time; and in America and Northern Asia we know
+that their antiquity is but of yesterday, and that they were used
+with highly finished implements of bone, and of those softer
+stones that admit of being polished. No certain line can
+therefore be drawn even locally between a Neolithic and a
+Pal&aelig;olithic period, especially since in localities where flint
+implements were extensively quarried and made, as on the banks of
+rivers in Northern France and Southern England, and in such
+places as "Grimes' Graves" and Cissbury in the latter country,
+where mines were sunk in the chalk for the extraction of flints,
+it necessarily happened that vast multitudes of unfinished or
+spoiled implements and weapons were left on the ground, while the
+better-formed specimens were for the most part taken away. This
+conclusion is amply supported by similar localities in America,
+where people well acquainted with many of the arts of life have
+left quantities of strictly pal&aelig;olithic material. Wilson,
+Southall, and other writers have accumulated so many examples of
+this that I think the distinction of Pal&aelig;olithic and Neolithic
+ages must now be given up by all investigators who possess
+ordinary judgment. A remarkable instauce is the celebrated "Flint
+ridge" of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+Ohio, which was a great quarry of flint for implements
+used by the ancient mound-builders, a highly civilized race, as
+well as by the modern Indians. Here are found countless
+multitudes of pal&aelig;olithic flint implements of all the ordinary
+types, but which are merely the unfinished material of workers
+capable of producing the most exquisite implements. There can be
+scarcely a doubt that the pal&aelig;olithic implements of the European
+gravels, in so far as they are the workmanship of man, are in
+like manner merely the relics of old flint quarries.
+<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p>
+
+<p>Possibly a more accurate measurement of time for particular
+regions of the world might be deduced from the introduction of
+bronze and iron. If the former was, as many antiquarians suppose,
+a local discovery in Europe, and not introduced from abroad, it
+can give no measurement of time whatever. In America, as the
+facts detailed by Dr. Wilson show, while a bronze age existed in
+Peru, it was the copper age in the Mississippi Valley, and the
+stone age elsewhere; and these conditions might have co-existed
+for any length of time, and could give no indication of relative
+dates. On the other hand, the iron introduced by European
+commerce spread at once over the continent, and came into use in
+the most remote tribes, and its introduction into America clearly
+marks an historical epoch. With regard to bronze in Europe, we
+must bear in mind that tin was to be procured only in England and
+Spain, and in the latter in very small quantity; the mines of
+Saxony do not seem to have been known till the Middle Ages. We
+must further consider that tin ore is a substance not metallic in
+appearance, and little likely to attract the attention of
+savages; and that, as we gather from a hint of Pliny, it was
+probably first observed, in the West at least, as stream tin, in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+the Spanish gold washings. Lastly, when we place in connection
+with these considerations the fact that in the earliest times of
+which we have certain knowledge, the tin trade of Spain and
+England was monopolized by the Phoenicians, there seems to be a
+strong probability that the extension of the trade of this nation
+to the western Mediterranean really inaugurated the bronze
+period. The only valid argument against this is the fact that
+moulds and other indications of native bronze casting have been
+found in Switzerland, Denmark, and elsewhere; but these show
+nothing more than that the natives could recast bronze articles,
+just as the American Indians can forge fish-hooks and knives out
+of nails and iron hoops. Other considerations might be adduced in
+proof of this view, but our limits will not permit us to refer to
+them. The important questions still remain: When was this trade
+commenced, and how rapidly did it extend itself from the
+sea-coast across Europe? The British tin trade must have been in
+existence in the time of Herodotus, though his notion of the
+locality was not more definite than that it was in the extremity
+of the earth. The Phoenician settlements in the western
+Mediterranean must have existed as early as the time of Solomon,
+when "ships of Tarshish" was the general designation of seagoing
+ships for long voyages. How long previously these colonies
+existed we do not know; but considering the great scarcity and
+value of tin in those very ancient times, we may infer that
+perhaps only the Spanish, and not the British deposits were known
+thus early; or that the Phoenicians had only indirect access to
+the latter. Perhaps we may fix the time when these traders were
+able to supply the nations of Europe with abundance of bronze in
+exchange for their products, at, say 1000 to 1200 B.C., as the
+earliest probable period; and possibly from one to two centuries
+would be a sufficient allowance for the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
+complete penetration of the trade throughout Europe. But of course wars or migrations
+might retard or accelerate the process; and there may have been
+isolated spots in which a partial stone period extended up to
+those comparatively recent times in which first the Greek trade,
+and afterward the entire overthrow of the Carthaginian power by
+the Romans, terminated forever the age of bronze and substituted
+the age of iron. This would leave, according to our ordinary
+chronologies, at least ten or fifteen centuries for the
+postdiluvian stone period in Europe and Western Asia, a time
+quite sufficient in our view for all that part of it represented
+by such monuments as the Danish shell-heaps or the platform
+habitations of the Swiss lakes; leaving the remains of the
+prehistoric caverns and river gravels for the antediluvian
+period. A few facts in illustration of these points, and also of
+the Biblical history, may be mentioned here.</p>
+
+<p>We know perfectly that the early Chaldeans of the Euphratean
+valley were acquainted with the use of metals&mdash;bronze certainly,
+and at a very early date iron; yet flint knives and other
+implements of stone are found under circumstances which show that
+they were used in the palmy days of the Assyrian empire. The
+inhabitants of Egypt were acquainted with bronze and iron long
+before the date of the Exodus, yet the Egyptians used stone
+knives for some purposes up to a comparatively modern time.
+Joshua used stone knives for the purpose of circumcision; and
+according to Herodotus there were Ethiopians in the army of
+Xerxes who used stone-tipped arrows. If any antiquarian were to
+stumble on the "hill of the foreskins"&mdash;a mound under which were
+buried in all probability the multitudinous flint flakes used in
+the circumcision of the thousands of Israel&mdash;or the grave in
+which some of the Ethiopian auxiliaries of Xerxes were buried
+with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>
+their flint arrow-heads and javelins of antelopes' horn,
+how absurd would be the inference that these repositories were of
+the pal&aelig;olithic age. Nay, so late as 1870 a traveller was
+informed that the Bagos, a people of Abyssinia, still made and
+used stone hatchets and flint knives.
+<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Europe we find reason to believe that the Ligurians of
+Northwestern Italy were flint-folk of very rude type until they
+were conquered by the Gauls about 400 B.C.
+<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a>
+Though the Gauls, Britons, and Germans of the age of Julius C&aelig;sar had iron weapons,
+yet it is evident that the metal was very scarce, and that bronze
+was more common; and in confirmation of this it is found that in
+the trenches before Alize, the Alesia of C&aelig;sar, where the final
+struggle of the Roman general with Vercingetorix took place,
+weapons of stone, bronze, and iron are intermixed. All over the
+more northern parts of Europe there is the best reason to believe
+that the use of stone and bronze continued to a much later
+period, and locally until long after the Christian era. It is
+clear that such facts as these must greatly modify our ideas of
+the probable age of the Swiss lake villages, and should induce
+the greatest caution in claiming any special antiquity for
+particular classes of implements.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable discoveries of modern times is that of
+the site of ancient Troy by Dr. Schliemann, and it affords clear
+and decisive evidence as to the historic value of the ages to
+which we have referred.</p>
+
+<p>Troy was destroyed by the Greeks perhaps about 1300 B.C., and we
+know from Homer that this was in what for the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>
+Greeks and Trojans may properly be termed the copper age, weapons and armor of that
+metal being in common use, and also the mode of burial by
+cremation. We may well suppose that at that early date the stone
+age was still in full force in Northern Europe and Asia, and in
+the mountains of Switzerland; and as the tin mines of England had
+not yet been reached, bronze was scarce and dear even in Eastern
+Europe and Asia. Now Schliemann has disinterred the undoubted
+Trojan Ilium on the hill of Hissarlik; but he finds it to be only
+one of several buried cities, and the succession of strata will
+be most clearly seen in the section on the following page,
+compiled from his clear and circumstantial descriptions. It is
+needless to say that this presents a succession of the stone age
+to one of comparatively high civilization. It also forms an
+epitome of that of the whole East, and of primitive man in
+general, in some very important respects. We have first, at a
+date probably coeval with that of the earliest monarchies of
+Assyria and Egypt, a primitive people whose arts and mode of life
+remind us strongly of the American Toltecans and Peruvians.
+<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>
+Schliemann supposes them to have been Aryan, but they were more
+probably of Turanian race. They must have occupied the site for a
+very long time. They were succeeded by a more cultivated people
+of fine physical organization, yet possibly still Turanians or
+primitive Aryans, who by trade or plunder had accumulated large
+stores of metallic wealth, and had made advances in the arts of
+life placing them on a level with the early Phoenicians and
+Egyptians, with whom they probably had intercourse. These
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p>
+<table border="1" summary="">
+<tr><td>Surface<br />Fifth stratum to 6-1/2 feet.</td>
+<td>The Greek Ilium, with buildings<br />
+and objects of art characteristic<br />
+of the Hellenic civilization of<br />
+historic periods.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fourth stratum to 13 feet.</td>
+<td>A second barbarous people, but<br />
+probably allied to the first.<br />
+Very coarse pottery. Implements<br />
+and weapons of copper or bronze&mdash;<br />
+stone knives and saws.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Third stratum to 23 feet.</td>
+<td>Barbarous people occupying the<br />
+site of Troy. Rude stone<br />
+implements and rude pottery.<br />
+Buildings of small stones and clay.<br />
+Some objects of pottery found here<br />
+would on American sites be regarded<br />
+as probably tobacco-pipes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Second stratum to 33 feet.<br />Rock.</td>
+<td>Homeric Troy. Implements and<br />
+weapons of copper, bronze, and<br />
+stone. Pottery, some of it of<br />
+Peruvian and ancient Cypriot types.<br />
+Fine gold jewelry, and gold and<br />
+silver vessels. Armor similar to<br />
+that described by Homer. Stone<br />
+buildings and walls. This city had<br />
+been sacked and burned.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>First stratum to 46 or 53 feet.</td>
+<td>Primitive or prehistoric Troy.<br />
+Stone implements, polished and<br />
+chipped. Millstones, copper nails,<br />
+pottery&mdash;some with patterns<br />
+curiously resembling those of<br />
+America&mdash;bone implements,<br />
+terra-cotta disks. Stone buildings.
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>were the Trojans of the Homeric poems, and the destruction of
+their city was probably in the first instance celebrated in their
+own native songs, which Homer at a date but little later
+<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>
+wove into his magnificent poem, and idealized and exaggerated.
+The Trojans worshipped an owl-headed goddess&mdash;the Athena
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>
+of the Homeric poems; and from symbols found are believed also to have
+had the worship of a sacred tree, and of fire or of the Sun. All
+of these are widespread superstitions over both the Old and New
+World. But while Troy flourished there were barbarous nations not
+far off still in the stone age; and when the city had fallen,
+these, possibly in successive hordes, took possession of the
+fertile plain and used the old city as their stronghold, perhaps
+till the foundation of the Greek city about 650 B.C. I have
+sketched in some detail these interesting discoveries, as they so
+clearly illustrate an actual succession of ages, and so
+conclusively show the uncertainty of the classification into ages
+of stone and metal, except when taken in connection with the
+precise circumstances of each locality.</p>
+
+<p>I have referred above only to the question of historic or
+postdiluvian man. We have still to consider what remains exist of
+antediluvian man. These may be studied in connection with our
+third head of geological evidences of man's antiquity; for if the
+Mosaic narrative be true, the diluvial catastrophe must have
+constituted a physical separation between historic man and
+prehistoric; since, in so far as antediluvian ages are concerned,
+all are prehistoric or mythical everywhere except in the sacred
+history itself. Antediluvian men may thus in geology be
+Pleistocene as distinguished from modern, or Pal&aelig;ocosmic as
+distinguished from Neocosmic.
+<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Language in Relation to the Antiquity of Man.</i>&mdash;In many
+animals the voice has a distinctive character; but in man it has
+an importance altogether peculiar. The gift of speech is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>
+one of his sole prerogatives, and identity in its mode of exercise is
+not only the strongest proof of similarity of psychical
+constitution, but more than any other character marks identity of
+origin. The tongues of men are many and various; and at first
+sight this diversity may, as indeed it often does, convey the
+impression of radical diversity of race. But modern philological
+investigations have shown many and unexpected links of connection
+in vocabulary or grammatical structure, or both, between
+languages apparently the most dissimilar. I do not here refer to
+the vague and fanciful parallels with which our ancestors were
+often amused, but to the results of sober and scientific inquiry.
+"Nothing," says Professor Max M&uuml;ller, "necessitates the admission
+of different independent beginnings for the material elements of
+the Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan branches of speech; nay, it is
+possible even now to point out radicals which, under various
+changes and disguises, have been current in these three branches
+ever since their first separation." Of the truth of this I have
+convinced myself by some original investigation, and also of the
+farther truth that of this radical unity of all human tongues
+there is more full evidence than many philologists are disposed
+to admit, and that the results of future study must be to connect
+more and more with each other the several main stems of language.
+Whether this results merely from the psychical unity of the human
+race, or from the historical derivation of languages from one
+root, is not so material as the fact of unity; but that the
+latter is implied it would not be difficult to show.
+<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a>
+Let us examine for a little
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+these results as they are presented to us
+by Latham, M&uuml;ller, Bunsen, and other modern philologists.</p>
+
+<p>A convenient starting-point is afforded by the great group of
+languages known as the Indo-European, Japhetic, or Aryan. From
+the Ganges to the west coast of Ireland, through Indian, Persian,
+Greek, Italian, German, Celt, runs one great language&mdash;the
+Sanscrit and the dark Hindoo at one extreme, the Erse and the
+xanthous Celt at the other. No one now doubts the affinity of
+this great belt of languages. No one can pretend that any one of
+these nations learned its language from another. They are all
+decided branches of a common stock. Lying in and near this area
+are other nations&mdash;as the Arabs, the Syrians, the Jews&mdash;speaking
+languages differing in words and structure&mdash;the Semitic tongues.
+Do these mark a different origin? The philologists answer in the
+negative, pointing to the features of resemblance which still
+remain, and above all to certain intermediate tongues of so high
+antiquity that they are rather to be regarded as root-stocks from
+which other languages diverged than as mixtures. The principal of
+these is the ancient Egyptian, represented by the inscriptions on
+the monuments of that wonderful people, and by the more modern
+Coptic, which, according to Bunsen and Latham, presents decided
+affinities to both the great classes previously mentioned, and
+may be regarded as strictly intermediate in its character. It has
+accordingly been designated by the term Sub-Semitic.
+<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a>
+But it shares this character with all or nearly all the other African
+languages, which bear strong marks of affinity to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+Egyptian and Semitic tongues. On this subject Dr. Latham says, "That the
+uniformity of languages throughout Africa is greater than it is
+either in Asia or in Europe, is a statement to which I have not
+the least hesitation in committing myself."
+<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a>
+To the north the Indo-European area is bounded by a great group of semi-barbarous
+populations, mostly with Mongolian features, and speaking
+languages which have been grouped as Turanian. These Turanian
+languages, on the one hand, graduate without any break into those
+of the Esquimaux and American Indians; on the other, according to
+M&uuml;ller and Latham, they are united, though less distinctly, with
+the Semitic and Japhetic tongues. They not improbably represent
+in more or less altered forms the most primitive stock of
+language from which both the Semitic and Japhetic groups have
+branched. Another great area on the coasts and in the islands of
+the Pacific is overspread by the Malay, which, through the
+populations of Transgangetic India, connects itself with the
+great Indo-European line. Mr. Edkins, in his remarkable book on
+"China's Place in Philology," has collected a large amount of
+fact tending to show that the early Chinese in its monosyllabic
+radicals presents root-forms traceable into all the stocks of
+human speech in the Old World; and the American languages would
+have furnished him with similar lines of affinity. If we regard
+physical characters, manners, and customs, and mythologies, as
+well as mere language, it is much easier thus to link together
+nearly all the populations of the globe. In investigations of
+this kind, it is true, the links of connection are often delicate
+and evanescent; yet they have conveyed to the ablest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>
+investigators the strong impression that the phenomena are rather
+those of division of a radical language than of union of several
+radically distinct.</p>
+
+<p>This impression is farther strengthened when we regard several
+results incidental to these researches. Latham has shown that the
+languages of men may be regarded as arranged in lines of
+divergence, the extreme points of which are Fuego, Tasmania,
+Easter Island; and that from all these points they converge to a
+common centre in Western Asia, where we find a cluster of the
+most ancient and perfect languages; and even Haeckel is obliged
+to adopt in his map of the affiliation of races of men a similar
+scheme, though he, without any good historical or scientific
+evidence, extends it back into the imaginary lost continent of
+Lemuria. Farther, the languages of the various populations differ
+in proceeding from these centres in a manner pointing to
+degeneracy such as is likely to occur in small and rude tribes
+separating from a parent stock. These lines of radiation follow
+the most easy and probable lines of migration of the human race
+spreading from one centre. It must also be observed that in the
+primary migration of men, there must of necessity have been at
+its extreme limits outlying and isolated tribes, placed in
+circumstances in which language would very rapidly change;
+especially as these tribes, migrating or driven forward, would be
+continually arriving at new regions presenting new circumstances
+and objects. When at length the utmost limit in any direction was
+reached, the inroads of new races of population would press into
+close contact these various tribes with their different dialects.
+Where the distance was greatest before reaching this limit, we
+might expect, as in America, to find the greatest mutual variety
+and amount of difference from the original stock. After the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
+primary migration had terminated, the displacements arising from
+secondary migrations and conquests, would necessarily complicate
+the matter by breaking up the original gradations of difference,
+and thereby rendering lines of migration difficult to trace.</p>
+
+<p>Taking all these points into the account, along with the known
+tendencies of languages in all circumstances to vary, it is
+really wonderful that philology is still able to give so decided
+indications of unity.</p>
+
+<p>There is, in the usual manner of speaking of these subjects, a
+source of misapprehension, which deserves special mention in this
+place. The Hebrew Scriptures derive all the nations of the
+ancient world from three patriarchs, and the names of these have
+often been attached to particular races of men and their
+languages; but it should never be supposed that these
+classifications are likely to agree with the Bible affiliation.
+They may to a certain extent do so, but not necessarily or even
+probably. In the nature of the case, those portions of these
+families which remained near the original centre, and in a
+civilized state, would retain the original language and features
+comparatively unchanged. Those which wandered far, fell into
+barbarism, or became subjected to extreme climatic influences,
+would vary more in all respects. Hence any general
+classification, whether on physical or philological characters,
+will be likely to unite, as in the Caucasian group of Cuvier, men
+of all the three primitive families, while it will separate the
+outlying and aberrant portions from their main stems of
+affiliation. Want of attention to this point has led to much
+misconception; and perhaps it would be well to abandon altogether
+terms founded on the names of the sons of Noah, except where
+historical affiliation is the point in question. It would be well
+if it were understood that when the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+terms Semitic, Japhetic,
+<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a>
+and Hametic are used, direct reference is made to
+the Hebrew ethnology; and that, where other arrangements are
+adopted, other terms should be used. It is obviously unfair to
+apply the terms of Moses in a different way from that in which he
+uses them. A very prevalent error of this kind has been to apply
+the term Japhetic to a number of nations not of such origin
+according to the Bible; and another of more modern date is to
+extend the term Semitic to all the races descended from Ham,
+because of resemblance of language. It should be borne in mind
+that, assuming the truth of the Scriptural affiliation, there
+should be a "central" group of races and languages where the
+whole of the three families meet, and "sporadic"
+<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a>
+groups representing the changes of the outlying and barbarous tribes.</p>
+
+<p>While, however, all the more eminent philologists adhere to the
+original unity of language, they are by no means agreed as to the
+antiquity of man; and some, as for instance Latham and Dr. Max
+M&uuml;ller, are disposed to claim an antiquity for our species far
+beyond that usually admitted. In so far as this affects the Bible
+history, it is important, inasmuch as this would appear to limit
+the possible antiquity of all languages to the time of the
+deluge. The date of this event has been variously estimated, on
+Biblical grounds, at from 1650 B.C. (Usher) to 3155 B.C.
+(Josephus and Hales); but the longest of these dates does not
+appear to satisfy the demands of philology. The reason of this
+demand is the supposed length
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>
+of time required to effect the
+necessary changes. The subject is one on which definite data can
+scarcely be obtained. Languages change now, even when reduced to
+a comparatively stable form by writing. They change more rapidly
+when men migrate into new climates, and are placed in contact
+with new objects. The English, the Dutch, and the German were
+perhaps all at the dawn of the medi&aelig;val era M&aelig;so-Gothic. At the
+same rate of change, allowing for greater barbarism and greater
+migrations, they may very well have been something not far from
+Egyptian or Sanscrit 2000 years before Christ. The truth is that
+present rates of variation afford no criterion for the changes
+that must occur in the languages of small and isolated tribes
+lapsing into or rising from barbarism, possessing few words, and
+constantly requiring to name new objects and until some ratio
+shall have been established between these conditions and those of
+modern languages, fixed by literature and by a comparatively
+stationary state of society, it is useless to make any demands
+for longer time on this ground.
+<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p>Even in the present day, Moffat informs us that in South Africa
+the separation of parts of a tribe, for even a few months, may
+produce a notable difference of dialect. If we take the existing
+languages of civilized men whose history is known, we shall find
+that it is impossible to trace many of them back as far as the
+Christian era, and when we have passed over even half that
+interval, they become so different as to be unintelligible to
+those who now speak them. Where there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+are exceptions to this, they arise entirely from the effects of literature and artificial
+culture. While, therefore, there is good ground in philology for
+the belief in one primitive language, there seems no absolute
+necessity to have recourse even to the confusion of tongues at
+Babel to explain the diversities of language.
+<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>
+Farther, the Bible carries back the Semitic group of languages at least to the
+time of the Deluge, but it does not seem necessary on the mere
+ground of antediluvian names, to carry it any farther back, and
+the Assyrian inscriptions show the coexistence of Turanian and
+Semitic tongues at the dawn of history in the region of the
+Euphrates and Tigris. One or other of these&mdash;or a monosyllabic
+language underlying it&mdash;was probably an antediluvian tongue, and
+the other a very early derivative; and both history and philology
+would assign the precedence to the Turanian language, which was
+probably most akin to that which had descended from antediluvian
+times, and which at that early period of dispersion indicated in
+the Bible story of Babel, had begun to throw off its two great
+branches of the Aryan and Semitic languages. These, proceeding in
+two dissimilar lines of development, continue to exist to this
+day along with the surviving portions of the uncultivated
+Turanian speech. To this point, however, we may return under
+another head.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN&mdash;(<i>Continued.</i>)</span><br /></h2>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-align:left;text-indent:3em;font-weight:bold;">
+"By the word of God the heavens were from of old, and the
+earth, formed out of water, and by means of water, by which
+waters the world that then was, being overflowed with water,
+perished."&mdash;2 Peter iii., 5, 6.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. <i>Geological Evidence as to the Antiquity of Man.</i>&mdash;No
+geological fact can now be more firmly established than the
+ascending progression of animal life, whereby from the early
+invertebrates of the Eozoic and Primordial series we pass upward
+through the dynasties of fishes and reptiles and brute mammals to
+the reign of man. In this great series man is obviously the last
+term; and when we inquire at what point he was introduced, the
+answer must be in the later part of the great Cainozoic or
+Tertiary period, which is the latest of the whole. Not only have
+we the negative fact of the absence of his remains from all the
+earlier Tertiary formations, but the positive fact that all the
+mammalia of these earlier ages are now extinct, and that man
+could not have survived the changes of condition which destroyed
+them and introduced the species now our contemporaries. This fact
+is altogether independent of any question as to the introduction
+of species by derivation or by creation. The oldest geological
+period in which any animals nearly related in structure to man
+occur is that named the Miocene, and no traces of man have as yet
+been found in any deposits of this age. All human remains known
+belong either to the Pleistocene or Modern.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+Now the Pleistocene was characterized by one of those periods of glacial cold which
+have swept over the earth&mdash;by one of those great winters which
+have so chilled the continents that few forms of life could
+survive them&mdash;and man comes in at the close of this cold period,
+in what is called the Post-glacial age. Some geologists, it is
+true, hold to an interglacial warm period, in which man is
+supposed to have existed, but the evidence of this is extremely
+slender and doubtful, and it carries back in any case human
+antiquity but a very little way. I have, in my "Story of the
+Earth and Man," shown reason for the belief, in which I find
+Professor Hughes, of Cambridge, coincides with me,
+<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>
+that the interglacial periods are merely an ingenious expedient to get rid
+of the difficulties attending the hypothesis of the universal
+glaciation of the northern hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>But, though man is thus geologically modern, it is held that
+historically his existence on earth may have been very ancient,
+extending perhaps ten or twenty, or even a hundred times longer
+than the period of six or seven thousand years supposed to be
+proved by sacred history. Let us first, as plainly and simply as
+possible, present the facts supposed thus to extend the antiquity
+of man, and then inquire as to their validity and force as
+arguments in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments from geology in favor of a great antiquity for man
+may be summarized thus: (1) Human remains are found in caverns
+under very thick stalagmitic crusts, and in deposits of earth
+which must have accumulated before these stalagmites began to
+form, and when the caverns were differently situated with
+reference to the local drainages. (2) Remains of man are found
+under peat-bogs which have grown
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+so little in modern times that their antiquity on the whole must be very great. (3) Implements,
+presumably made by men, are found in river-gravels so high above
+existing riverbeds that great physical changes must have occurred
+since they were accumulated. (4) One case is on record where a
+human bone is believed to have been found under a deposit of
+glacial age. (5) Human remains have been found under
+circumstances which indicate that very important changes of level
+have taken place since their accumulation. (6) Human remains have
+been found under circumstances which indicate great changes of
+climate as intervening between their date and that of the modern
+period. (7) Man is known to have existed, in Europe at least, at
+the same time with some quadrupeds formerly supposed to have been
+extinct before his introduction. (8) The implements, weapons,
+etc., found in the oldest of these repositories are different
+from those known to have been used in historic times.</p>
+
+<p>These several heads include, I think, all the really material
+evidence of a geological character. It is evidence of a kind not
+easily reducible into definite dates, but there can be no doubt
+that its nature, and the rapid accumulation of facts within a
+small number of years, have created a deep and widespread
+conviction among geologists and arch&aelig;ologists that we must
+relegate the origin of man to a much more remote antiquity than
+that sanctioned by history or by the Biblical chronology. I shall
+first review the character of this evidence, and then state a
+number of geological facts which bear in the other direction, and
+have been somewhat lost sight of in recent discussions. Of the
+facts above referred to, the most important are those which
+relate to caverns, peat-bogs, and river-gravels. We may,
+therefore, first consider the nature and amount of this
+evidence.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>
+That the reader may more distinctly understand the geological
+history of these more recent periods of the earth's history which
+are supposed to have witnessed the advent of man, in Western
+Europe at least, I quote the following summary from Sir Charles
+Lyell of the more modern changes in that portion of the world.
+These are:</p>
+
+<p>"First, a continental period, toward the close of which the
+forest of Cromer flourished; when the land was at least 500 feet
+above its present level, perhaps much higher. * * * The remains
+of <i>Hippopotamus major</i> and <i>Rhinoceros etruscus</i>, found in beds
+of this period, seem to indicate a climate somewhat milder than
+that now prevailing in Great Britain. [This was a <i>Preglacial</i>
+era, and may be regarded as belonging to the close of the
+Pliocene tertiary.]</p>
+
+<p>"Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land north of
+the Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland, was
+generally reduced to * * * an archipelago. * * * This was the
+period of great submergence and of floating ice, when the
+Scandinavian flora, which occupied the lower grounds during the
+first continental period, may have obtained exclusive possession
+of the only lands not covered with perpetual snow. [This
+represents the Glacial period; but according to the more extreme
+glacialists only a portion of that period.]</p>
+
+<p>"Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the
+glacial sea, with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid
+dry, and when the quantity of land equalled that of the first
+period. * * * During this period there were glaciers in the
+higher mountains of Scotland and Wales, and the Welsh glaciers *
+* * pushed before them and cleared out the marine drift with
+which some valleys had been filled during the period of
+submergence. * * * During this last period
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+the passage of the Germanic flora into the British area took place, and the
+Scandinavian plants, together with northern insects, birds, and
+quadrupeds, retreated into the higher grounds. * * *</p>
+
+<p>"Fourthly, the next and last change comprised the breaking up of
+the land of the British area once more into numerous islands,
+ending in the present geographical condition of things. There
+were probably many oscillations of level during this last
+conversion of continuous land into islands, and such movements in
+opposite directions would account for the occurrence of marine
+shells at moderate heights above the level of the sea,
+notwithstanding a general lowering of the land. * * * During this
+period a gradual amelioration of temperature took place, from the
+cold of the glacial period to the climate of historical
+times."
+<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>
+
+<p>The second continental period above referred to is that which
+appears on the best evidence to have been the time of the
+introduction of man; but such facts as that of the Settle Cave,
+and the implements of the breccia in Kent's Cave, if rightly
+interpreted, would make man preglacial or "interglacial."</p>
+
+<p>The deposits found in caverns in France, Switzerland, Germany,
+Belgium, and England have afforded a large proportion of the
+remains from which we derive our notions of the most ancient
+prehistoric men of Europe. From the Belgian caves, as explored by
+M. Dupont, we learn that there were two successive prehistoric
+races, both rude or comparatively uncivilized. The first were men
+of Turanian type, but of great bodily stature and high cerebral
+organization, and showing remarkable skill in the manufacture of
+implements
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
+and ornaments of bone and ivory. These men are
+believed to have been contemporary with the earlier postglacial
+mammals, as the mammoth and hairy rhinoceros, and to have lived
+at a time when the European land was more extensive than at
+present, stretching far to the west of Ireland, and connecting
+Great Britain with the Continent. The skeletons found at
+Cro-Magnon, Mentone, and elsewhere in France fully confirm the
+deductions of Dupont as to this earliest race of Pal&aelig;ocosmic,
+Pal&aelig;olithic, or antediluvian man. This grand race seems to have
+perished or been driven from Europe by the great depression of
+the level of the land which inaugurated the modern era, and which
+was probably accompanied by many oscillations of level as well as
+by considerable changes of climate. They were succeeded by a
+second race, equally Turanian in type, but of small stature, and
+resembling the modern Lapps. These were the "allophylian" peoples
+displaced by the historical Celts, and up to their time the
+reindeer seems to have existed abundantly in France and Germany.
+These two successive prehistoric populations have been termed
+respectively men of the "mammoth" age and men of the "reindeer"
+age. The Bible record would lead us to regard the earlier and
+gigantic men as antediluvian, and the smaller or Lappish race as
+postdiluvian. We may therefore, having already at some length
+considered the postdiluvian age, take up the mode of occurrence
+of the remains of the earlier of the two races&mdash;that of the
+mammoth age.</p>
+
+<p>The caverns themselves may be divided into those of residence, of
+sepulture, and of driftage, though one cavern has often
+successively assumed two at least of these characters. In the
+caverns of residence large accumulations have been formed of
+ashes, charcoal, bones, and other d&eacute;bris of cookery, among which
+are found flint and bone implements, the general
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>
+character of which, as well as that of the needles, stone hammers, mortars for
+paint, and other domestic appliances, are not more dissimilar
+from those of the Red Indian and Esquimau races in North America
+than these are from one another, and in many things, as in the
+bone harpoons, the resemblance is very striking indeed. In
+tendency to imitative art, and in the skill of their delineations
+of animals, the prehistoric men seem to have surpassed all the
+American races except the semi-civilized mound-builders and the
+more cultivated Mexican and Peruvian nations. With regard to the
+residence of these men of the mammoth age in caverns, several
+things are indicated by American analogies to which some
+attention should be paid.</p>
+
+<p>It is not likely that caverns were the usual places of residence
+of the whole population. They may have been winter houses for
+small tribes and detached families of fugitives or outlaws, or
+they may have been places of resort for hunting parties at
+certain seasons of the year. The large quantities of broken and
+uncooked bones of particular species, as of the horse and
+reindeer, in some of the caverns, would farther indicate a habit
+of making great battues, like those of the American hunting
+tribes, at certain seasons, and of preparing quantities of
+pemmican or dried meat preserved with marrow and fat for future
+use. The number of bone needles found in some of the caves would
+seem to hint that, like the Americans, they sewed up their
+pemmican in skin bags. The multitude of flint flakes and of rude
+stone implements applicable to breaking bones certainly indicates
+a wholesale cutting of flesh and preparation of marrow. In the
+"Story of the Earth," I have suggested in connection with this
+that there may have been towns or villages of these people
+unknown to us, and which would afford higher conceptions of
+their
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
+progress in the arts. This anticipation appears recently
+to have been realized in the discovery of such a town or
+fortified village of the mammoth age at Soloutre, in France, and
+which seems to afford evidence that these ancient people had
+already domesticated the horse, using it as food as well as a
+beast of burden, in the manner of the Khirgis and certain other
+Tartar tribes of Central Asia.
+<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>
+This, with the undoubtedly high cerebral organization indicated by the skulls of the mammoth
+age, notably raises our estimate of the position of man at this
+early date.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to caves of sepulture, the same remark may be made as
+with regard to the caves of residence. They do not seem to have
+been the burial-places of large populations, but only occasional
+places of interment, few bodies being found in them, and these
+often interred in the midst of culinary d&eacute;bris, evidencing
+previous or contemporary residence. With regard to the latter, it
+seems to have been no uncommon practice with some North American
+tribes to bury the dead either in the floors of their huts or in
+their immediate proximity. It is probable, however, that the few
+examples known of caves of sepulture of this period indicate not
+tribal or national places of burial, but occasional and
+accidental cases, happening to hunting or war parties, perhaps
+remote from their ordinary places of residence. In so far as
+method of burial is concerned, the men of the Pal&aelig;ocosmic or
+Mammoth age seem to have buried the dead extended at full length,
+and not in the crouching posture usual with some later races.
+Like the Americans, they painted the dead man, and buried him
+with his robes and ornaments, and probably with his weapons, thus
+intimating their belief in happy hunting-grounds
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>
+beyond the grave.
+<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a>
+I may remark here that all the known interments of
+the mammoth age indicate a race of men of great cerebral
+capacity, with long heads and coarsely marked features, of large
+stature and muscular vigor, surpassing indeed much in all these
+respects the average man of modern Europe. These characteristics
+befit men who had to contend with the mammoth and his
+contemporaries, and to subdue the then vast wildernesses of the
+eastern continent, and they correspond with the Biblical
+characteristics of antediluvian man.</p>
+
+<p>Among caves of driftage may be classed some of those near Li&egrave;ge,
+in Belgium, and, partially at least, those of Kent's Hole and
+Brixham, in England. In these only disarticulated remnants of
+human skeletons, or more frequently only flint implements, some
+of them of doubtful character, have been found. In my "Story of
+the Earth," I have taken the carefully explored Kent's Cavern of
+Torquay as a typical example, and have condensed its phenomena as
+described by Mr. Pengelly. I now repeat this description, with
+some important emendations suggested by that gentleman in more
+recent reports and in private correspondence.</p>
+
+<p>The somewhat extensive and ramifying cavern of Kent's Hole is an
+irregular excavation, evidently due partly to fissures or joints
+in limestone rock, and partly to the erosive action of water
+enlarging such fissures into chambers and galleries. At what time
+it was originally cut we do not know, but it must have existed as
+a cavern at the close of the Pliocene or beginning of the
+Post-pliocene period, since which time it has been receiving a
+series of deposits which have quite filled up some of its smaller
+branches.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
+First and lowest, according to Mr. Pengelly, of the deposits as
+yet known, is a "breccia," or mass of broken and rounded stones,
+with hardened red clay filling the interstices. Some of the
+stones are of the rock which forms the roof and walls of the
+cave, but the greater number, especially the rounded ones, are
+from more distant parts of the surrounding country. Many are
+fragments of grit from the Devonian beds of adjacent hills. There
+are also fragments of stalagmite from an old crust broken up when
+the breccia was deposited, and possibly belonging to Pliocene
+times. In this mass, the depth of which is unknown, are numerous
+bones, nearly all of one kind of animal, the cave bear or bears,
+for there may be more than one species&mdash;creatures which seem to
+have lived in Western Europe from the close of the Pliocene down
+to the modern period. They must have been among the earliest and
+most permanent tenants of Kent's Hole at a time when its lower
+chambers were still filled with water. Teeth of a lion and of the
+common fox also occur in this deposit, but rarely. Next above the
+breccia is a floor of "stalagmite," or stony carbonate of lime,
+deposited from the drippings of the roof, and in some places more
+than twelve feet thick. This also contains bones of the cave
+bear, deposited when there was less access of water to the
+cavern. Mr. Pengelly infers the existence of man at this time
+from the occurrence of chipped flints supposed to be artificial;
+but which, in so far as I can judge from the specimens described
+and figured, must still be regarded as of doubtful origin.</p>
+
+<p>After the old stalagmite floor above mentioned was formed, the
+cave again received deposits of muddy water and stones; but now a
+change occurs in the remains embedded. This stony clay, or "cave
+earth," has yielded an immense quantity of teeth and bones,
+including those of the elephant, rhinoceros,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
+horse, hyena, cave bear, reindeer, and Irish elk. With these were found weapons of
+chipped flint, and harpoons, needles, and bodkins of bone,
+precisely similar to those of the North American Indians and
+other rude races. The "cave earth" is four feet or more in
+thickness. It is not stratified, and contains many fallen
+fragments of rock, rounded stones, and broken pieces of
+stalagmite. It also has patches of the excrement of hyenas, which
+the explorers suppose to indicate the temporary residence of
+these animals; and besides fragments of charcoal scattered in the
+mass, there is in one spot, near the top, a limited layer of
+burned wood, with remains which indicate the cooking and eating
+of repasts of animal food by man. It is clear that when this bed
+was formed the cavern was liable to be inundated with muddy
+water, carrying stones and perhaps some of the bones and
+implements, and breaking up in places the old stalagmite
+floor.
+<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a>
+One of the most puzzling features, especially to
+those who take an exclusively uniformitarian view, is that the
+entrance of water-borne mud and stones implies a level of the
+bottom of the water in the neighboring valleys of nearly one
+hundred feet above its present height. The cave earth is covered
+by a second crust of stalagmite, less dense and thick than that
+below, and containing only a few bones, which are of the same
+general character with those beneath, but include a fragment of a
+human jaw with teeth. Evidently when this stalagmite was formed
+the influx of water-borne materials had ceased, or nearly so; and
+Mr. Pengelly appears to affirm, though without assigning any
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+reason, that none of these bones could, like the masses of
+stalagmite, have been lifted from lower beds, or washed into the
+cave from without.</p>
+
+<p>The next bed marks a new change. It is a layer of black mould
+from three to ten inches thick. Its microscopic structure does
+not seem to have been examined; but it is probably a forest soil,
+introduced by growth, by water, by wind, and by ingress of
+animals, all of them modern, and contains works of art from the
+old British times before the Roman invasion up to the porter
+bottles and dropped half-pence of modern visitors. Lastly, in and
+upon the black mould are many fallen blocks from the roof of the
+cave.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that this cave and the neighboring one of
+Brixham have done very much to impress the minds of British
+geologists with ideas of the great antiquity of man; and they
+have, more than any other postglacial monuments, shown the
+existence of some animals now extinct up to the human age. Of
+precise data for determining time, they have, however, given
+nothing. The only measures which seem to have been applied,
+namely, the rate of growth of stalagmite and the rate of erosion
+of neighboring valleys, are, from the very sequence of the
+deposits, obviously worthless; and the only apparently constant
+measure, namely, the fall of blocks from the roof, seems not to
+have been applied, and Mr. Pengelly declares that it can not be
+practically used. We are therefore quite uncertain as to the
+number of centuries involved in the filling of this cave, and
+must remain so until some surer system of calculation can be
+devised. We may, however, attempt to sketch the series of events
+which it indicates.</p>
+
+<p>The animals found in Kent's Hole are all "postglacial," some of
+them of course survivors from "preglacial" times,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
+and some of them still surviving. They therefore inhabited the country after
+it rose from the great glacial submergence. Perhaps the first
+colonists of the coast of Devonshire in this period were the cave
+bears, migrating on floating ice, and subsisting like the arctic
+bear and the black bear of Anti-costi, on fish, and on the
+garbage cast up by the sea. They may have found Kent's Hole a
+sea-side cavern, with perhaps some of its galleries still full of
+water and filling with breccia, with which the bones of dead
+bears became mixed. In the case of such a deposit as this
+breccia, however, the precise time when its materials were
+finally laid down in their present form, or the length of time
+necessary for its accumulation, can not be definitely settled. It
+may be a result of continued torrential action or of some sudden
+cataclysm. As the land rose, these creatures for the most part
+betook themselves to lower levels, and in process of time the
+cavern stood upon a hill-side, perhaps several hundreds of feet
+above the sea; and the mountain streams, their beds not yet
+emptied of glacial detritus, washed into it stones and mud, and
+probably bones also, while it appears that hyenas occupied the
+cave at intervals, and dragged in remains of mammals of many
+species which had now swarmed across the plains elevated out of
+the sea, and multiplied in the land. This was the time of the
+cave earth; and before its deposit was completed, though how long
+before an unstratified and therefore probably often-disturbed bed
+of this kind can not tell, man himself seems to have been added
+to the inhabitants of the British land. In pursuit of game he
+sometimes ascended the valleys beyond the cavern, or even
+penetrated into its outer chambers; or perhaps there were even in
+those days rude and savage hill-men, inhabiting the forests and
+warring with the more cultivated denizens of plains below, which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>
+are now deep under the waters. Their weapons, and other
+implements dropped in the cavern or lost in hunting, or buried in
+the flesh of wounded animals which crept to the streams to
+assuage their thirst, are those found in the cave earth. The
+absence of the human bones may merely show that the mighty
+hunters of those days were too hardy, athletic, and intelligent
+often to perish from accidental causes, and that they did not use
+this cavern for a place of burial. The fragments of charcoal show
+that they were acquainted with fire, and possibly that they
+sometimes took shelter in the cave. But the land again subsided.
+The valley of that now nameless river, of which the Rhine and the
+Thames may have alike been tributaries, disappeared under the
+sea; and perhaps some tribe, driven from the lower lands, took up
+its abode in this cave, now again near the encroaching waves, and
+left there the remains of their last repasts ere they were driven
+farther inland or engulfed in the waters. For a time the cavern
+may have been wholly submerged, and the charcoal of the
+extinguished fires became covered with its thin coating of clay.
+But ere long it re-emerged to form part of an island, long barren
+and desolate; and the valleys having been cut deeper by the
+receding waters, it no longer received muddy deposits, and the
+crust formed by drippings from its roof contained only bones and
+pebbles washed by rains and occasional land floods from its own
+clay deposits. Finally, the modern forests overspread the land,
+and were tenanted by the modern animals. Man returned to use the
+cavern again as a place of refuge or habitation, and to leave
+there the relics contained in the black earth. This seems at
+present the only intelligible history of this curious cave and
+others resembling it; though, when we consider the imperfection
+of the results obtained even by a large amount of labor, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+the difficult and confused character of the deposits in this and
+similar caves, too much value should not be attached to such
+histories, which may at any time be contradicted or modified by
+new facts or different explanations of those already known. The
+time involved depends very much on the answer to the question
+whether we should regard the postglacial subsidence and
+re-elevation as somewhat sudden, or as occupying long ages at the
+slow rate at which some parts of our continents are now rising or
+sinking.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Pengelly thinks it possible, but not proved, that the lower
+breccia of Kent's Cavern may be interglacial or preglacial in
+age. One case only is known where a human bone has been found in
+a cavern under deposits supposed to be of the nature of the
+glacial drift. It is that of the Victoria Cave, at Settle, in
+Yorkshire. At this place a human fibula was found under a layer
+of boulder clay. But there are too many chances of this bone
+having come into this position by some purely local accident to
+allow us to attach much importance to it until future discoveries
+shall have supplied other instances of the kind.
+<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p>
+
+<p>I may close this survey of the cave deposits with a summary of
+the results of M. Dupont, as obtained from two of the caves
+explored by him, that of Margite and that of Frontal. In the
+first of these caverns, resting on rolled pebbles which covered
+the floor, were four distinct layers of river mud deposited by
+inundations, and amounting to two yards and a half in thickness.
+In all of these layers were bones. The lowest contained rude
+flint implements, and bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, bear,
+horse, chamois, reindeer,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
+stag, and hyena. In the overlying
+deposits are some flint implements of more artistic form and a
+greater prevalence of the bones of the reindeer. In the second
+cave, that of Frontal, over a similar deposit of alluvial mud of
+the mammoth age, was found a sepulchre containing the remains of
+sixteen individuals, of the second or diminutive Lappish race
+before referred to. The door of the cave had been closed by these
+people with a slab of stone, and in front was a hearth for
+funeral feasts, built on the deposits of the mammoth age, and
+containing bones of animals all recent or now living in Belgium,
+and without any traces of the bones of the extinct quadrupeds.
+This burial-place belonged to the Neocosmic yet prehistoric race
+which replaced the Pal&aelig;ocosmic men of the mammoth age.</p>
+
+<p>What is the absolute antiquity of the Pal&aelig;ocosmic age in Europe?
+We have no monumental or historical chronology to answer this
+question, but only the measures of time furnished by the
+accumulation of deposits, by the deposition of stalagmite, by the
+gradual extinction of animals, and by the erosion of valleys and
+other physical changes. These somewhat loose measures have been
+applied in various ways, but the tendency of geologists, from the
+prevalence of uniformitarian views, and the prejudice created by
+familiarity with the long times of previous geologic periods, has
+been to assign to them too great rather than too little value,
+both as measures of time and as indicating a remote antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the accumulation of deposits, whether derived
+from disintegration of the roof and walls of the cave, introduced
+by land floods or river inundations or by the residence of man,
+their rate is of very difficult estimation. Loose stones fallen
+from the roof, as in the case of Kent's Cave, would give a fair
+measure of time if we could be sure
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>
+that the climate had continued uniform, and that there had been no violent
+earthquakes. Mr. Pengelly has, however, hopelessly given up this
+kind of evidence. Where, as in the case of many of these caves,
+land floods and river inundations have entered, these may have
+been frequent or separated by long intervals of time, and they
+may have been of great or small amount. Where, for instance, as
+in one of the Belgian caves, there are six beds of ossiferous
+mud, but for the fact that five layers of stalagmite separate
+them we might not have known whether they represent six annual
+inundations, or floods separated by many centuries from each
+other.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the Victoria Cave at Settle, Dawkins, reasoning
+from the accumulation of two feet of detritus over British
+remains that may be supposed to be 1200 years old, gives a basis
+which would at the same rate of deposit allow about 5000 years
+for the date of pal&aelig;olithic men; but Prestwich and others, on the
+basis of stalagmite deposits, claim a vastly higher antiquity for
+the men who made the implements found in Kent's Hole and Brixham.</p>
+
+<p>If we now turn to these stalagmite floors, when we consider that
+they have been formed by the slow solution of limestone by
+rain-water charged with carbonic acid, and the dropping of this
+water on the floor, and when we are told that in Kent's Cavern a
+marked date shows that the stalagmite has grown at the rate of
+only one twentieth of an inch since 1688, and that there are two
+beds of stalagmite, one of which is in some places twelve feet
+thick, we are impressed with the conviction of a vast antiquity.
+But when we are told by Dawkins that the rate of deposit in
+Ingleborough Cave may be estimated at a quarter of an inch per
+annum, and when we consider that the present rate of deposit in
+Kent's Hole is probably very different from what it was in the
+former condition of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>
+country, stalagmite becomes a very
+unsafe measure of time. With respect again to the accumulation of
+kitchen-midden stuff in the course of the occupancy of caverns,
+this proceeds with great rapidity, when caves are steadily
+occupied and it is not the practice to cleanse out the d&eacute;bris of
+fires, food, and bedding. Even when the occupation is temporary,
+a tribe of savages engaged with the preparation of dried meat and
+pemmican in a very short time produce a considerable heap of
+bones and other rejectamenta.</p>
+
+<p>Looking next to the extinction of animals, we find that the
+species found in the oldest deposits containing human remains are
+in part still extant. Others which are locally extinct we know
+existed in Europe until historical times, that is, within the
+last two thousand years. How long previously to this the others
+became extinct we have no certain means of knowing, though it
+seems probable that they disappeared gradually and successively.
+We have, however, farther to bear in mind the possibility of
+cataclysms or climatal changes which may have proved speedily
+fatal to many species over large areas. In any case we have this
+certain fact that, though the time elapsed has been sufficient
+for the extinction of many species, it does not seem to have
+sufficed to effect any noteworthy change on those that survived.
+Farther, we may consider that time is only one factor in this
+matter, and not the one which is the efficient cause of change,
+since we know no reason why one species of animal should not
+continue to be reproduced as long as another, but for the
+occurrence of physical changes of a prejudicial character.</p>
+
+<p>We have still remaining the changes which have taken place in the
+erosion of valleys since the caverns were occupied. Dupont
+informs us that the openings of some of the caverns once flooded
+by rivers are now in limestone cliffs two
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>
+hundred feet above the water, while no appreciable lowering of the bottoms of the
+ravines is taking place now. This would in some contingencies put
+back the period of filling of the caves to an indefinite
+antiquity. But then the questions occur&mdash;Was there once more
+water in the rivers or more obstruction at their outlets, or was
+the erosive power greater at one time than now, or were the river
+valleys excavated in still more ancient time, and partly filled
+with mud when the water entered the caves, and may this mud have
+been since swept away? So, in like manner, the waters flowing in
+the channels near Brixham Cave and Kent's Hole were apparently
+about seventy feet higher in times of flood than at present, but
+the time involved is subject to the same doubts as in the case of
+the Belgian caves. Hughes has well remarked that elevations of
+the land, by causing rivers to form waterfalls and cascades,
+which they cut back, may greatly accelerate the rate of erosion.
+Farther, there is the best reason to believe that in the glacial
+period many old valleys were filled with clay, and that the
+modern cutting consisted merely in the removal of this clay. Belt
+has shown in a recent paper
+<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a>
+ good reason to believe that this
+is the case with the Falls of Niagara, and that the cutting
+actually effected through rock within the later Pleistocene and
+modern period has been that only of the new gorge from the
+whirlpool to Queenstown, the main part of the ravine being of
+older date and merely re-excavated. This would greatly reduce the
+ordinary estimate of time based on the cutting of the Niagara
+gorge.</p>
+
+<p>This leads us next to consider the occurrence of human remains
+and objects of art in the river-gravels themselves, and the
+amount of excavation and deposit involved in the deposition
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>
+of these gravels. In the river-gravels of the Somme, and of many
+other rivers in France and Southern England, chipped flints and
+rude flint implements are found in so great quantity as to imply
+that the beds and banks of these streams were resorted to for
+flint material, and that the unfinished and rejected implements
+left in the holes and trenches, or on the heaps where the work
+was carried on, were afterward sorted by running water, perhaps
+in abnormal floods and debacles, such as occur in all river
+valleys occasionally, perhaps in that great diluvial catastrophe
+which seems to have terminated the residence of Pal&aelig;ocosmic man
+in Europe. Wilson has well shown how the heaps left by American
+tribes in and near their flint quarries would furnish the
+material for such accumulations. The time required for the
+erosion of the valleys and the deposit of the gravels has been
+very variously estimated. In the case of the Somme, which river
+is not appreciably deepening its bed, if we suppose it to have
+cut its wide valley to the depth of one hundred and fifty feet
+out of solid chalk since the so-called "high level" gravels of
+France and the South of England were deposited, the time required
+shades off into infinity. So Evans, in his work on "The Ancient
+Stone Implements of Great Britain," looking upon the amount of
+excavation of wide and deep valleys since the stone implements of
+Bournemouth are supposed to have been deposited in gravel, says,
+"Who can fully comprehend how immensely remote was the epoch when
+that vast bay was high and dry land?" and he becomes poetical in
+delineating the view that must have met the eyes of "pal&aelig;olithic"
+man. And undoubtedly, if one is to be limited to the precise
+nature and amount of causes now at work in the district, the time
+must not only be "immensely remote," but illimitably so. The
+difficulty lies with the exaggerated uniformitarianism of the
+supposition that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>
+such causes could have produced the results.
+But, for reasons to be immediately stated, the time required is
+liable to numerous deductions; and recently Tylor, Pattison,
+Collard, and others have insisted ably on these deductions, as
+has also Professor Hughes, of Cambridge. I have myself urged them
+strongly in the work already referred to.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, when we see a deep river valley in which the
+present stream is doing an almost infinitesimal amount of
+deepening, we are not to infer that this represents all its work
+past and present. In times of unusual flood it may do in one week
+more than in many previous years. Farther, if there have been
+elevations or depressions of the land, when the land has been
+raised the cutting power has at once been enormously increased,
+and when depressed it has been diminished, or filling has taken
+the place of cutting. Again, if the climate in time past has been
+more extreme, or the amount of rainfall greater, the cutting
+action has then been proportionally rapid. Perhaps no influence
+is greater in this respect than that which is known to the
+colonists in Northeastern America as "ice-freshets," when in
+spring, before the ice has had time to disappear from the rivers,
+sudden thaws and rains produce great floods, which rushing down
+over the icy crust, or breaking and hurling its masses before
+them, work terrible havoc on the banks and alluvial flats,
+depositing great beds of gravel, and sweeping away immense masses
+that had lain undisturbed for centuries. Now we know that in
+Europe the human period was preceded by what has been termed the
+glacial age, and as it was passing away there must have been
+unexampled floods and ice-freshets, and a temporary "pluvial
+period," as it has been called, in which the volume of the rivers
+was immensely increased. Farther, it is an established fact that
+the period of the appearance of man was a time when
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
+the continents in the northern hemisphere were more elevated than at
+present, and when consequently the cutting action of rivers was
+at a maximum. This was again followed by a period of depression,
+accompanied probably by many local cataclysms, if not by a
+general deluge; and there are strong geological reasons to
+believe that this convulsion was connected with the disappearance
+from Europe of Pal&aelig;ocosmic man, and many of the animals his
+contemporaries. This view I advocated some time ago in my "Story
+of the Earth;" and more recently Mr. Pattison, in an able paper
+read before the Victoria Institute, has developed it in greater
+detail, and supported it by a great mass of geological authority.
+If the Pal&aelig;ocosmic period was one of continental elevation, when
+the greater seats of population were in the valleys of great
+rivers now covered by the German Ocean and the English Channel,
+and when the valleys of the Thames and the Somme were those of
+upland streams frequented by straggling parties and small tribes,
+and the seats of extensive flint factories for the supply of the
+plains below, and if this state of things was terminated by a
+diluvial debacle, we can account for all the phenomena of the
+drift implements without any extravagant estimate of time.</p>
+
+<p>I quote with much pleasure on this subject the following from the
+report of a lecture on "Geological Measures of Time," by
+Professor Hughes, before the Royal Institution of London. Hughes
+was, like myself, a companion of Sir Charles Lyell in some of his
+journeys, though belonging to a younger generation of geologists,
+and is an accurate observer and reasoner.</p>
+
+<p>"Another method of estimating the lapse of time is founded upon
+the supposed rate at which rivers scoop out their channels.
+Although no very exact estimates have been attempted,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>
+still the immense quantity of work that has been done, as compared with the
+slow rate at which a river is now excavating that same part of
+the valley, is often appealed to as a proof of a great lapse of
+time.</p>
+
+<p>"The fact of such an enormous lapse of time is not questioned,
+but this part of the evidence is challenged.</p>
+
+<p>"The previous considerations of the rate of accumulation of silt
+on the low lands prepares us to inquire whether there is any
+waste at all along the alluvial plains. Several examples were
+given to show that the lowering of valleys was brought about by
+receding rapids and waterfalls; for instance, following up the
+Rhine, its terraces could often be traced back to where the
+waterfall was seen to produce at once almost all the difference
+of level between the river reaches above and below it. At
+Schaffhausen the river terrace below the hotel could be traced
+back and found to be continuous with the river margin above the
+fall. The wide plains occurring here and there, such as the
+Mayence basin, were due to the river being arrested by the hard
+rocks of the gorges below Bingen so long that it had time to wind
+from side to side through the soft rocks above the gorges. When
+waterfalls cut back to such basins or to lakes they would recede
+rapidly, tapping the waters of the lake, eating back the soft
+beds of the alluvial plains, and probably in both cases leaving
+terraces as evidence, not of upheavals or of convulsions, but of
+the arrival of a waterfall which had been gradually travelling up
+the valley. So when the Rhone cuts back from the falls at
+Belgarde we shall have terraces where now is the shore of Geneva;
+so also when the Falls of Schaffhausen, and ages afterward when
+the Falls of Laufenburg have tapped the Lake of Constance, there
+will be terraces marking its previous levels. And so we may
+explain the former greater extent of the Lake of Zurich, which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>
+stood higher and spread wider by Utznach and Wetzikon before it
+was tapped by the arrival of waterfalls, which cut back into it
+and let its waters run off until they fell to their present
+level.</p>
+
+<p>"A small upheaval near the mouth of a river would have a similar
+effect. The Thames below London and the Somme below St. Acheul
+can now only just hand on the mud brought down from higher
+ground; but suppose an elevation of a hundred feet over those
+parts of England and France (quite imperceptible if extended over
+10,000, 1000, or even 100 years), and the rivers would tumble
+over soft mud and clay and chalk, and soon eat their way back
+from Sheppey to London, and from St. Valery to Amiens.</p>
+
+<p>"So when we want to estimate the age of the gravels on the top of
+the cliff at the Reculvers, or on the edge of the plateau of St.
+Acheul, we have to ask, not how long would it take the rivers to
+cut down to their present level from the height of those gravels
+at the rate at which that part of their channel is being lowered
+now, but how long would it take the Somme or Thames, which once
+ran at the level of those gravels, to cut back from where its
+mouth or next waterfall was then to where it runs over rapids
+now. We ought to know what movements of upheaval and depression
+there have been; what long alluvial flats or lakes which may have
+checked floods, but also arrested the rock-protecting gravel; how
+much the wash of the estuarine waves has helped. In fact, it is
+clear that observations made on the action of the rivers at those
+points now have nothing to do with the calculation of the age of
+the terraces above, and that the circumstances upon which the
+rate of recession of the waterfalls and rapids depends are so
+numerous and changeable that it is at present unsafe to attempt
+any estimate of the time required to produce the results
+observed."</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
+I may close this discussion by quoting from the paper of my
+friend Mr. Pattison, already referred to, the following summing
+up of his conclusions, in which I fully concur:</p>
+
+<p>"We may assume it as established that there was a time when
+England was connected with the Continent, when big animals
+roamed in summer up the watercourses and across the uplands,
+and man, armed only with rude stones, followed them into the
+marshes and woods, hunted them for sustenance, and consumed
+them in shelter of caves, then accessible from the river
+levels. This state of things was continued until disturbed
+by oscillations of surface, accompanied by excessive
+rainfalls and rushes of water from the water-sheds of the
+rivers, until the great animals were driven out or
+destroyed, and man ceased to visit these parts. The
+disturbances continued, the Strait of Dover was formed, the
+configuration of the soft parts of the islands and
+continents was fixed, action subsided, and the present state
+of things obtained. Man resumed his residence, but with loss
+of the mammoth and its companions. The reindeer now
+constituted the type of a state of things which lasted down
+to the historic period, without any other from that time to
+this. * * *</p>
+
+<p>"Chronologists are agreed that about 2000 years B.C. Abraham
+migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and that at this time
+Egypt at least was old in civilization. Beyond this we have
+no positive scale of time in Scripture; for it is evident,
+from the narrative itself, that the latter does not cover
+the whole time. * * *</p>
+
+<p>"Ussher estimates from Scripture the creation of man as
+about 2000 years before this. During the latter portion of
+this time civilization was proceeding under settled
+governments in the East, interrupted, says the record and
+tradition, by a flood. * * *</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"So Lucretius:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10%;font-size:90%">'Thus, too, the insurgent waters once o'erpowered,<br />
+As fables tell, and deluged many a state;<br />
+Till, in its turn, the congregated waves<br />
+By cause more potent conquered, heaven restrain'd<br />
+Its ceaseless torrents, and the flood decreased.'</p>
+
+<p>Barbarism covered the whole Western world; neither in the
+2000 years before Abraham, nor in the 2000 years afterward,
+have we any light reflected from these regions to the East.
+In this 4000 years, or in the somewhat longer period which
+probably will be ultimately settled as warranted by the
+record, we place hypothetically all the phenomena of the
+later mammalian age, including the introduction of man as a
+hunter, the first occupation of the caves by him also, the
+diluvial phenomena of the wide valleys, the oscillations and
+disturbances of the earth's crust, alterations in the
+coast-line, and physical settlement of the country; after
+this comes the second occupation of the caves. In short, if
+we say that, hypothetically, the whole first known human age
+occurred within 4000 years of the Christian era, no one can
+say that it is geologically impossible. Who can say that
+1643 years is insufficient to comprise all the phenomena
+that occurred during a period confessedly characterized by
+more rapid and extensive action than at present&mdash;a period
+during which ruptures in the earth's crust, oscillations,
+and permanent uprising took place, and the intermittent
+action of violent floods caused the deposit and disturbance
+and resettlement of the gravels and brick-earth? There is
+nothing to interfere with the prevalent opinion that man was
+introduced here while the glacial period was dying out, and
+while it was still furnishing flood-waters sufficient to
+scour and re-sort the gravels of the valleys down which they
+flowed. This supposition may be extended to both the great
+continents."</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>
+To conclude: Our mode of reconciling the Mosaic history of
+antediluvian man with the disclosures of the gravels and caves
+would be to identify Pal&aelig;ocosmic man, or man of the mammoth age,
+with antediluvian man; to suppose that the changes which closed
+his existence in Europe as well as Western Asia were those
+recorded in the Noachian deluge; and that the second colonization
+of the diminished and shrunken Europe of the modern period was
+effected by the descendants of Noah. It may be asked&mdash;Must we
+suppose that the Adam of the Bible was of the type of the
+coarsely featured and gigantic men of the European caverns? I
+would answer&mdash;Not precisely so; but it is quite possible that
+Adam may have been Turanian in feature. We should certainly
+suppose him to have been a man well developed in brain and
+muscle. Such men as those found in the caves would rather
+represent the ruder "Nephelim," the "giants that were in those
+days," than Adam in Eden. Farther, the new colonists of Europe
+after the deluge would no doubt be a very rude and somewhat
+degenerate branch of Noachid&aelig;, probably driven before more
+powerful tribes in the course of the dispersion. The higher races
+of both periods are probably to be looked for in Western Asia;
+but even there we must expect to find cave men like those whose
+remains were found by Tristram in the caves near Tyre, and like
+the Horim of Moses; and we must also expect to find the
+antediluvian age in the main an age of stone everywhere, and its
+arts, except in certain great centres of population, perhaps not
+more advanced than those of the Polynesians, or those of the
+agricultural American tribes before the discovery of America by
+Columbus.</p>
+
+<p>As a geologist, and as one who has been in the main of the school
+of Lyell, and after having observed with much
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>
+care the deposits of the more modern periods on both sides of the Atlantic, I have
+from the first dissented from those of my scientific brethren who
+have unhesitatingly given their adhesion to the long periods
+claimed for human history, and have maintained that their hasty
+conclusions on this subject must bring geological reasoning into
+disrepute, and react injuriously on our noble science. We require
+to make great demands on time for the prehuman periods of the
+earth's history, but not more than sacred history is willing to
+allow for the modern or human age.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS.</span><br /></h2>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:80%;text-align:left;text-indent:3em;font-weight:bold;">
+"Lo, these are but the outlines of his ways, and how faint
+the whisper which we hear of him&mdash;the thunder of his power
+who could understand?"&mdash;Job xxvi., 14.</p>
+
+
+<p>In the preceding pages I have, as far as possible, avoided that
+mode of treating my subject which was wont to be expressed as the
+"reconciliation" of Scripture and Natural Science, and have
+followed the direct guidance of the Mosaic record, only turning
+aside where some apt illustration or coincidence could be
+perceived. In the present chapter I propose to inquire what the
+science of the earth teaches on these same subjects, and to point
+out certain manifest and remarkable correspondences between these
+teachings and those of revelation. Here I know that I enter on
+dangerous ground, and that if I have been so fortunate as to
+carry the intelligent reader with me thus far, I may chance to
+lose him now. The Hebrew Scriptures are common property; no one
+can fairly deny me the right to study them, even though I do so
+in no clerical or theological capacity; and even if I should
+appear extreme in some of my views, or venture to be almost as
+enthusiastic as the commentators of Homer, Shakespeare, or Dante,
+I can not be very severely blamed. But the direct comparison of
+these ancient records with results of modern science is obnoxious
+to many minds on different grounds; and all the more so that so
+few men are at once students both of nature
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>
+and revelation. There are, as yet, but few even of educated men whose range of
+study has included any thing that is practical or useful either
+in Hebrew literature or geological science. That slipshod
+Christianity which contents itself with supposing that
+conclusions which are false in nature may be true in theology is
+mere superstition or professional priestcraft, and has nothing in
+common with the Bible; but there are still multitudes of good
+men, trained in the verbal and abstract learning which at one
+time constituted nearly the whole of education, who regard
+geology as a mass of crude hypotheses destitute of coherence, a
+perpetual battle-ground of conflicting opinions, all destined in
+time to be swept away. It must be admitted, too, that from the
+nature of geological evidence, and from the liability to error in
+details, the solidity of its conclusions is not likely soon to be
+appreciated as fully as is desirable by the common mind; while it
+is unfortunately true that the outskirts of science are infested
+with hosts of half-informed and superficial writers, who state
+these conclusions incorrectly, or apply them in an unreasonable
+manner to matters on which they have no bearing. On the other
+hand, the geologist, fully aware of the substantial nature of the
+foundations of the science of the earth, regards it as little
+less than absurd to find parallels to its principles in an
+ancient theological work. Still there are possible meeting-points
+of things so dissimilar as Bible lore and geological exploration.
+If man is a being connected on the one hand with material nature,
+and on the other with the spiritual essence of the Creator; if
+that Creator has given to man powers of exploring and
+comprehending his plans in the universe, and at the same time has
+condescended to reveal to him directly his will on certain
+points, there is nothing unphilosophical or improbable in the
+supposition that the same truths may be struck out on
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
+the one hand by the action of the human mind on nature, and on the other
+by the action of the Divine mind on that of man. The highest and
+most nobly constituted minds have ever been striving to scale
+heaven above and dive into the earth below, that they may extort
+from them the secret of their origin, and may find what are the
+privileges and destinies of man himself. They have learned much;
+and if through other gifted minds, and through his
+heaven-descended Word and Spirit, God has condescended to reveal
+himself, there must surely be much in common in that which God's
+works teach to earnest inquirers and that which he directly makes
+known. But few of our greatest thinkers, whether on nature or
+theology, have reached the firm ground of this higher
+probability; or if they have reached it, have dreaded the scorn
+of the half-learned too much to utter their convictions. Still
+this is a position which the enlightened Christian and student of
+nature must be prepared to occupy, humbly and with admission of
+much ignorance and incapacity, but with bold assertion of the
+truth that there are meeting-points of nature and revelation
+which afford legitimate subjects of study.</p>
+
+<p>In entering on these subjects, we may receive certain great
+truths in reference to the history of the earth as established by
+geological evidence. In the present rapidly progressive state of
+the science, however, it is by no means easy to separate its
+assured and settled results from those that have been founded on
+too hasty generalization, or are yet immature; and at the same
+time to avoid overlooking new and important truths, sufficiently
+established, yet not known in all their dimensions. In the
+following summary I shall endeavor to present to the reader only
+well-ascertained general truths, without indulging in those
+deviations from accuracy for effect too often met with in popular
+books. On the other hand, we
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>
+have already found that the
+Scriptures enunciate distinct doctrines on many points relating
+to the earth's early history, to which it will here be necessary
+merely to refer in general terms. Let us in the first place
+shortly consider the conclusions of geology as to the origin and
+progress of creation.</p>
+
+<p>1. The widest and most important generalization of modern geology
+is that all the materials of the earth's crust, to the greatest
+depth that man can reach, either by actual excavation or
+inference from superficial arrangements, are of such a nature as
+to prove that they are not, in their present state, original
+portions of the earth's structure; but that they are the results
+of the operation, during long periods, of the causes of
+change&mdash;whether mechanical, chemical, or vital&mdash;now in operation,
+on the land, in the seas, and in the interior of the earth. For
+example, the most common rocks of our continents are
+conglomerates, sandstones, shales, and slates; all of which are
+made up of the d&eacute;bris of older rocks broken down into gravel,
+sand, or mud, and then re-cemented. To these we may add
+limestones, which have been made up by the accumulation of corals
+and shells, or by deposits from calcareous springs; coal,
+composed of vegetable matter; and granite, syenite, greenstone,
+and trap, which are molten rocks formed in the manner of modern
+lavas. So general has been this sorting, altering, and
+disturbance of the substance of the earth's crust, that, though
+we know its structure over large portions of our continents to
+the depth of several miles, the geologist can point to no
+instance of a truly primitive rock which can be affirmed to have
+remained unchanged and <i>in situ</i> since the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>"All are aware that the solid parts of the earth consist of
+distinct substances, such as clay, chalk, sand, limestone, coal,
+slate, granite, and the like; but, previously to observation, it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>
+is commonly imagined that all had remained from the first in the
+state in which we now see them&mdash;that they were created in their
+present forms and in their present position. The geologist now
+comes to a different conclusion; discovering proofs that the
+external parts of the earth were not all produced in the
+beginning of things in the state in which we now behold them, nor
+in an instant of time. On the contrary, he can show that they
+have acquired their actual condition and configuration gradually
+and at successive periods, during each of which distinct races of
+living beings have flourished on the land and in the waters; the
+remains of these creatures lying buried in the crust of the
+earth."
+<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. Having ascertained that the rocks of the earth have thus been
+produced by secondary causes, we next affirm, on the evidence of
+geology, that a distinct order of succession of these deposits
+can be ascertained; and though there are innumerable local
+variations in the nature of the rocks formed at the same period,
+yet there is, on the great scale, a regular sequence of
+formations over the whole earth. This succession is of the
+greatest importance in the case of aqueous rocks, or those formed
+in water; and it is evident that in the case of beds of sand,
+clay, etc., deposited in this way, the upper must be the more
+recent of any two layers. This simple principle, complicated in
+various ways by the fractures and disturbances to which the beds
+have been subjected, forms the basis of the succession of
+"formations" in geology as deduced from stratigraphical evidence.</p>
+
+<p>3. This regular series of formations would be of little value as
+a history of the earth were it not that nearly all the aqueous
+rocks contain remains of the contemporary animals and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>
+plants. Ever since the earth began to be tenanted by organized beings,
+the various accumulations formed in the bottoms of seas and at
+the mouths of rivers have entombed remains of marine animals,
+more especially their harder parts, as shells, corals, and bones,
+and also fragments or entire specimens of land animals and
+plants. Hence, in any rock of aqueous formation, we may find
+fossil remains of the living creatures that existed in the waters
+in which that rock was accumulated or on the neighboring land. If
+in the process of building up the continents, the same locality
+constituted in succession a part of the bottom of the ocean, of
+an inland sea, of an estuary, and a lake, we should find in the
+fossil remains entombed in the deposits of that place evidences
+of these various conditions; and thus a somewhat curious history
+of local changes might be obtained. Geology affords more
+extensive disclosures of this nature. It shows that as we descend
+into the older formations we gradually lose sight of the existing
+animals and plants, and find the remains of others not now
+existing; and these, in turn, themselves disappear, and were
+preceded by others; so that the whole living population of the
+earth appears to have been several times renewed prior to the
+beginning of the present order of things. This seems farther to
+have occurred in a slow and gradual manner, not by successive
+great cataclysms or clearances of the surface of the earth,
+followed by wholesale renewal. This doctrine of geological
+uniformity is, however, to be understood as limited by the
+equally certain fact that there has been progress and advance,
+both in the inorganic arrangements of the earth's surface and in
+its organized inhabitants, and that there have, in geological as
+in historical times, been local cataclysms and convulsions, as
+those of earthquakes and volcanoes, often on a very extensive
+scale. Farther, there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>
+are good reasons to believe that there
+have been alternations of cold or glacial periods and of warm
+periods, of periods of subsidence and re-elevation, and of
+periods of greater and less activity of certain of the leading
+agents of geological change. But as to the extent of these
+differences and their bearing on the geological history, there is
+still much uncertainty and difference of opinion.
+<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the sediment <i>now</i> accumulating in the bottom of the waters
+are being buried remains of the existing animals and plants. A
+geological formation is being produced, and it contains the
+skeletons and other solid parts of a vast variety of creatures
+belonging to all climates, and which have lived on land as well
+as in fresh and salt water. Let us now suppose that by a series
+of changes, sudden or gradual, all the present organized beings
+were swept away, and that, when the earth was renewed by the
+power of the Creator, a new race of intelligent beings could
+explore those parts of the former sea basins that had been
+elevated into land. They would find the remains of multitudes of
+creatures not existing in their time; and by the presence of
+these they could distinguish the deposits of the former period
+from those that belonged to their own. They could also compare
+these remains with the corresponding parts of creatures which
+were their own contemporaries, and could thus infer the
+circumstances in which they had lived, the modes of subsistence
+for which they had been adapted, and the changes in the
+distribution of land and water and other physical conditions
+which had occurred. This, then, is precisely the place which
+fossil organic remains occupy in modern geology, except that our
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>
+present system of nature rests on the ruins, not of one previous
+system, but of several.</p>
+
+<p>4. By the aid of the superposition of deposits and their organic
+remains, geology can divide the history of the earth into
+distinct periods. These periods are not separated by merely
+arbitrary boundaries, but to some extent mark important eras in
+the progress of our earth; though they usually pass into each
+other at their confines, and the nature of the evidence prevents
+us from ascertaining the precise length of the periods
+themselves, or the intervals in time which may separate the
+several monuments by which they are distinguished. The following
+table will serve to give an idea of the arrangement at present
+generally received, with some of the more important facts in the
+succession of animal and vegetable life, as connected with our
+present subject. It commences with the oldest periods known to
+geology, and gives in the animal and vegetable kingdoms the
+<i>first appearance</i> of each class, with a few notes of the
+subsequent history of the principal forms. It must, however, be
+borne in mind that farther discoveries may extend some classes
+farther back than we at present know them, and that a more
+detailed table, descending to orders and families, would give a
+more precise view of the succession of life. Farther, the several
+geological formations would admit of much subdivision, and are
+represented locally by various kinds and different thicknesses of
+sediment.
+<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p>
+<p>TABULAR VIEW OF THE SUCCESSION OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND
+ORGANIC REMAINS.</p>
+
+
+<table border="1" summary="TABULAR VIEW OF THE SUCCESSION OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND ORGANIC REMAINS.">
+
+<tr>
+<td>PERIODS.</td>
+<td>SYSTEMS OF FORMATIONS.</td>
+<td>CLASSES OF ANIMALS.</td>
+<td>PLANTS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>I. EOZOIC PERIOD.</td>
+<td>Ancient Metamorphic rocks of Scandinavia, Canada, etc.</td>
+<td>Eozoon and probably other Protozoa.</td>
+<td>Graphite and Iron Ores representing Vegetable Matter.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="14">II. PRIMARY OR PAL&AElig;OZOIC PERIOD.</td>
+
+<td rowspan="3">Cambrian.</td><td><i>Radiata</i> Hydrozoa, Echinodermata (Cystideans).</td><td rowspan="3">Alg&aelig;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Mollusca</i> Brachiopoda, Lamellibranchiata,Gasteropoda, Cephalopoda (Bivalve and Univalve Shell-fishes).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Articulata</i>&mdash;Annelida, Crustacea (Worms andSoft Shell-fishes of the lower grades).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="3">Lower Silurian.</td><td><i>Radiata</i>&mdash;Anthozoa (coral animals),Echinodermata (sea stars, etc.).</td><td rowspan="3">Alg&aelig;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Mollusca</i>&mdash;Polyzoa, Tunicata.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Other Mollusks and Articulates as before.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">Upper Silurian.</td><td>Radiates, Mollusks, and Articulates as before.</td><td rowspan="2">Acrogenous Land plants.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Vertebrata</i>&mdash;First Ganoid and Placoid Fishes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">Erian or Devonian.</td><td><i>Articulata</i>&mdash;Insects and higher Crustaceans.</td><td rowspan="2">Acrogens and Gymnosperms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Vertebrata</i>&mdash;Fishes, Ganoid and Placoid.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="3">Carboniferous.</td><td><i>Mollusca</i>&mdash;Pulmonata (Land Snails).</td><td rowspan="4">Acrogens, Gymnosperms, Endogens?</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Articulata</i>&mdash;Myriapods, Arachnidans (Gallyworms, Spiders and Scorpions).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Vertebrata</i>&mdash;Batrachians or Amphibians prevalent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Permian.</td><td><i>Vertebrata</i>&mdash;Lacertian or Lizard-like Reptiles.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="3">III. SECONDARY OR MESOZOIC PERIOD.</td><td>Triassic.</td>
+<td><i>Vertebrata</i>&mdash;Higher Reptiles prevalent Marsupial Mammals.</td><td rowspan="2">Endogenous trees.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Jurassic.</td><td><i>Vertebrata</i>&mdash;Great prevalence of higher Reptiles; Fishes, homocerque; Earliest Birds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cretaceous.</td><td><i>Vertebrata</i>&mdash;Decadence of reign of Reptiles; Ordinary Bony Fishes.</td><td>Angiospermous Exogens.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="4">IV. TERTIARY OR CAINOZOIC PERIOD.</td><td rowspan="2">Eocene.</td>
+<td><i>Vertebrata</i> Mammals prevalent, especially Pachyderms; Cycloid and Ctenoid Fishes prevalent.</td>
+<td>Exogens prevalent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>First <i>living</i> Invertebrates.</td><td rowspan="3">Some Modern Species appear.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Miocene.</td><td>Living Invertebrates more numerous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pliocene.</td><td>Living Invertebrates still more numerous.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="3">V. POST-TERTIARY OR MODERN PERIOD.</td><td rowspan="2">Post-Pliocene.</td><td>First living Mammals.</td><td rowspan="3">Existing vegetation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Living Invertebrates prevalent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Post-Glacial and Recent.</td><td>Man and living Mammals.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+The oldest fossil remains known are the Protozoa of the
+Laurentian rocks. In the succeeding Cambrian or Primordial rocks
+we find many extinct species of zoophytes, shell-fish, and
+crustaceans, and the alg&aelig; or sea-weeds. In the Pal&aelig;ozoic period
+as a whole, though numerous Batrachian or Amphibian reptiles
+existed toward its close, the higher orders of fishes seem to
+have been the dominant tribe of animals; and vegetation was
+nearly limited to cryptogams and gymnosperms. In the Mesozoic
+period, though small mammalia had been created, large terrestrial
+and marine reptiles were the ruling race, and fishes occupied a
+subordinate position; while, at the close, the higher orders of
+plants took a prominent place. In the Tertiary and Modern eras,
+the mammalia, with man, have assumed the highest or dominant
+position in nature.</p>
+
+<p>On this series of groups, and the succession of living beings,
+Sir. C. Lyell remarks "It is not pretended that the principal
+sections called Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary are of
+equivalent importance, or that the subordinate groups comprise
+monuments relating to equal portions of time or of the earth's
+history. But we can assert that they each relate to successive
+periods, during which certain animals and plants, for the most
+part peculiar to their respective eras, flourished, and during
+which different kinds of sediment were deposited."</p>
+
+<p>We have already, in previous chapters, noticed the parallelism of
+the succession of life in the earth as revealed in Genesis with
+that disclosed by geology; but this subject must be farther
+referred to in the sequel, and in the mean time the reader may
+compare for himself the succession of life in the table with that
+in the later creative days.</p>
+
+<p>5. The lapse of time embraced in the geological history of the
+earth is enormous. Fully to appreciate this it is necessary to
+study the science in detail, and to explore its phenomena as
+disclosed in actual nature. A few facts, however, out
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>
+of hundreds which might have been selected, will suffice to indicate
+the state of the case. The delta and alluvial plain of the
+Mississippi have an area of more than 12,000 square miles, and
+must have an average depth of about 800 feet. At the present rate
+of conveyance of sediment by the river, it has been calculated
+that a period of about 33,000 years is implied in the deposition
+of this comparatively modern formation.
+<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a>
+To be quite safe, let us take 30,000 years, and add 50,000 more for the remainder
+of the Post-pliocene or Quaternary. We may then safely multiply
+this number by forty, for the length of the Tertiary period. We
+may add three times as much for the Mesozoic period, and this
+will be far under the truth. It will then be quite safe to assume
+that the Pal&aelig;ozoic period was three times as long as the Mesozoic
+and Tertiary together. This would give altogether, say,
+51,280,000 years for the whole of geological time from the
+beginning of the Pal&aelig;ozoic, leaving the duration of the Eozoic
+and previous periods undetermined, but requiring perhaps nearly
+as much time. Great though these demands may seem, they would be
+probably far below the rigid requirements of the case were it not
+for the probability that the present rate of transference of
+material by the great river is less than it was in Post-pliocene
+and early modern times. This might enable us to reduce our
+estimate considerably within the scope of a hundred millions of
+years.
+<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a>
+Take another illustration from an older formation. An
+excellent coast section at
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
+the Joggins, in Nova Scotia, exhibits
+in the coal formation proper a series of beds with erect trunks
+and roots of trees <i>in situ</i>, amounting to nearly 100. About 100
+forests have successively grown, partially decayed, and been
+entombed in muddy and sandy sediment. In the same section,
+including in all about 14,000 feet of beds, there are 76 seams of
+coal, each of which can be proved to have taken more time for its
+accumulation than that required for the growth of a forest.
+Supposing all these separate fossil soils and coals to have been
+formed with the greatest possible rapidity, forty thousand years
+would be a very moderate calculation for this portion of the
+Carboniferous system; and for aught that we know thousands of
+years may be represented by a single fossil soil. But this is the
+age of only one member of the Carboniferous system, itself only a
+member of the great Pal&aelig;ozoic group, and we have made no
+allowance for the abrasion from previous rocks and deposition of
+the immense mass of sandy and muddy sediment in which the coals
+and forests are imbedded, and which is vastly greater than the
+deltas of the largest modern rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Considerations of a physical rather than of a geological nature
+also give us long periods for the probable existence of the
+earth, though they serve to correct somewhat the extravagant
+estimates of some theorists. Croll has based an interesting
+calculation on the amount of erosion of the land by rivers. That
+of the Mississippi amounts to one foot in 6000 years. That of the
+Ganges gives one foot in 2358 years, the average being, say, one
+foot in 4179 years. Some smaller rivers give a much shorter time;
+but the average of two great rivers, one draining a very large
+area of the western and another of the eastern hemisphere, and in
+very different climates and geographical conditions, will
+probably be the most reliable datum.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>
+Croll, however, prefers the
+Mississippi rate.
+<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a>
+If we estimate the proportion of land to
+water as 576 to 1390, this will give for the entire area of the
+ocean a rate of deposition of one foot in 14,400 years. Now the
+entire thickness of all the stratified rocks is estimated at
+72,000 feet; and at this rate the enormous time of 1,036,800,000
+years would be necessary. But we have no right to assume that
+deposition has been going on uniformly over the entire
+sea-bottom. On the contrary, the greater part of it takes place
+within a belt of about one hundred miles from the coasts, and the
+deposit of calcareous and other matters over the remainder will
+scarcely make up for the portions of this belt on which no
+deposit is taking place. This will give an area of deposit of
+about 11,650,000 square miles, consequently only one twelfth of
+the above time, or about 86,400,000 years, would be required.
+This can be but a very rough calculation; but it has the merit of
+squaring very nearly with the calculations derived from physical
+considerations, more especially by Sir William Thomson, which
+limit the possible existence of the earth's solid crust to one
+hundred millions of years. Similar conclusions have also been
+deduced from what is known of the physical constitution of the
+sun. Croll's own ingenious theory of glacial periods produced by
+the varying eccentricity of the earth's orbit, along with the
+precession of the equinoxes, would give, according to him, about
+80,000 years ago for the date of the Glacial period, and for the
+beginning of the Tertiary period about 3,000,000 years ago.</p>
+
+<p>It would thus appear that physical and geological science
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>
+conspire in assigning a great antiquity to the earth, but not an
+unlimited antiquity. They agree in restricting the ages that have
+elapsed since the introduction of life within one hundred
+millions of years. I confess, however, that a consideration of
+the fact that all our geological measures of erosion and
+deposition seem to be based on cases which refer to what may be
+termed minimum action leads me to believe that the actual time
+will fall very far within this limit. For example, if we were to
+suppose an elevation of the land drained by the Mississippi even
+to a small amount, its cutting power would be vastly increased
+for a long time. The same effect would result from a subsidence
+and re-elevation, or from any cause increasing the amount of
+rainfall or deposition of snows in winter. Now we know that such
+things have occurred in the past, while we have no reason to
+believe that the amount of action was ever much less than at
+present. Similar considerations apply to nearly all our
+geological measures of time; and there has been a tendency to
+exaggerate these, as if geologists were entitled to demand
+unlimited time, and to stretch the doctrine of uniformity to the
+utmost.</p>
+
+<p>6. During the whole time referred to by geology, the great laws
+both of inorganic and organic nature have been the same as at
+present. The evidence of light and darkness, of sunshine and
+shower, of summer and winter, and of all the known igneous and
+aqueous causes of change, extends back almost, and in some of
+these cases altogether, to the beginning of the Pal&aelig;ozoic period.
+In like manner the animals and plants of the oldest rocks are
+constructed on the same physiological and anatomical principles
+with existing tribes, and they can be arranged in the same
+genera, orders, or classes, though specifically distinct. The
+revolutions of the globe have involved
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+no change of the general laws of matter; and though it is possible that geology has
+carried us back to the time when the laws that regulate life
+began to operate, it does not show that they were less perfect
+than now, and it indicates no trace of the beginning of the
+inorganic laws. Geological changes have resulted not from the
+institution of new laws, but from new <i>dispositions</i>, under
+existing laws and general arrangements. There is every reason to
+believe that in the inorganic world these dispositions have
+required no new creative interpositions during the time to which
+geology refers, but merely the continued action of the properties
+bestowed on matter when first produced. In the organic world the
+case is different.</p>
+
+<p>7. In the succession of animal and vegetable life we find a
+constant improvement and advance by the introduction of new types
+of being. We have already given a general outline of this
+advancement of organized nature. It has consisted in the
+introduction, from time to time, of new and more highly organized
+beings, so as at once to increase the variety of nature, and to
+provide for the elevation of the summit of the graduated scale of
+life to higher and higher points. At the same time, in each
+successive period, it has been the law of creation that the forms
+of life then dominant should attain their highest development,
+and should then be succeeded by more advanced types. For
+instance, in the earlier Pal&aelig;ozoic period we have molluscous
+animals and fishes, then apparently the highest forms of life,
+appearing with a very advanced organization, not surpassed, if
+even equalled, in modern times. In the latter part of the same
+period, some lower forms of vegetable life, now restricted to a
+comparatively humble place, were employed to constitute
+magnificent forests. In the Mesozoic period, again, reptiles
+attained to their highest point
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>
+in organization and variety of form and employment, while mammalia had as yet scarcely
+appeared.
+<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p>
+
+<p>8. If now we ask in what manner the succession of life on the
+earth has been produced, two apparently opposite hypotheses rise
+before us. The one is that of introduction of new species by
+creative acts, the other that of development of new species by
+changes of those previously existing. In one respect the
+difference of these views is little more than one of expression,
+for the meaning of the statements depends on what we understand
+by a species and what by a mere varietal form, and also on what
+we understand by creation and what we mean by development. Twenty
+years ago nearly all geologists were believers in creation,
+though it must be admitted without precisely understanding what
+they meant by the term. Now, the great impression produced by
+Darwin's speculations and the prevalence of the evolutionist
+philosophy have produced a leaning in the other direction. More
+recently, however, the absurdities into which the extreme
+evolutionists find themselves driven have produced a reaction;
+and we hope that views consistent with revelation, or at least
+with Theism, will again be in the ascendant, and that present
+controversies will serve to give more precise and definite views
+than heretofore of the relation of nature to God. As
+illustrations of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
+the opinions prevalent before the rise of the
+development theory, I may quote from Pictet and Bronn, two of the
+most eminent pal&aelig;ontologists.</p>
+
+<p>Pictet says, in the introduction to his "Trait&eacute; de
+Pal&eacute;ontologie:" "It seems to me impossible that we should admit,
+as an explanation of the phenomena of successive faunas, the
+passage of species into one another; the limits of such
+transitions of species, even supposing that the lapse of a vast
+period of time may have given them a character of reality much
+greater than that which the study of existing nature leads us to
+suppose, are still infinitely within those differences which
+distinguish two successive faunas. Lastly, we can least of all
+account by this theory for the appearance of new <i>types</i>, to
+explain the introduction of which we must necessarily, in the
+present state of science, recur to the idea of distinct creations
+posterior to the first."</p>
+
+<p>The following are the general conclusions of Bronn, in his
+elaborate and most valuable essay, presented to the French
+Academy in 1856, as summarized in a notice of the work in the
+Journal of the Geological Society:</p>
+
+<p>"1. The first productions of this power in the oldest Neptunian
+strata of the earth consisted of Plants, Zoophytes, Mollusks,
+Crustaceans, and perhaps even Fish; the simultaneous appearance
+of which, therefore, contradicts the assumption that the more
+perfect organic forms arose out of the gradual transformation in
+time of the more imperfect forms.</p>
+
+<p>"2. The same power which produced the first organic forms has
+continued to operate in intensively as well as extensively
+increasing activity during the whole subsequent geological
+period, up to the final appearance of man; but here also can no
+traces be found of a gradual transformation of old species and
+genera into new; but the new have every
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>
+where appeared as new without the co-operation of the former.</p>
+
+<p>"3. In the succession of the different forms of plants and
+animals, a certain regular course and plan is perceptible, which
+is quite independent of chance. While all species possess only a
+limited duration, and must sooner or later disappear, they make
+way for subsequent new ones, which not only almost always offer
+an equivalent, in number, organization, and duties to be
+performed, for those which have disappeared, but which are also
+generally more varied, and therefore more perfect, and always
+maintain an equilibrium with each other in their stage of
+organization, their mode of life, and functions. There always
+exists, therefore, a certain fixed relation between the newly
+arising and the disappearing forms of organic life.</p>
+
+<p>"4. A similar relation necessarily exists between the newly
+arising organic forms and the outward conditions of life which
+prevailed at their first appearance on the earth's surface, or at
+the place of their appearance.</p>
+
+<p>"5. A fixed plan appears to be the basis of the whole series of
+development of organic forms, in so far as man makes his first
+appearance at its close, when he finds every thing prepared that
+is necessary to his own existence and to his progressive
+development and improvement&mdash;which would not have been possible
+had he appeared at a former period.</p>
+
+<p>"6. Such a regular progress in carrying out the same plan from
+the beginning to the end of a period of millions of years can
+only be accounted for in one of two ways. Either this course of
+successive development during millions of years has been the
+regular immediate result of the systematic action of a conscious
+Creator, who on every occasion settled and carried out not only
+the order of appearance, formation, organization,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span>
+and terrestrial object of each of the countless numbers of species of
+plants and animals, but also the number of the first individuals,
+the place of their settlement in every instance, although it was
+in his power to create every thing at once&mdash;or there existed some
+natural power hitherto entirely unknown to us, which by means of
+its own laws formed the species of plants and animals, and
+arranged and regulated all those countless individual conditions;
+which power, however, must in this case have stood in the most
+immediate connection with, and in perfect subordination to, those
+powers which caused the gradually progressing perfection of the
+crust of the earth, and the gradual development of the outward
+conditions of life for the constantly increasing numbers and
+higher classes of organic forms in consequence of this
+perfection. Only in this way can we explain how the development
+of the organic world could have regularly kept pace with that of
+the inorganic. Such a power, although we know it not, would not
+only be in perfect accordance with all the other functions of
+nature, but the Creator, who regulated the development of organic
+nature by means of such a force so implanted in it, as he guides
+that of the inorganic world by the mere co-operation of
+attraction and affinity, must appear to us more exalted and
+imposing than if we assumed that he must always be giving the
+same care to the introduction and change of the vegetable and
+animal world on the surface of the earth as a gardener daily
+bestows on each individual plant in the arrangement of his
+garden.</p>
+
+<p>"7. We therefore believe that all species of plants and animals
+were originally produced by some natural power unknown to us, and
+not by transformation from a few original forms, and that that
+power was in the closest and most necessary connection with those
+powers and circumstances which effected the perfection of the
+earth's surface."</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>
+Barrande also, probably the greatest living pal&aelig;ontologist of
+Europe, adheres substantially to these views; as Agassiz did, and
+I believe Hall and Dana still do, in America.</p>
+
+<p>I have, for my own part, seen no reason to dissent from these
+views, though in the sequel I shall endeavor to present some
+considerations which may tend to reconcile with them some of the
+hypotheses of a contrary nature now held. It must be admitted,
+however, that the majority of geologists and biologists have
+abandoned these views of Pictet and Bronn, and have gone over to
+the evolutionist philosophy, with how little reason I have
+endeavored to show elsewhere,
+<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a>
+and shall farther illustrate in the Appendix. Let it be observed, however, that even evolution
+does not affect the grand idea of the unity of nature, or the
+fact that the plan of the Creator in the organic world was so
+vast that it required the whole duration of our planet, in all
+its stages of physical existence, to embrace the whole. There is
+but one system of organic nature; but, to exhibit the whole of
+it, not only all the climates and conditions now existing are
+required, but those also of all past geological periods. Further,
+the progress of nature being mainly in the direction of
+differentiation of functions once combined, it has a limit
+backward in the most general forms and conditions, and forward in
+the most specialized. This is the history of the individual and
+probably also of the type, of the world itself and of the
+universe; and for this reason material nature necessarily lacks
+the eternity of its author.</p>
+
+<p>It appears, from the above facts and reasonings, that geology
+informs us&mdash;1. That the materials of our existing continents are
+of secondary origin, as distinguished from primitive
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>
+or coeval with the beginning. 2. That a chronological order of formation of
+these rocks can be made out. 3. That the fossil remains contained
+in the rocks constitute a chronology of animal and vegetable
+existence. 4. That the history of the earth may be divided in
+this way into distinct periods, all pre-Adamite. 5. That the
+pre-Adamite periods were of enormous duration. 6. That during
+these periods the existing general laws of nature were in force,
+though the dispositions of inorganic nature were different in
+different periods, and the animals and plants of successive
+periods were also different from each other. 7. The introduction
+of new species of animals and of plants, while indicating advance
+in the perfection of nature, does not prove spontaneous
+development, but rather a definite plan and law of creation.</p>
+
+<p>The parallelism of these conclusions of careful inductive inquiry
+into the structure of the earth's crust, with the results which
+we have already obtained from revelation, may be summed up under
+the following heads:</p>
+
+<p>1. Scripture and Science both testify to the great fact that
+there was a beginning&mdash;a time when none of all the parts of the
+fabric of the universe existed; when the Self-Existent was the
+sole occupant of space. The Scriptures announce in plain terms
+this great truth, and thereby rise at once high above atheism,
+pantheism, and materialism, and lay a broad and sure foundation
+for a pure and spiritual theology. Had the pen of inspiration
+written but the words, "In the beginning God created the heavens
+and the earth," and added no more, these words alone would have
+borne the impress of their heavenly birth, and would, if received
+in faith, have done much for the progress of the human mind.
+These words contain a negation of hero-worship, star-worship,
+animal-worship, and every other form of idolatry. They still
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>
+more emphatically deny atheism and materialism, and point upward
+from nature to its spiritual Creator&mdash;the One, the Triune, the
+Eternal, the Self-Existent, the All-Pervading, the Almighty. They
+call upon us, as with a voice of thunder, to bow down before that
+Awful Being of whom it can be said that he created the heavens
+and the earth. They thus embody the whole essence of natural
+theology, and most appropriately stand at the entrance of Holy
+Scripture, referring us to the works which men behold, as the
+visible manifestation of the attributes of the Being whose
+spiritual nature is unveiled in revelation. Scripture thus begins
+with the announcement of a great ultimate fact, to which science
+conducts us with but slow and timid steps. Yet science, and
+especially geological science, can bear witness to this great
+truth. The materialist, reasoning on the fancied stability of
+natural things, and their inscription within invariable laws,
+concludes that matter must be eternal. No, replies the geologist,
+certainly not in its present form. This is but of recent origin,
+and was preceded by other arrangements. Every existing species
+can be traced back to a time when it was not; so can the existing
+continents, mountains, and seas. Under our processes of
+investigation the present melts away like a dream, and we are
+landed on the shores of past and unknown worlds. But I read, says
+the objector, that you can see "no evidence of a beginning, no
+prospect of an end." It is true, answers geology; but, in so
+saying, it is not intended that the present state of things had
+not an ascertained beginning, but that there has been a great
+and, so far as we know, unlimited series of changes carried on
+under the guidance of intelligence. These changes we have traced
+back very far, without being able to say that we have reached the
+first. We can trace back man and his contemporaries to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>
+their origin, and we can reach the points at which still older
+dynasties of life began to exist. Knowing, then, that all these
+had a beginning, we infer that if others preceded them they also
+had a beginning. But, says another objector, is not the present
+the child of the past? Are not all the creatures that inhabit the
+earth the lineal descendants of creatures of past periods, or may
+not the whole be parts of one continual succession, under the
+operation of an eternal law of development? No, answers geology,
+species are immutable, except within narrow limits, and do not
+pass into each other, in tracing them toward their origin. On the
+contrary, they appear at once in their most perfect state, and
+continue unchanged till they are forced off the stage of
+existence to give place to other creatures. The origin of species
+is a mystery, and belongs to no natural law that has yet been
+established. Thus, then, stands the case at present. Scripture
+asserts a beginning and a creation. Science admits these, as far
+as the objects with which it is conversant extend, and the
+notions of eternal succession and spontaneous development,
+discountenanced both by theology and science, are obliged to take
+refuge in those misty regions where modern philosophical
+skepticism consorts with the shades of departed heathenism.
+<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. Both records exhibit the progressive character of creation,
+and in much the same aspect. The Almighty might have called into
+existence, by one single momentary act, a world complete in all
+its parts. From both Scripture and geology we know that he has
+not done so&mdash;why we need not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>
+inquire, though we can see that the
+process employed was that best adapted to show forth the variety
+of his resources and the infinitely varied elements that enter
+into the perfect whole.</p>
+
+<p>The Scripture history may be viewed as dividing the progress of
+the creation into two great periods, the later of which only is
+embraced in the geological record. The first commences with the
+original chaos, and reaches to the completion of inorganic nature
+on the fourth day. Had we any geological records of the first of
+these periods, we should perceive the evidences of slow
+mutations, tending to the sorting and arrangement of the
+materials of the earth, and to produce distinct light and
+darkness, sea and land, atmosphere and cloud, out of what was
+originally a mixture of the whole. We should also, according to
+the Scriptural record, find this period interlocking with the
+next, by the intervention of a great vegetable creation, before
+the final adjustment of the earth's relations to the other bodies
+of our system. The second period is that of the creative
+development of animal life. From both records we learn that
+various ranks or gradations existed from the first introduction
+of animals; but that on the earlier stages only certain of the
+lower forms of animals were present; that these soon attained
+their highest point, and then gradually, on each succeeding
+platform, the variety of nature in its higher&mdash;the
+vertebrate&mdash;form increased, and the upper margin of animal life
+attained a more and more elevated point, culminating at length in
+man; while certain of the older forms were dropped, as no longer
+required.</p>
+
+<p>In the oldest fossiliferous rocks next to the Eozoic, which so
+far have afforded only Protozoa&mdash;e. g., the Cambrian and Lower
+Silurian&mdash;we find the mollusca represented mainly by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>
+their highest and lowest classes, by allies of the cuttle-fish and
+nautilus, and by the lowest bivalve shell-fishes. The Articulata
+are represented by the highest marine class&mdash;the crustaceans&mdash;and
+by the lowest&mdash;the worms, which have left their marks on some of
+the lowest fossiliferous beds. The Radiata, in like manner, are
+represented by species of their highest class&mdash;the starfishes,
+etc.&mdash;and by some of their simpler polyp forms. At the very
+beginning, then, of the fossiliferous series, the three lower
+sub-kingdoms exhibit species of their most elevated aquatic
+classes, though not of the very highest orders in those classes.
+The vertebrated sub-kingdom has, as far as yet known, no
+representative in these lowest beds. In the Upper Silurian
+series, however, we find remains of fishes; and in the succeeding
+Devonian and carboniferous rocks the fishes rise to the highest
+structures of their class; and we find several species of
+reptiles, representing the next of the vertebrated classes in
+ascending order. Here a very remarkable fact meets us. Before the
+close of the Pal&aelig;ozoic period the three lower sub-kingdoms and
+the fishes had already attained the highest perfection of which
+their types are capable. Multitudes of new species and genera
+were added subsequently, but none of them rising higher in the
+scale of organization than those which occur in the Pal&aelig;ozoic
+rocks. Thenceforth the progressive improvement of the animal
+kingdom consisted in the addition, first of the reptile, which
+attained its highest perfection and importance in the Mesozoic
+period, and then of the bird and mammal, which did not attain
+their highest forms till the Modern period. This geological order
+of animal life, it is scarcely necessary to add, agrees perfectly
+with that sketched by Moses, in which the lower types are
+completed at once, and the progress is wholly in the higher.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
+In the inspired narrative we have already noticed some
+peculiarities, as, for instance, the early appearance of a highly
+developed flora, and the special mention of great reptiles in the
+work of the fifth day, which correspond with the significant fact
+that high types of structure appeared at the very introduction of
+each new group of organized beings&mdash;a fact which, more than any
+other in geology, shows that, in the organic department,
+elevation has always been a strictly <i>creative</i> work, and that
+there is in the constitution of animal species no innate tendency
+to elevation, but that on the contrary we should rather suspect a
+tendency to degeneracy and ultimate disappearance, requiring that
+the fiat of the Creator should after a time go out again to
+"renew the face of the earth." In the natural as in the moral
+world, the only law of progress is the will and the power of God.
+In one sense, however, progress in the organic world has been
+dependent on, though not caused by, progress in the inorganic. We
+see in geology many grounds for believing that each new tribe of
+animals or plants was introduced just as the earth became fitted
+for it; and even in the present world we see that regions
+composed of the more ancient rocks, and not modified by
+subsequent disturbances, present few of the means of support for
+man and the higher animals; while those districts in which
+various revolutions of the earth have accumulated fertile soils
+or deposited useful minerals are the chief seats of civilization
+and population. In like manner we know that those regions which
+the Bible informs us were the cradle of the human race and the
+seats of the oldest nations are geologically among the most
+recent parts of the existing continents, and were no doubt
+selected by the Creator partly on that account for the birthplace
+of man. We thus find that the Bible and the geologists are agreed
+not only as to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span>
+fact and order of progress, but also as to its manner and use.</p>
+
+<p>3. Both records agree in affirming that since the beginning there
+has been but one great system of nature. We can imagine it to
+have been otherwise. Our existing nature might have been preceded
+by a state of things having no connection with it. The
+arrangements of the earth's surface might have been altogether
+different; races of creatures might have existed having no
+affinity with or resemblance to those of the present world, and
+we might have been able to trace no present beneficial
+consequences as flowing from these past states of our planet. Had
+geology made such revelations as these, the consequences in
+relation to natural theology and the credibility of Scripture
+would have been momentous. The Mosaic narrative could scarcely,
+in that case, have been interpreted in such a manner as to accord
+with geological conclusions. The questions would have arisen&mdash;Are
+there more creative Powers than one? If one, is He an imperfect
+or capricious being who changes his plans of operation? The
+divine authority of the Scriptures, as well as the unity and
+perfections of God, might thus have been involved in serious
+doubts. Happily for us, there is nothing of this kind in the
+geological history of the earth; as there is manifestly nothing
+of it in that which is revealed in Scripture.</p>
+
+<p>In the Scripture narrative each act of creation prepares for the
+others, and in its consequences extends to them all. The inspired
+writer announces the introduction of each new part of creation,
+and then leaves it without any reference to the various phases
+which it assumed as the work advanced. In the grand general view
+which he takes, the land and seas first made represent those of
+all the following periods. So do the first plants, the first
+invertebrate animals, the first
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>
+fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals. He thus assures us that, however long the periods
+represented by days of creation, the system of nature was one
+from the beginning. In like manner in the geological record each
+of the successive conditions of the earth is related to those
+which precede and those which follow, as part of a series. So
+also a uniform plan of construction pervades organic nature, and
+uniform laws the inorganic world in all periods. We can thus
+include in one system of natural history all animals and plants,
+fossil as well as recent, and can resolve all inorganic changes
+into the operation of existing laws. The former of these facts is
+in its nature so remarkable as almost to warrant the belief of
+special design. Naturalists had arranged the existing animals and
+plants, without any reference to fossil species, in kingdoms,
+sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, families, and genera. Geological
+research has added a vast number of species not now existing in a
+living state; yet all these fossils can be inserted within the
+limits of recognized groups. We do not require to add a new
+kingdom, sub-kingdom, or class; but, on the contrary, all the
+fossil genera and species go into the existing divisions, in such
+a manner as to fill them up precisely where they are most
+deficient, thus occupying what would otherwise be gaps in the
+existing system of nature. The principal difficulty which they
+occasion to the zoologist and botanist is that, by filling the
+intervals between genera previously widely separated, they give
+to the whole a degree of continuity which renders it more
+difficult to decide where the boundaries separating the groups
+should be placed.</p>
+
+<p>We also find that the animals and plants of the earlier periods
+often combined in one form powers and properties afterward
+separated in distinct groups; thus in the earlier
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
+formations the sauroid fishes unite peculiarities afterward divided between the
+fish and reptiles, constituting what Agassiz has called a
+synthetic type. Again, the series of creatures in time accords
+with the ranks which a study of their types of structure induces
+the naturalist to assign them in his system; and also within each
+of the great sub-kingdoms presents many points of accordance with
+the progress of the embryonic development of the individual
+animal. Nor is this contradictory to the statement that the
+earlier representatives of types are often of high and perfect
+organization, for the progress both in geological time and in the
+life of the individual is so much one of specialization that an
+immature animal often presents points of affinity to higher forms
+that disappear in the adult. In connection with this, earlier
+organic forms often appear to foreshadow and predict others that
+are to succeed them in time, as the winged and marine reptiles of
+the Mesozoic foreshadow the birds and cetaceans. Agassiz has
+admirably illustrated these links of connection between the past
+and the present in the essay on classification prefixed to his
+"Contributions to the Natural History of America." In reference
+to "prophetic" types, he says: "They appear now like a prophecy
+in those earlier times of an order of things not possible with
+the earlier combinations then prevailing in the animal kingdom,
+but exhibiting in a later period in a striking manner the
+antecedent consideration of every step in the gradation of
+animals."</p>
+
+<p>4. The periods into which geology divides the history of the
+earth are different from those of Scripture, yet when properly
+understood there is a marked correspondence. Geology refers only
+to the fifth and sixth days of creation, or, at most, to these
+with parts of the fourth and seventh, and it divides this portion
+of the work into several eras, founded on alternations
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>
+of rock formations and changes in organic remains. The nature of
+geological evidence renders it probable that many apparently
+well-marked breaks in the chain may result merely from deficiency
+in the preserved remains; and consequently that what appear to
+the geologist to be very distinct periods may in reality run
+together. The only natural divisions that Scripture teaches us to
+look for are those between the fifth and sixth days, and those
+which within these days mark the introduction of new animal
+forms, as, for instance, the great reptiles of the fifth day. We
+have already seen that the beginning of the fifth day can be
+referred almost with certainty to the Pal&aelig;ozoic period. The
+beginning of the sixth day may with nearly equal certainty be
+referred to that of the Tertiary era. The introduction of great
+reptiles and birds in the fifth day synchronizes and corresponds
+with the beginning of the Mesozoic period; and that of man at the
+close of the sixth day with the commencement of the Modern era in
+geology. These four great coincidences are so much more than we
+could have expected, in records so very different in their nature
+and origin, that we need not pause to search for others of a more
+obscure character. It may be well to introduce here a tabular
+view of this correspondence between the geological and Biblical
+periods, extending it as far as either record can carry us, and
+thus giving a complete general view of the origin and history of
+the world as deduced from revelation and science. In comparing
+this table with that on page 330, it will be observed that the
+latter refers to the last half of the creative week only, the
+earlier half being occupied with physical changes which, however
+probable inferentially, are not within the scope of geological
+observation.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>
+PARALLELISM OF THE SCRIPTURAL COSMOGONY WITH THE ASTRONOMICAL AND
+GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH.</p>
+
+<table border="1" summary="PARALLELISM OF THE SCRIPTURAL COSMOGONY WITH THE ASTRONOMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH.">
+<tr><td>BIBLICAL &AElig;ONS.</td><td>PERIODS DEDUCED FROM SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>The Beginning.</td><td>Creation of Matter.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>First Day.&mdash;</i>Earth mantled by the Vaporous Deep&mdash;Production of Light.</td>
+<td>Condensation of Planetary Bodies from a nebulous mass&mdash;Hypothesis of original incandescence.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>Second Day</i>.&mdash;Earth covered by the Waters&mdash;Formation of the Atmosphere.</td>
+<td>Primitive Universal Ocean, and establishment of Atmospheric equilibrium.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>Third Day</i>.&mdash;Emergence of Dry Land&mdash;Introduction of Vegetation.</td>
+<td>Elevation of the land which furnished the materials of the oldest rocks&mdash;Eozoic Period of Geology?</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>Fourth Day</i>.&mdash;Completion of the arrangements of the Solar System.</td>
+<td>Metamorphism of Eozoic rocks and disturbances preceding the Cambrian epoch&mdash;Present arrangement of Seasons&mdash;Dominion of "Existing Causes" begins.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>Fifth Day</i>.&mdash;Invertebrates and Fishes, and afterward great Reptiles and Birds created.</td>
+<td>Pal&aelig;ozoic Period&mdash;Reign of Invertebrates and Fishes.<br />Mesozoic Period&mdash;Reign of Reptiles.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>Sixth Day</i>.&mdash;Introduction of Mammals&mdash;Creation of Man and Edenic Group of Animals.</td>
+<td>Tertiary Period&mdash;Reign of Mammals.<br />Post-Tertiary&mdash;Existing Mammals and Man.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>Seventh Day</i>.&mdash;Cessation of Work of Creation&mdash;Fall and Redemption of Man.</td>
+<td>Period of Human History.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>Eighth Day</i>.&mdash;New Heavens and Earth to succeed the Human Epoch&mdash;"The Rest (Sabbath) that remains to the People of God."
+<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p><i>Note</i>.&mdash;The above table is identical with that published in
+"Archaia" in 1860, and which the author sees no reason now to
+change.</p>
+
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>
+5. In both records the ocean gives birth to the first dry land,
+and it is the sea that is first inhabited, yet both lead at least
+to the suspicion that a state of igneous fluidity preceded the
+primitive universal ocean. In Scripture the original prevalence
+of the ocean is distinctly stated, and all geologists are agreed
+that in the early fossiliferous periods the sea must have
+prevailed much more extensively than at present. Scripture also
+expressly states that the waters were the birthplace of the
+earliest animals, and geology has as yet discovered in the whole
+Silurian series no terrestrial animal, though marine creatures
+are extremely abundant; and though air-breathing creatures are
+found in the later Pal&aelig;ozoic, they are, with the exception of
+insects, of that semi-amphibious character which is proper to
+alluvial flats and the deltas of rivers. It is true that the
+negative evidence collected by geology does not render it
+altogether impossible that terrestrial animals, even mammals, may
+have existed in the earliest periods; yet there are, as already
+pointed out, some positive indications opposed to this. The
+Scripture, however, commits itself to the statement that the
+higher land animals did not exist so early, though it must be
+observed that there is nothing in the Mosaic narrative adverse to
+the existence of birds, insects, and reptiles in the earlier
+Pal&aelig;ozoic periods. I have said that the Bible, which informs us
+of a universal ocean preceding the existence of land, also gives
+indications of a still earlier period of igneous fluidity or
+gaseous expansion. Geology also and astronomy have their
+reasonings and speculations as to the prevalence of such
+conditions. Here, however, both records become dim and obscure,
+though it is evident that both point in the same direction, and
+combine those aqueous and igneous origins which in the last
+century afforded so fertile ground of one-sided dispute.</p>
+
+<p>6. Both records concur in maintaining what is usually termed the
+doctrine of existing causes in geology. Scripture and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>
+geology alike show that since the beginning of the fifth day, or
+Pal&aelig;ozoic period, the inorganic world has continued under the
+dominion of the same causes that now regulate its changes and
+processes. The sacred narrative gives no hint of any creative
+interposition in this department after the fourth day; and
+geology assures us that all the rocks with which it is acquainted
+have been produced by the same causes that are now throwing down
+detritus in the bottom of the waters, or bringing up volcanic
+products from the interior of the earth. This grand
+generalization, therefore, first worked out in modern times by
+Sir Charles Lyell, from a laborious collection of the changes
+occurring in the present state of the world, was, as a doctrine
+of divine revelation, announced more than three thousand years
+ago by the Hebrew lawgiver; not for scientific purposes, but as a
+part of the theology of the Hebrew monotheism.</p>
+
+<p>7. Both records agree in assuring us that death prevailed in the
+world ever since animals were introduced. The punishment
+threatened to Adam, and considerations connected with man's state
+of innocence, have led to the belief that the Bible teaches that
+the lower animals, as well as man, were exempt from death before
+the fall. When, however, we find the great <i>tanninim</i>, or
+crocodilian reptiles, created in the fifth day, and beasts of
+prey on the sixth, we need entertain no doubt on the subject, in
+so far as Scripture is concerned. The geological record is
+equally explicit. Carnivorous creatures, with the most formidable
+powers of destruction, have left their remains in all parts of
+the geological series; and indeed, up to the introduction of man,
+the carnivorous fishes, reptiles, and quadrupeds were the lords
+and tyrants of the earth. There can be little doubt, however,
+that the introduction of man was the beginning of a change in
+this respect.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>
+A creature destitute of offensive weapons, and
+subsisting on fruits, was to rule by the power of intellect. As
+already hinted, it is probable that in Eden he was surrounded by
+a group of inoffensive animals, and that those creatures which he
+had cause to dread would have disappeared as he extended his
+dominion. In this way the law of violent death and destruction
+which prevailed under the dynasties of the fish, the reptile, and
+the carnivorous mammifer would ultimately have been abrogated;
+and under the milder sway of man life and peace would have
+reigned in a manner to which our knowledge of pre-Adamite and
+present nature may afford no adequate key. Be this as it may, on
+the important point of the original prevalence of death among the
+lower animals both records are at one.</p>
+
+<p>8. In the department of "final causes," as they have been termed,
+Scripture and geology unite in affording large and interesting
+views. They illustrate the procedure of the All-wise Creator
+during a long succession of ages, and thus enable us to see the
+effects of any of his laws, not only at one time, but in far
+distant periods. To reject the consideration of this peculiarity
+of geological science would be the extremest folly, and would
+involve at once a misinterpretation of the geologic record and a
+denial of the agency of an intelligent Designer as revealed in
+Scripture, and indicated by the succession of beings. Many of the
+past changes of the earth acquire their full significance only
+when taken in connection with the present wants of the earth's
+inhabitants; and along the whole course of the geological history
+the creatures that we meet with are equally rich in the evidences
+of nice adaptation to circumstances and wonderful contrivances
+for special ends, with their modern representatives. As an
+example of the former, how wonderful is the connection of the
+great
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>
+vegetable accumulations of the ancient coal swamps, and
+the bands and nodules of iron-stone which were separated from the
+ferruginous sands or clays in their vicinity by the action of
+this very vegetable matter, with the whole fabric of modern
+civilization, and especially with the prosperity of that race
+which, in our time, stands in the front of the world's progress.
+In a very ancient period, wide swamps and deltas, teeming with
+vegetable life, and which, if they now existed, would be but
+pestilent breeders of miasmata, spread over large tracts of the
+northern hemisphere, on which marine animals had previously
+accumulated thick sheets of limestone. Vast beds of vegetable
+matter were collected by growth in these swamps, and the waste
+particles that passed off in the form of organic acids were
+employed in concentrating the oxide of iron in underlying clays
+and sands. In the lapse of ages the whole of these accumulations
+were buried deep in the crust of the earth; and long periods
+succeeded, when the earth was tenanted by reptilian and other
+creatures, unconscious of the treasures beneath them. The modern
+period arrived. The equable climate of the coal era had passed
+away. Continents were prepared for the residence of man, and the
+edges of the old carboniferous beds were exposed by subterranean
+movements, and laid bare by denudation. Man was introduced, fell
+from his state of innocence, and was condemned to earn his
+subsistence by the sweat of his brow; and now for the first time
+appears the use of these buried coal swamps. They now afford at
+once the materials of improvement in the arts and of comfortable
+subsistence in extreme climates, and subjects of surpassing
+interest to the naturalist. Similar instances may be gleaned by
+the natural theologian from nearly every part of the geological
+history.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
+Lastly. Both records represent man as the last of God's works,
+and the culminating-point of the whole creation. We have already
+had occasion to refer to this as a result of zoology, geology,
+and Scriptural exegesis, and may here confine ourselves to the
+moral consequences of this great truth. Man is the capital of the
+column; and, if marred and defaced by moral evil, the symmetry of
+the whole is to be restored, not by rejecting him altogether,
+like the extinct species of the ancient world, and replacing him
+by another, but by re-casting him in the image of his Divine
+Redeemer. Man, though recently introduced, is to exist eternally.
+He is, in one or another state of being, to be witness of all
+future changes of the earth. He has before him the option of
+being one with his Maker, and sharing in a future glorious and
+finally renovated condition of our planet, or of sinking into
+endless degradation. Such is the great spiritual drama of man's
+fate to be acted out on the theatre of the world. Every human
+being must play his part in it, and the present must decide what
+that part shall be. The Bible bases these great foreshadowings of
+the future on its own peculiar evidence; yet I may venture humbly
+to maintain that its harmony with natural science, as far as the
+latter can ascend, gives to the Word of God a pre-eminent claim
+on the attention of the naturalist. The Bible, unlike every other
+system of religious doctrine, fears no investigation or
+discussion. It courts these. "While science," says a modern
+divine,
+<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>
+"is fatal to superstition, it is fortification to a
+Scriptural faith. The Bible is the bravest of books. Coming from
+God, and conscious of nothing but God's truth, it awaits the
+progress of knowledge with calm security. It watches the
+antiquary ransacking among classic ruins, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>
+rejoices in every medal he discovers and every inscription he deciphers; for from
+that rusty coin or corroded marble it expects nothing but
+confirmations of its own veracity. In the unlocking of an
+Egyptian hieroglyphic or the unearthing of some implement it
+hails the resurrection of so many witnesses; and with sparkling
+elation it follows the botanist as he scales Mount Lebanon, or
+the zoologist as he makes acquaintance with the beasts of the
+Syrian desert; or the traveller as he stumbles on a long-lost
+Petra or Nineveh or Babylon. And from the march of time it fears
+no evil, but calmly abides the fulfilment of those prophecies and
+the forthcoming of those events with whose predicted story
+inspiration has already inscribed its page. It is not light but
+darkness which the Bible deprecates; and if men of piety were
+also men of science, and if men of science were to search the
+Scriptures, there would be more faith in the earth, and also more
+philosophy."</p>
+
+<p>The reader has, I trust, found in the preceding pages sufficient
+evidence that the Bible has nothing to dread from the revelations
+of geology, but much to hope in the way of elucidation of its
+meaning and confirmation of its truth. If convinced of this, I
+trust that he will allow me now to ask for the warnings,
+promises, and predictions of the Book of God his entire
+confidence; and, in conclusion, to direct his attention to the
+glorious prospects which it holds forth to the human race, and to
+every individual of it who, in humility and self-renunciation,
+casts himself in faith on that Divine Redeemer who is at once the
+creator of the heavens and the earth, and the brother and the
+friend of the penitent and the contrite. That same old book,
+which carries back our view to those ancient conditions of our
+planet which preceded not only the creation of man, but the
+earliest periods of which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>
+science has cognizance, likewise
+carries our minds forward into the farthest depths of futurity,
+and shows that all present things must pass away. It reveals to
+us a new heaven and a new earth, which are to replace those now
+existing; when the Eternal Son of God, the manifestation of the
+Father equally in creation and redemption, shall come forth
+conquering and to conquer, and shall sweep away into utter
+extinction all the blood-stained tyrannies of the present earth,
+even as he has swept away the brute dynasties of the pre-Adamite
+world, and shall establish a reign of peace, of love, and of
+holiness that shall never pass away: when the purified sons of
+Adam, rejoicing in immortal youth and happiness, shall be able to
+look back with enlarged understandings and grateful hearts on the
+whole history of creation and redemption, and shall join their
+angelic brethren in the final and more ecstatic repetition of
+that hymn of praise with which the heavenly hosts greeted the
+birth of our planet. May God in his mercy grant that he who
+writes and they who read may "stand in their lot at the end of
+the days" and enjoy the full fruition of these glorious
+prospects.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX.<br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size:70%;">A.&mdash;TRUE AND FALSE EVOLUTION.</span></h2>
+
+<p>
+The term "evolution" need not in itself be a bugbear on
+theological grounds. The Bible writers would, I presume, have no
+objection to it if understood to mean the development of the
+plans of the Creator in nature. That kind of evolution to which
+they would object, and to which enlightened reason also objects,
+is the spontaneous evolution of nothing into atoms and force, and
+of these into all the wonderful and complicated plan of nature,
+without any guiding mind. Farther, biological and pal&aelig;ontological
+science, as well as the Bible, object to the derivation of living
+things from dead matter by merely natural means, because this can
+not be proved to be possible, and to the production of the series
+of organic forms found as fossils in the rocks of the earth by
+the process of struggle for existence and survival of the
+fittest, because this does not suffice to account for the complex
+phenomena presented by this succession. With reference to the
+testimony of pal&aelig;ontology, I have in other publications developed
+this very fully; and would here merely quote the summing up of
+the argument, as given in my Address of 1875 before the American
+Association for the Advancement of Science:</p>
+
+<p>"I have thus far said nothing of the bearing of the prevalent
+ideas of descent with modification on this wonderful procession
+of life. None of these of course can be expected to take us back
+to the origin of living beings; but they also
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
+fail to explain why so vast numbers of highly organized species struggle into
+existence simultaneously in one age and disappear in another; why
+no continuous chain of succession in time can be found gradually
+blending species into each other; and why in the natural
+succession of things degradation under the influence of external
+conditions and final extinction seem to be laws of organic
+existence. It is useless here to appeal to the imperfection of
+the record or to the movements or migrations of species. The
+record is now in many important parts too complete, and the
+simultaneousness of the entrance of the faunas and floras too
+certainly established, and moving species from place to place
+only evades the difficulty. The truth is that such hypotheses are
+at present premature, and that we require to have larger
+collections of facts. Independently of this, however, it appears
+to me that from a philosophical point of view it is extremely
+probable that all theories of evolution as at present applied to
+life are fundamentally defective in being too partial in their
+character; and perhaps I can not better group the remainder of
+the facts to which I wish to refer than by using them to
+illustrate this feature of most of the later attempts at
+generalization on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>"First, then, these hypotheses are too partial in their tendency
+to refer numerous and complex phenomena to one cause, or to a few
+causes only, when all trustworthy analogy would indicate that
+they must result from many concurrent forces and determinations
+of force. We have all no doubt read those ingenious, not to say
+amusing, speculations in which some entomologists and botanists
+have indulged with reference to the mutual relations of flowers
+and haustellate insects. Geologically the facts oblige us to
+begin with cryptogamous plants and mandibulate insects, and out
+of the desire of insects for non-existent honey, and the
+adaptations of plants to the requirements of non-existent
+suctorial apparatus, we have to evolve the marvellous complexity
+of floral form
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>
+and coloring, and the exquisitely delicate
+apparatus of the mouths of haustellate insects. Now when it is
+borne in mind that this theory implies a mental confusion on our
+part precisely similar to that which in the department of
+mechanics actuates the seekers for perpetual motion, that we have
+not the smallest tittle of evidence that the changes required
+have actually occurred in any one case, and that the thousands of
+other structures and relations of the plant and the insect have
+to be worked out by a series of concurrent evolutions so complex
+and absolutely incalculable in the aggregate that the cycles and
+epicycles of the Ptolemaic astronomy were child's play in
+comparison, we need not wonder that the common-sense of mankind
+revolts against such fancies, and that we are accused of
+attempting to construct the universe by methods that would baffle
+Omnipotence itself, because they are simply absurd. In this
+aspect of them indeed such speculations are necessarily futile,
+because no mind can grasp all the complexities of even any one
+case, and it is useless to follow out an imaginary line of
+development which unexplained facts must contradict at every
+step. This is also no doubt the reason why all recent attempts at
+constructing 'Phylogenies' are so changeable, and why no two
+experts can agree about the details of any of them.</p>
+
+<p>"A second aspect in which such speculations are too partial is in
+the unwarranted use which they make of analogy. It is not unusual
+to find such analogies as that between the embryonic development
+of the individual animal and the succession of animals in
+geological time placed on a level with that reasoning from
+analogy by which geologists apply modern causes to explain
+geological formations. No claim could be more unfounded. When the
+geologist studies ancient limestones built up of the remains of
+corals, and then applies the phenomena of modern coral reefs to
+explain their origin, he brings the latter to bear on the former
+by an analogy which includes not merely the apparent results, but
+the causes at
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
+work, and the conditions of their action, and it
+is on this that the validity of his comparison depends, in so far
+as it relates to similarity of mode of formation. But when we
+compare the development of an animal from an embryo cell with the
+progress of animals in time, though we have a curious analogy as
+to the steps of the process, the conditions and causes at work
+are known to be altogether dissimilar, and therefore we have no
+evidence whatever as to identity of cause, and our reasoning
+becomes at once the most transparent of fallacies. Farther, we
+have no right here to overlook the fact that the conditions of
+the embryo are determined by those of a previous adult, and that
+no sooner does this hereditary potentiality produce a new adult
+animal than the terrible external agencies of the physical world,
+in presence of which all life exists, begin to tell on the
+organism, and after a struggle of longer or shorter duration it
+succumbs to death, and its substance returns into inorganic
+nature&mdash;a law from which even the longer life of the species does
+not seem to exempt it. All this is so plain and manifest that it
+is extraordinary that evolutionists will continue to use such
+partial and imperfect arguments. Another example may be taken
+from that application of the doctrine of natural selection to
+explain the introduction of species in geological time, which is
+so elaborately discussed by Sir C. Lyell in the last edition of
+his 'Principles of Geology.' The great geologist evidently leans
+strongly to the theory, and claims for it the 'highest degree of
+probability;' yet he perceives that there is a serious gap in it,
+since no modern fact has ever proved the origin of a new species
+by modification. Such a gap, if it existed in those grand
+analogies by which we explain geological formations through
+modern causes, would be admitted to be fatal.</p>
+
+<p>"A third illustration of the partial character of these
+hypotheses may be taken from the use made of the theory deduced
+from modern physical discoveries, that life must be merely a
+product of the continuous operation of physical laws. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span>
+assumption, for it is nothing more, that the phenomena of life
+are produced merely by some arrangement of physical forces, even
+if it be admitted to be true, gives only a partial explanation of
+the possible origin of life. It does not account for the fact
+that life as a force or combination of forces is set in
+antagonism to all other forces. It does not account for the
+marvellous connection of life with organization. It does not
+account for the determination and arrangement of forces implied
+in life. A very simple illustration may make this plain. If the
+problem to be solved were the origin of the mariner's compass,
+one might assert that it is wholly a physical arrangement both as
+to matter and force. Another might assert that it involves mind
+and intelligence in addition. In some sense both would be right.
+The properties of magnetic force and of iron or steel are purely
+physical, and it might even be within the bounds of possibility
+that somewhere in the universe a mass of natural loadstone may
+have been so balanced as to swing in harmony with the earth's
+magnetism. Yet we would surely be regarded as very credulous if
+we could be induced to believe that the mariner's compass has
+originated in that way. This argument applies with a thousandfold
+greater force to the origin of life, which involves even in its
+simplest forms so many more adjustments of force and so much more
+complex machinery.</p>
+
+<p>"Fourthly, these hypotheses are partial, inasmuch as they fail to
+account for the vastly varied and correlated interdependencies of
+natural things and forces, and for the unity of plan which
+pervades the whole. These can be explained only by taking into
+the account another element from without. Even when it professes
+to admit the existence of a God, the evolutionist reasoning of
+our day contents itself altogether with the physical or visible
+universe, and leaves entirely out of sight the power of the
+unseen and spiritual, as if this were something with which
+science has nothing to do, but which belongs only to imagination
+or sentiment. So much has this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>
+been the case, that when recently
+a few physicists and naturalists have turned to this aspect of
+the case, they have seemed to be teaching new and startling
+truths, though only reviving some of the oldest and most
+permanent ideas of our race. From the dawn of human thought it
+has been the conclusion alike of philosophers, theologians, and
+the common-sense of mankind that the seen can be explained only
+by reference to the unseen, and that any merely physical theory
+of the world is necessarily partial. This, too, is the position
+of our sacred Scriptures, and is broadly stated in their opening
+verse; and indeed it lies alike at the basis of all true religion
+and all sound philosophy, for it must necessarily be that 'the
+things that are seen are temporal, the things that are unseen
+eternal.' With reference to the primal aggregation of energy in
+the visible universe, with reference to the introduction of life,
+with reference to the soul of man, with reference to the heavenly
+gifts of genius and prophecy, with reference to the introduction
+of the Saviour himself into the world, and with reference to the
+spiritual gifts and graces of God's people&mdash;all these spring not
+from sporadic acts of intervention, but from the continuous
+action of God and the unseen world, and this we must never forget
+is the true ideal of creation in Scripture and in sound theology.
+Only in such exceptional and little influential philosophies as
+that of Democritus, and in the speculations of a few men carried
+off their balance by the brilliant physical discoveries of our
+age, has this necessarily partial and imperfect view been
+adopted. Never, indeed, was its imperfection more clear than in
+the light of modern science.</p>
+
+<p>"Geology, by tracing back all present things to their origin, was
+the first science to establish on a basis of observed facts the
+necessity of a beginning and end of the world. But even physical
+science now teaches us that the visible world is a vast machine
+for the dissipation of energy; that the processes going on in it
+must have had a beginning in time, and that all things tend to a
+final and helpless equilibrium. This necessity
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>
+implies an unseen power, an invisible universe, in which the visible universe must
+have originated, and to which its energy is ever returning. The
+hiatus between the seen and the unseen may be bridged over by the
+conceptions of atomic vortices of force, and by the universal and
+continuous ether; but whether or not, it has become clear that
+the conception of the unseen as existing has become necessary to
+our belief in the possible existence of the physical universe
+itself, even without taking life into the account.</p>
+
+<p>"It is in the domain of life, however, that this necessity
+becomes most apparent; and it is in the plant that we first
+clearly perceive a visible testimony to that unseen which is the
+counterpart of the seen. Life in the plant opposes the outward
+rush of force in our system, arrests a part of it on its way,
+fixes it as potential energy, and thus, forming a mere eddy, so
+to speak, in the process of dissipation of energy, it accumulates
+that on which animal life and man himself may subsist, and
+asserts for a time supremacy over the seen and temporal on behalf
+of the unseen and eternal. I say for a time, because life is, in
+the visible universe, as at present constituted, but a temporary
+exception, introduced from that unseen world where it is no
+longer the exception, but the eternal rule. In a still higher
+sense, then, than that in which matter and force testify to a
+Creator, organization and life, whether in the plant, the animal,
+or man, bear the same testimony, and exist as outposts put forth
+in the succession of ages from that higher heaven that surrounds
+the visible universe. In them, too, Almighty power is no doubt
+conditioned or limited by law, yet they bear more distinctly upon
+them the impress of their Maker; and, while all explanations of
+the physical universe which refuse to recognize its spiritual and
+unseen origin must necessarily be partial and in the end
+incomprehensible, this destiny falls more quickly and surely on
+the attempt to account for life and its succession on merely
+materialistic principles.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>
+"Here again, however, I must remind you that creation, as
+maintained against such materialistic evolution, whether by
+theology, philosophy, or Holy Scripture, is necessarily a
+continuous, nay, an eternal influence, not an intervention of
+disconnected acts. It is the true continuity, which includes and
+binds together all other continuity.</p>
+
+<p>"It is here that natural science meets with theology, not as an
+antagonist, but as a friend and ally in its time of greatest
+need; and I must here record my belief that neither men of
+science nor theologians have a right to separate what God in Holy
+Scripture has joined together, or to build up a wall between
+nature and religion, and write upon it 'no thoroughfare.' The
+science that does this must be impotent to explain nature, and
+without hold on the higher sentiments of man. The theology that
+does this must sink into mere superstition.</p>
+
+<p>"In conclusion, can we formulate a few of the general laws, or
+perhaps I had better call them general conclusions, respecting
+life, in which all pal&aelig;ontologists may agree? Perhaps it is not
+possible to do this at present satisfactorily, but the attempt
+may do no harm. We may, then, I think, make the following
+affirmations:</p>
+
+<p>"1. The existence of life and organization on the earth is not
+eternal, nor even coeval with the beginning of the physical
+universe, but may possibly date from Laurentian or immediately
+pre-Laurentian times.</p>
+
+<p>"2. The introduction of new species of animals and plants has
+been a continuous process, not necessarily in the sense of
+derivation of one species from another, but in the higher sense
+of the continued operation of the cause or causes which
+introduced life at first. This, as already stated, I take to be
+the true theological or Scriptural as well as scientific idea of
+what we ordinarily and somewhat loosely term creation.</p>
+
+<p>"3. Though thus continuous, the process has not been uniform; but
+periods of rapid production of species have alternated
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>
+with others in which many disappeared and few were introduced. This
+may have been an effect of physical cycles reacting on the
+progress of life.</p>
+
+<p>"4. Species, like individuals, have greater energy and vitality
+in their younger stages, and rapidly assume all their varietal
+forms, and extend themselves as widely as external circumstances
+will permit. Like individuals also, they have their periods of
+old age and decay, though the life of some species has been of
+enormous duration in comparison with that of others; the
+difference appearing to be connected with degrees of adaptation
+to different conditions of life.</p>
+
+<p>"5. Many allied species, constituting groups of animals and
+plants, have made their appearance at once in various parts of
+the earth, and these groups have obeyed the same laws with the
+individual and the species in culminating rapidly, and then
+slowly diminishing, though a large group once introduced has
+rarely disappeared altogether.</p>
+
+<p>"6. Groups of species, as genera and orders, do not usually begin
+with their highest or lowest forms, but with intermediate and
+generalized types, and they show a capacity for both elevation
+and degradation in their subsequent history.</p>
+
+<p>"7. The history of life presents a progress from the lower to the
+higher, and from the simpler to the more complex, and from the
+more generalized to the more specialized. In this progress new
+types are introduced and take the place of the older ones, which
+sink to a relatively subordinate place and become thus degraded.
+But the physical and organic changes have been so correlated and
+adjusted that life has not only always maintained its existence,
+but has been enabled to assume more complex forms, and that older
+forms have been made to prepare the way for newer, so that there
+has been on the whole a steady elevation culminating in man
+himself. Elevation and specialization have, however, been secured
+at the expense of vital energy and range of adaptation, until
+the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span>
+new element of a rational and inventive nature was
+introduced in the case of man.</p>
+
+<p>"8. In regard to the larger and more distinct types, we can not
+find evidence that they have, in their introduction, been
+preceded by similar forms connecting them with previous groups;
+but there is reason to believe that many supposed representative
+species in successive formations are really only races or
+varieties.</p>
+
+<p>"9. In so far as we can trace their history, specific types are
+permanent in their characters from their introduction to their
+extinction, and their earlier varietal forms are similar to their
+later ones.</p>
+
+<p>"10. Pal&aelig;ontology furnishes no direct evidence, perhaps never can
+furnish any, as to the actual transformation of one species into
+another, or as to the actual circumstances of creation of a
+species, but the drift of its testimony is to show that species
+come in <i>per saltum</i>, rather than by any slow and gradual
+process.</p>
+
+<p>"11. The origin and history of life can not, any more than the
+origin and determination of matter and force, be explained on
+purely material grounds, but involve the consideration of power
+referable to the unseen and spiritual world.</p>
+
+<p>"Different minds may state these principles in different ways,
+but I believe that, in so far as pal&aelig;ontology is concerned, in
+substance they must hold good, at least as steps to higher
+truths."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">B.&mdash;EVOLUTION AND CREATION BY LAW.</span></h2>
+
+<p>Evolutionist writers have a great horror of what they term
+"intervention." But they should be informed that the idea of a
+planning Creator does not involve intervention in an
+extraordinary or miraculous sense, any more than what we call the
+ordinary operations of nature. It is a common but childish
+prejudice that every discovery of a secondary cause diminishes so
+much of what is to be referred to the agency of God. On the
+contrary, such discoveries merely aid us in comprehending the
+manner of his action. But when evolutionists, in their zeal to
+get rid of creative intervention, trace all things to the
+interaction of insensate causes, they fall into the absurdity of
+believing in absolute unmitigated chance as the cause of perfect
+order. Evidences of this may be found by the score in Darwin's
+works on the origin of species. I quote, however, from another
+and usually clear thinker, Wallace, in a review of the Duke of
+Argyll's "Reign of Law," which appeared some years ago, but
+represents very well this phase of thought:</p>
+
+<p>"'It is curious,' says the Duke of Argyll, 'to observe the
+language which this most advanced disciple of pure naturalism
+[Mr. Darwin] instinctively uses, when he has to describe the
+complicated structure of this curious order of plants [the
+Orchids]. Caution in ascribing intentions to nature does not seem
+to occur to him as possible. Intention is the one thing which he
+does see, and which, when he does not see, he seeks for
+diligently until he finds it. He exhausts every form of words and
+of illustration by which intention or mental purpose can be
+described. 'Contrivance'&mdash;'curious
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>
+contrivance'&mdash;'beautiful contrivance'&mdash;these are expressions which occur over and over
+again. Here is one sentence describing the parts of a particular
+species: 'the labellum is developed into a long nectary, <i>in
+order</i> to attract lepidoptera, and we shall presently give reason
+for suspecting that the nectar is <i>purposely</i> so lodged that it
+can be sucked only slowly, <i>in order</i> to give time for the
+curious chemical quality of this viscid matter setting hard and
+dry.'" Many other examples of similar expressions are quoted by
+the duke, who maintains that no explanation of these
+"contrivances" has been or can be given, except on the
+supposition of a personal contriver, specially arranging the
+details of each case, although causing them to be produced by the
+ordinary processes of growth and reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>"Now there is a difficulty in this view of the origin of the
+structure of orchids which the duke does not allude to. The
+majority of flowering plants are fertilized, either without the
+agency of insects, or, when insects are required, without any
+very important modification of the structure of the flower. It is
+evident, therefore, that flowers might have been formed as
+varied, fantastic, and beautiful as the orchids, and yet have
+been fertilized by insects in the same manner as violets or
+clover or primroses, or a thousand other flowers. The strange
+springs and traps and pitfalls found in the flowers of orchids
+can not be necessary <i>per se</i>, since exactly the same end is
+gained in ten thousand other flowers which do not possess them.
+Is it not, then, an extraordinary idea to imagine the Creator of
+the universe <i>contriving</i> the various complicated parts of these
+flowers as a mechanic might contrive an ingenious toy or a
+difficult puzzle? Is it not a more worthy conception that they
+are some of the results of those general laws which were so
+co-ordinated at the first introduction of life upon the earth as
+to result necessarily in the utmost possible development of
+varied forms?"</p>
+
+<p>A moment's thought is sufficient to show that there is no
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>
+essential difference between the Creator contriving every detail
+of the structure of an orchid and his producing it through some
+intermediate cause, or his commanding it into existence by his
+almighty word. The same mental process, so to speak, of the
+contriver is implied in either case. But there is an immeasurable
+difference between any of those ideas and that of the orchid
+producing its parts spontaneously under the operation of
+insensate physical law, whatever that may be, alone. Again, in
+the same review, Wallace writes:</p>
+
+<p>"The uncertainty of opinion among naturalists as to which are
+species and which varieties is one of Mr. Darwin's very strong
+arguments that these two names can not belong to things quite
+distinct in nature and origin. The reviewer says that this
+argument is of no weight, because the works of man present
+exactly the same phenomena, and he instances patent inventions,
+and the excessive difficulty of determining whether they are new
+or old. I accept the analogy, and maintain that it is all in
+favor of Mr. Darwin's views; for are not all inventions of the
+same kind directly affiliated to a common ancestor. Are not
+improved steam-engines or clocks the lineal descendants of some
+existing steam-engine or clock? Is there ever a new creation in
+art or science any more than in nature? Did ever patentee
+absolutely originate any complete and entire invention no portion
+of which was derived from any thing that had been made or
+described before? It is, therefore, clear that the difficulty of
+distinguishing the various classes of inventions which claim to
+be new is of the same nature as the difficulty of distinguishing
+varieties and species, because neither are absolute new
+creations, but both are alike descendants of pre-existing forms,
+from which and from each other they differ by varying and often
+imperceptible degrees. It appears, then, that however plausible
+this writer's objections may seem, whenever he descends from
+generalities to any specific statement his supposed difficulties
+turn out to be in reality strongly confirmatory of Mr. Darwin's
+view."</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span>
+Now that improved steam-engines are lineal descendants of other
+steam-engines is absolute nonsense, in any other aspect than that
+the structure of one suggested the structure of another to a
+contriving mind. We need not affirm this of God; but we may
+affirm that the plans of the creative mind constitute the true
+link of connection between the different states and developments
+of inorganic and organic objects. This is the real meaning of
+creation by law, as distinguished from mere chance on the one
+hand, and arbitrary and capricious intervention on the other.
+Both of these extremes are equally illogical; and it can not be
+too frequently repeated that divine revelation avoids both by
+maintaining with equal firmness the agency of the Creator, and
+that agency not capricious, but according to plan and purpose;
+embracing not merely the action of the divine mind itself, but
+under it of all the forces and material things created.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">C.&mdash;MODES OF CREATION.</span></h2>
+
+<p>A question often asked, but not easily answered, with reference
+to the creation of animals and plants, is&mdash;What was its precise
+method, and to what extent is such intervention conceivable. This
+is, it is true, not a properly scientific question, since science
+can not inform us of the act of creation. Nor is it properly a
+theological one, since revelation appeals to our faith in the
+facts, without giving us much information as to the mode. It can,
+therefore, be answered only conjecturally, except in so far as
+the law or plan of creation can be inferred from what is known,
+either from science or revelation, as to the history of life.</p>
+
+<p>We may, in the first place, assume that law or plan must
+characterize creation. The Scriptural idea of it is not
+reconcilable with the supposition of a series of arbitrary acts
+any more than the scientific idea. The nature of these laws, as
+disclosed by Pal&aelig;ontology, has been already considered in a
+preceding part of this Appendix. What we may conjecture as to the
+nature of the creative act itself, from a comparison of nature
+and revelation, may be summed up as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. If we reduce organized beings to their ultimate
+organisms&mdash;cells or plastids&mdash;and with Spencer and Haeckel
+suppose these to be farther divisible into still smaller
+particles or plastidules, each composed of several complex
+particles of albumen or protoplasm, we may suppose the primary
+act of creation to consist in the aggregation of molecules of
+albuminous matter into such plastidules bearing the same
+relations, as "manufactured articles," to the future cell that
+inorganic molecules bear to crystals, and possessing within
+themselves
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span>
+the potencies of organic forms. This is the nearest
+approach that we can make to the primary creative act, and its
+scientific basis is merely hypothetical, while revelation gives
+us no intimation as to any such constitution of organized matter.</p>
+
+<p>2. The formul&aelig; in Genesis, "Let the land produce," and "Let the
+waters produce," imply some sort of mediate creation through the
+agency of the land and the waters, but of what sort we have no
+means of knowing. They include, however, the idea of the origin
+of the lower and humbler forms of life from material pre-existing
+in inorganic nature, and also the idea of the previous
+preparation of the land and the waters for the sustenance of the
+creatures produced.</p>
+
+<p>3. The expression in the case of man&mdash;"out of the dust"&mdash;would
+seem to intimate that the human body was constituted of merely
+elementary matter, without any previous preparation in organic
+forms. It may, however, be intended merely to inform us that,
+while the spirit is in the image of God, the bodily frame is "of
+the earth earthy," and in no respect different in general nature
+from that of the inferior animals.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Bible indicates some ways in which creatures may be
+modified or changed into new species, or may give rise to new
+forms of life. The human body is, we are told, capable of
+transformation into a new or spiritual body, different in many
+important respects, and the future general prevalence of this
+change is an article of religious faith. The Bible represents the
+woman as produced from the man by a species of fission, not known
+to us as a natural possibility, except in some of the lower forms
+of life. The birth of the Saviour is represented as having been
+by parthenogenesis, and if it had pleased God that Jesus was to
+remain on earth as the progenitor of a new and higher type of man
+to replace that now existing, this might be regarded as the
+introduction of a new species. To what extent the Creator may
+have so acted on the constitution of organized beings as to
+produce changes of this kind we have no means of knowing; but if
+he have done so, we
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span>
+may be sure that it has been in accordance
+with some definite plan or law.</p>
+
+<p>5. We have a right to infer from Scripture that there must be
+some creative law which provides for the introduction of species,
+<i>de novo</i>, from unorganized matter, and which has been or is
+called into action by conditions as yet altogether unknown to us,
+and as yet inimitable, and therefore in some sense miraculous.
+Whether we shall ever by scientific investigation discover the
+law of this kind of divine intervention it is impossible to say.
+That all the theories of spontaneous generation and derivation
+hitherto promulgated are but wild guesses at it is but too
+evident.</p>
+
+<p>6. Since in inorganic nature we meet with such ultimate facts as
+atoms of different kinds and with different properties; and ether
+of non-atomic constitution, all of which seem to be necessary to
+the existence of the world as it is, we may expect in like manner
+to find at the basis of organic structures and phenomena varied
+kinds of ultimate organisms and forces, probably much more
+complicated than those of inorganic nature. The broad simplicity
+of existing theories of derivation and evolution is thus in
+itself a presumption against their truth, except as very partial
+explanations.</p>
+
+<p>7. We have no right to consider the species "after their kinds"
+of revelation as coincident with the species recognized by
+science. Many of these may be merely races, the production of
+which in the course of time and in special circumstances may fall
+within the powers of created species, and which may merely be the
+phases of such species in time and place. Only the accumulation
+of vast additional stores of facts can enable us to have any
+certain opinion on this point, and till it is settled the
+doctrine of derivation must remain purely hypothetical.</p>
+
+<p>8. The inference of evolutionists that because certain forms of
+life succeed each other in geological time, they must have been
+derived from each other, has an aspect of truth and simplicity;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span>
+but the idea of law or plan in creation suggests that the link of
+connection may be of a less direct nature than mere descent with
+modification. This has been referred to under a previous head.</p>
+
+<p>9. In the scheme of revelation all the successions and changes of
+organized beings, just as much as their introduction at first,
+belong to the will and plan of God. Revelation opposes no
+obstacle to any scientific investigation of the nature and method
+of this plan, nor does it contemplate the idea that any
+discoveries of this kind in any way isolate the Creator from his
+works. Farther, inasmuch as God is always present in all his
+works, one part of his procedure can scarcely be considered an
+"intervention" any more than another.</p>
+
+<p>10. As an illustration of the hypothetical condition of this
+subject, and of the views which may be taken as to its details, I
+quote from a memoir of my own certain conclusions with reference
+to the origin of the species of land plants which are found in
+the older geological formations. The conclusions stated are at
+the end of a detailed consideration of these plants and the
+circumstances of their occurrence:</p>
+
+<p>"(1.) Some of the forms reckoned as specific in the Devonian and
+Carboniferous formations may be really derivative races. There
+are indications that such races may have originated in one or
+more of the following ways: (<i>a</i>) By a natural tendency in
+synthetic types to become specialized in the direction of one or
+other of their constituent elements. In this way such plants as
+<i>Arthrostigma</i> and <i>Psilophyton</i> may have assumed new varietal
+forms. (<i>b</i>) By embryonic retardation or acceleration,
+<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a>
+whereby certain species may have had their maturity advanced or
+postponed, thus giving them various grades of perfection in
+reproduction and complexity of structure. The fact that so many
+Erian and Carboniferous plants seem to be on the confines of the
+groups of Acrogens
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>
+and Gymnosperms may be supposed favorable to
+such exchanges. (<i>c</i>) The contraction and breaking up of floras
+which occurred in the Middle Erian and Lower Carboniferous may
+have been eminently favorable to the production of such varietal
+forms as would result from what has been called the 'struggle for
+existence.' (<i>d</i>) The elevation of a great expanse of new land at
+the close of the Middle Erian and the beginning of the Coal
+period would, by permitting the extension of series over wide
+areas and fertile soils, and by removing the pressure previously
+existing, be eminently favorable to the production of new, and
+especially of improved, varieties.</p>
+
+<p>"(2.) Whatever importance we may attach to the above supposed
+causes of change, we still require to account for the origin of
+our specific types. This may forever elude our observation, but
+we may at least hope to ascertain the external conditions
+favorable to their production. In order to attain even to this it
+will be necessary to inquire critically, with reference to every
+acknowledged species, what its claims to distinctness are, so
+that we may be enabled to distinguish specific types from mere
+varieties. Having attained to some certainty in this, we may be
+prepared to inquire whether the conditions favorable to the
+appearance of new varieties were also those favorable to the
+creation of new types, or the reverse&mdash;whether these conditions
+were those of compression or expansion, or to what extent the
+appearance of new types may be independent of any external
+conditions, other than those absolutely necessary for their
+existence. I am not without hope that the further study of fossil
+plants may enable us thus to approach to a comprehension of the
+laws of the creation, as distinguished from those of the
+continued existence of species.</p>
+
+<p>"In the present state of our knowledge we have no good ground
+either to limit the number of specific types beyond what a fair
+study of our material may warrant, or to infer that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span>
+such primitive types must necessarily have been of low grade, or that
+progress in varietal forms has always been upward. The occurrence
+of such an advanced and specialized type as that of
+<i>Syringoxylon</i> in the Middle Devonian should guard us against
+these errors. The creative process may have been applicable to
+the highest as well as to the lowest forms, and subsequent
+deviations must have included degradation as well as elevation. I
+can conceive nothing more unreasonable than the statement
+sometimes made that it is illogical or even absurd to suppose
+that highly organized beings could have been produced except by
+derivation from previously existing organisms. This is begging
+the whole question at issue, depriving science of a noble
+department of inquiry on which it has as yet barely entered, and
+anticipating by unwarranted assertions conclusions which may
+perhaps suddenly dawn upon us through the inspiration of some
+great intellect, or may for generations to come baffle the united
+exertions of all the earnest promoters of natural science. Our
+present attitude should not be that of dogmatists, but that of
+patient workers content to labor for a harvest of grand
+generalizations which may not come till we have passed away, but
+which, if we are earnest and true to nature and its Creator, may
+reward even some of us."
+<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">D.&mdash;PRESENT CONDITION OF THEORIES OF LIFE.</span></h2>
+
+<p>One of the most learned and ingenious essays on this subject
+recently published
+<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a>
+states on its first page that all the
+varieties of opinion may be summed up under two heads:</p>
+
+<p>"1. Those which require the addition to ordinary matter of an
+immaterial or spiritual essence, substance, or power, general or
+local, whose presence is the efficient cause of life; and,</p>
+
+<p>"2. Those which attribute the phenomena of life solely to the
+mode of combination of the ordinary material elements of which
+the organism is composed, without the addition of any such
+immaterial essence, power, or force."</p>
+
+<p>It is quite true that physiologists have up to this time argued
+out these two alternatives, and that at present the second is
+probably the more prevalent. It is however also true that neither
+includes or can possibly include the whole truth, and that
+enlightened theism may enable us to hold both, or all that is
+true in either. Undoubtedly we must hold that a higher spiritual
+power or Creator is necessary to the existence of life; but then
+this is necessary also to the existence of dead matter and force.
+So that if physiologists think proper to trace the whole
+phenomena of life to material causes, they do not on that account
+in any way invalidate the evidence for a spiritual Creator, nor
+for a spiritual element in the higher nature of man. Yet so
+inconceivably shallow is much of the biological reasoning of the
+day, that it is quite common to find physiologists referring all
+life to spontaneous and uncaused material agencies, because they
+have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span>
+concluded that the arrangements of matter and force are
+sufficient to explain it; and, on the other hand, to find
+theistic writers accusing physiology of materialism, if it finds
+the causes of vital phenomena in material forces, as if God could
+be present only in those processes which we can not understand.</p>
+
+<p>What we really know as to the material basis of life may be
+summed up in a few words. Chemically, life is based on compounds
+of the albuminous group. These are highly complex in a molecular
+point of view, and seem to be formed in nature only where certain
+structures, those of the vegetable cell, exist under certain
+conditions. These albuminous substances do not necessarily
+possess vital properties. They may exist in a dead state just as
+other substances. Under certain conditions, however, those of
+forming part of a so-called living organism, they present
+phenomena of mechanical movement and molecular change, and of
+transformation or transmission of force, which enable them to
+transform themselves into various kinds of tissues, to nourish
+these when formed, and to establish a consensus of action between
+different parts of the organism; and these properties are vastly
+varied in detail according to the kind of organism in which they
+take place, and the conditions under which the organism exists.
+The actually living matter presents no distinct structure
+recognizable by the microscope, and can not be distinguished
+chemically from ordinary albumen or protoplasm; but when living
+it must either exist in some peculiar and complex molecular
+arrangement unknown as yet to chemistry and physics, or must be
+actuated by some force or form of force called vital, and not as
+yet isolated or reduced to known laws or correlation. It does not
+concern theism or theology which of these may eventually prove to
+be the true view, or if it should be found, which is quite
+possible, that there is no real difference between them. In any
+case it is certain that in the lower animals, and in the merely
+physiological properties
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>
+of man himself, living matter may act
+independently of any higher spiritual nature in the individual,
+though of course not independently of the higher power of God,
+which gave matter its properties and sustains them in their
+action. It is farther certain that in man the spiritual nature
+dominates and controls the vital, except when under abnormal
+conditions the latter unduly gains the mastery, and quenches
+altogether the spirit. In the language of the Bible, the merely
+vital endowments of the man belong to the flesh ([Greek: sarx]),
+and to the rational mind or soul ([Greek: psych&ecirc;]). The higher
+nature which man derives directly from God is the spirit ([Greek:
+pneuma]). Either of these parts of the complex humanity is
+capable of life ([Greek: z&ocirc;&ecirc;]) and of immortality. Either of them
+is capable of being in a state of death, though the import of
+this differs in its application to each. In Genesis, the body is
+composed of the ordinary earth-materials&mdash;the "dust of the
+ground." The higher nature is seen in the "shadow and likeness of
+God," and in the inbreathing of the Divine Spirit whereby man
+became a "living soul" in a higher sense than that in which the
+animals possess the ordinary "breath of life." With these views
+agree the later doctrines of the Bible as to the "trichotomy" of
+"body, soul, and spirit" in man, and of the added influence of
+the Spirit of God as acting on humanity.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">E.&mdash;RECENT FACTS AS TO THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.</span></h2>
+
+<p>Several recent statements as to new facts supposed to prove a
+preglacial antiquity for our species have been promulgated in
+scientific journals; but so great doubt rests upon them that they
+do not invalidate the statement that the earliest human remains
+belong to the postglacial age. I may refer to the following:</p>
+
+<p>A very remarkable discovery was made in 1875 by Professor
+Rutimeyer, of Basle. In a brown coal deposit of Tertiary, or at
+least of "interglacial" age&mdash;whatever that may mean in
+Switzerland&mdash;he found some fragments of wood so interlaced as to
+resemble wattle or basket-work. Steenstrup has, however,
+re-examined the evidence, and adduces strong reasons for the
+conclusion that the alleged human workmanship is really that of
+beavers.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish geologists have shown that there is no properly
+Pal&aelig;olithic age in Scandinavia, and that even the reindeer had
+probably disappeared from Denmark and Sweden before their
+occupation by man. Some facts, however, seemed to indicate a
+residence of man in Sweden before the great post-pliocene
+subsidence. One of the most important of these is the celebrated
+hut of Sodertelge, referred to in this connection by Lyell.
+Recent observations have, however, shown that this hut was really
+covered by a landslip, and that its age may not be greater than
+eight centuries. Torel has recently explained this in the
+Proceedings of the Arch&aelig;ological Congress of Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>The human bone found in the Victoria Cave at Settle, apparently
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>
+under a patch of boulder-clay, has been regarded as a good
+evidence of the preglacial origin of man. It has, however,
+always appeared to readers of the description as a very doubtful
+case; and Professor Hughes, of Cambridge, has recently expressed
+the opinion that the drift covering the bone may be merely a
+"pocket" of that material disengaged from a cavity in the
+limestone by the wearing of the cliff.</p>
+
+<p>The same geologist has also shown reason to believe that the
+supposed case of the occurrence of pal&aelig;olithic implements under
+boulder-clay near Brandon, discovered by Mr. Skertchley, and
+paraded by Geikie as a demonstration of the "interglacial"
+antiquity of man, in accordance with his system of successive
+glacial periods, is really an error, and has no foundation in the
+facts of the case.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Pengelly has endeavored to maintain the value of the deposit
+of stalagmite as a means of establishing dates, in his "Notes of
+Recent Notices of the Geology of Devonshire," Part I., 1874; but,
+I confess, with little success. He urges, in opposition to the
+Ingleborough Cave, that at Cheddar, where, according to him, no
+appreciable deposit whatever is taking place on the existing
+stalagmite. But this, of course, is evidence not applicable to
+the case in hand, as in the Cheddar case no stalagmite crust
+whatever would be produced. There are, no doubt, crevices and
+caves in which old stalagmite is even being removed or diminished
+in thickness. He farther asserts that in Kent's Cave teeth of the
+cave bear and other extinct animals are found covered by not more
+than an inch and a half of stalagmite, and consequently that if
+this were deposited at the rate of a quarter of an inch per
+annum&mdash;the supposed rate on the "Jockey Cap" at
+Ingleborough&mdash;these animals must have lived in Devonshire only
+six years ago, which is, of course, absurd. But he fails to
+perceive that this mode of occurrence is quite intelligible on
+the supposition of a rapid decrease in the amount of deposition
+in the later part
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span>
+of the stalagmite period. He farther refers to
+the fact that the thicker masses of stalagmite, which correspond
+to the places of more active drip of water, are in the same
+position in both crusts of stalagmite. This shows that the
+sources of water containing bicarbonate of lime have been the
+same from the first; but it proves nothing as to the rate of
+deposit.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Pengelly's own estimate of the rate of deposit gives,
+however, a length of time which is sufficient to show that there
+must be error somewhere in his calculations. He states the
+aggregate thickness of the two crusts at twelve feet, and then,
+assuming a rate of deposit of 0.05 inch in 250 years, or one inch
+in 5000 years, he arrives at the conclusion that the whole
+deposit required 720,000 years for its formation. He is "willing
+to suppose" the mechanical deposits to have accumulated more
+rapidly; but allowing one fourth of the time for them, we have
+nearly a million of years claimed for the residence of man in
+Devonshire, which, independently of other considerations, would
+push back the Pal&aelig;ozoic trilobites and corals of that county into
+the primitive reign of fire, and which in point of fact amounts
+to a <i>reductio ad absurdum</i> of the whole argument.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Hughes
+<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>
+refers, as a case of rapid deposition of
+matter akin to stalagmite, to the deposit of travertine in the
+old Roman aqueduct of the Pont du Gard, near Avignon, where a
+thickness of fourteen inches seems to have accumulated in about
+800 years. Mr. J. Carey has given in <i>Nature</i>, December 18, 1873,
+another instance where a deposit 0.75 inch thick was formed in
+fifteen years in a lead mine in Durham. Mr. W. B. Clarke in the
+same journal gives a case where in a cave at Brixton, known as
+Poole's Hole, a deposit one eighth of an inch in thickness was
+formed in six months. Such examples show how unsafe it is to
+reason as to the rate of deposit in by-gone times, and when
+climatal and local conditions
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>
+may have been very different from those at present subsisting.</p>
+
+<p>In an able address before the biological section of the British
+Association in 1876, Wallace adduces the following considerations
+as bearing on these questions; and these are well worthy of
+attention as showing that it is the necessities of evolution
+rather than of geological facts that demand the assumption of a
+great antiquity for man, and induce so many writers to accept any
+evidence for this, however doubtful: (1) The great cerebral
+development of the so-called Pal&aelig;olithic men, which shows no
+indications of graduating into inferior races. (2) The great
+variety of the implements of these ancient men, and the
+excellence of their carvings on bone and ivory, point to a
+similar conclusion. (3) Man is not related to any existing
+species of ape, but in various ways to several different species.
+(4) There is an accumulation of evidence to show that the
+earliest historical races excelled in many processes in the arts
+and in many kinds of culture. He instances the wonderful
+mechanical and engineering skill evidenced in the pyramids of
+Egypt in proof of this. His conclusion is either that the origin
+of man by development from apes must be pushed much farther back
+than any geologists at present hold, and I may add far beyond any
+probable date, or that he must have originated by some "distinct
+and higher agency"&mdash;which last is no doubt the true conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>Haeckel, in his recent work, the "History of Creation," sketches
+the development of man from a monad, in twenty-two stages; but he
+has to admit that stage twenty-first, or that of the "Ape-like
+man," nowhere exists, either recent or fossil. He has to assume
+that this missing link has perished in the submergence of an
+imaginary continent of Lemuria, in the Indian Ocean; and it is
+instructive to observe that, after deducting this, his
+affiliation of the races of men, as indicated in a map of the
+distribution of the species, is in the main very
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span>
+similar to that with which we are familiar in ordinary collections of maps
+illustrative of the Bible.</p>
+
+<p>The Post-glacial, Pal&aelig;ocosmic, or Pal&aelig;olithic men of Europe are
+not improbably antediluvian; and as to their precise date we know
+little. As to postdiluvian man, Canon Rawlinson has recently
+pointed out
+<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a>
+the remarkable convergence of all historic dates
+toward a time between 2000 to 3000 years B.C., or about the date
+of the Biblical deluge, which may reasonably be inferred to have
+occurred about 3200 B.C. He gives the following summary of
+historical origins as ascertained from the best data, and which
+accord with the representation of the Bible that in the time of
+Abraham the great monarchies of Egypt and the East were scarcely
+more powerful than the nomad tribe led by that patriarch:</p>
+
+<table summary="historical origins">
+<tr><td>Oldest date of </td><td>Babylon</td><td>2300 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>" "</td><td>Assyria</td><td>1500</td></tr>
+<tr><td>" "</td><td>Iran</td><td>1500</td></tr>
+<tr><td>" "</td><td>India</td><td>1200</td></tr>
+<tr><td>" "</td><td>China</td><td>1154</td></tr>
+<tr><td>" "</td><td>Phoenicia</td><td>1700</td></tr>
+<tr><td>" "</td><td>Troad</td><td>2000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>" "</td><td>Egypt</td><td>2760</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sept. date of </td><td>Deluge</td><td>3200</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>He rejects, of course, the fabulous chronologies of Egypt, China,
+and India as mythical, or referring to prehuman and antediluvian
+periods. It is to be observed that while these dates place the
+origins of the oldest civilized nations at periods considerably
+subsequent to the deluge, they do not prevent us from supposing
+that these nations commenced their existence wills an advanced
+civilization borrowed from antediluvian times, which is indeed a
+fair conclusion from the Biblical history, independently of the
+monumental evidence referred to by Wallace in a previous
+paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span>
+The Duke of Argyll, in his excellent little work "Primeval Man,"
+in which he discusses the arguments in favor of primitive
+savagery advanced by Sir J. Lubbock in opposition to the views of
+Archbishop Whately in his lecture on the "Origin of
+Civilization," shows that there is no necessity to suppose a slow
+progress of mankind in the arts extending over indefinite ages;
+and his argument in this respect connects itself with the facts
+as to the high cerebral organization of Pal&aelig;ocosmic men referred
+to above by Wallace. In summing up one division of his argument,
+he truly remarks: "If we assume with the supporters of the
+savage-theory that man has himself invented all that he now
+knows, then the very earliest inventions of our race must have
+been the most wonderful of all, and the richest in the fruits
+they bore. The man who first discovered the use of fire, and the
+use of those grasses which we now know under the name of corn,
+were discoverers compared with whom, as regards the value of
+their ideas to the world, Faraday and Wheatstone are but the
+inventors of ingenious toys. It may possibly be true, as Whately
+argues, that man never could have discovered these things without
+divine instruction. If so, it is fatal to the savage theory. But
+it is equally fatal to that theory if we assume the opposite
+position, and suppose that the noblest discoveries ever made by
+man were made by him in primeval times."</p>
+
+<p>I may add that this is true, however far into antiquity we may
+stretch back these primeval times.</p>
+
+<p>Professor E. S. Morse, in his address to the American
+Association, in 1876, as vice-president, takes as a theme the
+contributions of American zoologists to theories of evolution,
+and closes with those which refer to what he modestly terms
+"man's lowly origin." These contributions he sums up under three
+heads, as bearing on the following points: "1. That in his
+earlier stages he reveals certain persistent characters of the
+ape; 2. That the more ancient men reveal more ape-like features
+than the present existing men; and, 3. That certain
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>
+characteristics pertaining to early men still persist in the
+inferior races of men." Under the first head he gives
+contributions to the well-known fact that embryonic stages of the
+human being, like those of other high types, approximate to forms
+permanent in lower types. This is a fact inseparable from the law
+of reproduction; and as has been already shown in the text,
+absolutely without logical significance as even an analogical
+argument in favor of evolution. Under the second and third heads,
+he refers to cases of exceptional skulls and bones belonging to
+idiots and degraded races of men, as showing tendencies to lower
+forms, which as a matter of course they do, though with essential
+differences still marking them as human; and he assumes without
+any proof that these were relatively more common in primitive
+times, and that they are cases of reversion to a previous simian
+stage, instead of being results of abnormal conditions in the
+individual or variety. He sums up these arguments in the
+following paragraph:</p>
+
+<p>"If we take into account the rapidly accumulating data of
+European naturalists concerning primitive man, with the mass of
+evidence presented in these notes, we find an array of facts
+which irresistibly point to a common origin with animals directly
+below us, and these evidences are found in the massive skulls
+with coarse ridges for muscular attachments, the rounding of the
+base of the nostrils, the early ossification of the nasal bones,
+the small cranial capacity in certain forms, the prominence of
+the frontal crest, the posterior position of the <i>foramen
+magnum</i>, the approximation of the temporal ridges, the lateral
+flattening of the tibia, the perforation of the humerus, the
+tendency of the pelvis to depart from its usual proportions; and,
+associated with all these, a rudeness of culture and the evidence
+of the manifestation of the coarsest instincts. He must be blind,
+indeed, who can not recognize the bearing of such grave and
+suggestive modifications."</p>
+
+<p>Yet Professor Morse knows that there is no true specific or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span>
+even generic kinship between man and any species of ape; that the
+phenomena of idiocy and degeneracy have no real resemblance to
+those of distinct specific types; that the resemblances of man to
+apes, such as they are, point not in a direct manner to any stock
+of apes, but in a desultory way to several; and consequently
+that, if derived from any such animals, it must be from some
+stock altogether unknown to us as yet, either among recent or
+fossil animals. Farther, as Cope, himself an evolutionist,
+admits, while we can trace the skeletons of Eocene mammals
+through several directions of specialization in succeeding
+Tertiary times, man presents the phenomenon of an unspecialized
+skeleton which can not fairly be connected with any of these
+lines. Lastly, his quotation from Fiske, with reference to the
+supposed effect of a protracted infancy to develop the moral
+characteristics of man, though accompanied with the usual unfair
+and unreasonable sneer (which a naturalist like Morse should have
+been ashamed to quote) against men "still capable of believing
+that the human race was created by miracle in a single day," is
+the feeblest possible attempt to bridge over the gap between the
+spiritual nature of man and the merely psychical nature of
+brutes.</p>
+
+<p>It is plain that if American naturalists have done nothing more
+in favor of the lowly origin of man than that which Professor
+Morse has been able, evidently with much industry and pains, to
+gather, we need not for the present abandon our claims to a
+higher origin. It is farther significant in connection with this
+that Professor Huxley, in his lectures in New York, while resting
+his case as to the lower animals mainly on the supposed genealogy
+of the horse, which has often been shown to amount to no certain
+evidence,
+<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a>
+avoided altogether the discussion of the origin of
+man from apes, now obviously complicated with so many
+difficulties that both
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span>
+Wallace and Mivart are staggered by them.
+Professor Thomas, in his recent lectures,
+<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a>
+admits that there is no lower man known than the Australian, and that there is no
+known link of connection with the monkeys; and Haeckel
+<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>
+has to admit that the penultimate link in his phylogeny, the ape-like
+man, is absolutely unknown.</p>
+
+<p>In Chapter XIII. I have not touched on the question of the
+absolute origin of language&mdash;this not being necessary to my
+argument. On this interesting subject, however, we have, in the
+naming of the animals by the first man, recorded in the second
+chapter of Genesis, not only the primary truth of his superiority
+to them, but a farther indication that the roots of human speech,
+other than interjectional, lie in onomatopoeia, and especially
+in the voices of animals, and that the gift of speech was not the
+slow growth of ages, but an endowment of man from the first, just
+as much as any of his other powers or properties. An interesting
+discussion of this subject will be found in the concluding
+chapters of Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," second edition. Farther,
+the so-called "tallies" found with the bones of Pal&aelig;ocosmic men
+in European caves, and illustrated in the admirable work of
+Christy and Lartet, show that the rudiments even of writing were
+already in possession of the oldest race of men known to
+arch&aelig;ology or geology. (See Wilson, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii., p. 54.)</p>
+
+<p>I have not noticed, except incidentally, the alleged discoveries
+of very ancient human remains in America, as they all appear very
+problematical. There is, however, some evidence of the
+coexistence of man with the mastodon and other postglacial
+animals in Illinois and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">F.&mdash;BEARING OF GLACIAL PERIODS UPON THE INTERPRETATION OF GENESIS.</span></h2>
+
+<p>Whatever views may be taken as to that period of cold which
+occurs at the close of the Tertiary and beginning of the Modern
+period, it can not be held to have constituted any such break as
+to be considered, as it was at one time, an equivalent for the
+Biblical chaos. This is proved by the survival through this
+period of a very large proportion of the animals and plants still
+existing in the northern hemisphere. The chronological system of
+animals and plants has been continuous, as the Bible represents
+it, since their first appearance on earth.</p>
+
+<p>It is further remarkable that while there is geological evidence
+of climates colder than the present in the temperate regions,
+there is equally good proof of warmer climates even within the
+arctic circle than those of the cold temperate regions at
+present. It is difficult to account for these vicissitudes of
+climate, and much controversy exists on the subject; but it seems
+certain that in the earlier Tertiary and Cretaceous periods, for
+example, the supplies of heat and light were so diffused over the
+earth as to permit the growth of a temperate vegetation in
+Greenland, and even in Spitzbergen. Geologists, however
+unwillingly, have been obliged to admit this as one of those
+great possibilities, altogether unexpected beforehand, which have
+been developed in the history of our planet. Various modes of
+explaining this succession of cold and warm periods have been
+adopted, all more or less hypothetical. Lyell has argued that it
+may be explained by a different distribution of land and water
+and of the ocean currents.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>
+Croll accounts for it by the varying
+eccentricity of the earth's orbit, in connection with the
+precession of the equinoxes. Evans by a shifting of the axis of
+rotation of the earth. Drayson, Bell, Warring, and others, by a
+change in the inclination of the earth's axis. Others by the
+secular diminution of the internal heat of the earth, and of that
+of the sun. Others by the supposed recurrence of periods in which
+the sun gives more or less heat, or in which the earth is passing
+through colder or warmer regions of space. As the subject is of
+interest with reference to possible correspondences of these
+great summers and winters of the earth with the stages of the
+creative work, it may be well to notice shortly the relative
+merits of these theories.</p>
+
+<p>(1.) The hypothesis of Croll is one of the most ingenious and
+elaborate of the whole; but it has two great defects. One is that
+the causes alleged are so uncertain and so complicated that it is
+difficult to estimate their real value. Another is that it proves
+too much, namely, a regular succession of cold and warm periods
+throughout geological time, of which we have no good evidence,
+and which is on many grounds improbable.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) That the earth's axis of rotation has continued unchanged
+throughout the whole of the geological ages seems proved by the
+fact that the principal lines of crumpling and upheaval from the
+Laurentian period downward are arranged in great circles of the
+earth tangent to the polar circle; and that the lines of deposit
+of sediment in the Pal&aelig;ozoic age are coincident with the present
+direction of the arctic currents.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) Astronomers consider it improbable that the obliquity of the
+ecliptic has materially changed, and serious differences of
+opinion exist as to the effects which a greater or less obliquity
+would produce on climate. It seems certain, however, that a less
+obliquity would occasion a more uniform distribution of heat and
+light throughout the year; and this, co-operating
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>
+with other causes leading to a warm climate, might enable a temperate
+vegetation to approach the pole more closely than at present.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) That the energy of the sun's radiation and the internal heat
+of the earth have been slowly decreasing seems certain; but it is
+now generally admitted that these changes are so gradual that
+little effect can have been produced by them, except in the older
+geological periods, and that they can have no connection with the
+great glacial period of the Post-pliocene.</p>
+
+<p>(5.) It is otherwise with the hypothesis that the sun's heat may,
+like that of some variable stars, have increased and diminished.
+There is, of course, no direct evidence of this, except the small
+differences observed in cycles of eleven and fifty-five years
+from the greater or less development of sunspots, and the analogy
+of observed variable stars. Still it is a possible cause of
+variations of climate. It might also aid in accounting for the
+extraordinary evidences of desert conditions and desiccation
+presented by the salt deposits of different geological periods in
+temperate latitudes.</p>
+
+<p>(6.) The theory of the passage of the earth through zones of
+space of variable temperature is now generally abandoned, as
+there seems no reason to believe that such differences exist.</p>
+
+<p>(7.) The theory of Lyell that changes in the distribution of land
+and water may, with the possible co-operation of other causes,
+have produced the observed diversities of climate, is that which
+seems best to meet the conditions presented. It is based on the
+known properties of land and water as to the absorption,
+radiation, and convection of heat, and on the remarkable
+diversities of climate in similar latitudes arising from this
+cause at present. Farther, it accords with the known fact that
+very great changes of level have occurred in connection with the
+glacial period. This theory undoubtedly embraces a true cause,
+admitted by all geologists, and it dispenses
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span>
+with the necessity of believing in the recurrence of glacial periods at regular
+intervals. It farther accords best with the evidence afforded by
+fossils, and especially by fossil plants. It has also the merit
+of directing due attention to the diversities of geographical
+conditions at different periods, and of dealing with causes of
+change operating within the earth itself. The only doubt with
+respect to it is its sufficiency to explain the changes which
+have occurred, and the view entertained of this will depend very
+much on the interpretation of the facts as to the intensity of
+the last glacial period. If moderate views can be taken of this,
+and if means can be found, by a less obliquity of the ecliptic or
+otherwise, to furnish a continuous supply of light in the arctic
+regions, the difficulties which have been alleged against it
+would disappear.</p>
+
+<p>(8.) In connection with former periods of cold and warmth, and
+with the existence of temperate and tropical vegetation in polar
+latitudes, we should not forget that view which takes into
+account the probable effects of different conditions of the
+atmosphere, and the greater quantity of carbonic acid present in
+it, in early geological periods. This would, of course, best
+apply to the pal&aelig;ozoic floras, in so far as our present knowledge
+extends; but there may have been similar conditions in later
+periods. Dr. Sterry Hunt thus states this hypothesis:</p>
+
+<p>"The agency of plants in purifying the primitive atmosphere was
+long since pointed out by Brongniart, and our great stores of
+fossil fuel have been derived from the decomposition, by the
+ancient vegetation, of the excess of carbonic acid of the early
+atmosphere, which through this agency was exchanged for oxygen
+gas. In this connection the vegetation of former periods presents
+the curious phenomenon of plants allied to those now growing
+beneath the tropics flourishing within the polar circles. Many
+ingenious hypotheses have been proposed to account for the warmer
+climate of earlier
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span>
+times, but are at best unsatisfactory, and it
+appears to me that the true solution of the problem may be found
+in the constitution of the early atmosphere, when considered in
+the light of Dr. Tyndall's beautiful researches on radiant heat.
+He has found that the presence of a few hundredths of
+carbonic-acid gas in the atmosphere, while offering almost no
+obstacle to the passage of the solar rays, would suffice to
+prevent almost entirely the loss by radiation of obscure heat, so
+that the surface of the land beneath such an atmosphere would
+become like a vast orchard-house, in which the conditions of
+climate necessary to a luxuriant vegetation would be extended
+even to the polar regions."</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that, in the production of complex effects of this
+kind, various causes, whether astronomical or connected with the
+mutations of the earth's crust, may have co-operated, and
+probably in all extreme cases did co-operate.</p>
+
+<p>In any case it is evident that the vicissitudes of climate and
+the great pulsations of the crust, which have raised and
+depressed portions of the surface and changed the position of its
+covering of waters, have been potent agents in the hands of the
+Creator in effecting the changes and succession of living beings,
+which are thus, as Genesis intimates, children of the waters and
+of the land, and of the influences of the heavens. It is also
+interesting in this connection to observe that the occurrence of
+such periods of general warm climate as that in the Miocene shows
+that it would have been possible for man, under certain
+conditions, to have extended himself far more widely in his
+Edenic state than we can conceive of in the present condition of
+the earth. The modern world is perhaps even in this way "cursed"
+for man's sake</p>
+
+<p>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">G.&mdash;DR. STERRY HUNT ON THE CHEMISTRY OF THE PRIMEVAL EARTH.</span></h2>
+
+<p>On looking back to the reference to this subject in Chapter V., I
+think it may be desirable to present to the reader in some more
+definite manner the conditions of a forming world; and I can not
+do this in any other way so well as by quoting the words of Dr.
+Sterry Hunt, as given in the abstract of his lecture on this
+subject delivered before the Royal Institution of London in 1867:</p>
+
+<p>"This hypothesis of the nature of the sun and of the luminous
+process going on at its surface is the one lately put forward by
+Faye, and, although it has met with opposition, appears to be
+that which accords best with our present knowledge of the
+chemical and physical conditions of matter, such as we must
+suppose it to exist in the condensing gaseous mass which,
+according to the nebular hypothesis, should form the centre of
+our solar system. Taking this, as we have already done, for
+granted, it matters little whether we imagine the different
+planets to have been successively detached as rings during the
+rotation of the primal mass, as is generally conceived, or
+whether we admit with Chacornac a process of aggregation or
+concretion, operating within the primal nebular mass, resulting
+in the production of sun and planets. In either case we come to
+the conclusion that our earth must at one time have been in an
+intensely heated gaseous condition, such as the sun now presents,
+self-luminous, and with a process of condensation going on at
+first at the surface only, until by cooling it must have reached
+the point where the gaseous
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>
+centre was exchanged for one of combined and liquefied matter.</p>
+
+<p>"Here commences the chemistry of the earth, to the discussion of
+which the foregoing considerations have been only preliminary. So
+long as the gaseous condition of the earth lasted, we may suppose
+the whole mass to have been homogeneous; but when the temperature
+became so reduced that the existence of chemical compounds at the
+centre became possible, those which were most stable at the
+elevated temperature then prevailing would be first formed. Thus,
+for example, while compounds of oxygen with mercury or even with
+hydrogen could not exist, oxides of silicon, aluminium, calcium,
+magnesium, and iron might be formed and condense in a liquid form
+at the centre of the globe. By progressive cooling, still other
+elements would be removed from the gaseous mass, which would form
+the atmosphere of the non-gaseous nucleus. We may suppose an
+arrangement of the condensed matters at the centre according to
+their respective specific gravities, and thus the fact that the
+density of the earth as a whole is about twice the mean density
+of the matters which form its solid surface may be explained.
+Metallic or metalloidal compounds of elements, grouped
+differently from any compounds known to us, and far more dense,
+may exist in the centre of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>"The process of combination and cooling having gone on until
+those elements which are not volatile in the heat of our ordinary
+furnaces were condensed into a liquid form, we may here inquire
+what would be the result, upon the mass, of a further reduction
+of temperature. It is generally assumed that in the cooling of a
+liquid globe of mineral matter, congelation would commence at the
+surface, as in the case of water; but water offers an exception
+to most other liquids, inasmuch as it is denser in the liquid
+than in the solid form. Hence ice floats on water, and freezing
+water becomes covered with a layer of ice, which protects the
+liquid below.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>
+With most other matters, however, and notably with
+the various mineral and earthy compounds analogous to those which
+may be supposed to have formed the fiery-fluid earth, numerous
+and careful experiments show that the products of solidification
+are much denser than the liquid mass; so that solidification
+would have commenced at the centre, whose temperature would thus
+be the congealing point of these liquid compounds. The important
+researches of Hopkins and Fairbairn on the influence of pressure
+in augmenting the melting-point of such compounds as contract in
+solidifying are to be considered in this connection.</p>
+
+<p>"It is with the superficial portions of the fused mineral mass of
+the globe that we have now to do; since there is no good reason
+for supposing that the deeply seated portions have intervened in
+any direct manner in the production of the rocks which form the
+superficial crust. This, at the time of its first solidification,
+presented probably an irregular, diversified surface from the
+result of contraction of the congealing mass, which at last
+formed a liquid bath of no great depth surrounding the solid
+nucleus. It is to the composition of this crust that we must
+direct our attention, since therein would be found all the
+elements (with the exception of such as were still in the gaseous
+form) now met with in the known rocks of the earth. This crust is
+now everywhere buried beneath its own ruins, and we can only from
+chemical considerations attempt to reconstruct it. If we consider
+the conditions through which it has passed, and the chemical
+affinities which must have come into play, we shall see that
+these are just what would now result if the solid land, sea, and
+air were made to react upon each other under the influence of
+intense heat. To the chemist it is at once evident that from this
+would result the conversion of all carbonates, chlorides, and
+sulphates into silicates, and the separation of the carbon,
+chlorine, and sulphur in the form of acid gases, which, with
+nitrogen, watery vapor, and a probable excess of oxygen, would
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span>
+form the dense primeval atmosphere. The resulting fused mass
+would contain all the bases as silicates, and must have much
+resembled in composition certain furnace-slags or volcanic
+glasses. The atmosphere, charged with acid gases, which
+surrounded this primitive rock must have been of immense density.
+Under the pressure of such a high barometric column, condensation
+would take place at a temperature much above the present
+boiling-point of water, and the depressed portions of the
+half-cooled crust would be flooded with a highly heated solution
+of hydrochloric acid, whose action in decomposing the silicates
+is easily intelligible to the chemist. The formation of chlorides
+of the various bases, and the separation of silica, would go on
+until the affinities of the acid were satisfied, and there would
+be a separation of silica, taking the form of quartz, and the
+production of a sea-water holding in solution, besides the
+chlorides of sodium, calcium, and magnesium, salts of aluminium
+and other metallic bases. The atmosphere, being thus deprived of
+its volatile chlorine and sulphur compounds, would approximate to
+that of our own time, but differ in its greater amount of
+carbonic acid.</p>
+
+<p>"We next enter into the second phase in the action of the
+atmosphere upon the earth's crust. This, unlike the first, which
+was subaqueous, or operative only on the portion covered with the
+precipitated water, is sub-aerial, and consists in the
+decomposition of the exposed parts of the primitive crust under
+the influence of the carbonic acid and moisture of the air, which
+convert the complex silicates of the crust into a silicate of
+alumina, or clay, while the separated lime, magnesia, and
+alkalies, being converted into carbonates, are carried down into
+the sea in a state of solution.</p>
+
+<p>"The first effect of these dissolved carbonates would be to
+precipitate the dissolved alumina and the heavy metals, after
+which would result a decomposition of the chloride of calcium of
+the sea-water, resulting in the production of carbonate of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>
+lime or limestone, and chloride of sodium or common salt. This process
+is one still going on at the earth's surface, slowly breaking
+down and destroying the hardest rocks, and, aided by mechanical
+processes, transforming them into clays; although the action,
+from the comparative rarity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere,
+is less energetic than in earlier times, when the abundance of
+this gas, and a higher temperature, favored the chemical
+decomposition of the rocks. But now, as then, every clod of clay
+formed from the decay of a crystalline rock corresponded to an
+equivalent of carbonic acid abstracted from the atmosphere, and
+equivalents of carbonate of lime and common salt formed from the
+chloride of calcium of the sea-water."
+<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">H.&mdash;TANNIN AND BHEMAH.</span></h2>
+
+<p>The following synopsis of the instances of the occurrence of the
+words <i>tannin</i> and <i>tan</i> will serve to show the propriety of the
+meaning, "great reptiles," assigned in the text to the former, as
+well as to illustrate the utility in such cases of "comparing
+Scripture with Scripture:"</p>
+
+<table style="font-size:90%;margin-right: 15%;" summary="">
+<tr><td colspan="2">1. TANNIN.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Exod. vii., 9.&mdash;Take thy rod and cast it before Pharaoh, and it shall become a <i>serpent</i>.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Probably a serpent, though perhaps a crocodile. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Deut. xxxii., 33.&mdash;Their vine is the poison of <i>dragons</i>.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Probably a species of serpent. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Job vii., 12.&mdash;Am I a sea, or a <i>whale</i>, that thou settest a watch over me.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Michaelis and others think, probably correctly, that the Nile and the crocodile, both objects of vigilance to the Egyptians, are intended. (Septuagint, "[Greek:drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Psa. lxxiv., 14.&mdash;Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength. Thou breakest the heads of the <i>dragons</i> in the waters.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Evidently refers to the destruction of the Egyptians in the Red Sea, under emblem of the crocodile. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Psa. xci., 13.&mdash;The young lion and the <i>dragon</i> thou shalt trample under foot.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">The association shows that a powerful carnivorous animal is meant. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Psa. cxlviii., 7.&mdash;Praise the Lord, ye <i>dragons</i> and all deeps.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Evidently an aquatic creature. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Isa. xxvii., 1.&mdash;He shall slay the <i>dragon</i> in the midst of the sea [river].</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">A large predaceous aquatic animal (the crocodile), used here as an emblem of Egypt. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Isa. li., 9.&mdash;Hath cut Rahab and wounded the <i>dragon</i>.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Same as above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Jer. li., 34.&mdash;[Nebuchadnezzar] hath swallowed me up as a <i>dragon</i>.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">A large predaceous animal. (Septuagint, [Greek: "drak&ocirc;n."])</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Ezek. xxix., 3.&mdash;Pharaoh, king of Egypt, the great <i>dragon</i> that lieth in the rivers.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">In the Hebrew <i>tanim</i> appears by mistake for <i>tannin</i>. This is clearly the crocodile of the Nile.
+Verses 4 and 5 show that it is a large aquatic animal with <i>scales</i>. (Septuagint, [Greek: "drak&ocirc;n."])</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<table style="font-size:90%;margin-right: 15%;" summary="">
+<tr><td colspan="2">2. TAN.</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Psa. xliv., 19.&mdash;Thou hast sore broken us in the place of <i>dragons</i>.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Some understand this of shipwreck; but, more probably, the place of dragons is the desert. (Septuagint, [Greek: "kak&ocirc;sis."])</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Isa. xxxiv., 13.&mdash;[Bozrah in Idumea] shall be a habitation of <i>dragons</i> and a court of owls [or ostriches].</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">An animal inhabiting ruins, and associated with the ostrich. (Septuagint, [Greek: "seir&ecirc;n."])</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Isa. xliii., 20.&mdash;The wild beasts shall honor me, the <i>dragons</i> and the ostriches, because I give water in the wilderness. </td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Evidently an animal of the dry deserts. (Septuagint, [Greek: "seir&ecirc;n."])</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Isa. xiii., 22.&mdash;Dragons in their pleasant palaces.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Represented as inhabiting the ruins of Babylon, and associated with wild beasts of the desert. (Septuagint, [Greek: "xchinos."])</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Isa. xxxv., 7.&mdash;And the parched ground shall become a pool, and the thirsty land springs of water; in the habitation of <i>dragons</i>,
+where each lay, shall be grass with reeds and rushes.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">An animal making its lair or nest in dry, parched places. (Septuagint, [Greek: "hornis."])</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Job xxx., 29.&mdash;I am a brother of <i>dragons</i> and a companion of ostriches. </td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">The association indicates an animal of the desert, and the context that its cry is mournful.
+(Septuagint, [Greek: "seir&ecirc;n."])</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Jer. ix., 11; x., 22.&mdash;I will make Jerusalem heaps, a den of <i>dragons</i>.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">Same as above. See also Jeremiah xlix., 33; li., 37; and Mal. i., 3, where the word is in the
+female form (<i>tanoth</i>). (Septuagint, [Greek: "drak&ocirc;n"] and [Greek: "strouthos."])</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Lam. iv., 3.&mdash;Even the <i>sea-monsters</i> draw out the breast, they give suck to their young ones.
+The daughter of my people is become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness.</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">In the Hebrew text the word is <i>tannin</i>, evidently an error for <i>tanim</i>.
+The suckling of young, and association of ostriches, agree with this. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="padding-right:1%;vertical-align:top;">Micah i., 8.&mdash;I will make a wailing like the <i>dragons</i>, and mourning like the owls [ostriches].</td>
+<td style="vertical-align:top;">The wailing cry accords with the view of Gesenius that the jackal is meant. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drak&ocirc;n].")</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span></p>
+<p>We learn from the above comparative view that the <i>tannin</i> is an
+aquatic animal of large size, and predaceous, clothed with
+scales, and a fit emblem of the monarchies of Egypt and Assyria.
+In two places it is possible that some species of serpent is
+denoted by it. We must suppose, therefore, that in Genesis i. it
+denotes large crocodilian and perhaps serpentiform reptiles. The
+<i>tan</i> is evidently a small mammal of the desert.</p>
+
+<p>I omitted to notice in the text a criticism of my explanation of
+the word <i>bhemah</i> in "Archaia," made in Archdeacon Pratt's
+"Scripture and Science not at Variance" (edition of 1872). He
+opposes to the meaning of "herbivorous animals" which I have
+sought to establish, two exceptional passages. In one of these,
+Deut. xxviii., 26, the word is used in its most general sense for
+all beasts, which the context shows can not be its meaning in
+Gen. i. In the other, Prov. xxx., 30, he says it is applied to
+the lion. The actual expression used, however, merely implies
+that the lion is "mighty among <i>bhemah</i>," the comparison being
+probably between the strength of the lion and that of oxen,
+antelopes, and other strong and active creatures. It does not
+affirm that the lion is one of the <i>bhemah</i>. While I have every
+respect for the erudition of Archdeacon Pratt, and highly value
+his book, I must regard this objection as an example of a style
+of biblical exposition much to be deprecated, though too often
+employed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">I.&mdash;ANCIENT MYTHOLOGIES.</span></h2>
+
+<p>The current views respecting the relations of ancient mythologies
+with each other and with the Bible have been continually shifting
+and oscillating between extremes. The latest and at present most
+popular of these extreme views is that so well expounded by Dr.
+Max M&uuml;ller in his various essays on these subjects, and which
+traces at least the Indo-European theogony to a mere
+personification of natural objects. The views given in the text
+are those which to the author appear alone compatible with the
+Bible, and with the relations of Semitic and Aryan theology; but,
+as the subject is generally regarded from a quite different point
+of view, a little further explanation may be necessary.</p>
+
+<p>1. According to the Bible, spiritual monotheism is the primitive
+faith of man, and with this it ranks the doctrine of a malignant
+spirit or being opposed to God, and of a primitive state of
+perfection and happiness. It is scarcely necessary to say that
+these doctrines may be found as sub-strata in all the ancient
+theologies.</p>
+
+<p>2. In the Hebrew theology the fall introduces the new doctrine of
+a mediator or deliverer, human and divine, and an external
+symbolism, that of the cherubic forms, composite figures made up
+of parts of the man, the lion, the ox, and the eagle. These forms
+are referred back to Eden, where they are manifestly the emblems
+of the perfections of the Deity, lost to man by the fall, and now
+opposed to his entrance into Eden and access to the tree of life,
+the symbol of his immortal happiness. Subsequently the cherubim
+are the visible indications of the presence of God in the
+tabernacle and temple; and in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>
+the Apocalypse they reappear as
+emblems of the Divine perfections, as reflected in the character
+of man redeemed. The cherubim, as guardians of the sacred tree,
+and of sacred places in general, appear in the worship of the
+Assyrians and Egyptians, as the winged lions and bulls of the
+former, and the sphinx of the latter. They can also be recognized
+in the sepulchral monuments of Greek Asia and of Etruria.
+Farther, it was evidently an easy step to proceed from these
+cherubic figures to the adoration of sacred animals. But the
+cherubic emblems were connected with the idea of a coming
+Redeemer, and this was with equal ease perverted into
+hero-worship. Every great conqueror, inventor, or reformer was
+thus recognized as in some sense the "coming man," just as Eve
+supposed she saw him in her first-born. In addition to this, the
+sacredness of the first mother as the mother of the promised seed
+of the woman, led to the introduction of female deities.</p>
+
+<p>3. The earliest ecclesiastical system was the patriarchal, and
+this also admitted of corruption into idolatry. The great
+patriarch, venerable by age and wisdom, when he left this earth
+for the spirit world, was supposed there, in the presence of God,
+to be the special guardian of his children on earth. Some of the
+gods of Egypt and of Greece were obviously of this character, and
+in China and Polynesia we see at this day this kind of idolatry
+in a condition of active vitality.</p>
+
+<p>4. As stated in the text, the mythology of Egypt and Greece bears
+evident marks of having personified certain cosmological facts
+akin to those of the Hebrew narrative of creation. In this way
+ancient idolators disposed of the prehistoric and pre-Adamite
+world, changing it into a period of gods and demigods. This is
+very apparent in the remarkable Assyrian Genesis recovered by the
+late George Smith from the clay tablets found in the ruined
+palace of Assurbanipal.</p>
+
+<p>5. In all rude and imaginative nations, which have lost the
+distinct idea of the one God, the Creator, nature becomes
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span>
+more or less a source of superstitions. Its grand and more rare
+phenomena of volcanoes, earthquakes, thunder-storms, eclipses,
+become supernatural portents; and as the idea of power associates
+itself with them, they are personified as actual agents and
+become gods. In like manner, the more constant and useful objects
+and processes of nature become personified as beneficent deities.
+This may be, to a great extent, the character of the Aryan
+theology; but, except where all ideas of primitive religion and
+traditions of early history have been lost, it can not be the
+whole of the religion of any people. The Bible negatively
+recognizes this source of idolatry, in so constantly referring
+all natural phenomena to the divine decree. In connection with
+this, it is worthy of remark that rude man tends to venerate the
+new animal forms of strange lands. Something of this kind has
+probably led some of the American Indians to give a sort of
+divine honor to the bear. It was in Egypt that man first became
+familiar with the strange and gigantic fauna of Africa, whose
+effect on his mind in primitive times we may gather from the book
+of Job. In Egypt, consequently, there must have been a strong
+natural tendency to the adoration of animals.</p>
+
+<p>The above origins of idolatry and mythology, as stated or implied
+in the Bible, of course assume that the Semitic monotheistic
+religion is the primitive one. The first deviations from it
+probably originated in the family of Ham. A city of the Rephaim
+of Bashan was in the days of Abraham named after Ashtoreth
+Karnaim&mdash;the two-horned Astarte, a female divinity and prototype
+of Diana, and perhaps an historic personage, in whom both the
+moon and the domestic ox were rendered objects of worship. This
+is the earliest Bible notice of idolatry.
+<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
+In Egypt a mythology of complex diversity existed at least as far back. We
+must remember, however, that Egypt is Cush as well as Mizraim,
+and its idolatry is probably
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span>
+to be traced, in the first instance, to the Nimrodic empire, from which, as from a common
+centre, certain new and irreligious ideas seem to have been
+propagated among all the branches of the human family. It is
+quite probable that the correspondences between Egyptian, Greek,
+and Hindoo myths go back as far as to the time when the first
+despotism was erected on the plain of Shinar, and when able but
+ungodly men set themselves to erect new political and social
+institutions on the ruins of all that their fathers had held
+sacred. In addition to this, the mythology and language of the
+Aryans alike bear the impress of the innovating and restless
+spirit of the sons of Japhet.</p>
+
+<p>I have stated the above propositions to show that the Bible
+affords a rational and connected theory of the origin of the
+false religions of antiquity; and to suggest as inquiries in
+relation to every form of mythology&mdash;how much of it is primitive
+monotheism, how much cherub-worship, how much hero-worship, how
+much ancestor-worship, how much distorted cosmogony, how much
+pure idealism and superstition, since all these are usually
+present. I may be allowed further to remind the reader how much
+evidence we have, even in modern times, of the strong tendency of
+the human mind to fall into one or another of these forms of
+idolatry; and to ask him to reflect that really the only
+effectual conservative element is that of revelation. How strong
+an argument is this for the necessity to man of an inspired rule
+of religious faith.</p>
+
+<p>[The above note was in substance contained in the Appendix to
+"Archaia" in 1860, and its correctness has, I think, been
+confirmed by subsequent discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>]<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">K.&mdash;ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN TEXTS.</span></h2>
+
+<p>Progress is continually being made in the decipherment and
+publication of these, and new facts are coming to light in
+consequence as to the religions of the early postdiluvian period.</p>
+
+<p>According to the late George Smith and to Mr. Sayce, in their
+contributions to Bagster's "Records of the Past," the earliest
+monumental history of Babylonia reveals two races, the Akkadian
+or Urdu, a Turanian race, with an agglutinate language of the
+Finnish or Tartar type, and the Sumir or Keen-gi, believed to be
+Shemitic. The race of Akkad seems to have invented the cuneiform
+writing at a very early period, and it no doubt represents the
+primitive Cushites of the Bible, to whom is attributed the empire
+of Nimrod, whose first cities were Babel and Erech and Akkad and
+Calneh. Very ancient inscriptions of this early Chaldean or
+Cushite race exist, probably earlier than the time of Abraham.
+That of king Urukh, who is called "a very ancient king," on an
+inscription of Nabonadius, 555 B.C., represents himself as
+building temples to several gods and goddesses, so that in his
+time there was already a developed polytheism, unless, indeed, he
+was himself the inventor or introducer of much of it. Yet one can
+gather from the probably contemporary Creation and Deluge tablets
+translated by Mr. Smith, that a Supreme God was still recognized,
+and that the subordinate deities, though their worship was
+probably gaining in importance, were still only local and created
+beings. Yet it was undoubtedly from this embryo idolatry that
+Abraham dissented, and was thus led to leave his native land.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span>
+In like manner, in the early Egyptian Hymn to Amen Ra, translated
+by Mr. Goodwin, though we have the gods mentioned, they are
+inferior beings, and not higher in position than the angels of
+the Old Testament, while Ra himself is "Lord of Eternity, Maker
+Everlasting," and is praised as</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:90%;margin-left:30%;">"Chief creator of the whole earth,<br />
+Supporter of affairs above every god,<br />
+In whose goodness the gods rejoice."</p>
+
+<p>Thus, although there can be little doubt that Ra was a sun-god,
+there can be as little that he is the Il or El of the Shemitic
+peoples, and that his worship represents that of the one God, the
+Creator. It seems probable also that there was an esoteric
+doctrine of this kind among the priests and the educated, however
+gross the polytheism of the vulgar. In short, the state of things
+in Assyria and Egypt was not dissimilar from that prevailing at
+this day in India, where learned men may fall back upon the
+ancient Vedas, and maintain that their religion is monotheistic,
+while the common people worship innumerable gods. All this points
+to a primitive monotheism, just as the peculiar forms of
+adoration given to saints and the Virgin Mary in the Greek and
+Roman churches historically imply a primitive Christianity on
+which these newer beliefs and rites have been engrafted.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span style="font-size:70%;">L.&mdash;SPECIES AND VARIETAL FORMS WITH REFERENCE TO THE UNITY OF
+MAN.</span></h2>
+
+<p>In the concluding chapters of "Archaia" the nature of species, as
+distinguished from varieties, was discussed, and specially
+applied to the varieties and races of man. This discussion has
+been omitted from the text of the present work; but, in an
+abridged form, is introduced here, with especial reference to
+those more recent views of this subject now prevalent in
+consequence of the growth of the philosophy of evolution; but
+which I feel convinced must, with the progress of science, return
+nearer to the opinions held by me in 1860, and summarized below.</p>
+
+<p>We can determine species only by the comparison of individuals.
+If all these agree in all their characters except those
+appertaining to sex, age, and other conditions of the individual
+merely, we say that they belong to the same species. If all
+species were invariable to this extent, there could be no
+practical difficulty, except that of obtaining specimens for
+comparison. But in the case of very many species there are minor
+differences, not sufficient to establish specific diversity, but
+to suggest its possibility; and in such cases there is often
+great liability to error. In cases of this kind we have
+principally two criteria: first, the nature and amount of the
+differences; secondly, their shading gradually into each other,
+or the contrary. Under the first of these we inquire&mdash;Are they no
+greater in amount than those which may be observed in individuals
+of the same parentage? Are they no greater than those which occur
+in other species of similar structure or habits?
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span>
+Do they occur in points known in other species to be readily variable, or in
+points that usually remain unchanged? Are none of them constant
+in the one supposed species, and constantly absent in the other?
+Under the second we ask&mdash;Are the individuals presenting these
+differences connected together by others showing a series of
+gradations uniting the extremes by minute degrees of difference?
+If we can answer these questions&mdash;or such of them as we have the
+means of answering&mdash;in the affirmative, we have no hesitation in
+referring all to the same species. If obliged to answer all or
+many in the negative, we must at least hesitate in the
+identification; and if the material is abundant, and the
+distinguishing characters clear and well defined, we conclude
+that there is a specific difference.</p>
+
+<p>Species determined in this way must possess certain general
+properties in common:</p>
+
+<p>1. Their individuals must fall within a certain range of uniform
+characters, wider or narrower in the case of different species.</p>
+
+<p>2. The intervals between species must be distinctly marked, and
+not slurred over by intermediate gradations.</p>
+
+<p>3. The specific characters must be invariably transmitted from
+generation to generation, so that they remain equally distinct in
+their limits if traced backward or forward in time, in so far as
+our observation may extend.</p>
+
+<p>4. Within the limits of the species there is more or less
+liability to variation; and this, though perhaps developed by
+external circumstances, is really inherent in the species, and
+must necessarily form a part of its proper description.</p>
+
+<p>5. There is also a physiological distinction between species,
+namely, that the individuals are sterile with one another,
+whereas this does not apply to varieties; and though Darwin has
+labored to break down this distinction by insisting on rare
+exceptional cases, and suggesting many supposed ways by which
+varieties of the same species might possibly attain to this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>
+kind of distinctness, the difference still remains as a fact in
+nature; though one not readily available in practically
+distinguishing species.</p>
+
+<p>These general properties of species will, I think, be admitted by
+all naturalists as based on nature, and absolutely necessary to
+the existence of natural history as a science, independently of
+any hypotheses as to the possible changes of specific forms in
+the lapse of time. I now proceed to give a similar summary of the
+laws of the varieties which may exist&mdash;always be it observed,
+within the limits of the species.</p>
+
+<p>1. The limits of variation are very different in different
+species. There are many in which no well-marked variations have
+been observed. There are others in which the variations are so
+marked that they have been divided, even by skilful naturalists,
+into distinct species or even genera. I do not here refer to
+differences of age and sex. These in many animals are so great
+that nothing but actual knowledge of the relation that subsists
+would prevent the individuals from being entirely separated from
+one another. I refer merely to the varieties that exist in adults
+of the same sex, including, however, those that depend on arrest
+of development, and thus make the adult of one variety resemble
+in some respects the young of another; as, for instance, in the
+hornless oxen, and beardless individuals among men. If we inquire
+as to the causes on which the greater or less disposition to vary
+depends, we must, in the first place, confess our ignorance, by
+saying that it appears to be in a great measure constitutional,
+or dependent on minute and as yet not distinctly appreciable
+structural, physiological, and psychical characters. Darwin
+states that Pallas long ago suggested, from the known facts that
+the seeds of hybrid plants and grafted trees are very variable,
+the theory that mixture of breeds tends to produce variability;
+but Darwin does not seem to attach much importance to this, and
+admits our inability to explain the origin of these
+differences.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span>
+<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a>
+We know, however, certain properties of
+species that are always or usually connected with great liability
+to variation. The principal of these are the following: 1. The
+liability to vary is, in many cases, not merely a specific
+peculiarity; it is often general in the members of a genus or
+family. Thus the cats, as a family, are little prone to vary; the
+wolves and foxes very much so. 2. Species that are very widely
+distributed over the earth's surface are usually very variable.
+In this case the capacity to vary probably adapts the creature to
+a great variety of circumstances, and so enables it to be widely
+distributed. It must be observed here that hardiness and
+variability of constitution are more important to extensive
+distribution than mere locomotive powers, for matters have
+evidently been so arranged in nature that, where the habitat is
+suitable, colonists will find their way to it, even in the face
+of difficulties almost insurmountable. 3. Constitutional
+liability to vary is sometimes connected with or dependent on
+extreme simplicity of structure, in other cases on a high degree
+of intelligence and consequent adaptation to various modes of
+subsistence. Those minute, simply organized, and very variable
+creatures, the Foraminifera, exemplify the first of these
+apparent causes; the crafty wolves furnish examples of the
+second. 4. Susceptibility to variation is farther modified by the
+greater or less adaptability of the digestive and locomotive
+organs to varied kinds of food and habitat. The monkeys,
+intelligent, imitative, and active, are nevertheless very limited
+in range and variability, because they can comfortably subsist
+only in forests, and in the warmer regions of the earth. The hog,
+more sluggish and less intelligent, has an omnivorous appetite,
+and no very special requirements of habitat, and so can vary
+greatly and extend over a large portion of the earth. Farther, in
+connection with this subject it may be observed that the
+conditions favorable to variation are also in the case
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>
+of the higher animals favorable to domestication, while it may also be
+affirmed that, other things being equal, animals in a
+domesticated state are much more liable to vary than those in a
+wild state, and this independent of intentional selection. Darwin
+admits this, and gives many examples of it.</p>
+
+<p>2. Varieties may originate in two different ways. In the case of
+wild animals it is generally supposed that they are gradually
+induced by the slow operation of external influences; but it is
+certain that in domesticated animals they often appear suddenly
+and unexpectedly, and are not on that account at all less
+permanent. A large proportion of our breeds of domestic animals
+appear to originate in this way. A very remarkable instance is
+that of the "Niata" cattle of the Banda Orientale, described by
+Darwin in his "Voyage of a Naturalist." These cattle are believed
+to have originated about a century ago among the Indians to the
+south of the La Plata, and the breed propagates itself with great
+constancy. "They appear," says Darwin, "externally to hold nearly
+the same relation to other cattle which bull-dogs hold to other
+dogs. Their forehead is very short and broad, with the nasal end
+turned up, and the upper lip much drawn back; their lower jaws
+project outward; when walking they carry their heads low on a
+short neck, and their hinder legs are rather longer compared with
+the front legs than is usual." It is farther remarkable in
+respect to this breed that it is, from its conformation of head,
+less adapted to the severe droughts of those regions than the
+ordinary cattle, and can not, therefore, be regarded as an
+adaptation to circumstances. In his later work on animals under
+domestication, Darwin gives many other instances of the
+origination of breeds of cattle and other animals in this abrupt
+and mysterious manner, and without any selection, though he
+strongly leans to the conclusion that slow and gradual changes
+are the most frequent causes of variation. It is to be observed,
+however, that very slow changes are in more danger of being
+accidentally diverted or obliterated by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>
+crossing, and that the first stages of an incipient change may be too unimportant to be
+permanent.</p>
+
+<p>Many writers on the subject of the Unity of Man assume that any
+marked variety must require a long time for its production. Our
+experience in the case of the domestic animals teaches the
+reverse of this view; a very important point too often
+overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>3. The duration or permanence of varieties is very different.
+Some return at once to the normal type when the causes of change
+are removed. Others perpetuate themselves nearly as invariably as
+species, and are named races. It is these races only that we are
+likely to mistake for true species, since here we have that
+permanent reproduction which is one of the characteristics of the
+species. The race, however, wants the other characteristics of
+species as above stated; and it differs essentially in having
+branched from a primitive species, and in not having an
+independent origin. It is quite evident that in the absence of
+historical evidence we must be very likely to err by supposing
+races to have really originated in distinct "primordial forms."
+Such error is especially likely to arise if we overlook the fact
+of the sudden origination of such races, and their great
+permanency if kept distinct. There are two facts which deserve
+especial notice, as removing some of the difficulty in such
+cases. One is that well-marked races usually originate only in
+domesticated animals, or in wild animals which, owing to
+accidental circumstances, are placed in abnormal circumstances.
+Another is, that there always remains a tendency to return, in
+favorable circumstances, to the original type. This tendency to
+reversion is much underrated by Darwin and his followers; yet
+they constantly recur to it as a means of proving possible
+derivation, and their writings abound in examples of it. Perhaps
+the most remarkable of these reversions are those which occur
+when varieties destitute of all the markings of the original
+stock are crossed and reproduce
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>
+those markings, which Darwin
+shows to occur in pigeons and domestic fowls. The domesticated
+races usually require a certain amount of care to preserve them
+in a state of purity, both on this account and on account of the
+readiness with which they intermix with other varieties of the
+same species. Many very interesting facts in illustration of
+these points might be adduced. The domesticated hog differs in
+many important characters from the wild boar. In South America
+and the West Indies it has returned, in three centuries or less,
+to its original form.
+<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a>
+The horse is probably not known in a state originally wild, but it has run wild in America and in
+Siberia. In the prairies of North America, according to
+Catlin
+<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a>
+they still show great varieties of color. The same is
+the case in Sable Island, off the coast of Nova Scotia
+<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a>
+where herds of wild horses have existed since an early period in the
+settlement of America. In South America and Siberia they have
+assumed a uniform chestnut or bay color. In the plains of Western
+America they retain the dimensions and vigor of the better breeds
+of domesticated horses. In Sable Island they have already
+degenerated to the level of Highland ponies; but in all countries
+where they have run wild, the elongated and arched head, high
+shoulders, straight back, and other structural characters
+probably of the original wild horse, have appeared. We also learn
+from such instances that, while races among domesticated animals
+may appear suddenly, they revert to the original type, when
+unmixed, comparatively slowly; and this especially when the
+variation is in the nature of degeneracy.</p>
+
+<p>4. Some characters are more subject to variation than others. In
+the higher animals variation takes place very readily
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>
+in the color and texture of the skin and its appendages. This, from its
+direct relation to the external world, and ready sympathy with
+the condition of the digestive organs, might be expected to take
+the lead. In those domesticated animals which are little liable
+to vary in other respects, as the cat and duck, the color very
+readily changes. Next may be placed the stature and external
+proportions, and the form of such appendages as the external ear
+and tail. All these characters are very variable in domestic
+animals. Next we may place the form of the skull, which, though
+little variable in the wild state, is nearly always changed by
+domestication. Psychological functions, as the so-called
+instincts of animals, are also very liable to change, and to have
+these changes perpetuated in races. Very remarkable instances of
+this have been collected by Sir C. Lyell
+<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>
+and Dr. Prichard. Lastly, important physiological characters, as the period of
+gestation, etc., and the structure of the internal organs
+connected with the functions of nutrition, respiration, etc., are
+little liable to change, and remain unaffected by the most
+extreme variations in other points; and it is, no doubt, in these
+more essential and internal parts that the tendency survives to
+return under favorable circumstances to the original type.</p>
+
+<p>5. Varieties or races of the same species are fully reproductive
+with each other, which is not the case with true species. Mutual
+sterility of varieties of the same species is an exceptional
+peculiarity, if it ever truly exist; and, on the other hand, the
+cross-fertilization of varieties of the same species, whether in
+animals or plants, tends to vigorous life, and also to return to
+the primitive or average type. On the other hand, intermixture of
+distinct species rarely, if ever, occurs freely in nature. It is
+generally a result of artificial
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>
+contrivance. Again, hybrids produced from species known to be distinct are either wholly
+barren, or barren <i>inter se</i>, reproducing only with one of the
+original stocks, and rapidly returning to it; or if ever fertile
+<i>inter se</i>, which is somewhat doubtful, rapidly run out. It has
+been maintained by Pallas and others, and Darwin leans to this
+idea, that there is still another possibility, namely, that of
+the perfect and continued fertility of such mixed races,
+especially after long domestication; but their proofs are derived
+principally from the intermixture of the races of dogs and of
+poultry, which are cases actually in dispute at present, as to
+the original unity or diversity of the so-called species.</p>
+
+<p>If we apply these considerations to man, our conclusion must be
+that, even in his bodily frame, he is not merely specifically but
+ordinally distinct from other animals, and that the differences
+between races of men are varietal rather than specific. This view
+is confirmed by the following facts:</p>
+
+<p>1. The case of man is not that of a wild animal; and it presents
+many points of difference even from the case of the domesticated
+lower animals. According to the Bible history, man was originally
+fitted to subsist on fruits, to inhabit a temperate climate, and
+to be exempt from the necessity of destroying or contending with
+other animals. This view unquestionably accords very well with
+his organization. He still subsists principally on vegetable
+food, is most numerous in the warmer regions of the earth; and,
+when so subsisting in these regions, is naturally peaceful and
+timid. On the whole, however, his habits of life are
+artificial&mdash;more so than those of any domesticated animal. He is,
+therefore, in the conditions most favorable to variation. Again,
+man possesses more than merely animal instincts. His mental
+powers permit him to devise means of locomotion, of protection,
+of subsistence, far superior to those of any mere animal; and his
+dominant will, insatiable in its desires, bends the bodily frame
+to uses and exposes it to external influences
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>
+more various than any inferior animal can dream of. Man is also more educable and
+plastic in his constitution than other animals, owing both to his
+being less hemmed in by unchanging instincts, and to his physical
+frame being less restricted in its adaptations. If a single
+species, he is also more widely distributed than any other; and
+there are even single races which exceed in their extent of
+distribution nearly all the inferior animals. Nor is there
+anything in his structure specially to limit him to plains, or
+hills, or forests, or coasts, or inland regions. All the causes
+which we can suppose likely to produce variation thus meet in
+man, who is himself the producer of most of the distinct races
+that we observe in the lower animals. If, therefore, we
+condescend to compare man with these creatures, it must be under
+protest that what we learn from them must be understood with
+reference to his greater capabilities.</p>
+
+<p>2. The races of men are deficient in some of the essential
+characters of species. It is true that they are reproduced with
+considerable permanency; though a great many cases of spontaneous
+change, of atavism, or return to the character of progenitors,
+and of slow variation under changed conditions, have been
+recorded. But the most manifest deficiency in true specific
+characters is in the invariable shading-off of one race into
+another, and in the entire failure of those who maintain the
+distinction of species in the attempt accurately to define their
+number and limits. The characters run into each other in such a
+manner that no natural arrangement based on the whole can
+apparently be arrived at; and when one particular ground is
+taken, as color, or shape of skull, the so-called species have
+still no distinct limits; and all the arrangements formed differ
+from each other, and from the deductions of philology and
+history. Thus, from the division of Virey into two species, on
+the entirely arbitrary ground of facial angle, to that of Bory de
+St. Vincent into fifteen, we have a great number and variety of
+distinctions, all incapable
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>
+of zoological definition; or, if
+capable of definition, eminently unnatural. There are, in short,
+no missing links between the varieties of men corresponding to
+that which obtains between man and lower animals.</p>
+
+<p>3. The races of men differ in those points in which the higher
+animals usually vary with the greatest facility. The physical
+characters chiefly relied on have been color, character of hair,
+and form of skull, together with diversities in stature and
+general proportion. These are precisely the points in which our
+domestic races are most prone to vary. The manner in which these
+characters differ in the races of men may be aptly illustrated by
+a few examples of the arrangements to which they lead.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Pickering, of the U. S. Exploring Expedition
+<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>
+&mdash;who does not, however, commit himself to any specific distinctions&mdash;has
+arranged the various races of men on the very simple and obvious
+ground of color. He obtains in this way four races&mdash;the White,
+the Brown, the Blackish-brown, the Black. The distinction is
+easy; but it divides races historically, philologically, and
+structurally alike; and unites those which, on other grounds,
+would be separated. The white race includes the Hamite
+Abyssinian, the Semitic Arabian, the Japhetic Greek. The
+Ethiopian or Berber is separated from the cognate Abyssinian, and
+the dark Hindoo from the paler races speaking like him tongues
+allied to the Sanscrit. The Papuan, on the other hand, takes his
+place with the Hindoo; while the allied Australian must be
+content to rank with the Negro; and the Hottentot is promoted to
+a place beside the Malay. It is unnecessary to pursue any farther
+the arrangement of this painstaking and conscientious inquirer.
+It conclusively demonstrates that the color of the varieties of
+the human race must be arbitrary and accidental, and altogether
+independent of unity or diversity of origin.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span>
+Some use has been made, by the advocates of diversity of species,
+of the quality of the hair in the different races. That of the
+Negro is said to be flat in its cross section&mdash;in this respect
+approaching to wool; that of the European is oval; and that of
+the Mongolian and American round.
+<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a>
+The subject has as yet been very imperfectly investigated; but its indications point to
+no greater variety than that which occurs in many domesticated
+animals&mdash;as, for instance, the hog and sheep. Nay, Dr. Carpenter
+states
+<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>
+&mdash;and the writer has satisfied himself of the fact by
+his own observation&mdash;that it does not exceed the differences in
+the hair from different parts of the body of the same individual.
+The human hair, like that of mammals in general, consists of
+three tissues: an outer cortical layer, marked by transverse
+stri&aelig;, having in man the aspect of delicate lines, but in many
+other animals assuming the character of distinct joints or
+prominent serrations; a layer of elongated, fibrous cells, to
+which the hair owes most of its tenacity; and an inner cylinder
+of rounded cells. In the proportionate development of these
+several parts, in the quantity of coloring matter present, and in
+the transverse section, the human hair differs very considerably
+in different parts of the body. It also differs very markedly in
+individuals of different complexions. Similar but not greater
+differences obtain in the hair of the scalp in different races;
+but the flatness of the Negro's hair connects itself inseparably
+with the oval of the hair of the ordinary European, and this with
+the round observed in some other races. It generally holds that
+curled and frizzled hair is flatter than that which is lank and
+straight; but this is not constant, for I have found that the
+waved or frizzled hair of the New Hebrideans, intermediate
+apparently between the Polynesians and Papuans, is nearly
+circular in outline, and differs from European hair mainly in the
+greater
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span>
+development of the fibrous structure and the intensity
+of the color. Large series of comparisons are required; but those
+already made point to variation rather than specific difference.
+Some facts also appear to indicate very marked differences as
+occurring in the same race from constant exposure or habitual
+covering; and also the occasional appearance of the most abnormal
+forms, without apparent cause, in individuals. The differences
+depending on greater or less abundance or vigor of growth of the
+hair are obviously altogether trivial, when compared with such
+examples as the hairless dogs of Chili and hairless cattle of
+Brazil, or even with the differences in this respect observed in
+individuals of the same race of men.</p>
+
+<p>Confessedly the most important differences of the races of men
+are those of the skeleton, in all parts of which variations of
+proportion occur, and are of course more or less communicated to
+the muscular investments. Of these, as they exist in the pelvis,
+limbs, etc., I need say nothing; for, manifest though they are,
+they all fall far within the limits of variation in familiar
+domestic animals, and also of hereditary malformation or defect
+of development occurring in the European nations, and only
+requiring isolation for its perpetuation as a race. The
+differences in the skull merit more attention, for it is in this
+and in its enclosed brain that man most markedly differs from the
+lower animals, as well as race from race. It is in the form
+rather than in the mere dimensions of the skull that we should
+look for specific differences; and here, adopting the vertical
+method of Blumenbach as the most characteristic and valuable, we
+find a greater or less antero-posterior diameter&mdash;a greater or
+less development of the jaws and bones of the face. The skull of
+the normal European, or Caucasian of Cuvier, is round oval; and
+the jaws and cheek-bones project little beyond its anterior
+margin, when viewed from above. The skull of the Mongolian of
+Cuvier is nearly round, and the cheek-bones and jaws project
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>
+much more strongly in front and at the sides. The Negro skull is
+lengthened from back to front; the jaws project strongly, or are
+prognathous; but the cheek-bones are little prominent. For the
+extremes of these varieties, Retzius proposed the names of
+brachy-kephalic or short-headed, and dolicho-kephalic or
+long-headed, which have come into general use. The differences
+indicated by these terms are of great interest, as distinctive
+marks of many of the unmixed races of men; but, when pushed to
+extremes, lead to very incorrect generalizations&mdash;as Professor D.
+Wilson has well shown in his paper on the supposed uniformity of
+type in the American races&mdash;a doctrine which he fully refutes by
+showing that within a very narrow geographical range this
+primitive and unmixed race presents very great differences of
+cranial form.
+<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>
+Exclusive of idiots, artificially compressed
+heads, and deformities, the differences between the
+brachy-kephalic and dolicho-kephalic heads range from equality in
+the parietal and longitudinal diameter to the proportion of about
+14 to 24. As stated by some ethnologists, these differences
+appear quite characteristic and distinct; but, so soon as we
+attempt any minute discrimination, all confidence in them as
+specific characters disappears. In our ordinary European races
+similar differences, and nearly as extensive, occur. The
+dolicho-kephalic head is really only an immature form
+perpetuated; and appears not only in the Negro, but in the
+Esquimau, and in certain ancient and modern Celtic races. The
+brachy-kephalic head, in like manner, is characteristic of
+certain tribes and portions of tribes of Americans, but not of
+all; of many northern Asiatic nations; of certain Celtic and
+Scandinavian tribes; and often appears in the modern European
+races as an occasional character. Farther, as Retzius has well
+shown, the long heads and prominent jaws are not always
+associated with each other; and his classification is really the
+testimony of an able observer
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span>
+against the value of these characters. He shows that the Celtic and Germanic races (in part)
+have long heads and straight jaws; while the Negroes,
+Australians, Oceanians, Caribs, Greenlanders, etc., have long
+heads and prominent jaws. The Laplanders, Finns, Turks, Sclaves,
+Persians, etc., have short heads and straight jaws; while the
+Tartars, Mongolians, Incas, Malays, Papuans, etc., have short
+heads and prominent jaws.</p>
+
+<p>Another defect in the argument often based on the diverse forms
+of heads is its want of acknowledgment of the ascertained and
+popularly known fact that these forms in different tribes or
+individuals of the same race are markedly influenced by culture
+and habits of life. In all races ignorance and debasement tend to
+induce a prognathous form, while culture tends to the elevation
+of the nasal bones, to an orthognathous condition of the jaws,
+and to an elevation and expansion of the cranium.
+<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p>
+
+<p>Again, no adequate allowance has been made in the case of these
+forms of skull for the influence of modes of nurture in infancy.
+Dr. Morton, observing that the brachy-kephalic American skull was
+often unequal sided, and the occiput much flattened, suggests
+that this is "an exaggeration of the natural form produced by the
+pressure of the cradle-board in common use among the American
+natives." Dr. Wilson has noticed the same unsymmetrical character
+in brachy-kephalic skulls in British barrows, and has suspected
+some artificial agency in infancy; and says, in reference to the
+American instances, "I think it extremely probable that further
+investigation will tend to the conclusion that the vertical or
+flattened occiput, instead of being a typical characteristic,
+pertains entirely to the class of artificial modifications of the
+natural cranium familiar to the American ethnologist."</p>
+
+<p>While the points in which the races of men vary are those
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>
+in which lower animals are most liable to undergo change, the
+several races display a remarkable constancy in those which are
+usually less variable. Prichard and Carpenter have well shown
+this in relation to physiological points, as, for instance, the
+age of arriving at maturity, the average and extreme duration of
+life, and the several periods connected with reproduction. The
+coincidence in these points alone is by many eminent
+physiologists justly regarded as sufficient evidence of the unity
+of the species.</p>
+
+<p>4. It may also be affirmed, in relation to the varieties of man,
+that they do not exceed in amount or extent those observed in the
+lower animals. If with Frederick Cuvier, Dr. Carpenter, and many
+other naturalists, we regard the dog as a single species,
+descended in all probability from the wolf, we can have no
+hesitation in concluding that this animal far exceeds man in
+variability.
+<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a>
+But this is denied by many, not without some
+show of reason; and we may, therefore, select some animal
+respecting which little doubt can be entertained. Perhaps the
+best example is the common hog (<i>Sus scrofa</i>), an undoubted
+descendant of the wild boar, and a creature especially suitable
+for comparison with man, inasmuch as its possible range of food
+is very much the same with his, which is not the case with any
+other of our domesticated animals; and as its headquarters as a
+species are in the same regions which have supported the greatest
+and oldest known communities of men. We may exclude from our
+comparison the Chinese hog, by some regarded as a distinct
+species (<i>Sus Indicus</i>), though no wild original is known, and it
+breeds freely with the common hog. The color of the domestic hog
+varies, like that of man, from white to black; and in the black
+hog the skin as well as the hair partakes of the dark color. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>
+abundance and quality of the hair vary extremely; the stature and
+form are equally variable, much more so than in man. Blumenbach
+long ago remarked that the difference between the skull of the
+ordinary domestic hog and that of the wild boar is quite equal to
+that observed between the Negro and European skulls. Darwin shows
+that it is much greater, and illustrates this by an amusing pair
+of portraits. The breeds of swine even differ in directions
+altogether unparalleled in man. For instance, both in America and
+Europe solid-hoofed swine have originated and become a permanent
+variety; and there is said to be another variety with five
+toes.
+<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>
+These are the more remarkable, because, in the
+American instances, there can be no doubt that it is the common
+hog which has assumed these abnormal forms.</p>
+
+<p>5. All varieties or races of men intermix freely, in a manner
+which strongly indicates specific unity. We hold here, as already
+stated, that no good case of a permanent race arising from
+intermixture of distinct species of the lower animals has been
+adduced; but there is another fact in relation to this subject
+which the advocates of specific diversity would do well to study.
+Even in varieties of those domestic animals which are certainly
+specifically identical, as the hog, the sheep, the ox&mdash;although
+crosses between the varieties may easily be produced&mdash;they are
+not readily maintained, and sometimes tend to die out. What are
+called good crosses lead to improved energy, and continual
+breeding in and in of the same variety leads to degeneracy and
+decay; but, on the other hand, crosses of certain varieties are
+proved by experience to be of weakly and unproductive quality;
+and every practical book on cattle contains remarks on the
+difficulty of keeping up crosses without intermixture with one of
+the pure breeds. It would thus appear that very unlike varieties
+of the same species display in this respect, in an imperfect
+manner,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span>
+the peculiarities of distinct species. It is on this
+principle that I would in part account for some of the
+exceptional facts which occur in mixed races of men.</p>
+
+<p>What, then, are the facts in the case of man? In producing
+crosses of distinct species, as in the case of the horse and ass,
+breeders are obliged to resort to expedients to overcome the
+natural repugnance to such intermixture. In the case of even the
+most extreme varieties of man, if such repugnance exists, it is
+voluntarily overcome, as the slave population of America
+testifies abundantly. By far the greater part of the
+intermixtures of races of men tend to increase of vital energy
+and vigor, as in the case of judicious crosses of some domestic
+animals. Where a different result occurs, we usually find
+sufficient secondary causes to account for it. I shall refer to
+but one such case&mdash;that of the half-breed American Indian. In so
+far as I have had opportunities of observation or inquiry, these
+people are prolific, much more so than the unmixed Indian. They
+are also energetic, and often highly intellectual; but they are
+of delicate constitution, especially liable to scrofulous
+diseases, and therefore not long-lived. Now this is precisely the
+result which often occurs in domestic animals, where a highly
+cultivated race is bred with one that is of ruder character and
+training; and it very probably results from the circumstance that
+the progeny may inherit too much of the delicacy of the one
+parent to endure the hardships congenial to the other; or, on the
+other hand, too much of the wild nature of the ruder parent to
+subsist under the more delicate nurture of the more cultivated.
+This difficulty does not apply to the intermixture of the Negro
+and the European, though between the pure races this is a cross
+too abrupt to be likely to be in the first instance successful.</p>
+
+<p>6. The races of man may have originated in the same manner with
+the breeds of our domesticated animals. There are many facts
+which render it probable that they did originate
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>
+in this way. Take color, for instance. The fair varieties of man occur only in
+the northern temperate zone, and chiefly in the equable climates
+of that zone. In extreme climates, even when cold, dusky and
+yellow colors appear. The black and blackish-brown colors are
+confined to the inter-tropical regions, and appear in such
+portions of all the great races of mankind as have been long
+domiciled there. Diet and degree of exposure have also evidently
+very much to do with form, stature, and color. The deer-eating
+Chippewayan of certain districts of North America is a better
+developed man than his compatriots who subsist principally on
+rabbits and such meaner fare; and excess of carbonaceous food,
+and deficiency of perspiration or of combustion in the lungs,
+appear everywhere to darken the skin.
+<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a>
+The Negro type in its extreme form is peculiar to low and humid river valleys of
+tropical Africa. In Australasia similar characters appear in men
+of a very different race in similar circumstances. The Mongolian
+type reappears in South Africa. The Esquimau is like the Fuegian.
+The American Indian, both of South and North America, resembles
+the Mongol; but in several of the middle regions of the American
+continent men appear who approximate to the Malay. Everywhere and
+in all races coarse features and deviations from the oval form of
+skull are observed in rude populations. Where men have sunk into
+a child-like simplicity, the elongated forms prevail. Where they
+have become carnivorous, aggressive, and actively barbarous, the
+brachy-kephalic forms abound. These and many other considerations
+tend to the conclusion that these varieties are inseparably
+connected with external conditions. It may still be asked&mdash;Were
+not the races created as they are, with especial reference to
+these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>
+conditions? I answer no&mdash;because the differences are of a
+character in every respect like those that appear in other true
+species as the results of influences from without.</p>
+
+<p>Farther, not only have we varieties of man resulting from the
+slow operation of climatal and other conditions, but we have the
+sudden development of races. One remarkable instance may
+illustrate my meaning. It is the hairy family of Siam, described
+by Mr. Crawford and Mr. Yule.
+<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a>
+The peculiarities here consisted of a fine silky coat of hair covering the face and less
+thickly the whole body, with at the same time the entire absence
+of the canine and molar teeth. The person in whom these
+characters originated was sent to Ava as a curiosity when five
+years old. He married at twenty-two, his wife being an ordinary
+Burmese woman. One of two children who survived infancy had all
+the characters of the father. This was a girl; and on her
+marriage the same characters reappeared in one of two boys
+constituting her family when seen by Mr. Yule. Here was a variety
+of a most extreme character, originating without apparent cause,
+and capable of propagation for three generations, even when
+crossed with the ordinary type. Had it originated in
+circumstances favorable to the preservation of its purity, it
+might have produced a tribe or nation of hairy men, with no teeth
+except incisors. Such a tribe would, with some ethnologists, have
+constituted a new and very distinct species; and any one who had
+suggested the possibility of its having originated within a few
+generations as a variety would have been laughed at for his
+credulity. It is unnecessary to cite any further instances. I
+merely wish to insist on the necessity of a rigid comparison of
+the variations which appear in man, either suddenly or in a slow
+or secular manner, with the characters of the so-called races or
+species.</p>
+
+<p>7. If we turn from the merely physical constitution of man,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> and
+inquire as to his psychical and spiritual endowments, it would be
+easy to show, as Dr. Carpenter and others have done, in
+opposition to Darwin, that on the one hand an impassable barrier
+separates man from the lower animals, and that on the other there
+is an essential unity among the races of men. But this subject I
+have discussed fully in the concluding chapters of my "Story of
+the Earth."</p>
+
+<p>If man is thus so very variable, and if many of his leading
+varieties have existed for a very long time, does not the fact
+that we have but one species afford very strong evidence that
+species change only within fixed limits, and do not pass over
+into new specific types. Viewed in this way, variability within
+the specific limits becomes in itself one of the strongest
+arguments against the doctrine of descent with modification as a
+mode of origination of new species.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now add to all this the farther consideration, so well
+illustrated in the "Reliqui&aelig; Aquitanic&aelig;" of Christy and Lartet,
+that the oldest-known men of the caves and gravels may be placed
+in one of the varieties, and this the most widely distributed, of
+modern man, and we have a further argument which tells most
+strongly against the assumption either of the extreme antiquity
+or of the unlimited variability of the human species.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+Argyll's "Primeval Man."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+Essays on Theism, 1875.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+John i., 9.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+Hebrews xi., 3.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+I avail myself of the condensed translation in
+Bancroft's "Native Races," vol. iii. The original French
+translation of Brasseur du Bourbourg is more full.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+The Feathered Serpent is perhaps the representative
+of the Dragon and Serpent in the Semitic version; but has not the
+same evil import, and his color gave sacredness to blue and green
+stones, as the turquois and emerald, both in North and South
+America, and perhaps also in Asia and Africa.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
+I do not think it necessary to attach any value to
+the doubts of certain schools of criticism as to the Mosaic
+authorship of the Pentateuch. Whatever quibbles may be raised on
+isolated texts, no rational student can doubt that we have in
+these books a collection of authentic documents of the Exodus.
+They are absolutely inexplicable on any other supposition.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
+"Cosmos," Ott&eacute;'s translation.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
+Hamilton, "Royal Preacher."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+Harvey, "Nereis Boreali Americana."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+Osburn, "Monumental History of Egypt."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
+On this subject I may refer naturalists to the
+intimate acquaintance with animals and their habits, indicated by
+manner of their use as sacred emblems, and as symbols in
+hieroglyphic writing. Another illustration is afforded by the
+Mosaic narrative of the miracles and plagues connected with the
+exodus. The Egyptian king, on this occasion, consulted the
+<i>philosophers</i> and <i>augurs</i>. These learned men evidently regarded
+the serpent-rod miracle as but a more skilful form of one of the
+tricks of serpent-charmers. They showed Pharaoh the possibility
+of reddening the Nile water by artificial means, or perhaps by
+the development of red alg&aelig; in it. They explained the inroad of
+frogs on natural principles, probably referring to the immense
+abundance ordinarily of the ova and tadpoles of these creatures
+compared with that of the adults. But when the dust of the land
+became gnats ("lice" in our version), this was a phenomenon
+beyond their experience. Either the species was unknown to them,
+or its production out of the dry ground was an anomaly, or they
+knew that no larv&aelig; adequate to explain it had previously existed.
+In the case of this plague, therefore, comparatively
+insignificant and easily simulated, they honestly
+confessed&mdash;"This is the finger of God." No better evidence could
+be desired that the savans here opposed to Moses were men of high
+character and extensive observation. Many other facts of similar
+tendency might be cited both from Moses and the Egyptian
+monuments.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
+That in Genesis, chap. ii.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
+Kitto's Cyclop&aelig;dia, art. "Creation."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
+Much that is very silly has been written as to the
+extent of the supposed "optical view" taken by the Hebrew
+writers; many worthy literary men appearing to suppose that
+<i>scientific</i> views of nature must necessarily be different from
+those which we obtain by the evidence of our senses. The very
+contrary is the fact; and so long as any writers state correctly
+what they observe, without insisting on any fanciful hypotheses,
+science has no fault to find with them. What science most detests
+is the ignorant speculations of those who have not observed at
+all, or have observed imperfectly. It is a leading excellence of
+the Hebrew Scriptures that they state facts without giving any
+theories to account for them. It is, on the contrary, the
+circumstance that unscientific writers will not be content to be
+"optical," but must theorize, that spoils much of our modern
+literature, especially in its descriptions of nature.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
+Prof. Hitchcock.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
+McCosh, "Typical Forms and Special Ends."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
+I adopt that view of the date of Job which makes it
+precede the Exodus, because the religious ideas of the book are
+patriarchal, and it contains no allusions to the Hebrew history
+or institutions. Were I to suggest an hypothesis as to its
+origin, it would be that it was written or found by Moses when in
+exile, and published among his countrymen in Egypt, to revive
+their monotheistic religion, and cheer them under the apparent
+desertion of their God and the evils of their bondage.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
+Tyndall seems to hold this.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
+Newton.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
+John v., 17; Rom. viii., 22; Heb. i., 2; 2 Peter
+iii.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
+Heb. i., 2.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+Eph. iii., 9.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
+1 Tim. i., 17.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
+Eph. iv., 11.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
+Job xxxviii. and xxxix.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>
+Romans i., 20.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
+Essays on Theism.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
+Herschel, Dissertation on the Study of Natural
+Philosophy; Maxwell, Lecture before the British Association.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>
+Carpenter, "Human Physiology."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>
+Asah.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a>
+McDonald, "Creation and the Fall."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>
+Literally, "ages" or "time-worlds," as they have
+been called.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a>
+Genesis i., 8, 26-28.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>
+Job xxxviii., 37.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a>
+Gen. i., 14; Deut. xvii., 3.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a>
+Gen. xxviii., 17; Job xv., 15; Psa. ii., 4.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a>
+Not "created," as some read. The verb is <i>kana</i>,
+not <i>bara</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a>
+The usual Septuagint rendering is <i>Abyssus</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a>
+Smith, "Assyrian Genesis." Brasseur de Bourbourg's
+translation of the "Popol Vuh" of the ancient Central American
+Indians.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a>
+It is impossible to avoid recognizing in
+the Greek Theogony, as it appears in Hesiod and the Orphic poems,
+an inextricable intermingling of a cosmogony akin to that of
+Moses with legendary stories of deceased ancestors; and this has,
+I must confess, always appeared to me to be a more rational way
+of accounting for it than its reference to mere nature-myths.
+Chaos, or space, for the chaos of Hesiod differs from that of
+Ovid, came first, then Gaea, the earth, and Tartarus, or the
+lower world. Chaos gave birth to Erebos (identical with the
+Hebrew Ereb or Erev, evening) and Nyx, or night. These again give
+birth to Aether, the equivalent of the Hebrew expanse or
+firmament, and to Hemera, the day, and then the heavenly bodies
+were perfected. So far the legend is apparently based on some
+primitive history of creation, not essentially different from
+that of the Bible. But the Greek Theogony here skips suddenly to
+the human period; and under the fables of the marriage of Gaea
+and Uranos, and the Titans, appears to present to us the
+antediluvian world, with its intermarriages of the sons of God
+and men, and its Nephelim or Giants, with their mechanic arts and
+their crimes. Beyond this, in Kronos and his three sons, and in
+the strange history of Zeus, the chief of these, we have a coarse
+and fanciful version of the story of the family of Noah, the
+insult offered by Ham to his father, and the subsequent quarrels
+and dispersion of mankind. The Zeus of Homer appears to be the
+elder of the three, or Japheth, the real father of the Greeks,
+according to the Bible; but in the time of Hesiod Zeus was the
+youngest, perhaps indicating that the worship of the Egyptian
+Zeus, Ammon or Ham, had already supplanted among the Greeks that
+of their own ancestor. But it is curious that even in the Bible,
+though Japhet is said to be the greater, he is placed last in the
+lists. After the introduction of Greek savans and literati to
+Egypt, about B.C. 660, they began to regard their own mythology
+from this point of view, though obliged to be reserved on the
+subject. The cosmology of Thales, the astronomy of Anaxagoras,
+and the history of Herodotus afford early evidence of this, and
+it abounds in later writers. I may refer the reader to Grote
+(History of Greece, vol. i.) for an able and agreeable summary of
+this subject; and may add that even the few coincidences above
+pointed out between Greek mythology and the Bible, independently
+of the multitudes of more doubtful character to be found in the
+older writers on this subject, appear very wonderful, when we
+consider that among the Greeks these vestiges of primitive
+religion, whether brought with them from the East or received
+from abroad, must have been handed down for a long time by oral
+tradition among the people; but obscure though they may be, the
+circumstance that some old writers have ridden the resemblances
+to death affords no excuse for the prevailing neglect of them in
+more modern times.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a>
+Pages 21, 22, and 109, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a>
+The minor planets discovered in more recent times
+between Mars and Jupiter form an exception to this; but they are
+of little importance, and exceptional in other respects as well.
+To give their arrangement and the motions of the satellites of
+Uranus, would require the further assumption of some unknown
+disturbing cause.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a>
+Nichol's "Planetary System."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a>
+Proctor's Lectures, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a>
+ This translation is as literal as is consistent
+with the bold abruptness of the original. The last idea is that
+of a cylindrical seal rolling over clay, and leaving behind a
+beautiful impression where all before was a blank.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a>
+ Professor Dana thus sums up the various meanings of
+the word <i>day</i> in Genesis: "<i>First</i>, in verse 5, the <i>light</i> in
+general is called day, the darkness night. <i>Second</i>, in the same
+verse, <i>evening and morning</i> make the first day, before the sun
+appears. <i>Third</i>, in verse 14, day stands for <i>twelve hours</i>, or
+the period of daylight, as dependent on the sun. <i>Fourth</i>, same
+verse, in the phrase "days and seasons," day stands for a period
+of <i>twenty-four hours</i>. <i>Fifth</i>, at the close of the account, in
+verse 4 of the second chapter, day means the <i>whole period of
+creation</i>. These uses are the same that we have in our own
+language."
+Warring, in his book "The Miracle of To-day," has suggested that
+the Mosaic days are <i>epochal</i> days, each considered as the close
+and culmination of a period. This is an ingenious suggestion, and
+very well coincides with the day-period theory as defended in the
+text.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a>
+ Psalm xc.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a>
+ It may be desirable to give here, in a slightly
+paraphrased version, but strictly in accordance with the views of
+the best expositors, the essential part of the passage in
+Hebrews, chap. iv.:
+"For God hath spoken in a certain place" (Gen. ii., 2) of the
+seventh day in this wise&mdash;'And God did rest on the seventh day
+from all his works;' and in this place again&mdash;'They shall not
+enter into my rest' (Psa. xcv., 11). Seeing, therefore, it still
+remaineth that some enter therein, and they to whom it (God's
+Sabbatism) was first proclaimed entered not in, because of
+disobedience (in the fall, and afterward in the sin of the
+Israelites in the desert), again he fixes a certain day, saying
+in David's writings, long after the time of Joshua&mdash;'To-day, if
+ye hear his voice, harden not your hearts.' For if Joshua had
+given them rest in Canaan, he would not afterward have spoken of
+another day. There is therefore yet reserved a keeping of a
+Sabbath for the people of God. For he that is entered into his
+rest (that is, Jesus Christ, who has finished his work and
+entered into his rest in heaven), he himself also rested from his
+own works, as God did from his own. Let us therefore earnestly
+strive to enter into that rest."
+
+It is evident that in this passage God's Sabbatism, the rest
+intended for man in Eden and for Israel in Canaan, Christ's rest
+in heaven after finishing his work, and the final heavenly rest
+of Christ's people, are all indefinite periods mutually related,
+and can not possibly be natural days.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a>
+ For the benefit of those who may value ancient
+authorities in such matters, and to show that such views may
+rationally be entertained independently of geology, I quote the
+following passage from Origen: "Cuinam qu&aelig;so sensum habenti
+convenienter videbitur dictum, quod dies prima et secunda et
+tertia, in quibus et vespera nominatur, et mane, fuerint sine
+sole, et sine luna et sine stellis: prima autern dies sine
+coelo." So St. Augustine expressly states his belief that the
+creative days could not be of the ordinary kind: "Qui dies,
+cujusmodi sint, aut perdifficile nobis, aut etiam impossibile est
+cogitare, quanto magis discere." Bede also remarks, "Fortassis
+hic diei nomen, totius temporis nomen est, et omnia volumina
+seculorum hoc vocabulo includit." Many similar opinions of old
+commentators might be quoted. It is also not unworthy of note
+that the cardinal number is used here, "one day" for first day;
+and though the Hebrew grammarians have sought to found on this,
+and a few similar passages, a rule that the cardinal may be
+substituted for the ordinal, many learned Hebraists insist that
+this use of the cardinal number implies singularity and
+peculiarity as well as mere priority.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a>
+ It is to be observed, however, that on the
+so-called literal day hypothesis the first Sabbath was not man's
+seventh day, but rather his first, since he must have been
+created toward the close of the sixth day.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a>
+ "Footprints of the Creator."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a>
+ This idea occurs in Lord Bacon's "Confession of
+Faith," and De Luc also maintains that the Creator's Sabbath must
+have been of long continuance.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a>
+ See the quotation from Job, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a>
+ This is not strictly correct, as many animals,
+especially of the lower tribes, extend back to the early tertiary
+periods, long before the creation of man; a fact which of itself
+is irreconcilable with the Mosaic narrative on the theory of
+literal or ordinary days.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a>
+ Since this was written, the bones of many
+Batrachian reptiles have been found in the Carboniferous, both in
+Europe and America. No reptilian remains have yet been found in
+the Devonian rocks.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a>
+ <i>Biblical Repository</i>, 1856. See also an excellent
+paper by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, <i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i>, 1867.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a>
+ Rhode, quoted by McDonald, "Creation and the Fall,"
+p. 62; Eusebius, Chron. Arm.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a>
+ Suidas, Lexicon&mdash;"Tyrrenia."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a>
+ Diodorus Siculus, bk. i. Prichard, Egyptian
+Mythology.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a>
+ "Asiatic Researches."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a>
+ This name is exactly identical in meaning with the
+Hebrew Jehovah Elohim.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a>
+ M&uuml;ller, Sanscrit Literature.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>
+ The theology of the Institutes is clearly primitive
+Semitic in its character; and therefore, if the Bible is true,
+must be older than the Aryan theogony of the Rig-Veda, as
+expounded by M&uuml;ller, whatever the relative age of the documents.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a>
+ "Recent Advances in Physical Science."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a>
+ Croll's "Climate and Time" contains some
+interesting facts as to this.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a>
+ See the discussion of this in the author's "Story
+of the Earth," and in Sir William Thomson's British Association
+Address, 1876.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a>
+ Daniell's Meteorological Essays; Prout's
+Bridgewater Treatise; art. "Meteorology," Encyc. Brit.; "Maury's
+Physical Geography of the Sea."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a>
+ Kaemtz, "Course of Meteorology."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a>
+ Encyc. Brit., art. "Meteorology."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a>
+ It is not meant that the word <i>rakiah</i> occurs in
+these passages, but to show how by other words the idea of
+stretching out or extension rather than solidity is implied. The
+verb in the first two passages is <i>nata</i>, to spread out.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a>
+ See also Humboldt, "Cosmos," vol. ii., pt. 1.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a>
+ Heb., "they refine."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a>
+ "His pavilion round about him was dark waters and
+thick clouds of the skies," Psa. xviii. This expression explains
+that in the text.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a>
+ Or "He darkens the depths of the sea."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a>
+ Translation of these lines much disputed and very
+difficult. Gesenius and Conant render it, "His thunder tells of
+him; to the herds even of him who is on high."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a>
+ I take advantage of this long quotation to state
+that in the case of this and other passages quoted from the Old
+Testament I have carefully consulted the original; but have
+availed myself freely of the renderings of such of the numerous
+versions and commentaries as I have been able to obtain, whenever
+they appeared accurate and expressive, and have not scrupled
+occasionally to give a free translation where this seemed
+necessary to perspicuity. In the book of Job, I have consulted
+principally the translation appended to Barnes's Commentary,
+Conant's translation, 1857, and those of Tayler Lewis and Evans
+in Schaff's edition of Lange, 1874.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a>
+ The word is one of those that pervade both Semitic
+and Indo-European tongues: Sanscrit, <i>ahara</i>; Pehlevi, <i>arta</i>;
+Latin, <i>terra</i>; German, <i>Erde</i>; Gothic, <i>airtha</i>; Scottish,
+<i>yird</i>; English, <i>earth</i>.&mdash;Gesenius.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a>
+ Psalm xcv.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a>
+ Gesenius.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a>
+ Perhaps "changed," metamorphosed, as by fire.
+Conant has "destroyed."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a>
+ "Dust" in our version, literally lumps or
+"nuggets."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a>
+ The vulgar and incorrect idea that the vulture
+"scents the carrion from afar," so often reproduced by later
+poets, has no place in the Bible poetry. It is the bird's keen
+eye that enables him to find his prey.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a>
+ Lyell's "Principles of Geology."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a>
+ Stanford, London, 1875.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a>
+ In further explanation of these general geological
+changes, see "The Story of the Earth and Man," by the author.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a>
+ "Tenera herba, sine semine saltem
+conspicuo."&mdash;Rosenm&uuml;ller, "Scholia."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a>
+ Haughton, Address to the Geological Society,
+Dublin.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a>
+ See McDonald, "Creation and the Fall." Professor
+Guyot, I believe, deserves the credit of having first mentioned,
+on the American side of the Atlantic, the doctrine respecting the
+introduction of plants advocated in this chapter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a>
+ "Eozoic" of this work. Professor Dana in the latest
+edition of his Manual uses the name "Archaean."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a>
+ This may refer to an eclipse, but from the
+character of the preceding verses more probably to the obscurity
+of a tempest. It is remarkable that eclipses, which so much
+strike the minds of men and affect them with superstitious awe,
+are not distinctly mentioned in the Old Testament, though
+referred to in the prophetical parts of the New Testament.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a>
+ Perhaps rather the high places of the waters,
+referring to the atmospheric waters.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a>
+ The rendering "sweet influences" in our version may
+be correct, but the weight of argument appears to favor the view
+of Gesenius that the close bond of union between the stars of
+this group is referred to. I think it is Herder who well unites
+both views, the Pleiades being bound together in a sisterly
+union, and also ushering in the spring by their appearance above
+the horizon. Conant applies the whole to the seasons, the bands
+of Orion being in this view those of winter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a>
+ It would be unfair to suppress the farther
+probability that the writer intends specially to indicate that
+the sacred crocodile of the Nile was itself a creature of
+Jehovah, and among the humbler of those creatures.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a>
+ The interesting discovery, by Mr. Beale and others,
+of several species of mammalia in the Purbeck, and that of
+Professor Emmons of a mammal in rocks of similar age in the
+Southern States of America, do not invalidate this statement; for
+all these, like the <i>Microlestes</i> of the German trias and the
+<i>Amphitherium</i> of the Stonesfeld slate, are small marsupials
+belonging to the least perfect type of mammals. The discovery of
+so many species of these humbler creatures, goes far to increase
+the improbability of the existence of the higher mammals.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a>
+ It is very interesting, in connection with this, to
+note that nearly all the earliest and greatest seats of
+population and civilization have been placed on the more modern
+geological deposits, or on those in which stores of fuel have
+been accumulated by the growth of extinct plants.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a>
+ See Appendix.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a>
+ See Appendix for farther discussion of this
+subject.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a>
+ See Lyell, Principles of Geology, "Introduction of
+Species."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a>
+ For the exposition of the details of the fall, I
+beg to refer the reader to McDonald's "Creation and the Fall," to
+Kitto's "Antediluvians and Patriarchs," and to Kurtz's "History
+of the Old Covenant."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a>
+ The Bible specifies, perhaps only as the principal
+of these arts, music and musical instruments by Jubal, metallurgy
+by Tubalcain, the domestication of cattle and the nomade life by
+Jabal. It is highly probable that these inventors are introduced
+into the Mosaic record for a theological reason, to point out the
+folly of the worship rendered to Phtha, Heph&aelig;stos, Vulcan, Horus,
+Phoebus, and other inventors, either traditionary
+representatives of the family of Lamech, or other heroes wrongly
+identified with them. Very possibly their sister Naamah, "the
+beautiful," is introduced for the same reason, as the true
+original of some of the female deities of the heathen.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a>
+ I can not for a moment entertain the monstrous
+supposition of many expositors that the "sons of God" of these
+passages are angels, and the "Nephelim" hybrids between angels
+and men.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a>
+ See Lange's "Commentary on Genesis."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a>
+ The Russian surveys of 1836 made it one hundred
+and eight English feet; but later authorities reduce it to
+eighty-three feet six inches below the Black Sea.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a>
+ Kitto's "Bible Illustrations"&mdash;Book of Job.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a>
+ See article "Rephaim" in Kitto's "Journal of
+Sacred Literature." But Gesenius and others regard it, not as an
+ethnic name, but as a term for the "shades" or spirits of the
+dead. See Conant on Job.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a>
+ On the Biblical view of
+this subject, the so-called Aryan mythology, common to India and
+Greece, is either a derivative from the Cushite civilization, or
+a spontaneous growth of the Japetic stock scattered by the
+Cushite empire. The Semitic and Hamitic mythologies are derived
+from the primeval cherubic worship of Eden, corrupted and mixed
+with deification of natural objects and stages of the creative
+work, and with adoration of deified ancestors and heroes.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a>
+ Genesis 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th chapters. See also
+our previous remarks on the deluge.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a>
+ Genesis iv.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a>
+ Japheth is "enlargement," his sons are Scythians
+and inhabitants of the isles, varying in language and
+nationality; and Noah predicts, "God shall enlarge Japheth, he
+shall dwell in the tents of Shem, Ham shall be his servant."
+These are surely characteristic ethnological traits for a period
+so early. On the rationalist view, it may be supposed that this
+prediction was not written until the characters in question had
+developed themselves; but since the greatest enlargement of
+Japheth has occurred since the discovery of America, there would
+be quite as good ground for maintaining that Noah's prophecy was
+interpolated after the time of Columbus.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a>
+ The
+language of this people, the stem of the Indo-European languages,
+is, though in a later form, probably that of the Aryan or
+Persepolitan part of the trilingual inscriptions at Behistun and
+elsewhere in Persia.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a>
+ Edkins, "China's Place in Philology."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a>
+ Reginald S. Poole has adduced very ingenious
+arguments, monumental, astronomical, and mythological, for the
+date B.C. 2717.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a>
+ It is curious that almost simultaneously with the
+appearance of Bunsen's scheme a similiar view was attempted to be
+maintained on geological grounds. In a series of borings in the
+delta of the Nile, undertaken by Mr. Horner, there was found a
+piece of pottery at a depth which appeared to indicate an
+antiquity of 13,371 years. But the basis of the calculation is
+the rate of deposit (3-1/2 inches per century) calculated for the
+ground around the statue of Rameses II. at Memphis, dated at 1361
+B.C.; and Mr. Sharpe has objected that no mud could have been
+deposited around that statue from its erection until the
+destruction of Memphis, perhaps 800 years B.C. Farther, we have
+to take into account the natural or artificial changes of the
+river's bed, which in this very place is said to have been
+diverted from its course by Menes, and which near Cairo is now
+nearly a mile from its former site. The liability to error and
+fraud in boring operations is also very well known. It has
+farther been suggested that the deep cracks which form in the
+soil of Egypt, and the sinking of wells in ancient times, are
+other probable causes of error; and it is stated that pieces of
+burnt brick, which was not in use in Egypt until the Roman times,
+have been found at even greater depths than the pottery referred
+to by Mr. Horner. This discovery, at first sight so startling,
+and vouched for by a geologist of unquestioned honor and ability,
+is thus open to the same doubts with the Guadaloupe skeletons,
+the human bones in ossiferous caverns, and that found in the mud
+of the Mississippi; all of which have, on examination, proved of
+no value as proofs of the geological antiquity of man.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a>
+ 5004 B.C.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a>
+ Perhaps the earliest certain date in Egyptian
+history is that of Thothmes III. of the eighteenth dynasty,
+ascertained by Birch on astronomical evidence as about 1445 B.C.
+(about 1600, Manetho); and it seems nearly certain that before
+the eighteenth dynasty, of which this king was the fifth
+sovereign, there was no settled general government over all
+Egypt.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a>
+ The Egyptians seem, like our modern
+cattle-breeders, to have taken pride in the initiation and
+preservation of varieties. Their sacred bull, Apis, was required
+to represent one of the varieties of the ox; and one can scarcely
+avoid believing that some of their deified ancestors must have
+earned their celebrity as tamers or breeders of animals. At a
+later period, the experiments of Jacob with Laban's flock furnish
+a curious instance of attempts to induce variation.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a>
+ See for evidence of these views early notices in
+Genesis, and Lenormant and Osburne on Egyptian Monuments and
+History.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a>
+ There is no good reason to believe the flint
+implements mentioned by Delano&uuml;e and others, as found on the
+banks of the Nile, to be older than the historic period.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a>
+ Wilson, "Prehistoric Man," 2d edition, p. 68.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a>
+ Southall has accumulated a great number of these
+facts in his book on the antiquity of man.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a>
+ Professor Issel, quoted in <i>Popular Science
+Monthly</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a>
+ Wilson has remarked the striking similarity of the
+pottery of these people to American fictile wares. This
+similarity applies also to the early Cyprian art.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a>
+ I agree with Gladstone's conclusions as to the
+date and country of Homer.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a>
+ I suggested these terms in my lectures published
+under the title "Nature and the Bible," 1875.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a>
+ Since these words were written I have read the
+remarkable book of Edkins on the Chinese language, which supplies
+much additional information.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a>
+ Donaldson has pointed out (British Association
+Proceedings, 1851) links of connection between the Slavonian or
+Sarmatian tongues and the Semitic languages, which in like manner
+indicate the primitive union of the two great branches of
+languages.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a>
+ "Man and his Migrations." See also "Descriptive
+Ethnology," where the Semitic affinities are very strongly
+brought out.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a>
+ I can scarcely except such terms as "Japetic" and
+"Japetid&aelig;," for Iapetus can hardly be any thing else than a
+traditional name borrowed from Semitic ethnology, or handed down
+from the Japhetic progenitors of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a>
+ See art. "Philology," Encyc. Brit.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a>
+ Grammatical structure is no doubt more permanent
+than vocabulary, yet we find great changes in the latter, both in
+tracing cognate languages from one region to another, and from
+period to period. The Indo-Germanic languages in Europe furnish
+enough of familiar instances.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a>
+ It is fair, however, to observe that the Bible
+refers the first great divergence of language to a divine
+intervention at the Tower of Babel. The precise nature of this we
+do not know; but it would tend to diminish the time required.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a>
+ Lecture in the Royal Institution, March 24, 1876.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a>
+ "Antiquity of Man," 4th ed.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a>
+ Southall, <i>Op. cit.</i></p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a>
+ The Mentone skeleton described by Dr. Rivi&egrave;re
+gives evidence of these facts.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a>
+ Mr. Pengelly declines to admit this; but assigns
+no cause for the breaking up of portions of the old floor, which
+he merely refers in general terms to "natural causes."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a>
+ This whole subject of supposed preglacial or
+interglacial men is still in great confusion and uncertainty, and
+is complicated with questions, still debated, as to the ages of
+the supposed glacial and postglacial deposits.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a>
+ <i>Quarterly Journal of Science</i>, April, 1875.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a>
+ Lyell's "Manual of Elementary Geology."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a>
+ For a full discussion of this subject, see the
+"Story of the Earth and Man."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a>
+ Such a table, with an admirable exposition of the
+entire succession, as at present known, is given in the Appendix
+to Lyell's "Students' Manual of Geology."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a>
+ Lyell, basing his calculations on the surveys of
+Messrs. Humphreys and Abbott, but others give very different
+estimates.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a>
+ A perfectly parallel example is that of the growth
+of the peninsula of Florida in the modern period, by the same
+processes now adding to its shores; and this has afforded to
+Professor Agassiz a still more extended measure of the
+Post-tertiary period.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a>
+ Reade, of Liverpool, has recently given a much
+slower rate&mdash;one foot in 13,000 years&mdash;as a result of recent
+English surveys; but I have not seen his precise data, and the
+result certainly differs from those of all other observations.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a>
+ I am quite aware that it may be objected to all
+this that it is based on merely negative evidence; but this is
+not strictly the case. There are positive indications of these
+truths. For example, in the Mesozoic epoch the lacertian reptiles
+presented huge elephantine carnivorous and herbivorous
+species&mdash;the Megalosaurus, Iguanodon, etc.; flying species, with
+hollow bones and ample wings&mdash;the Pterodactyles; and aquatic
+whale-like species&mdash;Pliosaurus, Ichthyosaurus, etc. These
+creatures actually filled the offices now occupied by the
+mammals; and, though lacertian in their affinities, they must
+have had circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems far in
+advance of any modern reptiles even of the order of Loricates.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a>
+ "Story of the Earth"&mdash;concluding chapters.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a>
+ This was written in 1860 for the first edition of
+"Archaia." I see no reason to change it now, and its vindication
+will be, found in the Appendix.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a>
+ Heb. iv., 9; 2 Peter iii., 13.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a>
+ Hamilton.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a>
+ In the manner illustrated by Hyatt and Cope.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a>
+ Report on Fossil Plants of the Upper Silurian and
+Devonian, 1871.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a>
+ Drysdale's "Protoplasmic Theories of Life."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a>
+ Lecture before the Royal Institution of London.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a>
+ <i>Leisure Hour</i>, 1876.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a>
+ See critique in <i>International Review</i>, January,
+1877.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a>
+ Reported in <i>Nature</i>, 1876.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a>
+ "History of Creation."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a>
+ See also Hunt, "Chemical and Geological Essays,"
+p. 35.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a>
+ Except, perhaps, Job xxxi., 27.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a>
+ "Animals and Plants under Domestication," p. 406.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a>
+ Prichard. This is admitted by Darwin, who gives
+other examples, though he insists much on the climatal variations
+which still remain in feral pigs.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a>
+ "North American Indians."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a>
+ Haliburton's "Nova Scotia;" Gilpin's Lecture on
+Sable Island.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a>
+ "Principles of Geology;" "Natural History of Man."
+See also a very able article on the "Varieties of Man," by Dr.
+Carpenter, in Todd's Cyclop&aelig;dia.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a>
+ "The Races of Men," etc. Boston, 1848.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a>
+ Browne, of Philadelphia, quoted by Kneeland and
+others.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a>
+ Todd's Cyclop&aelig;dia, art. "Varieties of Man."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a>
+ "Prehistoric Man."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a>
+ Carpenter in Todd's Cyclop&aelig;dia.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a>
+ For an interesting inquiry into the origin of the
+dog, see the article in Todd's Cyclop&aelig;dia already referred to;
+and the subject is fully discussed by Darwin, who leans to the
+theory of the diversity of origin in dogs.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a>
+ Prichard, Bachman, Cabell.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a>
+ A curious note, by Dr. John Rae, on the change of
+complexion in the Sandwich Islanders, consequent on the
+introduction of clothing, may be found in the "Montreal Medical
+Chronicle," 1856, and the "Canadian Journal" for the same year.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a>
+ Latham's "Descriptive Ethnology."</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Abraham, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Abrahamic Genesis, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Abyss, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p>
+
+<p>"Accommodation," theory of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Adaptation in nature, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+
+&AElig;ons of creation, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Agassiz on prophetic types, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on species, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</span><br />
+
+Animals, higher, creation of the, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lower, creation of the, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br />
+
+Antediluvians, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br />
+
+Antiquity of man, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of man, geological evidence of the, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of man, history in relation to the, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of man, language in relation to the, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the earth, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</span><br />
+
+<i>Aretz</i> (earth), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br />
+
+Argyll, Duke of, on creation by law, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, on the origin of civilization, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</span><br />
+
+Aryan race, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br />
+
+Assyrian Genesis, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Texts, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</span><br />
+
+Astronomy of the Bible, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br />
+
+Atmosphere, constitution of the, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creation of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br />
+
+Augustine on creative days, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Aur</i> (light), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Babel, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Bara</i> (create), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+
+Beaumont, De, on continents, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.<br />
+
+Bede on creative days, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br />
+
+Beginning, the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Behemoth</i>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Bhemah</i> (herbivores), <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.<br />
+
+Birds, creation of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br />
+
+Bronn on the origin of species, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.<br />
+
+Bronze, age of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br />
+
+Bunsen's chronology, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>Cainozoic period, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br />
+
+Carnivora, creation of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br />
+
+Caverns, human remains in, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br />
+
+Centres of creation, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br />
+
+Chaos, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chemistry of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br />
+
+Chinese language, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.<br />
+
+Comparisons and conclusions, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br />
+
+"Conflict of the Bible with science," <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br />
+
+Continents, their origin, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br />
+
+Cosmogony, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hebrew, its character, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hebrew, its objects, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hebrew, its origin, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phoenician, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br />
+
+Cranial characters of primitive men, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br />
+
+Creation, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by law, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">centres of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">days of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modes of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of birds, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of carnivora, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of great reptiles, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of herbivora, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of higher animals, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of lower animals, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of man, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of plants, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br />
+
+Croll, calculations of erosion, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">glacial theory of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Dana on creation of plants, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on creative days, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on tertiary fauna, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span><br />
+
+Darwin on species, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.<br />
+
+Day of creation, first, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of creation, second, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of creation, third, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of creation, fourth, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of creation, fifth, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of creation, sixth, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of creation, seventh, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span><br />
+
+Days of creation, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of creation compared with geological periods, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prophetic, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br />
+
+Death before the fall, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+
+"Deep," the, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+
+Deluge, the, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Desh&eacute;</i> (herbage), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br />
+
+Design in nature, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+
+Desolate void, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+
+Drysdale on theories of life, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br />
+
+Dupont on Belgian caves, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+Earth, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its foundations, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span><br />
+
+Ecclesiastes, chap. i., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+
+Eden, conditions of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">site of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span><br />
+
+Edkins on the Chinese language, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.<br />
+
+Egypt, early history of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.<br />
+
+Egyptian Cosmogony, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Texts, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</span><br />
+
+<i>Elohim</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+
+Evans on the erosion of valleys, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br />
+
+Evening of creative days, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+
+Evolution as applied to animals, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br />
+
+Excavation of valleys, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br />
+
+Exodus xxiv., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+Fall of man, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.<br />
+
+Final causes, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+
+Firmament, the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+
+Fluidity, original, of the earth, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+
+Forbes on creation of man, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.<br />
+
+Foundations of the earth, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+
+Frontal, cave of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+Genesis, chap. i., translated, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. i., 1, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. i., 2, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. i., 3 to 5, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. i., 6 to 8, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. i., 10 to 11, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. i., 14 to 19,<a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. i., 20 to 23, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. i., 24 to 31, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. ii., 1 to 3, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. iv., 23, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chap. x., 22, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Abrahamic, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Assyrian, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Mosaic, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Quich&eacute;, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br />
+
+Geology, principles of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.<br />
+
+Glacial periods, theories of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br />
+
+God, personality of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br />
+
+"Grass" in Genesis i., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br />
+
+Greek myths, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br />
+
+Green on the forms of continents, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+Haeckel on the affiliation of races, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on man and apes, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</span><br />
+
+Hamite races, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br />
+
+Harmony of revelation and science, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br />
+
+Havilah, productions of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Hay'th-eretz</i> (wild beast), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br />
+
+Heavens, the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br />
+
+Herbivora, creation of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br />
+
+Hindoos, cosmogony of the, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br />
+
+Hitchcock on creative days, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br />
+
+Horner on the alluvium of the Nile, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br />
+
+Hughes on the excavation of valleys, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on interglacial periods, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on stalagmite, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Victoria Cave, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</span><br />
+
+Humboldt on Hebrew poetry, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br />
+
+Hunt on the chemistry of the primeval earth, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.<br />
+
+Hurakon, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+
+Hut of Sodertelge, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Ice-freshets in America, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br />
+
+Incandescence of the earth, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+
+India, cosmogony of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Japhetic races, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br />
+
+Jehovah, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br />
+
+Job ix., 5, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ix., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xxii., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xxviii., <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xxviii., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xxxvi., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xxxvii., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xxxviii., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br />
+
+Jones, Sir W., on Indian cosmogony, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Kent's Cavern, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.<br />
+
+Kurtz on days of vision, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Lamech, his poem, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br />
+
+Land, its creation, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">geological history of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span><br />
+
+Languages, unity of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<br />
+
+La Place, nebular hypothesis of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+
+Latham on African languages, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the radiation of languages, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br />
+
+Laws of nature, in the Bible, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br />
+
+Lemuria, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.<br />
+
+Leviticus xi., <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br />
+
+Life, succession of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theories of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</span><br />
+
+Light, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br />
+
+Logos, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br />
+
+Luminaries, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br />
+
+Lyell on the cause of the glacial period, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the delta of the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the pleistocene period, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Mammals, creation of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br />
+
+Mammoth age, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br />
+
+Man, antiquity of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creation of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">neocosmic, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pal&aelig;ocosmic, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span><br />
+
+Man, unity of, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br />
+
+Manetho, chronology of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br />
+
+Margite, cave of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<br />
+
+Menes, his epoch, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br />
+
+Mesozoic period, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br />
+
+Miller on creative days, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+
+Mining noticed in the Bible, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br />
+
+Mississippi, delta of the, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br />
+
+Mist watering the ground, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br />
+
+Modern period of geology, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<br />
+
+Modes of creation, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.<br />
+
+Moffatt on African languages, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br />
+
+Morse on the evolution of man, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.<br />
+
+Mosaic Genesis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+
+M&uuml;ller's classification of religions, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+
+Mythology, ancient, its origin, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the atmosphere, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as related to the Bible, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Nature, study of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br />
+
+Neocosmic man, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+
+"Neolithic" men, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br />
+
+Niagara, excavation of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+
+Nimrod, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.<br />
+
+Noah, sons of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Pal&aelig;ocosmic men, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.<br />
+
+"Pal&aelig;olithic" men, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br />
+
+Pal&aelig;ozoic animals, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">period, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br />
+
+Parallelism of Scripture and geology, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br />
+
+Pattison on the antiquity of man, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.<br />
+
+Pengelly on Kent's Cavern, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on stalagmite, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</span><br />
+
+Periods, creative, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">geological, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</span><br />
+
+Persians, cosmogony of the, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+
+Philological evidence of the antiquity of man, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+
+Pictet on the origin of species, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.<br />
+
+Pierce on the forms of continents, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.<br />
+
+Pillars of the earth, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+
+Plants, creation of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br />
+
+Plastids and plastidules, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.<br />
+
+Pratt, Archdeacon, on <i>bhemah</i>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.<br />
+
+Prayer and law, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br />
+
+Progress in nature, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br />
+
+Proverbs, viii., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br />
+
+Psalm viii., <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viii., 1, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xviii., <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xix., <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">xc., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civ., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cxix., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cxix., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cxxxix., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cxlvii., <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cxlviii., 6, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br />
+
+Purpose in nature, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Quich&eacute; Genesis, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Rakiah</i> (the expanse), <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+
+Rawlinson on historical dates, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.<br />
+
+Reconciliation of the Bible and geology, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br />
+
+Reindeer age, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br />
+
+Religion, Aryan, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turanian, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Semitic, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br />
+
+<i>Remes</i> (creeping things), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Rephaim</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br />
+
+Reptiles, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br />
+
+Revelation, idea of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br />
+
+River valleys, excavation of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br />
+
+Ruach Elohim, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+
+Rutimeyer on interglacial men, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+Sabbath, the, as related to ages of creation, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Creator, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span><br />
+
+Schliemann on Troy, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Shamayim</i> (heavens), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+
+Shemite races, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Sheretz</i> (swarming creature), <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br />
+
+Somme, gravels of the, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br />
+
+Song of creation, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+
+Species, Agassiz on, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bronn on, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinct from varieties, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Genesis i., <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</span><br />
+
+Spirit of God in creation, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+
+Stalagmite, deposition of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Stereoma</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+
+Stone, ages of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+Table of Biblical periods, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of geological periods, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</span><br />
+
+Tait, Prof., on the age of the earth, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+
+<i>Tannin</i> (great reptile), <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.<br />
+
+Tennyson on types in nature, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br />
+
+Theories of the origin of genesis, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+
+Thomson, Sir Wm., on the age of the earth, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+
+Time, geological, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br />
+
+Torel on the Sodertelge hut, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.<br />
+
+Troy, as described by Schliemann, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.<br />
+
+Type in nature, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+Unity of man, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nature, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</span><br />
+
+Universe, the unseen, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Variation, laws of, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br />
+
+Veda, its cosmogony, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+
+Vegetation, its creation, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Eozoic period, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</span><br />
+
+Victoria Cave, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.<br />
+
+Vision of creation, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+
+Void, the, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+Wallace on evolution, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on primitive man, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</span><br />
+
+Waters above the heavens, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br />
+
+"Whales, great," <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br />
+
+Wilson on American skulls, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on ancient pottery, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</span><br /></p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">THE END.</p>
+<hr style="width:30%;" />
+
+
+
+
+<p style="font-size:200%;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;">By PRINCIPAL DAWSON.</p>
+<hr style="width:10%;" />
+
+<p style="font-size: 150%;">EARTH AND MAN.<span style="font-size:80%;">The Story of the Earth and Man. By J. W. <span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Dawson</span>,
+LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal and Vice-Chancellor of McGill
+University, Montreal. With Twenty Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $1
+50.</span></p>
+
+<p style="text-indent:1em;">An admirable book. It is a clear and interesting <i>r&eacute;sum&eacute;</i> of
+the results of geological investigation, told in simple
+language, devoid of technicalities. The unscientific reader
+will obtain more knowledge of geology in one hour's reading
+of this book than he will in a week's study of more
+elaborate and professional books upon the same subject. It
+is vigorously written, and with a certain picturesqueness
+that is exceedingly attractive. The chapters upon primitive
+man are peculiarly interesting.&mdash;<i>Saturday Evening Gazette</i>,
+Boston.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent:1em;">The pleasantly written volume before us tells the story of
+the paleontology and physical geography of the earth in
+prehuman ages, and closes with a discussion of the theories
+of the appearance, late in geological time, of man upon the
+earth. Dr. Dawson's sketch of paleontology will, we feel
+sure, be found interesting by all readers.&mdash;<i>Athen&aelig;um</i>,
+London.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent:1em;">Since Hugh Miller's time no scientific geologist has done
+more than Principal Dawson to extend popular interest in
+this branch of study, to secure attention to its educational
+value, or to remove misapprehensions which exist in some
+quarters as to the relations of science and Scripture on
+geological questions.&mdash;<i>Leisure Hour</i>, London.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent:1em;">We have read his book with profound interest. It is
+intelligible, candid, modest.&mdash;<i>Boston Transcript</i>.</p>
+
+<hr style="width:10%;" />
+
+<p style="font-size:150%;">ORIGIN OF THE WORLD.<span style="font-size:80%;"> The Origin of the World, according to
+Revelation and Science. By J. W. <span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Dawson</span>, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
+&amp;c. 12mo, Cloth.</span></p>
+
+<hr style="width:10%;" />
+
+<p style="font-size:130%;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;">PUBLISHED BY HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, NEW YORK.</p>
+
+<p style="font-weight:bold;"><span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Harper &amp; Brothers</span> <i>will send either of the above works by mail,
+postage prepaid, to any part of the United Slates, on receipt of
+the price</i>.</p>
+
+<hr style="width:10%;" />
+
+<p style="font-size: 200%; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;">By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,<br /></p>
+<hr style="width: 10%;" />
+
+<p style="font-size:150%;">SKETCHES OF CREATION<span style="font-size:80%;">: a Popular View of some of the Grand
+Conclusions of the Sciences in Reference to the History of Matter
+and of Life. Together with a Statement of the Intimations of
+Science respecting the Primordial Condition and the Ultimate
+Destiny of the Earth and the Solar System. By <span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Alexander Winchell</span>,
+LL.D. With Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:150%;">A GEOLOGICAL CHART<span style="font-size:80%;">: exhibiting the Classification and Relative
+Positions of the Rocks, and the Various Phenomena of
+Stratigraphical Geology; together with an Indication of
+Geological Equivalents, the most important American and Foreign
+Synonyms, the Economical Products of the Rocks, and numerous
+Typical Localities; with an Actual Section from the Atlantic to
+the Rocky Mountains, near the Parallel of Thirty-nine Degrees. By
+<span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Alexander Winchell</span>, LL.D. Mounted on roller, $10 00.</span></p>
+
+<p style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:80%;"><i>With a Key.</i> 8vo, Paper, 25 cents.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:150%;">THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION<span style="font-size:80%;">; its Data, its Principles, its
+Speculations, and its Theistic Bearings. By <span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Alexander Winchell</span>,
+LL.D. 12mo, Cloth, $1 00.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:150%;">RECONCILIATION OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION<span style="font-size:80%;">. By <span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Alexander Winchell</span>,
+LL.D. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="font-size:130%;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;"><i>Published by HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, New York</i>.</p>
+
+<p style="font-weight:bold;"><span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Harper &amp; Brothers</span> <i>will send any of the above works by mail,
+postage prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of
+the price.</i></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the World According to
+Revelation and Science, by John William Dawson
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the World According to
+Revelation and Science, by John William Dawson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Origin of the World According to Revelation and Science
+
+Author: John William Dawson
+
+Release Date: July 2, 2010 [EBook #33049]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, ismail user and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from scans of public domain works at the
+University of Michigan's Making of America collection.)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: All footnotes are renumbered and moved to the end of
+the text before the index.]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  ORIGIN OF THE WORLD,
+  ACCORDING TO
+  REVELATION AND SCIENCE.
+
+  BY J. W. DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
+
+  PRINCIPAL AND VICE-CHANCELLOR OF M'GILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL; AUTHOR OF
+  "ACADIAN GEOLOGY," "THE STORY OF THE EARTH AND MAN,"
+  "LIFE'S DAWN ON EARTH," ETC.
+
+"Speak to the Earth, and it shall teach thee."
+                                        --_Job._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+  FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+  1877.
+
+  TO HIS EXCELLENCY
+
+  THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF DUFFERIN,
+  K.P., K.C.B., ETC.,
+
+  GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF CANADA,
+
+  _This Work is Respectfully Dedicated_,
+
+  AS A SLIGHT TRIBUTE OF ESTEEM TO ONE WHO GRACES THE
+  HIGHEST POSITION IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA BY HIS
+  EMINENT PERSONAL QUALITIES, HIS REPUTATION AS
+  A STATESMAN AND AN AUTHOR, AND HIS KIND
+  AND ENLIGHTENED PATRONAGE OF EDUCATION,
+  LITERATURE, AND SCIENCE.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The scope of this work is in the main identical with that of
+"Archaia," published in 1860; but in attempting to prepare a new
+edition brought up to the present condition of the subject, it was
+found that so much required to be rewritten as to make it essentially
+a new book, and it was therefore decided to give it a new name, more
+clearly indicating its character and purpose.
+
+The intention of this new publication is to throw as much light as
+possible on the present condition of the much-agitated questions
+respecting the origin of the world and its inhabitants. To students of
+the Bible it will afford the means of determining the precise import
+of the biblical references to creation, and of their relation to what
+is known from other sources. To geologists and biologists it is
+intended to give some intelligible explanation of the connection of
+the doctrines of revealed religion with the results of their
+respective sciences.
+
+A still higher end to which the author would gladly contribute is that
+of aiding thoughtful men perplexed with the apparent antagonisms of
+science and religion, and of indicating how they may best harmonize
+our great and growing knowledge of nature with our old and cherished
+beliefs as to the origin and destiny of man.
+
+In aiming at these results, it has not been thought necessary to
+assume a controversial attitude or to stand on the defensive, either
+with regard to religion or science, but rather to attempt to arrive at
+broad and comprehensive views which may exhibit those higher harmonies
+of the spiritual and the natural which they derive from their common
+Author, and which reach beyond the petty difficulties arising from
+narrow or imperfect views of either or both. Such an aim is too high
+to be fully attained, but in so far as it can be reached we may hope
+to rescue science from a dry and barren infidelity, and religion from
+mere fruitless sentiment or enfeebling superstition.
+
+Since the publication of "Archaia," the subject of which it treats has
+passed through several phases, but the author has seen no reason to
+abandon in the least degree the principles of interpretation on which
+he then insisted, and he takes a hopeful view as to their ultimate
+prevalence. It is true that the wide acceptance of hypotheses of
+"evolution" has led to a more decided antagonism than heretofore
+between some of the utterances of scientific men and the religious
+ideas of mankind, and to a contemptuous disregard of revealed religion
+in the more shallow literature of the time; but, on the other hand, a
+barrier of scientific fact and induction has been slowly rising to
+stem this current of crude and rash hypothesis. Of this nature are the
+great discoveries as to the physical constitution and probable origin
+of the universe, the doctrine of the correlation and conservation of
+forces, the new estimates of the age of the earth, the overthrow of
+the doctrine of spontaneous generation, the high bodily and mental
+type of the earliest known men, the light which philology has thrown
+on the unity of language, our growing knowledge of the uniformity of
+the constructive and other habits of primitive men, and of the
+condition of man in the earlier historic time, the greater
+completeness of our conceptions as to the phenomena of life and their
+relation to organizable matters--all these and many other aspects of
+the later progress of science must tend to bring it back into greater
+harmony with revealed religion.
+
+On the other side, there has been a growing disposition on the part of
+theologians to inquire as to the actual views of nature presented in
+the Bible, and to separate these from those accretions of obsolete
+philosophy which have been too often confounded with them. With
+respect to the first chapter of Genesis more especially, there has
+been a decided growth in the acceptance of those principles for which
+I contended in 1860. In illustration of this I may refer to the fact
+that in 1862 it was precisely on these principles that Dr. McCaul
+conducted his able defence of the Mosaic record of creation in the
+"Aids to Faith," which may almost be regarded as an authoritative
+expression of the views of orthodox Christians in opposition to those
+of the once notorious "Essays and Reviews." Equally significant is the
+adoption of this method of interpretation by Dr. Tayler Lewis in his
+masterly "Special Introduction" to the first chapter of Genesis, in
+the American edition of Lange's Commentary, edited by Dr. Philip
+Schaff; and the manifest approval with which the lucid statement of
+the relations of Geology and the Bible by Dr. Arnold Guyot, was
+received by the great gathering of divines at the Convention of the
+Evangelical Alliance in New York, in 1873, bears testimony to the same
+fact. The author has also had the honor of being invited to
+illustrate this mode of reconciliation to the students of two of the
+most important theological colleges in America, in lectures afterwards
+published and widely circulated.
+
+The time is perhaps nearer than we anticipate when Natural Science and
+Theology will unite in the conviction that the first chapter of
+Genesis "stands alone among the traditions of mankind in the wonderful
+simplicity and grandeur of its words," and that "the meaning of these
+words is always a meaning ahead of science--not because it anticipates
+the results of science, but because it is independent of them, and
+runs as it were round the outer margin of all possible discovery."[1]
+
+In the Appendix the reader will find several short essays on special
+points collateral to the general subject, and important in the
+solution of some of its difficulties, but which could not be
+conveniently included in the text. More especially I would refer to
+the summaries given in the Appendix of the present state of our
+knowledge as to the origin of life, of species, and of man--topics not
+discussed in much detail in the body of the work, both because of the
+wide fields of controversy to which they lead, and because I have
+treated of them somewhat fully in a previous work, "The Story of the
+Earth and Man," in which the detailed history of life as disclosed by
+science was the main subject in hand.
+
+                                                  J. W. D.
+
+_May, 1877._
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE MYSTERY OF ORIGINS AND ITS SOLUTIONS.
+
+  Reality of the Unseen.--Personality of God.--Possibility of a
+  Revelation of Origins.--Turanian, Aryan, and Semitic Solutions
+  of the Mystery.--The Abrahamic Genesis.--The Mosaic Genesis   Page 9
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS.
+
+  Objects to be Attained by a Revelation of Origins.--Its Method and
+  Structure.--Vision of Creation.--Translation of the First Chapter of
+  Genesis                                                           35
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS
+  (_continued_).
+
+  Character of the Revelation and its Views of Nature.--Natural Law.--
+  Progress and Development.--Purpose and Use.--Type or Pattern      70
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE BEGINNING.
+
+  The Universe not eternal.--Its Creation.--The Heavens.--The Earth.--
+  The Creator, Elohim.--The Beginning very Remote in Time           87
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  THE DESOLATE VOID.
+
+  Characteristics of Biblical Chaos.--The Primitive Deep.--The Divine
+  Spirit.--The Breath of God.--Chaos in other Cosmogonies.--Chemical
+  and Physical Conditions of the Primitive Chaos                   100
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  LIGHT AND CREATIVE DAYS.
+
+  What is Implied in Cosmic Light.--Its Gradual Condensation.--Day and
+  Night.--Days of Creation.--Their Nature and Length.--They are
+  Olams, AEons or Time-worlds.--Objections to this View
+  Answered.--Confirmations from Extraneous Sources.                115
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  THE ATMOSPHERE.
+
+  Its Present Constitution.--Waters Above and Below.--The "Expanse"
+  of Genesis not a Solid Arch.--Mythology of the Atmosphere.--
+  Superstitions connected with it Opposed by the Bible.            157
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  THE DRY LAND AND THE FIRST PLANTS.
+
+  The Earth of the Bible is the Dry Land.--Its Elevation and Support
+  above the Waters.--Structure of the Continents arranged from the
+  first.--The First Vegetation.--Its Nature.--Introduction of Life.--
+  Organization and Reproduction.--Objections considered.--Geological
+  Indications.                                                     174
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  LUMINARIES.
+
+  How Introduced.--What Implied in this.--Dominion of Existing Causes.
+  --Astronomy of the Hebrews.--Not Connected with Astrology        199
+
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+  THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+  The Sheretzim, or Swarmers.--Their Origin from the Waters.--The
+  Great Reptiles.--Their Creation.--Coincidences with Geology.
+  --Hypotheses of Evolution                                        211
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI.
+
+  THE HIGHER ANIMALS AND MAN.
+
+  The Placental Mammals.--The Principal Groups of these.--Man, how
+  Introduced.--His Early Condition.--His Relations to Nature       230
+
+
+  CHAPTER XII.
+
+  THE REST OF THE CREATOR.
+
+  The Sabbath of Creation.--The Modern Period.--Its Early History.
+  --The Fall and Antediluvian Man.--Postdiluvian Extension of Men  249
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIII.
+
+  UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+  Biblical Account of his Introduction and Early History.--Historical
+  Testimony with respect to his Unity and Antiquity.--Testimony of
+  Language                                                         263
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIV.
+
+  UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN (_continued_).
+
+  Geological Evidence of Antiquity of Man.--General Conditions of
+  Post-glacial and Modern Periods.--Remains of Man in Caverns, in
+  River-gravels, etc.--Palaeocosmic and Neocosmic Men               294
+
+
+  CHAPTER XV.
+
+  COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS.
+
+  Geological Chronology.--Table of Succession of Life.--Points of
+  Agreement of the Two Records.--Parallelism of Genesis and Physical
+  Science with Reference to the Origin and Early History of the World.
+  --Conclusion                                                     322
+
+
+  APPENDICES.
+
+  A.--True and False Evolution.                                    363
+
+  B.--Evolution and Creation by Law.                               373
+
+  C.--Modes of Creation.                                           377
+
+  D.--Theories of Life.                                            383
+
+  E.--Recent Facts as to the Antiquity of Man.                     386
+
+  F.--Glacial Periods in Connection with Genesis.                  395
+
+  G.--Chemistry of the Primeval Earth.                             400
+
+  H.--Tannin and Bhemah.                                           405
+
+  I.--Ancient Mythologies.                                         408
+
+  K.--Assyrian and Egyptian Texts.                                 412
+
+  L.--Species and Varieties in Connection with Evolution and the
+      Unity of Man.                                                414
+
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE MYSTERY OF ORIGINS AND ITS SOLUTIONS.
+
+     "The things that are seen are temporal."--PAUL.
+
+
+Have we or can we have any certain solution of those two great
+questions--Whence are all things? and Whither do all things tend? No
+thinking man is content to live merely in a transitory present, ever
+emerging out of darkness and ever returning thither again, without
+knowing any thing of the origin and issue of the world and its
+inhabitants. Yet it would seem that to-day men are as much in
+uncertainty on these subjects as at any previous time. It even appears
+as if all our added knowledge would only, for a time at least, deprive
+us of the solutions to which we trusted, and give no others in their
+room. Christians have been accustomed to rest on the cosmogony and
+prophecy of the Bible; but we are now frankly told on all hands that
+these are valueless, and that even ministers of religion more or less
+"sacrifice their sincerity" in making them the basis of their
+teachings. On the other hand, we are informed that nothing can be
+discerned in the universe beyond matter and force, and that it is by a
+purely material and spontaneous evolution that all things exist. But
+when we ask as to the origin of matter and force, and the laws which
+regulate them--as to the end to which their movement is tending, as to
+the manner in which they have evolved the myriad forms of life and the
+human intelligence itself--the only answer is that these are
+"insoluble mysteries."
+
+Are we, then, to fall back on the real or imagined revelations and
+traditions of the past, and to endeavor to find in them some foothold
+of assurance; or are we to wait till further progress in science may
+have cleared up some of the present mysteries? Whatever may be said of
+the former alternative, all honest students of science will unite with
+me in the admission that the latter is hopeless. We need not seek to
+belittle the magnificent triumphs of modern science. They have been
+real and stupendous. But it is of their very nature to conduct us to
+ultimate facts and laws of which science can give no explanation; and
+the further we push our inquiries the more insuperably does the wall
+of mystery rise before us. It is true we can furnish the materials for
+philosophical speculations which may be built on scientific facts and
+principles; but these are in their nature uncertain, and must
+constantly change as knowledge advances. They can not solve for us the
+great practical problems of our origin and destiny.
+
+In these circumstances no apology is needed for a thorough and careful
+inquiry into those foundations of religious belief which rest on the
+idea of a revelation of origins and destinies made to man from
+without, and on which we may build the superstructure of a rational
+religion, giving guidance for the present and hope for the future. In
+the following pages I propose to enter upon so much of this subject as
+relates to the origin and earliest history of the world, in so far as
+these are treated of in the Bible and in the traditions of the more
+ancient nations; and this with reference to the present standpoint of
+science in relation to these questions.
+
+To discuss such questions at all, certain preliminary admissions are
+necessary. These are: (1) The reality of an unseen universe, spiritual
+rather than material in its nature. (2) The existence of a personal
+God, or of a great Universal Will. (3) The possibility of
+communication taking place between God and man. I do not propose to
+attempt any proof of these positions, but it may be well to explain
+what they mean.
+
+(1) That the great machine for the dissipation of energy, in which we
+exist, and which we call the universe, must have a correlative and
+complement in the unseen, is a conclusion now forced upon physicists
+by the necessities of the doctrine of the conservation of force. In
+short, it seems that, unless we admit this conclusion, we can not
+believe in the possible existence of the material universe itself, and
+must sink into absolute nihilism. This doctrine is expressed by the
+apostle Paul in the statement, "The things that are seen are temporal,
+but the things that are not seen are eternal," and it has been ably
+discussed by the authors of the remarkable work, "The Unseen
+Universe." That this unseen world is spiritual--that is, not subject
+to the same material laws with the visible universe--is also a fair
+deduction from physical science, as well as a doctrine of Scripture. I
+prefer the term spiritual to supernatural, because the first is the
+term used in the Bible, and because the latter has had associated with
+it ideas of the miraculous and abnormal, not implied at all in the
+idea of the spiritual, which in some important senses may be more
+natural than the material.
+
+(2) The idea of a personal God implies not merely the existence of an
+unknown absolute power, as Herbert Spencer seems to hold, or of "an
+Eternal, not ourselves, that makes for righteousness," as Matthew
+Arnold puts it, but of a Being of whom we can affirm will,
+intelligence, feeling, self-consciousness, not certainly precisely as
+they occur in us, but in a higher and more perfect form, of which our
+own consciousness furnishes the type, or "image and shadow," as Moses
+long ago phrased it. On the one hand, it is true that we can not fully
+comprehend such a personal God, because not limited by the conditions
+which limit us. On the other hand, it is clear that our intellect, as
+constituted, can furnish us with no ultimate explanation of the
+universe except in the action of such a primary personal will. In the
+Bible the absolute personality of God is expressed by the title "I
+am." His intimate relation to us is indicated by the expression, "In
+him we live, and move, and have our being." His all-pervading essence
+is stated as "the fullness of him that filleth all in all." His
+relative personality is shadowed forth by the attribution to him of
+love, anger, and other human feelings and sentiments, and by
+presenting him in the endearing relation of the universal Father.
+
+(3) With reference to the possibility of communication between God and
+man, it may truly be said that such communication is not only
+possible, but infinitely probable. God is not only near to us, but we
+are in him, and, independently of the testimony of revelation, it has
+been felt by all classes of men, from the rudest and most primitive
+savages up to our great English philosopher, John Stuart Mill, that if
+there is a God, he can not be excluded from communion with his
+intelligent creatures, either directly or through the medium of
+ministering spirits.[2] Farther, placed as man is in the midst of
+complex and to him inexplicable phenomena, involved in a conflict of
+good and evil, happiness and misery, to which the wisest and the
+greatest minds have found no issue, subject to be degraded by low
+passions and tempted to great extremes of evil, and himself weak,
+impulsive, and vacillating, there seems the most urgent need for
+divine communication. It may be said that these are conflicts and
+problems which God has left man to decide and solve for himself by his
+own reason. But when we consider how slow this process is, and how
+imperfect even now, after the experience of ages, we seem to need some
+intervention that shall stimulate the human mind, and impel it forward
+with greater rapidity. Farther, it would appear only right that an
+intelligent and accountable being, placed in a world like this, should
+have some explanation of his origin and destiny given him at first,
+and that, if he should perchance go astray, a helping hand should be
+extended to him.
+
+Practically it is an historical fact that all the great impulses given
+to humanity have been by men claiming divine guidance or inspiration,
+and professing to bring light and truth from the unseen world. It
+would be too much to say that all these prophets and reformers have
+been inspired of heaven; but scarcely too much to say that they have
+either received a message of God, or have been permitted to transmit
+to our world messages for weal or woe from powers without in
+subordination to him. Farther, we shall have reason in the sequel to
+see that in far back prehistoric times there must have been impulses
+given to mankind, and revelations made to them, as potent as those
+which have acted in later historic periods. In Holy Scripture the Word
+of God is represented as "enlightening every man;[3]" and with
+reference to our present subject we are told that "by faith we
+understand that the ages of the world were constituted by the Word of
+God, so that the visible things were not made of those which
+appear."[4] In other words, that the will of God has been active and
+operative as the sole cause throughout all ages of the world's
+creation and history, and that the visible universe is not a mere
+product of its own phenomena. We may call this faith, if we please, an
+intuition or instinct, a God-given gift, or a product of our own
+thought acting on evidence afforded by the outer world; but in any
+case it seems to be the sole possible solution of the mystery of
+origins.
+
+These points being premised, we are in a position to inquire as to the
+teaching of our own Holy Scriptures, and in this inquiry we can easily
+take along with them all other revelations, pretended or true, that
+deal with our subject.
+
+Max Mueller, in his lectures on the Science of Religion, rejects the
+ordinary division into natural and revealed, and adopts a threefold
+grouping, corresponding to the great division of languages into
+Turanian, Aryan, and Semitic. With some modification and explanation,
+this classification will serve well our present purpose. As to natural
+and revealed religions, if we regard our own as revealed, we must
+admit an element of revelation in all others as well. According to the
+Hebrew Scriptures revelation began in Eden, and was continued more or
+less in all successive ages up to the apostolic times. Consequently
+the earlier revelations of the antediluvian and postdiluvian times
+must have been the common property of all races, and must have been
+associated with whatever elements of natural religion they had. When,
+therefore, we call our religion distinctively a revealed one, we must
+admit that traces of the same revelation may be found in all others.
+On the other hand, when we characterize our religion as Hebrew or
+Semitic, we must bear in mind that in its earlier stages it was not so
+limited; but that, if as old as it professes to be, it must include a
+substratum common to it with the old religions of the Turanians and
+Aryans. Neglect of these very simple considerations often leads to
+great confusion in the minds both of Christians and unbelievers, as to
+the relation of Christianity to heathenism, and especially to the
+older and more primitive forms of heathenism.
+
+The Turanian stock, of which the Mongolian peoples of Northern Asia
+may be taken as the type, includes also the American races, and the
+oldest historical populations of Western Asia and of Europe; and they
+are the peoples who, in their physical features and their art
+tendencies, most nearly resemble the prehistoric men of the caves and
+gravels. They largely consist of the populations which the Bible
+affiliates with Ham. They are remarkable for their permanent and
+stationary forms of civilization or barbarism, and for the languages
+least developed in grammatical structure. These people had and still
+have traditions of the creation and early history of man similar to
+those in the earlier Biblical books; but the connection of their
+religions with that of the Bible breaks off from the time of Abraham;
+and the earlier portions of revelation which they possessed became
+disintegrated into a polytheism which takes very largely the form of
+animism, or of attributing some special spiritual indwelling to all
+natural objects, and also that of worship of ancestors and heroes. The
+portion of primitive theological belief to which they have clung most
+persistently is the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, which in
+all their religious beliefs occupies a prominent place, and has always
+been connected with special attention to rites of sepulture and
+monuments to the dead. Their version of the revelation of creation
+appears most distinctly in the sacred book of the Quiches of Central
+America, and in the creation myths of the Mexicans, Iroquois,
+Algonquins, and other North American tribes; and it has been handed
+down to us through the Semitic Assyrians from the ancient
+Chaldaeo-turanian population of the valley of the Euphrates.
+
+The Aryan races have been remarkable for their changeable and
+versatile character. Their religious ideas in the most primitive times
+appear to have been not dissimilar from those of the Turanians; and
+the Indians, Persians, Greeks, Scandinavians, and Celts have all gone
+some length in developing and modifying these, apparently by purely
+human imaginative and intellectual materials. But all these
+developments were defective in a moral point of view, and had lost the
+stability and rational basis which proceed from monotheism. Hence they
+have given way before other and higher faiths; and at this day the
+more advanced nations of the Aryan, or in Scriptural language the
+Japhetic stock, have adopted the Semitic faith; and, as Noah long ago
+predicted, "dwell in the tents of Shem." No indigenous account of the
+genesis of things remains among the Aryan races, with the exception of
+that in the Avesta, and in some ancient Hindoo hymns, and these are
+merely variations of the Turanian or Semitic cosmogony. God has given
+to the Aryans no special revelations of his will, and they would have
+been left to grope for themselves along the paths of science and
+philosophy, but for the advent among them of the prophets of "Jehovah
+the God of Shem."
+
+It is to the Semitic race that God has been most liberal in his gift
+of inspiration. Gathering up and treasuring the old common
+inheritance of religion, and eliminating from it the accretions of
+superstition, the children of Abraham at one time stood alone, or
+almost alone, as adherents of a belief in one God the Creator. Their
+theology was added to from age to age by a succession of prophets, all
+working in one line of development, till it culminated in the
+appearance of Jesus Christ, and then proceeded to expand itself over
+the other races. Among them it has undergone two remarkable phases of
+retrograde development--the one in Mohammedanism, which carries it
+back to a resemblance to its own earlier patriarchal stage, the other
+in Roman and Greek ecclesiasticism, which have taken it back to the
+Levitical system, along with a strong color of paganism. Still its
+original documents survive, and retain their hold on large portions of
+the more enlightened Aryan nations, while through their means these
+documents have entered on a new career of conquest among the Semites
+and Turanians. They are, however, it must be admitted, among the Aryan
+races of Europe, growing in a somewhat uncongenial soil; partly
+because of the materialistic organization of these races, and partly
+because of the abundant remains of heathenism which still linger among
+them; and it is possible that they may not realize their full triumphs
+over humanity till the Semitic races return to the position of
+Abraham, and erect again in the world the standard of monotheistic
+faith, under the auspices of a purified Christianity.
+
+It follows from this hasty survey that it is the Semitic solution of
+the question of origins, as contained in the Hebrew Scriptures, that
+mainly concerns us; and in the first place we must consider the
+foundation and historical development of this solution, as many
+misconceptions prevail on these points. We may discuss these subjects
+under the heads of the Abrahamic Genesis and the Mosaic Genesis, and
+may in a subsequent chapter consider the results of these in the
+Genesis of the later Scripture writers.
+
+
+THE ABRAHAMIC GENESIS.
+
+It has been a favorite theory with some learned men that the earlier
+parts of the book of Genesis existed as ancient documents even in the
+time of Moses, and were incorporated by him in his work, and attempts
+have been made to separate, on various grounds, the older from the
+newer portions. Until lately, however, these attempts have been
+altogether conjectural and destitute of any positive basis of
+archaeological fact. A new and interesting aspect has been given to
+them by the recent readings of the inscriptions on clay tablets found
+at Nineveh, and to which especial attention has been given by the late
+Mr. G. Smith, of the Archaeological Department of the British Museum.
+
+Assurbanipal, king of Assyria, one of the kings known to the Greeks by
+the name of Sardanapalus, reigned at Nineveh about B.C. 673. He was a
+grandson of the Biblical Sennacherib, and son of Esarhaddon, and it
+seems that he had inherited from his fathers a library of Chaldean and
+Assyrian literature, written not on perishable paper or parchment, but
+on tablets of clay, and containing much ancient lore of the nations
+inhabiting the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. Assurbanipal,
+living when the Assyrian empire had attained to the acme of its
+greatness, had leisure to become a greater patron of learning than any
+preceding king. His scribes ransacked the record chambers of the
+oldest temples in the world; and Babel, Erech, Accad, and Ur had to
+yield up their treasures of history and theology to diligent copyists,
+who transcribed them in beautiful arrow-head characters on new clay
+tablets, and deposited them in the library of the great king. It
+would appear that, at the same time, these documents were edited,
+archaic forms of expression translated, and lacunae caused by decay or
+fracture repaired. They were also inscribed with legends stating the
+sources whence they had been derived.
+
+The empire of Assyria went down in blood, and its palaces were
+destroyed with fire, but the imperishable clay tablets which had
+formed the treasure of their libraries remained, more or less broken
+it is true, among the ruins. Exhumed by Layard and Smith, they are now
+among the collections of the British Museum, and their decipherment is
+throwing a new and strange light on the cosmogony and religions of the
+early East. Though the date of the writing of these tablets is
+comparatively modern, being about the time of the later kings of
+Judah, the original records from which they were transcribed profess
+to have been very ancient--some of them about 1600 years before the
+time of Assurbanipal, so that they go back to a time anterior to that
+of the early Hebrew patriarchs. Their genuineness has been endorsed,
+in one case, by the discovery by Mr. Loftus, in the city of Senkereh,
+of an apparent original, bearing date about 1600 years before Christ,
+and other inscriptions of equal or greater antiquity have been found
+in the ruins of Ur, on the Euphrates. Nor does there seem any reason
+to doubt that the scribes of Assurbanipal faithfully transcribed the
+oldest records extant in their time. Their care and diligence are also
+shown by the fact that where different versions of these records
+existed in different cities, they have made copies of these variant
+manuscripts, instead of attempting to reduce them to one text. The
+subjects treated of in the Nineveh tablets are very various, but those
+that concern our present purpose are the documents relating to the
+creation, the fall of man, and the deluge, of which considerable
+portions have been recovered, and have been translated by Mr. Smith.
+
+These documents carry us back to a time when the Turanian religions
+had not yet been separated from the Semitic. The early Chaldeans,
+termed Cushites in the Bible, and who under Nimrod seem to have
+established the first empire in that region, are now known to have
+been Turanian; and among them apparently arose at a very early period
+a literature and a mythology. The Chaldeans were politically
+subjugated by the Semitic Assyrians, but they retained their religious
+predominance; and until a comparatively late period existed as a
+learned and priestly caste. To these primitive _Chasdim_ were
+undoubtedly due the creation legends collected by the scribes of
+Assurbanipal. They were obtained in the old Chaldean cities, in the
+temples under the guardianship of Chaldean priests; and their date
+carries them back to a time anterior to the Assyrian conquest, and in
+which Chaldean kings still reigned. Here, then, we have an important
+connecting link between the cosmogonies of the Turanian and Semitic
+races; and leaving out of sight for the present the legends of the
+deluge and other matters allied to it, we may inquire as to the nature
+and contents of the Assyrian and Chaldean record of creation.
+
+The Assyrian Genesis is similar in order and arrangement to that in
+our own Bible, and gives the same general order of the creative work.
+Its days, however, of creation, as indeed there is good internal
+evidence to prove those of Moses also are, seem to be periods or ages.
+It treats of the creation of gods, as well as of the universe, and
+thus introduces a polytheistic system; and it seems to recognize, like
+the Avesta, a primitive principle of evil, presiding over chaos, and
+subsequently introducing evil among men. These points may be
+illustrated by an extract from Mr. Smith's translation. It relates to
+the earlier part of the work:
+
+  "When above were not raised the heavens,
+  And below on the earth a plant had not grown up
+  The deep also had not broken up its boundaries
+  Chaos (or water) Tiamat (the sea or abyss) was the producing mother
+     of them all
+  These waters at the beginning were ordained
+  But a tree had not grown a flower had not unfolded
+  When the gods had not sprung up any one of them
+  A plant had not grown and order did not exist
+  Were made also the great gods
+  The gods Lahma and Lahamu they caused to come * * *
+  And they grew * * *
+  The gods Sar and Kisar were made
+  A course of days and a long time passed
+  The god Anu * * *
+  The gods Sar and * * *"
+
+Here the first existences are Chaos (Mummu, or confusion) and Tiamat,
+which is the Thalatth of Berosus, representing the sea or primitive
+abyss, but also recognized as a female deity or first mother. Then we
+have Lahma and Lahamu, which represent power or motion in nature, and
+are the equivalents of the Divine Spirit moving on the face of the
+waters in our Genesis. Next we have the production of Sar or Iloar and
+Kisar, representing the expanse or firmament. Sar is supposed to be
+the god Assur of the Assyrians, a great weather god, and after whom
+their nation and its founder were named. The next process is the
+creation of the heaven and the earth, represented by Anu and Anatu.
+Anu was always one of the greater gods, and was identified with the
+higher or starry heavens. In succeeding tablets to this we find Bel or
+Belus introduced, as the agent in the creation of animals and of men;
+and he is the true Demiurgus or Mediator of the Assyrian system. Next
+we have the introduction of Hea or Saturn, who is the equivalent of
+the Biblical Adam, and of Ishtar, mother of men, who is the Isba or
+Eve of Genesis. The rest of this legend evidently relates to deified
+men, among whom are Merodach, Nebo, and other heroes.
+
+The first remark that we may make on this Assyrian Genesis is that,
+while it resembles generally the Mosaic account of creation, it also
+strongly resembles the old cosmogonies of the Egyptians and Persians,
+and those of the widely scattered Turanians of Northern Asia and of
+America. As an extreme illustration of this, and to obviate the
+necessity of digression at this point of our inquiry, I introduce here
+some extracts from the Popul Vuh, or sacred book of the Quiche Indians
+of Central America, an undoubted product of prehistoric religion in
+the western continent.[5]
+
+     "And the heaven was formed, and all the signs thereof set in
+     their angle and alignment, and its boundaries fixed toward
+     the four winds by the Creator and Former, and Mother and
+     Father of life and existence--he by whom all move and
+     breathe, the Father and Cherisher of the peace of nations
+     and of the civilization of his people--he whose wisdom has
+     projected the excellence of all that is on the earth or in
+     the lakes or in the sea."
+
+     "Behold the first word and the first discourse. There was
+     yet no man nor any animal, * * * nothing was but the
+     firmament. The face of the earth had not yet appeared over
+     the peaceful sea, and all the space of heaven * * * nothing
+     but immobility and silence in the night."
+
+     "Alone also the Creator, the Former, the Dominator, the
+     Feathered Serpent--those that engender, those that give
+     being--they are upon the water like a growing light. They
+     are enveloped in green and blue, and therefore their name is
+     Gucumatz."[6]
+
+     "Lo now how the heavens exist, how exists also the Heart of
+     Heaven; such is the name of God. It is thus that he is
+     called. And they spake, they consulted together and
+     meditated; they mingled their words and their opinions."
+
+     "And the creation [of the earth] was verily after this wise.
+     Earth, they said, and on the instant it was formed; like a
+     cloud or a fog was its beginning. Then the mountains rose
+     over the water like great fishes; in an instant the
+     mountains and the plains were visible, and the cypress and
+     the pine appeared. Then was the Gucumatz filled with joy,
+     crying out: Blessed be thy coming, O Heart of Heaven,
+     Hurakan, Thunderbolt. Our work and our labor has
+     accomplished its end."
+
+This corresponds to the work of the first four creative days; and next
+details are given as to the introduction of animals, with which,
+however, the Creator is represented as dissatisfied, because they
+could not know or invoke the Creator. They are therefore condemned to
+be subject to be devoured one of another. Again there is a council in
+heaven, and the gods determine to make man. But he also is imperfect,
+for he has speech without intelligence: so he is condemned to be
+destroyed by water. A new council is held, and a second race of men
+produced; but this fails in the capacity for religious worship--"they
+forgot the Heart of Heaven." These were partly destroyed by fire and
+partly converted into apes. Lastly another council is held, and
+perfect men created. Then follows a remarkable series of stories
+relating to the early history and migrations of men.
+
+It is known that similar creation myths existed among the Mexicans
+and other early civilized nations of America, and in ruder and more
+grotesque forms even among the semi-barbarous and hunter tribes. Their
+connection with the ancient Semitic and Turanian revelations of Asia
+is unquestionable.
+
+We have thus in the Assyrian Genesis a relic of early religious belief
+belonging to a period when such widely separated stocks as the
+Assyrian and American were still one: to a period, therefore,
+presumably long anterior to that of Moses. Yet at this very early
+period the central portions at least of the Turanian race had already
+devised some means of recording their traditions in writing--probably
+the arrow-head writing, afterwards used by the Assyrians, had already
+been invented. Again, at this early period a complex polytheism had
+already sprung up, and this was connected with cosmological ideas,
+inasmuch as the primitive abyss, the firmament, the starry heavens,
+the principle of life, were all subordinate gods; and so were also
+some of the earliest of the patriarchs of the human race. It is
+possible, however, that this was among the early Chaldeans an exoteric
+representation for the vulgar, and that the priestly caste may have
+understood it in a monotheistic sense. In any case, the idea of a
+Supreme Creator remains behind the whole. Farther, in the early
+Chaldean record we have a more detailed and expanded document than
+that of the Hebrew Genesis, probably intended for the popular ear, and
+to include as much as possible of the current mythology. As an
+example, I quote the following in relation to the creation of the
+moon, being apparently a part of the narrative of that creative period
+corresponding with the fourth day of Genesis:
+
+  "In its mass [that is, of the lower chaos] he made a boiling,
+  The God Uru [the moon] he caused to rise out, the night he
+     overshadowed.
+  To fix it also for the light of the night until the shining of
+     the day,
+  That the month might not be broken and in its amount be regular.
+  At the beginning of the month at the rising of the night,
+  His horns are breaking through to shine in the heavens.
+  On the seventh day to a circle he begins to swell,
+  And stretches toward the dawn farther."
+
+We now come to the historical connection of all this with Abraham and
+with the Hebrew Scriptures. The early life of the "Father of the
+Faithful" belongs to the time when Turanian and Semitic elements were
+mingled in the Euphratean valley. Himself of the stock of Shem, he
+dwelt in Ur of the Chaldees, a city in whose ruins, now known by the
+name of Mugheir, Chaldean inscriptions have been found of a date
+anterior to that of the patriarch. In the time of Abraham a
+polytheistic religion already existed in Ur, for we are told that his
+father "served other gods." Further, the legends of the creation and
+the deluge, and the antediluvian age, with the history of Nimrod and
+other postdiluvian heroes, existed in a written form; and, strange
+though this may seem, there can be little doubt that Abraham, before
+he left Ur of the Chaldees, had read the same creation legends that
+have so recently been translated and published by Mr. Smith. But
+Abraham's relation to these was of a peculiar kind. With a spiritual
+enlightenment beyond that of his age, he dissented from the Turanian
+animism and polytheism, and maintained that pure and spiritual
+monotheism which, according to the Bible, had been the original faith
+of the sons of Noah. But he was overborne by the tendencies of his
+time, and probably by the royal and priestly influence then dominant
+in Chaldea, and he went forth from his native land in search of a
+country where he might have freedom to worship God. It is thus that
+Abraham appears as the earliest reformer, the first of those martyrs
+of conscience who fear not to differ from the majority, the father and
+prototype of the faithful of every age, and the earliest apostle of
+the monotheistic faith which still reigns among all the higher races
+of men.
+
+Did Abraham take with him in his pilgrimage the records of his people?
+It is scarcely possible to doubt that he did, and this probably in a
+written form, but purified from the polytheism and inane imaginations
+accreted upon them; or perhaps he had access to still older and more
+primitive records anterior to the rise of the Turanian superstitions.
+In any case we may safely infer that Abraham and his tribe carried
+with them the substance of all that part of Genesis which contains the
+history of the world up to his time, and that this would be a precious
+heir-loom of his family, until it was edited and incorporated in the
+Pentateuch by his great descendant Moses. It seems plain, therefore,
+that the original prophet or seer to whom the narrative of creation
+was revealed lived before Abraham, but we need not doubt that the
+latter had the benefit of divine guidance in his noble stand against
+the idolatry of his age, and in his selection of the documents on
+which his own theology was based. These considerations help us to
+understand the persistence of Hebrew monotheism in the presence of the
+idolatries of Canaan and Egypt, since these were closely allied to the
+Chaldean system against which Abraham had protested. They also explain
+the recognition by Abraham, as co-religionists, of such monotheistic
+personages as Melchisedec, king of Salem. They further illustrate the
+nature of the religious basis in his people's beliefs on which Moses
+had to work, and on which he founded his theocratic system.
+
+Before leaving this part of the subject, I would observe that the view
+above given; while it explains the agreement between the Hebrew
+Genesis and other ancient religious beliefs, is in strict accordance
+with the teachings of Genesis itself. The history given there implies
+monotheism and knowledge of God as the Creator and Redeemer, in
+antediluvian and early postdiluvian times, a decadence from this into
+a systematic polytheism at a very early date, the protest and dissent
+of Abraham, his call of God to be the upholder of a purer faith, and
+the maintenance of that faith by his descendants. Besides this, any
+careful reader of Genesis and of the book of Job, which, whatever its
+origin, must be more ancient than the Mosaic law, will readily
+discover indications that Abraham and the patriarchs were in the
+possession of documents and traditions of the same purport with those
+in the early chapters of Genesis, and that these were to them their
+only sacred literature. The reader of the Pentateuch must carry this
+idea with him, if he would have any clear conception of the unity and
+symmetry of these remarkable books.
+
+
+THE MOSAIC GENESIS.
+
+In the period of 400 years intervening between Abraham's departure
+from Ur and the exodus of Israel from Egypt, no great prophetic mind,
+like that of the Father of the Faithful, appeared among the Hebrews.
+But then arose Moses, the greatest figure in all antiquity before the
+advent of Christ, and who was destined to give permanence and
+world-wide prevalence to the faith for which Abraham had sacrificed so
+much. Under the leadership of Moses, the Abrahamidae, now reduced to
+the condition of a serf population, emancipated themselves from
+Egyptian bondage, and, after forty years of wandering desert life,
+settled themselves permanently on the hills and in the valleys of
+Palestine. The voice of the ruling race, indistinctly conveyed to us
+from that distant antiquity, maintains that the fugitive slaves were
+an abject and contemptible herd; but the leader of the exodus informs
+us that, though cruelly trodden down by a haughty despot, they were of
+noble parentage, the heirs of high hopes and promises. Their migration
+is certainly the most remarkable national movement in the world's
+history--remarkable, not merely in its events and immediate
+circumstances, but in its remote political, literary, and moral
+results. The rulers of Egypt, polished, enlightened, and practical
+men, were yet the devotees of a complicated system of hero and animal
+worship, like that from which Abraham dissented, and derived in great
+part from the "animism" which caused some of the oldest nations of the
+world to associate a spiritual indwelling with the natural objects
+surrounding them; or, if they had ceased to believe in this, they had
+sunk into a materialistic devotion to the good things of the present
+world, combined with a superstitious belief in the efficacy of
+priestly absolution.
+
+The slaves, leaving all this behind them, rose in their religious
+opinions to the pure and spiritual monotheism of the great father of
+their race; and their leader presented to them a law unequalled up to
+our time in its union of justice, patriotism, and benevolence, and
+established among them, for the first time in the world's history, a
+free constitutional republic. Nor is this all; unexampled though such
+results are elsewhere in the case of serfs suddenly emancipated. The
+Hebrew lawgiver has interwoven his institutions in a great historical
+composition, including the grand and simple cosmogony of the
+patriarchs, a detailed account of the affiliation and ethnological
+relations of the races of men, and a narrative of the fortunes of his
+own people; intimating not only that they were a favored and chosen
+race, but that of them was to arise a great Deliverer, who would bless
+all nations with pardon and with peace,[7] and would solve once for
+all those great problems of the relations of man to God and the unseen
+world, which in the time of Moses as in our own were the most
+momentous of all, and gave to questions of origins all their practical
+value.
+
+The lawgiver passed to his rest. His laws and literature, surviving
+through many vicissitudes, have produced in each succeeding age a new
+harvest of poetry and history, leavened with their own spirit. In the
+mean time the learning and the superstition of Egypt faded from the
+eyes of men. The splendid political and military organizations of
+Assyria, Babylon, Persia, and Macedon arose and crumbled into dust.
+The wonderful literature of Greece blazed forth and expired. That of
+Rome, a reflex and copy of the former, had reached its culminating
+point; and no prophet had arisen among any of these Gentile nations to
+teach them the truth of God. The world, with all its national
+liberties crushed out, its religion and its philosophy corrupted and
+enfeebled to the last degree by an endless succession of borrowings
+and intermixtures, lay prostrate under the iron heel of Rome. Then
+appeared among the now obscure remnant of Israel, one who announced
+himself as the Prophet like unto Moses, promised of old; but a prophet
+whose mission it was to redeem not Israel only, but the whole world,
+and to make all who will believe, children of faithful Abraham.
+Adopting the whole of the sacred literature of the Hebrews, and
+proving his mission by its words, he sent forth a few plain men to
+write its closing books, and to plant it on the ruins of all the
+time-honored beliefs of the nations--beliefs supported by a splendid
+and highly organized priestly system and by despotic power, and gilded
+by all the highest efforts of poetry and art.
+
+The story is a very familiar one; but it is marvellous beyond all
+others. Nor is the modern history of the Bible less wonderful. Exhumed
+from the rubbish of the Middle Ages, it has entered on a new career of
+victory. It has stimulated the mind of modern Europe to all its
+highest efforts, and has been the charter of its civil and religious
+liberties. Its wondrous revelation of all that man most desires to
+know, in the past, in the present, and in his future destinies, has
+gone home to the hearts of men in all ranks of society and in all
+countries. In many great nations it is the only rule of religious
+faith. In every civilized country it is the basis of all that is most
+valuable in religion. Where it has been withheld from the people,
+civilization in its highest aspects has languished, and superstition,
+priestcraft, and tyranny have held their ground or have perished under
+the assaults of a heartless and inhuman infidelity. Where it has been
+a household book, education has necessarily flourished, liberty has
+taken root, and the higher nature of man has been developed to the
+full. Driven from many other countries by tyrannical interference with
+liberty of thought and discussion, or by a short-sighted
+ecclesiasticism, it has taken up its special abode with the greatest
+commercial nations of our time; and, scattered by their agency
+broadcast over the world, it is read by every nation under heaven in
+its own tongue, and is slowly but surely preparing the way for wider
+and greater changes than any that have heretofore resulted from its
+influence. Explain it as we may, the Bible is a great literary
+miracle; and no amount of inspiration or authority that can be
+claimed for it is more strange or incredible than the actual history
+of the book. Yet no book has ever thrown itself into so decided
+antagonism with all the great forces of evil in the world. Tyranny
+hates it, because the Bible so strongly maintains the individual value
+and rights of man as man. The spirit of caste dislikes it for the same
+reason. Anarchical license, on the other hand, finds nothing but
+discouragement in it. Priestcraft gnashes its teeth at it, as the very
+embodiment of private judgment in religion, and because it so
+scornfully ignores human authority in matters of conscience, and human
+intervention between man and his Maker. Skepticism sneers at it,
+because it requires faith and humility, and threatens ruin to the
+unbeliever. It launches its thunders against every form of violence or
+fraud or allurement that seeks to profit by wrong or to pander to the
+vices of mankind; all these consequently are its foes. On the other
+hand, by its uncompromising stand with reference to certain scientific
+and historical facts, it has appeared to oppose the progress of
+thought and speculation; though, as we shall see, it has been unfairly
+accused in this last respect.
+
+With its antagonism to the evil that is in the world we have at
+present nothing to do, except to caution the student of this venerable
+literature against the prejudices which interested and unscrupulous
+foes seek to cultivate. Its doctrine of the origin of man and of the
+world, and the relation of this to modern scientific and historical
+results, is that which now claims our attention; and this more
+especially in the relation which the Mosaic cosmogony, considered as
+an early revelation from God, may be found to bear to the facts which
+modern scientific research has elicited from the universe itself. The
+aspects in which apparent conflicts present themselves are threefold.
+At one time it was not unusual to impugn the historical accuracy of
+the Pentateuch on the evidence of the Greek historians; and on many
+points scarcely any corroborative evidence could be cited in favor of
+the Hebrew writers. In our own time much of this difficulty has been
+removed, and an immense amount of learned research has been reduced to
+waste paper, by the circumstance that the monuments of Egypt and
+Assyria have risen up to bear testimony in favor of the Bible; and
+scarcely any sane man now doubts the value of the Hebrew history. The
+battle-ground has in consequence been shifted farther back, to points
+concerning the affiliation of the races of men, the absolute antiquity
+of man's residence on the earth, and the condition of prehistoric men;
+questions on which we can scarcely expect to find, at least for a long
+time, any decisive monumental or scientific evidence. Secondly, the
+Bible commits itself to certain cosmological doctrines and statements
+respecting the system of nature, and details of that system, more or
+less approaching to the domain which geology occupies in its
+investigations of the past history of the earth; and at every stage in
+the progress of modern science, independently of the mischief done by
+smatterers and skeptics, earnest bigotry on the one hand, and earnest
+scientific enthusiasm on the other, have come into collision. One
+stumbling-block after another has, it is true, been removed by mutual
+concession and farther enlightenment, and by the removal of false
+traditional interpretations of the sacred records, as well as by
+farther discoveries in relation to nature. But the field of conflict
+has thereby apparently only changed; and we still have some Christians
+in consequence regarding the revelations of natural science with
+suspicion, and some scientific men cherishing a sullen resentment
+against what they regard as an intolerant intermeddling of theology
+with the domain of legitimate investigation. Lastly, the great growth
+of physical science, and the tendency to take partial views of the
+universe as if it were comprehended in mere matter and force, with
+similarly partial views of the doctrines of continuity and the
+conservation of forces, along with the growth of a belief in
+spontaneous evolution as a philosophical dogma, have placed many
+scientific minds in a position which makes them treat the whole
+question of the origin and destiny of man and of the world with
+absolute indifference.
+
+There can nevertheless be no question that the whole subject is at the
+present moment in a more satisfactory state than ever previously; that
+much has been done for the solution of difficulties; that many
+theologians admit the great service which in many cases science has
+rendered to the interpretation of the Bible, and that most naturalists
+feel themselves free from undue trammels. Above all, there is a very
+general disposition to admit the distinctness and independence of the
+fields of revelation and natural science, the possibility of their
+arriving at some of the same truths, though in very different ways,
+and the folly of expecting them fully and manifestly to agree in the
+present state of our information. The literature of this kind of
+natural history has also become very extensive, and there are few
+persons who do not at least know that there are methods of reconciling
+the cosmogony of Moses with that obtained from the study of nature.
+For this very reason the time is favorable for an unprejudiced
+discussion of the questions involved; and for presenting on the one
+hand to naturalists a summary of what the Bible does actually teach
+respecting the early history of the earth and man, and on the other to
+those whose studies lie in the book which they regard as the Word of
+God, rather than in the material universe which they regard as his
+work, a view of the points in which the teaching of the Bible comes
+into contact with natural science at its present stage of progress.
+These are the ends which I propose to myself in the following pages,
+and which I shall endeavor to pursue in a spirit of fair and truthful
+investigation; having regard on the one hand to the claims and
+influence of the venerable Book of God, and on the other to the rights
+and legitimate results of modern scientific inquiry.
+
+The plan which I have proposed to myself in this part of my subject
+is to take the statements of Genesis in their order, and consider what
+they import, and how they appear to harmonize with what we know from
+other sources. This will occupy some space, but it will save time in
+dealing with the remaining parts of the subject. Before entering upon
+it, I propose to devote one chapter to the answers to three questions
+which concern the whole doctrine of revealed religion, whether
+Semitic, Turanian, or Aryan. These are: (1) _Why_ the origin of things
+should be revealed; (2) _How_ it could be revealed; and (3) _What_
+would require to be revealed in order to form the basis of a rational
+theism.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS.
+
+
+     "There are two books from which I collect my divinity;
+     besides that written one of God, another of his servant
+     nature--that universal and public manuscript that lies
+     expansed unto the eyes of all."--SIR T. BROWNE.
+
+
+There are some questions, simple enough in themselves, respecting the
+general character and object of the references to nature and creation
+in the Scriptures, which yet are so variously and vaguely answered
+that they deserve some consideration before entering on the detailed
+study of the subject. These are: (1) The object of the introduction of
+such subjects into the Hebrew sacred books--the _why_ of the
+revelation of origins. (2) The origin, character, and structure of the
+narrative of creation and other cosmological statements in those
+books--the _how_ of the revelation. (3) The character of the Biblical
+cosmogony, and general views of nature to which it leads--the _what_
+of the revelation.
+
+(1) _The Object of the Introduction of a Cosmogony in the
+Bible._--Man, even in his rudest and most uncivilized state, does not
+limit his mental vision to his daily wants. He desires to live not
+merely in the present, but in the future also and the past. This is a
+psychological peculiarity which, as much as any other, marks his
+separation from the lower animals, and which in his utmost degradation
+he never wholly loses. Whatever may be fancied as to imagined
+prehistoric nations, it is certain that no people now existing, or
+historically known to us, is so rude as to be destitute of some hopes
+or fears in reference to the future, some traditions as to the distant
+past. Every religious system that has had any influence over the human
+mind has included such ideas. Nor are we to regard this as an
+accident. It depends on fixed principles in our constitution, which
+crave as their proper aliment such information; and if it can not be
+obtained, the mind, rather than want it, invents for itself. We might
+infer from this very circumstance that a true religion, emanating from
+the Creator, would supply this craving; and might content ourselves
+with affirming that, on this ground alone, it behooved revelation to
+have a cosmogony.
+
+But the religion of the Hebrews especially required to be explicit as
+to the origin of the earth and all things therein. Its peculiar dogma
+is that of one only God, the Creator, requiring the sole homage of his
+creatures. The heathen for the most part acknowledged in some form a
+supreme god, but they also gave divine honors to subordinate gods, to
+deceased ancestors and heroes, and to natural phenomena, in such a
+manner as practically to obscure their ideas of the Creator, or
+altogether to set aside his worship. The influence of such idolatry
+was the chief antagonism which the Hebrew monotheism had to encounter;
+and we learn from the history of the nation how often the worshippers
+of Jehovah were led astray by its allurements. To guard against this
+danger, it was absolutely necessary that no place should be left for
+the introduction of polytheism, by placing the whole work of creation
+and providence under the sole jurisdiction of the One God. Moses
+consequently takes strong ground on these points. He first insists on
+the creation of all things by the fiat of the Supreme. Next he
+specifies the elaboration and arrangement of all the powers of
+inanimate nature, and the introduction of every form of organic
+existence, as the work of the same First Cause. Lastly, he insists on
+the creation of a primal human pair, and on the descent from them of
+all the branches of the human race, including of course those
+ancestors and magnates who up to his time had been honored with
+apotheosis; and on the same principle he explains the golden age of
+Eden, the fall, the cherubic emblems, the deluge, and other facts in
+human history interwoven by the heathen with their idolatries. He thus
+grasps the whole material of ancient idolatry, reduces it within the
+compass of monotheism, and shows its relation to the one true
+primitive religion, which was that not only of the Hebrews, but of
+right that of the whole world, whose prevailing polytheism consisted
+in perversions of its truth or unity. For such reasons the early
+chapters of Genesis are so far from being of the character of
+digressions from the scope and intention of the book, that they form a
+substratum of doctrine absolutely essential to the Hebrew faith, and
+equally so to its development in Christianity.
+
+The references to nature in the Bible, however, and especially in its
+poetical books, far exceed the absolute requirements of the reasons
+above stated; and this leads to another and very interesting view,
+namely, the tendency of monotheism to the development of truthful and
+exalted ideas of nature. The Hebrew theology allowed no attempt at
+visible representations of the Creator or of his works for purposes of
+worship. It thus to a great extent prevented that connection of
+imitative art with religion which flourished in heathen antiquity, and
+has been introduced into certain forms of Christianity. But it
+cultivated the higher arts of poetry and song, and taught them to draw
+their inspiration from nature as the only visible revelation of Deity.
+Hence the growth of a healthy "physico-theology," excluding all
+idolatry of natural phenomena, and all superstitious dread of them as
+independent powers, but inviting to their examination as
+manifestations of God, and leading to conceptions of the unity of plan
+in the cosmos, of which polytheism, even in its highest literary
+efforts, was quite incapable. In the same manner the Bible has always
+proved itself an active stimulant of natural science, connecting such
+studies, as it does, with our higher religious sentiments; while
+polytheism and materialism have acted as repressive influences, the
+one because it obscures the unity of nature, the other because, in
+robbing it of its presiding Divinity, it gives a cold and repulsive,
+corpse-like aspect, chilling to the imagination, and incapable of
+attracting the general mind.
+
+Naturalists should not forget their obligations to the Bible in this
+respect, and should on this very ground prefer its teachings to those
+of modern pantheism and positivism, and still more to those of mere
+priestly authority. Very few minds are content with simple
+materialism, and those who must have a God, if they do not recognize
+the Jehovah of the Hebrew Scriptures as the Creator and Supreme Ruler
+of the universe, are too likely to seek for him in the dimness of
+human authority and tradition, or of pantheistic philosophy; both of
+them more akin to ancient heathenism than to modern civilization, and
+in their ultimate tendencies, if not in their immediate consequences,
+quite as hostile to progress in science as to evangelical
+Christianity.
+
+Every student of human nature is aware of the influence in favor of
+the appreciation of natural beauty and sublimity which the Bible
+impresses on those who are deeply imbued with its teaching; even where
+that same teaching has induced what may be regarded as a puritanical
+dislike of imitative art, at least in its religious aspects. On the
+other hand, naturalists can not refuse to acknowledge the surpassing
+majesty of the views of nature presented in the Bible. No one has
+expressed this better than Humboldt: "It is characteristic of the
+poetry of the Hebrews that, as a reflex of monotheism, it always
+embraces the universe in its unity, comprising both terrestrial life
+and the luminous realms of space; it dwells but rarely on the
+individuality of phenomena, preferring the contemplation of great
+masses. The Hebrew poet does not depict nature as a self-dependent
+object, glorious in its individual beauty, but always as in relation
+or subjection to a higher spiritual power. Nature is to him a work of
+creation and order--the living expression of the omnipresence of the
+Divinity in the visible world." In reference to the 104th Psalm, which
+may be viewed as a poetical version of the narrative of creation in
+Genesis, the same great writer remarks: "We are astonished to find in
+a lyrical poem of such a limited compass, the whole universe--the
+heavens and the earth--sketched with a few bold touches. The calm and
+toilsome life of man, from the rising of the sun to the setting of the
+same, when his daily work is done, is here contrasted with the moving
+life of the elements of nature. This contrast and generalization in
+the conception of the mutual action of natural phenomena, and the
+retrospection of an omnipresent invisible Power, which can renew the
+earth or crumble it to dust, constitute a solemn and exalted rather
+than a gentle form of poetic creation."[8]
+
+If we admit the source of inspiration claimed by the Hebrew poets, we
+shall not be surprised that they should thus write of nature. We shall
+only lament that so many pious and learned interpreters of Scripture
+have been too little acquainted with nature to appreciate the natural
+history of the Book of God, or adequately to illustrate it to those
+who depend on their teaching; and that so many naturalists have
+contented themselves with wondering at the large general views of the
+Hebrew poets, without considering that they are based on a revelation
+of the nature and order of the creative work which supplied to the
+Hebrew mind the place of those geological wonders which have
+astonished and enlarged the minds of modern nations. A modern divine,
+himself well read in nature, truly says: "If men of piety were also
+men of science, and if men of science were to read the Scriptures,
+there would be more faith on the earth and also more philosophy."[9]
+In a similar strain the patient botanist of the marine algae thus
+pleads for the joint claims of the Bible and nature: "Unfortunately it
+happens that in the educational course prescribed to our divines
+natural history has no place, for which reason many are ignorant of
+the important bearings which the book of nature has on the book of
+revelation. They do not consider, apparently, that both are from
+God--both are his faithful witnesses to mankind. And if this be so, is
+it reasonable to suppose that either, without the other, can be fully
+understood? It is only necessary to glance at the absurd commentaries
+in reference to natural objects which are to be found in too many
+annotations of the Holy Scriptures to be convinced of the benefit
+which the clergy would themselves derive from a more extended study of
+the works of creation. And to missionaries especially, a minute
+familiarity with natural objects must be a powerful assistance in
+awakening the attention of the savage, who, after his manner, is a
+close observer, and likely to detect a fallacy in his teacher, should
+the latter attempt a practical illustration of his discourse without
+sufficient knowledge. These are not days in which persons who ought to
+be our guides in matters of doctrine can afford to be behind the rest
+of the world in knowledge; nor can they safely sneer at the knowledge
+which puffeth up, until, like the apostle, they have sounded its
+depths and proved its shallowness."[10] It is truly much to be desired
+that divines and commentators, instead of trying to distort the
+representations of nature in the Bible into the supposed requirements
+of a barbarous age, or of setting aside modern discoveries as if they
+could have no connection with Scripture truth, would study natural
+objects and laws sufficiently to bring themselves in this respect to
+the level of the Hebrew writers. Such knowledge would be cheaply
+purchased even by the sacrifice of a part of their verbal and literary
+training. It is well that this point is now attracting the attention
+of the Christian world, and it is but just to admit that some of our
+more eminent religious writers have produced noble examples of
+accurate illustrations of Scripture derived from nature. In any case,
+the Bible itself can not be charged with any neglect of the claims of
+nature or with any narrow tendency to place material and spiritual
+things in antagonism to one another.
+
+Another reason why a revelation from God must deal with the origins of
+things, is that such revelation is, like creation, in its own nature
+progressive. It is given little by little to successive generations of
+men, and must proceed from the first rudiments of religious truth
+onward to its higher developments with the growth of humanity from age
+to age. Hence the teachings in the early chapters of Genesis are of
+the simplest and most child-like character, and the first of these
+early teachings is necessarily that of God the Creator, just as our
+elementary catechisms for children have been wont to begin with the
+question, "Who made you?" In this way man is led in the most direct
+and simple way to the feet of the Universal Father, and a foundation
+is laid whereon further religious teaching adapted to the growth of
+the individual mind and to the growing complications of human society
+can be built. But again, alike in the earliest and simplest as in the
+more advanced states of the human mind, if spiritual things are to be
+taught, it must be through the medium of material things. We have no
+language to express in any direct way spiritual truths; they must be
+given to us in terms of the natural. We have not yet learned the
+tongue of the immortals, and probably can not learn it in this world.
+The word "spirit" itself, which we borrow from the Latin, the Greek
+_Pneuma_, the Hebrew _Ruah_, primarily all agree in signifying breath
+or wind. We have to speak of our own breath when we mean our spiritual
+nature, of God's breath when we mean his spiritual nature, and so of
+all other things not obvious to our senses. There is constant danger
+in this that the material shall be taken for the spiritual of which it
+is the symbol, the figure for the reality, the creature for the
+Creator, and this danger is best counteracted by a decided testimony
+in relation to the origin of all material things in the will of the
+spiritual and eternal God. Thus the Bible writers are enabled to use a
+free and bold manner of speech respecting divine things. Their
+expressions at one time appear pantheistic and at another
+anthropomorphic; they see God in every thing, and use with the utmost
+freedom natural emblems to indicate his perfections and procedure, and
+our relations to him. In this way there is life and action in their
+teaching, and it is removed as far as possible from a dry, abstract
+theology, while equally remote from any tinge of idolatry or
+superstition.
+
+It may, however, be objected that by the introduction of a cosmogony
+the Bible exposes itself to a conflict with science, and that thereby
+injury results both to science and to religion. This is a grave
+charge, and one that has evidently had much weight with many minds,
+since it has been the subject of entire treatises designed to
+illustrate the history of the conflict or to explain its nature. The
+revelation of God's will to man for his moral guidance, if necessary
+at all, was necessary before the rise of natural science. Men could
+not do without the knowledge of the unity of nature and of the unity
+of God, until these great truths could be worked out by scientific
+induction. Perhaps they might never have been so worked out. Therefore
+a revealed book of origins has a right to precedence in this matter.
+Nor need it in any way come into conflict with the science
+subsequently to grow up. Science does not deal so much with the origin
+of nature as with its method and laws, and all that is necessary on
+the part of a revelation, to avoid conflict with it, is to confine
+itself to statements of phenomena and to avoid hypotheses. This is
+eminently the course of the Bible. In its cosmogony it shuns all
+embellishments and details, and contents itself with the fact of
+creation and a slight sketch of its order; and in their subsequent
+references to nature the sacred writers are strictly phenomenal in
+their statements, and refer every thing directly to the will of God,
+without any theory as to secondary causes and relations. They are thus
+decided and positive on the points with reference to which it behooves
+revelation to testify, and absolutely non-committal on the points
+which belong to the exclusive domain of science.
+
+What, then, are we to say of the imaginary "conflict of science with
+religion," of which so much has been made? Simply that it results
+largely from misapprehension and from misuse of terms. True religion,
+which consists in practical love to God and to our fellow-men, can
+have no conflict with science. True science is its fast ally. The
+Bible, considered as a revelation of spiritual truth to man for his
+salvation and enlightenment, can have no conflict with science. It
+promotes the study of nature, rendering it honorable by giving it the
+dignity of an inquiry into the ways of God, and rendering it safe by
+separating it from all ideas of magic and necromancy. It gives a
+theological basis to the ideas of the unity of nature and of natural
+law. The conflict of science, when historically analyzed, is found to
+have been fourfold--with the Church, with theology, with superstition,
+and with false or imperfect science and philosophy. Religious men may
+have identified themselves from time to time with these opponents, but
+that is all; and much more frequently the opposition has been by bad
+men more or less professing religious objects. Organizations calling
+themselves "the Church," and whose warrant from the Bible is often of
+the slenderest, have denounced and opposed and persecuted new
+scientific truths; but they have just as often denounced the Bible
+itself, and religious doctrines founded on it. Theology claims to be
+itself one of the sciences, and as such it is necessarily imperfect
+and progressive, and may at any time be more or less in conflict with
+other sciences; but theology is not religion, and may often have very
+little in common either with true religion or the Bible. When
+discussions arise between theology and other sciences, it is only a
+pity that either side should indulge in what has been called the
+_odium theologicum_, but which is unfortunately not confined to
+divines. Superstition, considered as the unreasonable fear of natural
+agencies, is a passive rather than an active opponent of science. But
+revelation, which affirms unity, law, and a Father's hand in nature,
+is the deadly foe of superstition, and no people who have been readers
+of the Bible and imbued with its spirit have ever been found ready to
+molest or persecute science. Work of this sort has been done only by
+the ignorant, superstitious, and priest-ridden votaries of systems
+which withhold the Bible from the people, and detest it as much as
+they dislike science. Perhaps the most troublesome opposition to
+science, or rather to the progress of science, has sprung from the
+tenacity with which men hold to old ideas. These, which may have been
+at one time the best science attainable, root themselves in popular
+literature, and even in learned bodies and in educational books and
+institutions. They become identified with men's conceptions both of
+nature and religion, and modify their interpretations of the Bible
+itself. It thus becomes a most difficult matter to wrench them from
+men's minds, and their advocates are too apt to invoke in their
+defense political, social, and ecclesiastical powers, and to seek to
+support them by the authority of revelation, when this may perhaps be
+quite as favorable to the newer views opposed to them. All these
+conflicts are, however, necessary incidents in human progress, which
+comes only by conflict; and there is reason to believe that they would
+be as severe in the absence of revealed religion as in its presence,
+were it not that the absence of revelation seems often to produce a
+fixity and stagnation of thought unfavorable to any new views, and
+consequently to some extent to any intellectual conflict. It has been,
+indeed, to the disinterment of the Bible in the Reformation of the
+fifteenth century that the world owes, more than to any other cause,
+the immense growth of modern science, and the freedom of discussion
+which now prevails. The Protestant idea of individual judgment in
+matters of religion is thoroughly Biblical, for the Bible everywhere
+appeals to men in this way; and this idea is the strongest guarantee
+that the world possesses for intellectual liberty in other matters.
+
+We conclude, therefore, on all these grounds, that it was necessary
+that a revelation from God should take strong and positive ground on
+the question of the origin of the universe.
+
+       *     *     *     *     *
+
+(2) _The Origin, Method, and Structure of the Scriptural
+Cosmogony._--A respectable physicist, but somewhat shallow naturalist
+and theologian, whose works at one time attracted much attention, has
+said of the first chapter of Genesis: "It can not be history--it may
+be poetry." Its claims to be history we shall investigate under
+another head, but it is pertinent to our present inquiry to ask
+whether it can be poetry. That its substance or matter is poetical no
+one who has read it once can believe; but it can not be denied that in
+its form it approaches somewhat to that kind of thought-rhythm or
+parallelism which gives so peculiar a character to Hebrew poetry. We
+learn from many Scripture passages, especially in the Proverbs, that
+this poetical parallelism need not necessarily be connected with
+poetical thought; that in truth it might be used, as rhyme is
+sometimes with us, to aid the memory. The oldest acknowledged verse in
+Scripture is a case in point. Lamech, who lived before the flood,
+appears to have slain a man in self-defense, or at least in an
+encounter in which he himself was wounded; and he attempts to define
+the nature of the crime in the following words:
+
+  "Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;
+  Ye wives of Lamech, hearken to my speech:--
+  I have slain a man to my wounding,
+  And a young man to my hurt;
+  If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold,
+  Truly Lamech seventy and seven fold."
+
+All this is prosaic enough in matter, but the form into which it is
+thrown gives it a certain dignity, and impresses it on the memory;
+which last object was probably what the author of this sole fragment
+of antediluvian literature had in view. He succeeded too--for the
+sentiment was handed down, probably orally; and Moses incorporates it
+in his narration, perhaps on account of its interest as the first
+record of the distinction between willful murder like that of Cain,
+and justifiable homicide. It is interesting also to observe the same
+parallelism of style, no doubt with the same objects, in many old
+Egyptian monumental inscriptions, which, however grandiloquent, are
+scarcely poetical.[11] It also appears in that ancient record of
+creation and the deluge recently rescued from the clay tablets of
+Nineveh.
+
+Now in the first chapter of Genesis, and the first three verses of
+chapter second, being the formal general narrative of creation, on
+which, as we shall see, every other statement on the subject in the
+Bible is based, we have this peculiar parallelism of style. If we ask
+why, the answer must, I think, be--to give dignity and symmetry to
+what would otherwise be a dry abstract, and still more to aid memory.
+This last consideration, perhaps indicating that this chapter, like
+the apology of Lamech, had been handed down orally for a long period,
+connects itself with the theory of the pre-Abrahamic origin of these
+documents to which reference has already been made.
+
+The form of the narrative, however, in no way impairs its precision
+or accuracy of statement. On this Eichhorn well says: "There lies at
+the foundation of the first chapter a carefully designed plan, all
+whose parts are carried out with much art, whereby its appropriate
+place is assigned to every idea;" and we may add, whereby every idea
+is expressed in the simplest and fewest words, yet with marvellous
+accuracy, amounting to an almost scientific precision of diction, for
+which both the form into which it is thrown and the homogeneous and
+simple character of the Hebrew language are very well adapted. Much of
+this indeed remains in the English version, though our language is
+less perfectly suited than the Hebrew for the concise announcement of
+general truths of this description. Our translators have, however,
+deviated greatly from the true sense of many important words,
+especially where they have taken the Septuagint translation for their
+guide, as in the words "firmament," "whales," "creeping things," etc.
+These errors will be noticed in subsequent pages. In the mean time I
+may merely add that the labors of the ablest Biblical critics give us
+every reason to conclude that the received text of Genesis preserves,
+almost without an iota of change, the beautiful simplicity of its
+first chapter; and that we now have it in a more perfect state than
+that in which it was presented to the translators of most of the early
+versions. It must also be admitted that the object in view was best
+served by that direct reference to the creative fiat, and ignoring of
+all secondary causes, which are conspicuous in this narrative. This is
+indeed the general tone of the Bible in speaking of natural phenomena;
+and this mode of proceeding is in perfect harmony with its claims to
+divine authority. Had not this course been chosen, no other could have
+been adopted, in strict consistency with truth, short of a full
+revelation of the whole system of nature, in the details of all its
+laws and processes. This we now know would have been impossible, and,
+if possible, useless or even mischievous.
+
+Regarded from this point of view--the plenary inspiration of the
+book--the Scriptural references to creation profess to furnish a very
+general outline, for theological purposes, of the principal features
+of a vast region unexplored when they were written, and into which
+human research has yet penetrated along only a few lines. Natural
+science, in following out these lines of observation, has reached some
+of the objects delineated in the Scriptural sketch; of others it has
+obtained distant glimpses; many are probably unknown, and we can
+appreciate the true value and dimensions relatively to the whole of
+very few. So vast indeed are the subjects of the bold sketch of the
+Hebrew prophet, that natural science can not pretend as yet so to fill
+in the outline as quite to measure the accuracy of its proportions.
+Yet the lines, though few, are so boldly drawn, and with so much
+apparent unity and symmetry, that we almost involuntarily admit that
+they are accurate and complete. This may appear to be underrating the
+actual progress of science relatively to this great foreshadowing
+outline; but I know that those most deeply versed in the knowledge of
+nature will be the least disposed to quarrel with it, whatever
+skepticism they may entertain as to the greater general completeness
+of the inspired record.
+
+Another point which deserves a passing notice here is the theory of
+Dr. Kurtz and others, that the Mosaic narrative represents a vision of
+creation, analogous to those prophetic visions which appear in the
+later books of Scripture. This is beyond all question the most simple
+and probable solution of the origin of the document, when viewed as
+inspired, but we shall have to recur to it on a future page.
+
+But with respect to the precise origin of this cosmogony, the question
+now arises, Is it really in substance a revelation from God to man? We
+must not disguise from ourselves that this deliberate statement of an
+order of creation in so far challenges comparison with the results of
+science, and this in a very different way from that which applies to
+the incidental references to nature in the Bible. Further, inasmuch as
+it relates to events which transpired before the creation of man, it
+is of the nature of prophecy rather than of history. It is, in short,
+either an inspired revelation of the divine procedure in creation, or
+it is a product of human imagination or research, or a deliberate
+fraud.
+
+To no part of the Bible do these alternatives more strictly apply than
+to its first chapter. This "can not be history" in the strict
+acceptation of the term. It relates to events which no human eye
+witnessed, respecting which no human testimony could give any
+information. It represents the creation of man as the last of a long
+series of events, of which it professes to inform us. The knowledge of
+these events can not have been a matter of human experience. If at all
+entitled to confidence, the narrative must, therefore, be received as
+an inspired document, not handed down by any doubtful tradition, but
+existing as originally transfused into human language from the mind of
+the Author of nature himself. This view is in no way affected by the
+hypothesis, already mentioned, that the first chapters of Genesis were
+compiled by Moses from more ancient documents. This merely throws back
+the revelation to a higher antiquity, and requires us to suppose the
+agency of two inspired men instead of one.
+
+It would be out of place here to enter into any argument for the
+inspiration of Scripture, or to attempt to define the nature of that
+inspiration. I merely wish to impress on the mind of the reader that
+without the admission of its reality, or at least its possibility, our
+present inquiry becomes merely a matter of curious antiquarian
+research. We must also on this ground distinguish between the claims
+of the Scriptures and those of tradition or secular history, when they
+refer to the same facts. The traditions and cosmogonies of some
+ancient nations have many features in common with the Bible narrative;
+and, on the supposition that Moses compiled from older documents, they
+may be portions of this more ancient sacred truth, but clothed in the
+varied garments of the fanciful mythological creeds which have sprung
+up in later and more degenerate times. Such fragments may safely be
+received as secondary aids to the understanding of the authentic
+record, but it would be folly to seek in them for the whole truth.
+They are but the scattered masses of ore, by tracing which we may
+sometimes open up new and rich portions of the vein of primitive lore
+from which they have been derived. It is, however, quite necessary
+here formally to inquire if there are any hypotheses short of that of
+plenary inspiration which may allow us to attach any value whatever to
+this most ancient document. I know but two views of this kind that are
+worthy of any attention.
+
+1. The Mosaic account of creation may be a result of ancient
+scientific inquiries, analogous to those of modern geology.
+
+2. It may be an allegorical or poetical mythus, not intended to be
+historical, but either devised for some extraneous purpose, or
+consisting of the conjectures of some gifted intellect.
+
+These alternatives we may shortly consider, though the materials for
+their full discussion can be furnished only by facts to be
+subsequently stated. I am not aware that the first of these views has
+been maintained by any modern writer. Some eminent scientific men are,
+however, disposed to adopt such an explanation of the ancient Hindoo
+hymns, as well as of the cosmogony of Pythagoras, which bears evidence
+of this origin; and it may be an easy step to infer that the Hebrew
+cosmogony was derived from some similar source. Not many years ago
+such a supposition would have been regarded as almost insane. Then the
+science of antiquity was only another name for the philosophy of
+Greece and Rome. But in recent times we have seen Egypt disclose the
+ruins of a mighty civilization, more grand and massive though less
+elegant than that of Greece, and which had reached its acme ere Greece
+had received its alphabet--a civilization which, according to the
+Scripture history, is derived from that of the primeval Cushite
+empire, which extended from the plains of Shinar over all Southeastern
+Asia, but was crushed at its centre before the dawn of secular
+history. We have now little reason to doubt that Moses, when he
+studied the learning of Egypt, held converse with men who saw more
+clearly and deeply into nature's mysteries than did Thales or
+Pythagoras, or even Aristotle.[12] Still later the remnants of old
+Nineveh have been exhumed from their long sepulture, and antiquaries
+have been astonished by the discovery that knowledge and arts,
+supposed to belong exclusively to far more recent times, were in the
+days of the early Hebrew kings, and probably very long previously,
+firmly established on the banks of the Tigris. Such discoveries, when
+compared with hints furnished by the Scriptures, tend greatly to exalt
+our ideas of the state of civilization at the time when they were
+written; and we shall perceive, in the course of our inquiry, many
+additional reasons for believing that the ancient Israelites were much
+farther advanced in natural science than is commonly supposed.
+
+We have, however, no positive proof of such a theory, and it is
+subject to many grave objections. The narrative itself makes no
+pretension to a scientific origin, it quotes no authority, and it is
+connected with no philosophical speculations or deductions. It bears
+no internal evidence of having been the result of inductive inquiry,
+but appeals at once to faith in the truth of the great ultimate
+doctrine of absolute creation, and then proceeds to detail the steps
+of the process, in the manner of history as recorded by a witness, and
+not in the manner of science tracing back effects to their causes.
+Farther, it refers to conditions of our planet respecting which
+science has even now attained to no conclusions supported by evidence,
+and is not in a position to make dogmatic assertions. The tone of all
+the ancient cosmogonies has in these respects a resemblance to that
+of the Scriptures, and bears testimony to a general impression
+pervading the mind of antiquity that there was a divine and
+authoritative testimony to the facts of creation, distinct from
+history, philosophical speculation, or induction.
+
+One of the boldest and simplest methods of this kind is that followed
+by the authors of the "Types of Mankind," in the attempt to assign a
+purely human origin to Genesis 1st. These writers admit the greater
+antiquity of the first chapter, though assigning the whole of the book
+to a comparatively modern date. They say:
+
+"The 'document Jehovah'[13] does not especially concern our present
+subject; and it is incomparable with the grander conception of the
+more ancient and unknown writer of Genesis 1st. With extreme felicity
+of diction and conciseness of plan, the latter has defined the most
+philosophical views of antiquity upon _cosmogony_; in fact so well
+that it has required the palaeontological discoveries of the nineteenth
+century--at least 2500 years after his death--to overthrow his
+_septenary_ arrangement of 'Creation;' which, after all, would still
+be correct enough in great principles, were it not for one individual
+oversight and one unlucky blunder; not exposed, however, until long
+after his era, by post-Copernican astronomy. The oversight is where he
+wrote (Gen. i. 6-8), 'Let there be _raquie_,' _i. e._, a _firmament_;
+which proves that his notions of 'sky' (solid like the concavity of a
+copper basin, with _stars_ set as brilliants in the metal) were the
+same as those of adjacent people of his time--indeed, of all men
+before the publication of Newton's 'Principia' and of Laplace's
+'Mecanique Celeste.' The blunder is where he conceives that _aur_,
+'light,' and _iom_, 'day' (Gen. i. 14-18), could have been physically
+possible _three whole days_ before the 'two great luminaries,' _Sun_
+and _Moon_, were created. These venial errors deducted, his majestic
+song beautifully illustrates the simple process of ratiocination
+through which--often without the slightest historical proof of
+intercourse--different 'Types of Mankind,' at distinct epochas, and in
+countries widely apart, had arrived, naturally, at cosmogonic
+conclusions similar to the doctrines of that Hebraical school of which
+his harmonic and melodious numbers remain a magnificent memento.
+
+"That process seems to have been the following: The ancients knew, as
+we do, that man _is_ upon the earth; and they were persuaded, as we
+are, that his appearance was preceded by unfathomable depths of time.
+Unable (as we are still) to measure periods antecedent to man by any
+_chronological_ standard, the ancients rationally reached the
+tabulation of some events anterior to man through _induction_--a
+method not original with Lord Bacon, because known to St. Paul; 'for
+his unseen things from the creation of the world, his power and
+Godhead, are clearly seen, _being understood by the things that are
+made_' (Rom. i., 20). Man, they felt, could not have lived upon earth
+without _animal_ food; ergo, 'cattle' preceded him, together with
+birds, reptiles, fishes, etc. Nothing living, they knew, could have
+existed without light and heat; ergo, the _solar system_ antedated
+animal life, no less than the _vegetation_ indispensable for animal
+support. But terrestrial plants can not grow without _earth_; ergo,
+that dry land had to be separated from pre-existent 'waters.' Their
+geological speculations inclining rather to the _Neptunian_ than to
+the _Plutonian_ theory--for Werner ever preceded Hutton--the ancients
+found it difficult to 'divide the waters from the waters' without
+interposing a metallic substance that 'divided the waters which were
+_under_ the firmament from the waters that were _above_ the
+firmament;' so they inferred, logically, that a _firmament_ must have
+been actually created for this object. [_E.g._, 'The _windows_ of the
+skies' (Gen. vii., 11); 'the waters _above_ the skies' (Psa. cxlviii.,
+4).] Before the 'waters' (and here is the peculiar error of the
+genesiacal bard) some of the ancients claimed the pre-existence of
+_light_ (a view adopted by the writer of Genesis 1st); while others
+asserted that 'chaos' prevailed. Both schools united, however, in the
+conviction that DARKNESS--_Erebus_--anteceded all other _created
+things_. What, said these ancients, can have existed before the
+'darkness?' _Ens entium_, the CREATOR, was the humbled reply. _Elohim_
+is the Hebrew vocal expression of that climax; to define whose
+attributes, save through the phenomena of creation, is an attempt we
+leave to others more presumptuous than ourselves."
+
+The problem here set to the "unknown" author of Genesis is a hard
+one--given the one fact that "man is" to find in detail how the world
+was formed in a series of preceding ages of vast duration. Is it
+possible that such a problem could have been so worked out as to have
+endured the test of three thousand years, and the scrutiny of modern
+science? But there is an "oversight" in one detail, and a "blunder" in
+another. By reference farther on, the reader will find under the
+chapters on "Light" and the "Atmosphere" that the oversight and
+blunder are those not of the writer of Genesis, but of the learned
+American ethnologists in the nineteenth century; a circumstance which
+cuts in two ways in defense of the ancient author so unhappily unknown
+to his modern critics.
+
+The second of the alternatives above referred to, the mythical
+hypothesis, has been advanced and ably supported, especially on the
+continent of Europe, and by such English writers as are disposed to
+apply the methods of modern rationalistic criticism to the Bible. In
+one of its least objectionable forms it is thus stated by Professor
+Powell:
+
+"The narrative, then, of six periods of creation, followed by a
+seventh similar period of rest and blessing, was clearly designed by
+adaptation to their conceptions to enforce upon the Israelites the
+institution of the Sabbath; and in whatever way its details may be
+interpreted, it can not be regarded as an _historical_ statement of
+the _primeval_ institution of a Sabbath; a supposition which is indeed
+on other grounds sufficiently improbable, though often adopted. * * *
+If, then, we would avoid the alternative of being compelled to admit
+what must amount to impugning the truth of those portions at least of
+the Old Testament, we surely are bound to give fair consideration to
+the only suggestion which can set us entirely free from all the
+difficulties arising from the geological contradiction which does and
+must exist against any conceivable interpretation which retains the
+assertion of the historical character of the details of the narrative,
+as referring to the distinct transactions of each of the seven
+periods. * * * The one great fact couched in the general assertion
+that all things were created by the sole power of one Supreme Being is
+the whole of the representation to which an historical character can
+be assigned. As to the particular form in which the descriptive
+narrative is conveyed, we merely affirm that it can not be history--it
+may be poetry."[14]
+
+The general ground on which this view is entertained is the supposed
+irreconcilable contradiction between the literal interpretation of the
+Mosaic record and the facts of geology. The real amount of this
+difficulty we are not, in the present stage of our inquiry, prepared
+to estimate. We can, however, readily understand that the hypothesis
+depends on the supposition that the narrative of creation is posterior
+in date to the Mosaic ritual, and that this plain and circumstantial
+series of statements is a fable designed to support the Sabbatical
+institution, instead of the rite being, as represented in the Bible
+itself, a commemoration of the previously recorded fact. This is,
+fortunately, a gratuitous assumption, contrary to the probable date of
+the documents, as deduced from internal evidence and from comparison
+with the Assyrian and other cosmogonies; and it also completely
+ignores the other manifest uses mentioned under our first head. If
+proved, it would give to the whole the character of a pious fraud, and
+would obviously render any comparison with the geological history of
+the earth altogether unnecessary. While, therefore, it must be freely
+admitted that the Mosaic narrative can not be history, in so far at
+least as history is a product of human experience, we can not admit
+that it is a poetical mythus, or, in other words, that it is destitute
+of substantial truth, unless proved by good evidence to be so; and,
+when this is proved, we must also admit that it is quite undeserving
+of the credit which it claims as a revelation from God.
+
+Since, therefore, the events recorded in the first chapter of Genesis
+were not witnessed by man; since there is no reason to believe that
+they were discovered by scientific inquiry; and since, if true, they
+can not be a poetical myth, we must, in the mean time, return to our
+former supposition that the Mosaic cosmogony is a direct revelation
+from the Creator. In this respect, the position of this part of the
+earth's Biblical history resembles that of prophecy. Writers _may_
+accurately relate contemporary events, or those which belong to the
+human period, without inspiration; but the moment that they profess
+accurately to foretell the history of the future, or to inform us of
+events which preceded the human period, we must either believe them to
+be inspired, or reject them as impostors or fanatics. Many attempts
+have been made to find intermediate standing-ground, but it is so
+precarious that the nicest of our modern critical balancers have been
+unable to maintain themselves upon it.
+
+Having thus determined that the Mosaic cosmogony, in its grand general
+features, must either be inspired or worthless, we have further to
+inquire to what extent it is necessary to suppose that the particular
+details and mode of expression of the narrative, and the subsequent
+allusions to nature in the Bible, must be regarded as entitled to this
+position. We may conceive them to have been left to the discretion of
+the writers; and, in that case, they will merely represent the
+knowledge of nature actually existing at the time. On the other hand,
+their accuracy may have been secured by the divine afflatus. Few
+modern writers have been disposed to insist on the latter alternative,
+and have rather assumed that these references and details are
+accommodated to the state of knowledge at the time. I must observe
+here, however, that a careful consideration of the facts gives to a
+naturalist a much higher estimate of the real value of the
+observations of nature embodied in the Scriptures than that which
+divines have ordinarily entertained; and, consequently, that if we
+suppose them of human origin, we must be prepared to modify the views
+generally entertained of early Oriental simplicity and ignorance. The
+truth is, that a large proportion of the difficulties in Scriptural
+natural history appear to have arisen from want of such accommodation
+to the low state of the knowledge of nature among translators and
+expositors; and this is precisely what we should expect in a
+veritable revelation. Its moral and religious doctrines were slowly
+developed, each new light illuminating previous obscurities. Its human
+history comes out as evidence of its truth, when compared with
+monumental inscriptions; and why should not the All-wise have
+constructed as skilfully its teachings respecting his own works? There
+can be no doubt whatever that the Scripture writers intended to
+address themselves to the common mind, which now as then requires
+simple and popular teaching, but they were under obligation to give
+truthful statements; and we need not hesitate to say, with Dr.
+Chalmers, in reference to a book making such claims as those of the
+Bible: "There is no argument, saving that grounded on the usages of
+popular language, which would tempt us to meddle with the literalities
+of that ancient and, as appears to us, authoritative document, any
+farther than may be required by those conventionalities of speech
+which spring from 'optical' impressions of nature."[15]
+
+Attempt as we may to disguise it, any other view is totally unworthy
+of the great Ruler of the universe, especially in a document
+characterized as emphatically _the truth_, and in a moral revelation,
+in which statements respecting natural objects need not be inserted,
+unless they could be rendered at once truthful and illustrative of the
+higher objects of the revelation. The statement often so flippantly
+made that the Bible was not intended to teach natural history has no
+application here. _Spiritual_ truths are no doubt shadowed forth in
+the Bible by material emblems, often but rudely resembling them,
+because the nature of human thought and language render this
+necessary, not only to the unlearned, but in some degree to all; but
+this principle of adaptation can not be applied to plain material
+facts. Yet a confusion of these two very distinct cases appears to
+prevail almost unaccountably in the minds of many expositors. They
+tell us that the Scriptures ascribe bodily members to the immaterial
+God, and typify his spiritual procedure by outward emblems; and this
+they think analogous to such doctrines as a solid firmament, a plane
+earth, and others of a like nature, which they ascribe to the sacred
+writers. We shall find that the writers of the Scriptures had
+themselves much clearer views, and that, even in poetical language,
+they take no such liberties with truth.
+
+As an illustration of the extent to which this doctrine of
+"accommodation" carries us beyond the limits of fair interpretation, I
+cite the following passage from one of the ablest and most judicious
+writers on the subject:[16] "It was the opinion of the ancients that
+the earth, at a certain height, was surrounded by a transparent hollow
+sphere of solid matter, which they called the firmament. When rain
+descended, they supposed that it was through windows or holes made in
+the crystalline curtain suspended in mid-heavens. To these notions
+the language of the Bible is frequently conformed. * * * But the most
+decisive example I have to give on this subject is derived from
+astronomy. Until the time of Copernicus no opinion respecting natural
+phenomena was thought better established than that the earth is fixed
+immovably in the centre of the universe, and that the heavenly bodies
+move diurnally round it. To sustain this view the most decisive
+language of Scripture might be quoted. God is there said to have
+'_established the foundations of the earth, so that they could not be
+removed forever_;' and the sacred writers expressly declare that the
+heavenly bodies _arise and set_, and nowhere allude to any proper
+motion of the earth."
+
+Will it be believed that, with the exception of the poetical
+expression, "windows of heaven," and the common forms of speech
+relating to sunrise and sunset, the above "decisive" instances of
+accommodation have no foundation whatever in the language of
+Scripture. The doctrine of the rotation of solid celestial spheres
+around the earth belongs to a Greek philosophy which arose after the
+Hebrew cosmogony was complete; and though it occurs in the Septuagint
+and other ancient versions, it is not based on the Hebrew original. In
+truth, we know that those Grecian philosophers--of the Ionic and
+Pythagorean schools--who lived nearest the times of the Hebrew
+writers, and who derived the elements of their science from Egypt and
+Western Asia, taught very different doctrines. How absurd, then, is it
+thus to fasten upon the sacred writers, contrary to their own words,
+the views of a school of astronomy which probably arose long after
+their time, when we know that more accurate ideas prevailed nearer
+their epoch. Secondly, though there is some reason for stating that
+the "ancients," though certainly not those of Israel, believed in
+celestial spheres supporting the heavenly bodies, I suspect that the
+doctrine of a solid vault _supporting the clouds_, except as a mere
+poetical or mythological fancy, is a product of the imagination of the
+theologians and closet philosophers of a more modern time. The
+testimony of men's senses appears to be in favor of the whole universe
+revolving around a plane earth, though the oldest astronomical school
+with which we are acquainted suspected that this is an illusion; but
+the every-day observation of the most unlettered man who treads the
+fields and is wet with the mists and rains must convince him that
+there is no _sub-nubilar_ solid sphere. If, therefore, the Bible had
+taught such a doctrine, it would have shocked the common-sense even of
+the plain husbandmen to whom it was addressed, and could have found no
+fit audience except among a portion of the literati of comparatively
+modern times. Thirdly, with respect to the foundations of the earth, I
+may remark that in the tenth verse of Genesis there occurs a
+definition as precise as that of any lexicon--"and God called the _dry
+land_ earth;" consequently it is but fair to assume that the earth
+afterwards spoken of as supported above the waters is the dry land or
+continental masses of the earth, and no geologist can object to the
+statement that the dry land is supported above the waters by
+foundations or pillars.
+
+We shall find in our examination of the document itself that all the
+instances of such accommodation which have been cited by writers on
+this subject are as baseless as those above referred to. It is much to
+be regretted that so many otherwise useful expositors have either
+wanted that familiarity with the aspects of external nature by which
+all the Hebrew writers are characterized, or have taken too little
+pains to ascertain the actual meaning of the references to creation
+which they find in the Bible. I may further remark that if such
+instances of accommodation could be found in the later poetical books,
+it would be extremely unfair to apply them as aids in the
+interpretation of the plain, precise, and unadorned statements of the
+first chapters of Genesis. There is, however, throughout even the
+higher poetry of the Bible, a truthful representation and high
+appreciation of nature for which we seek in vain in any other poetry,
+and we may fairly trace this in part to the influence of the cosmogony
+which appears in its first chapter. The Hebrew was thus taught to
+recognize the unity of nature as the work of an Almighty Intelligence,
+to regard all its operations as regulated by his unchanging law or
+"decree," and to venerate it as a revelation of his supreme wisdom and
+goodness. On this account he was likely to regard careful observation
+and representation with as scrupulous attention as the modern
+naturalist. Nor must we forget that the Old Testament literature has
+descended to us through two dark ages--that of Greek and Roman
+polytheism and of Middle Age barbarism--and that we must not confound
+its tenets with those of either. The religious ideas of both these
+ages were favorable to certain forms of literature and art, but
+eminently unfavorable to the successful prosecution of the study of
+nature. Hence we have a right to expect in the literature of the
+golden age of primeval monotheism more affinity with the ideas of
+modern science than in any intermediate time; and the truthful
+delineation which the claims of the Bible to inspiration require might
+have been, as already hinted, to a certain extent secured merely by
+the reflex influence of its earlier statements, without the necessity
+of our supposing that illustrations of this kind in the later books
+came directly from the Spirit of God.
+
+Our discussion of this part of the subject has necessarily been rather
+desultory, and the arguments adduced must depend for their full
+confirmation on the results of our future inquiries. The conclusions
+arrived at may be summed up as follows: 1. That the Mosaic cosmogony
+must be considered, like the prophecies of the Bible, to claim the
+rank of inspired teaching, and must depend for its authority on the
+maintenance of that claim. 2. That the incidental references to nature
+in other parts of Scripture indicate, at least, the influence of these
+earlier teachings, and of a pure monotheistic faith, in creating a
+high and just appreciation of nature among the Hebrew people.
+
+It is now necessary to inquire in what precise form this remarkable
+revelation of the origin of the world has been given. I have already
+referred to the hypothesis that it represents a vision of creation
+presented to the mind of a seer, as if in a series of pictures which
+he represents to us in words. This is perhaps the most intelligible
+conception of the manner of communication of a revelation from God;
+and inasmuch as it is that referred to in other parts of the Bible as
+the mode of presentation of the future to inspired prophets, there can
+be no impropriety in supposing it to have been the means of
+communicating the knowledge of the unknown past. We may imagine the
+seer--perhaps some aboriginal patriarch, long before the time of
+Moses--perhaps the first man himself--wrapt in ecstatic vision, having
+his senses closed to all the impressions of the present time, and
+looking as at a moving procession of the events of the earth's past
+history, presented to him in a series of apparent days and nights. In
+the first chapter of Genesis he rehearses this divine vision to us,
+not in poetry, but in a series of regularly arranged parts or
+strophes, thrown into a sort of rhythmical order fitted to impress
+them on the memory, and to allow them to be handed down from mouth to
+mouth, perhaps through successive generations of men, before they
+could be fixed in a written form of words. Though the style can
+scarcely be called poetical, since its expressions are obviously
+literal and unadorned by figures of speech, the production may not
+unfairly be called the Song or Ballad of Creation, and it presents an
+Archaic simplicity reminding us of the compositions of the oldest and
+rudest times, while it has also an artificial and orderly arrangement,
+much obscured by its division into verses and chapters in our Bibles.
+It is undoubtedly also characterized by a clearness and grandeur of
+expression very striking and majestic, and which shows that it was
+written by and intended for men of no mean and contracted minds, but
+who could grasp the great problems of the origin of things, and
+comprehend and express them in a bold and vigorous manner. It may be
+well, before proceeding farther, to present to the reader this ancient
+document in a form more literal and intelligible, and probably nearer
+to its original dress, than that in which we are most familiar with it
+in our English Bibles:
+
+
+THE ABORIGINAL SONG OF CREATION.
+
+
+_Beginning._
+
+      In the Beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth,
+      And the Earth was formless and empty,
+      And darkness on the surface of the deep,
+      And the Breath of God moved on the Surface of the Waters.
+
+
+_Day One._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let Light be,"
+    And Light was.
+  And God saw the Light that it was good.
+     And God called the Light Day,
+     And the darkness he called Night.
+  And Evening was and Morning was--Day one.
+
+
+_Day Second._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let there be an Expanse
+           in the midst of the waters,
+    And let it divide the waters from the waters."
+    And God made the Expanse,
+    And divided the waters below the Expanse
+           from the waters above the Expanse.
+    And it was so.
+    And God called the Expanse Heavens.
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Second Day.
+
+_Day Third._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let the waters under the
+           Heavens be gathered into one place,
+    And let the Dry Land appear."
+    And it was so,
+    And God called the Dry Land Earth,
+    And the gathering of waters called he Seas.
+  And God saw that it was good.
+    _And God said_--"Let the earth shoot forth herbage,
+    The Herb yielding seed and the fruit-tree yielding fruit
+           containing seed after its kind, on the earth."
+    And it was so.
+    And the earth brought forth herbage,
+    The Herb yielding seed and the Tree yielding fruit whose
+           seed is in it after its kind,
+  And God saw that it was good.
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Third Day.
+
+
+_Day Fourth._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let there be Luminaries
+           in the Expanse of Heaven,
+    To divide the day from the night,
+    And let them be for Signs and for Seasons,
+    And for Days and for Years.
+    And let them be Luminaries in the Expanse of Heaven
+    To give light on the earth."
+    And it was so.
+    And God made two great Luminaries,
+    The greater Luminary to rule the day,
+    The lesser Luminary to rule the night,
+    The Stars also.
+    And God placed them in the Expanse of Heaven
+    To give light upon the earth,
+    And to rule over the day and over the night,
+    And to divide the light from the darkness.
+  And God saw that it was good.
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Fourth Day.
+
+
+_Day Fifth._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let the waters swarm
+           with swarmers, having life,
+    And let winged animals fly over the earth on the
+           surface of the expanse of heaven."
+    And God created great Reptiles,
+    And every living thing that moveth,
+    With which the waters swarmed after their kind,
+    And every winged bird after its kind.
+  And God saw that it was good.
+    And God blessed them, saying--
+    "Be fruitful and multiply,
+    And fill the waters of the sea;
+    And let birds multiply in the land."
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Fifth Day.
+
+_Day Sixth._
+
+    _And God said_--"Let the Land bring forth
+           living things after their kind,
+    Herbivores and smaller mammals and Carnivores after their kind."
+    And it was so.
+    And God made all Carnivores after their kind,
+    And all Herbivores after their kind,
+    And all minor mammals after their kind.
+  And God saw that it was good.
+    _And God said_--"Let us make man in our image,
+           after our likeness,
+    And let him have dominion over the fish in the sea
+    And over the birds of the heavens,
+    And over the Herbivora,
+    And over the Earth,
+    And over all the minor animals that creep upon the earth."
+    And God created man in his own image,
+    In the image of God created he him,
+    Male and female created he them.
+    And God blessed them.
+    And God said unto them--
+    "Be fruitful and multiply,
+    And replenish the earth and subdue it,
+    And have dominion over the fishes of the sea
+    And over the birds of the air,
+    And over all the animals that move upon the earth."
+    _And God said_--"Behold, I have given you all herbs
+           yielding seed,
+    Which are on the surface of the whole earth,
+    And every tree with fruit having seed,
+    They shall be unto you for food.
+    And to all the animals of the land
+    And to all the birds of the heavens,
+    And to all things moving on the land having the breath of life,
+    I have given every green herb for food."
+  And it was so.
+  And God saw every thing that he had made,
+      and behold it was very good.
+  And Evening was and Morning was, a Sixth Day.
+
+
+_Day Seventh._
+
+    Thus the Heavens and the Earth were finished,
+    And all the hosts of them.
+    And on the seventh day God ended the work which he had made,
+    And he rested on the seventh day from all his work
+        which he had made.
+    And God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it,
+   Because that in it he rested from all his work that he had
+        created and made.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+OBJECTS AND NATURE OF A REVELATION OF ORIGINS--_Continued._
+
+
+                             "What if earth
+  Be but a shadow of heaven, and things therein
+  Each to the other like; more than on earth is thought."
+                                                 MILTON.
+
+
+
+(3) _Character of the Biblical Cosmogony, and general Views of Nature
+which it Contains or to which it Leads._--Much of what appertains to the
+character of the revelation of origins has been anticipated under
+previous heads. We have only to read the Song of Creation, as given in
+the last chapter, to understand its power and influence as a beginning
+of religious doctrine. The revelation was written for plain men in the
+infancy of the world. Imagine Chaldean or Hebrew shepherd listening to
+these majestic lines from the lips of some ancient patriarch, and
+receiving them as truly the words of God. What a grand opening to him of
+both the seen and unseen worlds! Henceforth he has no superstitious
+dread of the stars above, or of the lightning and thunder, or of the
+dark woods and flowing waters beneath. They are all the works of the one
+Creator, the same Creator who is his own Maker, in whose image and
+shadow he is made. He can look up now to the heavens or around upon the
+earth, and see in all the handiwork of God, and can worship God through
+all. He can see that the power that cares for the birds and the flowers
+of the field cares for him. He is no longer the slave and sport of
+unknown and dreadful powers; they are God's workmanship and under his
+control--nay, God has given him a mission to subdue and rule over them.
+So these noble words raise him to a new manhood, and emancipate him from
+the torture of endless fears, and open to him vast new fields of thought
+and inquiry, which may enrich him with boundless treasures of new
+religious and intellectual wealth. Imagine still farther that he wanders
+into those great cities which are the seats of the idolatries of his
+time. He enters magnificent temples, sees elaborately decorated altars,
+huge images, gorgeous ceremonials, priests gay in vestments and imposing
+in numbers. He is invited to bow down before the bull Apis, to worship
+the statue of Belus or of Ishtar, of Osiris or of Isis. But this is not
+in his book of origins. All these things are contrivances of man, not
+works of God, and their aim is to invite him to adore that which is
+merely his fellow-creature, that which he has the divine commission to
+subdue and rule. So our primitive Puritan turns away. He will rather
+raise an altar of rough stones in the desert, and worship the unseen yet
+real Creator, the God that has no local habitation in temples made with
+hands, yet is everywhere present. Such is the moral elevation to which
+this revelation of origins raises humanity; and when there was added to
+it the farther history of primeval innocence, of the fall, and of the
+promise of a Redeemer, and of the fate of the godless antediluvians,
+there was a whole system of religion, pure and elevating, and placing
+the Abrahamidae, who for ages seem alone to have held to it, on a plane
+of spiritual vantage immeasurably above that of other nations. Farther,
+every succeeding prophet whose works are included in the sacred canon,
+following up these doctrines in the same spirit, and added new
+treasures of divine knowledge from age to age.
+
+But admitting all this, it may be asked, Are these ancient records of
+any value to us? May we not now dispense with them, and trust to the
+light of science? The infinitely varied and discordant notions of our
+modern literature on these great questions of origin, the incapacity
+of any philosophical system to reach the common mind for practical
+purposes, and the baseless character of any religious system which
+does not build on these great primitive truths, give a sufficient
+answer. Farther, we may affirm that the greatest and widest
+generalizations of our modern science have, in so far as they are of
+practical importance, been anticipated in the revelations of the
+Bible, and that in the cosmogony of Genesis and its continuation in
+the other sacred books we have general views of the universe as broad
+as those of any philosophies, ancient or modern. This is a hard test
+for our revelation, but it can be endured, and we may shortly inquire
+what we find in the Bible of such great general truths.
+
+Many may be disposed to admit the accurate delineation of natural
+facts open to human observation in the sacred Scriptures, who may not
+be prepared to find in these ancient books any general views akin to
+those of the ancient philosophers, or to those obtained by inductive
+processes in modern times. Yet views of this kind are scattered
+through the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures, and are a natural
+outgrowth and development of the great facts and principles asserted
+in the first chapter of Genesis. They resolve themselves, almost as a
+matter of course, into the two leading ideas of order and adaptation.
+I have already quoted the eloquent admission by Baron Humboldt of the
+presence of these ideas of the cosmos in Psalm civ. They are both
+conspicuous in the narrative of creation, and equally so in a great
+number of other passages. "Order is heaven's first law; and the second
+is like unto it--that every thing serves an end. This is the sum of
+all science. These are the two mites, even all that she hath, which
+she throws into the treasury of the Lord; and, as she does so in
+faith, Eternal Wisdom looks on and approves the deed."[17] These two
+mites, lawfully acquired by science, by her independent exertions, she
+may, however, recognize as of the same coinage with the treasure
+already laid up in the rich storehouse of the Hebrew literature; but
+in a peculiar and complex form, which may be illustrated under the
+following general statements:
+
+1. The Scriptures assert invariable natural law, and constantly
+recurring cycles in nature. Natural law is expressed as the ordinance
+or decree of Jehovah. From the oldest of the Hebrew books I select the
+following examples:[18]
+
+  "When he made a decree for the rain,
+  And a way for the thunder-flash."
+
+  --Job xxviii., 26.
+
+  "Knowest thou the ordinances of the heavens?
+  Canst thou establish a dominion even over the earth?"
+
+  --Job xxxviii., 33.
+
+The later books give us such views as the following:
+
+  "He hath established them [the heavens] for ever and ever;
+  He hath made a decree which shall not pass."
+
+  --Psa. cxlviii., 6.
+
+  "Thou art forever, O Jehovah, thy word is established
+        in the heavens;
+  Thou hast established the earth, and it abideth;
+  They continue this day according to thine ordinances,
+        for all are thy servants."
+
+  --Psa. cxix., 90.
+
+  "When he established the clouds above;
+  When he strengthened the fountains of the deep;
+  When he gave to the sea his decree,
+  That the waters should not pass his commandment;
+  When he appointed the foundations of the earth."
+
+  --Prov. viii., 28.
+
+Many similar instances will be found in succeeding pages; and in the
+mean time we may turn to the idea of recurring cycles, which forms the
+starting-point of the reasonings of Solomon on the current of human
+affairs, in the book of Ecclesiastes: "One generation passeth away,
+and another generation cometh; but the earth abideth for the ages. The
+sun ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteneth to its place whence
+it arose. The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth unto the north.
+It whirleth about continually, and returneth again according to its
+circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea doth not
+overflow; unto the place whence the rivers came, thither they return
+again." I might fill pages with quotations more or less illustrative
+of the statement in proof of which the above texts are cited; but
+enough has been given to show that the doctrine of the Bible is not
+that of fortuitous occurrence, or of materialism, or of pantheism, or
+of arbitrary supernaturalism, but of invariable natural law
+representing the decree of a wise and unchanging Creator. It is a
+common but groundless and shallow charge against the Bible that it
+teaches an "arbitrary supernaturalism." What it does teach is that
+all nature is regulated by the laws of God, which like himself are
+unchanging, but which are so complex in their relations and
+adjustments that they allow of infinite variety, and do not exclude
+even miraculous intervention, or what appears to our limited
+intelligence as such. In opposition to this, it is true, some
+physicists have held that natural law is a fatal necessity.[19] If
+they mean by this a merely hypothetical necessity that certain effects
+must follow if certain laws act, this is in accordance with the
+Biblical view, for nothing can resist the will of God. But if they
+mean an absolute necessity that these laws can not be suspended or
+counteracted by higher laws, or by the will of the Creator, they
+assert what is not only contrary to Scripture, but absurd, for "blind
+metaphysical necessity, which is the same always and everywhere, could
+produce no variety of things."[20] It could lead merely to a dead and
+inert equilibrium. On the hypothesis of mere physical necessity, the
+universe either never could have existed, or must have come to an end
+infinite ages ago, which is the same thing. Only on the hypothesis of
+law proceeding from an intelligent will can we logically account for
+nature.
+
+2. The Bible recognizes progress and development in nature. At the
+very outset we have this idea embodied in the gradual elaboration of
+all things in the six creative periods, rising from the formless void
+of the beginning, through successive stages of inorganic and organic
+being, up to Eden and to man. Beyond this point the work of creation
+stops; but there is to be an occupation and improvement of the whole
+earth by man spreading from Eden. This process is arrested or impeded
+by sin and the fall. Here commences the special province of the
+Bible, in explaining the means of recovery from the fall, and of the
+establishment of a new spiritual and moral kingdom, and finally of the
+restoration of Eden in a new heaven and earth. All this is moral, and
+relates to man, in so far as the present state of things is concerned;
+but we have the commentary of Jesus: "My Father worketh hitherto, and
+I work;" the remarkable statement of Paul, that the whole creation is
+involved in the results of man's moral fall and restoration, and the
+equally remarkable one that the Redeemer is also the maker of the
+"worlds" or ages of the earth's physical progress, as well as of the
+future "new heaven and new earth." Peter also rebukes indignantly
+those scoffers who maintained that all things had remained as they are
+since the beginning; and refers to the creation week and to the deluge
+as earnests of the great changes yet in store for the earth.[21]
+
+It is indeed curious to observe how in our version of the Bible this
+idea of progress in the universe, or of "time-worlds," as it has been
+called, has been variously replaced by the words "world" and
+"eternity," owing to the defective ideas prevalent at the time when
+the translation was made. In the Hebrew Scriptures the term _Olam_,
+"age," and in the New Testament the equivalent term _Ai[=o]n_ have
+been thus treated, and their real significance much obscured. Thus
+when it is said, "by faith we understand that the _worlds_ were
+framed," or "by him God made the _worlds_,"[22] or that certain of
+God's plans have been hid "from the beginning of the _world_,"[23] the
+reference is not to worlds in space, but to worlds in time, or ages of
+God's working in the universe. So also these ages of God's working
+are given to us as our only intelligible type of eternity, of which
+absolutely we can have no conception. Thus God's "eternal purpose" is
+his purpose of the ages. So when he is the "King eternal,"[24] and in
+that capacity gives to his people "life everlasting," he is the King
+of the ages, and gives life of the ages. So in the noble hymn
+attributed to Moses (Psalm xc.), where our version has, "from
+everlasting to everlasting thou art God,"[25] the original is, "from
+age to age thou art, O God." It has perhaps been a defect of our
+modern science that it has familiarized us merely with the existence
+of worlds in space, and not with their existence in time. It is only
+in comparatively modern times that the developments of chronological
+geology and of physical astronomy have brought before us, not only the
+long ages in which the earth was passing through its formative stages,
+but also the fact that still longer aeons are embraced in the history
+of the other bodies of our solar system, and of the starry orbs and
+nebulae. These grand conceptions were already embodied in the Hebrew
+revelation, and were used there as the means of giving some faint
+approach to a conception of the unlimited existence of God himself, of
+the ages in which his creative work has been going on, and of the
+future life he has prepared for his redeemed people.
+
+Such views of development and progress are not unknown to many ancient
+cosmogonies and philosophical systems, but they had no stable
+foundation in observed fact until the rise of modern geology and
+physical astronomy; which enable us to affirm that, in addition to
+those changeless physical laws which cause the bodies of the universe
+to wheel in unvarying cycles, and all natural powers to reproduce
+themselves, and, in addition to those organic laws which produce
+unceasing successions of living individuals, there is a higher law of
+progress. We can now trace back man, the animals and plants his
+contemporaries, and others which preceded them, our continents and
+mountain ranges, and the solid rocks of which they are composed--nay,
+the very fabric of the solar system itself--to their several origins
+at distinct points of time; and can maintain that since the earth
+began to wheel around the sun, no succeeding year has seen it
+precisely as it was in the year before. The old Hebrew record affirms,
+and I presume scarcely any sane man really doubts, that this law of
+progress emanates from the mind and power of one creative Being. When
+men see in natural law only recurring cycles, they may be pardoned for
+falling even into the absurdity of believing in eternal succession;
+but when they see change and progress, and this in a uniform
+direction, overmastering recurring cycles, and introducing new objects
+and powers not accounted for by previous objects or powers, they are
+brought very near to the presence of the Spiritual Creator. And hence,
+although no science can reach back to the act of creation, this
+doctrine is much more strongly held in our day by geologists than by
+physicists. It is quite true that the idea of creative acts has been
+superseded to a great extent by that of "creation by law," or by that
+of "evolution." Still behind all there lies a primary creative power;
+and the validity of these ideas and their bearing on theism and
+creation we shall have to discuss in the sequel. In one thing only
+does the Bible here part company with natural science. The Bible goes
+on into the future, and predicts a final condition of our planet, of
+which science can from its investigations learn nothing.
+
+3. The Bible recognizes purpose, use, and special adaptation in
+nature. It is, in short, full of natural theology, akin in some
+respects to that which has been so elaborately worked out by so many
+modern writers. Numerous passages in support of this will occur to
+every one who has read the Scriptures. It is necessary here, however,
+to direct attention to a distinction very obvious in Scripture, but
+not always attended to by writers on this subject. The Bible maintains
+the true "final cause" of all nature to be, not its material and
+special adaptations or its value to man, but the pleasure or
+satisfaction of the Creator himself. In the earlier periods of
+Creation, before man was upon the earth, God contemplates his work and
+pronounces it good. The heavenly hosts praise him, saying, "Thou hast
+created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and were created."
+Further, the Bible represents intelligences higher than man as sharing
+in the delight which may be derived from the contemplation of God's
+works. When the earth first rose from the waters to greet the light,
+"the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for
+joy." There are many things in nature that strongly impress the
+naturalist with this same view, that the Creator takes pleasure in his
+works; and, like human genius in its highest efforts, rejoices in
+production, even if no sentient being should be ready to sympathize.
+The elaborate structures of fossils, of which we have only fragmentary
+remains, the profusion of natural objects of surpassing beauty that
+grow and perish unseen by us, the delicate microscopic mechanism of
+nearly all organic structures, point to other reasons for beauty and
+order than those that concern man, or the mere utilities of human
+beings; and though there are now naturalists who deny absolutely that
+beauty is an object in nature, and assign even the colors of flowers
+and insects to utility alone, and this of a very low order, this
+doctrine is so repulsive to our higher sentiments that there is
+little danger of its general acceptance; while the slightest
+consideration shows that the utilities referred to could have been
+secured without any of this consummate beauty associated with them,
+and our perception of and delight in which mark in a way beyond the
+ability of skepticism to cavil at our own spiritual kinship with the
+Author of all this profusion of beauty. Yet man is represented as the
+chief created being for whom this earth has been prepared and
+designed. He obtains dominion over it. A chosen spot is prepared for
+him, in which not only his wants but his tastes are consulted; and,
+being made in the image of his Maker, his aesthetic sentiments
+correspond with the beauties of the Maker's work, and he finds there
+also food for his reason and imagination. This view of the subject, as
+well as others already referred to, is finely represented in the
+address of the Almighty to Job.[26]
+
+The Bible also very often refers to the special adaptations of natural
+objects and laws to each other, and to the promotion of the happiness
+of sentient creatures lower than man. The 104th Psalm is replete with
+notices of such adaptations, and so is the address to Job; and indeed
+this view seems hardly ever absent from the minds of the Hebrew
+writers, but has its highest applications in the lilies of the field,
+that toil not neither do they spin, and the sparrows that are sold for
+a farthing, yet the heavenly Father has clothed the one with
+surpassing beauty, and provides food for the other, nor allows it to
+fail without his knowledge. I may, by way of farther illustration,
+merely name a few of the adaptations referred to in Job xxxviii. and
+the following chapters. The winds and the clouds are so arranged as to
+afford the required supplies of moisture to the wilderness where no
+man is, to "cause the bud of the tender herb to spring forth." For
+similar objects the tempest is ordered, and the clouds arranged "by
+wisdom." The adaptations of the wild ass, the wild goat, the ostrich,
+the migratory birds, the horse, the hippopotamus, the crocodile, to
+their several habitats, modes of life, and uses in nature, are most
+vividly sketched and applied as illustrations of the consummate wisdom
+of the Creator, which descends to the minutest details of organization
+and habit.
+
+It is to be observed here that in holding this doctrine of use and
+adaptation in nature, the Bible is only consistent with its own theory
+of rational theism. The Monotheist can not refer nature to a conflict
+of antagonistic powers and forces. He must recognize in it a unity of
+plan; and even those things which appear aberrant, irregular, or
+noxious must have their place in this plan. Hence in the Bible God is
+maker not only of the day but of the night, not only of the peaceful
+cattle but of the voracious crocodile, not only of the sunshine and
+shower but of the tornado and the earthquake. Further, in all these
+things God is manifested, so that we may learn "his eternal power and
+divinity[27] from the things which he has made," and in all these also
+there are emblems of his relations to us. This argument from design is
+in truth the only proof the Bible condescends to urge for the
+existence of God; and it is the only one in which in his later days
+our great English philosopher Mill could see any validity.[28]
+
+If the reader happens to be familiar with the objections to the
+doctrine of final causes, or teleology, in nature, urged in our day
+by Spencer, Haeckel, and others, he will have seen from the foregoing
+statements that these objections are in themselves baseless, or
+inapplicable to this doctrine as maintained in the Bible. There is no
+consistency in the position of men who, when they dig a rudely chipped
+flint out of a bed of gravel, immediately infer an intelligent
+workman, and who refuse to see any indication of a higher intelligence
+in the creation of the workman himself. It is a blind philosophy which
+professes to see in primal atoms the "promise and potency of mind,"
+and which fails to perceive that such potency is more inconceivable
+than the evidence of primary and supreme mind. The men who maintain
+that wings were not planned for flight, but that flight has produced
+wings, and thousands of like propositions, are simply amusing
+themselves with paradoxes to which may very properly be applied the
+strange word devised by Haeckel to express his theory of
+nature--_Dysteleology_, or purposelessness. It is to be borne in mind,
+however, that the teleology of the Bible is not of that narrow kind
+which would make man the sole object of nature, and the supreme judge
+of its adaptations. Inasmuch as God's plan goes over all the ages past
+and future, and relates to the welfare of all sentient beings known or
+unknown to us, and also to his own sovereign pleasure as the supreme
+object, we may not be in a position either to understand or profit by
+all its parts, and hence may expect to find many mysteries, and many
+things that we can not at present reconcile with God's wisdom and
+goodness. We know but "parts of his ways," the "fullness of his power
+who can understand." "His judgments are unsearchable," "his ways are
+past finding out."
+
+4. The law of type or pattern in nature is distinctly indicated in the
+Bible. This is a principle only recently understood by naturalists,
+but it has more or less dimly dawned on the minds of many great
+thinkers in all ages. Nor is this wonderful, for the idea of type is
+scarcely ever absent from our own conceptions of any work that we may
+undertake. In any such work we anticipate recurring daily toil, like
+the returning cycles of nature. We look for progress, like that of the
+growth of the universe. We study adaptation both of the several parts
+to subordinate uses, and of the whole to some general design. But we
+also keep in view some pattern, style, or order, according to which
+the whole is arranged, and the mutual relations of the parts are
+adjusted. The architect must adhere to some order of architecture, and
+to some style within that order. The potter, the calico-printer, and
+the silversmith must equally study uniformity of pattern in their
+several manufactures. The Almighty Worker has exhibited the same idea
+in his works. In the animal kingdom, for instance, we have four or
+more leading types of structure. Taking any one of these--the
+vertebrate, for example--we have a uniform general plan, embracing the
+vertebral column constructed of the same elements; the members,
+whether the arm of man, the limb of the quadruped, or the wing of the
+bat or the bird, or the swimming-paddle of the whale, built of the
+same bones. In like manner all the parts of the vertebral column
+itself in the same animal, whether in the skull, the neck, or the
+trunk, are composed of the same elementary structures. These types are
+farther found to be sketched out--first in their more general, and
+then in their special features--in proceeding from the lower species
+of the same type to the higher, in proceeding from the earlier to the
+later stages of embryonic development, and in proceeding from the more
+ancient to the more recent creatures that have succeeded each other in
+geological time. Man, the highest of the vertebrates, is thus the
+archetype, representing and including all the lower and earlier
+members of the vertebrate type. The above are but trite and familiar
+examples of a doctrine which may furbish and has furnished the
+material of volumes. There can be no question that the Hebrew Bible is
+the oldest book in which this principle is stated. In the first
+chapter of Genesis we have specific type in the creation of plants and
+animals after their kinds or species, and in the formation of man in
+the image and likeness of the Creator; and, as we shall find in the
+sequel, there are some curious ideas of higher and more general types
+in the grouping of the creatures referred to. The same idea is
+indicated in the closing chapters of Job, where the three higher
+classes of the vertebrates are represented by a number of examples,
+and the typical likeness of one of these--the hippopotamus--to man,
+seems to be recognized. Dr. McCosh has quoted, as an illustration of
+the doctrine of types, a very remarkable passage from Psalm cxxxix.:
+
+  "I will praise Thee, for I am fearfully and wonderfully made.
+  Marvellous are thy works,
+  And that my soul knoweth right well.
+  My substance was not hid from Thee,
+  When I was made in secret,
+  And curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth:
+  Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being imperfect;
+  And in thy book all my members were written,
+  Which in continuance were fashioned when as yet there
+    was none of them."
+
+It would too much tax the faith of many to ask them to believe that
+the writer of the above passage, or the Spirit that inspired him,
+actually meant to teach--what we now know so well from geology--that
+the prototypes of all the parts of the archetypal human structure may
+be found in those fossil remains of extinct animals which may, in
+nearly every country, be dug up from the rocks of the earth. No
+objection need, however, be taken to our reading in it the doctrine of
+embryonic development according to a systematic type.
+
+Science, it is true, or rather I should perhaps say philosophical
+speculation, has sometimes pushed this idea of plan into that of a
+spontaneous genetic evolution of things in time, without any creative
+superintendence or definite purpose. This way of viewing the matter
+is, however, as we shall have occasion to see, both bald and
+irrational, and wants the symmetry and completeness of that style of
+thought which grasps at once progress and plan and adaptation, as
+emanating from a Supreme Will. The question of how the plan has been
+worked out will come up for detailed consideration farther on. In the
+mean time we have before us the fact that the Bible represents the
+cosmos as not the product of a blind conflict of self-existent forces,
+but as the result of the production and guidance of these forces by
+infinite wisdom.
+
+It is more than curious that this idea of type, so long existing in an
+isolated and often depised form, as a theological thought in the
+imagery of Scripture, should now be a leading idea of natural science;
+and that while comparative anatomy teaches us that the structures of
+all past and present lower animals point to man, who, as Professor
+Owen expresses it, has had all his parts and organs "sketched out in
+anticipation in the inferior animals," the Bible points still farther
+forward to an exaltation of the human type itself into what even the
+comparative anatomist might perhaps regard as among the "possible
+modifications of it beyond those realized in this little orb of ours,"
+could he but learn its real nature.
+
+Under the foregoing heads, of the object, the structure, the
+authority, and the general cosmical views of the Scripture, I have
+endeavored to group certain leading thoughts important as preliminary
+to the study of the subject; and, in now entering on the details of
+the Old Testament cosmogony, I trust the reader will pardon me for
+assuming, as a working hypothesis, that we are studying an inspired
+book, revealing the origin of nature, and presenting accurate pictures
+of natural facts and broad general views of the cosmos, at least until
+in the progress of our inquiry we find reason to adopt lower views;
+and that he will, in the mean time, be content to follow me in that
+careful and systematic analysis which a work claiming such a character
+surely demands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE BEGINNING.
+
+
+     "In the beginning Elohim created the heavens and the
+     earth."--Genesis i., 1.
+
+
+It is a remarkable and instructive fact that the first verse of the
+Hebrew sacred writings speaks of the material universe--speaks of it
+as a whole, and as originating in a power outside of itself. The
+universe, then, in the conception of this ancient writer, is not
+eternal. It had a beginning, but that beginning in the indefinite and
+by us unmeasured past. It did not originate fortuitously, or by any
+merely accidental conflict of self-existent material atoms, but by an
+act--an act of will on the part of a Being designated by that name
+which among all the Semitic peoples represented the ultimate, eternal,
+inscrutable source of power and object of awe and veneration. With the
+simplicity and child-like faith of an archaic age, the writer makes no
+attempt to combat any objections or difficulties with which this great
+fundamental truth may be assailed. He feels its axiomatic force as the
+basis of all true religion and sound philosophy, and the ultimate fact
+which must ever bar our further progress in the investigation of the
+origin of things--the production from non-existence of the material
+universe by the eternal self-existent God.
+
+It did not concern him to know what might be the nature of that
+unconditioned self-existence; for though, like our ideas of space and
+time, incomprehensible, it must be assumed. It did not concern him to
+know how matter and force subsist, or what may be the difference
+between a material universe cognizable by our senses and the absolute
+want of all the phenomena of such a universe or of whatever may be
+their basis and essence. Such questions can never be answered, yet the
+succession of these phenomena must have had a commencement somewhere
+in time. How simple and how grand is his statement! How plain and yet
+how profound its teachings!
+
+It is evident that the writer grasps firmly the essence of the
+question as to the beginning of things, and covers the whole ground
+which advanced scientific or philosophical speculation can yet
+traverse. That the universe must have had a beginning no one now needs
+to be told. If any philosophical speculator ever truly held that there
+has been an endless succession of phenomena, science has now
+completely negatived the idea by showing us the beginning of all
+things that we know in the present universe, and by establishing the
+strongest probabilities that even its ultimate atoms could not have
+been eternal. But the question remains--If there was a beginning, what
+existed in that beginning? To this question many partial and imperfect
+answers have been given, but our ancient record includes them all.
+
+If any one should say, "In the beginning was nothing." Yes, says
+Genesis, there was, it is true, nothing of the present matter and
+arrangements of nature. Yet all was present potentially in the will of
+the Creator.
+
+"In the beginning were atoms," says another. Yes, says Genesis, but
+they were created; and so says modern science, and must say of
+ultimate particles determined by weight and measure, and incapable of
+modification in their essential properties--"They have the properties
+of a manufactured article."[29]
+
+"In the beginning were forces," says yet another. True, says Genesis;
+but all forces are one in origin--they represent merely the fiat of
+the eternal and self-existent. So says science, that force must in the
+ultimate resort be an "expression of Will."[30]
+
+"In the beginning was Elohim," adds our old Semitic authority, and in
+him are the absolute and eternal thought and will, the Creator from
+whom and by whom and in whom are all things.
+
+Thus the simple familiar words, "In the beginning God created the
+heaven and the earth," answer all possible questions as to the origin
+of things, and include all under the conception of theism. Let us now
+look at these pregnant words more particularly as to their precise
+import and significance.
+
+The divine personality expressed by the Hebrew Elohim may be fairly
+said to include all that can be claimed for the pantheistic conception
+of "dynamis," or universal material power. Lange gives this as
+included in the term Elohim, in his discussion of this term in his
+book on Genesis. It has been aptly said that if, physically speaking,
+the fall of a sparrow produces a gravitative effect that extends
+throughout the universe, there can be no reason why it should be
+unknown to God. God is thus everywhere, and always. Yet he is
+everywhere and always present as a personality knowing and willing.
+From his thought and will in the beginning proceeded the universe. By
+him it was created.
+
+What, then, is creation in the sense of the Hebrew writer. The act is
+expressed by the verb _bara_, a word of comparatively rare occurrence
+in the Scriptures, and employed to denote absolute creation, though
+its primary sense is to cut or carve, and it is indeed a near relative
+of our own English word "pare." If, says Professor Stuart, of Andover,
+this word "does not mean to create in the highest sense, then the
+Hebrews had no word by which they could designate this idea." Yet,
+like our English "create," the word is used in secondary and
+figurative senses, which in no degree detract from its force when
+strictly and literally used. Since, however, these secondary senses
+may often appear to obscure the primitive meaning, we must examine
+them in detail.
+
+In the first chapter of Genesis, after the general statement in verse
+1, other verbs signifying to _form_ or _make_ are used to denote the
+elaboration of the separate parts of the universe, and the word
+"create" is found in only two places, when it refers to the
+introduction of "great whales" (reptiles) and of man. These uses of
+the word have been cited to disprove its sense of absolute creation.
+It must be observed, however, that in the first of these cases we have
+the earliest appearance of animal life, and in the second the
+introduction of a rational and spiritual nature. Nothing but pure
+materialism can suppose that the elements of vital and spiritual being
+were included in the matter of the heavens and the earth as produced
+in the beginning; and as the Scripture writers were not materialists,
+we may infer that they recognized, in the introduction of life and
+reason, acts of absolute creation, just as in the origin of matter
+itself. In Genesis ii. and iii. we have a form of expression which
+well marks the distinction between creation and making. God is there
+said to have rested from all his works which he "created and
+made"--literally, created "for or in reference to making," the word
+for making being one of those already referred to.[31] The force of
+this expression consists in its intimating that God had not only
+finished the work of _creation_, properly so called, but also the
+elaboration of the various details of the universe, as formed or
+fashioned out of the original materials. Of a similar character is the
+expression in Isaiah xlii., 5, "Jehovah, he that _created_ the heavens
+and spread them out;" and that in Psalm cxlviii., 5, "He commanded and
+they were _created_, he hath also established them for ever and ever."
+
+In as far as I am aware, the word _bara_ in all the remaining
+instances of its occurrence in the Pentateuch refers to the creation
+of man, with the following exceptions: Exodus xxxiv., 10, "I will do
+(create) marvels, such as have not been seen in all the earth;"
+Numbers xvi., 30, "If the Lord make a new thing (create a creation),
+and the earth open her mouth and swallow them up." These verses are
+types of a class of expressions in which the proper term for creation
+is applied to the production of something new, strange, and
+marvellous; for instance, "Create in me a clean heart, O Lord;"
+"Behold, I create new heavens and a new earth." It is, however,
+evidently an inversion of sound exposition to say that these secondary
+or figurative meanings should determine the primary and literal sense
+in Genesis i. On the contrary, we should rather infer that the sacred
+writers in these cases selected the proper word for creation, to
+express in the most forcible manner the novel and thorough character
+of the changes to which they refer, and their direct dependence on the
+Divine will. By such expressions we are in effect referred back to the
+original use of the word, as denoting the actual creation of matter
+by the command of God, in contradistinction from those arrangements
+which have been effected by the gradual operation of secondary agents,
+or of laws attached to matter at its creation. It has been farther
+observed[32] that in the Hebrew Scriptures this word _bara_ is applied
+to God only as an agent, not to any human artificer; a fact which is
+very important with reference to its true significance. Viewing
+creation in this light, we need not perplex ourselves with the
+question whether we should consider Genesis i., 1, to refer to the
+essence of matter as distinguished from its qualities. We may content
+ourselves with the explanation given by Paul in the eleventh of
+Hebrews: "By faith we are certain that the worlds[33] were created by
+the decree of God, so that that which _is seen_ was made of that which
+_appears not_." Or, with reference to the other uses of the word, if
+the first introduction of animal life was a creation, and if the
+introduction of the rational nature of man was a creation, we may
+suppose that the original creation was in like manner the introduction
+or first production of those entities which we call matter and force,
+and which to science now are as much ultimate facts as they were to
+Moses.
+
+The _nature_ of the act of creation being thus settled, its _extent_
+may be ascertained by an examination of the terms heaven and earth.
+
+The word "heavens" (_shamayim_) has in Hebrew as in English a variety
+of significations. Of material heavens there are, in the quaint
+language of Poole, "_tres regiones, ubi aves, ubi nubes, ubi sidera_;"
+or (1) the atmosphere or firmament;[34] (2) the region of clouds in
+the upper part of the atmosphere;[35] (3) the depths of space
+comprehending the starry orbs.[36] Besides these we have the "heaven
+of heavens," the abode of God and spiritual beings.[37] The
+application of the term "heaven" to the atmosphere will be considered
+when we reach the 6th and 7th verses. In the mean time we may accept
+the word in this place as including the material heavens in the widest
+sense: (1.) Because it is not here, as in verse 8th, restricted to the
+atmosphere by the terms of the narrative; this restriction in verse
+8th in fact implying the wider sense of the word in preceding verses.
+(2.) Because the atmospheric firmament, elsewhere called heaven,
+divides the waters above from those below, whereas it is evident that
+all these waters, and of consequence the materials of the atmosphere
+itself, are included in the earth of the following verse. (3.) Because
+in verse 14th the sidereal heavens are spoken of as arranged from
+pre-existing materials, which refers their actual creation back to
+this passage.
+
+In the words now under consideration we therefore regard the heavens
+as including the whole material universe beyond the limits of our
+earth. That this sense of the word is not unknown to the writers of
+Scripture, and that they had enlarged and rational views of the
+star-spangled abysses of space, will appear from the terms employed by
+Moses in his solemn warning against the Sabaean idolatry, in
+Deuteronomy iv.: "And lest thou lift up thine eyes to the heavens, and
+when thou seest the sun and the moon and the stars, even all the host
+of the heavens, shouldest be incited to worship them and serve them
+which Jehovah thy God hath appointed to all nations under the whole
+heavens." To the same effect is the expression of the awe and wonder
+of the poet king of Israel in Psalm viii.:
+
+  "When I consider the heavens, the work of thy fingers,
+  The moon and the stars which thou hast ordained;
+  What is man that thou art mindful of him?"
+
+I may observe, however, that throughout the Scriptures the word in
+question is much more frequently applied to the atmospheric than to
+the sidereal heavens. The reason of this appears in the terms of verse
+8th.
+
+If we have correctly referred the term "heavens" to the whole of
+extramundane space, then the word "earth" must denote our globe as a
+distinct world, with all the liquid and aeriform substances on its
+surface. The arrangement of the whole universe under the heads
+"heaven" and "earth" has been derided as a division into "infinity and
+an atom;" but when we consider the relative importance of the earth to
+us, and that it constitutes the principal object of the whole
+revelation to which this is introductory, the absurdity disappears,
+and we recognize the classification as in the circumstances natural
+and rational. The word "earth" (_aretz_) is, however, generally used
+to denote the dry land, or even a region or district of country. It is
+indeed expressly restricted to the dry land in verse 10th; but as in
+the case of the parallel limitation of the word "heaven," we may
+consider this as a hint that its previous meaning is more extended.
+That it is really so, appears from the following considerations: (1.)
+It includes the deep, or the material from which the sea and
+atmosphere were afterwards formed. (2.) The subsequent verses show
+that at the period in question no dry land existed. If instances of a
+similar meaning from other parts of Scripture are required, I give
+the following: Genesis ii., 1 to 4, "Thus the heavens and the earth
+were finished, and all the host of them;" "these are the generations
+of the heavens and the earth." In this general summary of the creative
+work, the earth evidently includes the seas and all that is in them,
+as well as the dry land; and the whole expression denotes the
+universe. The well-known and striking remark of Job, "Who hangeth the
+earth upon nothing," is also a case in point, and must refer to the
+whole world, since in other parts of the same book the dry land or
+continental masses of the earth are said, and with great truth and
+propriety, to be supported above the waters on pillars or foundations.
+The following passages may also be cited as instances of the
+occurrence of the idea of the whole world expressed by the word
+"earth:" Exodus x., 29, "And Moses said unto him, As soon as I am gone
+out of the city, I will spread abroad my hands unto the Lord, and the
+thunder shall cease, neither shall there be any more hail; that thou
+mayest know the earth is the Lord's;" Deuteronomy x., 14, "Behold, the
+heaven and the heaven of heavens is the Lord's, the earth also, and
+all that therein is."
+
+The material universe was brought into existence in the "beginning"--a
+term evidently indefinite as far as regards any known epoch, and
+implying merely priority to all other recorded events. It can not be
+the first day, for there is no expressed connection, and the work of
+the first day is distinct from that of the beginning. It can not be a
+general term for the whole six days, since these are separated from it
+by that chaotic or formless state to which we are next introduced. The
+beginning, therefore, is the threshold of creation--the line that
+separates the old tenantless condition of space from the world-crowded
+galaxies of the existing universe. The only other information
+respecting it that we have in Scripture is in that fine descriptive
+poem in Proverbs viii., in which the Wisdom of God personified--who
+may be held to represent the Almighty Word, or Logos, introduced in
+the formula "God said," and afterward referred to in Scripture as the
+manifested or conditioned Deity, the Mediator between man and the
+otherwise inaccessible Divinity, the agent in the work of creation as
+well as in that of redemption--narrates the origin of all created
+things:
+
+  "Jehovah possessed[38] me, the beginning of his way,
+  Before his work of old.
+  I was set up from everlasting,
+  From the beginning, before the earth was;
+  When there were no deeps I was brought forth,
+  When there were no fountains abounding in water."
+
+The beginning here precedes the creation of the earth, as well as of
+the deep which encompassed its surface in its earliest condition. The
+beginning, in this point of view, stretches back from the origin of
+the world into the depths of eternity. It is to us emphatically _the_
+beginning, because it witnessed the birth of our material system; but
+to the eternal Jehovah it was but the beginning of a great series of
+his operations, and we have no information of its absolute duration.
+From the time when God began to create the celestial orbs, until that
+time when it could be said that he had created the heavens and the
+earth, countless ages may have rolled along, and myriads of worlds may
+have passed through various stages of existence, and the creation of
+our planetary system may have been one of the last acts of that long
+beginning.
+
+The author of creation is Elohim, or God in his general aspect to
+nature and man, and not in that special aspect in reference to the
+Hebrew commonwealth and to the work of redemption indicated by the
+name Jehovah (_Iaveh_). We need not enter into the doubtful etymology
+of the word; but may content ourselves with that supported by many,
+perhaps the majority of authorities, which gives it the meaning of
+"Object of dread or adoration," or with that preferred by Gesenius,
+which makes it mean the "Strong or mighty one." Its plural form has
+also greatly tried the ingenuity of the commentators. After carefully
+considering the various hypotheses, such as that of the plural of
+majesty of the Rabbins, and the primitive polytheism supposed by
+certain Rationalists, I can see no better reason than an attempt to
+give a grammatical expression to that plurality in unity indicated by
+the appearance of the Spirit or breath of God and his Word, or
+manifested will and power, as distinct agents in the succeeding
+verses. This was probably always held by the Hebrews in a general
+form; and was by our Saviour and his apostles specialized in that
+trinitarian doctrine which enables both John and Paul explicitly to
+assert the agency of the second person of the Trinity in the creative
+work.
+
+This elementary trinitarian idea of the first chapter of Genesis may
+be further stated thus: The name Elohim expresses the absolute
+unconditioned will and reason--the Godhead. The manifestation of God
+in creative power, and in the framing and ordering of the cosmos, is
+represented by the formula "God said"--the equivalent of the Divine
+Word. The further manifestation of God in love of and sympathy with
+his work is represented by the Breath of God, and by the expression,
+"God saw that it was good"--operations these of the Divine Spirit.
+
+The aboriginal root of the word Elohim probably lies far back of the
+Semitic literature, and comes from the natural exclamations "al,"
+"lo," "la," which arise from the spontaneous action of the human vocal
+organs in the presence of any object of awe or wonder. The plural form
+may in like manner be simply equivalent to our terms Godhead or
+Divinity, implying all that is essentially God without specification
+or distinction of personalities. As Dr. Tayler Lewis well remarks in
+his "Introduction to Genesis," we should not dismiss such plurals as
+mere _usus loquendi_. The plural form of the name of God, of the
+heavens (literally, the "heights"), of the _olamim_, or time-worlds,
+of the word for life in Genesis (lives), indicates an idea of vastness
+and diversity not measurable by speech, which must have been impressed
+on the minds of early men, otherwise these forms would not have
+arisen. God, heaven, time, life, were to them existences stretching
+outward to infinity, and not to be denoted by the bare singular form
+suitable to ordinary objects.
+
+Fairly regarding, then, this ancient form of words, we may hold it as
+a clear, concise, and accurate enunciation of an ultimate doctrine of
+the origin of things, which with all our increased knowledge of the
+history of the earth we are not in a position to replace with any
+thing better or more probable. On the other hand, this sublime dogma
+of creation leaves us perfectly free to interrogate nature for
+ourselves, as to all that it can reveal of the duration and progress
+of the creative work. But the positive gain which comes from this
+ancient formula goes far beyond these negative qualities. If received,
+this one word of the Old Testament is sufficient to deliver us forever
+from the superstitious dread of nature, and to present it to us as
+neither self-existent nor omnipotent, but as the mere handiwork of a
+spiritual Creator to whom we are kin; as not a product of chance or
+caprice, but as the result of a definite plan of the All-wise; as not
+a congeries of unconnected facts and processes, but as a cosmos, a
+well-ordered though complex machine, designed by Him who is the
+Almighty and the supreme object of reverence. Had this verse alone
+constituted the whole Bible, this one utterance would, wherever known
+and received, have been an inestimable boon to mankind; proclaiming
+deliverance to the captives of every form of nature-worship and
+idolatry, and fixing that idea of unity of plan in the universe which
+is the fruitful and stable root of all true progress in science. We
+owe profound thanks to the old Hebrew prophet for these words--words
+which have broken from the necks of once superstitious Aryan races
+chains more galling than those of Egyptian bondage.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE DESOLATE VOID.
+
+
+     "And the earth was desolate and empty, and darkness was upon
+     the surface of the deep; and the Spirit of God moved on the
+     surface of the waters."--Genesis i., 2.
+
+
+We have here a few bold outlines of a dark and mysterious scene--a
+condition of the earth of which we have no certain intimation from any
+other source, except the speculations based on modern discoveries in
+physical science. It was "unshaped and empty," formless and
+uninhabited. The words thus translated are sufficiently plain in their
+meaning. The first is used by Isaiah to denote the desolation of a
+ruined city, and in Job and the Psalms as characteristic of the
+wilderness or desert. Both in connection are employed by Isaiah to
+express the destruction of Idumea, and by Jeremiah in a powerful
+description of the ruin of nations by God's judgments. When thus
+united, they form the strongest expression which the Hebrew could
+supply for solitary, uninhabited desolation, like that of a city
+reduced to heaps of rubbish, and to the silence and loneliness of
+utter decay.
+
+In the present connection these words inform us that the earth was in
+a chaotic state, and unfit for the residence of organized beings. The
+words themselves suggest the important question: Are they intended to
+represent this as the original condition of the earth? Was it a scene
+of desolation and confusion when it sprang from the hand of its
+Creator? or was this state of ruin consequent on convulsions which
+may have been preceded by a very different condition, not mentioned by
+the inspired historian? That it may have been so is rendered possible
+by the circumstance that the words employed are generally used to
+denote the ruin of places formerly inhabited, and by the want of any
+necessary connection in time between the first and second verses. It
+has even been proposed, though this does violence to the construction,
+to read "and the earth became" desolate and empty. Farther, it seems,
+_a priori_, improbable that the first act of creative power should
+have resulted in the production of a mere chaos. The crust of the
+earth also shows, in its alternations of strata and organic remains,
+evidence of a great series of changes extending over vast periods, and
+which might, in a revelation intended for moral purposes, with great
+propriety be omitted.
+
+For such reasons some eminent expositors of these words are disposed
+to consider the first verse as a title or introduction, and to refer
+to this period the whole series of geological changes; and this view
+has formed one of the most popular solutions of the apparent
+discrepancies between the geological and Scriptural histories of the
+world. It is evident, however, that if we continue to view the term
+"earth" as including the whole globe, this hypothesis becomes
+altogether untenable. The subsequent verses inform us that at the
+period in question the earth was covered by a universal ocean,
+possessed no atmosphere and received no light, and had not entered
+into its present relations with the other bodies of our system. No
+conceivable convulsions could have effected such changes on an earth
+previously possessing these arrangements; and geology assures us that
+the existing laws and dispositions in these respects have prevailed
+from the earliest periods to which it can lead us back, and that the
+modern state of things was not separated from those which preceded it
+by any such general chaos. To avoid this difficulty, which has been
+much more strongly felt as these facts have been more and more clearly
+developed by modern science, it has been held that the word earth may
+denote only a particular region, temporarily obscured and reduced to
+ruin, and about to be fitted up, by the operations of the six days,
+for the residence of man; and that consequently the narrative of the
+six days refers not to the original arrangement of the surface,
+relations, and inhabitants of our planet, but to the retrieval from
+ruin and repeopling of a limited territory, supposed to have been in
+Central Asia, and which had been submerged and its atmosphere obscured
+by aqueous or volcanic vapors. The chief support of this view is the
+fact, previously noticed, that the word earth is very frequently used
+in the signification of region, district, country; to which may be
+added the supposed necessity for harmonizing the Scriptures with
+geological discovery, and at the same time viewing the days of
+creation as literal solar days.
+
+Can we, however, after finding that in verse 1st the term earth must
+mean the whole world, suddenly restrict it in verse 2d to a limited
+region. Is it possible that the writer who in verse 10th for the first
+time intimates a limitation of the meaning of this word, by the solemn
+announcement, "And God called the _dry land_ earth," should in a
+previous place use it in a much more limited sense without any hint of
+such restriction. The case stands thus: A writer uses the word earth
+in the most general sense; in the next sentence he is supposed,
+without any intimation of his intention, to use the same word to
+denote a region or country, and by so doing entirely to change the
+meaning of his whole discourse from that which would otherwise have
+attached to it. Yet the same writer when, a few sentences farther on,
+it becomes necessary for him to use the word earth to denote the dry
+land as distinguished from the seas, formally and with an assertion of
+divine authority, intimates the change of meaning. Is not this
+supposition contrary not only to sound principles of interpretation,
+but also to common-sense; and would it not tend to render worthless
+the testimony of a writer to whose diction such inaccuracy must be
+ascribed. It is in truth to me surprising beyond measure that such a
+view could ever have obtained currency; and I fear it is to be
+attributed to a determination, at all hazards and with any amount of
+violence to the written record, to make geology and religion coincide.
+Must we then throw aside this simple and convenient method of
+reconciliation, sanctioned by Chalmers, Smith, Harris, King,
+Hitchcock, and many other great or respectable names, and on which so
+many good men complacently rest. Truth obliges us to do so, and to
+confess that both geology and Scripture refuse to be reconciled on
+this basis. We may still admit that the lapse of time between the
+beginning and the first day may have been great; but we must
+emphatically deny that this interval corresponds with the time
+indicated by the series of fossiliferous rocks.
+
+Before leaving this part of the subject, I may remark that the
+desolate and empty condition of the earth was not necessarily a
+chaotic mass of confusion--_rudis indigestaque moles_; but in reality,
+when physically considered, may have been a more symmetrical and
+homogeneous condition than any that it subsequently assumed. If the
+earth were first a vast globe of vapor, then a liquid spheroid, and
+then acquired a crust not yet seamed by fissures or broken by
+corrugations, and eventually covered with a universal ocean, then in
+each of these early conditions it would, in regard to its form, be a
+more perfect globe than at any succeeding time. That something of this
+kind is the intention of our historian is implied in his subsequent
+statements as to the absence of land and the prevalence of a universal
+ocean in the immediately succeeding period, which imply that the crust
+had not yet been ruptured or disturbed, but presented an even and
+uniform surface, no part of which could project above the
+comparatively thin fluid envelope.
+
+The second clause introduces a new object--"_the deep_." Whatever its
+precise nature, this is evidently something included in the earth of
+verse 1st, and created with it. The word occurs in other parts of the
+Hebrew Scriptures in various senses. It often denotes the sea,
+especially when in an agitated state (Psa. xlii., 8; Job xxxviii.,
+10). In Psalm cxxxv., however, it is distinguished from the sea:
+"Whatsoever the Lord pleased, that did he in heaven, in the earth, in
+the seas, and _in all deeps_." In other cases it has been supposed to
+refer to interior recesses of the earth, as when at the deluge "the
+fountains of the great deep" are said to have been broken up. It is
+probable, however, that this refers to the ocean. In some places it
+would appear to mean the atmosphere or its waters; as Prov. viii.,
+27-29, "When he prepared the heavens, I was there; when he described a
+circle on the face of the deep, when he established the clouds above,
+when he strengthened the fountains of the deep." The Septuagint in
+this passage reads "throne on the winds" and "fountains under the
+heaven."[39] Though we can not attach much value to these readings,
+there seems little reason to doubt that the author of this passage
+understands by the deep the atmospheric waters, and not the sea,
+which he mentions separately. The same meaning must be attached to the
+word in another passage of the Book of Proverbs: "The Lord in wisdom
+hath founded the earth, by understanding hath he established the
+heavens; by his knowledge the depths are broken up, and the clouds
+drop down the small rain."
+
+In the passage now under consideration, it would seem that we have
+both the deep and the waters mentioned, and this not in a way which
+would lead us to infer their identity. The darkness on the surface of
+the deep and the Spirit of God on the face of the waters seem to refer
+to the condition of two distinct objects at the same time. Neither can
+the word here refer to subterranean cavities, for the ascription of a
+surface to these, and the statement that they were enveloped in
+darkness, would in this case have neither meaning nor use. For these
+reasons I am induced to believe that the locality of the deep or abyss
+is to be sought, not in the universal ocean or the interior of the
+earth, but in the vaporous or aeriform mass mantling the surface of
+our nascent planet, and containing the materials out of which the
+atmosphere was afterward elaborated. This is a view leading to
+important consequences: one of which is that the darkness on the
+surface of the deep can not have been, as believed by the advocates of
+a local chaos, a mere atmospheric obscuration; since even at the
+_surface_ of what then represented the atmosphere darkness prevailed.
+"God covered the earth with the deep as with a garment, and the waters
+stood above the hills," and without this outer garment was the
+darkness of space destitute of luminaries, at least of those greater
+ones which are of primary importance to us. We learn from the
+following verses that there was no layer of clear atmosphere in this
+misty deep, separating the clouds from the ocean waters.
+
+The last clause of the verse has always been obscure, and perhaps it
+is still impossible to form a clear idea of the operation intended to
+be described. We are not even certain whether it is intended to
+represent any thing within the compass of ordinary natural laws, or to
+denote a direct intervention of the Creator, miraculous in its nature
+and confined to one period. It is possible that the general intention
+of the statement may be to the effect that the agency of the divine
+power in separating the waters from the incumbent vapors had already
+commenced--that the Spirit which would afterward evoke so many wonders
+out of the chaotic mass was already acting upon it in an unseen and
+mysterious way, preparing it for its future destiny.
+
+Some commentators, both Jewish and Christian, are, however, disposed
+to view the _Ruach Elohim_, Spirit, or breath of God, as meaning a
+wind of God, or mighty wind, according to a well-known Hebrew idiom.
+The word in its primary sense means wind or breath, and there are
+undoubted instances of the expression "wind of God" for a great or
+strong wind. For example, Isaiah xl., 7: "The grass withereth because
+the wind of the Lord bloweth upon it;" see also 2 Kings ii., 16. Such
+examples, however, are very rare, and by no means sufficient of
+themselves to establish this interpretation. Those who hold this view
+do so mainly in consideration of the advantage which it affords in
+attaching a definite meaning to the expression. Many of them are not,
+however, aware of its precise import in a cosmical point of view. A
+violent wind, before the formation of the atmosphere, and the
+establishment of the laws which regulate the suspension and motions of
+aqueous vapors and clouds, must have been merely an agitation of the
+confused misty and vaporous mass of the deep; since, as
+Ainsworth--more careful than modern interpreters--long ago observed,
+"winde (which is the moving of the aier) was not created till the
+second day, that the firmament was spred, and the aier made." Such an
+agitation is by no means improbable. It would be a very likely
+accompaniment of a boiling ocean, resting on a heated surface, and of
+excessive condensation of moisture in the upper regions of the
+atmosphere; and might act as an influential means of preparing the
+earth for the operations of the second day. It is curious also that
+the Phoenician cosmogony is said to have contained the idea of a
+mighty wind in connection with this part of creation, and the idea of
+seething or commotion in the primitive chaos also occurs in the
+Assyrian tablets of creation, while the Quiche legend represents
+Hurakon, the storm-god, as specially concerned in the creative
+work.[40] On the other hand, the verb used in the text rather
+expresses hovering or brooding than violent motion, and this better
+corresponds with the old fable of the mundane egg, which seems to have
+been derived from the event recorded in this verse. The more
+evangelical view, which supposes the Holy Spirit to be intended, is
+also more in accordance with the general scope of the Scripture
+teachings on this subject; and the opposite idea is, as Calvin well
+says, "too frigid" to meet with much favor from evangelical
+theologians.
+
+Chaos, the equivalent of the Hebrew "desolation and emptiness,"
+figures largely in all ancient cosmogonies. That of the Egyptians is
+interesting, not only from its resemblance to the Hebrew doctrine, but
+also from its probable connection with the cosmogony of the Greeks.
+Taking the version of Diodorus Siculus, which though comparatively
+modern, yet corresponds with the hints derived from older sources, we
+find the original chaos to have been an intermingled condition of
+elements constituting heaven and earth. This is the Hebrew "deep." The
+first step of progress is the separation of these; the fiery particles
+ascending above, and not only producing light, but the revolution of
+the heavenly bodies--a curious foreshadowing of the nebular hypothesis
+of modern astronomy. After these, in the terms of the lines quoted by
+Diodorus from Euripides, plants, birds, mammals, and finally man are
+produced, not however by a direct creative fiat, but by the
+spontaneous fecundity of the teeming earth. The Phoenician cosmogony
+attributed to Sancuniathon has the void, the deep, and the brooding
+Spirit; and one of the terms employed, "baau," is the same with the
+Hebrew "bohu," void, if read without the points. The Babylonians,
+according to Berosus, believed in a chaos--which, however, like the
+literal-day theory of some moderns, produced many monsters before
+Belus intervened to separate heaven and earth. But the Assyrian legend
+found in the Nineveh tablets is very precise in its intimation of the
+Chaos or _Tiamat_, the mother of all things; and, farther, it
+recognizes this personified chaos as the principle of evil, whose
+"dragon" becomes the tempter of the progenitors of mankind, exactly
+like the Biblical serpent. This "dragon of the abyss" is thus
+identical in name and function with the evil principle even of the
+last book of the New Testament, and we have in this also probably the
+origin of the Ahriman of the Avesta. Thus in these Eastern theologies
+the primeval chaos becomes the type of evil as opposed to the order,
+beauty, and goodness of the creation of God--a very natural
+association; but one kept in the background by the Hebrew Scriptures,
+as tending to a dualistic belief subversive of monotheism. The Greek
+myth of Chaos, and its children Erebus and Night, who give birth to
+Aether and Day, is the same tradition, personified after the fanciful
+manner of a people who, in the primitive period of their civilization,
+had no profound appreciation of nature, but were full of human
+sympathies.[41] Lastly, in a hymn translated by Dr. Max Mueller from
+the Rig-Veda, a work probably far older than the Institutes of Menu,
+we have such utterances as the following:
+
+  "Nor aught nor nought existed: yon bright sky
+  Was not, nor heaven's broad woof outstretched above.
+  What covered all? what sheltered? what concealed?
+  Was it the water's fathomless abyss? * * *
+  Darkness there was, and all at first was veiled
+  In gloom profound--an ocean without light;
+  The germ that still lay covered in the husk
+  Burst forth, one nature, from the fervent heat."
+
+It is evident that the state of our planet which we have just been
+considering is one of which we can scarcely form any adequate
+conception, and science can in no way aid us, except by suggesting
+hypotheses or conjectures. It is remarkable, however, that nearly all
+the cosmological theories which have been devised contain some of the
+elements of the inspired narrative. The words of Moses appear to
+suggest a heated and cooling globe, its crust as yet unbroken by
+internal forces, covered by a universal ocean, on which rested a mass
+of confused vaporous substances; and it is of such materials, thus
+combined by the sacred historian, that cosmologists have built up
+their several theories, aqueous or igneous, of the early state of the
+earth. Geology, as a science of observation and induction, does not
+carry us back to this period. It must still and always say, with
+Hutton, that it can find "no trace of a beginning, no prospect of an
+end"--not because there has been no beginning or will be no end, but
+because the facts which it collects extend neither to the one nor the
+other. Geology, like every other department of natural history, can
+but investigate the facts which are open to observation, and reason on
+these in accordance with the known laws and arrangements of existing
+nature. It finds these laws to hold for the oldest period to which the
+rocky archives of the earth extend. Respecting the origin of these
+general laws and arrangements, or the condition of the earth before
+they originated, it knows nothing. In like manner a botanist may
+determine the age of a forest by counting the growth rings of the
+oldest trees, but he can tell nothing of the forests that may have
+preceded it, or of the condition of the surface before it supported a
+forest. So the archaeologist may on Egyptian monuments read the names
+and history of successive dynasties of kings, but he can tell nothing
+of the state of the country and its native tribes before those
+dynasties began or their monuments were built. Yet geology at least
+establishes a probability that a time was when organized beings did
+not exist, and when many of the arrangements of the surface of our
+earth had not been perfected; and the few facts which have given birth
+to the theories promulgated on this subject tend to show that this
+pre-geological condition of the earth may have been such as that
+described in the words now under consideration. I may remark, in
+addition, that if the words of Moses imply the cooling of the globe
+from a molten or intensely heated state down to a temperature at which
+water could exist on its surface, the known rate of cooling of bodies
+of the dimensions and materials of the earth shows that the time
+included in these two verses of Genesis must have been enormous,
+amounting it may be to many millions of years.
+
+There are two other sciences besides geology which have in modern
+times attempted to penetrate into the mysteries of the primitive
+abyss, at least by hypothetical explanations--astronomy and chemistry.
+The magnificent nebular hypothesis of La Place, which explains the
+formation of the whole solar system by the condensation of a revolving
+mass of gaseous matter, would manifestly bring our earth to the
+condition of a fluid body, with or without a solid crust, and
+surrounded by a huge atmosphere of its more volatile materials,
+gradually condensing itself around the central nucleus. Chemistry
+informs us that this vaporous mass would contain not only the
+atmospheric air and water, but all the carbon, sulphur, phosphorus,
+chlorine, and other elements, volatile in themselves, or forming
+volatile compounds with oxygen or hydrogen, that are now imprisoned in
+various states of combination in the solid crust of the earth. Such an
+atmosphere--vast, dark, pestilential, and capable in its condensation
+of producing the most intense chemical action--is a necessity of an
+earth condensing from a vaporous and incandescent state. Thus, in so
+far as scientific speculation ventures to penetrate into the genesis
+of the earth, its conclusions are at one with the Mosaic cosmogony and
+with the traditions of most ancient nations as to the primitive
+existence of a chaos--formless and void, in which "nor aught nor
+nought existed."
+
+Some of the details of the Mosaic vision of the primeval chaos may be
+supplied by the probabilities established by physics and chemistry.
+Our first idea of the earth would be a vast vaporous ball, recently
+spun out from the general mass of vapors forming the nebula which once
+represented the solar system. This huge cloud, whirling its annual
+round about the still vaporous centre of the system, would consist of
+all the materials now constituting the solid rocks as well as those of
+the seas and atmosphere, their atoms kept asunder by the force of
+heat, preventing not only their mechanical union, but even their
+chemical combination. But heat is being radiated on all sides into
+space, and the opposing force of gravitation is little by little
+gathering the particles toward the centre. At length a liquid nucleus
+is formed, while upon this are being precipitated showers of
+condensing matter from the still vast atmosphere to add to its volume.
+As this process advances, a new brilliancy is given to the feebly
+shining vapors by the incandescence of solid particles in the upper
+layers of the atmosphere, and in this stage our earth would be a
+little sun, a miniature of that which now forms the centre of our
+system, and which still, by virtue of its greater mass, continues in
+this state. But at length, by further cooling, this brilliancy is
+lost, and the still fluid globe is surrounded by a vast cloudy pall,
+in which condensing vapors gather in huge dark masses, and amid
+terrible electrical explosions, pour, in constantly increasing, acid,
+corrosive rains, upon the heated nucleus, combining with its
+materials, or again flashing into vapors. Thus darkness dense and
+gross would settle upon the vaporous deep, and would continue for long
+ages, until the atmosphere could be finally cleared of its superfluous
+vapors. In the mean time a crust of slag or cinder has been forming
+upon the molten nucleus. Broken again and again by the heaving of the
+seething mass, it at length sets permanently, and finally allows some
+portion of the liquid rain condensed upon it to remain as a boiling
+ocean. Then began the reign of the waters, under which the first
+stratified rocks were laid down by the deposit of earthy and saline
+matter suspended or dissolved in the heated sea. Such is the picture
+which science presents to us of the genesis of the earth, and so far
+as we can judge from his words, such must have been the picture
+presented to the mental vision of the ancient seer of creation; but he
+could discern also that mysterious influence, the "breath of Elohim,"
+which moved on the face of the waters, and prepared for the evolution
+of land and of life from their bosom. He saw--
+
+  "An earth--formless and void;
+  A vaporous abyss--dark at its very surface;
+  A universal ocean--the breath of God hovering over it."
+
+How could such a scene be represented in words? since it presented
+none of the familiar features of the actual world. Had he attempted to
+dilate upon it, he would, in the absence of the facts furnished by
+modern science, have been obliged, like the writers of some of the
+less simple and primitive cosmogonies already quoted,[42] to adopt the
+feeble expedient of enumerating the things not present. He wisely
+contents himself with a few well-chosen words, which boldly sketch the
+crude materials of a world hopeless and chaotic but for the animating
+breath of the Almighty, who has created even that old chaos out of
+which is to be worked in the course of the six creative days all the
+variety and beauty of a finished world.
+
+In conclusion, the reader will perceive how this reticence of the
+author of Genesis strengthens the argument for the primitive age of
+the document, and for the vision-theory as to its origin; and will
+also observe that, in the conception of this ancient writer, the
+"promise and potency" of order and life reside not alone in the atoms
+of a vaporous world, but also in the will of its Creator.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+LIGHT AND CREATIVE DAYS.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let light be, and light was; and God saw the
+     light that it was good, and separated the light from the
+     darkness; and God called the light Day; and the darkness he
+     called Night. And Evening was and Morning was--Day
+     one."--Genesis i., 3-5.
+
+
+Light is the first element of order and perfection introduced upon our
+planet--the first innovation on the old regime of darkness and
+desolation. There is a beautiful propriety in this, for the Hebrew
+_Aur_ (light) should be viewed as including heat and electricity as
+well as light; and these three forces--if they are really distinct,
+and not merely various movements of one and the same ether--are in
+themselves, or the proximate causes of their manifestation, the prime
+movers of the machinery of nature, the vivifying forces without which
+the primeval desolation would have been eternal. The statement
+presented here is, however, a bold one. Light without luminaries,
+which were afterward formed--independent light, so to speak, shining
+all around the earth--is an idea not likely to have occurred in the
+days of Moses to the framer of a fictitious cosmogony, and yet it
+corresponds in a remarkable manner with some of the theories which
+have grown out of modern induction.
+
+I have said that the Hebrew word translated "light" includes the
+vibratory movements which we call heat and electricity as well. I make
+this statement, not intending to assert that the Hebrews experimented
+on these forces in the manner of modern science, and would therefore
+be prepared to understand their laws or correlations as fully as we
+can. I give the word this general sense simply because throughout the
+Bible it is used to denote the solar light and heat, and also the
+electric light of the thunder-cloud: "the light of His cloud," "the
+bright light which is in the clouds." The absence of "_aur_,"
+therefore, in the primeval earth, is the absence of solar radiation,
+of the lightning's flash, and of volcanic fires. We shall in the
+succeeding verses find additional reasons for excluding all these
+phenomena from the darkness of the primeval night.
+
+The light of the first day can not reasonably be supposed to have been
+in any other than a visible and active state. Whether light be, as
+supposed by the older physicists, luminous matter radiated with
+immense velocity, or, as now appears more probable, merely the
+undulations of a universally diffused ether, its motion had already
+commenced. The idea of the matter of light as distinct from its power
+of affecting the senses does not appear in the Scriptures any farther
+than that the Hebrew name is probably radically identical with the
+word ether now used to express the undulating medium by which light is
+propagated; and if it did, the general creation of matter being stated
+in verse 1, and the notice of the separation of light and darkness
+being distinctly given in the present verse, there is no place left
+for such a view here. For this reason, that explanation of these words
+which supposes that on the first day the _matter_ of light, or the
+ether whose motions produce light, was created, and that on the fourth
+day, when luminaries were appointed, it became visible by beginning to
+undulate, must be abandoned; and the connection between these two
+statements must be sought in some other group of facts than that
+connected with the existence of the matter of light as distinct from
+its undulations.
+
+What, then, was the nature of the light which on the first day shone
+without the presence of any local luminary? It must have proceeded
+from luminous matter diffused through the whole space of the solar
+system, or surrounding our globe as with a mantle. It was "clothed
+with light as with a garment,"
+
+  "Sphered in a radiant cloud, for yet the sun was not."
+
+We have already rejected the hypothesis that the primeval night
+proceeded from a temporary obscuration of the atmosphere; and the
+expression, "God said, Let light be," affords an additional reason,
+since, in accordance with the strict precision of language which
+everywhere prevails in this ancient document, a mere restoration of
+light would not be stated in such terms. If we wish to find a natural
+explanation of the mode of illumination referred to, we must recur to
+one or other of the suppositions mentioned above, that the luminous
+matter formed a nebulous atmosphere, slowly concentrating itself
+toward the centre of the solar system, or that it formed a special
+envelope of our earth, which subsequently disappeared.
+
+We may suppose this light-giving matter to be the same with that which
+now surrounds the sun, and constitutes the stratum of luminous
+substance which, by its wondrous and unceasing power of emitting
+light, gives him all his glory. To explain the division of the light
+from the darkness, we need only suppose that the luminous matter, in
+the progress of its concentration, was at length all gathered within
+the earth's orbit, and then, as one hemisphere only would be
+illuminated at a time, the separation of light from darkness, or of
+day from night, would be established. This hypothesis, suggested by
+the words themselves, affords a simple and natural explanation of a
+statement otherwise obscure.
+
+It is an instructive circumstance that the probabilities respecting
+the early state of our planet, thus deduced from the Scriptural
+narrative, correspond very closely with the most ingenious and truly
+philosophical speculation ever hazarded respecting the origin of our
+solar system. I refer to the cosmical hypothesis of La Place, which
+was certainly formed without any reference to the Bible; and by
+persons whose views of the Mosaic narrative are of that shallow
+character which is too prevalent, has been suspected as of infidel
+tendency. La Place's theory is based on the following properties of
+the solar system, which will be found referred to in this connection
+in many popular works on astronomy: 1. The orbits of the planets are
+nearly circular. 2. They revolve nearly in the plane of the sun's
+equator.[43] 3. They all revolve round the sun in one direction, which
+is also the direction of the sun's rotation. 4. They rotate on their
+axes also, as far as is known, in the same direction. 5. Their
+satellites, with the exception of those of Uranus and Neptune, revolve
+in the same direction. Now all these coincidences can scarcely have
+been fortuitous, and yet they might have been otherwise without
+affecting the working of the system; and, farther, if not fortuitous,
+they correspond precisely with the results which would flow from the
+condensation of a revolving mass of nebulous matter. La Place,
+therefore, conceived that in the beginning the matter of our system
+existed in the condition of a mass of vaporous material, having a
+central nucleus more or less dense, and the whole rotating in a
+uniform direction. Such a mass must, "in condensing by cold, leave in
+the plane of its equator zones of vapor composed of substances which
+required an intense degree of cold to return to a liquid or solid
+state. These zones must have begun by circulating round the sun in the
+form of concentric rings, the most volatile molecules of which must
+have formed the superior part, and the most condensed the inferior
+part. If all the nebulous molecules of which these rings are composed
+had continued to cool without disuniting, they would have ended by
+forming a liquid or solid ring. But the regular constitution which all
+parts of the ring would require for this, and which they would have
+needed to preserve when cooling, would make this phenomenon extremely
+rare. Accordingly the solar system presents only one instance of
+it--that of the rings of Saturn. Generally the ring must have broken
+into several parts which have continued to circulate round the sun,
+and with almost equal velocity, while at the same time, in consequence
+of their separation, they would acquire a rotatory motion round their
+respective centres of gravity; and as the molecules of the superior
+part of the ring--that is to say, those farthest from the centre of
+the sun--had necessarily an absolute velocity greater than the
+molecules of the inferior part which is nearest it, the rotatory
+motion common to all the fragments must always have been in the same
+direction with the orbitual motion. However, if after their division
+one of these fragments has been sufficiently superior to the others to
+unite them to it by its attraction, they will have formed only a mass
+of vapor, which, by the continual friction of all its parts, must have
+assumed the form of a spheroid, flattened at the poles and expanded in
+the direction of its equator."[44] Here, then, are rings of vapor left
+by the successive retreats of the atmosphere of the sun, changed into
+so many planets in the condition of vapor, circulating round the
+central orb, and possessing a rotatory motion in the direction of
+their revolution, while the solar mass was gradually contracting
+itself round its centre and assuming its present organized form. Such
+is a general view of the hypothesis of La Place, which may also be
+followed out into all the known details of the solar system, and will
+be found to account for them all. Into these details, however, we can
+not now enter. Let us now compare this ingenious speculation with the
+Scripture narrative. In both we have the raw material of the heavens
+and the earth created before it assumed its distinct forms. In both we
+have that state of the planets characterized as without form and void,
+the condensing nebulous mass of La Place's theory being in perfect
+correspondence with the Scriptural "deep." In both it is implied that
+the permanent mutual relations of the several bodies of the system
+must have been perfected long after their origin. Lastly, supposing
+the luminous atmosphere of our sun to have been of such a character as
+to concentrate itself wholly around the centre of the system, and that
+as it became concentrated it acquired its intense luminosity, we have
+in both the production of light from the same cause; and in both it
+would follow that the concentration of this matter within the orbit of
+the earth would effect the separation of day from night, by
+illuminating alternately the opposite sides of the earth. It is true
+that the theory of La Place does not provide for any such special
+condensation of luminous matter, nor for any precise stage of the
+process as that in which the arrangements of light and darkness should
+be completed; but under his hypothesis it seems necessary to account
+in some such way for the sole luminosity of the sun; and the point of
+separation of day and night must have been a marked epoch in the
+history of the process for each planet. The theory of accretion of
+matter which has in modern times been associated with that of La Place
+would equally well accord with the indications in our Mosaic
+record.[45]
+
+It is further to be observed that so long as the material of the earth
+constituted a part of the great vaporous mass, it would be encompassed
+with its diffused light, and that after it had been left outside the
+contracting solar envelope, it might still retain some independent
+luminosity in its atmosphere, a trace of which may still exist in the
+auroral displays of the upper strata of the air. The earth might thus
+at first be in total darkness. It might then be dimly lighted by the
+surrounding nebulosity, or by a luminous envelope in its own
+atmosphere. Then it might, as before explained, relapse into the
+darkness of its misty mantle, and as this cleared away and the light
+of the sun increased and became condensed, the latter would gradually
+be installed into his office as the sole orb of day. It is quite
+evident that we thus have a sufficient hypothetical explanation of the
+light of the first of the creative aeons; and this is all that in the
+present state of science we can expect. "Where is the way where light
+dwelleth? and as for darkness, where is the place thereof, that thou
+shouldest take it to the bound thereof, and know the way to the house
+thereof?"
+
+For the reasons above given, we must regard the hypothesis of the
+great French astronomer as a wonderful approximation to the grand and
+simple plan of the construction of our system as revealed in
+Scripture. Nor must we omit to notice that the telescope and the
+spectroscope reveal to us in the heavens gaseous nebular bodies which
+may well be new systems in progress of formation, and in which the
+Creator is even now dividing the light from the darkness. Still
+another thought in connection with this subject is that the theory of
+a condensing system affords a measure of the aggregate time occupied
+in the work of creation. Sir William Thomson's well-known calculations
+give us one hundred millions of years as the possible age of the earth
+as a planetary globe; but calculations of the sun's heat as produced
+by gravitation alone would give a much less time. We have, however, a
+right to assume an original heated condition of the vaporous mass from
+which the sun was formed. Still the date above given would seem to be
+a maximum rather than a minimum age for the solar system.
+
+"God saw the light that it was good," though it illuminated but a
+waste of lifeless waters. It was good because beautiful in itself, and
+because God saw it in its relations to long trains of processes and
+wonderful organic structures on which it was to act as a vivifying
+agency. Throughout the Scriptures light is not only good, but an
+emblem of higher good. In Psalm civ. God is represented as "clothing
+himself with light as with a garment;" and in many other parts of
+these exquisite lyrics we have similar figures. "The Lord is my light
+and salvation;" "Lift up the light of thy countenance upon me;" "The
+entrance of thy law giveth light;" "The path of the just is as a
+shining light." And the great spiritual Light of the world, the "only
+begotten of the Father," the mediator alike in creation and
+redemption, is himself the "Sun of Righteousness." Perhaps the noblest
+Scripture passage relating to the blessing of light is one in the
+address of Jehovah to Job, which is unfortunately so imperfectly
+translated in the English version as to be almost unintelligible:
+
+  "Hast thou in thy lifetime given law to the morning,
+  Or caused the dawn to know its place,
+  That it may enclose the horizon in its grasp,
+  And chase the robbers before it:
+  It rolls along as the seal over the clay,
+  Causing all things to stand forth in gorgeous apparel."[46]
+
+                                       Job xxxviii., 12.
+
+
+The concluding words, "Day one," bring us to the consideration of one
+of the most difficult problems in this history, and one on which its
+significance in a great measure depends--the meaning of the word
+_day_, and the length of the days of creation.
+
+In pursuing this investigation, I shall refrain from noticing in
+detail the views of the many able modern writers who, from Cuvier, De
+Luc, and Jameson, down to Hugh Miller, Donald McDonald, and Tayler
+Lewis, have maintained the period theory, or those equally numerous
+and able writers who have supported the opposite view. I acknowledge
+obligations to them all, but prefer to direct my attention immediately
+to the record itself.
+
+The first important fact that strikes us is one which has not
+received the attention it deserves, viz., that the word _day_ is
+evidently used in three senses in the record itself. We are told
+(verse 5th) that God called the _light_, that is, the diurnal
+continuance of light, day. We are also informed that the _evening_ and
+the _morning_ were the first day. Day, therefore, in one of these
+clauses is the light as separated from the darkness, which we may call
+the _natural day_; in the other it is the whole time occupied in the
+creation of light and its separation from the darkness, whether that
+was a _civil or astronomical day_ of twenty-four hours or some longer
+period. In other words, the daylight, to which God is represented as
+restricting the use of the term day, is only a part of a day of
+creation, which included both light and darkness, and which might be
+either a civil day or a longer period, but could not be the natural
+day intervening between sunrise and sunset, which is the _ordinary_
+day of Scripture phraseology. Again, in the 4th verse of chapter ii.,
+which begins the second part of the history, the whole creative week
+is called one day--"In the day that Jehovah Elohim made the earth and
+the heavens." Such an expression must surely in such a place imply
+more than a mere inadvertence on the part of the writer or writers.
+
+To pave the way for a right understanding of the day of creation, it
+may be well to consider, in the first place, the manner in which the
+_shorter day_ is introduced. In the expression, "God _called_ the
+light day," we find for the first time the Creator naming his works,
+and we may infer that some important purpose was to be served by this.
+The nature of this purpose we ascertain by comparison with other
+instances of the same kind occurring in the chapter. God called the
+darkness night, the firmament heaven, the dry land earth, the gathered
+waters seas. In all these cases the purpose seems to have been one of
+verbal definition, perhaps along with an assertion of sovereignty. It
+was necessary to distinguish the diurnal darkness from that unvaried
+darkness which had been of old, and to discriminate between the
+limited waters of an earth having dry land on its surface and those of
+the ancient universal ocean. This is effected by introducing two new
+terms, night and seas. In like manner it was necessary to mark the new
+application of the term earth to the dry land, and that of heaven to
+the atmosphere, more especially as these were the senses in which the
+words were to be popularly used. The intention, therefore, in all
+these cases was to affix to certain things names different from those
+which they had previously borne in the narrative, and to certain terms
+new senses differing from those in which they had been previously
+used. Applying this explanation here, it results that the probable
+reason for calling the light day is to point out that the word occurs
+in two senses, and that while it was to be the popular and proper term
+for the natural day, this sense must be distinguished from its other
+meaning as a day of creation. In short, we may take this as a plain
+and authoritative declaration _that the day of creation is not the day
+of popular speech_. We see in this a striking instance of the general
+truth that in the simplicity of the structure of this record we find
+not carelessness, but studied and severe precision, and are warned
+against the neglect of the smallest peculiarities in its diction.
+
+What, then, is the day of creation, as distinguished by Moses himself
+from the natural day. The general opinion, and that which at first
+sight appears most probable, is that it is merely the ordinary civil
+day of twenty-four hours. Those who adopt this view insist on the
+impropriety of diverting the word from its usual sense. Unfortunately,
+however, for this argument, the word is not very frequently used in
+the Scriptures for the whole twenty-four hours of the earth's
+revolution. Its etymology gives it the sense of the time of glowing or
+warmth, and in accordance with this the divine authority here limits
+its meaning to the daylight. Accordingly throughout the Hebrew
+Scriptures _yom_ is generally the natural and not the civil day; and
+where the latter is intended, the compound terms "day and night" and
+"evening and morning" are frequently used. Any one who glances over
+the word "day" in a good English concordance can satisfy himself of
+this fact. But the sense of natural day from sunrise to sunset is
+expressly excluded here by the context, as already shown; and all that
+we can say in favor of the interpretation that limits the day of
+creation to twenty-four hours, is that next to the use of the word for
+the natural day, which is its true popular meaning, its use for the
+civil day is perhaps the most frequent. It is therefore by no means a
+statement of the whole truth to affirm, as many writers have done,
+that the civil day is _the ordinary_ meaning of the term. At the same
+time we may admit that this is _one_ of its ordinary meanings, and
+therefore may be its meaning here. Another argument frequently urged
+is that the day of creation is said to have had an evening and
+morning. We shall consider this more fully in the sequel, and in the
+mean time may observe that it appears rather hazardous to attribute an
+ordinary evening and morning to a day which, on the face of the
+record, preceded the formation and arrangement of the luminaries which
+are "for days and for years."[47]
+
+But it may be affirmed that in the Bible long and undefined periods
+are indicated by the word "day." In many of these cases the word is in
+the plural: as Genesis iv., 3, "And after days it came to pass,"
+rendered in our version "in process of time;" Genesis xl., 4, "days in
+ward," rendered "a season." Such instances as these are not applicable
+to the present question, since the plural may have the sense of
+indefinite time, merely by denoting an undetermined number of natural
+days. Passages in which the singular occurs in this sense are those
+which strictly apply to the case in hand, and such are by no means
+rare. A very remarkable example is that in Genesis ii., 4, already
+mentioned, where we find, "In the day when Jehovah Elohim made the
+earth and the heavens." This day must either mean the beginning, or
+must include the whole six days; most probably the latter, since the
+word "made" refers not to the act of creation, properly so called, but
+to the elaborating processes of the creative week; and occurring as
+this does immediately after the narrative of creation, it seems almost
+like an intentional intimation of the wide import of the creative
+days. It has been objected, however, that the expression "in the day"
+is properly a compound adverb, having the force of "when" or "at the
+time." But the learned and ingenious authors who urge this objection
+have omitted to consider the relative probabilities as to whether the
+adverbial use had arisen while the word _yom_ meant simply a day, or
+whether the use of the noun for long periods was the reason of the
+introduction of such an adverbial expression. The probabilities are in
+favor of the latter, for it is not likely that men would construct an
+adverb referring to indefinite time from a word denoting one of the
+most precisely limited portions of time, unless that word had also a
+second and more unlimited sense. Admitting, therefore, that the phrase
+is an adverb of time, its use so early as the date of the composition
+of Genesis, to denote a period longer than a literal day, seems to
+imply that this indefinite use of the word was of high antiquity, and
+probably preceded the invention of any term by which long periods
+could be denoted.
+
+This use of the word "day" is, however, not limited to cases of the
+occurrence of the formula "in the day." The following are a few out of
+many instances that might be quoted: Job xviii., 20, "They that come
+after him shall be astonished at his day;" Job xv., 32, "It shall be
+accomplished before his _time_;" Judges xviii., 30, "Until the day of
+the captivity of the land;" Deut. i., 39, "And your children which in
+that day had no knowledge of good and evil;" Gen. xxxix., 10, "And it
+came to pass about that time" (on that day). We find also abundance of
+such expressions as "day of calamity," "day of distress," "day of
+wrath," "day of God's power," "day of prosperity." In such passages
+the word is evidently used in the sense of era or period of time, and
+this in prose as well as poetry.
+
+There is a remarkable passage in the Psalms, which conveys the idea of
+a day of God as distinct from human or terrestrial days:
+
+  "Before the mountains were brought forth,
+  Or ever thou hadst formed the earth and the world,
+  Even from everlasting to everlasting, thou art God.
+  Thou turnest man to destruction,
+  And sayest, Return, ye children of men;
+  For a thousand years are in thy sight as yesterday when it is past,
+  And as a watch in the night."[48]
+
+It is a singular coincidence that the authorship of this Psalm is
+attributed to Moses, and that its style and language correspond with
+the songs credited to him in Deuteronomy. It is farther to be observed
+that the reference is to the long periods employed in creation as
+contrasted with the limited space of years allotted to man. Its
+meaning, too, is somewhat obscured by the inaccurate translation of
+the third line. In the original it is, "From _olam_ to _olam_ thou
+art, O El"--that is, "from age to age." These long ages of creation,
+constituting a duration to us relatively eternal, were so protracted
+that even a thousand years are but as a watch in the night. If this
+Psalm is rightly attributed to the author of the first chapter of
+Genesis, it seems absolutely certain that he understood his own
+creative days as being _Olamim_ or aeons. The same thought occurs in
+the Second Epistle of Peter: "One day is with the Lord as a thousand
+years, and a thousand years as one day."
+
+That the other writers of the Old Testament understood the creative
+days in this sense, might be inferred from the entire absence of any
+reference to the work of creation as short, since it occupied only six
+days. Such reference we may find in modern writers, but never in the
+Scriptures. On the contrary, we receive the impression of the creative
+work as long continued. Thus the divine Wisdom says in Prov. viii.,
+The Lord possessed me "from the beginning of his way before his works
+of old, from everlasting, before the antiquities of the earth." So in
+Psalm cxlv., God's kingdom relatively to nature and providence is a
+kingdom "of all ages." In Psalm civ., which is a poetical version of
+the creative work, and the oldest extant commentary on Genesis i., it
+is evident that there was no idea in the mind of the writer of a short
+time, but rather of long consecutive processes; and I may remark here
+that the course of the narrative itself in Genesis i., implies time
+for the replenishing of the earth with various forms of being in
+preparation for others, exactly as in Psalm civ.
+
+Perhaps one of the most conclusive arguments in favor of the length of
+the creative days is that furnished by the seventh day and the
+institution of the Sabbath. In Genesis the seventh day is not said to
+have had any evening or morning, nor is God said to have resumed his
+work on any eighth day. Consequently the seventh day of creation must
+be still current. Now in the fourth commandment the Israelites are
+enjoined to "remember the Sabbath-day," because "in six days God
+created the heavens and the earth." Observe here that the Sabbath is
+to be remembered as an institution already known. Observe farther that
+the commandment is placed in the middle of the Decalogue, a solitary
+piece of apparently arbitrary ritual amid the plainest and most
+obvious moral duties. Observe also that the reason given--namely,
+God's six days' work and seventh day's rest--seems at first sight both
+far-fetched and trivial, as an argument for abstaining from work in a
+seventh part of our time. How is all this to be explained? Simply, I
+think, on the supposition that the Lawgiver, and those for whom he
+legislated, knew beforehand the history of creation and the fall, as
+we have them recorded in Genesis, and knew that God's days are aeons.
+The argument is not, "God worked on six natural days, and rested on
+the seventh; do you therefore the same." Such an argument could have
+no moral or religious force, more especially as it could not be
+affirmed that God habitually works and rests in this way. The argument
+reaches far deeper and higher. It is this. God created the world in
+six of his days, and on the seventh rested, and invited man in Eden to
+enter on his rest as a perpetual Sabbath of happiness. But man fell,
+and lost God's Sabbath. Therefore a weekly Sabbath was prescribed to
+him as a memorial of what he had lost, and a pledge of what God has
+promised in the renewal of life and happiness through our Saviour.
+Thus the Sabbath is the central point of the moral law--the Gospel in
+the Decalogue--the connection between God and man through the promise
+of redemption. It is this and this alone that gives it its true
+religious significance, but is lost on the natural-day theory. It
+would farther seem that this view of the law was that of our Lord
+himself, and was known to the Jews of his time, for, when blamed for
+healing a man on the Sabbath, he says, "My Father worketh hitherto,
+and I work"--an argument whose force depended on the fact that God
+continues to work in his providence throughout his long Sabbath, which
+has never been broken except by man. Farther, the writer of the
+Epistle to the Hebrews takes this view in arguing as to the rest or
+Sabbatism that remains to the people of God. His argument (chap. iv.,
+4) may be stated thus: God finished his work and entered into his
+rest. Man, in consequence of the fall, failed to do so. He has made
+several attempts since, but unsuccessfully. Now Christ has finished
+his work, and has entered into his Sabbath, and through him we may
+enter into that rest of God which otherwise we can not attain to. This
+does not, it is true, refer to the keeping of a Sabbath-day; but it
+implies an understanding of the reference to God's olamic Sabbath,
+and also implies that Christ, having entered into his Sabbatism in
+heaven, gives us a warrant for the Christian Sabbath or Lord's day,
+which has the same relation to Christ's present Sabbatism in heaven
+that the old Sabbath had to God's rest from his work of creation.[49]
+
+We may add to these considerations the use of the Greek term _Ai[=o]n_
+in the New Testament, for what may be called time-worlds as
+distinguished from space-worlds. For example, take the expression in
+Heb. i., 2: "His Son, by whom he made the worlds," or, literally,
+"constituted the aeons"--the long time-worlds of the creation. For
+God's worlds must exist in time as well as in space, and both may to
+our minds alike appear as infinities. If, then, we find that Moses
+himself seems to have understood his creative days as aeons, that the
+succeeding Old Testament writers favor the same view, that this view
+is essential to the true significance of the Sabbath and the Lord's
+day, and that it is sustained by Christ and his apostles, there is
+surely no need for our clinging to a mediaeval notion which has no
+theological value, and is in opposition to the facts of nature. On the
+contrary, should not even children be taught these grand truths, and
+led to contemplate the great work of Him who is from aeon to aeon, and
+to think of that Sabbatism which he prepared for us, and which he
+still offers to us in the future, in connection with the succession of
+worlds in time revealed by geology, and which rivals in grandeur and
+perhaps exceeds in interest the extension of worlds in space revealed
+by astronomy. In truth, we should bear in mind that the great
+revelations of astronomy have too much habituated us to think of
+space-worlds rather than time-worlds, while the latter idea was
+evidently dominant with the Biblical writers as it is also with modern
+geologists. Viewed as aeons--divine days, or time-worlds--the days of
+creation are thus a reality for all ages; and connect themselves with
+the highest moral teachings of the Bible in relation to the fall of
+man and God's plan for his restoration, begun in this seventh aeon of
+the world's long history, and to be completed in that second divine
+Sabbatism, secured by the work of redemption, the final "rest" of the
+"new heavens and new earth," which remains for the people of God.
+
+But supposing that the inspired writer intended to say that the world
+was formed in six long periods of time, could not he have used some
+other word than _yom_ that would have been liable to fewer doubts.
+There are words which might have been used, as, for instance, _eth_,
+time, season, or _olam_, age, ancient time, eternity. The former,
+however, has about it a want of precision as to its beginning and end
+which unfits it for this use; the latter we have already seen is used
+as equivalent to the creative _yom_. On the whole, I am unable to
+find any instance which would justify me in affirming that, on the
+supposition that Moses intended long periods, he could have better
+expressed the idea than by the use of the word _yom_, more especially
+if he and those to whom he wrote were familiar with the thought,
+preserved to us in the mythology of the Hindoos and Persians, and
+probably widely diffused in ancient Asia, that a working day of the
+Creator immeasurably transcends a working day of man.[50]
+
+Many objections to the view which I have thus endeavored to support
+from internal evidence will at once occur to every intelligent reader
+familiar with the literature of this subject. I shall now attempt to
+give the principal of these objections a candid consideration.
+
+(1.) It is objected that the time occupied in the work of creation is
+given as a reason for the observance of the seventh day as a Sabbath;
+and that this requires us to view the days of creation as literal
+days. "For in six days Jehovah made the heaven and the earth, the sea
+and all that in them is, and rested on the seventh day; therefore
+Jehovah blessed the Sabbath-day and sanctified it." The argument used
+here is, however, as we have already seen, one of analogy. Because God
+rested on his seventh day, he blessed and sanctified it, and required
+men in like manner to sanctify their seventh day.[51] Now, if it
+should appear that the working day of God is not the same with the
+working day of man, and that the Sabbath of God is of proportionate
+length to his working day, the analogy is not weakened; more
+especially as we find the same analogy extended to the seventh year.
+If it should be said, God worked in the creation of the world in six
+long ages, and rested on the seventh, therefore man, in commemoration
+of this fact, and of his own loss of an interest in God's rest by the
+fall, shall sanctify the seventh of his working days, the argument is
+stronger, the example more intelligible, than on the common
+supposition. This objection is, in fact, a piece of pedantic
+hyperorthodoxy which has too long been handed about without
+investigation. I may add to what has been already said in reference to
+it, the following vigorous thrust by Hugh Miller:[52]
+
+"I can not avoid thinking that many of our theologians attach a too
+narrow meaning to the remarkable reason attached to the fourth
+commandment by the divine Lawgiver. "God rested on the seventh day,"
+says the text, "from all his work which he had created and made; and
+God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it." And such is the reason
+given in the Decalogue why man should rest on the Sabbath-day. God
+rested on the Sabbath-day and sanctified it; and therefore man ought
+also to rest on the Sabbath and keep it holy. But I know not where we
+shall find grounds for the belief that the Sabbath-day during which
+God rested was merely commensurate with one of the Sabbaths of
+short-lived man--a brief period measured by a single revolution of the
+earth on its axis. We have not, as has been shown, a shadow of
+evidence that he resumed his work of creation on the morrow; the
+geologist finds no trace of post-Adamic creation; the theologian can
+tell us of none. God's Sabbath of rest may still exist; the work of
+redemption may be the work of his Sabbath-day. That elevatory process
+through successive acts of creation, which engaged him during myriads
+of ages, was of an ordinary week-day character; but when the term of
+his moral government began, the elevatory process peculiar to it
+assumed the divine character of the Sabbath. This special view appears
+to lend peculiar emphasis to the reason embodied in the commandment.
+The collation of the passage with the geologic record seems, as if by
+a species of retranslation, to make it enunciate as its injunction,
+"Keep this day, not merely as a day of memorial related to a past
+fact, but also as a day of co-operation with God in the work of
+elevation, in relation both to a present fact and a future purpose."
+"God keeps his Sabbath," it says, "in order that he may save; keep
+yours also that ye may be saved." It serves besides to throw light on
+the prominence of the Sabbatical command, in a digest of law of which
+no jot or tittle can pass away until the fulfillment of all things.
+During the present dynasty of probation and trial, that special work
+of both God and man on which the character of the future dynasty
+depends is the Sabbath-day work of saving and being saved.
+
+"The common objection to that special view which regards the days of
+creation as immensely protracted periods of time, furnishes a
+specimen, if not of reasoning in a circle, at least of reasoning from
+a mere assumption. It first takes for granted that the Sabbath-day
+during which God rested was a day of but twenty-four hours, and then
+argues from the supposition that, in order to keep up the proportion
+between the six previous working days and the seventh day of rest,
+which the reason annexed to the fourth commandment demands, these
+previous days must also have been twenty-four hours each. It would, I
+have begun to suspect, square better with the ascertained facts, and
+be at least equally in accordance with Scripture, to reverse the
+process, and argue that because God's working days were immensely
+protracted periods, his Sabbath also must be an immensely protracted
+period. The reason attached to the law of the Sabbath seems to be
+simply a reason of proportion: the objection to which I refer is an
+objection palpably founded on considerations of proportion, and
+certainly were the reason to be divested of proportion, it would be
+divested also of its distinctive character as a reason. Were it as
+follows, it could not be at all understood: "Six days shalt thou
+labor, etc.; but on the seventh day shalt thou do no labor, etc.; for
+in six immensely protracted periods of several thousand years each did
+the Lord make the heavens and the earth, etc.; and then rested during
+a brief day of twenty-four hours; therefore the Lord blessed the brief
+day of twenty-four hours and hallowed it." This, I repeat, would not
+be reason. All, however, that seems necessary to the integrity of the
+reason, in its character as such, is that the proportion of six parts
+to seven should be maintained. God's periods may be periods expressed
+algebraically by letters symbolical of unknown quantities, and man's
+periods by letters symbolical of quantities well known; but if God's
+Sabbath be equal to one of his six working days, and man's Sabbath
+equal to one of his six working days, the integrity of proportion is
+maintained."
+
+Not only does this view of the case entirely remove the objection,
+but, as we have already seen, it throws a new light on the nature and
+reason of the Sabbath. No good reason, except that of setting an
+example, can be assigned for God's resting for a literal day. But if
+God's Sabbath of rest from natural creation is still in progress, and
+if our short Sabbaths are symbolical of the work of that great Sabbath
+in its present gray morning and in its coming glorious noon, then may
+the Christian thank this question, incidentally raised by geology and
+its long periods, for a ray of light which shines along the whole
+course of Scripture history, from the first Sabbath up to that final
+"rest which remaineth for the people of God."[53]
+
+(2.) It is objected that evening and morning are ascribed to the first
+day. This has been already noticed; it may here be considered more
+fully. The word evening in the original is literally the darkening,
+the sunset, the dusk. Morning is the _opening_ or _breaking forth_ of
+light--the daybreak. It must not be denied that the explanation of
+these terms is attended with some difficulty, but this is not at all
+lessened by narrowing the day to twenty-four hours. The first
+operation of the first day was the creation of light; next we have the
+Creator contemplating his work and pronouncing it to be good; then we
+have the separation of the light and darkness, previously, it is to be
+presumed, intermixed; and all this without the presence of a sun or
+other luminary. Which of these operations occupied the evening, and
+which the morning, if the day consisted of but twenty-four hours,
+beginning, according to Hebrew custom, in the evening? Was the old
+primeval darkness the evening or night, and the first breaking forth
+of light morning? This is almost the only view compatible with the
+Hebrew civil day beginning at evening, but it would at once lengthen
+the day beyond twenty-four hours, and contradict the terms of the
+record. Again, were the separated light and darkness the morning and
+evening? If so, why is the evening mentioned first, contrary to the
+supposed facts of the case? why, indeed, are the evening and morning
+mentioned at all, since on that supposition this is merely a
+repetition? Lastly, shall we adopt the ingenious expedient of dividing
+the evening and morning between two days, and maintaining that the
+evening belongs to the first and the morning to the second day, which
+would deprive the first day of a morning, and render the creative
+days, whatever their length, altogether different from Hebrew natural
+or civil days? It is unnecessary to pursue such inquiries farther,
+since it is evident that the terms of the record will not agree with
+the supposition of natural evening and morning. This is of itself a
+strong presumption against the hypothesis of civil days, since the
+writer was under no necessity so to word these verses that they would
+not give any rational or connected sense on the supposition of natural
+evening and morning, unless he wished to be otherwise understood.
+
+But what is the meaning of evening and morning, if these days were
+long periods? Here fewer difficulties meet us. First: It is readily
+conceivable that the beginning and end of a period named a day should
+be called evening and morning. But what made the use of these
+divisions necessary or appropriate? I answer that nature and
+revelation both give grounds at least to suspect that the evening, or
+earlier part of each period, was a time of comparative inaction,
+sometimes even of retrogression, and that the latter part of each
+period was that of its greatest activity and perfection. Thus, on the
+views stated in a former chapter, in the first day there was a time
+when luminous matter, either gradually concentrating itself toward the
+sun, or surrounding the earth itself, shed a dim but slowly increasing
+light; then there were day and night, the light increasing in
+intensity as, toward the end of the period, the luminous matter became
+more and more concentrated around the sun. So in our own seventh day,
+the earlier part was a time of deplorable retrogression, and though
+the Sun of Righteousness has arisen, we have seen as yet only a dim
+and cloudy morning. On the theory of days of vision, as expounded by
+Hugh Miller, in the "Testimony of the Rocks," in one of his noblest
+passages, the evening and night fall on each picture presented to the
+seer like the curtain of a stage. Secondly: Though the explanation
+stated above is the most probable, the hypothesis of long periods
+admits of another, namely, that the writer means to inform us that
+evening and morning, once established by the separation of light from
+darkness, continued without cessation throughout the remainder of the
+period--rolling from this time uninterruptedly around our planet, like
+the seal cylinder over the clay.[54] This explanation is, however,
+less applicable to the following days than to the first. Nor does this
+accord with the curious fact that the seventh day, which, on the
+hypothesis of long periods, is still in progress, is not said to have
+had an evening or morning.
+
+(3.) It is objected that the first chapter of Genesis "is not a poem
+nor a piece of oratorical diction," but a simple prosaic narrative,
+and consequently that its terms must be taken in a literal sense. In
+answer to this, I urge that the most truly literal sense of the word,
+namely, the _natural_ day, is excluded by the terms of the narrative;
+and that the word may be received as a literal day of the Creator, in
+the sense of one of his working periods, without involving the use of
+poetical diction, and in harmony with the wording of plain prosaic
+passages in other parts of the Bible. Examples of this have already
+been given. It is, however, true that, though the first chapter of
+Genesis is not strictly poetical, it is thrown into a metrical form
+which admits of some approach to a figurative expression in the case
+of a term of this kind.
+
+(4.) It has been urged that in cases where day is used to denote
+period, as in the expressions "day of calamity," etc., the adjuncts
+plainly show that it can not mean an ordinary day. In answer to this,
+I merely refer to the internal evidence already adduced, and to the
+deliberate character of the statements, in the manner rather of the
+description of processes than of acts. The difficulties attending the
+explanation of the evening and the morning, and the successive
+creation of herbivorous and carnivorous animals, are also strong
+indications which should serve here to mark the sense, just as the
+context does in the cases above referred to.
+
+(5.) In Professor Hitchcock's valuable and popular "Religion of
+Geology," I find some additional objections, which deserve notice as
+specimens of the learned trifles which pass current among writers on
+this subject, much to the detriment of sound Scriptural literature. I
+give them in the words of the author. 1. "From Genesis ii., 5 compared
+with Genesis i., 11 and 12, it seems that it had not rained on the
+earth till the third day; a fact altogether probable if the days were
+of twenty-four hours, but absurd if they were long periods." It
+strikes us that the absurdity here is all on the side of the short
+days. Why should any prominence be given to a fact so common as the
+lapse of two ordinary days without rain, more especially if a region
+of the earth and not the whole is referred to, and in a document
+prepared for a people residing in climates such as those of Egypt and
+Palestine. But what could be more instructive and confirmatory of the
+truth of the narrative than the fact that in the two long periods
+which preceded the formation and clearing up of the atmosphere or
+firmament, on which rain depends, and the elevation of the dry land,
+which so greatly modifies its distribution, there had been no rain
+such as now occurs. This is a most important fact, and one of the
+marked coincidences of the record with scientific truth. The
+objection, therefore, merely shows that the ordinary day hypothesis
+tends to convert one of the finest internal harmonies of this
+wonderful history into an empty and, in some respects, absurd
+commonplace. 2. "This hypothesis (that days are long periods) assumes
+that Moses describes the creation of all the animals and plants that
+have ever lived on our globe. But geology decides that the species now
+living, since they are not found in the rocks any lower than man
+is,[55] could not have been contemporaneous with those in the rocks,
+but must have been created when man was--that is, in the sixth day. Of
+such a creation no mention is made in Genesis; the inference is that
+Moses does not describe the creation of the existing races, but only
+of those that lived thousands of years earlier, and whose existence
+was scarcely suspected till modern times. Who will admit such an
+absurdity?" In answer to this objection, I remark that it is based on
+a false assumption. The hypothesis of long periods does not require us
+to assume that Moses notices all the animals and plants that have ever
+lived, but on the contrary that he informs us only of the _first
+appearance_ of each great natural type in the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms; just as he informs us of the first appearance of dry land on
+the third day, but says nothing of the changes which it underwent on
+subsequent days. Thus plants were created on the third day, and though
+they may have been several times destroyed and renewed as to genera
+and species, we infer that they continued to exist in all the
+succeeding days, though the inspired historian does not inform us of
+the fact. So also many tribes of animals were created in the early
+part of the fifth day, and it is quite unnecessary for us to be
+informed that these tribes continued to exist through the sixth day.
+If the days were long periods, the inspired writer could not have
+adopted any other course, unless he had been instructed to write a
+treatise on Palaeontology, and to describe the fauna and flora of each
+successive period with their characteristic differences. 3. "Though
+there is a general resemblance between the order of creation as
+described in Genesis and by geology, yet when we look at the details
+of the creation of the organic world, as required by this hypothesis,
+we find manifest discrepancy. Thus the Bible represents plants only to
+have been created on the third day, and animals not till the fifth;
+and hence at least the lower half of the fossiliferous rocks ought to
+contain nothing but vegetables. Whereas in fact the lower half of
+these rocks, all below the carboniferous, although abounding in
+animals, contain scarcely any plants, and these in the lowest strata
+fucoids or sea-weeds. But the Mosaic account evidently describes
+flowering and seed-bearing plants, not flowerless and seedless algae.
+Again, reptiles are described in Genesis as created on the fifth day;
+but reptilia and batrachians existed as early as the time when the
+lower carboniferous and even old red sandstone were in course of
+deposition, as their tracks on those rocks in Nova Scotia and
+Pennsylvania evince.[56] In short, if we maintain that Moses describes
+fossils as well as living species, we find discrepancy instead of
+correspondence between his order of creation and that of geology." In
+this objection it is assumed that the geological history of the earth
+goes back to the third day of creation, or, in other words, to the
+dawn of organic life. None of the greater authorities in geology
+would, however, now venture to make such an assertion, and the
+progress of geology is rapidly making the contrary more and more
+probable. The fact is that, on the supposition that the days of
+creation are long periods, the whole series of the fossiliferous rocks
+belongs to the fifth and sixth days; and that for the early plant
+creation of the third day, and the great physical changes of the
+fourth, geology has nothing as yet to show, except a mass of
+metamorphosed eozoic rocks which have hitherto yielded no fossils
+except a few Protozoa; but which contain vast quantities of carbon in
+the form of graphite, which may be the remains of plants.
+
+I have much pleasure in quoting, as a further answer to these
+objections, the following from Professor Dana:[57]
+
+"Accepting the account in Genesis as true, the seeming discrepancy
+between it and geology rests mainly here: Geology holds, and has held
+from the first, that the progress of creation was mainly through
+secondary causes; for the existence of the science presupposes this.
+Moses, on the contrary, was thought to sustain the idea of a simple
+fiat for each step. Grant this first point to science, and what
+farther conflict is there? _The question of the length of time_, it is
+replied. But not so; for if we may take the record as allowing more
+than six days of twenty-four hours, the Bible then places no limit to
+time. _The question of the days and periods_, it is replied again. But
+this is of little moment in comparison with the first principle
+granted. Those who admit the length of time and stand upon days of
+twenty-four hours have to place geological time _before_ the six days,
+and then assume a chaos and reordering of creation, on the six-day and
+fiat principle, after a previous creation that had operated for a long
+period through secondary causes. Others take days as periods, and thus
+allow the required time, admitting that creation was one in progress,
+a grand whole, instead of a _first_ creation excepting man by one
+method, and a _second_ with man by the other. This is now the
+remaining question between the theologians and geologists; for all the
+minor points, as to the exact interpretation of each day, do not
+affect the general concordance or discordance of the Bible and
+science.
+
+"On this point geology is now explicit in its decision, and indeed has
+long been so. It proves that there was no return to chaos, no great
+revolution, that creation was beyond doubt one in its progress. We
+know that some geologists have taken the other view. But it is only in
+the capacity of theologians, and not as geologists. The Rev. Dr.
+Buckland, in placing the great events of geology between the first and
+second verses of the Mosaic account, did not pretend that there was a
+geological basis for such an hypothesis; and no writer since has ever
+brought forward the first fact in geology to support the idea of a
+rearrangement just before man; not one solitary fact has ever been
+appealed to. The conclusion was on Biblical grounds, and not in any
+sense on geological. The best that Buckland could say, when he wrote
+twenty-five years since, was that geology did not absolutely disprove
+such an hypothesis; and that can not be said now.
+
+"It is often asserted, in order to unsettle confidence in these
+particular teachings of geology, that geology is a changing science.
+In this connection the remark conveys an erroneous impression. Geology
+is a progressive science; and all its progress tends to establish more
+firmly these two principles: (1) The slow progress of creation through
+secondary causes, as explained; and (2) the progress by periods
+analogous to the days of Genesis."
+
+I have, I trust, shown that the principal objections to the
+lengthening of the Mosaic days into great cosmical periods are of a
+character too light and superficial to deserve any regard. I shall now
+endeavor to add to the internal evidence previously given some
+considerations of an external character which support this view.
+
+1. The fact that the creation was progressive, that it proceeded from
+the formation of the raw material of the universe, through successive
+stages, to the perfection of living organisms, if we regard the
+analogy of God's operations as disclosed in the geological history of
+the earth and in the present course of nature, must impress us with a
+suspicion that long periods were employed in the work. God might have
+prepared the earth for man in an instant. He did not choose to do so,
+but on the contrary proceeded step by step; and the record he has
+given us does not receive its full significance nor attain its full
+harmony with the course of geological history, unless we can
+understand each day of the creative week as including a long
+succession of ages.
+
+2. We have, as already explained, reason to believe that the seventh
+day at least has been of long duration. At the close of the sixth, God
+rested from all his work of material creation, and we have as yet no
+evidence that he has resumed it. Neither theologians nor evolutionists
+will, I presume, desire to maintain that any strictly creative acts
+have occurred in the modern period of geology. We know that the
+present day, if it is the seventh, has lasted already for at least six
+thousand years, and, if we may judge from the testimony of prophecy,
+has yet a long space to run, before it merges in that "new heaven and
+new earth" for which all believers look, and which will constitute the
+first day of an endless sabbatism.
+
+3. The philosophical and religious systems of many ancient nations
+afford intimations of the somewhat extensive prevalence in ancient
+times of the notion of long creative periods, corresponding to the
+Mosaic days. These notions, in so far as they are based on truth, are
+probably derived from the Mosaic narrative itself, or from the
+primitive patriarchal documents which may have formed the basis of
+that narrative. They are, no doubt, all more or less garbled versions,
+and can not be regarded as of any authority, but they serve to show
+what was the interpretation of the document in a very remote
+antiquity. I have collected from a variety of sources the following
+examples:
+
+The ancient mythology of Persia appears to have had six creative
+periods, each apparently of a thousand years, and corresponding very
+nearly with the Mosaic days.[58] The Chaldeans had a similar system,
+to which in a previous chapter we have already referred. The Etruscans
+possessed a history of the creation, somewhat resembling that of the
+Bible, and representing the creation as occupying six periods of a
+thousand years each.[59]
+
+The Egyptians believed that the world had been subject to a series of
+destructions and renewals, the intervals between which amounted to
+120,000 years, or, according to other authorities, to 300,000 or
+360,000 years. This system of destruction and renewal the Egyptian
+priests appear to have wrought out into considerable detail, but
+though important truths may be concealed under their mysterious
+dogmas, it will not repay us to dwell on the fragments that remain of
+them. There can be no doubt, however, that at least the basis of the
+Egyptian cosmogony must have been the common property of all the
+Hamite nations, of which Egypt was the greatest and most permanent;
+and therefore in all probability derived from the ideas of creation
+which were current not long after the Deluge. The Egyptians appear
+also, as already stated, to have had a physical cosmogony, beginning
+with a chaos in which heaven and earth were mingled, and from which
+were evolved fiery matters which ascended into the heavens, and moist
+earthy matters which formed the earth and the sea; and from these were
+produced, by the agency of solar heat, the various animals. The terms
+of this cosmogony, as it is given by Diodorus Siculus, indicate the
+belief of long formative periods.[60]
+
+The Hindoos have a somewhat extended, though, according to the
+translations, a not very intelligible cosmogony. It plainly, however,
+asserts long periods of creative work, and is interesting as an
+ancient cosmogony preserved entire and without transmission through
+secondary channels. The following is a summary, in so far as I have
+been able to gather it, from the translation of the Institutes of Menu
+by Sir W. Jones.[61]
+
+The introduction to the Institutes represents Menu as questioned by
+the "divine sages" respecting the laws that should regulate all
+classes or castes. He proceeds to detail the course of creation,
+stating that the "Self-existing Power,[62] undiscovered, but making
+this world discernible, He whom the mind alone can perceive, whose
+essence eludes the external senses, who has no visible parts, who
+exists from eternity, even the soul of all being, whom no being can
+comprehend, shone forth in person."
+
+After giving this exalted view of the Creator, the writer proceeds to
+state that the Self-existent created the waters, and then an egg, from
+which he himself comes forth as Brahma the forefather of spirits. "The
+waters are called Nara because they are the production of _Nara_, the
+spirit of God, and since they were his first _Ayana_, or place of
+motion, he thence is named _Narayana_, or moving on the waters. In the
+egg Brahma remained a year, and caused the egg to divide, forming the
+heaven above and the earth beneath, and the subtile ether, the eight
+regions, and the receptacle of waters between. He then drew forth from
+the supreme soul mind with all its powers and properties." The rest of
+the account appears to be very confused, and I confess to a great
+extent unintelligible to me. There follows, however, a continuation
+of the narrative, stating that there is a succession of seven Menus,
+each of whom produces and supports the earth during his reign. It is
+in the account of these successive Menus that the following statement
+respecting the days and years of Brahma occurs:
+
+"A day of the Gods is equal to a year. Four thousand years of the Gods
+are called a Critya or Satya age. Four ages are an age of the Gods.
+_One thousand divine ages (equal to more than four millions of human
+years) are a day of Brahma the Creator._ Seventy-two divine ages are
+one manwantara. * * * The aggregate of four ages they call a divine
+age, and believe that in every thousand such ages, or in every day of
+Brahma, fourteen Menus are successively invested with the sovereignty
+of the earth. Each Menu they suppose transmits his authority to his
+sons and grandsons during a period of seventy-two divine ages, and
+such a period they call a manwantara. Thirty such days (of the
+Creator), or calpas, constitute a month of Brahma; twelve such months
+one of his years, and 100 such years his age, of which they assert
+that fifty years have elapsed. We are thus, according to the Hindoos,
+in the first day or calpa of the fifty-first year of Brahma's life,
+and in the twenty-eighth divine age of the _seventh manwantara_ of
+that day. In the present day of Brahma the first Menu was named the
+Son of the Self-existent, and by him the institutes of religion and
+civil duties are said to have been delivered. In his time occurred a
+new creation called the _Lotos_ creation." Of five Menus who succeeded
+him, Sir William could find little but the names, but the accounts of
+the seventh are very full, and it appears that in his reign the earth
+was destroyed by a flood. Sir William suggests that the first Menu may
+represent the creation, and that the seventh may be Noah. The name
+Menu or Manu is equivalent to "man," and signifies "the
+intelligent."[63]
+
+In this Hindoo cosmogony we have many points of correspondence with
+the Scripture narrative: for instance, the Self-existent Creator; the
+agency of the Son of God and the Holy Spirit; the absolute creation of
+matter; the hovering of the Spirit over the primeval waters; the
+sevenfold division of the creative process; and the idea of days of
+the Creator of immense duration. If we suppose the day of Brahma in
+the Hindoo cosmogony to represent the Mosaic day, then it amounts to
+no less than 4,320,000 years; or if, with Sir W. Jones, we suppose the
+manwantara to represent the Mosaic day, its duration will be 308,571
+years; and the total antiquity of the earth, without counting the
+undefined "beginning," will be either more than twenty-five or than
+two millions of years. It would be folly, however, to suppose that
+these Hindoo numbers, which are probably purely conjectural, or based
+on astronomical cycles, make any near approximation to the facts of
+the case. The Institutes of Menu are probably in their present form
+not of great antiquity, but there are other Hindoo documents of
+greater age which maintain similar views, and it is probable that the
+account of the creation in the Institutes is at least an imperfect
+version of the original narrative as it existed among the earliest
+colonists of India.[64] It corresponds in many points with the oldest
+notions on these subjects that remain to us in the wrecks of the
+mythology of Egypt and other ancient nations, and it aids in proving
+that the fabulous ages of gods and demigods in the ancient mythologies
+_are really pre-Adamite_; and belong not to human history, but to the
+work of creation. It also shows that the idea of long creative periods
+as equivalents of the Mosaic days must, in the infancy of the
+postdiluvian world, have been very widely diffused. Such evidence is,
+no doubt, of small authority in the interpretation of Scripture; but
+it must be admitted that serious consideration is due to a method of
+interpretation which thus tends to bring the Mosaic account into
+harmony with the facts of modern science, and with the belief of
+almost universal antiquity, and at the same time gives it its fullest
+significance and most perfect internal symmetry of parts. It is also
+very interesting to note the wide diffusion among the most ancient
+nations of cosmological views identical in their main features with
+those of the Bible, proving, almost beyond doubt, that these views had
+some common and very ancient source, and commanded universal belief
+among the primitive tribes of men.
+
+I have hitherto in this part of the discussion avoided detailed
+reference to what may be regarded as the "prophetic day" view of the
+narrative of creation. This may be shortly stated as follows: In the
+prophetical parts of Scripture the prophet sees in vision, as in a
+picture or acted scene, the events that are to come to pass, and in
+consequence represents years or longer periods by days of vision. Now
+the revelation of the pre-Adamite past is in its nature akin to that
+of the unknown future; and Moses may have seen these wondrous events
+in vision--in visions of successive days--under the guise of which he
+presents geological time. Some things in the form of the narrative
+favor this view, and it certainly affords the most clearly
+intelligible theory as to the mode in which such a revelation may have
+been made to man. It is advocated by Kurtz, by the author of an
+excellent little work, the "Harmony of the Mosaic and Geological
+Records," by Hugh Miller, and more recently by Tayler Lewis. To these
+writers I must refer for its more full illustration, and for the grand
+pictorial view which it gives of the vision of the creative week.
+
+In reviewing the somewhat lengthy train of reasoning into which the
+term "day" has led us, it appears that from internal evidence alone it
+can be rendered probable that the day of creation is neither the
+natural nor the civil day. It also appears that the objections urged
+against the doctrine of day-periods are of no weight when properly
+scrutinized, and that it harmonizes with the progressive nature of the
+work, the evidence of geology, and the cosmological notions of ancient
+nations. I do not suppose that this position has been incontrovertibly
+established; but I believe that every serious difficulty has been
+removed from its acceptance; and with this, for the present, I remain
+satisfied. Every step of our subsequent progress will afford new
+criteria of its truth or fallacy.
+
+One further question of some interest is--What, according to the
+theory of long creative days and the testimony of geology, would be
+the length and precise cosmical nature of these days? With regard to
+the first part of the question, we do not know the actual value of our
+geological ages in time; but it is probable that each great creative
+aeon may have extended through millions of years. As to the nature of
+the days, this may have been determined by direct volitions of the
+Creator, or indirectly by some of those great astronomical cycles
+which arise from the varying eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or the
+diminution of the velocity of its rotation, or by its gradual cooling.
+
+With reference to these points, science has as yet little information
+to give. Sir William Thomson has, indeed, indicated for the time since
+the earth's crust first began to form a period of between one and two
+hundred millions of years; but Professor Guthrie Tait, on the other
+hand, argues that ten or fifteen millions of years are probably
+sufficient,[65] and Lockyer has suggested an hypothesis of successive
+rekindlings of the solar heat which might give a more protracted time
+than that of Thomson. Some of the hypotheses of derivation current,
+but which are based rather on philosophical speculation than on
+scientific fact, would also require a longer time than that allowed by
+Thomson; and it is to be regretted that some geologists, by giving
+credence to such hypotheses of derivation, and by loose reasoning on
+the time required for the denudation and deposition of rocks, have
+been induced to commit themselves to very extravagant estimates as to
+geological time. On the whole, it is evident that only the most vague
+guesses can at present be based on the facts in our possession, though
+the whole time required has unquestionably been very great, the
+deposition of the series of stratified rocks probably requiring at
+least the greater part of the minimum time allowed by Thomson.[66]
+
+As to the cosmical nature of the periods, while some geologists appear
+to regard the whole of geological time as a continuous evolution
+without any breaks, it is evidently more in accordance with facts to
+hold that there have been cycles of repose and activity succeeding
+each other, and that these have been of different grades. In the
+succession of deposits it is plain that periods of depression and
+upheaval common to all the continental masses have succeeded each
+other at somewhat regular intervals, and that within these periods
+there have been alternations of colder and warmer climates. These,
+however, are not equal to the creative days of our record, for they
+are greatly more numerous. They are but the vastly protracted hours of
+these almost endless days. Beyond and above these there is another
+grade of geological period, marked not by mere gradual elevation and
+depression of the continental areas, but by vast crumplings of the
+earth's crust and enormous changes of level. Such a great movement
+unquestionably closed the Eozoic period of geology. Another of less
+magnitude occurred in what is termed the Permian age at the end of the
+Palaeozoic. A third terminated the Mesozoic age, and introduced the
+Tertiary or Kainozoic. Perhaps we should reckon the glacial age,
+though characterized by far less physical change than the others, as a
+fourth. The possible physical causes which have been suggested for
+such greater disturbances are the collapses of the crust in equatorial
+regions, which may be supposed to have resulted at long intervals of
+time, from the gradual retardation of the earth's rotation caused by
+the tides, or the similar collapses and other changes due to the
+shrinkages of the earth's interior caused by its gradual cooling, and
+to the unequal deposition of material by water on different parts of
+its surface.[67] The more full discussion of these points belongs,
+however, to a future chapter.
+
+These greater movements of the crust, would, as already stated,
+coincide to some extent with the later creative days in the manner
+indicated below:
+
+  ==================================================================
+  Collapse of crust at close of   | Close of Fourth AEon,
+  Eozoic Time,                    | and beginning of Fifth.
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Collapse in Permian Period and  | Middle of Fifth AEon.
+  end of Palaeozoic Time,          |
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Great subsidence and collapse   | Close of Fifth AEon, and beginning
+  at close of Mesozoic Age,       | of Sixth.
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Great subsidence of the         | End of Sixth AEon.
+  Pleistocene or Glacial Age,     |
+  ==================================================================
+
+The question recurs--Why are God's days so long? He is not like us, a
+being of yesterday. He is "from Olam to Olam," and even in human
+history one day is with him as a thousand years; and we who live in
+these later days of the world know full well how slow the march of his
+plan has been even in human history. We shall know in the endless ages
+of a future eternity that even to us these long creative days may at
+last become but as watches in the night.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE ATMOSPHERE.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let there be an expanse between the waters;
+     and let it separate the waters from the waters. And God made
+     the expanse, and separated the waters which are under the
+     expanse from the waters which are over the expanse: and it
+     was so. And God called the expanse Heaven. And the evening
+     and the morning were the second day."--Genesis i. 6-8.
+
+
+At the opening of the period to which we are now introduced the earth
+was covered by the waters, and these were in such a condition that
+there was no distinction between the seas and the clouds. No
+atmosphere separated them, or, in other words, dense fogs and mists
+everywhere rested on the surface of the primeval ocean. To understand
+as far as possible the precise condition of the earth's surface at
+this period, it will be necessary to notice the present constitution
+of the atmosphere, especially in its relations to aqueous vapor.
+
+The regular and constant constituents of the atmosphere are the
+elements oxygen and nitrogen, which, at the temperature and pressure
+existing on the surface of our globe, are permanently aeriform or
+gaseous. Beside these gases, the air always contains a quantity of the
+vapor of water in a perfectly aeriform and transparent condition. This
+vapor is not, however, permanently gaseous. At all temperatures below
+212 degrees it tends to the liquid state; and its elastic force, which
+preserves its particles in the separated state of vapor, increases or
+diminishes at a more rapid rate than the increase or diminution of
+temperature. Hence the quantity of vapor that can be suspended in
+clear air depends on the temperature of the air itself. As the
+temperature of the air rises, its power of sustaining vapor increases
+more rapidly than its temperature; and as the temperature of the air
+falls, the elastic force of its contained vapor diminishes in a
+greater ratio, until it can exist as an invisible vapor no longer, but
+becomes condensed into minute bubbles or globules, forming cloud,
+mist, or rain. Two other circumstances operate along with these
+properties of air and vapor. The heat radiated from the earth's
+surface causes the lower strata of air to be, in ordinary
+circumstances, warmer than the higher; and, on the other hand, warm
+air, being lighter than that which is colder, the warm layer of air at
+the surface continually tends to rise through and above the colder
+currents immediately over it. Let us consider the operation of the
+causes thus roughly sketched in a column of calm air. The lower
+portion becomes warmed, and if in contact with water takes up a
+quantity of its vapor proportioned to the temperature, or in ordinary
+circumstances somewhat less than this proportion. It then tends to
+ascend, and as it rises and becomes mixed with colder air it gradually
+loses its power of sustaining moisture, and at a height proportioned
+to the diminution of temperature and the quantity of vapor originally
+contained in the air, it begins to part with water, which becomes
+condensed in the form of mist or cloud; and the surface at which this
+precipitation takes place is often still more distinctly marked when
+two masses or layers of air at different temperatures become
+intermixed; in which case, on the principle already stated, the mean
+temperature produced is unable to sustain the vapor proper to the two
+extremes, and moisture is precipitated. It thus happens that layers
+of cloud accumulate in the atmosphere, while between them and the
+surface there is a stratum of clear air. Fogs and mists are in the
+present state of nature exceptional appearances, depending generally
+on local causes, and showing what the world might be but for that
+balancing of temperature and the elastic force of vapor which
+constitutes the atmospheric firmament.[68]
+
+The quantity of water thus suspended over the earth is enormous. "When
+we see a cloud resolve itself into rain, and pour out thousands of
+gallons of water, we can not comprehend how it can float in the
+atmosphere."[69] The explanation is--1st, the extreme levity of the
+minute globules, which causes them to fall very slowly; 2d, they are
+supported by currents of air, especially by the ascending currents
+developed both in still air and in storms; 3dly, clouds are often
+dissolving on one side and forming on another. A cloud gradually
+descending may be dissolving away by evaporation at the base as fast
+as new matter is being added above. On the other hand, an ascending
+warm current of air may be constantly depositing moisture at the base
+of the cloud, and this may be evaporating under the solar rays above.
+In this case a cloud is "merely the visible form of an aerial space,
+in which certain processes are at the moment in equilibrium, and all
+the particles in a state of upward movement."[70] But so soon as
+condensation markedly exceeds evaporation, rain falls, and the
+atmosphere discharges its vast load of water--how vast we may gather
+from the fact that the waters of all the rivers are but a part of the
+overflowings of the great atmospheric reservoir. "God binds up the
+waters in his thick cloud, and the cloud is not rent under them." It
+is thus that the terrestrial waters are divided into those above and
+those below that expanse of clear air in which we live and move,
+exempt from the dense, dark mists of the earth's earlier state, yet
+enjoying the benefits of the cloudy curtain that veils the burning
+sun, and of the cloudy reservoirs that drop down rain to nourish every
+green thing.
+
+We have no reason to suppose that the laws which regulate mixtures of
+gases and vapors did not prevail in the period in question. It is
+probable that these laws are as old as the creation of matter; but the
+condition of our earth up to the second day must have been such as
+prevented them from operating as at present. Such a condition might
+possibly be the result of an excessive evaporation occasioned by
+internal heat. The interior of the earth still remains in a heated
+state, and includes large subterranean reservoirs of melted rock, as
+is proved by the increase of temperature in deep mines and borings,
+and by the widely extended phenomena of hot springs and volcanic
+action. At the period in question the internal temperature of the
+earth was probably vastly greater than at present, and perhaps the
+whole interior of the globe may have been in a state of igneous
+fluidity. At the same time the external solid crust may have been
+thin, and it was not fractured and thickened in places by the upheaval
+of mountain chains or the deposition of great and unequal sheets of
+sediment; for, as I may again remind the reader, the primitive chaos
+did not consist of a confused accumulation of rocky masses, but the
+earth's crust must then have been more smooth and unbroken than at any
+subsequent period. This being the internal condition of the earth, it
+is quite conceivable, without any violation of the existing laws of
+nature, that the waters of the ocean, warmed by internal heat, may
+have sent up a sufficient quantity of vapor to keep the lower strata
+of air in a constant state of saturation, and to occasion an equally
+constant precipitation of moisture from the colder strata above. This
+would merely be the universal operation of a cause similar to that
+which now produces fogs at the northern limit of the Atlantic Gulf
+Stream, and in other localities where currents of warm water flow
+under or near to cooler air. Such a state of things is more
+conceivable in a globe covered with water, and consequently destitute
+of the dry and powerfully radiating surfaces which land presents, and
+receiving from without the rays, not of a solar orb, but of a
+comparatively feeble and diffused luminous ether. The continued action
+of these causes would gradually cool the earth's crust and its
+incumbent waters, until the heat from without preponderated over that
+from within, when the result stated in the text would be effected.
+
+The statements of our primitive authority for this condition of the
+earth might also be accounted for on the supposition that the
+permanently gaseous part of the atmosphere did not at the period in
+question exist in its present state, but that it was on the second day
+actually elaborated and caused to take its place in separating the
+atmospheric from the oceanic waters. The first is by far the more
+probable view; but we may still apply to such speculations the words
+of Elihu, the friend of Job:
+
+  "Stand still and consider the wonderful works of God.
+  Dost thou know when God disposes them,
+  And the lightning of his cloud shines forth?
+  Dost thou know the poising of the dark clouds,
+  The wonderful works of the Perfect in knowledge?"
+
+We may now consider the words in which this great improvement in the
+condition of the earth is recorded. The Hebrew term for the atmosphere
+is _Rakiah_, literally, something expanded or beaten out--an expanse.
+It is rendered in our version "firmament," a word conveying the notion
+of support and fixity, and in the Septuagint "_Stereoma_," a word
+having a similar meaning. The idea conveyed by the Hebrew word is not,
+however, that of _strength_, but of _extent_; or as Milton--the most
+accurate of expositors of these words--has it:
+
+  "The firmament, expanse of liquid, pure,
+  Transparent, elemental air, diffused
+  In circuit to the uttermost convex
+  Of this great round."
+
+That this was really the way in which this word was understood by the
+Hebrews appears from several passages of the Bible. Job says of God,
+"Who alone _spreadeth_ out the heavens."[71] David, in the 104th
+Psalm, which is a poetical paraphrase of the history of creation,
+speaks of the Creator as "_stretching_ out the heavens as a curtain."
+In later writers, as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, similar expressions
+occur. The notion of a solid or arched firmament was probably
+altogether remote from the minds of these writers. Such beliefs may
+have prevailed at the time when the Septuagint translation was made,
+but I have no hesitation in affirming that no trace of them can be
+found in the Old Testament. In proof of this, I may refer to some of
+the passages which have been cited as affording the strongest
+instances of this kind of "accommodation." In Exodus xxiv., 10, we
+are told, "And they saw the God of Israel, and under his feet as it
+were a paved work of sapphire, and as it were the heaven itself in its
+clearness." This is evidently a comparison of the pavement seen under
+the feet of Jehovah to a sapphire in its color, and to the heavens in
+its transparency. The intention of the writer is not to give
+information respecting the heavens, or to liken them either to a
+pavement or a sapphire; all that we can infer is that he believed the
+heavens to be clear or transparent. Job mentions the "pillars of
+heaven," but the connection shows that this is merely a poetical
+expression for lofty mountains. The earthquake causes these pillars of
+heaven to "tremble." We are informed in the book of Job that God "ties
+up his waters in his thick cloud, and the cloud is not rent under
+them." We are also told of the "treasures of snow and the treasures of
+hail," and rain is called the "bottles of heaven," and is said to be
+poured out of the "lattices of heaven." I recognize in all these mere
+poetical figures, not intended to be literally understood. Some
+learned writers wish us to believe that the intention of the Bible in
+these places is actually to teach that the clouds are contained in
+skin bottles, or something similar, and that they are emptied through
+hatches in a solid firmament. To found such a belief, however, on a
+few figurative statements, seems ridiculous, especially when we
+consider that the writers of the Scriptures show themselves to be well
+acquainted with nature, and would not be likely on any account to
+deviate so far from the ordinary testimony of the senses; more
+especially as by doing so they would enable every unlettered man who
+has seen a cloud gather on a mountain's brow or dissolve away before
+increasing heat to oppose the evidence of his senses to their
+statements, and perhaps to reject them with scorn as a barefaced
+imposture. But, lastly, we are triumphantly directed to the question
+of Elihu in his address to Job:
+
+  "Hast thou with him stretched out the sky,
+  Which is firm and like a molten mirror?"
+
+But the word translated sky here is not "_rakiah_," or "_shamayim_,"
+but another signifying the _clouds_, so that we should regard Elihu as
+speaking of the apparent firmness or stability, and the beautiful
+reflected tints of the clouds. His words may be paraphrased thus:
+"Hast thou aided Him in spreading out those clouds, which appear so
+stable and self-sustaining, and so beautifully reflect the
+sunlight?"[72] The above passages form the only authority which I can
+find in the Scriptures for the doctrine of a solid firmament, which
+may therefore be characterized as a modern figment of men more learned
+in books but less acquainted with nature than the Scripture writers.
+As a contrast to all such doctrines I may quote the sublime opening of
+the poetical account of creation in Psalm civ., which we may also take
+here as elsewhere as the oldest and most authoritative commentary on
+the first chapter of Genesis:
+
+  "Bless the Lord, O my soul!
+  O Lord, my God, thou art very great:
+  Thou art clothed with honor and majesty,
+  Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment,
+  Who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain (of a tent),
+  _Who layest the beams of thy chambers in the waters,
+  Who makest the clouds thy chariots,
+  Who walkest upon the wings of the wind_."
+
+The waters here are those above the firmament, the whole of this part
+of the Psalm being occupied with the heavens; and there is no place
+left for the solid firmament, of which the writer evidently knew
+nothing. He represents God as laying his chambers on the waters,
+instead of on the supposed firmament, and as careering in cloudy
+chariots on the wings of the wind, instead of over a solid arch. For
+all the above reasons, we conclude that the "expanse" of the verses
+under consideration was understood by the writers of the book of God
+to be _aerial_, not _solid_; and the "establishment of the clouds
+above," as it is finely called in Proverbs, is the effect of those
+meteorological laws to which I have already referred, and which were
+now for the first time brought into operation by the divine
+Legislator. The Hebrew theology was not of a kind to require such
+expedients as that of solid heavenly arches; it recurred at once to
+the will--the decree--of Jehovah; and was content to believe that
+through this efficient cause the "rivers run into the sea, yet the sea
+is not full," for "to the place whence the rivers came, thither they
+return again," through the agency of those floating clouds, "the
+waters above the heavens," which "pour down rain according to the
+vapor thereof."
+
+God called the expanse "Heaven." In former chapters we have noticed
+that heaven in the popular speech of the Hebrews, as in our own, had
+different meanings, applying alike to the cloudy, the astral, and the
+spiritual heavens. The Creator here sanctions its application to the
+aerial expanse; and accordingly throughout the Scriptures it is used
+in this way; _rakiah_ occurs very rarely, as if it had become nearly
+obsolete, or was perhaps regarded as a merely technical or descriptive
+term. The divine sanction for the use of the term heaven for the
+atmosphere is, as already explained, to indicate that this popular
+use is not to interfere with its application to the whole universe
+beyond our earth in verse 1st.
+
+The poetical parts of the Bible, and especially the book of Job, which
+is probably the most ancient of the whole, abound in references to the
+atmosphere and its phenomena. I may quote a few of these passages, to
+enable us to understand the views of these subjects given in the
+Bible, and the meaning attached to the creation of the atmosphere, in
+very ancient periods. In Job, 38th chapter, we have the following:
+
+  "In what way is the lightning distributed,
+  And how is the east wind spread abroad over the earth?
+  Who hath opened a channel for the pouring rain,
+  Or a way for the thunder-flash?
+  To cause it to rain on the land where no man is,
+  In the desert where no one dwells;
+  To saturate the desolate and waste ground,
+  And to cause the bud of the tender herb to spring forth."
+
+Here we have the unequal and unforeseen distribution of
+thunder-storms, beyond the knowledge and power of man, but under the
+absolute control of God, and designed by him for beneficent purposes.
+Equally fine are some of the following lines:
+
+  "Dost thou lift up thy voice to the clouds,
+  That abundance of waters may cover thee?
+  Dost thou send forth the lightnings, and they go,
+  And say unto thee, Here are we?
+  Who can number the clouds by wisdom,
+  Or cause the bottles of heaven to empty themselves?
+  When the dust groweth into mire,
+  And the clods cleave fast together?"
+
+In the 36th and 37th chapters of the same book we have a grand
+description of atmospheric changes in their relation to man and his
+works. The speaker is Elihu, who in this ancient book most favorably
+represents the knowledge of nature that existed at a time probably
+anterior to the age of Moses--a knowledge far superior to that which
+we find in the works of many modern poets and expositors, and
+accompanied by an intense appreciation of the grandeur and beauty of
+natural objects:
+
+  "For he draweth up the drops of water,
+  Rain is condensed[73] from his vapor,
+  Which the clouds do drop,
+  And distill upon man abundantly.
+  Yea, can any understand the distribution of the clouds
+  Or the thundering of his tabernacle.[74]
+  Behold he spreadeth his lightning upon it,
+  He covereth it as with the depths of the sea.[75]
+  By these he executes judgment on the people,
+  By these also he giveth food in abundance;
+  His hands he covers with the lightning,
+  And commands it (against the enemy) in its striking;
+  He uttereth to it his decree,[76]
+  Concerning the herd as well as proud man.
+  At this also my heart trembles,
+  And bounds out of its place;
+  Hear attentively the thunder of his voice,
+  And the loud sound that goes from his mouth.
+  He directs it under the whole heavens,
+  And his lightning to the ends of the earth.
+  After it his voice roareth,
+  He thundereth with the voice of his majesty;
+  And delays not (the tempest) when his voice is heard.
+  God thundereth marvellously with his voice,
+  He doeth wonders which we can not comprehend;
+  For he saith to the snow, Be thou on the earth.
+  Also to the pouring rain, even the great rain of his might.
+  He sealeth up the hand of every man,
+  That all men may know his work.
+  Then the beasts go to their dens,
+  And remain in their caverns.
+  Out of the south cometh the whirlwind
+  And cold out of the north,
+  By the breath of God the frost is produced
+  And the breadth of waters becomes bound;
+  With moisture he loads the thick cloud,
+  He spreads the cloud of his lightning,
+  And it is turned about by his direction,
+  To execute his pleasure on the face of the world;
+  Whether for correction, for his land, or for mercy,
+  He causeth it to come.
+  Hearken unto this, O Job,
+  Stand still and consider the wonderful works of God.
+  Dost thou know when God disposes these things,
+  And the lightning of his cloud flashes forth?
+  Dost thou know the poising of the clouds,
+  The wonderful work of the Perfect in knowledge?
+  When thy garments become warm
+  When he quieteth the earth by the south wind;
+  Hast thou with him spread out the clouds
+  Firm and like a molten mirror?"[77]
+
+It would not be easy to find, in the poetry of any nation or time, a
+description of so many natural phenomena, so fine in feeling or
+truthful in delineation. It should go far to dispel the too prevalent
+ideas of early Oriental ignorance, and should lead to a more full
+appreciation of these noble pictures of nature, unsurpassed in the
+literature of any people or time. I trust that the previous
+illustrations are sufficient to show, not only that the _stereoma_, or
+solid firmament of the Septuagint, is not to be found in Scripture,
+but that the positive doctrine of the Bible on the subject is of a
+very different character. For instance, in the above extract from the
+book of Job, Elihu speaks of the poising or suspension of the clouds
+as inscrutable, and tells us that God draws up water into the clouds,
+and pours down rain according to the vapor thereof; he also speaks of
+the clouds as being scattered before the brightness of the sun; and
+notices, in truthful as well as exalted language, the nature and
+succession of the lightning's flash, the thunder, and the
+precipitation of rain that follows. Solomon also informs us that the
+"establishment of the clouds above" is due to the law or will of
+Jehovah. Finally, in this connection, the divine sanction given to the
+use of the term heaven for the atmosphere may in itself be regarded as
+an intimation that no definite barrier separates our film of
+atmosphere from the boundless abyss of heaven without.
+
+Of this period natural science gives us no intimation. In the earliest
+geological epochs organic life, dry land, and an atmosphere already
+existed. At the period now under consideration the two former had not
+been called into existence, and the latter was in process of
+elaboration from the materials of the primeval deep. If the formation
+of the atmosphere in its existing conditions was, as already hinted, a
+result of the gradual cooling of the earth, then this period must have
+been of great length, and the action of the heated waters on the crust
+of the globe may have produced thick layers of detrital matter
+destined to form the first soils of the succeeding aeon. We know
+nothing, however, of these primitive strata, and most of them must
+have been removed by denuding agencies in succeeding periods, or
+restored by subterranean heat to the crystalline state. The events and
+results of this day may be summed up as follows:
+
+"At the commencement of the period the earth was enveloped by a misty
+or vaporous mantle. In its progress those relations of air and vapor
+which cause the separation of the clouds from the earth by a layer of
+clear air, and the varied alternations of sunshine and rain, were
+established. At the close of the period the newly formed atmosphere
+covered a universal ocean; and there was probably a very regular and
+uniform condition of the atmospheric currents, and of the processes of
+evaporation and condensation."
+
+But while we must affirm that no idea of a solid atmospheric vault can
+be detected in the Bible, and while we may also affirm that such an idea
+would have been altogether foreign to its tone, which invariably refers
+all things not to secondary machinery, but to the will and fiat of the
+Supreme, we must not forget that a most important moral purpose was to
+be served by the assertion of the establishment of the atmospheric
+expanse. Among all nations the phenomena of the atmosphere have had
+important theological and mythological relations. The ever-changing and
+apparently capricious aspects of the atmosphere and its clouds, the
+terrible effects of storms, and the balmy influence of sunshine and
+calm, deeply impress the minds of simple and superstitious men, and
+this all the more that in their daily life and expeditions they are
+constantly subjected to the effects of atmospheric vicissitudes. Hence
+the greatest gods of all the ancient nations are weather-gods--rulers of
+the atmospheric heavens--displaying their anger in the thunder-storm and
+tornado. It is likely that in most cases, as in many barbarous tribes of
+modern times, these weather-gods were malevolent beings contending
+against the genial influences of the heavenly Sun-god; but in nearly
+every case their supposed practical importance has elevated them, as in
+the case of the Olympian Zeus, the Scandinavian Thor, and the American
+Hurakon, to the place of supreme divinity. This was one of the
+superstitions which the Hebrew monotheism had to overcome. Hence the
+atmosphere is affirmed to be under Jehovah's law, and all its phenomena
+are attributed to his power. The value of this as cutting at the root of
+the most widespread superstitions it is easy to understand, and it has a
+farther value in teaching that even the apparently unstable and
+capricious air is a thing established from the first and amenable to the
+ordinance of God. How difficult it has been to eradicate superstitious
+views of the atmosphere may be learned from the fact that St. Paul, in
+writing to the enlightened citizens of Ephesus, could speak of the power
+which the heathen worshipped as the "Prince of the powers of the air,"
+and it is also evidenced by the abundant notions of this kind which have
+survived from the Middle Ages among the more ignorant part of the people
+even in lands called Christian.
+
+While, however, the Bible affirms the atmosphere to be subject to law,
+it does not carry this into the domain of physical necessity, and
+affirm with some modern materialistic philosophers that it is useless
+to pray for rain. It is God who gives rain from heaven and fruitful
+seasons, and what he gives he can withhold. Perhaps no part of our
+subject can better than this illustrate the rational distinction
+between a mere physical fatalism, or a mere superstitious fear of
+capricious nature, and that belief in a divine Lawgiver which lies
+between these extremes. Modern science may smile at the poor Indian,
+who in his fear invokes Hurakon or Tlaloc or the terrible
+Thunder-bird, and may even despise that nobler worship of the great
+Phoenician Sun-god, the source and fountain of all light and life;
+against which, though it was the grandest of all the old idolatries,
+Elijah waged war to the death. But may it not equally deride the faith
+of Elijah himself, when, after three years of drought, he prayed in
+the sight of assembled Israel for rain? It may do so if physical law
+amounts to an invariable necessity, and if there is no supreme Will
+behind it. But if natural laws are the expression of the divine will,
+if these laws are multiform and complicated in their relations, and
+regulate vastly varied causes interacting with each other, and if the
+action and welfare of man come within the scope of these laws, then
+there is nothing irrational in the supposition that God, without any
+capricious or miraculous intervention, may have so correlated the
+myriad adjustments of his creation as that, while it is his usual rule
+that rain falls alike on the evil and on the good, he may make its
+descent at particular times and places to depend on the needs and
+requests of his own children. In truth the belief in law is essential
+to the philosophical conception of prayer. If the universe were a mere
+chaos of chances, or if it were a result of absolute necessity, there
+would be no place for intelligent prayer; but if it is under the
+control of a Lawgiver, wise and merciful, not a mere manager of
+material machinery, but a true Father of all, then we can go to such
+a being with our requests, not in the belief that we can change his
+great plans, or that any advantage could result from this if it were
+possible, but that these plans may be made in his boundless wisdom and
+love to meet our necessities. There is also in the Bible the farther
+promise that, if we are truly the children of God, regulating our
+conduct by his will and enlightened by his spirit, we shall know how
+to pray for what is in accordance with his divine purpose, and how to
+receive with gladness whatever he sees fit to give. While, therefore,
+the Biblical doctrine as to natural law emancipates us from fears of
+angry storm-demons, it draws us near to a heavenly Father, whose power
+is above all the tempests of earth, and who, while ruling by law, has
+regulated all things in conformity with the higher law of love. When
+God had made the atmosphere, he saw that it was good, and the highest
+significance is given to this by the consideration that God is love.
+The position of the Bible is thus the true mean between superstitions
+at once unhappy and debasing, and a materialistic infidelity that
+would reduce the universe to a dead, remorseless machine, in which we
+must struggle for a precarious existence till we are crushed between
+its wheels.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE DRY LAND AND THE FIRST PLANTS.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let the waters under the heavens be gathered
+     into one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.
+     And God called the dry land earth, and the gathering of
+     waters called he seas; and God saw that it was good.
+
+     "And God said, Let the earth bring forth the springing herb,
+     the herb bearing seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit,
+     after its kind, whose seed is in it on the earth: and it was
+     so. And the earth brought forth the tender herb, the herb
+     yielding seed, and the tree bearing fruit whose seed is in
+     it, after its kind; and God saw that it was good."--Genesis
+     i., 10, 11.
+
+These are events sufficiently simple and intelligible in their general
+character. Geology shows us that the emergence of the dry land must
+have resulted from the elevation of parts of the bed of the ancient
+universal ocean, and that the agent employed in such changes is the
+bending and crumpling of the outer crust of the earth, caused by
+lateral pressure, and operating either in a slow and regular manner or
+by sudden paroxysms. It farther informs us that the existing
+continents consist of stratified or bedded masses, more or less
+inclined, fissured and irregularly elevated, and usually supported by
+crystalline rocks which have been produced among them, or forced up
+beneath or through them by internal agencies, and which truly
+constitute the pillars and foundations of the earth. These elevations,
+it is true, were successive, and belong to different periods; but the
+appearance of the first dry land is that intended here.
+
+The elevation of the dry land is more frequently referred to in
+Scripture than any other cosmological fact; and while all have been
+misapprehended, the statements on this subject have been even more
+unjustly dealt with than others. In the text, the word "earth"
+(_aretz_[78]) is, by divine sanction, narrowed in meaning to the dry
+land; but while some expositors are quite willing to restrict it to
+this, or even a more limited sense, in the first and second verses of
+this chapter, almost the only verses in the Bible where the terms of
+the narrative make such a restriction inadmissible, they are equally
+ready to understand it as meaning the whole globe in places where the
+explanatory clause in the verse now under consideration teaches us
+that we should understand the land only, as distinguished from the
+sea. I may quote some of these passages, and note the views they give;
+always bearing in mind that, after the intimation here given, we must
+understand the term "earth" as applying _only to the continents_ or
+_dry land_, unless where the context otherwise fixes the meaning. We
+may first turn to Psalm civ.:
+
+  "Thou laidst the foundations of the earth,
+  That it should never be removed;
+  Thou coveredst it with the deep as with a garment;
+  The waters stood above the mountains;
+  At thy rebuke they fled;
+  At the sound of thy thunder they hasted away;
+  Mountains ascended, valleys descended
+  To the place thou hast appointed for them:
+  Thou hast appointed them bounds that they may not pass,
+  That they return not again to cover the earth."
+
+The position of these verses in this "the hymn of creation" leaves no
+doubt that they refer to the events we are now considering. I have
+given above the literal reading of the line that refers to the
+elevation of mountains and subsidence of valleys; admitting, however,
+that the grammatical construction gives an air of probability to the
+rendering in our version, "they go up by the mountains, they go down
+by the valleys," which, on the other hand, is rendered very improbable
+by the sense. In whichever sense we understand this line, the picture
+presented to us by the Psalmist includes the elevation of the
+mountains and continents, the subsidence of the waters into their
+depressed basins, and the firm establishment of the dry land on its
+rocky foundations, the whole accompanied by a feature not noticed in
+Genesis--the voice of God's thunder--or, in other words, electrical
+and volcanic explosions. The following quotations refer to the same
+subject:
+
+  "Before the mountains were settled,
+  Before the hills was I (the Wisdom of God) brought forth;
+  While as yet he had not made the earth,
+  Nor the plains, nor the higher parts of the habitable world.
+  When he gave the sea his decree
+  That the waters should not pass his limits,
+  When he determined the foundations of the earth."
+
+  --Proverbs viii., 25.
+
+  "Thou hast established the earth, and it endureth,
+  According to thy decrees they continue this day,
+  For all are thy servants."
+
+  --Psalm cxix., 90.
+
+  "Who shaketh the earth out of its place,
+  And its pillars tremble."
+
+  --Job ix., 6.
+
+  "Where wast thou when I founded the earth?
+  Declare, if thou hast knowledge.
+  Who hath fixed the proportion thereof, if thou knowest?
+  Who stretched the line upon it?
+  Upon what are its foundations settled?
+  Or who laid its corner-stone,
+  When the morning stars sang together,
+  And all the sons of God shouted for joy?
+  Who shut up the sea with doors
+  In its bursting forth as from the womb?
+  When I made the cloud its garment,
+  And swathed it in thick darkness,
+  I measured out for it my limit,
+  And fixed its bars and doors;
+  And said, Thus far shalt thou come, but no farther,
+  And here shall thy proud waves be stayed."
+
+  --Job xxxviii., 4.
+
+In these passages the foundation of the earth at first, as well as the
+shaking of its pillars by the earthquake, are connected with what we
+usually call natural law--the decree of the Almighty--the unchanging
+arrangements of an unchangeable Creator, whose "hands formed the dry
+land."[79] This is the ultimate cause not only of the elevation of the
+land, but of all other natural things and processes. The naturalist
+does not require to be informed that the details, in so far as they
+are referred to in the above passages, are perfectly in accordance
+with what we know of the nature and support of continental masses.
+Geological observation and mathematical calculation have in our day
+combined their powers to give clear views of the manner in which the
+fractured strata of the earth are wedged and arched together, and
+supported by internal igneous masses upheaved from beneath, and
+subsequently cooled and hardened. A general view of these facts which
+we have learned from scientific inquiry, the Hebrews gleaned with
+nearly as much precision from the short account of the elevation of
+the land in Genesis, and from the later comments of their inspired
+poets. From the same source our own great poet, Milton, learned these
+cosmical facts, before the rise of geology, and expressed them in
+unexceptionable terms:
+
+            "The mountains huge appear
+  Emergent, and their broad bare backs upheave
+  Into the clouds, their tops ascend the sky.
+  So high as heaved the tumid hills, so low
+  Down sunk a hollow bottom, broad and deep,
+  Capacious bed of waters."
+
+In further illustration of the opinions of the Scripture writers
+respecting the nature of the earth, and the disturbances to which it
+is liable, I quote the following passages. The first is from the
+magnificent description of Jehovah descending to succor his people
+amid the terrors of the earthquake, the volcano, and the
+thunder-storm, in Psalm xviii.:
+
+  "Then shook and trembled the earth,
+  The foundations of the hills moved and were shaken,
+  Because he was angry.
+  Smoke went up from his nostrils,
+  Fire from his mouth devoured,
+  Coals were kindled by it.
+  Then were seen the channels of the waters,
+  And the foundations of the world were discovered,
+  At thy rebuke--O Jehovah--
+  At the blast of the breath of thy nostrils."
+
+In another place in the Psalms we find volcanic action thus tersely
+sketched:
+
+  "He looketh on the earth and it trembleth,
+  He toucheth the hills and they smoke."
+
+  --Psalm civ., 32.
+
+Perhaps the most remarkable discourse on this subject in the whole
+Bible is that in Job xxviii., in which mining operations are
+introduced as an illustration of the difficulty of obtaining true
+wisdom. This passage is interesting both from its extreme antiquity,
+and the advancement in knowledge and practical skill which it
+indicates. It presents, however, many difficulties; and its details
+have almost entirely lost their true significance in our common
+English version:
+
+  "Surely there is a vein for silver,
+  And a place for the gold which men refine;
+  Iron is taken from the earth,
+  And copper is molten from the ore.
+  To the end of darkness and to all extremes man searcheth,
+  For the stones of darkness and the shadow of death.
+  He opens a passage [shaft] from where men dwell,
+  Unsupported by the foot, they hang down and swing to and fro.[80]
+  The earth--out of it cometh bread;
+  And beneath, it is overturned as by fire.[81]
+  Its stones are the place of sapphires,
+  And it hath lumps[82] of gold.
+  The path (thereto) the bird of prey hath not known,
+  The vulture's eye hath not seen it.[83]
+  The wild beasts' whelps have not trodden it,
+  The lion hath not passed over it.
+  Man layeth his hand on the hard rock,
+  He turneth up the mountains from their roots,
+  He cutteth channels [_adits_] in the rocks,
+  His eye seeth every precious thing.
+  He restraineth the streams from trickling,
+  And bringeth the hidden thing to light.
+  But where shall wisdom be found,
+  And where is the place of understanding?"
+
+This passage, incidentally introduced, gives us a glimpse of the
+knowledge of the interior of the earth and its products, as it existed
+in an age probably anterior to that of Moses. It brings before us the
+repositories of the valuable metals and gems--the mining operations,
+apparently of some magnitude and difficulty, undertaken in extracting
+them--and the wonderful structure of the earth itself, green and
+productive at the surface, rich in precious metals beneath, and deeper
+still the abode of intense subterranean fires. The only thing wanting
+to give completeness to the picture is some mention of the fossil
+remains buried in the earth; and, as the main thought is the eager and
+successful search for useful minerals, this can hardly be regarded as
+a defect. The application of all this is finer than almost any thing
+else in didactic poetry. Man can explore depths of the earth
+inaccessible to all other creatures, and extract thence treasures of
+inestimable value; yet, after thus exhausting all the natural riches
+of the earth, he too often lacks that highest wisdom which alone can
+fit him for the true ends of his spiritual being. How true is all
+this, even in our own wonder-working days! A poet of to-day could
+scarcely say more of subterranean wonders, or say it more truthfully
+and beautifully; nor could he arrive at a conclusion more pregnant
+with the highest philosophy than the closing words:
+
+  "The fear of the Lord, that is wisdom;
+  And to depart from evil is understanding."
+
+The emergence of the dry land is followed by a repetition of the
+approval of the Creator. "God saw that it was good." To our view that
+primeval dry land would scarcely have seemed good. It was a world of
+bare, rocky peaks, and verdureless valleys--here active volcanoes,
+with their heaps of scoriae and scarcely cooled lava currents--there
+vast mudflats, recently upheaved from the bottom of the
+waters--nowhere even a blade of grass or a clinging lichen. Yet it was
+good in the view of its Maker, who could see it in relation to the
+uses for which he had made it, and as a fit preparatory step to the
+new wonders he was soon to introduce. Then too, as we are informed in
+Job xxxviii., "The morning stars sang together, and all the sons of
+God shouted for joy." We also, when we think of the beautiful variety
+of the terrestrial surface, the character and composition of its
+soils, the variety of climate and exposure resulting from its degrees
+of elevation, the arrangements for the continuance of springs and
+streams, and many other beneficial provisions connected with the
+merely mechanical arrangements of the dry land, may well join in the
+tribute of praise to the All-wise Creator. There is, however, a
+farther thought suggested by the approval of the great Artificer. In
+this wondrous progress of creation, it seems as if every thing at
+first was in its best estate. No succeeding state could parallel the
+unbroken symmetry of the earth in the fluid and vaporous condition of
+the "deep." Before the elevation of the land, the atmospheric currents
+and the deposition of moisture must have been surpassingly regular.
+The first dry land may have presented crags and peaks and ravines and
+volcanic cones in a more marvellous and perfect manner than any
+succeeding continents--even as the dry and barren moon now, in this
+respect, far surpasses the earths. In the progress of organic life,
+geology gives similar indications, in the variety and magnitude of
+many animal types on their first introduction; so that this may very
+possibly be a law of creation.
+
+During the emergence of the first dry land, large quantities of
+detrital matter must have been deposited in the waters, and in part
+elevated into land. All of these beds would, probably, be destitute of
+organic remains; but if such beds were formed and still remain, they
+are probably unknown to us, for the oldest formations that we
+know--those of the Eozoic age--contain traces of such remains. It has,
+indeed, been suggested that these most ancient organisms are, as it
+were, overlooked in the history of creation, or regarded as equivalent
+to those shapeless monsters and animals of the darkness that are
+referred to in the older Turanian versions of this story of creation.
+I doubt very much, however, if this is a fair interpretation of our
+ancient record; but we shall be in a better position to discuss it
+when we come to the actual introduction of animals.
+
+Modern analogy would induce us to believe that the land was not
+elevated suddenly; but either by a series of small paroxysms, as in
+the case of Chili, or by a gradual and imperceptible movement, as in
+the case of Sweden--two of the most remarkable modern instances of
+elevation of land--accompanied, however, in the case of the last by
+local subsidence.[84] In either of these ways the seas and rivers
+would have time to smooth the more rugged inequalities, to widen the
+ravines into valleys, and to spread out sediment in the lower grounds;
+thus fitting the surface for the habitation of plants and animals. We
+must not suppose, however, that the dry land had any close resemblance
+to that now existing in its form or distribution. Geology amply
+proves that since the first appearance of dry land, its contour has
+frequently been changed, and probably also its position. Hence nearly
+all our present land consists of rocks which have been formed under
+the waters, long after the period now under consideration, and have
+been subsequently hardened and elevated; and since all the existing
+high mountain ranges are of a comparatively late age, it is probable
+that this primeval dry land was low, as well as, in the earlier part
+of the period at least, of comparatively small extent. It is, however,
+by no means certain that there may not have been a greater expanse of
+land toward the close of this period than that which afterwards
+existed in those older periods of animal life to which the earliest
+fossiliferous rocks of the geologist carry us back; since, as already
+hinted, it seems to be a rule in creation that each new object shall
+be highly developed of its kind at its first appearance, and since
+there have been in geological time many great subsidences as well as
+elevations. Neither must we forget that the oldest land has been
+subjected throughout geological time to wearing and degrading
+agencies, and that from its waste the later formations have been
+mainly derived.
+
+It would be wrong, however, to omit to state that, though we may know
+at present no remains of the first dry land, we are not ignorant of
+its general distribution; for the present continents show, in the
+arrangement of their formations and mountain chains, evidence that
+they are parts of a plan sketched out from the beginning. It has often
+been remarked by physical geographers that the great lines of coast
+and mountain ranges are generally in directions approaching to
+northeast and southwest, or northwest and southeast, and that where
+they run in other directions, as in the case of the south of Europe
+and Asia, they are much broken by salient and re-entering angles,
+formed by lines having these directions. Professor R. Owen, of
+Tennessee, and Professor Pierce, of Harvard College, were, I believe,
+the first to point out that these lines are in reality parts of great
+circles tangent to the polar circles, and the latter to suggest a
+theory of their origin, based on the action of solar heat and the
+seasons on a cooling earth. This has been more fully stated by Mr. W.
+Lowthian Green in his curious book, "Vestiges of the Molten
+Globe."[85] It would appear that the great circles in question are in
+reality at right angles to the line of direction of the attraction of
+the sun and moon at the period of either solstice, and when they
+happen to be in conjunction or opposition at these periods; and that
+such circles would be the lines on which the thin crust of a cooling
+globe would be most likely to be ruptured by its internal tidal-wave.
+Whatever the cause of the phenomenon, it is evident that in the
+formation of its surface inequalities the earth has cracked--so to
+speak--along two series of great circles tangent to the polar circles;
+and that these, with certain subordinate lines of fracture running
+north and south and east and west, have determined the forms of the
+continents from their origin.
+
+M. Elie de Beaumont, and after him most other geologists, have
+attributed the elevation of the continents and the upheaval and
+plication of mountain chains to the secular refrigeration of the
+earth, causing its outer shell to become too capacious for its
+contracting interior mass, and thus to break or bend, and to settle
+toward the centre. This view would well accord with the terms in which
+the elevation of the land is mentioned throughout the Bible, and
+especially with the general progress of the work as we have gleaned
+it from the Mosaic narrative; since from the period of the desolate
+void and aeriform deep to that now before us secular refrigeration
+must have been steadily in progress. Let us also observe here that the
+earliest fractures of the crust would determine the first coast lines,
+and the first slopes along which sedimentary matter would descend from
+the land and be deposited in the sea. They would also modify the
+direction of the ocean currents. Thus the deposition of new formations
+would be directed by these old lines, as would also to some extent the
+course of all subsequent fractures and plications. Thus it happens
+that the lines of outcrop of the oldest rocks first raised out of the
+waters already marked out the forms of the continents, and that the
+later formations appear rather as fillings-up and extensions of the
+skeleton established by the first dry land. Farther, the lines of
+plication first established along the borders of the continents formed
+resisting walls along which, in the continued contraction of the
+earth, pressure was exerted from the ocean bed, widening and elevating
+these lines of upheaval, and still farther fixing the general forms of
+the continents, and giving variety to their surfaces. In the progress
+of geological time there have also been successive depressions and
+re-elevations of the continental plateaus, subjecting them alternately
+to the wearing and disintegrating action of the atmosphere and its
+waters, and to the influence of waves and ocean currents, and
+especially to that of the deep-seated polar currents which have
+throughout geological ages been loading the submerged areas of the
+earth's surface with the products of the waste caused by frost and ice
+in the polar regions. These causes again have been progressively
+increasing the oblateness of the earth's figure, and, along with the
+slackening of its rotation, preparing the way for those periodical
+collapses in the equatorial and temperate regions which form the
+boundaries of some of our most important geological periods.[86]
+Throughout all these changes the great general plan of the continents,
+first sketched out when the "foundations of the earth" were laid,
+before Eozoic time, was being elaborated.
+
+The same creative period that witnessed the first appearance of dry
+land saw it also clothed with vegetation; and it is quite likely that
+this is intended to teach that no time was lost in clothing the earth
+with plants--that the first emerging portions received their vegetable
+tenants as they became fitted for them--and that each additional
+region, as it rose above the surface of the waters, in like manner
+received the species of plants for which it was adapted. What was the
+nature of this earliest vegetation? The sacred writer specifies three
+descriptions of plants as included in it; and, by considering the
+terms which he uses, some information on this subject may be gained.
+
+_Deshe_, translated "grass" in our version, is derived from a verb
+signifying to spring up or bud forth; the same verb, indeed, used in
+this verse to denote "bringing forth," literally causing to spring up.
+Its radical meaning is, therefore, vegetation in the act of sprouting
+or springing forth; or, as connected with this, young and delicate
+herbage. Thus, in Job xxxviii., "To satisfy the desolate and waste
+ground, and to cause the bud of the _young herbage_ to spring forth."
+Here the reference is, no doubt, to the bulbous and tuberous rooted
+plants of the desert plains, which, fading away in the summer drought,
+burst forth with magical rapidity on the setting-in of rain. The
+following passages are similar: Psalm xxiii., "He maketh me to lie
+down in green pastures" (literally, young or _tender herbage_);
+Deuteronomy xxiii., "Small rain upon the _tender herb_;" Isaiah
+xxxvii., "_Grass_ on the house-tops." The word is also used for
+herbage such as can be eaten by cattle or cut down for fodder, though
+even in these cases the idea of young and tender herbage is evidently
+included; "Fat as a heifer at _grass_" (Jer. xiv.)--that is, feeding
+on young succulent grass, not that which is dry and parched. "Cut down
+as the grass, or wither as the green herb," like the soft, tender
+grass, soon cut down and quickly withering. With respect to the use of
+the word in this place, I may remark: 1. It is not here correctly
+translated by the word "grass;" for grass bears seed, and is,
+consequently, a member of the second class of plants mentioned. Even
+if we set aside all idea of inspiration, it is obviously impossible
+that any one living among a pastoral or agricultural people could have
+been ignorant of this fact. 2. It can scarcely be a general term,
+including all plants when in a young or tender state. The idea of
+their springing up is included in the verb, and this was but a very
+temporary condition. Besides, this word does not appear to be employed
+for the young state of shrubs or trees. 3. We thus appear to be shut
+up to the conclusion that _deshe_ here means those plants, mostly
+small and herbaceous, which bear no proper seeds;[87] in other words,
+the Cryptogamia--as fungi, mosses, lichens, ferns, etc. The remaining
+words are translated with sufficient accuracy in our version. They
+denote seed-bearing or phoenogamous herbs and trees. The special
+mention of the fructification of plants is probably intended not only
+for distinction, but also to indicate the new power of organic
+reproduction now first introduced on the surface of our planet, and to
+mark its difference from the creative act itself. That this new and
+wondrous phenomenon should be so stated is thus in strict scientific
+propriety, and it is precisely the point that would be seized by an
+intelligent spectator of the visions of creation, who had previously
+witnessed only the accretion and disintegration of mineral substances,
+and to whom this marvellous power of organic reproduction would be in
+every respect a new creation.
+
+The arrangement of plants in the three great classes of cryptogams,
+seed-bearing herbs, and fruit-bearing trees differs in one important
+point--viz., the separation of herbaceous plants from trees--from
+modern botanical classification. It is, however, sufficiently natural
+for the purposes of a general description like this, and perhaps gives
+more precise ideas of the meaning intended than any other arrangement
+equally concise and popular. It is also probable that the object of
+the writer was not so much a natural-history classification as an
+account of the _order_ of creation, and that he wishes to affirm that
+the introduction of these three classes of plants on the earth
+corresponded with the order here stated. This view renders it
+unnecessary to vindicate the accuracy of the arrangement on botanical
+grounds, since the historical order was evidently better suited to the
+purpose in view, and in so far as the earlier appearance of
+cryptogamous plants is concerned, it is in strict accordance with
+geological fact.
+
+A very important truth is contained in the expression "after its
+kind"--that is, after its _species_; for the Hebrew "_min_," used
+here, has strictly this sense, and, like the Greek _idea_ and the
+Latin _species_, conveys the notion of form as well as that of kind.
+It is used to denote species of animals, in Leviticus i., 14, and in
+Deuteronomy xiv., 15. We are taught by this statement that plants were
+created each kind by itself; and that creation was not a sort of
+slump-work to be perfected by the operation of a law of development,
+as fancied by some modern speculators. In this assertion of the
+distinctness of species, and the production of each as a distinct part
+of the creative plan, revelation tallies perfectly with the
+conclusions of natural science, which lead us to believe that each
+species, as observed by us, is permanently reproductive, variable
+within narrow limits, and incapable of permanent intermixture with
+other species; and though hypotheses of modification by descent, and
+of the production of new species by such modification, may be formed,
+they are not in accordance with experience, and are still among the
+unproved speculations which haunt the outskirts of true science. We
+shall be better prepared, however, to weigh the relations of such
+hypotheses to our revelation of origins when we shall have reached the
+period of the introduction of animal life.
+
+Some additional facts contained in the recapitulation of the creative
+work in Chapter II. may very properly be considered here, as they seem
+to refer to the climatal conditions of the earth during the growth of
+the most ancient vegetation, and before the final adjustment of the
+astronomical relations of the earth on the fourth day. "And every
+shrub of the land before it was on the earth, and every herb of the
+land before it sprung up. For the Lord God had not caused it to rain
+on the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground; but a mist
+ascended from the earth and watered the whole surface of the ground."
+This has been supposed to be a description of the state of the earth
+during the whole period anterior to the fall of man. There is,
+however, no Scripture evidence of this; and geology informs us that
+rain fell as at present far back in the Palaeozoic period, countless
+ages before the creation of man or the existing animals. Although,
+however, such a condition of the earth as that stated in these verses
+has not been known in any geological period, yet it is not
+inconceivable, but in reality corresponds with the other conditions of
+nature likely to have prevailed on the third day, as described in
+Genesis. The land of this period, we may suppose, was not very
+extensive nor very elevated. Hence the temperature would be uniform
+and the air moist. The luminous and calorific matter connected with
+the sun still occupied a large space, and therefore diffused heat and
+light more uniformly than at present. The internal heat of the earth
+may still have produced an effect in warming the oceanic waters. The
+combined operation of these causes, of which we, perhaps, have some
+traces as late as the Carboniferous period, might well produce a state
+of things in which the earth was watered, not by showers of rain, but
+by the gentle and continued precipitation of finely divided moisture,
+in the manner now observed in those climates in which vegetation is
+nourished for a considerable part of the year by nocturnal mists and
+copious dews. The atmosphere, in short, as yet partook in some slight
+degree of the same moist and misty character which prevailed before
+the "establishment of the clouds above"--the airy firmament of the
+second day. The introduction of these explanatory particulars by the
+sacred historian furnishes an additional argument for the theory of
+long periods. That vegetation should exist for two or three natural
+days without rain or the irrigation which is given in culture, was, as
+already stated, a circumstance altogether unworthy of notice; but the
+growth during a long period of a varied and highly organized flora,
+without this advantage, and by the aid of a special natural provision
+afterward discontinued, was in all respects so remarkable and so
+highly illustrative of the expedients of the divine wisdom that it
+deserved a prominent place.
+
+It is evident that the words of the inspired writer include plants
+belonging to all the great subdivisions of the vegetable kingdom. This
+earliest vegetation was not rude or incomplete, or restricted to the
+lower forms of life. It was not even, like that of the coal period,
+solely or mainly cryptogamous or gymnospermous. It included trees
+bearing fruit, as well as lichens and mosses, and it received the same
+stamp of approbation bestowed on other portions of the work--"it was
+good." We have a good right to assume that its excellence had
+reference not only to its own period, but to subsequent conditions of
+the earth. Vegetation is the great assimilating power, the converter
+of inorganic into organic matter suitable for the sustenance of
+animals. In like manner the lower tribes of plants prepare the way for
+the higher. We should therefore have expected _a priori_ that
+vegetation would have clothed the earth before the creation of
+animals, and a sufficient time before it to allow soils to be
+accumulated, and surplus stores of organic matter to be prepared in
+advance: this consideration alone would also induce us to assign a
+considerable duration to the third day. After the elevation of land,
+and the draining off from it of the saline matter with which it would
+be saturated, a process often very tedious, especially in low tracts
+of ground, the soil would still consist only of mineral matter, and
+must have been for a long period occupied by plants suited to this
+condition of things, in order that sufficient organic matter might be
+accumulated for the growth of a more varied vegetation; a
+consideration which perhaps illustrates the order of the plants in the
+narrative.
+
+It may be objected to the above views that, however accordant with
+chemical and physiological probabilities, they do not harmonize with
+the facts of geology; since the earliest fossiliferous formations
+contain almost exclusively the remains of animals, which must
+therefore have preceded, or at least been coeval with, the earliest
+forms of terrestrial vegetation. This objection is founded on
+well-ascertained facts, but facts which may have no connection with
+the third day of creation when regarded as a long period. The oldest
+geological formations are of marine origin, and contain remains of
+marine animals, with those of plants supposed to be allied to the
+existing algae or sea-weeds. Geology can not, however, assure us either
+that no land plants existed contemporaneously with these earliest
+animals, or that no land flora preceded them. These oldest
+fossiliferous rocks may mark the commencement of animal life, but they
+testify nothing as to the existence or non-existence of a previous
+period of vegetation alone. Farther, the rocks which contain the
+oldest remains of life exist as far as yet known in a condition so
+highly metamorphic as almost to preclude the possibility of their
+containing any distinguishable vegetable fossils; yet they contain
+vast deposits of carbon in the form of graphite, and if this, like
+more modern coaly matter, was accumulated by vegetable growth, it must
+indicate an exuberance of plants in these earliest geological periods,
+but of plants as yet altogether unknown to us. It is possible,
+therefore, that in these Eozoic rocks we may have remnants of the
+formations of the third Mosaic day; and if we should ever be so
+fortunate as to find any portion of them containing vegetable fossils,
+and these of species differing from any hitherto known, either in a
+fossil state or recent, and rising higher, in elevation and complexity
+of type, than the flora of the succeeding Silurian and Carboniferous
+eras, we may then suppose that we have penetrated to the monuments of
+this third creative aeon. The only other alternative by which these
+verses can be reconciled with geology is that adopted by the late Hugh
+Miller, who supposes that the plants of the third day are those of the
+Carboniferous period; but, besides the apparent anachronism involved
+in this, we now know that the coal flora consisted mainly of
+cryptogams allied to ferns and club-mosses, and of gymnosperms allied
+to the pines and cycads, the higher orders of plants being almost
+entirely wanting. For these reasons we are shut up to the conclusion
+that this flora of the third day must have its place before the
+Palaeozoic period of geology.
+
+To those who are familiar with the vast lapse of time required by the
+geological history of the earth, it may be startling to ascribe the
+whole of it to three or four of the creative days. If, however, it be
+admitted that these days were periods of unknown duration, no reason
+remains for limiting their length any farther than the facts of the
+case require. If in the strata of the earth which are accessible to us
+we can detect the evidence of its existence for myriads of years, why
+may not its Creator be able to carry our view back for myriads more.
+It may be humbling to our pride of knowledge, but it is not on any
+scientific ground improbable, that the oldest animal remains known to
+geology belong to the middle period of the earth's history, and were
+preceded by an enormous lapse of ages in which the earth was being
+prepared for animal existence, but of which no records remain, except
+those contained in the inspired history.
+
+It would be quite unphilosophical for geology to affirm either that
+animal life must always have existed, or that its earliest animals are
+necessarily the earliest organic beings. To use, with a slight
+modification, the words of an able thinker on these subjects,[88]
+"For ages the prejudice prevailed that the historical period, or that
+which is coeval with the life of man, exhausted the whole history of
+the globe. Geologists removed that prejudice," but must not substitute
+"another in its place, viz., that geological time is coeval with the
+globe itself, or that organic life always existed on its surface."
+
+A second doubt as to the existence of this primitive flora may be
+based on the statement that it included the highest forms of plants.
+Had it consisted only of low and imperfect vegetables, there might
+have been much less difficulty in admitting its probability. Farther,
+we find that even in the Carboniferous period scarcely any plants of
+the higher orders flourished, and there was a preponderance of the
+lower forms of the vegetable kingdom. We have, however, in geological
+chronology, many illustrations of the fact that the progress of
+improvement has not been continuous or uninterrupted, and that the
+preservation of the flora and fauna of many geological periods has
+been very imperfect. Hence the occurrence in one particular stratum or
+group of strata of few or low representatives of animal and vegetable
+life affords no proof that a better state of things may not have
+existed previously. We also find, in the case of animals, that each
+tribe attained to its highest development at the time when, in the
+progress of creation, it occupied the summit of the scale of life.
+Analogy would thus lead us to believe that when plants alone existed,
+they may have assumed nobler forms than any now existing, or that
+tribes now represented by few and humble species may at that time have
+been so great in numbers and development as to fill all the offices of
+our present complicated flora, as well as, perhaps, some of those now
+occupied by animals. We have this principle exemplified in the
+Carboniferous flora, by the magnitude of its arborescent club-mosses,
+and the vast variety of its gymnosperms. For this reason we may
+anticipate that if any remains of this early plant-creation should be
+disinterred, they will prove to be among the most wonderful and
+interesting geological relics ever discovered, and will enlarge our
+views of the compass and capabilities of the vegetable kingdom, and
+especially of its lower forms.
+
+A farther objection is the uselessness of the existence of plants for
+a long period, without any animals to subsist on or enjoy them, and
+even without forming any accumulation of fossil fuel or other products
+useful to man. The only direct answer to this has already been given.
+The previous existence of plants may have been, and probably was,
+essential to the comfort and subsistence of the animals afterwards
+introduced. Independently of this, however, we have an analogous case
+in the geological history of animals, which prevents this fact from
+standing alone. Why was the earth tenanted so long by the inferior
+races of animals, and why were so much skill and contrivance expended
+on their structures, and even on their external ornament, when there
+was no intelligent mind on earth to appreciate their beauties. Even in
+the present world we may as well ask why the uninhabited islands of
+the ocean are found to be replete with luxuriant vegetable life, why
+God causes it to rain in the desert where human foot never treads, or
+why he clothes with a marvellous exuberance of beautiful animal and
+plant forms the depths of the sea. We can but say that these things
+seemed and seem good to the Creator, and may serve uses unknown to us;
+and this is precisely what we must be content to say respecting the
+plant-creation of the Eozoic period.
+
+Some writers[89] on this subject have suggested that the cosmical use
+of this plant-creation was the abstraction from the atmosphere of an
+excess of carbonic acid unfavorable to the animal life subsequently to
+be introduced. This use it may have served, and when its effects had
+been gradually lost through metamorphism and decay, that second great
+withdrawal of carbon which took place in the Carboniferous period may
+have been rendered necessary. The reasons afforded by natural history
+for supposing that plants preceded animals are thus stated by
+Professor Dana:
+
+"The proof from science of the existence of plants before animals is
+inferential, and still may be deemed satisfactory. Distinct fossils
+have not been found, all that ever existed in the azoic[90] rocks
+having been obliterated. The arguments in the affirmative are as
+follows:
+
+"1. The existence of limestone rocks among the other beds, similar
+limestones in later ages having been of organic origin; also the
+occurrence of carbon in the shape of graphite, graphite being, in
+known cases in rocks, a result of the alteration of the carbon of
+plants.
+
+"2. The fact that the cooling earth would have been fitted for
+vegetable life for a long age before animals could have existed; the
+principle being exemplified everywhere that the earth was occupied at
+each period with the highest kinds of life the conditions allowed.
+
+"3. The fact that vegetation subserved an important purpose in the
+coal-period in ridding the atmosphere of carbonic acid for the
+subsequent introduction of land animals, suggests a valid reason for
+believing that the same great purpose, the true purpose of vegetation,
+was effected through the ocean before the _waters_ were fitted for
+animal life.
+
+"4. Vegetation being directly or mediately the food of animals, it
+must have had a previous existence. The latter part of the azoic age
+in geology we therefore regard as the age when the plant kingdom was
+instituted, the latter half of the third day in Genesis. However short
+or long the epoch, it was one of the great steps of progress."
+
+In concluding the examination of the work of the third day, I must
+again remind the reader that, on the theory of long creative periods,
+the words under consideration must refer to the first introduction of
+vegetation, in forms that have long since ceased to exist. Geology
+informs us that in the period of which it is cognizant the vegetation
+of the earth has been several times renewed, and that no plants of the
+older and middle geological periods now exist. We may therefore rest
+assured that the vegetable species, and probably also many of the
+generic and family forms of the vegetation of the third day, have long
+since perished, and been replaced by others suited to the changed
+condition of the earth. It is indeed probable that during the third
+and fourth days themselves there might be many removals and renewals
+of the terrestrial flora, so that perhaps every species created at the
+commencement of the introduction of plants may have been extinct
+before the close of the period. Nevertheless it was marked by the
+introduction of vegetation, which in one or another set of forms has
+ever since clothed the earth.
+
+At the commencement of the third day the earth was still covered by
+the waters. As time advanced islands and mountain-peaks arose from
+the ocean, vomiting forth the molten and igneous materials of the
+interior of the earth's crust. Plains and valleys were then spread
+around, rivers traced out their beds, and the ocean was limited by
+coasts and divided by far-stretching continents. At the command of the
+Creator plants sprung from the soil--the earliest of organized
+structures--at first probably few and small, and fitted to contend
+against the disadvantages of soils impregnated with saline particles
+and destitute of organic matter; but as the day advanced increasing in
+number, magnitude, and elevation, until at length the earth was
+clothed with a luxuriant and varied vegetation, worthy the approval of
+the Creator, and the admiring song of the angelic "sons of God."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+LUMINARIES.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let there be luminaries in the expanse of
+     heaven, to divide the day from the night; and let them be
+     for signs and for seasons, and for days and for years. And
+     let them be for luminaries in the expanse of heaven, to give
+     light on the earth: and it was so.
+
+     "And God made two great luminaries, the greater luminary to
+     preside over the day, the lesser luminary to preside over
+     the night. He made the stars also. And God placed them in
+     the expanse of heaven to give light on the earth, and to
+     preside over the day and over the night, and to separate the
+     light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good. And
+     the evening and the morning were the fourth day."--Genesis
+     i., 14-19.
+
+
+After so long a sojourn on the earth, we are in these verses again
+carried to the heavens. Every scientific reader is struck with the
+position of this remarkable statement, interrupting as it does the
+progress of the organic creation, and constituting a break in the
+midst of the terrestrial history which is the immediate subject of the
+narrative; thus, in effect, as has often been remarked, dividing the
+creative week into two portions. Why was the completion of the
+heavenly bodies so long delayed? Why were light and vegetation
+introduced previously? If we can not fully answer these questions, we
+may at least suppose that the position of these verses is not
+accidental, though certainly not that which would have been chosen for
+its own sake by any fabricator of systems ancient or modern. Let us
+inquire, however, what are the precise terms of the record.
+
+1. The word here used to denote the objects produced clearly
+distinguishes them from the product of the first day's creation. Then
+God said, "Let _light_ be;" he now says, "Let _luminaries_ or
+light-bearers be." We have already seen that the light of the first
+day may have emanated from an extended luminous mass, at first
+occupying the whole extent of the solar system, and more or less
+attached to the several planetary bodies, and afterwards concentrated
+within the earth's orbit. The verses now under consideration inform us
+that the process of concentration was now complete, that our great
+central luminary had attained to its perfect state. This process of
+concentration may have been proceeding during the whole of the
+intervening time, or it may have been completed at once by some more
+rapid process of the nature of a direct interposition of creative
+power.
+
+2. The division of light from darkness is expressed by the same terms,
+and is of the same nature with that on the first day. This separation
+was now produced in its full extent by the perfect condensation of the
+luminiferous matters around the sun.
+
+3. The heavenly bodies are said to be intended for _signs_--that is,
+for marks or indications--either of the seasons, days, and years
+afterwards mentioned, or of the majesty and power of the true God, as
+the Creator of objects so grand and elevated as to become to the
+ignorant heathen objects of idolatrous worship; or perhaps of the
+earthly events they are supposed to influence. The arrangements now
+perfected for the first time enabled natural days, seasons, and years
+to have their limits accurately marked. Previously to this period
+there had been no distinctly marked seasons, and consequently no
+natural separation of years, nor were the limits of days at all
+accurately defined.
+
+4. The terms _expanse_ and _heaven_, previously applied to the
+atmosphere, are here combined to denote the more distant starry and
+planetary heavens. There is no ambiguity involved in this, since the
+writer must have well known that no one could so far mistake as to
+suppose that the heavenly bodies are placed in that atmospheric
+expanse which supports the clouds.
+
+5. The luminaries were _made_ or appointed to their office on the
+fourth day. They are not said to have been created, being included in
+the creation of the beginning. They were now completed, and fully
+fitted for their work. An important part of this fitting seems to have
+been the setting or placing them in the heavens, conveying to us the
+impression that the mutual relations and regular motions of the
+heavenly bodies were now for the first time perfected.
+
+6. The stars are introduced in a parenthetical manner, which leaves it
+doubtful whether we are merely informed in general terms that they are
+works of God, as well as those heavenly bodies which are of more
+importance to us, or that they were arranged as heavenly luminaries
+useful to our earth on the fourth day. The term includes the fixed
+stars, and it is by no means probable that these were in any way
+affected by the work referred to the fourth day, any farther than
+their appearance from our earth is concerned. This view is confirmed
+by the language of the 104th Psalm, which in this part of the work
+mentions the sun and moon alone, without the fixed stars or planets.
+
+It is evident that the changes referred to this period related to the
+whole solar system, and resulted in the completion of that system in
+the form which it now bears, or at least in the final adjustment of
+the motions and relations of the earth; and we have reason to believe
+that the condensation of the luminous envelope around the sun was one
+of the most important of these changes. On the hypothesis of La Place,
+already referred to as most in accordance with the earlier stages of
+the work, there seems to be no especial reason why the completion of
+the process of elaboration of the sun and planets should be
+accelerated at this particular stage. We can easily understand,
+however, that those closing steps which brought the solar system into
+a state of permanent and final equilibrium would form a marked epoch
+in the work; and we can also understand that now, on the eve of the
+introduction of animal life, there is a certain propriety in the
+representation of the Creator interfering to close up the merely
+inorganic part of his great work, and bring this department at least
+to its final perfection. The fourth day, then, in geological language,
+marks _the complete introduction of "existing causes" in inorganic
+nature_, and we henceforth find no more creative interference, except
+in the domain of organization. This accords admirably with the
+deductions of modern geology, and especially with that great principle
+so well expounded by Sir Charles Lyell, and which forms the true basis
+of modern geological reasonings--that we should seek in existing
+causes of change for the explanation of the appearances of the rocks
+of the earth's crust. Geology probably carries us back to the
+introduction of animal life; and shows us that since that time land,
+sea, and atmosphere, summer and winter, day and night--all the great
+inorganic conditions affecting animal life--have existed as at
+present, and have been subject to modifications the same in kind with
+those which they now experience, though perhaps different in degree.
+In this ancient record we find in like manner that the period
+immediately preceding the creation of animals witnessed the completion
+of all the great general arrangements on which these phenomena
+depend. The Bible, therefore, and science agree in the truth that
+existing causes have been in full force since the creation of animals;
+and that since that period the exercise of creative power has been
+limited to the organic world. This has a curious bearing, not often
+thought of, on modern theories of evolution as compared with the
+teaching of the Bible. In one important sense, absolute creation, in
+so far as the inorganic universe is concerned, is in our Mosaic
+narrative limited to the production of matter and force at first. All
+else is called making, forming, or appointing. Thus the production of
+all the arrangements of the waters, the atmosphere, the earth, and the
+heavens, in the work of the first four days, and even the introduction
+of plants, may be correctly termed an evolution or development from
+preformed materials, with the single exception that the reproductive
+power and specific diversities of plants are recognized as entirely
+new facts. Creation is properly resumed when animal life is
+introduced. Hence, in so far as a comparison with the terms of Genesis
+is concerned, hypotheses as to the evolution of animal life from
+inorganic matter are in a different position from hypotheses as to the
+previous evolution of the parts of inorganic nature; and still more so
+from statements as to the progress of inorganic nature subsequent to
+the introduction of animals; since within that period, which really
+includes the whole of geological time, absolutely no creation whatever
+in the domain of inanimate nature is affirmed in the Biblical record
+to have taken place. On the contrary, all the arrangements of
+inorganic nature are represented as finally completed before the
+creation of animals.
+
+The obliquity of the earth's axis, which gives us the changes of the
+seasons, is apparently included in the arrangements of the fourth
+creative day. The cause of this obliquity, and the time when it may
+have attained to its present amount, have been fertile themes of
+discussion. It is clear, however, that if this obliquity was
+established, as appears to be stated here, before the introduction of
+animal life, it can have no bearing on the changes of climate of which
+we have evidence in geological time since the dawn of animal life,
+unless, indeed, it is capable of greater variation than astronomers
+admit; and the same remark applies to supposed changes in the position
+of the poles themselves. There is, however, nothing in this record to
+oppose the idea of any secular changes in these arrangements under the
+laws appointed in the fourth creative period.
+
+The record relating to the fourth day is silent respecting the mundane
+history of the period; and geology gives no very certain information
+concerning it. If, however, we assume that any of the Eozoic or
+pre-eozoic rocks are deposits of this or the preceding period, we may
+infer from the disturbances and alteration which these have suffered,
+prior to the deposition of the Cambrian and Silurian, that during or
+toward the close of this day the crust of the earth was affected by
+great movements. There is another consideration also leading to
+important conclusions in relation to this period. In the earliest
+fossiliferous rocks there seems to be good evidence that the dry land
+contemporary with the seas in which they were formed was of very small
+extent. Now, since on the third day a very plentiful and highly
+developed vegetation was produced, we may infer that during that
+period the extent of dry land was considerable, and was probably
+gradually increasing. If, then, the Cambrian and Silurian systems, so
+rich in marine organic remains, belong to the commencement of the
+fifth day, we must conclude that during the fourth much of the land
+previously existing had been again submerged. In other words, during
+the third day the extent of terrestrial surface was increasing, on the
+fourth day it diminished, and on the fifth it again increased, and
+probably has on the whole continued to increase up to the present
+time. One most important geological consequence of this is that the
+marine animals of the fifth day probably commenced their existence on
+sea bottoms which were the old soil surfaces of submerged continents
+previously clothed with vegetation, and which consequently contained
+much organic matter fitted to form a basis of support for the newly
+created animals.
+
+I shall close my remarks on the fourth day by a few quotations from
+those passages of Scripture which refer to the objects of this day's
+work. I have already referred to that beautiful passage in Deuteronomy
+where the Israelites are warned against the crime of worshipping those
+heavenly bodies which the Lord God hath "divided to every nation under
+the whole heaven." In the book of Job also we find that the heavenly
+bodies were in his day regarded as signal manifestations of the power
+of God, and that several of the principal constellations had received
+names:
+
+  "He commandeth the sun, and it shineth not;
+  He sealeth up the stars;[91]
+  He alone spreadeth out the heavens,
+  And walketh on the high waves of the sea;[92]
+  He maketh Arcturus, Orion,
+  The Pleiades, and the hidden chambers of the south;
+  Who doeth great things past finding out;
+  Yea, marvellous things beyond number."
+
+  --Job ix., 9.
+
+  "Canst thou tighten the bonds of the Pleiades,[93]
+  Or loose the bands of Orion?
+  Canst thou bring forth the Mazzaroth in their season,
+  Or lead forth Arcturus and its sons?
+  Knowest thou the laws of the heavens,
+  Or hast thou appointed their dominion over the earth?"
+
+  --Job xxxviii., 31.
+
+I may merely remark on these passages that the chambers of the south
+are supposed to be those parts of the southern heavens invisible in
+the latitude in which Job resided. The bonds of Pleiades and of Orion
+probably refer to the apparently close union of the stars of the
+former group, and the wide separation of those of the latter; a
+difference which, to the thoughtful observer of the heavens, is more
+striking than most instances of that irregular grouping of the stars
+which still forms a question in astronomy, from the uncertainty
+whether it is real, or only an optical deception arising from stars at
+different distances coming nearly into a line with each other. I have
+seen in some recent astronomical work this very instance of the
+Pleiades and Orion taken as a marked illustration of this
+problematical fact in astronomy. _Mazzaroth_ are supposed by modern
+expositors to be the signs of the Zodiac.
+
+On the whole, the Hebrew books give us little information as to the
+astronomical theories of the time when they were written. They are
+entirely non-committal as to the nature of the connections and
+revolutions of the heavenly bodies; and indeed regard these as matters
+in their time beyond the grasp of the human mind, though well known to
+the Creator and regulated by his laws. From other sources we have
+facts leading to the belief that even in the time of Moses, and
+certainly in that of the later Biblical writers, there was not a
+little practical astronomy in the East, and some good theory. The
+Hindoo astronomy professes to have observations from 3000 B.C., and
+the arguments of Baily and others, founded on internal evidence, give
+some color of truth to the claim. The Chaldeans at a very early period
+had ascertained the principal circles of the sphere, the position of
+the poles, and the nature of the apparent motions of the heavens as
+the results of revolution on an inclined axis. The Egyptian astronomy
+we know mainly from what the Greeks borrowed from it. Thales, 640
+B.C., taught that the moon is lighted by the sun, and that the earth
+is spherical, and the position of its five zones. Pythagoras, 580
+B.C., knew, in addition to the sphericity of the earth, the obliquity
+of the ecliptic, the identity of the evening and morning star, and
+that the earth revolves round the sun. This Greek astronomy appears
+immediately after the opening of Egypt to the Greeks; and both these
+philosophers studied in that country. Such knowledge, and more of the
+same character, may therefore have existed in Egypt at a much earlier
+period.
+
+The Psalms abound in beautiful references to the creation of the
+fourth day:
+
+  "When I consider the heavens, the work of thy fingers,
+  The moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained;
+  What is man, that thou art mindful of him?
+  Or the son of man, that thou visitest him?"
+                               --Psalm viii.
+
+
+  "Who telleth the number of the stars,
+  Who calleth them all by their names.
+  Great is our Lord, and of great praise;
+  His understanding is infinite.
+  The Lord lifteth up the meek;
+  He casteth the wicked to the ground."
+                               --Psalm cxlvii.
+
+
+  "The heavens declare the glory of God,
+  The firmament showeth his handiwork;
+  Day unto day uttereth speech,
+  Night unto night showeth knowledge.
+  They have no speech nor language,
+  Their voice is not heard;
+  Yet their line is gone out to all the earth,
+  And their words to the end of the world.
+  In them hath he set a pavilion for the sun,
+  Which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber,
+  And rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race.
+  Its going forth is from the end of the heavens,
+  And its circuit unto the end of them.
+  And there is nothing hid from the heat thereof."
+                              --Psalm xix.
+
+These are excellent illustrations of the truth of the Scripture mode
+of treating natural objects, in connection with their Maker. It is but
+a barren and fruitless philosophy which sees the work and not its
+author--a narrow piety which loves God but despises his works. The
+Bible holds forth the golden mean between these extremes, in a strain
+of lofty poetry and acute perception of the great and beautiful,
+whether seen in the Creator or reflected from his works.
+
+The work of this day opens up a wide field for astronomical
+illustration, more especially in relation to the wisdom and
+benevolence of the Creator as displayed in the heavens; but it would
+be foreign to our present purpose to enter into these.
+
+It may be well, however, to think for a moment of the importance of
+the facts suggested by the writer of Genesis in mentioning the use of
+the heavenly bodies as signs of time. To what extent civilization or
+even the continued existence of man as an intelligent being would have
+been possible without the marks of subdivision of time given by the
+great astronomical clock of the universe, it is almost impossible for
+us to imagine. Without such marks of time, in any case, the whole
+fabric of human culture must have been different from what it is.
+Farther, in connection with this, it is a grand thought of our early
+revelation that all these heavenly bodies, however magnificent, and
+however they might seem to the heathen to be objects of worship, are
+but marks on God's clock, parts of a mere machine which keeps time for
+us, and is therefore our servant, as the children of the great
+Artificer, and not our ruler. The idea has been termed an astrological
+one; but astrology as a means of divination has no place in the
+record. The heavenly bodies are under the law of the Creator, and
+their function relatively to us is to give light and to give time.
+Astrological divination is an outgrowth of the Sabaean idolatry, and
+held in abomination by the monotheistic author of Genesis. His object
+may be summed up in the following general statements:
+
+1. The heavenly hosts and their arrangements are the work of Jehovah,
+and are regulated wholly by his laws or ordinances; a striking
+illustration of the recognition by the Hebrew writer both of creative
+interference, and that stable, natural law which too often withdraws
+the mind of the philosopher from the ideas of creation and of
+providence.
+
+2. The heavenly bodies have a relation to the earth--are parts of the
+same plan, and, whatever other uses they were made to serve, were made
+for the benefit of man.
+
+3. The general physical arrangements of the solar system were
+perfected before the introduction of animals on our planet.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let the waters swarm with swarming living
+     creatures, and let birds fly on the surface of the expanse
+     of heaven. And God created great reptiles, and every living
+     moving thing, which the waters brought forth abundantly,
+     after their kind, and every bird after its kind; and God saw
+     that it was good.
+
+     "And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and
+     fill the waters of the seas, and let the flying creatures
+     multiply in the earth. And the evening and the morning were
+     the fifth day."--Genesis i., 20-23.
+
+
+In these words, so full of busy, active, thronging life, we now enter
+on that part of the earth's history which has been most fully
+elucidated by geology, and we have thus an additional reason for
+carefully weighing the terms of the narrative, which here, as in other
+places, contain large and important truths couched in language of the
+simplest character.
+
+1. In accordance with the views now entertained by the best
+lexicographers, the word translated in our version "creeping things"
+has been rendered "prolific or swarming creatures." The Hebrew is
+_Sheretz_, a noun derived from the verb used in this verse to denote
+bringing forth abundantly. It is loosely translated in the Septuagint
+_Erpeta_, reptiles; and this view our English translators appear to
+have adopted, without, perhaps, any very clear notions of the
+creatures intended. The manner in which it is used in other passages
+places its true meaning beyond doubt. I select as illustrations of
+the most apposite character those verses in Leviticus in which clean
+and unclean animals are specified, and in which we have a right to
+expect the most precise zoological nomenclature that the Hebrew can
+afford. In Leviticus xi., 20-23, _insects_ are defined to be _flying
+sheretzim_, and in verse 29, etc., under the designation "_sheretzim
+of the land_," we have animals named in our version the weasel, mouse,
+tortoise, ferret, chameleon, lizard, snail, and mole. The first of
+these animals is believed to have been a burrowing creature, perhaps a
+mole; the second, from the meaning of its name, "ravager of fields,"
+is thought to have been a mouse. Some doubt, however, attends both of
+these identifications, but it appears certain that the remaining six
+species are small reptiles, principally lizards. We learn, therefore,
+that the smaller reptiles, and _perhaps_ also a few small mammals, are
+_sheretzim_. In verses 41 and 42 we are introduced to other tribes.
+"And every _sheretz_ that swarmeth on the earth shall be an
+abomination unto you; it shall not be eaten; whatsoever goeth upon the
+belly (serpents, worms, snails, etc.), and whatsoever hath more feet
+(than four) (insects, arachnidans, myriapods)." In verses 9 and 10 of
+the same chapter we have an enumeration of the _sheretzim_ of the
+waters: "Whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas
+and in the rivers, them shall ye eat. And all that have not fins and
+scales in the seas and the rivers, of all that swarm in the waters
+(all the _sheretzim_ of the waters), they shall be an abomination unto
+you." Here the general term _sheretz_ includes all the fishes and the
+invertebrate animals of the waters. From the whole of the above
+passages we learn that this is a general term for all the invertebrate
+animals and the two lower classes of vertebrates, or, in other words,
+for the whole animal kingdom except the mammalia and birds. To all
+these creatures the name is particularly appropriate, all of them
+being oviparous or ovoviviparous, and consequently producing great
+numbers of young and multiplying very rapidly. The only other
+creatures which can be included under the term are the two doubtful
+species of small mammals already mentioned. Nothing can be more fair
+and obvious than this explanation of the term, based both on etymology
+and on the precise nomenclature of the ceremonial law. We conclude,
+therefore, that the prolific animals of the fifth day's creation
+belonged to the three Cuvierian sub-kingdoms of the Radiata,
+Articulata, and Mollusca, and to the classes of Fish and Reptiles
+among the vertebrata.
+
+2. One peculiar group of _sheretzim_ is especially distinguished by
+name--the _tanninim_, or "great whales" of our version. It would be
+amusing, had we time, to notice the variety of conjectures to which
+this word has given rise, and the perplexities of commentators in
+reference to it. In our version and the Septuagint it is usually
+rendered dragon; but in this place the seventy have thought proper to
+put _Ketos_ (whale), and our translators have followed them.
+Subsequent translators and commentators have laid under contribution
+all sorts of marine monsters, including the sea-serpent, in their
+endeavors to attach a precise meaning to the word; while others have
+been content to admit that it may signify any kind or all kinds of
+large aquatic animals. The greater part of the difficulty appears to
+have arisen from confounding two distinct words, _tannin_ and _tan_,
+both names of animals; and the confusion has been increased by the
+circumstance that in two places the words have been interchanged,
+probably by errors of transcribers. _Tan_ occurs in twelve places, and
+from these we can gather that it inhabits ruined cities, deserts, and
+places to which ostriches resort, that it suckles its young, is of
+predaceous and shy habits, utters a wailing cry, and is not of large
+size, nor formidable to man. The most probable conjecture as to the
+animal intended is that of Gesenius, who supposes it to be the jackal.
+The other word (_tannin_), which is that used in the text, is applied
+as an emblem of Egypt and its kings, and also of the conquering kings
+of Babylon. It is spoken of as furious when enraged, and formidable to
+man, and is said to be an inhabitant of rivers and of the sea, but
+more especially of the Nile. In short, it is the crocodile of the
+Nile. We can easily understand the perplexity of those writers who
+suppose these two words to be identical, and endeavor to combine all
+the characters above mentioned in one animal or tribe of animals. As a
+farther illustration of the marked difference in the meanings of the
+two words, we may compare the 34th and 37th verses of the fifty-first
+chapter of Jeremiah. In the first of these verses the King of Babylon
+is represented as a "dragon" (_tannin_), which had swallowed up
+Israel. In the second it is predicted that Babylon itself shall become
+heaps, a dwelling-place for "dragons" (_tanim_). There can be no doubt
+that the animals intended here are quite different. The devouring
+_tannin_ is a huge predaceous river reptile, a fit emblem of the
+Babylonian monarch; the _tan_ is the jackal that will soon howl in his
+ruined palaces. It is interesting to know that philologists trace a
+connection between _tannin_ and the Greek _teino_, Latin _tendo_, and
+similar words, signifying to stretch or extend, in the Sanscrit,
+Gothic, and other languages, leading to the inference that the Hebrew
+word primarily denotes a lengthened or extended creature, which
+corresponds well with its application to the crocodile. Taking all the
+above facts in connection, we are quite safe in concluding that the
+creatures referred to by the word under consideration are literally
+large reptilian animals; and, from the special mention made of them,
+we may infer that, in their day, they were the lords of creation.[94]
+
+3. In verse 21 the remainder of the _sheretzim_, besides the larger
+reptiles, are included in the general expression, "Living creature
+that moveth." The term "living creature" is, literally, "creature
+having the breath of life;" the power of respiration being apparently
+in Hebrew the distinctive character of the animal. The word moveth
+(_ramash_), in its more general sense, expresses the power of
+voluntary motion, as exhibited in animals in general. In a few places,
+however, it has a more precise meaning, as in 1 Kings iv., 33, where
+the vertebrated animals are included in the four classes of "beasts,
+fowl, _creeping things_ (or reptiles, _remes_), and fishes." In the
+present connection it probably has its most general sense; unless,
+indeed, the apparent repetition in this verse relates to the
+amphibious or semi-terrestrial creatures associated with the great
+reptiles; and, in that case, the humbler reptilian animals alone may
+be meant.
+
+4. We may again note that the introduction of animal life is marked by
+the use of the word "create," for the first time since the general
+creation of the heavens and the earth. We may also note that the
+animal, as well as the plant, was created "after its kind," or
+"species by species." The animals are grouped under three great
+classes--the Remes, the Tanninim, and the Birds; but, lest any
+misconception should arise as to the relations of species to these
+groups, we are expressly informed that the species is here the true
+unit of the creative work. It is worth while, therefore, to note that
+this most ancient authority on this much controverted topic connects
+species on the one hand with the creative fiat, and on the other with
+the power of continuous reproduction.
+
+5. In addition to the great mass of _sheretzim_, so accurately
+characterized by Milton as
+
+  "----Reptile with spawn abundant,"
+
+the creation of the fifth day included a higher tribe of oviparous
+animals--the birds, the fowl or winged creature of the text. Birds
+alone, we think, must be meant here, as we have already seen that
+insects are included under the general term _sheretzim_.
+
+6. It is farther to be observed that _the waters_ give origin to the
+first animals--an interesting point when we consider the contrast here
+with the creation of plants and of the higher animals, both of which
+proceed from the earth.
+
+7. It can not fail to be observed that we have in these verses two
+different arrangements of the animals created, neither corresponding
+exactly with what modern science teaches us to regard as the true
+grouping of the animal kingdom, according to its affinities. The order
+in the first enumeration should, from the analogy of the chapter,
+indicate that of successive creation. The order of the second list
+may, perhaps, be that of the relative importance of the animals, as it
+appeared to the writer. Or there may have been a twofold division of
+the period--the earlier commencing with the creation of the humbler
+invertebrates, the later characterized by the great reptiles--which is
+the actual state of the case as disclosed by geology.
+
+8. The Creator recognizes the introduction of sentient existence and
+volition by _blessing_ this new work of his hands, and inviting the
+swarms of the newly peopled world to enjoy that happiness for which
+they were fitted, and to increase and fill the earth, inaugurating
+thus a new power destined to still higher developments.
+
+When we inquire what information geology affords respecting the period
+under consideration, the answer may be full and explicit. Geological
+discovery has carried us back to an epoch corresponding with the
+beginning of this day, and has disclosed a long and varied series of
+living beings, extending from this early period up to the introduction
+of the higher races of animals. To enter on the geological details of
+these changes, and on descriptions of the creatures which succeeded
+each other on the earth, would swell this volume into a treatise on
+palaeontology, and would be quite unnecessary, as so many excellent
+popular works on this subject already exist. I shall, therefore,
+confine myself to a few general statements, and to marking the points
+in which Scripture and geology coincide in their respective histories
+of this long period, which appears to include the whole of the
+Palaeozoic and Mesozoic epochs of geology, with their grand and varied
+succession of rock formations and living beings.
+
+In the Primordial or oldest fossiliferous rocks next in succession to
+those great Eozoic formations in which protozoa alone have been
+discovered, we find the remains of crustaceans, mollusks, and
+radiates--such as shrimps, shell-fish, and starfishes--which appear to
+have inhabited the bottom of a shallow ocean. Among these were some
+genera belonging to the higher forms of invertebrate life, but
+apparently as yet no vertebrated animals. Fishes were then introduced,
+and have left their remains in the upper Silurian rocks, and very
+abundantly in the Devonian and Carboniferous, in the latter of which
+also the first reptiles occur, but are principally members of that
+lower group to which the frogs and newts and their allies belong. The
+animal kingdom appears to have reached no higher than the reptiles in
+the Palaeozoic or primary period of geology, and its reptiles are
+comparatively small and few; though fishes had attained to a point of
+perfection which they have not since exceeded. There was also,
+especially in the Carboniferous age, an abundant and luxuriant
+vegetation. The Mesozoic period is, however, emphatically the age of
+reptiles. This class then reached its climax, in the number,
+perfection, and magnitude of its species, which filled all those
+stations in the economy of nature now assigned to the mammalia. Birds
+also belong to this era, though apparently much less numerous and
+important than at present. Only a few species of small mammals, of the
+lowest or marsupial type, appear as a presage of the mammalian
+creation of the succeeding tertiary era. In these two geological
+periods, then--the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic--we find, first, the lower
+_sheretzim_ represented by the invertebrata and the fishes, then the
+great reptiles and the birds; and it can not be denied that, if we
+admit that the Mosaic day under consideration corresponds with these
+geological periods, it would be impossible better to characterize
+their creations in so few words adapted to popular comprehension. I
+may add that all the species whose remains are found in the Palaeozoic
+and Mesozoic rocks are extinct, and known to us only as fossils; and
+their connection with the present system of nature consists only in
+their forming with it a more perfect series than our present fauna
+alone could afford, unless, indeed, we should find reason to believe
+that any modern animals are their modified descendants. They belong to
+the same system of types, but are parts of it which have served their
+purpose and have been laid aside. The coincidences above noted between
+geology and Scripture may be summed up as follows:
+
+1. According to both records, the causes which at present regulate the
+distribution of light, heat, and moisture, and of land and water,
+were, during the whole of this period, much the same as at present.
+The eyes of the trilobite of the old Silurian rocks are fitted for the
+same conditions with respect to light with those of existing animals
+of the same class. The coniferous trees of the coal measures show
+annual rings of growth. Impressions of rain-marks have been found in
+the shales of the coal measures and Devonian system. Hills and
+valleys, swamps and lagoons, rivers, bays, seas, coral reefs and shell
+beds, have all left indubitable evidence of their existence in the
+geological record. On the other hand, the Bible affirms that all the
+earth's physical features were perfected on the fourth day, and
+immediately before the creation of animals. The land and the water
+have undergone during this long lapse of ages many minor changes.
+Whole tribes of animals and plants have been swept away and replaced
+by others, but the general aspect of inorganic nature has remained the
+same.
+
+2. Both records show the existence of vegetation during this period;
+though the geologic record, if taken alone, would, from its want of
+information respecting the third day, lead us to infer that plants are
+no older than animals, while the Bible does not speak of the nature of
+the vegetation that may have existed on the fifth day.
+
+3. Both records inform us that reptiles and birds were the higher and
+leading forms of animals, and that all the lower forms of animals
+co-existed with them. In both we have especial notice of the gigantic
+Saurian reptiles of the latter part of the period; and if we have the
+remains of a few small species of mammals in the Mesozoic rocks,
+these, like a few similar creatures apparently included under the word
+_sheretz_ in Leviticus, are not sufficiently important to negative
+the general fact of the reign of reptiles.[95]
+
+4. It accords with both records that the work of creation in this
+period was gradually progressive. Species after species was locally
+introduced, extended itself, and, after having served its purpose,
+gradually became extinct. And thus each successive rock formation
+presents new groups of species, each rising in numbers and perfection
+above the last, and marking a gradual assimilation of the general
+conditions of our planet to their present state, yet without any
+convulsions or general catastrophes affecting the whole earth at once.
+
+5. In both records the time between the creation of the first animals
+and the introduction of the mammalia as a dominant class forms a
+well-marked period. I would not too positively assert that the close
+of the fifth day accords precisely with that of the Mesozoic or
+secondary period. The well-marked line of separation, however, in many
+parts of the world, between this and the earlier tertiary rocks
+succeeding to it, points to this as extremely probable.
+
+It thus appears that Scripture and geology so far concur respecting
+the events of this period as to establish, even without any other
+evidence, a probability that the fifth day corresponds with the
+geological ages with which I have endeavored to identify it. Geology,
+however, gives us no means of measuring precisely the length of this
+day; but it gives us the impression that it occupied an enormous
+length of time, compared with which the whole human period is quite
+insignificant; and rivalling those mythical "days of the Creator"
+which we have noticed as forming a part of the Hindoo mythology.
+
+Why was the earth thus occupied for countless ages by an animal
+population whose highest members were reptiles and birds? The fact can
+not be doubted, since geology and Scripture, the research of man and
+the Word of God, concur in affirming it. We know that the lowest of
+these creatures was, in its own place, no less worthy of the Creator
+than those which we regard as the highest in the scale of
+organization, and that the animals of the ancient, equally with those
+of the modern world, abounded in proofs of the wisdom, power, and
+goodness of their Maker. Comparative anatomy has shown that these
+extinct animals, though often varying much from their modern
+representatives, are in no respect rude or imperfect; that they have
+the same appearance of careful planning and elaborate execution, the
+same combination of ornament and utility, the same nice adaptation to
+the conditions of their existence, which we observe in modern
+creatures. In addition to this, the many new and wonderful
+contrivances and combinations which they present, and their relations
+to existing objects, have greatly enlarged our views of the variety
+and harmony of the whole system of nature. They are, therefore, in
+these respects, not without their use as manifestations of the
+Creator, in this our later age.
+
+There is another reason, hinted at by Buckland, Miller, and other
+writers on this subject, which weighs much with my mind. All animals
+and plants are constructed on a few leading types or patterns, which
+are again divided into subordinate types, just as in architecture we
+have certain leading styles, and these again may admit of several
+orders, and these of farther modifications. Types are farther modified
+to suit a great variety of minor adaptations. Now we know that the
+earth is, at any one time, inadequate to display all the modifications
+of all the types. Hence our existing system of organic nature, though
+probably more complete than any that preceded it, is still only
+fragmentary. It is like what architecture would be, if all memorials
+of all buildings more than a century old were swept away. But, from
+the beginning to the end of the creative work, there has been, or will
+be, room for the whole plan. Hence fossils are little by little
+completing our system of nature; and, if all were known, would perhaps
+wholly do so. The great plan must be progressive, and all its parts
+must be perishable, except its last culminating-point and archetype,
+man. Tennyson expresses this truth in the following lines:
+
+  "The wish that of the living whole
+      No life may fail beyond the grave;
+      Derives it not from what we have
+  The likest God within the soul?
+
+  Are God and Nature then at strife,
+      That Nature lends such evil dreams?
+      So careful of the type she seems,
+  So careless of the single life.
+
+  'So careful of the type?' but no.
+      From scarped cliff and quarried stone
+      She cries, 'a thousand types are gone;
+  I care for nothing, all shall go.
+
+  'Thou makest thine appeal to me:
+      I bring to life, I bring to death:
+      The spirit does but mean the breath:
+  I know no more.' And he, shall he,
+
+  Man, her last work, who seem'd so fair,
+      Such splendid purpose in his eyes,
+      Who roll'd the psalm to wintry skies,
+  Who built him fanes of fruitless prayer,
+
+  Who trusted God was love indeed,
+      And love Creation's final law--
+      Tho' Nature, red in tooth and claw,
+  With ravine, shriek'd against his creed--
+
+  Who loved, who suffer'd countless ills,
+      Who battled for the True, the Just,
+      Be blown about the desert dust,
+  Or seal'd within the iron hills?
+
+  No more? A monster, then, a dream,
+      A discord. Dragons of the prime,
+      That tare each other in their slime,
+  Were mellow music match'd with him.
+
+  O life as futile, then, as frail!
+      O for thy voice to soothe and bless!
+      What hope of answer, or redress?
+  Behind the veil, behind the veil."
+
+The farther explanation given by evolutionists that those ancient
+forms of life may be the actual ancestors of the present animals, and
+that through all the ages the Creator was gradually perfecting his
+work by a series of descents with modification, was probably not
+before the mind of our ancient Hebrew authority, nor need we attach
+much value to it till some proof of the process has been obtained from
+Nature. A farther reason, however, which was intelligible to the
+author of Genesis, and which is fondly dwelt on in succeeding books of
+the Bible, depends on the idea that the Creator himself is not
+indifferent to the marvellous structures, instincts, and powers which
+he has bestowed upon the lower races of animals. Witness the answer
+of the Almighty to Job, when he spake out of the whirlwind to
+vindicate his own plans in creation and providence; and brought before
+the patriarch a long train of animals, explaining and dwelling on the
+structure and powers of each, in contrast with the puny efforts and
+rude artificial contrivances of man. Witness also the preservation, in
+the rocks, of the fossil remains of extinct creatures, as if he who
+made them was unwilling that the evidence of their existence should
+perish, and purposely treasured them through all the revolutions of
+the earth, that through them men might magnify his name. The Psalmist
+would almost appear to have had all these thoughts before his mind
+when he poured out his wonder in the 104th Psalm:
+
+  "O Lord, how manifold are thy works!
+  In wisdom hast thou made them all.
+  The earth is full of thy riches;
+  So is this wide and great sea,
+  Wherein are moving things innumerable,
+  Creatures both small and great.
+  There go the ships [or "floating animals"];
+  There is leviathan, which thou hast formed to sport therein:
+  That thou givest them they gather.
+  Thou openest thy hand, they are filled with good;
+  Thou hidest thy face, they are troubled;
+  Thou takest away their breath, they return to their dust.
+  Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created,
+  And thou renewest the face of the earth."
+
+There are, however, good reasons to believe that, in the plans of
+divine wisdom, the long periods in which the earth was occupied by the
+inferior races were necessary to its subsequent adaptation to the
+residence of man. To these periods our present continents gradually
+grew up in all their variety and beauty. The materials of old rocks
+were comminuted and mixed to form fertile soils,[96] and stores of
+mineral products were accumulated to enable man to earn his
+subsistence and the blessings of civilization by the sweat of his
+brow. If it pleased the Almighty during these preparatory stages to
+replenish the land and sea with living things full of life and beauty
+and happiness, who shall venture to criticise his procedure, or to say
+to Him, "What doest thou?"
+
+It would be decidedly wrong, in the present state of that which is
+popularly called science, to omit to inquire here what relation to the
+work of the fifth creative day those theories of development and
+evolution which have obtained so great currency may bear. The long
+time employed in the introduction of the lower animals, the use of the
+terms "make" and "form," instead of "create," and the expression "let
+the waters bring forth," may well be understood as countenancing some
+form of mediate creation, or of "creation by law," or "theistic
+evolution," as it has been termed; but they give no countenance to the
+idea either of the spontaneous evolution of living beings under the
+influence of merely physical causes and without creative intervention,
+or of the transmutation of one kind of animal into another. Still,
+with reference to this last idea, it is plain that revelation gives us
+no definition of species as distinguished from varieties or races, so
+that there is nothing to prevent the supposition that, within certain
+limits indicated by the expression "after its kind," animals or plants
+may have been so constituted as to vary greatly in the progress of
+geological time.
+
+If we ask whether any thing is known to science which can give even a
+decided probability to the notion that living beings are parts of an
+undirected evolution proceeding under merely dead insentient forces,
+and without intention, the answer must be emphatically no.
+
+I have elsewhere fully discussed these questions, and may here make
+some general statements as to certain scientific facts which at
+present bar the way against the hypothesis of evolution as applied to
+life, and especially against that form of it to which Darwin and his
+disciples have given so great prominence.
+
+1. The albuminous or protoplasmic material, which seems to be
+necessary to the existence of every living being, is known to us as a
+product only of the action of previously living protoplasm. Though it
+is often stated that the production of albumen from its elements is a
+process not differing from the formation of water or any other
+inorganic material from its elements, this statement is false in fact,
+since, though many so-called organic substances have been produced by
+chemical processes, no particle of either living or non-living
+organizable matter of the nature of protoplasm has ever been so
+produced. The origin, therefore, of this albuminous matter is as much
+a mystery to us at present as that of any of the chemical elements.
+
+2. Though some animals and plants are very simple in their visible
+structure, they all present vital properties not to be found in dead
+albuminous matter, and no mode is known whereby the properties of life
+can be communicated to dead matter. All the experiments hitherto made,
+and very eminently those recently performed by Pasteur, Tyndall, and
+Dallinger, lead to the conclusion that even the simplest living beings
+can be produced only from germs originating in previously living
+organisms of similar structure. The simplest living organisms are
+thus to science ultimate facts, for which it can not account except
+conjecturally.
+
+3. No case is certainly known in human experience where any species of
+animal or plant has been so changed as to assume all the characters of
+a new species. Species are thus practically to science unchangeable
+units, the origin of which we have as yet no means of tracing.
+
+4. Though the general history of animal life in time bears a certain
+resemblance to the development of the individual animal from the
+embryo, there is no reason whatever to believe that this is more than
+a mere relation of analogy, arising from the fact that in both cases
+the law of procedure is to pass from the simpler forms to the more
+complex, and from the more generalized to the more specialized. The
+external conditions and details of the two kinds of series are
+altogether different, and become more so the more they are
+investigated. This shows that the causes can not have been similar.
+
+5. In tracing back animals and groups of animals in geological time,
+we find that they always end without any link of connection with
+previous beings, and in circumstances which render any such
+connections improbable. In the work of our next creative day, the
+series of animals preceding the modern horse has been cited as a good
+instance of probable evolution; but not only are the members of the
+series so widely separated in space and time that no connection can be
+traced, but the earliest of them, the _Orohippus_, would require, on
+the theory, to have been preceded by a previous series extending so
+far back that it is impossible, under any supposition of the
+imperfection of our present knowledge, to consider such extension
+probable. The same difficulty applies to every case of tracing back
+any specific form either of animal or plant. This general result
+proves, as I have elsewhere attempted to show,[97] that the
+introduction of the various animal types must have been abrupt, and
+under some influence quite different from that of evolution.
+
+These are what I would term the five fatal objections to evolution as
+at present held, as a means of accounting for the introduction and
+succession of animals. To what extent they may be weakened or
+strengthened by the future progress of science it is impossible to
+say, but so long as they exist it is mere folly and presumption to
+affirm that modern science supports the doctrine of evolution. There
+can be no doubt, however, that the Bible leaves us perfectly free to
+inquire as to the plan and method of the Creator, and that, whatever
+discoveries we may make, we shall find that his plans are orderly,
+methodical, and continuous, and not of the nature of an arbitrary
+patchwork.
+
+Though science as yet gives us no certain laws for the introduction of
+new specific types, it indicates certain possible modes of the
+origination of varieties, races, and sub-species of previously
+existing types. One of these is that struggle for existence against
+adverse external conditions, which, however, has been harped upon too
+exclusively by the Darwinian school, and which will give chiefly
+depauperated and degraded forms. Another is that expansion under
+exceptionally favorable conditions which arises where species are
+admitted to wider new areas of geographical range and more abundant
+and varied means of sustenance. Land animals and plants must have
+experienced this in times of continental elevation; marine animals and
+plants in times of continental depression. Another is the tendency to
+what has been called reproductive retardation and acceleration which
+species undergo under conditions exceptionally unfavorable or
+favorable, and which in some modern aquatic animals produces
+differences so great that members of the same species have sometimes
+been placed in different genera. Lastly, it is conceivable that
+species may have been so constructed that after a certain number of
+generations they may spontaneously undergo either abrupt or gradual
+changes, similar to those which the individual undergoes at certain
+stages of growth. This last furnishes the only true analogy possible
+between embryology and geological succession.
+
+While, however, science is silent as to the production of new specific
+types, and only gives us indications as to the origin of varieties and
+races, it is curious that the Bible suggests three methods in which
+new organisms may be, and according to it have been introduced by the
+Creator. The first is that of immediate and direct creation, as when
+God created the great Tanninim. The second is that of mediate
+creation, through the materials previously existing, as when he said,
+"Let the land bring forth plants," or "Let the waters bring forth
+animals." The third is that of production from a previous organism by
+power other than that of ordinary reproduction, as in the origination
+of Eve from Adam, and the miraculous conception of Jesus. These are
+the only points in which its teachings approach the limits of
+speculations as to evolution, and they certainly leave scope enough
+for the legitimate inquiries of science.[98]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE HIGHER ANIMALS AND MAN.
+
+
+     "And God said, Let the land bring forth animals after their
+     kinds; the herbivora, the reptiles, and the carnivora, after
+     their kinds; and it was so. And God made carnivorous mammals
+     after their kinds, and herbivorous mammals after their
+     kinds, and every reptile of the land after its kind; and God
+     saw that it was good.
+
+     "And God said, Let us make man in our own image, after our
+     likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the
+     birds of the air, and over the herbivora and over all the
+     land. So God created man in his own image, in the image of
+     God created he him; male and female created he them. And God
+     blessed them; and God said, Be fruitful and multiply, and
+     replenish the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over
+     the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the air, and over
+     every living thing that moveth upon the earth.
+
+     "And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing
+     seed which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree
+     in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it
+     shall be for food, and to every beast of the earth and to
+     every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon
+     the earth wherein there is life, I have given every green
+     herb for meat; and it was so. And God saw every thing that
+     he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And evening and
+     morning were the sixth day."--Genesis i., 24-31.
+
+
+The creation of animals, unlike that of plants, occupies two days.
+Here our attention is restricted to the inhabitants of the _land_, and
+chiefly to their higher forms. Several new names are introduced to our
+notice, which I have endeavored to translate as literally as possible
+by introducing zoological terms where those in common use were
+deficient.
+
+1. The first tribe of animals noticed here is named _Bhemah_, "cattle"
+in our version; and in the Septuagint "quadrupeds" in one of the
+verses, and "cattle" in the other. Both of these senses are of common
+occurrence in the Scriptures, cattle or domesticated animals being
+usually designated by this word; while in other passages, as in 1
+Kings iv., 33, where Solomon is said to have written a treatise on
+"_beasts_, fowls, creeping things, and fishes," it appears to include
+all the mammalia. Notwithstanding this wide range of meaning, however,
+there are passages, and these of the greatest authority in reference
+to our present subject, in which it strictly means the herbivorous
+mammals, and which show that when it was necessary to distinguish
+these from the predaceous or carnivorous tribes this term was
+specially employed. In Leviticus xi., 22-27, we have a specification
+of all the Bhemoth that might and might not be used for food. It
+includes all the true ruminants, with the coney, the hare, and the
+hog, animals of the rodent and pachydermatous orders. The carnivorous
+quadrupeds are designated by a different generic term. In this chapter
+of Leviticus, therefore, which contains the only approach to a system
+in natural history to be found in the Bible, _bhemah_ is strictly a
+synonym of _herbivora_, including especially ungulates and rodents.
+That this is its proper meaning here is confirmed by the
+considerations that in this place it can denote but a part of the land
+quadrupeds, and that the idea of cattle or domesticated animals would
+be an anachronism. At the same time there need be no objection to the
+view that the especial capacity of ruminants and other herbivora for
+domestication is connected with the use of the word in this place.
+
+2. The word _remes_, "creeping things" in our version, as we have
+already shown, is a very general term, referring to the power of
+motion possessed by animals, especially on the surface of the ground.
+It here in all probability refers to the additional types of
+terrestrial reptiles, and other creatures lower than the mammals,
+introduced in this period.
+
+3. The compound term (_hay'th-eretz_) which I have ventured to render
+"carnivora," is literally animal of the land; but though thus general
+in its meaning, it is here evidently intended to denote a particular
+tribe of animals inhabiting the land, and not included in the scope of
+the two words already noticed. In other parts of Scripture this term
+is used in the sense of a "wild beast." In a few places, like the
+other terms already noticed, it is used of all kinds of animals, but
+that above stated is its general meaning, and perfectly accords with
+the requirements of the passage.
+
+The creation of the sixth day therefore includes--1st, the herbivorous
+mammalia; 2d, a variety of terrestrial reptilia, and other lower forms
+not included in the work of the previous day; 3d, the carnivorous
+mammalia. It will be observed that the order in the two verses is
+different. In verse 24th it is herbivora, "creeping things," and
+carnivora. In verse 25th it is carnivora, herbivora, and "creeping
+things." One of these may, as in the account of the fifth day,
+indicate the order of _time_ in the creation, and the other the order
+of _rank_ in the animals made, or there may have been two divisions of
+the work, in the earlier of which herbivorous animals took the lead,
+and in the later those that are carnivorous. In either case we may
+infer that the herbivora predominated in the earlier creations of the
+period.
+
+It is almost unnecessary to say this period corresponds with the
+Tertiary or Cainozoic era of geologists. The coincidences are very
+marked and striking. As already stated, though in the later secondary
+period there were great facilities for the preservation of mammals in
+the strata then being deposited, only a few small species of the
+humblest order have been found; and the occurrence of the higher
+orders of this class is to some extent precluded by the fact that the
+place in nature now occupied by the mammals was then provided for by
+the vast development of the reptile tribes. At the very beginning of
+the tertiary period all this was changed; most of the gigantic
+reptiles had disappeared, and terrestrial mammals of large size and
+high organization had taken their place. Perhaps no geological change
+is more striking and remarkable than the sudden disappearance of the
+reptilian fauna at the close of the mesozoic, and the equally abrupt
+appearance of numerous species of large mammals, and this not in one
+region only, but over both the great continents, and not only where a
+sudden break occurs in the series of formations, but also where, as in
+Western America, they pass gradually into each other. During the whole
+tertiary period this predominance of the mammalia continued; and as
+the mesozoic was the period of giant reptiles, so the tertiary was
+that of great mammals. It is a singular and perhaps not accidental
+coincidence that so many of the early tertiary mammals known to us are
+large herbivora, such as would be included in the Hebrew word
+_bhemah_; and that in the book of Job the hippopotamus is called
+_behemoth_, the plural form being apparently used to denote that this
+animal is the chief of the creatures known under the general term
+_bhemah_, while geology informs us that the prevailing order of
+mammals in the older tertiary period was that of the ungulates, and
+that many of the extinct creatures of this group are very closely
+allied to the hippopotamus. Behemoth thus figures in the book of Job,
+not only as at the time a marked illustration of creative power, but
+to our farther knowledge also as a singular remnant of an extinct
+gigantic race. It is at least curious that while in the fifth day
+great reptiles like those of the secondary rocks form the burden of
+the work, in the sixth we have a term which so directly reminds us of
+those gigantic pachyderms which figure so largely in the tertiary
+period. Large carnivora also occur in the tertiary formations, and
+there are some forms of reptile life, as, for example, the serpents,
+which first appear in the tertiary.
+
+I may refer to any popular text-book of geology in evidence of the
+exact conformity of this to the progress of mammalian life, as we now
+know it in detail from the study of the successive tertiary deposits.
+The following short summary from Dana, though written several years
+ago, still expresses the main features of the case:
+
+"The quadrupeds did not all come forth together. Large and powerful
+herbivorous species first take possession of the earth, with only a
+few small carnivora. These pass away. Other herbivora with a larger
+proportion of carnivora next appear. These also are exterminated; and
+so with others. Then the carnivora appear in vast numbers and power,
+and the herbivora also abound. Moreover these races attain a magnitude
+and number far surpassing all that now exist, as much so indeed, on
+all the continents, North and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and
+Australia, as the old mastodon, twenty feet long and nine feet high,
+exceeds the modern buffalo. Such, according to geology, was the age of
+mammals, when the brute species existed in their greatest
+magnificence, and brutal ferocity had free play; when the dens of
+bears and hyenas, prowling tigers and lions far larger than any now
+existing, covered Britain and Europe. Mammoths and mastodons wandered
+over the plains of North America, huge sloth-like Megatheria passed
+their sluggish lives on the pampas of South America, and elephantine
+marsupials strolled about Australia.
+
+"As the mammalian age draws to a close, the ancient carnivora and
+herbivora of that era all pass away, excepting, it is believed, a few
+that are useful to man. New creations of smaller size peopled the
+groves; the vegetation received accessions to its foliage, fruit-trees
+and flowers, and the seas brighter forms of water life. This we know
+from comparisons with the fossils of the preceding mammalian age.
+There was at this time no chaotic upturning, but only the opening of
+creation to its fullest expansion; and so in Genesis no new day is
+begun, it is still the _sixth day_."
+
+The creation of man is prefaced by expressions implying deliberation
+and care. It is not said, "Let the earth bring forth" man, but let us
+form or fashion man. This marks the relative importance of the human
+species, and the heavenly origin of its nobler immaterial part. Man is
+also said to have been "created," implying that in his constitution
+there was something new and not included in previous parts of the
+work, even in its material. Man was created, as the Hebrew literally
+reads, the shadow and similitude of God--the greatest of the visible
+manifestations of Deity in the lower world--the reflected image of his
+Maker, and, under the Supreme Lawgiver, the delegated ruler of the
+earth. Now for the first time was the earth tenanted by a being
+capable of comprehending the purposes and plans of Jehovah, of
+regarding his works with intelligent admiration, and of shadowing
+forth the excellences of his moral nature. For countless ages the
+earth had been inhabited by creatures wonderful in their structures
+and instincts, and mutely testifying, as their buried remains still
+do, to the Creator's glory; but limited within a narrow range of
+animal propensities, and having no power of raising a thought or
+aspiration toward the Being who made them. Now, however, man enters on
+the scene, and the sons of God, who had shouted for joy when the first
+land emerged from the bosom of the deep, saw the wondrous spectacle of
+a spiritual nature analogous to their own, united to a corporeal frame
+constructed on the same general type with the higher of those
+irrational creatures whose presence on earth they had so long
+witnessed.
+
+Man was to rule over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and
+the _bhemah_ or herbivorous animals. The carnivorous creatures are not
+mentioned, and possibly were not included in man's dominion. We shall
+find an explanation of this farther on. The nature of man's dominion
+we are left to infer. In his state of innocence it must have been a
+mild and gentle sway, interfering in no respect wilts the free
+exercise of the powers of enjoyment bestowed on animals by the
+Creator, a rule akin to that which a merciful man exercises over a
+domesticated animal, and which some animals are capable of repaying
+with a warm and devoted affection. Now, however, man's rule has become
+a tyranny. "The whole creation groans" because of it. He desolates the
+face of nature wherever he appears, unsettling the nice balance of
+natural agencies, and introducing remediless confusion and suffering
+among the lower creatures, even when in the might of his boasted
+civilization he professes to renovate and improve the face of nature.
+He retains enough of the image of his Maker to enable him to a great
+extent to assert his dominion, and to aspire after a restoration of
+his original paradise, but he has lost so much that the power which he
+retains is necessarily abused to selfish ends.
+
+Man, like the other creatures, was destined to be fruitful and
+multiply and replenish the earth. We are also informed in chapter
+second that he was placed in a "garden," a chosen spot in the alluvial
+plains of Western Asia, belonging to the later geological formations,
+and thus prepared by the whole series of prior geological changes,
+replenished with all things useful to him, and containing nothing
+hurtful, at least in so far as the animal creation was concerned.
+These facts, taken in connection, lead to grave questions. How is the
+happy and innocent state of man consistent with the contemporaneous
+existence of carnivorous and predaceous animals, which, as both
+Scripture and geology state, were created in abundance in the sixth
+day? How, when confined to a limited region, could he increase and
+multiply and replenish the earth? These questions, which have caused
+no little perplexity, are easily solved when brought into the light of
+our modern knowledge of nature. 1. Every large region of the earth is
+inhabited by a group of animals differing in the proportions of
+identical species, and in the presence of distinct species, from the
+groups inhabiting other districts. There is also sufficient reason to
+conclude that all animals and plants have spread from certain local
+centres of creation, in which certain groups of species have been
+produced and allowed to extend themselves, until they met and became
+intermingled with species extending from other centres. Now the
+district of Asia, in the vicinity of the Euphrates and Tigris, to
+which the Scripture assigns the origin of the human race, is the
+centre to which we can with the greatest probability trace several of
+the species of animals and plants most useful to man, and it lies near
+the confines of warmer and colder regions of distribution in the Old
+World, and also near the boundary of the Asiatic and European regions.
+At the period under consideration it may have been peopled with a
+group of animals specially suited to association with the progenitors
+of mankind. 2. To remove all zoological difficulties from the position
+of primeval man in his state of innocence, we have but to suppose, in
+accordance with all the probabilities of the case, that man was
+created along with a group of creatures adapted to contribute to his
+happiness, and having no tendency to injure or annoy; and that it is
+the formation of these creatures--the group of his own centre of
+creation--that is especially noticed in Genesis ii., 19, _et seq._,
+where God is represented as forming them out of the ground and
+exhibiting them to Adam; a passage otherwise superfluous, and indeed
+tending to confuse the meaning of the document. 3. The difficulty
+attending the early extension of the human race is at once obviated by
+the geological doctrine of the extinction of species. We know that in
+past geological periods large and important groups of species have
+become extinct, and have been replaced by new groups extending from
+new centres; and we know that this process has removed, in early
+geological periods, many creatures that would have been highly
+injurious to human interests had they remained. Now the group of
+species created with man being the latest introduced, we may infer, on
+geological grounds, that it would have extended itself within the
+spheres of older zoological and botanical districts, and would have
+replaced their species, which, in the ordinary operation of natural
+laws, may have been verging toward extinction. Thus not only man, but
+the Eden in which he dwelt, with all its animals and plants, would
+have gradually encroached on the surrounding wilderness, until man's
+happy and peaceful reign had replaced that of the ferocious beasts
+that preceded him in dominion, and had extended at least over all the
+temperate region of the earth. 4. The cursing of the ground for man's
+sake, on his fall from innocence, would thus consist in the
+permission given to the predaceous animals and the thorns and the
+briers of other centres of creation to invade his Eden; or, in his own
+expulsion, to contend with the animals and plants which were intended
+to have given way and become extinct before him. Thus the fall of man
+would produce an arrestment in the progress of the earth in that last
+great revolution which would have converted it into an Eden; and the
+anomalies of its present state consist, according to Scripture, in a
+mixture of the conditions of the tertiary with those of the human
+period. 5. Though there is good ground for believing that man was to
+have been exempted from the general law of mortality, we can not infer
+that any such exemption would have been enjoyed by his companion
+animals; we only know that he himself would have been free from all
+annoyance and injury and decay from external causes. We may also
+conclude that, while Eden was sufficient for his habitation, the
+remainder of the earth would continue, just as in the earlier tertiary
+periods, under the dominion of the predaceous mammals, reptiles, and
+birds. 6. The above views enable us on the one hand to avoid the
+difficulties that attend the admission of predaceous animals into
+Eden, and on the other the still more formidable difficulties that
+attend the attempt to exclude them altogether from the Adamic world.
+They also illustrate the geological fact that many animals,
+contemporaneous with man, extend far back into the Tertiary period.
+These are creatures not belonging to the Edenic centre of creation,
+but introduced in an earlier part of the sixth day, and now permitted
+to exist along with man in his fallen state. I have stated these
+supposed conditions of the Adamic creation briefly, and with as little
+illustration as possible, that they may connectedly strike the mind of
+the reader. Each of these statements is in harmony with the
+Scriptural narrative on the one hand, and with geology on the other;
+and, taken together, they afford an intelligible history of the
+introduction of man. If a geologist were to state, _a priori_, the
+conditions proper to the creation of any important species, he could
+only say--the preparation or selection of some region of the earth for
+it, and its production along with a group of plants and animals suited
+to it. These are precisely the conditions implied in the Scriptural
+account of the creation of Adam.[99] The difficulties of the subject
+have arisen from supposing, contrary to the narrative itself, that the
+conditions necessary for Eden must in the first instance have extended
+over the whole earth, and that the creatures with which man is in his
+present dispersion brought into contact must necessarily have been his
+companions there. One would think that many persons derive their idea
+of the first man in Eden from nursery picture-books; for the Bible
+gives no countenance to the idea that all the animals in the world
+were in Eden. On the contrary, it asserts that a selection was made
+both in the case of animals and plants, and that this Edenic
+assemblage of creatures constituted man's associates in his state of
+primeval innocence.
+
+The food of animals is specified at the close of the work of this day.
+The grant to man is every herb bearing seed, and every fruit-tree.
+That to the lower animals is more extensive--every green herb. This
+can not mean that every animal in the earth was herbivorous. It may
+refer to the group of animals associated with man in Eden, and this is
+most likely the intention of the writer; but if it includes the
+animals of the whole earth, we may be certain, from the express
+mention of carnivorous creatures in the work of the fifth and sixth
+days, that it indicates merely the general fact that the support of
+the whole animal kingdom is based on vegetation.
+
+A most important circumstance in connection with the work of the sixth
+day is that it witnessed the creation both of man and the mammalia. A
+fictitious writer would probably have exalted man by assigning to him
+a separate day, and by placing the whole animal kingdom together in
+respect to time. He would be all the more likely to do this, if
+unacquainted, as most ignorant persons as well as literary men are,
+with the importance and teeming multitudes of the lower tribes of
+animals, and with the typical identity of the human frame with that of
+the higher animals. Moses has not done so, we are at liberty to
+suppose, because the vision of creation had it otherwise; and modern
+geology has amply vindicated him in this by its disclosure of the
+intimate connection of the human with the tertiary period; and has
+shown in this as in other instances that truth and not "accommodation"
+was the object of the sacred writer. While, as already stated, many
+existing species extend far back into the tertiary period, showing
+that the earth has been visited by no universal catastrophe since the
+first creation of mammals; on the other hand, we can not with
+certainty trace any existing species back beyond the commencement of
+the tertiary era. Geology and revelation, therefore, coincide in
+referring the creation of man to the close of the period in which
+mammals were introduced and became predominant, and in establishing a
+marked separation between that period and the preceding one in which
+the lower animals held undisputed sway. This coincidence, while it
+strengthens the probability that the creative days were long periods,
+opposes an almost insurmountable obstacle to every other hypothesis
+of reconciliation with geological science.
+
+At the close of this day the Creator again reviews his work, and
+pronounces it good. Step by step the world had been evolved from a
+primeval chaos, through many successive physical changes and long
+series of organized beings. It had now reached its acme of perfection,
+and had received its most illustrious tenant, possessing an organism
+excelling all others in majesty and beauty, and an immaterial soul the
+shadow of the glorious Creator himself. Well might the angels sing,
+when the long-protracted work was thus grandly completed:
+
+                      "Thrice happy man,
+  And sons of men, whom God hath thus advanced,
+  Created in his image, there to dwell
+  And worship him, and in reward to rule
+  Over his works in earth, or sea, or air,
+  And multiply a race of worshippers
+  Holy and just; thrice happy, if they know
+  Their happiness and persevere upright."
+
+The Hebrew idea of the golden age of Eden is pure and exalted. It
+consists in the enjoyment of the favor of God, and of all that is
+beautiful and excellent in his works. God and nature are the whole.
+Nor is it merely a rude, unintelligent, sensuous enjoyment. Man
+primeval is not a lazy savage gathering acorns. He is made in the
+image of the Creator; he is to keep and dress his garden, and it is
+furnished with every plant good for food and pleasant to the sight. In
+the midst of our material civilization we need to disabuse ourselves
+of some prejudices before we can realize the fact that man, without
+the arts of life or any need of them, is not necessarily a barbarian
+or a savage. Yet even Adam must have been an agriculturist with strong
+and willing hands, and must have had some need of agricultural
+implements such as those with which the least civilized of his
+descendants have been wont to till the soil. Still, without art or
+with very little of it, he could enjoy all that is beautiful and grand
+in nature, and could rise from the observation of nature to communion
+with God. We need the more to realize this, inasmuch as there seems so
+strong a tendency to confound material civilization with higher
+culture, and to hold that man primeval must have been low and debased
+simply because he may have had no temples and no machinery. We must
+remember that he had nature, which is higher than fine art, and that
+when in harmony with his surroundings he may have had no need either
+of exhausting labor or of mechanical contrivances. Farther, in the
+contemplation of nature and in seeking after God, he had higher
+teachers than our boasted civilization can claim.
+
+Alas for fallen man, with his poor civilization gathered little by
+little from the dust of earth, and his paltry art that halts
+immeasurably behind nature. How little is he able even to appreciate
+the high estate of his great ancestor. The world of fallen men has
+worshipped art too much, reverenced and studied God and nature too
+little. The savage displays the lowest taste when he admires the rude
+figures which he paints on his face or his garments more than the
+glorious painting that adorns nature; yet even he acknowledges the
+pre-eminent excellence of nature by imitating her forms and colors,
+and by adapting her painted plumes and flowers to his own use. There
+is a wide interval, including many gradations, between this low
+position and that of the cultivated amateur or artist. The art of the
+latter makes a nearer approach to the truly beautiful, inasmuch as it
+more accurately represents the geometric and organic forms and the
+coloring of nature; and inasmuch as it devises ideal combinations not
+found in the actual world; which ideal combinations, however, are
+beautiful or monstrous just as they realize or violate the harmonies
+of nature. It is only the highest culture that brings man back to his
+primitive refinement.
+
+Art takes her true place when she sits at the feet of nature, and
+brings her students to drink in its beauties, that they may endeavor,
+however imperfectly, to reproduce them. On the other hand, the student
+of nature must not content himself with "writing Latin names on white
+paper," wherewith to label nature's productions, but must rise to the
+contemplation of the order and beauty of the Cosmos as a revelation of
+Divinity. Both will thus rise to that highest taste which will enable
+them to appreciate not only the elegance of individual forms, but
+their structure, their harmonies, their grouping and their relations,
+their special adaptation, and their places as parts of a great system.
+Thus art will attain that highest point in which it displays original
+genius, without violating natural truth and unity, and nature will be
+regarded as the highest art.
+
+Much is said and done in our time with reference to the cultivation of
+popular taste for fine art as a means of civilization; and this, so
+far as it goes, is well; but the only sure path to the highest
+taste-education is the cultivation of the study of nature. This is
+also an easier branch of education, provided the instructors have
+sufficient knowledge. Good works of art are rare and costly; but good
+works of nature are everywhere around us, waiting to be examined. Such
+education, popularly diffused, would react on the efforts of art. It
+would enable a widely extended public to appreciate real excellence,
+and would cause works of art to be valued just in proportion to the
+extent to which they realize or deviate from natural truth and unity.
+I do not profess to speak authoritatively on such subjects, but I
+confess that the strong impression on my mind is that neither the
+revered antique models, nor the practice and principles of the
+generality of modern art reformers, would endure such criticism; and
+that if we could combine popular enthusiasm for art with scientific
+appreciation of nature, a new and better art might arise from the
+union.
+
+I may appear to dwell too long upon this topic; but my excuse must be
+that it leads to a true estimate both of natural history and of the
+sacred Scriptures. The study of nature guides to those large views of
+the unity and order of creation which alone are worthy of a being of
+the rank of man, and which lead him to adequate conceptions of the
+Creator; but the truly wise recognize three grades of beauty. First,
+that of art, which, in its higher efforts, can raise ordinary minds
+far above themselves. Secondly, that of nature, which, in its most
+common objects, must transcend the former, since its artist is that
+God of whose infinite mind the genius of the artist is only a faint
+reflection. Thirdly, that pre-eminent beauty of moral goodness
+revealed only in the spiritual nature of the Supreme. The first is one
+of the natural resources of fallen man in his search for happiness.
+The second was man's joy in his primeval innocence. The third is the
+inheritance of man redeemed. It is folly to place these on the same
+level. It is greater folly to worship either or both of the first
+without regard to the last. It is true wisdom to aspire to the last,
+and to regard nature as the handmaid of piety, art as but the handmaid
+of nature.
+
+Nature to the unobservant is merely a mass of things more or less
+beautiful or interesting, but without any definite order or
+significance. An observer soon arrives at the conclusion that it is a
+series of circling changes, ever returning to the same points, ever
+renewing their courses, under the action of invariable laws. But if he
+rests here, he falls infinitely short of the idea of the Cosmos, and
+stands on the brink of the profound error of eternal succession. A
+little further progress conducts him to the inviting field of special
+adaptation and mutual relation of things. He finds that nothing is
+without its use; that every structure is most nicely adjusted to
+special ends; that the supposed ceaseless circling of nature is merely
+the continuous action of great powers, by which an infinity of
+utilities are worked out--the great fly-wheel which, in its unceasing
+and at first sight apparently aimless round, is giving motion to
+thousands of reels and spindles and shuttles, that are spinning and
+weaving, in all its varied patterns, the great web of life.
+
+But the observer, as he looks on this web, is surprised to find that
+it has in its whole extent a wondrous pattern. He rises to the
+contemplation of type in nature, a great truth to which science has
+only lately opened its eyes. He begins dimly to perceive that the
+Creator has from the beginning had a plan before his mind, that this
+plan embraced various types or patterns of existence; that on these
+patterns he has been working out the whole system of nature, adapting
+each to all the variety of uses by an infinity of minor modifications.
+That, in short, whether he study the eye of a gnat or the structure of
+a mountain chain, he sees not only objects of beauty and utility, but
+parts of far-reaching plans of infinite wisdom, by which all objects,
+however separated in time or space, are linked together.
+
+How much of positive pleasure does that man lose who passes through
+life absorbed with its wants and its artificialities, and regarding
+with a "brute, unconscious gaze" the grand revelation of a higher
+intelligence in the outer world. It is only in an approximation
+through our Divine Redeemer to the moral likeness of God that we can
+be truly happy; but of the subsidiary pleasures which we are here
+permitted to enjoy, the contemplation of nature is one of the best and
+purest. It was the pleasure, the show, the spectacle prepared for man
+in Eden, and how much true philosophy and taste shine in the simple
+words that in paradise God planted trees "pleasant to the sight," as
+well as "good for food." Other things being equal, the nearer we can
+return to this primitive taste, the greater will be our sensuous
+enjoyment, the better the influence of our pleasures on our moral
+nature, because they will then depend on the cultivation of tastes at
+once natural and harmless, and will not lead us to communion with and
+reverence for merely human genius, but will conduct us into the
+presence of the infinite perfection of the Creator.
+
+The Bible knows but one species of man. It is not said that men were
+created after their species, as we read of the groups of animals. Man
+was made, "male and female;" and in the fuller details afterwards
+given in the second chapter--where the writer, having finished his
+general narrative, commences his special history of man--but one
+primitive pair is introduced to our notice. We scarcely need the
+detailed tables of affiliation afterward given, or the declaration of
+the apostle who preached to the supposed autochthones of Athens, that
+"God has made of one blood all nations," to assure us of the
+Scriptural unity of man. If, therefore, there were any good reason to
+believe that man is not of one but several origins, we must admit
+Moses to have been very imperfectly informed. Nor, on the other hand,
+does the Bible any more than geology allow us to assign a very high
+antiquity to the origin of man relatively to that of the earth on
+which he dwells. The genealogical tables of the Bible may admit of
+some limits of difference of opinion as to the age of the human world
+or aeon, and also of that of the deluge, from which man took his second
+point of departure; but they do not allow us to put the origin of man
+farther back than that of the present or modern condition of our
+continents and the present races of animals. They therefore limit us
+to the modern or quaternary period of geology. The question of man's
+antiquity, so much agitated now, demands, however, a separate and
+careful consideration; but we must first devote a few pages to the
+simple statements of the Bible respecting the Sabbath of creation and
+its relation to human history.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE REST OF THE CREATOR.
+
+
+     "And the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the
+     host of them. And on the seventh day God ended his work
+     which he had made, and he rested on the seventh day from all
+     his work which he had made. And God blessed the seventh day
+     and sanctified it, because that in it God rested from all
+     his work which he had created to make."--Genesis ii., 1-3.
+
+
+The end of the sixth day closed the work of creation properly so
+called, as well as that of forming and arranging the things created.
+The beginning of the seventh introduced a period which, according to
+the views already stated, was to be occupied by the continued increase
+and diffusion of man and the creatures under his dominion, and by the
+gradual disappearance of tribes of creatures unconnected with his
+well-being.
+
+Science in this well accords with Scripture. No proof exists of the
+production of a new species since the creation of man; and all
+geological and archaeological evidence points to him and a few of the
+higher mammals as the newest of the creatures. There is, on the other
+hand, good evidence that several species have become extinct since his
+creation. Those who believe in the continuous evolution of animals and
+men, it is true, can see no actual termination of the process with the
+introduction of man; but even they see that the appearance of a
+rational and moral being at least changes the nature and order of the
+development. Nor can they doubt that man is the last born of nature,
+and that the whole animal creation is crowned by him as its capital or
+topmost pinnacle. The later speculators on this subject have never
+reached any truth beyond that long ago stated by the lamented Edward
+Forbes--a most careful observer and accurate reasoner on the more
+recent changes of the earth's surface. He infers, from the
+distribution of species from their centres of creation, that man is
+the latest product of creative power; or, in other words, that none of
+those species or groups of species which he had been able to trace to
+their centres, or the spots at which they probably originated, appear
+to be of later or as late origin as man. "This consideration," he
+says, "induces me to believe that the last province in time was
+completed by the coming of man, and to maintain an hypothesis that man
+stands unique in space and time, himself equal to the sum of any
+pre-existing centre of creation or of all--an hypothesis consistent
+with man's moral and social position in the world."
+
+The seventh day, then, was to have been that in which all the
+happiness, beauty, and perfection of the others were to have been
+concentrated. But an element of instability was present in the being
+who occupied the summit of the animal scale. Not regulated by blind
+and unerring instincts, but a free agent, with a high intellectual and
+moral nature, and liable to be acted on by temptation from without;
+under such influence he lost his moral balance in stretching out his
+hand to grasp the peculiar powers of Deity, and fell beyond the hope
+of self-redemption--perpetuating, by one of those laws which regulate
+the transmission of mixed corporeal and spiritual natures, his
+degradation to every generation of his species. And so God's great
+work was marred, and all his plans seemed to be foiled, when they had
+just reached their completion. Thus far science might carry us
+unaided; for there is not a true naturalist, however skeptical as to
+revealed religion, who does not feel in his inmost heart the
+disjointed state of the present relations of man to nature; the
+natural wreck that results from his artificial modes of life, the long
+trains of violations of the symmetry of nature that follow in the wake
+of his most boasted achievements. But here natural science stops; and
+just as we have found that, in tracing back the world's history, the
+Bible carries us much farther than geology, so science, having led us
+to suspect the fallen state of man, leaves us henceforth to the
+teaching of revelation. And how glorious that teaching! God did not
+find himself baffled--his resources are infinite--he had foreseen and
+prepared for all this apparent evil; and out of the moral wreck he
+proceeds to work out the grand process of _redemption_, which is the
+especial object of the seventh day, and which will result in the
+production of a new heaven and a new earth wherein dwelleth
+righteousness. In the seventh, as in the former days, the evening
+precedes the morning. For four thousand years the world groped in its
+darkness--a darkness tenanted by moral monsters as powerful and
+destructive as the old pre-Adamite reptiles. The Sun of Righteousness
+at length arose, and the darkness began to pass away; but eighteen
+centuries have elapsed, and we still see but the gray dawn of morning,
+which we yet firmly believe will brighten into a glorious day that
+shall know no succeeding night.[100]
+
+The seventh day is the modern or human era in geology; and, though it
+can not yet boast of any physical changes so great as those of past
+periods, it is still of much interest, as affording the facts on which
+we must depend for explanations of past changes; and as immediately
+connected in time with those later tertiary periods which afford so
+many curious problems to the geological student. The actual connection
+of the human with preceding periods is still involved in some
+obscurity; and, as we shall see, there has recently been a strong
+tendency to throw back the origin of man into prehistoric ages of
+enormous length, on grounds which are, however, much less certain than
+is commonly imagined. This question we have to examine; but before
+entering upon it may shortly sketch the actual import of the
+statements of the Hebrew Scriptures respecting what may be called the
+prehistoric duration of the human species. This is the more necessary,
+as the most crude notions seem very widely to prevail on the subject.
+I shall, therefore, in this place notice some general facts deducible
+from the Bible, and which may be useful in appreciating the true
+relation of the human era to those which preceded it. It will be
+understood that I shall endeavor merely to present a picture of what
+the Bible actually teaches, and which any one can verify by reading
+the book of Genesis.
+
+1. The local centre of creation of the human species, and probably of
+a group of creatures coeval with it, was Eden; a country of which the
+Scriptures give a somewhat minute geographical description. It was
+evidently a district of Western Asia; and, from its possession of
+several important rivers, rather a region or large territory than a
+limited spot, such as many, who have discussed the question of the
+site of Eden, seem to suppose. In this view it is a matter of no
+moment to fix its site more nearly than the indication of the Bible
+that it included the sources and probably large portions of the
+valleys of the Tigris, the Euphrates, and perhaps the Oxus and
+Jaxartes. Into the minor difficulties respecting the site of Eden it
+would be unprofitable to enter, and it will matter little if we accept
+that view, which, however, I think less probable, that it was placed
+in the lower part of the valley of the Euphrates. I may merely mention
+one particular of the Biblical description, because it throws light on
+the great antiquity of this geographical delineation, and has been
+strangely misconceived by expositors--the relation of those rivers to
+Cush or Ethiopia and Havilah, a tribal name derived from that of a
+grandson of Cush. On consulting the tenth chapter of Genesis, it will
+be found that the Cushites under Nimrod, very soon after the deluge,
+are stated to have pushed their migrations and conquests along the
+Tigris to the northward, and established there the first empire. It is
+probably this primitive Cushite empire, called Ethiopia in our
+translation, which in the epoch of the description of Eden occupied
+the Euphratean valley, and being bounded on one side by the river
+called Gihon, was thus believed to extend over the old site of Eden.
+Thus the Cush or Ethiopia of the description has no direct connection
+with the African Ethiopia, and speculations based on such a supposed
+connection are groundless. On the other hand this feature furnishes an
+interesting coincidence with other parts of Genesis, and throws light
+on many obscure points in the early history of man; and since this
+Cushite empire had perished even before the time of Moses, it
+indicates a still more ancient tradition respecting the primeval abode
+of our species.
+
+2. Before the deluge this region must have been the seat of a dense
+population, which, according to the Biblical account, must have made
+considerable advances in the arts, and at the same time sunk very low
+in moral debasement.[101] Whether any remains of the central portions
+of this ancient population or its works exist will probably not be
+determined with absolute certainty till we have accurate geological
+investigations of the whole country in the neighborhood of the Caspian
+Sea and along the great rivers of Western Asia, though there is
+nothing unreasonable in the belief that some of the old prehistoric
+men whose remains are discovered in caves and river gravels in Europe
+may belong to the antediluvian race. Should such remains be found, we
+might infer, from the extreme longevity and other characteristics
+assigned to the antediluvians, that their skeletons would present
+peculiarities entitling them to be considered a well-marked variety of
+the human species, and this not of a low type of physical
+organization. We may also infer that the family of man very early
+divided into two races--one retaining in greater purity the moral
+endowments of the species, the other excelling in the mechanical and
+fine arts; and that there were rude and savage outlying communities of
+men then as at present. If the so-called palaeolithic men of Europe are
+antediluvian, they were probably of such outlying tribes, and possibly
+of the mixed race which sprung up in the later antediluvian age, and
+who are described as mighty men physically, and men of violence. It
+would be quite natural that this intermixture of the Sethite and
+Cainite races should produce a race excelling both in energy and
+physical endowments--the "giants" that were in those days.[102] If any
+remains of the two central nations of the antediluvian period are ever
+discovered, we may confidently anticipate that the distinctive
+characteristics of these races may be detected in their osseous
+structures as well as in their works of art. Farther, it is to be
+inferred from notices in the fourth chapter of Genesis, that before
+the deluge there was both a nomadic and a settled population, and that
+the principal seat of the Cainite, or more debased yet energetic
+branch of the human family, was to the eastward of the site of Eden.
+No intimations are given by which the works of art of antediluvian
+times could be distinguished from those of later periods; but that
+curious summary of the treasures of antediluvian man contained in the
+notice that the land of Havilah produced gold and agate and pearl
+(Gen. ii., 12) would lead us to believe that the early antediluvian
+age was on the whole an age of stone, in which flint for weapons, and
+gold and shell wampum for ornaments, were the leading kinds of wealth.
+On the other hand, the notices of antediluvian metallurgy, and the
+building and construction of the ark, would lead us to infer that the
+later antediluvians had attained to much perfection in some
+constructive arts--a conclusion which harmonizes with the otherwise
+inexplicable perfection of such art soon after the deluge, as
+evidenced not only by the story of Babel, but also by the early works
+of the Assyrians and Egyptians.
+
+3. When the antediluvian population had fully proved itself unfit to
+enter into the divine scheme of moral renovation, it was swept away by
+a fearful physical catastrophe. The deluge might, in all its
+relations, furnish material for an entire treatise. I may remark here,
+as its most important geological peculiarity, that it was evidently a
+_local_ convulsion. The object, that of destroying the human race and
+the animal population of its peculiar centre of creation, the
+preservation of specimens of these creatures in the ark, and the
+physical requirements of the case, necessitate this conclusion, which
+is now accepted by the best Biblical expositors,[103] and which
+inflicts no violence on the terms of the record. Viewed in this light,
+the phenomena recorded in the Bible, in connection with geological
+probabilities, lead us to infer that the physical agencies evoked by
+the divine power to destroy this ungodly race were a subsidence of the
+region they inhabited, so as to admit the oceanic waters, and
+extensive atmospherical disturbances connected with that subsidence,
+and perhaps with the elevation of neighboring regions. In this case it
+is possible that the Caspian Sea, which is now more than eighty feet
+below the level of the ocean,[104] and which was probably much more
+extensive then than at present, received much of the drainage of the
+flood, and that the mud and sand deposits of this sea and the
+adjoining desert plains, once manifestly a part of its bottom, conceal
+any remains that exist of the antediluvian population. In connection
+with this, it may be remarked that, in the book of Job, Eliphaz speaks
+as if the locality of those wicked nations which existed before the
+deluge was known and accessible in his time:
+
+  "Hast thou marked the ancient way
+  Which wicked men have trodden,
+  Who were seized [by the waters] in a moment,
+  And whose foundations a flood swept away?"
+
+  --Job xxii., 15.
+
+On comparing this statement with the answer of Job in the 26th
+chapter, verse 5th, it would seem that the ungodly antediluvians were
+supposed to be still under the waters; a belief quite intelligible if
+the Caspian, which, on the latest and most probable views of the
+locality of the events of this book, was not very remote from the
+residence of Job,[105] was supposed to mark the position of the
+pre-Noachic population, as the Dead Sea afterward did that of the
+cities of the plain. Some of the dates assigned to the book of Job
+would, however, render it possible that this last catastrophe is that
+to which _he_ refers:
+
+  "The _Rephaim_ tremble from beneath
+  The waters and their inhabitants.
+  Sheol is naked before him,
+  And destruction hath no covering."
+
+The word _Rephaim_ here has been variously rendered "shades of the
+dead" and "giants." It is properly the family or national name of
+certain tribes of gigantic Hamite men (the Anakim, Emim, etc.)
+inhabiting Western Asia at a very remote period; and it must here
+refer either to them or to the still earlier antediluvian
+giants.[106]
+
+It is also an important point to be noticed here that the narrative of
+the deluge in Genesis is given as the testimony or record of an
+eye-witness, and is to be so understood; and that the terms of the
+record imply, not as usually held that all sorts of animals were taken
+into Noah's ark, but only a selection, the character of which is
+clearly indicated by a comparison of the five lists of animals given
+in the narrative. Bearing this in mind, and noticing that the writer
+tells of his own experience as to the rise of the water, the drifting
+of the ark, the disappearance of all visible shore, and the sounding
+fifteen cubits where a hill had before been, all the difficulties of
+the narrative of the deluge will at once disappear. These difficulties
+have in fact arisen from regarding the story as the composition of a
+historian, not as what it manifestly is, the log or journal of a
+contemporary, introduced with probably little change by the compiler
+of the book.
+
+After the deluge, we find the human race settled in the plains of the
+Euphrates and Tigris, attracted thither by the fertility of their
+alluvial soils. There we find them engaging in a great political
+scheme, no doubt founded on recollections of the old antediluvian
+nationalities, and on a dread of the evils which able and aspiring men
+would anticipate from that wide dispersion of the human race that
+appears to have been intended by the Creator in the new circumstances
+of the earth. They commenced accordingly the erection of a city or
+tower at Babel, in the plain of Shinar, to form a common bond of
+union, a great public work that should be a rallying-point for the
+race, and around which its patriotism might concentrate itself. The
+attempt was counteracted by an interposition of divine Providence; and
+thenceforth the diffusion of the human race proceeded unchecked,
+carrying with it everywhere the memory of the celebrated tower, which
+perpetuated itself not only in the mounds of Assyria and Babylon and
+the pyramids of Egypt, but in the teocallis and temple mounds of the
+New World. The Babel enterprise is in fact the first recorded
+development of that mound-building instinct which the earlier races
+everywhere evince, and which has been a distinguishing characteristic
+more especially of the Cushite or Turanian race, and has apparently
+made them the teachers of constructive arts to all other peoples.
+Perhaps a dread of the total decay and loss of the surviving
+antediluvian arts in construction and other matters may have been one
+impelling motive to the building of Babel. Perhaps it was connected
+with the communistic ideas of the Turanian race, and their conflict
+with the patriarchal habits of the Semites. Out of the enterprise at
+Babel, however, arose a new type of evil, which, in the forms of
+military despotism, the spirit of conquest, hero-worship, and the
+alliance of these influences with literature and the arts, has been
+handed down through every succeeding age to our own time. The name of
+Nimrod, the son of Cush, has been preserved to us in the Bible, and
+also apparently in the tablets and inscriptions of Assyria, as the
+founder of the first despotism. This bold and ambitious man,
+subsequently deified under different names, established a Hamite or
+Turanian empire, which appears to have extended its sway over the
+tribes occupying Southwestern Asia and Northeastern Africa, everywhere
+supporting its power by force of arms, and introducing a debasing
+polytheistic hero-worship, and certain forms of art probably derived
+from antediluvian times. The centre of this Cushite empire, however,
+gave way to the rising power of Assyria or the Ashurite branch of the
+sons of Shem, at a period antecedent to the dawn of profane history,
+except in its mythical form; and when the light of secular history
+first breaks upon us, we find Egypt standing forth as the only stable
+representative of the arts, the systems, and the superstitions of the
+old Cushite empire, of which it had been the southern branch; while
+other remnants of the Hamite races, included in the empire of Nimrod,
+were scattered over Western Asia, and, migrating into Europe, with or
+after the ruder but less demoralized sons of Japheth, carried with
+them their characteristic civilization and mythology, to take root in
+new forms in Greece and Italy.[107] Meanwhile the Assyrian and Persian
+(Elamite) races were growing in Middle Asia, and probably driving the
+more eastern remnants of the Nimrodic empire into India, borrowing at
+the same time their superstitions and their claims to universal
+dominion. These views, which I believe to correspond with the few
+notices in the Bible and in ancient history, and to be daily receiving
+new confirmations from the investigations of the ancient Assyrian
+monuments, enable us to understand many mysterious problems in the
+early history of man. They give us reason to suspect that the
+_principle_ of the first empire was an imitation of the antediluvian
+world, and that its arts and customs were mainly derived from that
+source. They show how it happens that Egypt, a country so far removed
+from the starting-point of man after the deluge, should appear to be
+the cradle of the arts, and they account for the Hamite and perhaps
+antediluvian elements, mixed with primeval Biblical ideas, as the
+cherubim, etc., in the old heathenism of India, Assyria, and Southern
+Europe, and which they share with Egypt, having derived them from the
+same source. They also show how it is that in the most remote
+antiquity we find two well-developed and opposite religious systems;
+the pure theism of Noah, and those who retained his faith, and the
+idolatry of those tribes which regarded with adoring veneration the
+objects and stages of the creative work, the grander powers and
+objects of nature, the mighty Cainites of the world before the flood,
+and the postdiluvian leaders who followed them in their violence,
+their cultivation of the arts, and their rebellion against God. These
+heroes were identified with imaginative conceptions of the heavenly
+bodies, animals, and other natural objects, associated with the
+fortunes of cities and nations, with particular territories, and with
+war and the useful arts, transmitted under different names to one
+country after another, and localized in each; and it is only in
+comparatively modern times that we have been able to recognize the
+full certainty of the view held long since by many ingenious writers,
+that among the greater gods of Egypt and Assyria, and of consequence
+among those also of Greece and Rome, were Nimrod, Ham, Ashur, Noah,
+Mizraim, and other worthies and tyrants of the old world; and to
+suspect that Tubalcain and Naamah, and other antediluvian names, were
+similarly honored, though subsequently overshadowed by more recent
+divinities. The later Assyrian readings of Rawlinson, Hincks, and the
+lamented George Smith, and the more recent works on Egyptian
+antiquities, are full of pregnant hints on these subjects. It would,
+however, lead us too far from our immediate subject to enter more
+fully into these questions. I have referred to them merely to point
+out connecting-links between the secular and sacred history of the
+earlier part of the human period, as a useful sequel to our comparison
+of the latter with the conclusions of science, and as furnishing hints
+which may guide the geologist in connecting the human with the
+tertiary period, and in distinguishing between the antediluvian and
+postdiluvian portions of the former.
+
+It may be said, however, that all this Biblical history, however it
+may accord with the little that remains to us of the written annals of
+early Oriental nations, is entirely at variance with those modern
+archaeological discussions which point to an immense antiquity of the
+human race, and to a primitive barbarism out of which all human
+culture was little by little evolved; and which results of
+archaeological investigation, while contradictory to the Hebrew
+Scriptures, are entirely in accord with the evolutionist philosophy.
+The prominence now given to such views as these renders it necessary
+that we should denote a special chapter to their discussion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+
+     "These are the families of the sons of Noah, after their
+     generations, in their nations: and by these were the nations
+     divided in the earth after the flood."--Genesis x., 32.
+
+
+The theologians and evangelical Christians of our time, and with them
+the credibility of the Holy Scriptures, are supposed by many to have
+been impaled on a zoological and archaeological dilemma, in a manner
+which renders nugatory all attempts to reconcile the Mosaic cosmogony
+with science. The Bible, as we have seen, knows but one Adam, and that
+Adam not a myth or an ethnic name, but a veritable man; but some
+naturalists and ethnologists think that they have found decisive
+evidence that man is not of one but of several origins. The religious
+tendency of this doctrine no Christian can fail to perceive. In
+whatever way put, or under whatever disguise, it renders the Bible
+history worthless, reduces us to that isolation of race from race
+cultivated in ancient times by the various local idolatries, and
+destroys the brotherhood of man and the universality of that Christian
+atonement which proclaims that "as in Adam all die, so in Christ shall
+all be made alive."
+
+Fortunately, however, the greater weight of biological and
+archaeological evidence is here on the side of the Bible, and philology
+comes in with strong corroborative proof. But just as the orthodox
+theologian is beginning to congratulate himself on the aid he has
+thus received, some of his new friends gravely tell him that, in order
+to maintain their view, it is necessary to believe that man has
+resided on earth for countless ages, and that it is quite a mistake to
+suppose that his starting-point is so recent as the Mosaic deluge.
+Nay, some very rampant theorists of some ethnological schools try to
+pierce Moses and his abettors with both horns of the dilemma at once,
+maintaining that men may be of different species, and yet may have
+existed for an enormous length of time as well. The recent prevalence
+of theories of evolution has, however, thrown quite into the
+background the discussions formerly active respecting the unity of
+man, but has, along with geological and archaeological discovery, given
+increased prominence to those relating to the date of the origin of
+our species and the manner of its introduction.
+
+The Bible gives us a definite epoch, that of the deluge, about 2000 to
+3000 B.C., for all existing races of men; but this, according to it,
+was only the second starting-point of humanity, and though no family
+but that of Noah survived the terrible catastrophe, it would be a
+great error to suppose that nothing antediluvian appears in the
+subsequent history of man. Before the deluge there were arts and an
+old civilization, extending over at least two thousand years, and
+after the deluge men carried with them these heirlooms of the old
+world to commence with them new nations. This has been tacitly ignored
+by many of the writers who underrate the value of the Hebrew history.
+It may be as well for this reason to place, in a series of
+propositions, the principal points in Genesis which relate to the
+questions now before us.
+
+1. Adam and Isha, the woman, afterward called Eve (Life-giver), in
+consequence of the promise of a Redeemer, commenced a life of
+husbandry on their expulsion from Eden, which, on the ordinary views
+of the Bible chronology, may be supposed to have occurred from 4000 to
+5000 years before the Christian era; and during the lifetime of the
+primal pair, the sheep, at least, was domesticated. The Bible, of
+course, knows nothing of the imaginary continent of Lemuria, in which,
+according to some hypotheses, men are supposed to have had their birth
+from apes. A few generations after, in the time of Lamech, cattle were
+domesticated; and the metals copper and iron were applied to use--the
+latter probably meteoric iron; and hence, it may be, the Hindoo and
+Hellenic myths of Twachtrei and Hephaestos in connection with the
+thunderbolt. We learn, however, incidentally, as already mentioned, in
+the description of Eden in Genesis, chapter 2d, that there was a
+previous stone age, in which "flint, pearls or shell beads, and
+stream-gold" were the chief treasures of man, for this is implied in
+the "gold, bedolach, and onyx" of the land of Havilah. It is certain
+also, from the discoveries made in Assyria, on the site of Troy, and
+elsewhere, that the use of stone implements continued in Western Asia
+long after the deluge. In the time of Noah the distinction of clean
+and unclean beasts, and the taking of seven pairs of certain beasts
+and birds into the ark, imply that certain mammals and birds were
+domesticated.[108]
+
+2. Before the flood, as already remarked, there was a division of man
+into two nationalities or races; and there was a citizen, an
+agricultural, a pastoral, and a nomadic population. Farther, the
+remarkable progress in the arts implied in the building of such
+structures as the Tower of Babel, and other temple and palace mounds
+in Assyria, and of the pyramids of Egypt, within a few generations
+after the deluge, proves that a very advanced material civilization
+and great skill in constructive arts had been reached in antediluvian
+times.[109]
+
+3. After the deluge, the arts of the antediluvians and their citizen
+life were almost immediately revived in the plain of Shinar; but the
+plans of the Babel leaders, like those of many others who have
+attempted to force distinct tribes into one nationality, failed. The
+guilt attributed to them probably relates to the attempt to break up
+the patriarchal and tribal organization, which in these early times
+was the outward form of true religion, in favor of some sort of
+national organization, not compatible with the extension of man
+immediately over the world, and tending to consolidation into dense
+communities. It may be a question here whether the tribal communism
+which has prevailed among the American Indians and other rude races
+was the primitive form of society which the Babel-builders essayed to
+change, or whether the Semitic patriarchal system had at first
+prevailed, and the Babel difficulties were connected with a conflict
+between this and communism or despotism, both new Turanian or Aryan
+introductions. In any case, Babel, and Babylon its successor, remain
+in the subsequent Biblical literature as types of the God-defying and
+antichristian systems that have succeeded each other from the time of
+Nimrod to this day.
+
+4. The human race was scattered over the earth in family groups or
+tribes, each headed by a leading patriarch, who gave it its name.
+First, the three sons of Noah formed three main stems, and from these
+diverged several family branches. The ethnological chart in the 10th
+chapter of Genesis gives the principal branches under patriarchal and
+ethnic names; but these, of course, continued to subdivide beyond the
+space and time referred to by the sacred writer. It is simply absurd
+to object, as some writers have done, to the universality of the
+statements in Genesis, that they do not mention in detail the whole
+earth. They refer to a few generations only, and beyond this restrict
+themselves to the one branch of the human family to which the Bible
+principally relates. We should be thankful for so much of the leading
+lines of ethnological divergence, without complaining that it is not
+followed out into its minute ramifications and into all history.
+
+5. The tripartite division in Genesis x. indicates a somewhat strict
+geographical separation of the three main trunks. The regions marked
+out for Japheth include Europe and Northwestern Asia. The name
+Japheth, as well as the statements in the table, indicate a versatile,
+nomadic, and colonizing disposition as characteristic of these
+tribes.[110] The Median population, the same with a portion of that
+now often called Aryan,[111] was the only branch remaining near the
+original seats of the species, and in a settled condition. The
+outlying portions of the posterity of Japheth, on account of their
+wide dispersion, must at a very early period have fallen into
+comparative barbarism, such as we find in historic periods all over
+Western and Northern Europe and Northern Asia. Owing to their habitat,
+the Japhetites of the Bible include none of the black races, unless
+certain Indian and Australian nations are outlying portions of this
+family. The Shemite nations showed little tendency to migrate, being
+grouped about the Euphrates and Tigris valleys and neighboring
+regions. For this reason, with the exception of certain Arab tribes,
+they present no instances of barbarism, and generally retained a high
+cerebral organization, and respectable though stationary civilization,
+and they possess the oldest alphabet and literature. The posterity of
+Ham differs remarkably from the others. It spread itself over
+Southern, Central, and Eastern Asia, Southern Europe, and Northern
+Africa, and constitutes the stock alike of the Turanian and African
+races, as well as probably of the American tribes. It has all along
+displayed a great capacity for certain forms of art and
+semi-civilization, but has rarely risen to the level of the Shemite
+and Japhetite races. It established the earliest military and
+monarchical institutions, and presents at the dawn of history--in
+Assyria, in Egypt, and India--settled and arbitrary forms in politics
+and religion, of a character so much resembling that of an old and
+corrupt civilization that we can scarcely avoid supposing that Ham and
+his family had preserved more than any of the other Noachian races the
+arts and institutions of the old world before the flood. It certainly
+presents itself in early postdiluvian times as the first
+representative and teacher of art and material civilization. The
+Hamite race is remarkable for the early development of pantheism and
+hero-worship, and for the artificial character of its culture. It
+presents us with the darkest colors, and in the vast solitudes of
+Africa and Central Asia its outlying tribes must have fallen into
+comparative barbarism a few centuries after the deluge. It is farther
+to be observed that, according to the Bible, the Canaanites and other
+Hamite nations spoke languages not essentially different from those of
+the Shemites, while the Japhetite nations were to them barbarians--"a
+nation whose tongue thou shalt not understand." There was, too, at the
+date of the dispersion of Babel, already a distinction of tongues
+within each of the great races of men.
+
+6. All the divisions of the family of Noah had from the first the
+domesticated animals and the principal arts of life, and enjoyed these
+in a national capacity so soon as sufficiently numerous. The more
+scattered tribes, wandering into fresh regions, and adopting the life
+of hunters, lost the characteristics of civilization, and diverged
+widely from the primitive languages. We should thus have, according to
+the Hebrew ethnology, a central area presenting the principal stems of
+all the three races in a permanently civilized state. All around this
+area should lie aberrant and often barbarous tribes, differing most
+widely from the original type in the more distant regions, and in
+those least favorable to human health and subsistence. In these
+outlying regions, secondary centres of civilization might grow up,
+differing from that of the primitive centre, except in so far as the
+common principles of human nature and intercommunication might prevent
+this. All these conclusions, fairly deducible at once from the Mosaic
+ethnology and the theory of dispersion from a centre, are perfectly in
+accordance with observed facts, though in absolute contradiction to
+prevalent ethnological conclusions, based on these facts in connection
+with theories of development.
+
+A multitude of Bible notices might easily be quoted illustrative of
+these points, and also of the consistency of the Mosaic narrative with
+itself. One of them may suffice here. Abraham, who is said by the
+Jews to have been contemporary with Shem, as Menes by the Egyptians
+with Ham, at least lived sufficiently near to the time of the rise of
+the earliest nations to be taken as an illustration of this primitive
+condition of society. He was not a patriarch of the first or second
+rank, like Ham or Mizraim or Canaan, but a subordinate family leader
+several removes from the survivors of the deluge. Yet his tribe
+increases in comparatively few years to a considerable number. He is
+treated as an equal by the monarchs of Egypt and Philistia. He
+defeats, with a band of three or four hundred retainers, a confederacy
+of four Euphratean kings representing the embryo state of the Persian
+and Assyrian empires, and already relatively so strong that they have
+overrun much of Western Asia. All this bespeaks in a most consistent
+manner the rapid rise of many small nationalities, scattered over the
+better parts of wide regions, and still in a feeble condition, though
+inheriting from their ancestors an old civilization, and laying the
+foundations of powerful states. If we attach any historical value
+whatever to the narrative, it obviously implies that at a date of
+about two thousand years before Christ the regions afterward occupied
+by the oldest historic empires were still thinly peopled, and their
+dominant races little more than feeble tribes. This farther
+corresponds with the authentic history of all the ancient nations,
+however these may have been extended by previous mythical periods.
+About or shortly before the time of Abraham, Menes was draining for
+the first time the swamps of Egypt, Ninus or Nimrod was founding the
+Assyrian empire, the Phoenicians were founding Sidon, agriculture was
+being introduced into China, the Vedas were being written in India,
+the Persian monarchy was being founded; and, in short, all the
+historical nations of the East were originating, and this apparently
+by springing into being with an already formed civilization.
+
+Such being the Hebrew account of the date and early history of man, it
+may be proper here to compare it with such deductions from
+archaeological and geological investigation as may seem to conflict
+with it, and at the same time to make some comparisons with the
+Turanian and Aryan traditions and speculations as to human origins.
+The special lines of investigation important here are: 1. Early
+historical records other than the Bible; 2. The diversity of human
+languages; 3. The geological evidence afforded by remains of
+prehistoric men found in caverns and other repositories. The last of
+these is at present that which has attained the greatest development.
+
+1. _Early Human History._--Had the human race everywhere preserved
+historical records, we should have had some certain evidence as to the
+places and times of origination of its tribes and peoples.
+Unfortunately this has not been the case. All savage and barbarous
+races, and many of those now civilized, have lost all records of their
+early history. Most of the so-called ancient nations are comparatively
+modern, and their history after a very short course loses itself in
+uncertain tradition and mythical fancies. The only really ancient
+nations that have given us in detail their own written history are the
+Hebrews, the Assyrians, the Egyptians, the Hindoos, and the Chinese.
+The last people, though professedly very ancient, trace their history
+from a period of barbarism--a view confirmed by their physical
+characters and the nature of their civilization; and on this account,
+if no other, their history can not be considered as of much
+archaeological value. According to their own records, their earliest
+authentic history goes back to about 2800 B.C., and was preceded by a
+prehistoric period of uncertain duration. The astronomical deductions
+of Schlegel, which would extend their history to 17,000 years, are
+evidently altogether unreliable.[112] The early Hindoo history is
+palpably fabulous or distorted, and has been variously modified and
+changed in comparatively modern times. There is one great and very
+ancient people--the Egyptian--evidently civilized from the beginning
+of all history, that have succeeded in transmitting to us, though only
+in fragments, their primeval history; and of late years constant
+additions have been made from inscribed tablets and monuments to our
+knowledge of the ancient history of the Assyrians and Chaldeans.
+
+The Egyptian history has been gathered first from sketches by Greek
+travellers, and from fragments of the chronicles of Manetho, one of
+the later Egyptian priests; and, secondly, from the inscriptions
+deciphered on Egyptian monuments and papyri. It is still in a very
+fragmentary and uncertain state, but has been used with considerable
+effect to prove both the diversity of races of men and the pre-Noachic
+antiquity of the species. The Egyptian, in features and physical
+conformation, tended to the European form, just as the modern Fellahs
+and Berbers do; but he had a dark complexion, a somewhat elongated
+head and flattened lips, and certain negroid peculiarities in his
+limbs. His language combined many of the peculiarities of the Semitic,
+Aryan, and African tongues, indicating thereby great antiquity or else
+great intermixture, but not, as some ethnographers demand, both; most
+probably the former--the Egyptians being really the oldest civilized
+people that we certainly know, and therefore, if languages have one
+origin, likely to be near its root-stock.
+
+The actual history of Egypt begins from Menes, the first human king, a
+monarch, or rather tribal chief, who took up his abode in the flats
+and fens of Lower Egypt, certainly not very long after the deluge. His
+name has been translated "one who walks with Khem," or Ham; one,
+therefore, who was contemporary with this great patriarch and god of
+the Egyptians, which will place his time within a few centuries of the
+Biblical flood. The date of Menes has been variously placed. In
+correction of the ordinary Hebrew chronology, we have the following
+attempts:
+
+  Josephus places his reign                                2350 B.C.
+  Dr. Hales' calculation                                   2412
+  Manetho and the Monuments, as corrected by Syncellus    {2712
+  and calculated by various archaeologists                 {to
+                                                          {2782
+  Herodotus, astronomical reduction by Rennell             2890
+  Estimate by Gliddon in "Ancient Egypt"                   2750
+  Bunsen, "Egypt's Place," etc.                            4000
+
+The truth may be somewhere near the mean of the shorter chronologies
+given in the list.[113] That of Bunsen is liable to very grave
+objections; more especially as he adds to it other views, altogether
+unsupported by historical evidence, which would carry back the deluge
+to 10,000 years B.C. It rests wholly on the chronology of Manetho, who
+lived 300 years B.C.; and who, even if the Egyptians then possessed
+authentic documents extending 3700 years before his time, may have
+erred in his rendering of them; and is farther liable to grave
+suspicions of having merely grouped the names on the monuments of his
+country arbitrarily in Sothic cycles. Farther, they rest on an
+interpretation of Manetho, which supposes his early dynasties to have
+been successive, while good reasons have been found to prove that many
+of them consist of contemporaneous petty sovereigns of parts of Egypt.
+The early parts of Manetho's lists are purely mythical, and it is
+impossible to fix the point where his authentic history commences. He
+copied from monuments which have no consecutive dates, the precise age
+of which could only be vaguely known even in his time, and which are
+different in their statements in different localities. It is only by
+making due allowance for these uncertainties that any historical value
+can be attached to these earlier dynasties of Manetho. Yet Bunsen has
+built on an uncertain interpretation of this writer, as handed down in
+a very fragmentary and evidently garbled condition, and on the equally
+or more uncertain chronology of Eratosthenes, a system differing from
+all previous belief on the subject, from the Hebrew history, and from
+all former interpretations of the monuments and Manetho.[114]
+Discarding, therefore, in the mean time, this date, and the still
+older one claimed by Mariette,[115] we may roughly estimate the date
+of Menes as 2000 to 2500 years B.C.,[116] and proceed to state some of
+the facts developed by Egyptologists.
+
+One of the most striking of these is the proof that Egypt was a new
+country in the days of Menes and several generations of his
+successors. The monuments of this period show little of the
+complicated idolatry, ritual, and caste system of later times, and are
+deficient in evidence of the refinement and variety of art afterward
+attained. They also show that these early monarchs were principally
+engaged in dyking, and otherwise reclaiming the alluvial flats; an
+evidence precisely of the same character with that which every
+traveller sees in the more recently settled districts of Canada, where
+the forest is giving way to the exertions of the farmer. Farther, in
+this primitive period, known as the "old monarchy," few domestic
+animals appear, and experiments seem to have been in progress to tame
+others, natives of the country, as the hyena, the antelope, the stork.
+Even the dog in the older dynasties is represented by one or at most
+two varieties, and the prevalent one is a wolfish-looking animal akin
+to the present wild or half-tamed dogs of the East.[117] The
+Egyptians, too, of the earlier dynasties, are more homogeneous in
+their appearance than those of the later, after conquest and migration
+had introduced new races; and the earliest monumental notice referring
+to Negro tribes does not appear until the 12th dynasty, about half-way
+between the epoch of Menes and the Christian era, nor does any
+representation of the Negro features occur until, at the earliest, the
+17th dynasty. This allows ample time--one thousand years at the
+least--for the development, under abnormal circumstances and
+isolation, of all the most strongly marked varieties of man. Still
+Egypt, even under the old monarchy, presents evidence of the
+continuation of antediluvian culture.[118]
+
+It is obvious, in short, that the whole aspect of early Egyptian
+history presents to us a people already civilized taking possession of
+that country at a period corresponding with that of the subsidence of
+the Noachian deluge, and not finding there any remains of older
+populations. Nor have any remains of such populations been found by
+modern investigation.[119]
+
+In Assyria the results of the recent discoveries, so well known
+through many learned and popular works, strikingly confirm the Hebrew
+chronology. They indicate no slow emergence from barbarism, but show
+that in Assyria as in Egypt implements of stone and metal were used
+together by a primitive people, already far advanced in civilization;
+and the oldest historical names only carry us back to cities and
+sovereigns of the Abrahamic age, while the story of the primitive
+empire of Nimrod and the traditions of the deluge seem to have
+survived in more or less mythical legends. The earliest Assyrian
+monuments would seem to belong to a Turanian race, of which
+comparatively little is known, but which may correspond with the
+primitive Cushites of Biblical story. To these, it is true, Berosus
+attaches a fabulous antiquity; but this is not confirmed by the
+monuments. These, according to the latest facts disclosed by Smith,
+Rawlinson, and others, appear to fix a date of about 1800 B.C. for the
+foundation of the Assyrian monarchy proper, and the oldest previous
+date given by Assurbampal, who reigned about B.C. 668 to 626, gives
+1635 years before his time, or say 2280 B.C., as the date of an
+Elamite king Kudarnankundi, who seems to be the leader of a primitive
+tribe, one of the oldest in the region, and who has been conjectured
+to have been the Chedorlaomer of Genesis, but was probably one of his
+predecessors.
+
+We gather from the Assyrian annals that the early Turanian kings,
+while mound-builders like their kindred elsewhere, and acquainted with
+metals and with the cuneiform writing, yet constituted comparatively
+small nations, and were much occupied with hunting and other rude
+sports, and with predatory expeditions, so as to answer very nearly to
+the Biblical conception of the early Cushite kingdom of the valley of
+the Euphrates, which was probably in the same stage of culture with
+the nations that in a later period inhabited the valley of the
+Mississippi, and are known as the Alleghans.
+
+In connection with the early history of man, much importance has been
+attached to the division of the early historic and prehistoric ages
+into the periods of Stone, Bronze, and Iron, and of the former into a
+Palaeolithic or ancient stone age, and a more modern or Neolithic stone
+age. It is plain, however, that too great importance has been attached
+to these distinctions, and that they express rather differences of
+circumstances and of culture than of age, so that they have really no
+bearing on the Biblical chronology.
+
+If palaeolithic or rudely chipped implements are the oldest known, as
+they not improbably were the first tools used by man, yet their use
+has extended in the case of rude nations all the way up to the present
+time; and in America and Northern Asia we know that their antiquity is
+but of yesterday, and that they were used with highly finished
+implements of bone, and of those softer stones that admit of being
+polished. No certain line can therefore be drawn even locally between
+a Neolithic and a Palaeolithic period, especially since in localities
+where flint implements were extensively quarried and made, as on the
+banks of rivers in Northern France and Southern England, and in such
+places as "Grimes' Graves" and Cissbury in the latter country, where
+mines were sunk in the chalk for the extraction of flints, it
+necessarily happened that vast multitudes of unfinished or spoiled
+implements and weapons were left on the ground, while the
+better-formed specimens were for the most part taken away. This
+conclusion is amply supported by similar localities in America, where
+people well acquainted with many of the arts of life have left
+quantities of strictly palaeolithic material. Wilson, Southall, and
+other writers have accumulated so many examples of this that I think
+the distinction of Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages must now be given up
+by all investigators who possess ordinary judgment. A remarkable
+instauce is the celebrated "Flint ridge" of Ohio, which was a great
+quarry of flint for implements used by the ancient mound-builders, a
+highly civilized race, as well as by the modern Indians. Here are
+found countless multitudes of palaeolithic flint implements of all the
+ordinary types, but which are merely the unfinished material of
+workers capable of producing the most exquisite implements. There can
+be scarcely a doubt that the palaeolithic implements of the European
+gravels, in so far as they are the workmanship of man, are in like
+manner merely the relics of old flint quarries.[120]
+
+Possibly a more accurate measurement of time for particular regions of
+the world might be deduced from the introduction of bronze and iron.
+If the former was, as many antiquarians suppose, a local discovery in
+Europe, and not introduced from abroad, it can give no measurement of
+time whatever. In America, as the facts detailed by Dr. Wilson show,
+while a bronze age existed in Peru, it was the copper age in the
+Mississippi Valley, and the stone age elsewhere; and these conditions
+might have co-existed for any length of time, and could give no
+indication of relative dates. On the other hand, the iron introduced
+by European commerce spread at once over the continent, and came into
+use in the most remote tribes, and its introduction into America
+clearly marks an historical epoch. With regard to bronze in Europe, we
+must bear in mind that tin was to be procured only in England and
+Spain, and in the latter in very small quantity; the mines of Saxony
+do not seem to have been known till the Middle Ages. We must further
+consider that tin ore is a substance not metallic in appearance, and
+little likely to attract the attention of savages; and that, as we
+gather from a hint of Pliny, it was probably first observed, in the
+West at least, as stream tin, in the Spanish gold washings. Lastly,
+when we place in connection with these considerations the fact that in
+the earliest times of which we have certain knowledge, the tin trade
+of Spain and England was monopolized by the Phoenicians, there seems
+to be a strong probability that the extension of the trade of this
+nation to the western Mediterranean really inaugurated the bronze
+period. The only valid argument against this is the fact that moulds
+and other indications of native bronze casting have been found in
+Switzerland, Denmark, and elsewhere; but these show nothing more than
+that the natives could recast bronze articles, just as the American
+Indians can forge fish-hooks and knives out of nails and iron hoops.
+Other considerations might be adduced in proof of this view, but our
+limits will not permit us to refer to them. The important questions
+still remain: When was this trade commenced, and how rapidly did it
+extend itself from the sea-coast across Europe? The British tin trade
+must have been in existence in the time of Herodotus, though his
+notion of the locality was not more definite than that it was in the
+extremity of the earth. The Phoenician settlements in the western
+Mediterranean must have existed as early as the time of Solomon, when
+"ships of Tarshish" was the general designation of seagoing ships for
+long voyages. How long previously these colonies existed we do not
+know; but considering the great scarcity and value of tin in those
+very ancient times, we may infer that perhaps only the Spanish, and
+not the British deposits were known thus early; or that the
+Phoenicians had only indirect access to the latter. Perhaps we may fix
+the time when these traders were able to supply the nations of Europe
+with abundance of bronze in exchange for their products, at, say 1000
+to 1200 B.C., as the earliest probable period; and possibly from one
+to two centuries would be a sufficient allowance for the complete
+penetration of the trade throughout Europe. But of course wars or
+migrations might retard or accelerate the process; and there may have
+been isolated spots in which a partial stone period extended up to
+those comparatively recent times in which first the Greek trade, and
+afterward the entire overthrow of the Carthaginian power by the
+Romans, terminated forever the age of bronze and substituted the age
+of iron. This would leave, according to our ordinary chronologies, at
+least ten or fifteen centuries for the postdiluvian stone period in
+Europe and Western Asia, a time quite sufficient in our view for all
+that part of it represented by such monuments as the Danish
+shell-heaps or the platform habitations of the Swiss lakes; leaving
+the remains of the prehistoric caverns and river gravels for the
+antediluvian period. A few facts in illustration of these points, and
+also of the Biblical history, may be mentioned here.
+
+We know perfectly that the early Chaldeans of the Euphratean valley
+were acquainted with the use of metals--bronze certainly, and at a
+very early date iron; yet flint knives and other implements of stone
+are found under circumstances which show that they were used in the
+palmy days of the Assyrian empire. The inhabitants of Egypt were
+acquainted with bronze and iron long before the date of the Exodus,
+yet the Egyptians used stone knives for some purposes up to a
+comparatively modern time. Joshua used stone knives for the purpose of
+circumcision; and according to Herodotus there were Ethiopians in the
+army of Xerxes who used stone-tipped arrows. If any antiquarian were
+to stumble on the "hill of the foreskins"--a mound under which were
+buried in all probability the multitudinous flint flakes used in the
+circumcision of the thousands of Israel--or the grave in which some of
+the Ethiopian auxiliaries of Xerxes were buried with their flint
+arrow-heads and javelins of antelopes' horn, how absurd would be the
+inference that these repositories were of the palaeolithic age. Nay, so
+late as 1870 a traveller was informed that the Bagos, a people of
+Abyssinia, still made and used stone hatchets and flint knives.[121]
+
+In Europe we find reason to believe that the Ligurians of Northwestern
+Italy were flint-folk of very rude type until they were conquered by
+the Gauls about 400 B.C.[122] Though the Gauls, Britons, and Germans
+of the age of Julius Caesar had iron weapons, yet it is evident that
+the metal was very scarce, and that bronze was more common; and in
+confirmation of this it is found that in the trenches before Alize,
+the Alesia of Caesar, where the final struggle of the Roman general
+with Vercingetorix took place, weapons of stone, bronze, and iron are
+intermixed. All over the more northern parts of Europe there is the
+best reason to believe that the use of stone and bronze continued to a
+much later period, and locally until long after the Christian era. It
+is clear that such facts as these must greatly modify our ideas of the
+probable age of the Swiss lake villages, and should induce the
+greatest caution in claiming any special antiquity for particular
+classes of implements.
+
+One of the most remarkable discoveries of modern times is that of the
+site of ancient Troy by Dr. Schliemann, and it affords clear and
+decisive evidence as to the historic value of the ages to which we
+have referred.
+
+Troy was destroyed by the Greeks perhaps about 1300 B.C., and we know
+from Homer that this was in what for the Greeks and Trojans may
+properly be termed the copper age, weapons and armor of that metal
+being in common use, and also the mode of burial by cremation. We may
+well suppose that at that early date the stone age was still in full
+force in Northern Europe and Asia, and in the mountains of
+Switzerland; and as the tin mines of England had not yet been reached,
+bronze was scarce and dear even in Eastern Europe and Asia. Now
+Schliemann has disinterred the undoubted Trojan Ilium on the hill of
+Hissarlik; but he finds it to be only one of several buried cities,
+and the succession of strata will be most clearly seen in the section
+on the following page, compiled from his clear and circumstantial
+descriptions. It is needless to say that this presents a succession of
+the stone age to one of comparatively high civilization. It also forms
+an epitome of that of the whole East, and of primitive man in general,
+in some very important respects. We have first, at a date probably
+coeval with that of the earliest monarchies of Assyria and Egypt, a
+primitive people whose arts and mode of life remind us strongly of the
+American Toltecans and Peruvians.[123] Schliemann supposes them to
+have been Aryan, but they were more probably of Turanian race. They
+must have occupied the site for a very long time. They were succeeded
+by a more cultivated people of fine physical organization, yet
+possibly still Turanians or primitive Aryans, who by trade or plunder
+had accumulated large stores of metallic wealth, and had made advances
+in the arts of life placing them on a level with the early Phoenicians
+and Egyptians, with whom they probably had intercourse. These
+
+  =====================================================================
+  |Surface.                        |
+  |                                |
+  |Fifth stratum to 6-1/2 feet.    |The Greek Ilium, with buildings
+  |                                |and objects of art characteristic
+  |                                |of the Hellenic civilization of
+  |                                |historic periods.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |Fourth stratum to 13 feet.      |A second barbarous people, but
+  |                                |probably allied to the first.
+  |                                |Very coarse pottery. Implements
+  |                                |and weapons of copper or bronze--
+  |                                |stone knives and saws.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |Third stratum to 23 feet.       |Barbarous people occupying the
+  |                                |site of Troy. Rude stone
+  |                                |implements and rude pottery.
+  |                                |Buildings of small stones and clay.
+  |                                |Some objects of pottery found here
+  |                                |would on American sites be regarded
+  |                                |as probably tobacco-pipes.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |Second stratum to 33 feet.      |Homeric Troy. Implements and
+  |                                |weapons of copper, bronze, and
+  |                                |stone. Pottery, some of it of
+  |                                |Peruvian and ancient Cypriot types.
+  |                                |Fine gold jewelry, and gold and
+  |                                |silver vessels. Armor similar to
+  |                                |that described by Homer. Stone
+  |                                |buildings and walls. This city had
+  |                                |been sacked and burned.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  | First stratum to 46 or 53 feet.|Primitive or prehistoric Troy.
+  |                                |Stone implements, polished and
+  |                                |chipped. Millstones, copper nails,
+  |                                |pottery--some with patterns
+  |                                |curiously resembling those of
+  |                                |America--bone implements,
+  | Rock.                          |terra-cotta disks. Stone buildings.
+  =====================================================================
+
+were the Trojans of the Homeric poems, and the destruction of their
+city was probably in the first instance celebrated in their own native
+songs, which Homer at a date but little later[124] wove into his
+magnificent poem, and idealized and exaggerated. The Trojans
+worshipped an owl-headed goddess--the Athena of the Homeric poems;
+and from symbols found are believed also to have had the worship of a
+sacred tree, and of fire or of the Sun. All of these are widespread
+superstitions over both the Old and New World. But while Troy
+flourished there were barbarous nations not far off still in the stone
+age; and when the city had fallen, these, possibly in successive
+hordes, took possession of the fertile plain and used the old city as
+their stronghold, perhaps till the foundation of the Greek city about
+650 B.C. I have sketched in some detail these interesting discoveries,
+as they so clearly illustrate an actual succession of ages, and so
+conclusively show the uncertainty of the classification into ages of
+stone and metal, except when taken in connection with the precise
+circumstances of each locality.
+
+I have referred above only to the question of historic or postdiluvian
+man. We have still to consider what remains exist of antediluvian man.
+These may be studied in connection with our third head of geological
+evidences of man's antiquity; for if the Mosaic narrative be true, the
+diluvial catastrophe must have constituted a physical separation
+between historic man and prehistoric; since, in so far as antediluvian
+ages are concerned, all are prehistoric or mythical everywhere except
+in the sacred history itself. Antediluvian men may thus in geology be
+Pleistocene as distinguished from modern, or Palaeocosmic as
+distinguished from Neocosmic.[125]
+
+2. _Language in Relation to the Antiquity of Man._--In many animals
+the voice has a distinctive character; but in man it has an importance
+altogether peculiar. The gift of speech is one of his sole
+prerogatives, and identity in its mode of exercise is not only the
+strongest proof of similarity of psychical constitution, but more than
+any other character marks identity of origin. The tongues of men are
+many and various; and at first sight this diversity may, as indeed it
+often does, convey the impression of radical diversity of race. But
+modern philological investigations have shown many and unexpected
+links of connection in vocabulary or grammatical structure, or both,
+between languages apparently the most dissimilar. I do not here refer
+to the vague and fanciful parallels with which our ancestors were
+often amused, but to the results of sober and scientific inquiry.
+"Nothing," says Professor Max Mueller, "necessitates the admission of
+different independent beginnings for the material elements of the
+Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan branches of speech; nay, it is possible
+even now to point out radicals which, under various changes and
+disguises, have been current in these three branches ever since their
+first separation." Of the truth of this I have convinced myself by
+some original investigation, and also of the farther truth that of
+this radical unity of all human tongues there is more full evidence
+than many philologists are disposed to admit, and that the results of
+future study must be to connect more and more with each other the
+several main stems of language. Whether this results merely from the
+psychical unity of the human race, or from the historical derivation
+of languages from one root, is not so material as the fact of unity;
+but that the latter is implied it would not be difficult to show.[126]
+Let us examine for a little these results as they are presented to us
+by Latham, Mueller, Bunsen, and other modern philologists.
+
+A convenient starting-point is afforded by the great group of
+languages known as the Indo-European, Japhetic, or Aryan. From the
+Ganges to the west coast of Ireland, through Indian, Persian, Greek,
+Italian, German, Celt, runs one great language--the Sanscrit and the
+dark Hindoo at one extreme, the Erse and the xanthous Celt at the
+other. No one now doubts the affinity of this great belt of languages.
+No one can pretend that any one of these nations learned its language
+from another. They are all decided branches of a common stock. Lying
+in and near this area are other nations--as the Arabs, the Syrians,
+the Jews--speaking languages differing in words and structure--the
+Semitic tongues. Do these mark a different origin? The philologists
+answer in the negative, pointing to the features of resemblance which
+still remain, and above all to certain intermediate tongues of so high
+antiquity that they are rather to be regarded as root-stocks from
+which other languages diverged than as mixtures. The principal of
+these is the ancient Egyptian, represented by the inscriptions on the
+monuments of that wonderful people, and by the more modern Coptic,
+which, according to Bunsen and Latham, presents decided affinities to
+both the great classes previously mentioned, and may be regarded as
+strictly intermediate in its character. It has accordingly been
+designated by the term Sub-Semitic.[127] But it shares this character
+with all or nearly all the other African languages, which bear strong
+marks of affinity to the Egyptian and Semitic tongues. On this
+subject Dr. Latham says, "That the uniformity of languages throughout
+Africa is greater than it is either in Asia or in Europe, is a
+statement to which I have not the least hesitation in committing
+myself."[128] To the north the Indo-European area is bounded by a
+great group of semi-barbarous populations, mostly with Mongolian
+features, and speaking languages which have been grouped as Turanian.
+These Turanian languages, on the one hand, graduate without any break
+into those of the Esquimaux and American Indians; on the other,
+according to Mueller and Latham, they are united, though less
+distinctly, with the Semitic and Japhetic tongues. They not improbably
+represent in more or less altered forms the most primitive stock of
+language from which both the Semitic and Japhetic groups have
+branched. Another great area on the coasts and in the islands of the
+Pacific is overspread by the Malay, which, through the populations of
+Transgangetic India, connects itself with the great Indo-European
+line. Mr. Edkins, in his remarkable book on "China's Place in
+Philology," has collected a large amount of fact tending to show that
+the early Chinese in its monosyllabic radicals presents root-forms
+traceable into all the stocks of human speech in the Old World; and
+the American languages would have furnished him with similar lines of
+affinity. If we regard physical characters, manners, and customs, and
+mythologies, as well as mere language, it is much easier thus to link
+together nearly all the populations of the globe. In investigations of
+this kind, it is true, the links of connection are often delicate and
+evanescent; yet they have conveyed to the ablest investigators the
+strong impression that the phenomena are rather those of division of a
+radical language than of union of several radically distinct.
+
+This impression is farther strengthened when we regard several results
+incidental to these researches. Latham has shown that the languages of
+men may be regarded as arranged in lines of divergence, the extreme
+points of which are Fuego, Tasmania, Easter Island; and that from all
+these points they converge to a common centre in Western Asia, where
+we find a cluster of the most ancient and perfect languages; and even
+Haeckel is obliged to adopt in his map of the affiliation of races of
+men a similar scheme, though he, without any good historical or
+scientific evidence, extends it back into the imaginary lost continent
+of Lemuria. Farther, the languages of the various populations differ
+in proceeding from these centres in a manner pointing to degeneracy
+such as is likely to occur in small and rude tribes separating from a
+parent stock. These lines of radiation follow the most easy and
+probable lines of migration of the human race spreading from one
+centre. It must also be observed that in the primary migration of men,
+there must of necessity have been at its extreme limits outlying and
+isolated tribes, placed in circumstances in which language would very
+rapidly change; especially as these tribes, migrating or driven
+forward, would be continually arriving at new regions presenting new
+circumstances and objects. When at length the utmost limit in any
+direction was reached, the inroads of new races of population would
+press into close contact these various tribes with their different
+dialects. Where the distance was greatest before reaching this limit,
+we might expect, as in America, to find the greatest mutual variety
+and amount of difference from the original stock. After the primary
+migration had terminated, the displacements arising from secondary
+migrations and conquests, would necessarily complicate the matter by
+breaking up the original gradations of difference, and thereby
+rendering lines of migration difficult to trace.
+
+Taking all these points into the account, along with the known
+tendencies of languages in all circumstances to vary, it is really
+wonderful that philology is still able to give so decided indications
+of unity.
+
+There is, in the usual manner of speaking of these subjects, a source
+of misapprehension, which deserves special mention in this place. The
+Hebrew Scriptures derive all the nations of the ancient world from
+three patriarchs, and the names of these have often been attached to
+particular races of men and their languages; but it should never be
+supposed that these classifications are likely to agree with the Bible
+affiliation. They may to a certain extent do so, but not necessarily
+or even probably. In the nature of the case, those portions of these
+families which remained near the original centre, and in a civilized
+state, would retain the original language and features comparatively
+unchanged. Those which wandered far, fell into barbarism, or became
+subjected to extreme climatic influences, would vary more in all
+respects. Hence any general classification, whether on physical or
+philological characters, will be likely to unite, as in the Caucasian
+group of Cuvier, men of all the three primitive families, while it
+will separate the outlying and aberrant portions from their main stems
+of affiliation. Want of attention to this point has led to much
+misconception; and perhaps it would be well to abandon altogether
+terms founded on the names of the sons of Noah, except where
+historical affiliation is the point in question. It would be well if
+it were understood that when the terms Semitic, Japhetic,[129] and
+Hametic are used, direct reference is made to the Hebrew ethnology;
+and that, where other arrangements are adopted, other terms should be
+used. It is obviously unfair to apply the terms of Moses in a
+different way from that in which he uses them. A very prevalent error
+of this kind has been to apply the term Japhetic to a number of
+nations not of such origin according to the Bible; and another of more
+modern date is to extend the term Semitic to all the races descended
+from Ham, because of resemblance of language. It should be borne in
+mind that, assuming the truth of the Scriptural affiliation, there
+should be a "central" group of races and languages where the whole of
+the three families meet, and "sporadic"[130] groups representing the
+changes of the outlying and barbarous tribes.
+
+While, however, all the more eminent philologists adhere to the
+original unity of language, they are by no means agreed as to the
+antiquity of man; and some, as for instance Latham and Dr. Max Mueller,
+are disposed to claim an antiquity for our species far beyond that
+usually admitted. In so far as this affects the Bible history, it is
+important, inasmuch as this would appear to limit the possible
+antiquity of all languages to the time of the deluge. The date of this
+event has been variously estimated, on Biblical grounds, at from 1650
+B.C. (Usher) to 3155 B.C. (Josephus and Hales); but the longest of
+these dates does not appear to satisfy the demands of philology. The
+reason of this demand is the supposed length of time required to
+effect the necessary changes. The subject is one on which definite
+data can scarcely be obtained. Languages change now, even when reduced
+to a comparatively stable form by writing. They change more rapidly
+when men migrate into new climates, and are placed in contact with new
+objects. The English, the Dutch, and the German were perhaps all at
+the dawn of the mediaeval era Maeso-Gothic. At the same rate of change,
+allowing for greater barbarism and greater migrations, they may very
+well have been something not far from Egyptian or Sanscrit 2000 years
+before Christ. The truth is that present rates of variation afford no
+criterion for the changes that must occur in the languages of small
+and isolated tribes lapsing into or rising from barbarism, possessing
+few words, and constantly requiring to name new objects and until some
+ratio shall have been established between these conditions and those
+of modern languages, fixed by literature and by a comparatively
+stationary state of society, it is useless to make any demands for
+longer time on this ground.[131]
+
+Even in the present day, Moffat informs us that in South Africa the
+separation of parts of a tribe, for even a few months, may produce a
+notable difference of dialect. If we take the existing languages of
+civilized men whose history is known, we shall find that it is
+impossible to trace many of them back as far as the Christian era, and
+when we have passed over even half that interval, they become so
+different as to be unintelligible to those who now speak them. Where
+there are exceptions to this, they arise entirely from the effects of
+literature and artificial culture. While, therefore, there is good
+ground in philology for the belief in one primitive language, there
+seems no absolute necessity to have recourse even to the confusion of
+tongues at Babel to explain the diversities of language.[132] Farther,
+the Bible carries back the Semitic group of languages at least to the
+time of the Deluge, but it does not seem necessary on the mere ground
+of antediluvian names, to carry it any farther back, and the Assyrian
+inscriptions show the coexistence of Turanian and Semitic tongues at
+the dawn of history in the region of the Euphrates and Tigris. One or
+other of these--or a monosyllabic language underlying it--was probably
+an antediluvian tongue, and the other a very early derivative; and
+both history and philology would assign the precedence to the Turanian
+language, which was probably most akin to that which had descended
+from antediluvian times, and which at that early period of dispersion
+indicated in the Bible story of Babel, had begun to throw off its two
+great branches of the Aryan and Semitic languages. These, proceeding
+in two dissimilar lines of development, continue to exist to this day
+along with the surviving portions of the uncultivated Turanian speech.
+To this point, however, we may return under another head.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+UNITY AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN--(_Continued._)
+
+
+     "By the word of God the heavens were from of old, and the
+     earth, formed out of water, and by means of water, by which
+     waters the world that then was, being overflowed with water,
+     perished."--2 Peter iii., 5, 6.
+
+
+3. _Geological Evidence as to the Antiquity of Man._--No geological
+fact can now be more firmly established than the ascending progression
+of animal life, whereby from the early invertebrates of the Eozoic and
+Primordial series we pass upward through the dynasties of fishes and
+reptiles and brute mammals to the reign of man. In this great series
+man is obviously the last term; and when we inquire at what point he
+was introduced, the answer must be in the later part of the great
+Cainozoic or Tertiary period, which is the latest of the whole. Not
+only have we the negative fact of the absence of his remains from all
+the earlier Tertiary formations, but the positive fact that all the
+mammalia of these earlier ages are now extinct, and that man could not
+have survived the changes of condition which destroyed them and
+introduced the species now our contemporaries. This fact is altogether
+independent of any question as to the introduction of species by
+derivation or by creation. The oldest geological period in which any
+animals nearly related in structure to man occur is that named the
+Miocene, and no traces of man have as yet been found in any deposits
+of this age. All human remains known belong either to the Pleistocene
+or Modern. Now the Pleistocene was characterized by one of those
+periods of glacial cold which have swept over the earth--by one of
+those great winters which have so chilled the continents that few
+forms of life could survive them--and man comes in at the close of
+this cold period, in what is called the Post-glacial age. Some
+geologists, it is true, hold to an interglacial warm period, in which
+man is supposed to have existed, but the evidence of this is extremely
+slender and doubtful, and it carries back in any case human antiquity
+but a very little way. I have, in my "Story of the Earth and Man,"
+shown reason for the belief, in which I find Professor Hughes, of
+Cambridge, coincides with me,[133] that the interglacial periods are
+merely an ingenious expedient to get rid of the difficulties attending
+the hypothesis of the universal glaciation of the northern hemisphere.
+
+But, though man is thus geologically modern, it is held that
+historically his existence on earth may have been very ancient,
+extending perhaps ten or twenty, or even a hundred times longer than
+the period of six or seven thousand years supposed to be proved by
+sacred history. Let us first, as plainly and simply as possible,
+present the facts supposed thus to extend the antiquity of man, and
+then inquire as to their validity and force as arguments in this
+direction.
+
+The arguments from geology in favor of a great antiquity for man may
+be summarized thus: (1) Human remains are found in caverns under very
+thick stalagmitic crusts, and in deposits of earth which must have
+accumulated before these stalagmites began to form, and when the
+caverns were differently situated with reference to the local
+drainages. (2) Remains of man are found under peat-bogs which have
+grown so little in modern times that their antiquity on the whole
+must be very great. (3) Implements, presumably made by men, are found
+in river-gravels so high above existing riverbeds that great physical
+changes must have occurred since they were accumulated. (4) One case
+is on record where a human bone is believed to have been found under a
+deposit of glacial age. (5) Human remains have been found under
+circumstances which indicate that very important changes of level have
+taken place since their accumulation. (6) Human remains have been
+found under circumstances which indicate great changes of climate as
+intervening between their date and that of the modern period. (7) Man
+is known to have existed, in Europe at least, at the same time with
+some quadrupeds formerly supposed to have been extinct before his
+introduction. (8) The implements, weapons, etc., found in the oldest
+of these repositories are different from those known to have been used
+in historic times.
+
+These several heads include, I think, all the really material evidence
+of a geological character. It is evidence of a kind not easily
+reducible into definite dates, but there can be no doubt that its
+nature, and the rapid accumulation of facts within a small number of
+years, have created a deep and widespread conviction among geologists
+and archaeologists that we must relegate the origin of man to a much
+more remote antiquity than that sanctioned by history or by the
+Biblical chronology. I shall first review the character of this
+evidence, and then state a number of geological facts which bear in
+the other direction, and have been somewhat lost sight of in recent
+discussions. Of the facts above referred to, the most important are
+those which relate to caverns, peat-bogs, and river-gravels. We may,
+therefore, first consider the nature and amount of this evidence.
+
+That the reader may more distinctly understand the geological history
+of these more recent periods of the earth's history which are supposed
+to have witnessed the advent of man, in Western Europe at least, I
+quote the following summary from Sir Charles Lyell of the more modern
+changes in that portion of the world. These are:
+
+"First, a continental period, toward the close of which the forest of
+Cromer flourished; when the land was at least 500 feet above its
+present level, perhaps much higher. * * * The remains of _Hippopotamus
+major_ and _Rhinoceros etruscus_, found in beds of this period, seem
+to indicate a climate somewhat milder than that now prevailing in
+Great Britain. [This was a _Preglacial_ era, and may be regarded as
+belonging to the close of the Pliocene tertiary.]
+
+"Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land north of the
+Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland, was generally reduced
+to * * * an archipelago. * * * This was the period of great
+submergence and of floating ice, when the Scandinavian flora, which
+occupied the lower grounds during the first continental period, may
+have obtained exclusive possession of the only lands not covered with
+perpetual snow. [This represents the Glacial period; but according to
+the more extreme glacialists only a portion of that period.]
+
+"Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the glacial
+sea, with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid dry, and when
+the quantity of land equalled that of the first period. * * * During
+this period there were glaciers in the higher mountains of Scotland
+and Wales, and the Welsh glaciers * * * pushed before them and cleared
+out the marine drift with which some valleys had been filled during
+the period of submergence. * * * During this last period the passage
+of the Germanic flora into the British area took place, and the
+Scandinavian plants, together with northern insects, birds, and
+quadrupeds, retreated into the higher grounds. * * *
+
+"Fourthly, the next and last change comprised the breaking up of the
+land of the British area once more into numerous islands, ending in
+the present geographical condition of things. There were probably many
+oscillations of level during this last conversion of continuous land
+into islands, and such movements in opposite directions would account
+for the occurrence of marine shells at moderate heights above the
+level of the sea, notwithstanding a general lowering of the land. * * *
+During this period a gradual amelioration of temperature took place,
+from the cold of the glacial period to the climate of historical
+times."[134]
+
+The second continental period above referred to is that which appears
+on the best evidence to have been the time of the introduction of man;
+but such facts as that of the Settle Cave, and the implements of the
+breccia in Kent's Cave, if rightly interpreted, would make man
+preglacial or "interglacial."
+
+The deposits found in caverns in France, Switzerland, Germany,
+Belgium, and England have afforded a large proportion of the remains
+from which we derive our notions of the most ancient prehistoric men
+of Europe. From the Belgian caves, as explored by M. Dupont, we learn
+that there were two successive prehistoric races, both rude or
+comparatively uncivilized. The first were men of Turanian type, but of
+great bodily stature and high cerebral organization, and showing
+remarkable skill in the manufacture of implements and ornaments of
+bone and ivory. These men are believed to have been contemporary with
+the earlier postglacial mammals, as the mammoth and hairy rhinoceros,
+and to have lived at a time when the European land was more extensive
+than at present, stretching far to the west of Ireland, and connecting
+Great Britain with the Continent. The skeletons found at Cro-Magnon,
+Mentone, and elsewhere in France fully confirm the deductions of
+Dupont as to this earliest race of Palaeocosmic, Palaeolithic, or
+antediluvian man. This grand race seems to have perished or been
+driven from Europe by the great depression of the level of the land
+which inaugurated the modern era, and which was probably accompanied
+by many oscillations of level as well as by considerable changes of
+climate. They were succeeded by a second race, equally Turanian in
+type, but of small stature, and resembling the modern Lapps. These
+were the "allophylian" peoples displaced by the historical Celts, and
+up to their time the reindeer seems to have existed abundantly in
+France and Germany. These two successive prehistoric populations have
+been termed respectively men of the "mammoth" age and men of the
+"reindeer" age. The Bible record would lead us to regard the earlier
+and gigantic men as antediluvian, and the smaller or Lappish race as
+postdiluvian. We may therefore, having already at some length
+considered the postdiluvian age, take up the mode of occurrence of the
+remains of the earlier of the two races--that of the mammoth age.
+
+The caverns themselves may be divided into those of residence, of
+sepulture, and of driftage, though one cavern has often successively
+assumed two at least of these characters. In the caverns of residence
+large accumulations have been formed of ashes, charcoal, bones, and
+other debris of cookery, among which are found flint and bone
+implements, the general character of which, as well as that of the
+needles, stone hammers, mortars for paint, and other domestic
+appliances, are not more dissimilar from those of the Red Indian and
+Esquimau races in North America than these are from one another, and
+in many things, as in the bone harpoons, the resemblance is very
+striking indeed. In tendency to imitative art, and in the skill of
+their delineations of animals, the prehistoric men seem to have
+surpassed all the American races except the semi-civilized
+mound-builders and the more cultivated Mexican and Peruvian nations.
+With regard to the residence of these men of the mammoth age in
+caverns, several things are indicated by American analogies to which
+some attention should be paid.
+
+It is not likely that caverns were the usual places of residence of
+the whole population. They may have been winter houses for small
+tribes and detached families of fugitives or outlaws, or they may have
+been places of resort for hunting parties at certain seasons of the
+year. The large quantities of broken and uncooked bones of particular
+species, as of the horse and reindeer, in some of the caverns, would
+farther indicate a habit of making great battues, like those of the
+American hunting tribes, at certain seasons, and of preparing
+quantities of pemmican or dried meat preserved with marrow and fat for
+future use. The number of bone needles found in some of the caves
+would seem to hint that, like the Americans, they sewed up their
+pemmican in skin bags. The multitude of flint flakes and of rude stone
+implements applicable to breaking bones certainly indicates a
+wholesale cutting of flesh and preparation of marrow. In the "Story of
+the Earth," I have suggested in connection with this that there may
+have been towns or villages of these people unknown to us, and which
+would afford higher conceptions of their progress in the arts. This
+anticipation appears recently to have been realized in the discovery
+of such a town or fortified village of the mammoth age at Soloutre, in
+France, and which seems to afford evidence that these ancient people
+had already domesticated the horse, using it as food as well as a
+beast of burden, in the manner of the Khirgis and certain other Tartar
+tribes of Central Asia.[135] This, with the undoubtedly high cerebral
+organization indicated by the skulls of the mammoth age, notably
+raises our estimate of the position of man at this early date.
+
+With regard to caves of sepulture, the same remark may be made as with
+regard to the caves of residence. They do not seem to have been the
+burial-places of large populations, but only occasional places of
+interment, few bodies being found in them, and these often interred in
+the midst of culinary debris, evidencing previous or contemporary
+residence. With regard to the latter, it seems to have been no
+uncommon practice with some North American tribes to bury the dead
+either in the floors of their huts or in their immediate proximity. It
+is probable, however, that the few examples known of caves of
+sepulture of this period indicate not tribal or national places of
+burial, but occasional and accidental cases, happening to hunting or
+war parties, perhaps remote from their ordinary places of residence.
+In so far as method of burial is concerned, the men of the Palaeocosmic
+or Mammoth age seem to have buried the dead extended at full length,
+and not in the crouching posture usual with some later races. Like the
+Americans, they painted the dead man, and buried him with his robes
+and ornaments, and probably with his weapons, thus intimating their
+belief in happy hunting-grounds beyond the grave.[136] I may remark
+here that all the known interments of the mammoth age indicate a race
+of men of great cerebral capacity, with long heads and coarsely marked
+features, of large stature and muscular vigor, surpassing indeed much
+in all these respects the average man of modern Europe. These
+characteristics befit men who had to contend with the mammoth and his
+contemporaries, and to subdue the then vast wildernesses of the
+eastern continent, and they correspond with the Biblical
+characteristics of antediluvian man.
+
+Among caves of driftage may be classed some of those near Liege, in
+Belgium, and, partially at least, those of Kent's Hole and Brixham, in
+England. In these only disarticulated remnants of human skeletons, or
+more frequently only flint implements, some of them of doubtful
+character, have been found. In my "Story of the Earth," I have taken
+the carefully explored Kent's Cavern of Torquay as a typical example,
+and have condensed its phenomena as described by Mr. Pengelly. I now
+repeat this description, with some important emendations suggested by
+that gentleman in more recent reports and in private correspondence.
+
+The somewhat extensive and ramifying cavern of Kent's Hole is an
+irregular excavation, evidently due partly to fissures or joints in
+limestone rock, and partly to the erosive action of water enlarging
+such fissures into chambers and galleries. At what time it was
+originally cut we do not know, but it must have existed as a cavern at
+the close of the Pliocene or beginning of the Post-pliocene period,
+since which time it has been receiving a series of deposits which have
+quite filled up some of its smaller branches.
+
+First and lowest, according to Mr. Pengelly, of the deposits as yet
+known, is a "breccia," or mass of broken and rounded stones, with
+hardened red clay filling the interstices. Some of the stones are of
+the rock which forms the roof and walls of the cave, but the greater
+number, especially the rounded ones, are from more distant parts of
+the surrounding country. Many are fragments of grit from the Devonian
+beds of adjacent hills. There are also fragments of stalagmite from an
+old crust broken up when the breccia was deposited, and possibly
+belonging to Pliocene times. In this mass, the depth of which is
+unknown, are numerous bones, nearly all of one kind of animal, the
+cave bear or bears, for there may be more than one species--creatures
+which seem to have lived in Western Europe from the close of the
+Pliocene down to the modern period. They must have been among the
+earliest and most permanent tenants of Kent's Hole at a time when its
+lower chambers were still filled with water. Teeth of a lion and of
+the common fox also occur in this deposit, but rarely. Next above the
+breccia is a floor of "stalagmite," or stony carbonate of lime,
+deposited from the drippings of the roof, and in some places more than
+twelve feet thick. This also contains bones of the cave bear,
+deposited when there was less access of water to the cavern. Mr.
+Pengelly infers the existence of man at this time from the occurrence
+of chipped flints supposed to be artificial; but which, in so far as I
+can judge from the specimens described and figured, must still be
+regarded as of doubtful origin.
+
+After the old stalagmite floor above mentioned was formed, the cave
+again received deposits of muddy water and stones; but now a change
+occurs in the remains embedded. This stony clay, or "cave earth," has
+yielded an immense quantity of teeth and bones, including those of the
+elephant, rhinoceros, horse, hyena, cave bear, reindeer, and Irish
+elk. With these were found weapons of chipped flint, and harpoons,
+needles, and bodkins of bone, precisely similar to those of the North
+American Indians and other rude races. The "cave earth" is four feet
+or more in thickness. It is not stratified, and contains many fallen
+fragments of rock, rounded stones, and broken pieces of stalagmite. It
+also has patches of the excrement of hyenas, which the explorers
+suppose to indicate the temporary residence of these animals; and
+besides fragments of charcoal scattered in the mass, there is in one
+spot, near the top, a limited layer of burned wood, with remains which
+indicate the cooking and eating of repasts of animal food by man. It
+is clear that when this bed was formed the cavern was liable to be
+inundated with muddy water, carrying stones and perhaps some of the
+bones and implements, and breaking up in places the old stalagmite
+floor.[137] One of the most puzzling features, especially to those who
+take an exclusively uniformitarian view, is that the entrance of
+water-borne mud and stones implies a level of the bottom of the water
+in the neighboring valleys of nearly one hundred feet above its
+present height. The cave earth is covered by a second crust of
+stalagmite, less dense and thick than that below, and containing only
+a few bones, which are of the same general character with those
+beneath, but include a fragment of a human jaw with teeth. Evidently
+when this stalagmite was formed the influx of water-borne materials
+had ceased, or nearly so; and Mr. Pengelly appears to affirm, though
+without assigning any reason, that none of these bones could, like
+the masses of stalagmite, have been lifted from lower beds, or washed
+into the cave from without.
+
+The next bed marks a new change. It is a layer of black mould from
+three to ten inches thick. Its microscopic structure does not seem to
+have been examined; but it is probably a forest soil, introduced by
+growth, by water, by wind, and by ingress of animals, all of them
+modern, and contains works of art from the old British times before
+the Roman invasion up to the porter bottles and dropped half-pence of
+modern visitors. Lastly, in and upon the black mould are many fallen
+blocks from the roof of the cave.
+
+There can be no doubt that this cave and the neighboring one of
+Brixham have done very much to impress the minds of British geologists
+with ideas of the great antiquity of man; and they have, more than any
+other postglacial monuments, shown the existence of some animals now
+extinct up to the human age. Of precise data for determining time,
+they have, however, given nothing. The only measures which seem to
+have been applied, namely, the rate of growth of stalagmite and the
+rate of erosion of neighboring valleys, are, from the very sequence of
+the deposits, obviously worthless; and the only apparently constant
+measure, namely, the fall of blocks from the roof, seems not to have
+been applied, and Mr. Pengelly declares that it can not be practically
+used. We are therefore quite uncertain as to the number of centuries
+involved in the filling of this cave, and must remain so until some
+surer system of calculation can be devised. We may, however, attempt
+to sketch the series of events which it indicates.
+
+The animals found in Kent's Hole are all "postglacial," some of them
+of course survivors from "preglacial" times, and some of them still
+surviving. They therefore inhabited the country after it rose from the
+great glacial submergence. Perhaps the first colonists of the coast of
+Devonshire in this period were the cave bears, migrating on floating
+ice, and subsisting like the arctic bear and the black bear of
+Anti-costi, on fish, and on the garbage cast up by the sea. They may
+have found Kent's Hole a sea-side cavern, with perhaps some of its
+galleries still full of water and filling with breccia, with which the
+bones of dead bears became mixed. In the case of such a deposit as
+this breccia, however, the precise time when its materials were
+finally laid down in their present form, or the length of time
+necessary for its accumulation, can not be definitely settled. It may
+be a result of continued torrential action or of some sudden
+cataclysm. As the land rose, these creatures for the most part betook
+themselves to lower levels, and in process of time the cavern stood
+upon a hill-side, perhaps several hundreds of feet above the sea; and
+the mountain streams, their beds not yet emptied of glacial detritus,
+washed into it stones and mud, and probably bones also, while it
+appears that hyenas occupied the cave at intervals, and dragged in
+remains of mammals of many species which had now swarmed across the
+plains elevated out of the sea, and multiplied in the land. This was
+the time of the cave earth; and before its deposit was completed,
+though how long before an unstratified and therefore probably
+often-disturbed bed of this kind can not tell, man himself seems to
+have been added to the inhabitants of the British land. In pursuit of
+game he sometimes ascended the valleys beyond the cavern, or even
+penetrated into its outer chambers; or perhaps there were even in
+those days rude and savage hill-men, inhabiting the forests and
+warring with the more cultivated denizens of plains below, which are
+now deep under the waters. Their weapons, and other implements dropped
+in the cavern or lost in hunting, or buried in the flesh of wounded
+animals which crept to the streams to assuage their thirst, are those
+found in the cave earth. The absence of the human bones may merely
+show that the mighty hunters of those days were too hardy, athletic,
+and intelligent often to perish from accidental causes, and that they
+did not use this cavern for a place of burial. The fragments of
+charcoal show that they were acquainted with fire, and possibly that
+they sometimes took shelter in the cave. But the land again subsided.
+The valley of that now nameless river, of which the Rhine and the
+Thames may have alike been tributaries, disappeared under the sea; and
+perhaps some tribe, driven from the lower lands, took up its abode in
+this cave, now again near the encroaching waves, and left there the
+remains of their last repasts ere they were driven farther inland or
+engulfed in the waters. For a time the cavern may have been wholly
+submerged, and the charcoal of the extinguished fires became covered
+with its thin coating of clay. But ere long it re-emerged to form part
+of an island, long barren and desolate; and the valleys having been
+cut deeper by the receding waters, it no longer received muddy
+deposits, and the crust formed by drippings from its roof contained
+only bones and pebbles washed by rains and occasional land floods from
+its own clay deposits. Finally, the modern forests overspread the
+land, and were tenanted by the modern animals. Man returned to use the
+cavern again as a place of refuge or habitation, and to leave there
+the relics contained in the black earth. This seems at present the
+only intelligible history of this curious cave and others resembling
+it; though, when we consider the imperfection of the results obtained
+even by a large amount of labor, and the difficult and confused
+character of the deposits in this and similar caves, too much value
+should not be attached to such histories, which may at any time be
+contradicted or modified by new facts or different explanations of
+those already known. The time involved depends very much on the answer
+to the question whether we should regard the postglacial subsidence
+and re-elevation as somewhat sudden, or as occupying long ages at the
+slow rate at which some parts of our continents are now rising or
+sinking.
+
+Mr. Pengelly thinks it possible, but not proved, that the lower
+breccia of Kent's Cavern may be interglacial or preglacial in age. One
+case only is known where a human bone has been found in a cavern under
+deposits supposed to be of the nature of the glacial drift. It is that
+of the Victoria Cave, at Settle, in Yorkshire. At this place a human
+fibula was found under a layer of boulder clay. But there are too many
+chances of this bone having come into this position by some purely
+local accident to allow us to attach much importance to it until
+future discoveries shall have supplied other instances of the
+kind.[138]
+
+I may close this survey of the cave deposits with a summary of the
+results of M. Dupont, as obtained from two of the caves explored by
+him, that of Margite and that of Frontal. In the first of these
+caverns, resting on rolled pebbles which covered the floor, were four
+distinct layers of river mud deposited by inundations, and amounting
+to two yards and a half in thickness. In all of these layers were
+bones. The lowest contained rude flint implements, and bones of the
+mammoth, rhinoceros, bear, horse, chamois, reindeer, stag, and hyena.
+In the overlying deposits are some flint implements of more artistic
+form and a greater prevalence of the bones of the reindeer. In the
+second cave, that of Frontal, over a similar deposit of alluvial mud
+of the mammoth age, was found a sepulchre containing the remains of
+sixteen individuals, of the second or diminutive Lappish race before
+referred to. The door of the cave had been closed by these people with
+a slab of stone, and in front was a hearth for funeral feasts, built
+on the deposits of the mammoth age, and containing bones of animals
+all recent or now living in Belgium, and without any traces of the
+bones of the extinct quadrupeds. This burial-place belonged to the
+Neocosmic yet prehistoric race which replaced the Palaeocosmic men of
+the mammoth age.
+
+What is the absolute antiquity of the Palaeocosmic age in Europe? We
+have no monumental or historical chronology to answer this question,
+but only the measures of time furnished by the accumulation of
+deposits, by the deposition of stalagmite, by the gradual extinction
+of animals, and by the erosion of valleys and other physical changes.
+These somewhat loose measures have been applied in various ways, but
+the tendency of geologists, from the prevalence of uniformitarian
+views, and the prejudice created by familiarity with the long times of
+previous geologic periods, has been to assign to them too great rather
+than too little value, both as measures of time and as indicating a
+remote antiquity.
+
+With reference to the accumulation of deposits, whether derived from
+disintegration of the roof and walls of the cave, introduced by land
+floods or river inundations or by the residence of man, their rate is
+of very difficult estimation. Loose stones fallen from the roof, as in
+the case of Kent's Cave, would give a fair measure of time if we could
+be sure that the climate had continued uniform, and that there had
+been no violent earthquakes. Mr. Pengelly has, however, hopelessly
+given up this kind of evidence. Where, as in the case of many of these
+caves, land floods and river inundations have entered, these may have
+been frequent or separated by long intervals of time, and they may
+have been of great or small amount. Where, for instance, as in one of
+the Belgian caves, there are six beds of ossiferous mud, but for the
+fact that five layers of stalagmite separate them we might not have
+known whether they represent six annual inundations, or floods
+separated by many centuries from each other.
+
+In the case of the Victoria Cave at Settle, Dawkins, reasoning from
+the accumulation of two feet of detritus over British remains that may
+be supposed to be 1200 years old, gives a basis which would at the
+same rate of deposit allow about 5000 years for the date of
+palaeolithic men; but Prestwich and others, on the basis of stalagmite
+deposits, claim a vastly higher antiquity for the men who made the
+implements found in Kent's Hole and Brixham.
+
+If we now turn to these stalagmite floors, when we consider that they
+have been formed by the slow solution of limestone by rain-water
+charged with carbonic acid, and the dropping of this water on the
+floor, and when we are told that in Kent's Cavern a marked date shows
+that the stalagmite has grown at the rate of only one twentieth of an
+inch since 1688, and that there are two beds of stalagmite, one of
+which is in some places twelve feet thick, we are impressed with the
+conviction of a vast antiquity. But when we are told by Dawkins that
+the rate of deposit in Ingleborough Cave may be estimated at a quarter
+of an inch per annum, and when we consider that the present rate of
+deposit in Kent's Hole is probably very different from what it was in
+the former condition of the country, stalagmite becomes a very unsafe
+measure of time. With respect again to the accumulation of
+kitchen-midden stuff in the course of the occupancy of caverns, this
+proceeds with great rapidity, when caves are steadily occupied and it
+is not the practice to cleanse out the debris of fires, food, and
+bedding. Even when the occupation is temporary, a tribe of savages
+engaged with the preparation of dried meat and pemmican in a very
+short time produce a considerable heap of bones and other
+rejectamenta.
+
+Looking next to the extinction of animals, we find that the species
+found in the oldest deposits containing human remains are in part
+still extant. Others which are locally extinct we know existed in
+Europe until historical times, that is, within the last two thousand
+years. How long previously to this the others became extinct we have
+no certain means of knowing, though it seems probable that they
+disappeared gradually and successively. We have, however, farther to
+bear in mind the possibility of cataclysms or climatal changes which
+may have proved speedily fatal to many species over large areas. In
+any case we have this certain fact that, though the time elapsed has
+been sufficient for the extinction of many species, it does not seem
+to have sufficed to effect any noteworthy change on those that
+survived. Farther, we may consider that time is only one factor in
+this matter, and not the one which is the efficient cause of change,
+since we know no reason why one species of animal should not continue
+to be reproduced as long as another, but for the occurrence of
+physical changes of a prejudicial character.
+
+We have still remaining the changes which have taken place in the
+erosion of valleys since the caverns were occupied. Dupont informs us
+that the openings of some of the caverns once flooded by rivers are
+now in limestone cliffs two hundred feet above the water, while no
+appreciable lowering of the bottoms of the ravines is taking place
+now. This would in some contingencies put back the period of filling
+of the caves to an indefinite antiquity. But then the questions
+occur--Was there once more water in the rivers or more obstruction at
+their outlets, or was the erosive power greater at one time than now,
+or were the river valleys excavated in still more ancient time, and
+partly filled with mud when the water entered the caves, and may this
+mud have been since swept away? So, in like manner, the waters flowing
+in the channels near Brixham Cave and Kent's Hole were apparently
+about seventy feet higher in times of flood than at present, but the
+time involved is subject to the same doubts as in the case of the
+Belgian caves. Hughes has well remarked that elevations of the land,
+by causing rivers to form waterfalls and cascades, which they cut
+back, may greatly accelerate the rate of erosion. Farther, there is
+the best reason to believe that in the glacial period many old valleys
+were filled with clay, and that the modern cutting consisted merely in
+the removal of this clay. Belt has shown in a recent paper[139] good
+reason to believe that this is the case with the Falls of Niagara, and
+that the cutting actually effected through rock within the later
+Pleistocene and modern period has been that only of the new gorge from
+the whirlpool to Queenstown, the main part of the ravine being of
+older date and merely re-excavated. This would greatly reduce the
+ordinary estimate of time based on the cutting of the Niagara gorge.
+
+This leads us next to consider the occurrence of human remains and
+objects of art in the river-gravels themselves, and the amount of
+excavation and deposit involved in the deposition of these gravels.
+In the river-gravels of the Somme, and of many other rivers in France
+and Southern England, chipped flints and rude flint implements are
+found in so great quantity as to imply that the beds and banks of
+these streams were resorted to for flint material, and that the
+unfinished and rejected implements left in the holes and trenches, or
+on the heaps where the work was carried on, were afterward sorted by
+running water, perhaps in abnormal floods and debacles, such as occur
+in all river valleys occasionally, perhaps in that great diluvial
+catastrophe which seems to have terminated the residence of
+Palaeocosmic man in Europe. Wilson has well shown how the heaps left by
+American tribes in and near their flint quarries would furnish the
+material for such accumulations. The time required for the erosion of
+the valleys and the deposit of the gravels has been very variously
+estimated. In the case of the Somme, which river is not appreciably
+deepening its bed, if we suppose it to have cut its wide valley to the
+depth of one hundred and fifty feet out of solid chalk since the
+so-called "high level" gravels of France and the South of England were
+deposited, the time required shades off into infinity. So Evans, in
+his work on "The Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain," looking
+upon the amount of excavation of wide and deep valleys since the stone
+implements of Bournemouth are supposed to have been deposited in
+gravel, says, "Who can fully comprehend how immensely remote was the
+epoch when that vast bay was high and dry land?" and he becomes
+poetical in delineating the view that must have met the eyes of
+"palaeolithic" man. And undoubtedly, if one is to be limited to the
+precise nature and amount of causes now at work in the district, the
+time must not only be "immensely remote," but illimitably so. The
+difficulty lies with the exaggerated uniformitarianism of the
+supposition that such causes could have produced the results. But,
+for reasons to be immediately stated, the time required is liable to
+numerous deductions; and recently Tylor, Pattison, Collard, and others
+have insisted ably on these deductions, as has also Professor Hughes,
+of Cambridge. I have myself urged them strongly in the work already
+referred to.
+
+In the first place, when we see a deep river valley in which the
+present stream is doing an almost infinitesimal amount of deepening,
+we are not to infer that this represents all its work past and
+present. In times of unusual flood it may do in one week more than in
+many previous years. Farther, if there have been elevations or
+depressions of the land, when the land has been raised the cutting
+power has at once been enormously increased, and when depressed it has
+been diminished, or filling has taken the place of cutting. Again, if
+the climate in time past has been more extreme, or the amount of
+rainfall greater, the cutting action has then been proportionally
+rapid. Perhaps no influence is greater in this respect than that which
+is known to the colonists in Northeastern America as "ice-freshets,"
+when in spring, before the ice has had time to disappear from the
+rivers, sudden thaws and rains produce great floods, which rushing
+down over the icy crust, or breaking and hurling its masses before
+them, work terrible havoc on the banks and alluvial flats, depositing
+great beds of gravel, and sweeping away immense masses that had lain
+undisturbed for centuries. Now we know that in Europe the human period
+was preceded by what has been termed the glacial age, and as it was
+passing away there must have been unexampled floods and ice-freshets,
+and a temporary "pluvial period," as it has been called, in which the
+volume of the rivers was immensely increased. Farther, it is an
+established fact that the period of the appearance of man was a time
+when the continents in the northern hemisphere were more elevated
+than at present, and when consequently the cutting action of rivers
+was at a maximum. This was again followed by a period of depression,
+accompanied probably by many local cataclysms, if not by a general
+deluge; and there are strong geological reasons to believe that this
+convulsion was connected with the disappearance from Europe of
+Palaeocosmic man, and many of the animals his contemporaries. This view
+I advocated some time ago in my "Story of the Earth;" and more
+recently Mr. Pattison, in an able paper read before the Victoria
+Institute, has developed it in greater detail, and supported it by a
+great mass of geological authority. If the Palaeocosmic period was one
+of continental elevation, when the greater seats of population were in
+the valleys of great rivers now covered by the German Ocean and the
+English Channel, and when the valleys of the Thames and the Somme were
+those of upland streams frequented by straggling parties and small
+tribes, and the seats of extensive flint factories for the supply of
+the plains below, and if this state of things was terminated by a
+diluvial debacle, we can account for all the phenomena of the drift
+implements without any extravagant estimate of time.
+
+I quote with much pleasure on this subject the following from the
+report of a lecture on "Geological Measures of Time," by Professor
+Hughes, before the Royal Institution of London. Hughes was, like
+myself, a companion of Sir Charles Lyell in some of his journeys,
+though belonging to a younger generation of geologists, and is an
+accurate observer and reasoner.
+
+"Another method of estimating the lapse of time is founded upon the
+supposed rate at which rivers scoop out their channels. Although no
+very exact estimates have been attempted, still the immense quantity
+of work that has been done, as compared with the slow rate at which a
+river is now excavating that same part of the valley, is often
+appealed to as a proof of a great lapse of time.
+
+"The fact of such an enormous lapse of time is not questioned, but
+this part of the evidence is challenged.
+
+"The previous considerations of the rate of accumulation of silt on
+the low lands prepares us to inquire whether there is any waste at all
+along the alluvial plains. Several examples were given to show that
+the lowering of valleys was brought about by receding rapids and
+waterfalls; for instance, following up the Rhine, its terraces could
+often be traced back to where the waterfall was seen to produce at
+once almost all the difference of level between the river reaches
+above and below it. At Schaffhausen the river terrace below the hotel
+could be traced back and found to be continuous with the river margin
+above the fall. The wide plains occurring here and there, such as the
+Mayence basin, were due to the river being arrested by the hard rocks
+of the gorges below Bingen so long that it had time to wind from side
+to side through the soft rocks above the gorges. When waterfalls cut
+back to such basins or to lakes they would recede rapidly, tapping the
+waters of the lake, eating back the soft beds of the alluvial plains,
+and probably in both cases leaving terraces as evidence, not of
+upheavals or of convulsions, but of the arrival of a waterfall which
+had been gradually travelling up the valley. So when the Rhone cuts
+back from the falls at Belgarde we shall have terraces where now is
+the shore of Geneva; so also when the Falls of Schaffhausen, and ages
+afterward when the Falls of Laufenburg have tapped the Lake of
+Constance, there will be terraces marking its previous levels. And so
+we may explain the former greater extent of the Lake of Zurich, which
+stood higher and spread wider by Utznach and Wetzikon before it was
+tapped by the arrival of waterfalls, which cut back into it and let
+its waters run off until they fell to their present level.
+
+"A small upheaval near the mouth of a river would have a similar
+effect. The Thames below London and the Somme below St. Acheul can now
+only just hand on the mud brought down from higher ground; but suppose
+an elevation of a hundred feet over those parts of England and France
+(quite imperceptible if extended over 10,000, 1000, or even 100
+years), and the rivers would tumble over soft mud and clay and chalk,
+and soon eat their way back from Sheppey to London, and from St.
+Valery to Amiens.
+
+"So when we want to estimate the age of the gravels on the top of the
+cliff at the Reculvers, or on the edge of the plateau of St. Acheul,
+we have to ask, not how long would it take the rivers to cut down to
+their present level from the height of those gravels at the rate at
+which that part of their channel is being lowered now, but how long
+would it take the Somme or Thames, which once ran at the level of
+those gravels, to cut back from where its mouth or next waterfall was
+then to where it runs over rapids now. We ought to know what movements
+of upheaval and depression there have been; what long alluvial flats
+or lakes which may have checked floods, but also arrested the
+rock-protecting gravel; how much the wash of the estuarine waves has
+helped. In fact, it is clear that observations made on the action of
+the rivers at those points now have nothing to do with the calculation
+of the age of the terraces above, and that the circumstances upon
+which the rate of recession of the waterfalls and rapids depends are
+so numerous and changeable that it is at present unsafe to attempt any
+estimate of the time required to produce the results observed."
+
+I may close this discussion by quoting from the paper of my friend Mr.
+Pattison, already referred to, the following summing up of his
+conclusions, in which I fully concur:
+
+     "We may assume it as established that there was a time when
+     England was connected with the Continent, when big animals
+     roamed in summer up the watercourses and across the uplands,
+     and man, armed only with rude stones, followed them into the
+     marshes and woods, hunted them for sustenance, and consumed
+     them in shelter of caves, then accessible from the river
+     levels. This state of things was continued until disturbed
+     by oscillations of surface, accompanied by excessive
+     rainfalls and rushes of water from the water-sheds of the
+     rivers, until the great animals were driven out or
+     destroyed, and man ceased to visit these parts. The
+     disturbances continued, the Strait of Dover was formed, the
+     configuration of the soft parts of the islands and
+     continents was fixed, action subsided, and the present state
+     of things obtained. Man resumed his residence, but with loss
+     of the mammoth and its companions. The reindeer now
+     constituted the type of a state of things which lasted down
+     to the historic period, without any other from that time to
+     this. * * *
+
+     "Chronologists are agreed that about 2000 years B.C. Abraham
+     migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and that at this time
+     Egypt at least was old in civilization. Beyond this we have
+     no positive scale of time in Scripture; for it is evident,
+     from the narrative itself, that the latter does not cover
+     the whole time. * * *
+
+     "Ussher estimates from Scripture the creation of man as
+     about 2000 years before this. During the latter portion of
+     this time civilization was proceeding under settled
+     governments in the East, interrupted, says the record and
+     tradition, by a flood. * * *
+
+     "So Lucretius:
+
+        'Thus, too, the insurgent waters once o'erpowered,
+        As fables tell, and deluged many a state;
+        Till, in its turn, the congregated waves
+        By cause more potent conquered, heaven restrain'd
+        Its ceaseless torrents, and the flood decreased.'
+
+     Barbarism covered the whole Western world; neither in the
+     2000 years before Abraham, nor in the 2000 years afterward,
+     have we any light reflected from these regions to the East.
+     In this 4000 years, or in the somewhat longer period which
+     probably will be ultimately settled as warranted by the
+     record, we place hypothetically all the phenomena of the
+     later mammalian age, including the introduction of man as a
+     hunter, the first occupation of the caves by him also, the
+     diluvial phenomena of the wide valleys, the oscillations and
+     disturbances of the earth's crust, alterations in the
+     coast-line, and physical settlement of the country; after
+     this comes the second occupation of the caves. In short, if
+     we say that, hypothetically, the whole first known human age
+     occurred within 4000 years of the Christian era, no one can
+     say that it is geologically impossible. Who can say that
+     1643 years is insufficient to comprise all the phenomena
+     that occurred during a period confessedly characterized by
+     more rapid and extensive action than at present--a period
+     during which ruptures in the earth's crust, oscillations,
+     and permanent uprising took place, and the intermittent
+     action of violent floods caused the deposit and disturbance
+     and resettlement of the gravels and brick-earth? There is
+     nothing to interfere with the prevalent opinion that man was
+     introduced here while the glacial period was dying out, and
+     while it was still furnishing flood-waters sufficient to
+     scour and re-sort the gravels of the valleys down which they
+     flowed. This supposition may be extended to both the great
+     continents."
+
+To conclude: Our mode of reconciling the Mosaic history of
+antediluvian man with the disclosures of the gravels and caves would
+be to identify Palaeocosmic man, or man of the mammoth age, with
+antediluvian man; to suppose that the changes which closed his
+existence in Europe as well as Western Asia were those recorded in the
+Noachian deluge; and that the second colonization of the diminished
+and shrunken Europe of the modern period was effected by the
+descendants of Noah. It may be asked--Must we suppose that the Adam of
+the Bible was of the type of the coarsely featured and gigantic men of
+the European caverns? I would answer--Not precisely so; but it is
+quite possible that Adam may have been Turanian in feature. We should
+certainly suppose him to have been a man well developed in brain and
+muscle. Such men as those found in the caves would rather represent
+the ruder "Nephelim," the "giants that were in those days," than Adam
+in Eden. Farther, the new colonists of Europe after the deluge would
+no doubt be a very rude and somewhat degenerate branch of Noachidae,
+probably driven before more powerful tribes in the course of the
+dispersion. The higher races of both periods are probably to be looked
+for in Western Asia; but even there we must expect to find cave men
+like those whose remains were found by Tristram in the caves near
+Tyre, and like the Horim of Moses; and we must also expect to find the
+antediluvian age in the main an age of stone everywhere, and its arts,
+except in certain great centres of population, perhaps not more
+advanced than those of the Polynesians, or those of the agricultural
+American tribes before the discovery of America by Columbus.
+
+As a geologist, and as one who has been in the main of the school of
+Lyell, and after having observed with much care the deposits of the
+more modern periods on both sides of the Atlantic, I have from the
+first dissented from those of my scientific brethren who have
+unhesitatingly given their adhesion to the long periods claimed for
+human history, and have maintained that their hasty conclusions on
+this subject must bring geological reasoning into disrepute, and react
+injuriously on our noble science. We require to make great demands on
+time for the prehuman periods of the earth's history, but not more
+than sacred history is willing to allow for the modern or human age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS.
+
+
+     "Lo, these are but the outlines of his ways, and how faint
+     the whisper which we hear of him--the thunder of his power
+     who could understand?"--Job xxvi., 14.
+
+
+In the preceding pages I have, as far as possible, avoided that mode
+of treating my subject which was wont to be expressed as the
+"reconciliation" of Scripture and Natural Science, and have followed
+the direct guidance of the Mosaic record, only turning aside where
+some apt illustration or coincidence could be perceived. In the
+present chapter I propose to inquire what the science of the earth
+teaches on these same subjects, and to point out certain manifest and
+remarkable correspondences between these teachings and those of
+revelation. Here I know that I enter on dangerous ground, and that if
+I have been so fortunate as to carry the intelligent reader with me
+thus far, I may chance to lose him now. The Hebrew Scriptures are
+common property; no one can fairly deny me the right to study them,
+even though I do so in no clerical or theological capacity; and even
+if I should appear extreme in some of my views, or venture to be
+almost as enthusiastic as the commentators of Homer, Shakespeare, or
+Dante, I can not be very severely blamed. But the direct comparison of
+these ancient records with results of modern science is obnoxious to
+many minds on different grounds; and all the more so that so few men
+are at once students both of nature and revelation. There are, as
+yet, but few even of educated men whose range of study has included
+any thing that is practical or useful either in Hebrew literature or
+geological science. That slipshod Christianity which contents itself
+with supposing that conclusions which are false in nature may be true
+in theology is mere superstition or professional priestcraft, and has
+nothing in common with the Bible; but there are still multitudes of
+good men, trained in the verbal and abstract learning which at one
+time constituted nearly the whole of education, who regard geology as
+a mass of crude hypotheses destitute of coherence, a perpetual
+battle-ground of conflicting opinions, all destined in time to be
+swept away. It must be admitted, too, that from the nature of
+geological evidence, and from the liability to error in details, the
+solidity of its conclusions is not likely soon to be appreciated as
+fully as is desirable by the common mind; while it is unfortunately
+true that the outskirts of science are infested with hosts of
+half-informed and superficial writers, who state these conclusions
+incorrectly, or apply them in an unreasonable manner to matters on
+which they have no bearing. On the other hand, the geologist, fully
+aware of the substantial nature of the foundations of the science of
+the earth, regards it as little less than absurd to find parallels to
+its principles in an ancient theological work. Still there are
+possible meeting-points of things so dissimilar as Bible lore and
+geological exploration. If man is a being connected on the one hand
+with material nature, and on the other with the spiritual essence of
+the Creator; if that Creator has given to man powers of exploring and
+comprehending his plans in the universe, and at the same time has
+condescended to reveal to him directly his will on certain points,
+there is nothing unphilosophical or improbable in the supposition that
+the same truths may be struck out on the one hand by the action of
+the human mind on nature, and on the other by the action of the Divine
+mind on that of man. The highest and most nobly constituted minds have
+ever been striving to scale heaven above and dive into the earth
+below, that they may extort from them the secret of their origin, and
+may find what are the privileges and destinies of man himself. They
+have learned much; and if through other gifted minds, and through his
+heaven-descended Word and Spirit, God has condescended to reveal
+himself, there must surely be much in common in that which God's works
+teach to earnest inquirers and that which he directly makes known. But
+few of our greatest thinkers, whether on nature or theology, have
+reached the firm ground of this higher probability; or if they have
+reached it, have dreaded the scorn of the half-learned too much to
+utter their convictions. Still this is a position which the
+enlightened Christian and student of nature must be prepared to
+occupy, humbly and with admission of much ignorance and incapacity,
+but with bold assertion of the truth that there are meeting-points of
+nature and revelation which afford legitimate subjects of study.
+
+In entering on these subjects, we may receive certain great truths in
+reference to the history of the earth as established by geological
+evidence. In the present rapidly progressive state of the science,
+however, it is by no means easy to separate its assured and settled
+results from those that have been founded on too hasty generalization,
+or are yet immature; and at the same time to avoid overlooking new and
+important truths, sufficiently established, yet not known in all their
+dimensions. In the following summary I shall endeavor to present to
+the reader only well-ascertained general truths, without indulging in
+those deviations from accuracy for effect too often met with in
+popular books. On the other hand, we have already found that the
+Scriptures enunciate distinct doctrines on many points relating to the
+earth's early history, to which it will here be necessary merely to
+refer in general terms. Let us in the first place shortly consider the
+conclusions of geology as to the origin and progress of creation.
+
+1. The widest and most important generalization of modern geology is
+that all the materials of the earth's crust, to the greatest depth
+that man can reach, either by actual excavation or inference from
+superficial arrangements, are of such a nature as to prove that they
+are not, in their present state, original portions of the earth's
+structure; but that they are the results of the operation, during long
+periods, of the causes of change--whether mechanical, chemical, or
+vital--now in operation, on the land, in the seas, and in the interior
+of the earth. For example, the most common rocks of our continents are
+conglomerates, sandstones, shales, and slates; all of which are made
+up of the debris of older rocks broken down into gravel, sand, or mud,
+and then re-cemented. To these we may add limestones, which have been
+made up by the accumulation of corals and shells, or by deposits from
+calcareous springs; coal, composed of vegetable matter; and granite,
+syenite, greenstone, and trap, which are molten rocks formed in the
+manner of modern lavas. So general has been this sorting, altering,
+and disturbance of the substance of the earth's crust, that, though we
+know its structure over large portions of our continents to the depth
+of several miles, the geologist can point to no instance of a truly
+primitive rock which can be affirmed to have remained unchanged and
+_in situ_ since the beginning.
+
+"All are aware that the solid parts of the earth consist of distinct
+substances, such as clay, chalk, sand, limestone, coal, slate,
+granite, and the like; but, previously to observation, it is commonly
+imagined that all had remained from the first in the state in which we
+now see them--that they were created in their present forms and in
+their present position. The geologist now comes to a different
+conclusion; discovering proofs that the external parts of the earth
+were not all produced in the beginning of things in the state in which
+we now behold them, nor in an instant of time. On the contrary, he can
+show that they have acquired their actual condition and configuration
+gradually and at successive periods, during each of which distinct
+races of living beings have flourished on the land and in the waters;
+the remains of these creatures lying buried in the crust of the
+earth."[140]
+
+2. Having ascertained that the rocks of the earth have thus been
+produced by secondary causes, we next affirm, on the evidence of
+geology, that a distinct order of succession of these deposits can be
+ascertained; and though there are innumerable local variations in the
+nature of the rocks formed at the same period, yet there is, on the
+great scale, a regular sequence of formations over the whole earth.
+This succession is of the greatest importance in the case of aqueous
+rocks, or those formed in water; and it is evident that in the case of
+beds of sand, clay, etc., deposited in this way, the upper must be the
+more recent of any two layers. This simple principle, complicated in
+various ways by the fractures and disturbances to which the beds have
+been subjected, forms the basis of the succession of "formations" in
+geology as deduced from stratigraphical evidence.
+
+3. This regular series of formations would be of little value as a
+history of the earth were it not that nearly all the aqueous rocks
+contain remains of the contemporary animals and plants. Ever since
+the earth began to be tenanted by organized beings, the various
+accumulations formed in the bottoms of seas and at the mouths of
+rivers have entombed remains of marine animals, more especially their
+harder parts, as shells, corals, and bones, and also fragments or
+entire specimens of land animals and plants. Hence, in any rock of
+aqueous formation, we may find fossil remains of the living creatures
+that existed in the waters in which that rock was accumulated or on
+the neighboring land. If in the process of building up the continents,
+the same locality constituted in succession a part of the bottom of
+the ocean, of an inland sea, of an estuary, and a lake, we should find
+in the fossil remains entombed in the deposits of that place evidences
+of these various conditions; and thus a somewhat curious history of
+local changes might be obtained. Geology affords more extensive
+disclosures of this nature. It shows that as we descend into the older
+formations we gradually lose sight of the existing animals and plants,
+and find the remains of others not now existing; and these, in turn,
+themselves disappear, and were preceded by others; so that the whole
+living population of the earth appears to have been several times
+renewed prior to the beginning of the present order of things. This
+seems farther to have occurred in a slow and gradual manner, not by
+successive great cataclysms or clearances of the surface of the earth,
+followed by wholesale renewal. This doctrine of geological uniformity
+is, however, to be understood as limited by the equally certain fact
+that there has been progress and advance, both in the inorganic
+arrangements of the earth's surface and in its organized inhabitants,
+and that there have, in geological as in historical times, been local
+cataclysms and convulsions, as those of earthquakes and volcanoes,
+often on a very extensive scale. Farther, there are good reasons to
+believe that there have been alternations of cold or glacial periods
+and of warm periods, of periods of subsidence and re-elevation, and of
+periods of greater and less activity of certain of the leading agents
+of geological change. But as to the extent of these differences and
+their bearing on the geological history, there is still much
+uncertainty and difference of opinion.[141]
+
+In the sediment _now_ accumulating in the bottom of the waters are
+being buried remains of the existing animals and plants. A geological
+formation is being produced, and it contains the skeletons and other
+solid parts of a vast variety of creatures belonging to all climates,
+and which have lived on land as well as in fresh and salt water. Let
+us now suppose that by a series of changes, sudden or gradual, all the
+present organized beings were swept away, and that, when the earth was
+renewed by the power of the Creator, a new race of intelligent beings
+could explore those parts of the former sea basins that had been
+elevated into land. They would find the remains of multitudes of
+creatures not existing in their time; and by the presence of these
+they could distinguish the deposits of the former period from those
+that belonged to their own. They could also compare these remains with
+the corresponding parts of creatures which were their own
+contemporaries, and could thus infer the circumstances in which they
+had lived, the modes of subsistence for which they had been adapted,
+and the changes in the distribution of land and water and other
+physical conditions which had occurred. This, then, is precisely the
+place which fossil organic remains occupy in modern geology, except
+that our present system of nature rests on the ruins, not of one
+previous system, but of several.
+
+4. By the aid of the superposition of deposits and their organic
+remains, geology can divide the history of the earth into distinct
+periods. These periods are not separated by merely arbitrary
+boundaries, but to some extent mark important eras in the progress of
+our earth; though they usually pass into each other at their confines,
+and the nature of the evidence prevents us from ascertaining the
+precise length of the periods themselves, or the intervals in time
+which may separate the several monuments by which they are
+distinguished. The following table will serve to give an idea of the
+arrangement at present generally received, with some of the more
+important facts in the succession of animal and vegetable life, as
+connected with our present subject. It commences with the oldest
+periods known to geology, and gives in the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms the _first appearance_ of each class, with a few notes of the
+subsequent history of the principal forms. It must, however, be borne
+in mind that farther discoveries may extend some classes farther back
+than we at present know them, and that a more detailed table,
+descending to orders and families, would give a more precise view of
+the succession of life. Farther, the several geological formations
+would admit of much subdivision, and are represented locally by
+various kinds and different thicknesses of sediment.[142]
+
+TABULAR VIEW OF THE SUCCESSION OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND
+ORGANIC REMAINS.
+
+  ====================================================================
+  PERIODS. |    SYSTEMS OF      |   CLASSES OF ANIMALS.   |  PLANTS.
+           |    FORMATIONS.     |                         |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  I.       |Ancient Metamorphic |Eozoon and probably other|Graphite and
+  EOZOIC   |rocks of            | Protozoa.               |Iron Ores
+  PERIOD.  |Scandinavia,        |                         |representing
+           |Canada, etc.        |                         |Vegetable
+           |                    |                         |Matter.
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  II.      |Cambrian.           |_Radiata_--Hydrozoa,     |Algae.
+  PRIMARY  |                    | Echinodermata           |
+  OR       |                    | (Cystideans).           |
+  PALAEOZOIC|                    |_Mollusca_--Brachiopoda, |
+  PERIOD.  |                    | Lamellibranchiata,      |
+           |                    | Gasteropoda, Cephalopoda|
+           |                    | (Bivalve and Univalve   |
+           |                    | Shell-fishes).          |
+           |                    |_Articulata_--Annelida,  |
+           |                    | Crustacea (Worms and    |
+           |                    | Soft Shell-fishes of the|
+           |                    | lower grades).          |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Lower Silurian.     |_Radiata_--Anthozoa      |Algae.
+           |                    | (coral animals),        |
+           |                    | Echinodermata           |
+           |                    | (sea stars, etc.).      |
+           |                    |_Mollusca_--Polyzoa,     |
+           |                    | Tunicata.               |
+           |                    |Other Mollusks and       |
+           |                    | Articulates as before.  |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Upper Silurian.     |Radiates, Mollusks, and  |Acrogenous
+           |                    | Articulates as before.  |Land plants.
+           |                    |_Vertebrata_--First      |
+           |                    | Ganoid and Placoid      |
+           |                    | Fishes.                 |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Erian or Devonian.  |_Articulata_--Insects    |Acrogens
+           |                    | and higher Crustaceans. |and
+           |                    |_Vertebrata_--Fishes,    |Gymnosperms.
+           |                    | Ganoid and Placoid.     |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Carboniferous.      |_Mollusca_--Pulmonata    |Acrogens,
+           |                    | (Land Snails).          |Gymnosperms,
+           |                    |_Articulata_--Myriapods, |Endogens?
+           |                    | Arachnidans (Gallyworms,|
+           |                    | Spiders and Scorpions). |
+           |                    |_Vertebrata_--Batrachians|
+           |                    | or Amphibians prevalent.|
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Permian.            |_Vertebrata_--Lacertian  |
+           |                    | or Lizard-like          |
+           |                    | Reptiles.               |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  III.     |Triassic.           |_Vertebrata_--Higher     |
+  SECONDARY|                    |  Reptiles prevalent;    |
+  OR       |                    |  Marsupial Mammals.     |
+  MESOZOIC |                    |                         |
+  PERIOD.  |Jurassic.           |_Vertebrata_--Great      |Endogenous
+           |                    |  prevalence of higher   |trees.
+           |                    |  Reptiles; Fishes,      |
+           |                    |  homocerque; Earliest   |
+           |                    |  Birds.                 |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Cretaceous.         |_Vertebrata_--Decadence  |Angiospermous
+           |                    | of reign of Reptiles;   |Exogens.
+           |                    | Ordinary  Bony Fishes.  |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  IV.      |Eocene.             |_Vertebrata_--Mammals    |Exogens
+  TERTIARY |                    |  prevalent, especially  |prevalent.
+  OR       |                    |  Pachyderms; Cycloid    |
+  CAINOZOIC|                    |  and Ctenoid Fishes     |
+  PERIOD.  |                    |  prevalent.             |
+           |                    |First _living_           |Some Modern
+           |                    |  Invertebrates.         |Species
+           |                    |                         |appear.
+           |Miocene.            |Living Invertebrates more|
+           |                    |  numerous.              |
+           |                    |                         |
+           |Pliocene.           |Living Invertebrates     |
+           |                    |  still  more numerous.  |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  V.       |Post-Pliocene.      |First living Mammals.    |Existing
+  POST-    |                    |Living Invertebrates     |vegetation.
+  TERTIARY |                    |  prevalent.             |
+  OR       |                    |                         |
+  MODERN   |Post-Glacial        |Man and living Mammals.  |
+  PERIOD.  |and Recent.         |                         |
+  ====================================================================
+
+
+The oldest fossil remains known are the Protozoa of the Laurentian
+rocks. In the succeeding Cambrian or Primordial rocks we find many
+extinct species of zoophytes, shell-fish, and crustaceans, and the
+algae or sea-weeds. In the Palaeozoic period as a whole, though numerous
+Batrachian or Amphibian reptiles existed toward its close, the higher
+orders of fishes seem to have been the dominant tribe of animals; and
+vegetation was nearly limited to cryptogams and gymnosperms. In the
+Mesozoic period, though small mammalia had been created, large
+terrestrial and marine reptiles were the ruling race, and fishes
+occupied a subordinate position; while, at the close, the higher
+orders of plants took a prominent place. In the Tertiary and Modern
+eras, the mammalia, with man, have assumed the highest or dominant
+position in nature.
+
+On this series of groups, and the succession of living beings, Sir. C.
+Lyell remarks "It is not pretended that the principal sections called
+Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary are of equivalent importance, or that
+the subordinate groups comprise monuments relating to equal portions
+of time or of the earth's history. But we can assert that they each
+relate to successive periods, during which certain animals and plants,
+for the most part peculiar to their respective eras, flourished, and
+during which different kinds of sediment were deposited."
+
+We have already, in previous chapters, noticed the parallelism of the
+succession of life in the earth as revealed in Genesis with that
+disclosed by geology; but this subject must be farther referred to in
+the sequel, and in the mean time the reader may compare for himself
+the succession of life in the table with that in the later creative
+days.
+
+5. The lapse of time embraced in the geological history of the earth
+is enormous. Fully to appreciate this it is necessary to study the
+science in detail, and to explore its phenomena as disclosed in actual
+nature. A few facts, however, out of hundreds which might have been
+selected, will suffice to indicate the state of the case. The delta
+and alluvial plain of the Mississippi have an area of more than 12,000
+square miles, and must have an average depth of about 800 feet. At the
+present rate of conveyance of sediment by the river, it has been
+calculated that a period of about 33,000 years is implied in the
+deposition of this comparatively modern formation.[143] To be quite
+safe, let us take 30,000 years, and add 50,000 more for the remainder
+of the Post-pliocene or Quaternary. We may then safely multiply this
+number by forty, for the length of the Tertiary period. We may add
+three times as much for the Mesozoic period, and this will be far
+under the truth. It will then be quite safe to assume that the
+Palaeozoic period was three times as long as the Mesozoic and Tertiary
+together. This would give altogether, say, 51,280,000 years for the
+whole of geological time from the beginning of the Palaeozoic, leaving
+the duration of the Eozoic and previous periods undetermined, but
+requiring perhaps nearly as much time. Great though these demands may
+seem, they would be probably far below the rigid requirements of the
+case were it not for the probability that the present rate of
+transference of material by the great river is less than it was in
+Post-pliocene and early modern times. This might enable us to reduce
+our estimate considerably within the scope of a hundred millions of
+years.[144] Take another illustration from an older formation. An
+excellent coast section at the Joggins, in Nova Scotia, exhibits in
+the coal formation proper a series of beds with erect trunks and roots
+of trees _in situ_, amounting to nearly 100. About 100 forests have
+successively grown, partially decayed, and been entombed in muddy and
+sandy sediment. In the same section, including in all about 14,000
+feet of beds, there are 76 seams of coal, each of which can be proved
+to have taken more time for its accumulation than that required for
+the growth of a forest. Supposing all these separate fossil soils and
+coals to have been formed with the greatest possible rapidity, forty
+thousand years would be a very moderate calculation for this portion
+of the Carboniferous system; and for aught that we know thousands of
+years may be represented by a single fossil soil. But this is the age
+of only one member of the Carboniferous system, itself only a member
+of the great Palaeozoic group, and we have made no allowance for the
+abrasion from previous rocks and deposition of the immense mass of
+sandy and muddy sediment in which the coals and forests are imbedded,
+and which is vastly greater than the deltas of the largest modern
+rivers.
+
+Considerations of a physical rather than of a geological nature also
+give us long periods for the probable existence of the earth, though
+they serve to correct somewhat the extravagant estimates of some
+theorists. Croll has based an interesting calculation on the amount of
+erosion of the land by rivers. That of the Mississippi amounts to one
+foot in 6000 years. That of the Ganges gives one foot in 2358 years,
+the average being, say, one foot in 4179 years. Some smaller rivers
+give a much shorter time; but the average of two great rivers, one
+draining a very large area of the western and another of the eastern
+hemisphere, and in very different climates and geographical
+conditions, will probably be the most reliable datum. Croll, however,
+prefers the Mississippi rate.[145] If we estimate the proportion of
+land to water as 576 to 1390, this will give for the entire area of
+the ocean a rate of deposition of one foot in 14,400 years. Now the
+entire thickness of all the stratified rocks is estimated at 72,000
+feet; and at this rate the enormous time of 1,036,800,000 years would
+be necessary. But we have no right to assume that deposition has been
+going on uniformly over the entire sea-bottom. On the contrary, the
+greater part of it takes place within a belt of about one hundred
+miles from the coasts, and the deposit of calcareous and other matters
+over the remainder will scarcely make up for the portions of this belt
+on which no deposit is taking place. This will give an area of deposit
+of about 11,650,000 square miles, consequently only one twelfth of the
+above time, or about 86,400,000 years, would be required. This can be
+but a very rough calculation; but it has the merit of squaring very
+nearly with the calculations derived from physical considerations,
+more especially by Sir William Thomson, which limit the possible
+existence of the earth's solid crust to one hundred millions of years.
+Similar conclusions have also been deduced from what is known of the
+physical constitution of the sun. Croll's own ingenious theory of
+glacial periods produced by the varying eccentricity of the earth's
+orbit, along with the precession of the equinoxes, would give,
+according to him, about 80,000 years ago for the date of the Glacial
+period, and for the beginning of the Tertiary period about 3,000,000
+years ago.
+
+It would thus appear that physical and geological science conspire in
+assigning a great antiquity to the earth, but not an unlimited
+antiquity. They agree in restricting the ages that have elapsed since
+the introduction of life within one hundred millions of years. I
+confess, however, that a consideration of the fact that all our
+geological measures of erosion and deposition seem to be based on
+cases which refer to what may be termed minimum action leads me to
+believe that the actual time will fall very far within this limit. For
+example, if we were to suppose an elevation of the land drained by the
+Mississippi even to a small amount, its cutting power would be vastly
+increased for a long time. The same effect would result from a
+subsidence and re-elevation, or from any cause increasing the amount
+of rainfall or deposition of snows in winter. Now we know that such
+things have occurred in the past, while we have no reason to believe
+that the amount of action was ever much less than at present. Similar
+considerations apply to nearly all our geological measures of time;
+and there has been a tendency to exaggerate these, as if geologists
+were entitled to demand unlimited time, and to stretch the doctrine of
+uniformity to the utmost.
+
+6. During the whole time referred to by geology, the great laws both
+of inorganic and organic nature have been the same as at present. The
+evidence of light and darkness, of sunshine and shower, of summer and
+winter, and of all the known igneous and aqueous causes of change,
+extends back almost, and in some of these cases altogether, to the
+beginning of the Palaeozoic period. In like manner the animals and
+plants of the oldest rocks are constructed on the same physiological
+and anatomical principles with existing tribes, and they can be
+arranged in the same genera, orders, or classes, though specifically
+distinct. The revolutions of the globe have involved no change of the
+general laws of matter; and though it is possible that geology has
+carried us back to the time when the laws that regulate life began to
+operate, it does not show that they were less perfect than now, and it
+indicates no trace of the beginning of the inorganic laws. Geological
+changes have resulted not from the institution of new laws, but from
+new _dispositions_, under existing laws and general arrangements.
+There is every reason to believe that in the inorganic world these
+dispositions have required no new creative interpositions during the
+time to which geology refers, but merely the continued action of the
+properties bestowed on matter when first produced. In the organic
+world the case is different.
+
+7. In the succession of animal and vegetable life we find a constant
+improvement and advance by the introduction of new types of being. We
+have already given a general outline of this advancement of organized
+nature. It has consisted in the introduction, from time to time, of
+new and more highly organized beings, so as at once to increase the
+variety of nature, and to provide for the elevation of the summit of
+the graduated scale of life to higher and higher points. At the same
+time, in each successive period, it has been the law of creation that
+the forms of life then dominant should attain their highest
+development, and should then be succeeded by more advanced types. For
+instance, in the earlier Palaeozoic period we have molluscous animals
+and fishes, then apparently the highest forms of life, appearing with
+a very advanced organization, not surpassed, if even equalled, in
+modern times. In the latter part of the same period, some lower forms
+of vegetable life, now restricted to a comparatively humble place,
+were employed to constitute magnificent forests. In the Mesozoic
+period, again, reptiles attained to their highest point in
+organization and variety of form and employment, while mammalia had as
+yet scarcely appeared.[146]
+
+8. If now we ask in what manner the succession of life on the earth
+has been produced, two apparently opposite hypotheses rise before us.
+The one is that of introduction of new species by creative acts, the
+other that of development of new species by changes of those
+previously existing. In one respect the difference of these views is
+little more than one of expression, for the meaning of the statements
+depends on what we understand by a species and what by a mere varietal
+form, and also on what we understand by creation and what we mean by
+development. Twenty years ago nearly all geologists were believers in
+creation, though it must be admitted without precisely understanding
+what they meant by the term. Now, the great impression produced by
+Darwin's speculations and the prevalence of the evolutionist
+philosophy have produced a leaning in the other direction. More
+recently, however, the absurdities into which the extreme
+evolutionists find themselves driven have produced a reaction; and we
+hope that views consistent with revelation, or at least with Theism,
+will again be in the ascendant, and that present controversies will
+serve to give more precise and definite views than heretofore of the
+relation of nature to God. As illustrations of the opinions prevalent
+before the rise of the development theory, I may quote from Pictet and
+Bronn, two of the most eminent palaeontologists.
+
+Pictet says, in the introduction to his "Traite de Paleontologie:" "It
+seems to me impossible that we should admit, as an explanation of the
+phenomena of successive faunas, the passage of species into one
+another; the limits of such transitions of species, even supposing
+that the lapse of a vast period of time may have given them a
+character of reality much greater than that which the study of
+existing nature leads us to suppose, are still infinitely within those
+differences which distinguish two successive faunas. Lastly, we can
+least of all account by this theory for the appearance of new _types_,
+to explain the introduction of which we must necessarily, in the
+present state of science, recur to the idea of distinct creations
+posterior to the first."
+
+The following are the general conclusions of Bronn, in his elaborate
+and most valuable essay, presented to the French Academy in 1856, as
+summarized in a notice of the work in the Journal of the Geological
+Society:
+
+"1. The first productions of this power in the oldest Neptunian strata
+of the earth consisted of Plants, Zoophytes, Mollusks, Crustaceans,
+and perhaps even Fish; the simultaneous appearance of which,
+therefore, contradicts the assumption that the more perfect organic
+forms arose out of the gradual transformation in time of the more
+imperfect forms.
+
+"2. The same power which produced the first organic forms has
+continued to operate in intensively as well as extensively increasing
+activity during the whole subsequent geological period, up to the
+final appearance of man; but here also can no traces be found of a
+gradual transformation of old species and genera into new; but the new
+have everywhere appeared as new without the co-operation of the
+former.
+
+"3. In the succession of the different forms of plants and animals, a
+certain regular course and plan is perceptible, which is quite
+independent of chance. While all species possess only a limited
+duration, and must sooner or later disappear, they make way for
+subsequent new ones, which not only almost always offer an equivalent,
+in number, organization, and duties to be performed, for those which
+have disappeared, but which are also generally more varied, and
+therefore more perfect, and always maintain an equilibrium with each
+other in their stage of organization, their mode of life, and
+functions. There always exists, therefore, a certain fixed relation
+between the newly arising and the disappearing forms of organic life.
+
+"4. A similar relation necessarily exists between the newly arising
+organic forms and the outward conditions of life which prevailed at
+their first appearance on the earth's surface, or at the place of
+their appearance.
+
+"5. A fixed plan appears to be the basis of the whole series of
+development of organic forms, in so far as man makes his first
+appearance at its close, when he finds every thing prepared that is
+necessary to his own existence and to his progressive development and
+improvement--which would not have been possible had he appeared at a
+former period.
+
+"6. Such a regular progress in carrying out the same plan from the
+beginning to the end of a period of millions of years can only be
+accounted for in one of two ways. Either this course of successive
+development during millions of years has been the regular immediate
+result of the systematic action of a conscious Creator, who on every
+occasion settled and carried out not only the order of appearance,
+formation, organization, and terrestrial object of each of the
+countless numbers of species of plants and animals, but also the
+number of the first individuals, the place of their settlement in
+every instance, although it was in his power to create every thing at
+once--or there existed some natural power hitherto entirely unknown to
+us, which by means of its own laws formed the species of plants and
+animals, and arranged and regulated all those countless individual
+conditions; which power, however, must in this case have stood in the
+most immediate connection with, and in perfect subordination to, those
+powers which caused the gradually progressing perfection of the crust
+of the earth, and the gradual development of the outward conditions of
+life for the constantly increasing numbers and higher classes of
+organic forms in consequence of this perfection. Only in this way can
+we explain how the development of the organic world could have
+regularly kept pace with that of the inorganic. Such a power, although
+we know it not, would not only be in perfect accordance with all the
+other functions of nature, but the Creator, who regulated the
+development of organic nature by means of such a force so implanted in
+it, as he guides that of the inorganic world by the mere co-operation
+of attraction and affinity, must appear to us more exalted and
+imposing than if we assumed that he must always be giving the same
+care to the introduction and change of the vegetable and animal world
+on the surface of the earth as a gardener daily bestows on each
+individual plant in the arrangement of his garden.
+
+"7. We therefore believe that all species of plants and animals were
+originally produced by some natural power unknown to us, and not by
+transformation from a few original forms, and that that power was in
+the closest and most necessary connection with those powers and
+circumstances which effected the perfection of the earth's surface."
+
+Barrande also, probably the greatest living palaeontologist of Europe,
+adheres substantially to these views; as Agassiz did, and I believe
+Hall and Dana still do, in America.
+
+I have, for my own part, seen no reason to dissent from these views,
+though in the sequel I shall endeavor to present some considerations
+which may tend to reconcile with them some of the hypotheses of a
+contrary nature now held. It must be admitted, however, that the
+majority of geologists and biologists have abandoned these views of
+Pictet and Bronn, and have gone over to the evolutionist philosophy,
+with how little reason I have endeavored to show elsewhere,[147] and
+shall farther illustrate in the Appendix. Let it be observed, however,
+that even evolution does not affect the grand idea of the unity of
+nature, or the fact that the plan of the Creator in the organic world
+was so vast that it required the whole duration of our planet, in all
+its stages of physical existence, to embrace the whole. There is but
+one system of organic nature; but, to exhibit the whole of it, not
+only all the climates and conditions now existing are required, but
+those also of all past geological periods. Further, the progress of
+nature being mainly in the direction of differentiation of functions
+once combined, it has a limit backward in the most general forms and
+conditions, and forward in the most specialized. This is the history
+of the individual and probably also of the type, of the world itself
+and of the universe; and for this reason material nature necessarily
+lacks the eternity of its author.
+
+It appears, from the above facts and reasonings, that geology informs
+us--1. That the materials of our existing continents are of secondary
+origin, as distinguished from primitive or coeval with the beginning.
+2. That a chronological order of formation of these rocks can be made
+out. 3. That the fossil remains contained in the rocks constitute a
+chronology of animal and vegetable existence. 4. That the history of
+the earth may be divided in this way into distinct periods, all
+pre-Adamite. 5. That the pre-Adamite periods were of enormous
+duration. 6. That during these periods the existing general laws of
+nature were in force, though the dispositions of inorganic nature were
+different in different periods, and the animals and plants of
+successive periods were also different from each other. 7. The
+introduction of new species of animals and of plants, while indicating
+advance in the perfection of nature, does not prove spontaneous
+development, but rather a definite plan and law of creation.
+
+The parallelism of these conclusions of careful inductive inquiry into
+the structure of the earth's crust, with the results which we have
+already obtained from revelation, may be summed up under the following
+heads:
+
+1. Scripture and Science both testify to the great fact that there was
+a beginning--a time when none of all the parts of the fabric of the
+universe existed; when the Self-Existent was the sole occupant of
+space. The Scriptures announce in plain terms this great truth, and
+thereby rise at once high above atheism, pantheism, and materialism,
+and lay a broad and sure foundation for a pure and spiritual theology.
+Had the pen of inspiration written but the words, "In the beginning
+God created the heavens and the earth," and added no more, these words
+alone would have borne the impress of their heavenly birth, and would,
+if received in faith, have done much for the progress of the human
+mind. These words contain a negation of hero-worship, star-worship,
+animal-worship, and every other form of idolatry. They still more
+emphatically deny atheism and materialism, and point upward from
+nature to its spiritual Creator--the One, the Triune, the Eternal, the
+Self-Existent, the All-Pervading, the Almighty. They call upon us, as
+with a voice of thunder, to bow down before that Awful Being of whom
+it can be said that he created the heavens and the earth. They thus
+embody the whole essence of natural theology, and most appropriately
+stand at the entrance of Holy Scripture, referring us to the works
+which men behold, as the visible manifestation of the attributes of
+the Being whose spiritual nature is unveiled in revelation. Scripture
+thus begins with the announcement of a great ultimate fact, to which
+science conducts us with but slow and timid steps. Yet science, and
+especially geological science, can bear witness to this great truth.
+The materialist, reasoning on the fancied stability of natural things,
+and their inscription within invariable laws, concludes that matter
+must be eternal. No, replies the geologist, certainly not in its
+present form. This is but of recent origin, and was preceded by other
+arrangements. Every existing species can be traced back to a time when
+it was not; so can the existing continents, mountains, and seas. Under
+our processes of investigation the present melts away like a dream,
+and we are landed on the shores of past and unknown worlds. But I
+read, says the objector, that you can see "no evidence of a beginning,
+no prospect of an end." It is true, answers geology; but, in so
+saying, it is not intended that the present state of things had not an
+ascertained beginning, but that there has been a great and, so far as
+we know, unlimited series of changes carried on under the guidance of
+intelligence. These changes we have traced back very far, without
+being able to say that we have reached the first. We can trace back
+man and his contemporaries to their origin, and we can reach the
+points at which still older dynasties of life began to exist. Knowing,
+then, that all these had a beginning, we infer that if others preceded
+them they also had a beginning. But, says another objector, is not the
+present the child of the past? Are not all the creatures that inhabit
+the earth the lineal descendants of creatures of past periods, or may
+not the whole be parts of one continual succession, under the
+operation of an eternal law of development? No, answers geology,
+species are immutable, except within narrow limits, and do not pass
+into each other, in tracing them toward their origin. On the contrary,
+they appear at once in their most perfect state, and continue
+unchanged till they are forced off the stage of existence to give
+place to other creatures. The origin of species is a mystery, and
+belongs to no natural law that has yet been established. Thus, then,
+stands the case at present. Scripture asserts a beginning and a
+creation. Science admits these, as far as the objects with which it is
+conversant extend, and the notions of eternal succession and
+spontaneous development, discountenanced both by theology and science,
+are obliged to take refuge in those misty regions where modern
+philosophical skepticism consorts with the shades of departed
+heathenism.[148]
+
+2. Both records exhibit the progressive character of creation, and in
+much the same aspect. The Almighty might have called into existence,
+by one single momentary act, a world complete in all its parts. From
+both Scripture and geology we know that he has not done so--why we
+need not inquire, though we can see that the process employed was
+that best adapted to show forth the variety of his resources and the
+infinitely varied elements that enter into the perfect whole.
+
+The Scripture history may be viewed as dividing the progress of the
+creation into two great periods, the later of which only is embraced
+in the geological record. The first commences with the original chaos,
+and reaches to the completion of inorganic nature on the fourth day.
+Had we any geological records of the first of these periods, we should
+perceive the evidences of slow mutations, tending to the sorting and
+arrangement of the materials of the earth, and to produce distinct
+light and darkness, sea and land, atmosphere and cloud, out of what
+was originally a mixture of the whole. We should also, according to
+the Scriptural record, find this period interlocking with the next, by
+the intervention of a great vegetable creation, before the final
+adjustment of the earth's relations to the other bodies of our system.
+The second period is that of the creative development of animal life.
+From both records we learn that various ranks or gradations existed
+from the first introduction of animals; but that on the earlier stages
+only certain of the lower forms of animals were present; that these
+soon attained their highest point, and then gradually, on each
+succeeding platform, the variety of nature in its higher--the
+vertebrate--form increased, and the upper margin of animal life
+attained a more and more elevated point, culminating at length in man;
+while certain of the older forms were dropped, as no longer required.
+
+In the oldest fossiliferous rocks next to the Eozoic, which so far
+have afforded only Protozoa--e. g., the Cambrian and Lower
+Silurian--we find the mollusca represented mainly by their highest
+and lowest classes, by allies of the cuttle-fish and nautilus, and by
+the lowest bivalve shell-fishes. The Articulata are represented by the
+highest marine class--the crustaceans--and by the lowest--the worms,
+which have left their marks on some of the lowest fossiliferous beds.
+The Radiata, in like manner, are represented by species of their
+highest class--the starfishes, etc.--and by some of their simpler
+polyp forms. At the very beginning, then, of the fossiliferous series,
+the three lower sub-kingdoms exhibit species of their most elevated
+aquatic classes, though not of the very highest orders in those
+classes. The vertebrated sub-kingdom has, as far as yet known, no
+representative in these lowest beds. In the Upper Silurian series,
+however, we find remains of fishes; and in the succeeding Devonian and
+carboniferous rocks the fishes rise to the highest structures of their
+class; and we find several species of reptiles, representing the next
+of the vertebrated classes in ascending order. Here a very remarkable
+fact meets us. Before the close of the Palaeozoic period the three
+lower sub-kingdoms and the fishes had already attained the highest
+perfection of which their types are capable. Multitudes of new species
+and genera were added subsequently, but none of them rising higher in
+the scale of organization than those which occur in the Palaeozoic
+rocks. Thenceforth the progressive improvement of the animal kingdom
+consisted in the addition, first of the reptile, which attained its
+highest perfection and importance in the Mesozoic period, and then of
+the bird and mammal, which did not attain their highest forms till the
+Modern period. This geological order of animal life, it is scarcely
+necessary to add, agrees perfectly with that sketched by Moses, in
+which the lower types are completed at once, and the progress is
+wholly in the higher.
+
+In the inspired narrative we have already noticed some peculiarities,
+as, for instance, the early appearance of a highly developed flora,
+and the special mention of great reptiles in the work of the fifth
+day, which correspond with the significant fact that high types of
+structure appeared at the very introduction of each new group of
+organized beings--a fact which, more than any other in geology, shows
+that, in the organic department, elevation has always been a strictly
+_creative_ work, and that there is in the constitution of animal
+species no innate tendency to elevation, but that on the contrary we
+should rather suspect a tendency to degeneracy and ultimate
+disappearance, requiring that the fiat of the Creator should after a
+time go out again to "renew the face of the earth." In the natural as
+in the moral world, the only law of progress is the will and the power
+of God. In one sense, however, progress in the organic world has been
+dependent on, though not caused by, progress in the inorganic. We see
+in geology many grounds for believing that each new tribe of animals
+or plants was introduced just as the earth became fitted for it; and
+even in the present world we see that regions composed of the more
+ancient rocks, and not modified by subsequent disturbances, present
+few of the means of support for man and the higher animals; while
+those districts in which various revolutions of the earth have
+accumulated fertile soils or deposited useful minerals are the chief
+seats of civilization and population. In like manner we know that
+those regions which the Bible informs us were the cradle of the human
+race and the seats of the oldest nations are geologically among the
+most recent parts of the existing continents, and were no doubt
+selected by the Creator partly on that account for the birthplace of
+man. We thus find that the Bible and the geologists are agreed not
+only as to the fact and order of progress, but also as to its manner
+and use.
+
+3. Both records agree in affirming that since the beginning there has
+been but one great system of nature. We can imagine it to have been
+otherwise. Our existing nature might have been preceded by a state of
+things having no connection with it. The arrangements of the earth's
+surface might have been altogether different; races of creatures might
+have existed having no affinity with or resemblance to those of the
+present world, and we might have been able to trace no present
+beneficial consequences as flowing from these past states of our
+planet. Had geology made such revelations as these, the consequences
+in relation to natural theology and the credibility of Scripture would
+have been momentous. The Mosaic narrative could scarcely, in that
+case, have been interpreted in such a manner as to accord with
+geological conclusions. The questions would have arisen--Are there
+more creative Powers than one? If one, is He an imperfect or
+capricious being who changes his plans of operation? The divine
+authority of the Scriptures, as well as the unity and perfections of
+God, might thus have been involved in serious doubts. Happily for us,
+there is nothing of this kind in the geological history of the earth;
+as there is manifestly nothing of it in that which is revealed in
+Scripture.
+
+In the Scripture narrative each act of creation prepares for the
+others, and in its consequences extends to them all. The inspired
+writer announces the introduction of each new part of creation, and
+then leaves it without any reference to the various phases which it
+assumed as the work advanced. In the grand general view which he
+takes, the land and seas first made represent those of all the
+following periods. So do the first plants, the first invertebrate
+animals, the first fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals. He thus
+assures us that, however long the periods represented by days of
+creation, the system of nature was one from the beginning. In like
+manner in the geological record each of the successive conditions of
+the earth is related to those which precede and those which follow, as
+part of a series. So also a uniform plan of construction pervades
+organic nature, and uniform laws the inorganic world in all periods.
+We can thus include in one system of natural history all animals and
+plants, fossil as well as recent, and can resolve all inorganic
+changes into the operation of existing laws. The former of these facts
+is in its nature so remarkable as almost to warrant the belief of
+special design. Naturalists had arranged the existing animals and
+plants, without any reference to fossil species, in kingdoms,
+sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, families, and genera. Geological
+research has added a vast number of species not now existing in a
+living state; yet all these fossils can be inserted within the limits
+of recognized groups. We do not require to add a new kingdom,
+sub-kingdom, or class; but, on the contrary, all the fossil genera and
+species go into the existing divisions, in such a manner as to fill
+them up precisely where they are most deficient, thus occupying what
+would otherwise be gaps in the existing system of nature. The
+principal difficulty which they occasion to the zoologist and botanist
+is that, by filling the intervals between genera previously widely
+separated, they give to the whole a degree of continuity which renders
+it more difficult to decide where the boundaries separating the groups
+should be placed.
+
+We also find that the animals and plants of the earlier periods often
+combined in one form powers and properties afterward separated in
+distinct groups; thus in the earlier formations the sauroid fishes
+unite peculiarities afterward divided between the fish and reptiles,
+constituting what Agassiz has called a synthetic type. Again, the
+series of creatures in time accords with the ranks which a study of
+their types of structure induces the naturalist to assign them in his
+system; and also within each of the great sub-kingdoms presents many
+points of accordance with the progress of the embryonic development of
+the individual animal. Nor is this contradictory to the statement that
+the earlier representatives of types are often of high and perfect
+organization, for the progress both in geological time and in the life
+of the individual is so much one of specialization that an immature
+animal often presents points of affinity to higher forms that
+disappear in the adult. In connection with this, earlier organic forms
+often appear to foreshadow and predict others that are to succeed them
+in time, as the winged and marine reptiles of the Mesozoic foreshadow
+the birds and cetaceans. Agassiz has admirably illustrated these links
+of connection between the past and the present in the essay on
+classification prefixed to his "Contributions to the Natural History
+of America." In reference to "prophetic" types, he says: "They appear
+now like a prophecy in those earlier times of an order of things not
+possible with the earlier combinations then prevailing in the animal
+kingdom, but exhibiting in a later period in a striking manner the
+antecedent consideration of every step in the gradation of animals."
+
+4. The periods into which geology divides the history of the earth are
+different from those of Scripture, yet when properly understood there
+is a marked correspondence. Geology refers only to the fifth and sixth
+days of creation, or, at most, to these with parts of the fourth and
+seventh, and it divides this portion of the work into several eras,
+founded on alternations of rock formations and changes in organic
+remains. The nature of geological evidence renders it probable that
+many apparently well-marked breaks in the chain may result merely from
+deficiency in the preserved remains; and consequently that what appear
+to the geologist to be very distinct periods may in reality run
+together. The only natural divisions that Scripture teaches us to look
+for are those between the fifth and sixth days, and those which within
+these days mark the introduction of new animal forms, as, for
+instance, the great reptiles of the fifth day. We have already seen
+that the beginning of the fifth day can be referred almost with
+certainty to the Palaeozoic period. The beginning of the sixth day may
+with nearly equal certainty be referred to that of the Tertiary era.
+The introduction of great reptiles and birds in the fifth day
+synchronizes and corresponds with the beginning of the Mesozoic
+period; and that of man at the close of the sixth day with the
+commencement of the Modern era in geology. These four great
+coincidences are so much more than we could have expected, in records
+so very different in their nature and origin, that we need not pause
+to search for others of a more obscure character. It may be well to
+introduce here a tabular view of this correspondence between the
+geological and Biblical periods, extending it as far as either record
+can carry us, and thus giving a complete general view of the origin
+and history of the world as deduced from revelation and science. In
+comparing this table with that on page 330, it will be observed that
+the latter refers to the last half of the creative week only, the
+earlier half being occupied with physical changes which, however
+probable inferentially, are not within the scope of geological
+observation.
+
+PARALLELISM OF THE SCRIPTURAL COSMOGONY WITH THE ASTRONOMICAL AND
+GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH.
+
+  ====================================================================
+                                    |
+            BIBLICAL AEONS.          |  PERIODS DEDUCED FROM SCIENTIFIC
+                                    |        CONSIDERATIONS.
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  The Beginning.                    |Creation of Matter.
+                                    |
+  _First Day._--Earth mantled by    |Condensation of Planetary Bodies
+   the Vaporous Deep--Production    |  from a nebulous mass--Hypothesis
+   of Light.                        |  of original incandescence.
+                                    |
+  _Second Day._--Earth covered by   |Primitive Universal Ocean, and
+   the Waters--Formation of the     |  establishment of Atmospheric
+   Atmosphere.                      |  equilibrium.
+                                    |
+  _Third Day._--Emergence of Dry    |Elevation of the land which
+   Land--Introduction of            |  furnished the materials of the
+   Vegetation.                      |  oldest rocks--Eozoic Period of
+                                    |  Geology?
+                                    |
+  _Fourth Day._--Completion of the  |Metamorphism of Eozoic rocks and
+   arrangements of the Solar System.|  disturbances preceding the
+                                    |  Cambrian epoch--Present
+                                    |  arrangement of Seasons--Dominion
+                                    |  of "Existing Causes" begins.
+                                    |
+  _Fifth Day._--Invertebrates and   |Palaeozoic Period--Reign of
+   Fishes, and afterward great      |  Invertebrates and Fishes.
+   Reptiles and Birds created.      |Mesozoic Period--Reign of
+                                    |  Reptiles.
+                                    |
+  _Sixth Day._--Introduction of     |Tertiary Period--Reign of Mammals.
+   Mammals--Creation of Man and     |Post-Tertiary--Existing Mammals
+   Edenic Group of Animals.         |  and Man.
+                                    |
+  _Seventh Day._--Cessation of Work |Period of Human History.
+   of Creation--Fall and Redemption |
+   of Man.                          |
+                                    |
+  _Eighth Day._--New Heavens and    |
+   Earth to succeed the Human Epoch |
+   --"The Rest (Sabbath) that       |
+   remains to the People of God."   |
+   [149]                            |
+======================================================================
+
+_Note._--The above table is identical with that published in "Archaia"
+in 1860, and which the author sees no reason now to change.
+
+
+5. In both records the ocean gives birth to the first dry land, and it
+is the sea that is first inhabited, yet both lead at least to the
+suspicion that a state of igneous fluidity preceded the primitive
+universal ocean. In Scripture the original prevalence of the ocean is
+distinctly stated, and all geologists are agreed that in the early
+fossiliferous periods the sea must have prevailed much more
+extensively than at present. Scripture also expressly states that the
+waters were the birthplace of the earliest animals, and geology has as
+yet discovered in the whole Silurian series no terrestrial animal,
+though marine creatures are extremely abundant; and though
+air-breathing creatures are found in the later Palaeozoic, they are,
+with the exception of insects, of that semi-amphibious character which
+is proper to alluvial flats and the deltas of rivers. It is true that
+the negative evidence collected by geology does not render it
+altogether impossible that terrestrial animals, even mammals, may have
+existed in the earliest periods; yet there are, as already pointed
+out, some positive indications opposed to this. The Scripture,
+however, commits itself to the statement that the higher land animals
+did not exist so early, though it must be observed that there is
+nothing in the Mosaic narrative adverse to the existence of birds,
+insects, and reptiles in the earlier Palaeozoic periods. I have said
+that the Bible, which informs us of a universal ocean preceding the
+existence of land, also gives indications of a still earlier period of
+igneous fluidity or gaseous expansion. Geology also and astronomy have
+their reasonings and speculations as to the prevalence of such
+conditions. Here, however, both records become dim and obscure, though
+it is evident that both point in the same direction, and combine those
+aqueous and igneous origins which in the last century afforded so
+fertile ground of one-sided dispute.
+
+6. Both records concur in maintaining what is usually termed the
+doctrine of existing causes in geology. Scripture and geology alike
+show that since the beginning of the fifth day, or Palaeozoic period,
+the inorganic world has continued under the dominion of the same
+causes that now regulate its changes and processes. The sacred
+narrative gives no hint of any creative interposition in this
+department after the fourth day; and geology assures us that all the
+rocks with which it is acquainted have been produced by the same
+causes that are now throwing down detritus in the bottom of the
+waters, or bringing up volcanic products from the interior of the
+earth. This grand generalization, therefore, first worked out in
+modern times by Sir Charles Lyell, from a laborious collection of the
+changes occurring in the present state of the world, was, as a
+doctrine of divine revelation, announced more than three thousand
+years ago by the Hebrew lawgiver; not for scientific purposes, but as
+a part of the theology of the Hebrew monotheism.
+
+7. Both records agree in assuring us that death prevailed in the world
+ever since animals were introduced. The punishment threatened to Adam,
+and considerations connected with man's state of innocence, have led
+to the belief that the Bible teaches that the lower animals, as well
+as man, were exempt from death before the fall. When, however, we find
+the great _tanninim_, or crocodilian reptiles, created in the fifth
+day, and beasts of prey on the sixth, we need entertain no doubt on
+the subject, in so far as Scripture is concerned. The geological
+record is equally explicit. Carnivorous creatures, with the most
+formidable powers of destruction, have left their remains in all parts
+of the geological series; and indeed, up to the introduction of man,
+the carnivorous fishes, reptiles, and quadrupeds were the lords and
+tyrants of the earth. There can be little doubt, however, that the
+introduction of man was the beginning of a change in this respect. A
+creature destitute of offensive weapons, and subsisting on fruits, was
+to rule by the power of intellect. As already hinted, it is probable
+that in Eden he was surrounded by a group of inoffensive animals, and
+that those creatures which he had cause to dread would have
+disappeared as he extended his dominion. In this way the law of
+violent death and destruction which prevailed under the dynasties of
+the fish, the reptile, and the carnivorous mammifer would ultimately
+have been abrogated; and under the milder sway of man life and peace
+would have reigned in a manner to which our knowledge of pre-Adamite
+and present nature may afford no adequate key. Be this as it may, on
+the important point of the original prevalence of death among the
+lower animals both records are at one.
+
+8. In the department of "final causes," as they have been termed,
+Scripture and geology unite in affording large and interesting views.
+They illustrate the procedure of the All-wise Creator during a long
+succession of ages, and thus enable us to see the effects of any of
+his laws, not only at one time, but in far distant periods. To reject
+the consideration of this peculiarity of geological science would be
+the extremest folly, and would involve at once a misinterpretation of
+the geologic record and a denial of the agency of an intelligent
+Designer as revealed in Scripture, and indicated by the succession of
+beings. Many of the past changes of the earth acquire their full
+significance only when taken in connection with the present wants of
+the earth's inhabitants; and along the whole course of the geological
+history the creatures that we meet with are equally rich in the
+evidences of nice adaptation to circumstances and wonderful
+contrivances for special ends, with their modern representatives. As
+an example of the former, how wonderful is the connection of the
+great vegetable accumulations of the ancient coal swamps, and the
+bands and nodules of iron-stone which were separated from the
+ferruginous sands or clays in their vicinity by the action of this
+very vegetable matter, with the whole fabric of modern civilization,
+and especially with the prosperity of that race which, in our time,
+stands in the front of the world's progress. In a very ancient period,
+wide swamps and deltas, teeming with vegetable life, and which, if
+they now existed, would be but pestilent breeders of miasmata, spread
+over large tracts of the northern hemisphere, on which marine animals
+had previously accumulated thick sheets of limestone. Vast beds of
+vegetable matter were collected by growth in these swamps, and the
+waste particles that passed off in the form of organic acids were
+employed in concentrating the oxide of iron in underlying clays and
+sands. In the lapse of ages the whole of these accumulations were
+buried deep in the crust of the earth; and long periods succeeded,
+when the earth was tenanted by reptilian and other creatures,
+unconscious of the treasures beneath them. The modern period arrived.
+The equable climate of the coal era had passed away. Continents were
+prepared for the residence of man, and the edges of the old
+carboniferous beds were exposed by subterranean movements, and laid
+bare by denudation. Man was introduced, fell from his state of
+innocence, and was condemned to earn his subsistence by the sweat of
+his brow; and now for the first time appears the use of these buried
+coal swamps. They now afford at once the materials of improvement in
+the arts and of comfortable subsistence in extreme climates, and
+subjects of surpassing interest to the naturalist. Similar instances
+may be gleaned by the natural theologian from nearly every part of the
+geological history.
+
+Lastly. Both records represent man as the last of God's works, and the
+culminating-point of the whole creation. We have already had occasion
+to refer to this as a result of zoology, geology, and Scriptural
+exegesis, and may here confine ourselves to the moral consequences of
+this great truth. Man is the capital of the column; and, if marred and
+defaced by moral evil, the symmetry of the whole is to be restored,
+not by rejecting him altogether, like the extinct species of the
+ancient world, and replacing him by another, but by re-casting him in
+the image of his Divine Redeemer. Man, though recently introduced, is
+to exist eternally. He is, in one or another state of being, to be
+witness of all future changes of the earth. He has before him the
+option of being one with his Maker, and sharing in a future glorious
+and finally renovated condition of our planet, or of sinking into
+endless degradation. Such is the great spiritual drama of man's fate
+to be acted out on the theatre of the world. Every human being must
+play his part in it, and the present must decide what that part shall
+be. The Bible bases these great foreshadowings of the future on its
+own peculiar evidence; yet I may venture humbly to maintain that its
+harmony with natural science, as far as the latter can ascend, gives
+to the Word of God a pre-eminent claim on the attention of the
+naturalist. The Bible, unlike every other system of religious
+doctrine, fears no investigation or discussion. It courts these.
+"While science," says a modern divine,[150] "is fatal to superstition,
+it is fortification to a Scriptural faith. The Bible is the bravest of
+books. Coming from God, and conscious of nothing but God's truth, it
+awaits the progress of knowledge with calm security. It watches the
+antiquary ransacking among classic ruins, and rejoices in every medal
+he discovers and every inscription he deciphers; for from that rusty
+coin or corroded marble it expects nothing but confirmations of its
+own veracity. In the unlocking of an Egyptian hieroglyphic or the
+unearthing of some implement it hails the resurrection of so many
+witnesses; and with sparkling elation it follows the botanist as he
+scales Mount Lebanon, or the zoologist as he makes acquaintance with
+the beasts of the Syrian desert; or the traveller as he stumbles on a
+long-lost Petra or Nineveh or Babylon. And from the march of time it
+fears no evil, but calmly abides the fulfilment of those prophecies
+and the forthcoming of those events with whose predicted story
+inspiration has already inscribed its page. It is not light but
+darkness which the Bible deprecates; and if men of piety were also men
+of science, and if men of science were to search the Scriptures, there
+would be more faith in the earth, and also more philosophy."
+
+The reader has, I trust, found in the preceding pages sufficient
+evidence that the Bible has nothing to dread from the revelations of
+geology, but much to hope in the way of elucidation of its meaning and
+confirmation of its truth. If convinced of this, I trust that he will
+allow me now to ask for the warnings, promises, and predictions of the
+Book of God his entire confidence; and, in conclusion, to direct his
+attention to the glorious prospects which it holds forth to the human
+race, and to every individual of it who, in humility and
+self-renunciation, casts himself in faith on that Divine Redeemer who
+is at once the creator of the heavens and the earth, and the brother
+and the friend of the penitent and the contrite. That same old book,
+which carries back our view to those ancient conditions of our planet
+which preceded not only the creation of man, but the earliest periods
+of which science has cognizance, likewise carries our minds forward
+into the farthest depths of futurity, and shows that all present
+things must pass away. It reveals to us a new heaven and a new earth,
+which are to replace those now existing; when the Eternal Son of God,
+the manifestation of the Father equally in creation and redemption,
+shall come forth conquering and to conquer, and shall sweep away into
+utter extinction all the blood-stained tyrannies of the present earth,
+even as he has swept away the brute dynasties of the pre-Adamite
+world, and shall establish a reign of peace, of love, and of holiness
+that shall never pass away: when the purified sons of Adam, rejoicing
+in immortal youth and happiness, shall be able to look back with
+enlarged understandings and grateful hearts on the whole history of
+creation and redemption, and shall join their angelic brethren in the
+final and more ecstatic repetition of that hymn of praise with which
+the heavenly hosts greeted the birth of our planet. May God in his
+mercy grant that he who writes and they who read may "stand in their
+lot at the end of the days" and enjoy the full fruition of these
+glorious prospects.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+A.--TRUE AND FALSE EVOLUTION.
+
+The term "evolution" need not in itself be a bugbear on theological
+grounds. The Bible writers would, I presume, have no objection to it
+if understood to mean the development of the plans of the Creator in
+nature. That kind of evolution to which they would object, and to
+which enlightened reason also objects, is the spontaneous evolution of
+nothing into atoms and force, and of these into all the wonderful and
+complicated plan of nature, without any guiding mind. Farther,
+biological and palaeontological science, as well as the Bible, object
+to the derivation of living things from dead matter by merely natural
+means, because this can not be proved to be possible, and to the
+production of the series of organic forms found as fossils in the
+rocks of the earth by the process of struggle for existence and
+survival of the fittest, because this does not suffice to account for
+the complex phenomena presented by this succession. With reference to
+the testimony of palaeontology, I have in other publications developed
+this very fully; and would here merely quote the summing up of the
+argument, as given in my Address of 1875 before the American
+Association for the Advancement of Science:
+
+"I have thus far said nothing of the bearing of the prevalent ideas of
+descent with modification on this wonderful procession of life. None
+of these of course can be expected to take us back to the origin of
+living beings; but they also fail to explain why so vast numbers of
+highly organized species struggle into existence simultaneously in one
+age and disappear in another; why no continuous chain of succession in
+time can be found gradually blending species into each other; and why
+in the natural succession of things degradation under the influence of
+external conditions and final extinction seem to be laws of organic
+existence. It is useless here to appeal to the imperfection of the
+record or to the movements or migrations of species. The record is now
+in many important parts too complete, and the simultaneousness of the
+entrance of the faunas and floras too certainly established, and
+moving species from place to place only evades the difficulty. The
+truth is that such hypotheses are at present premature, and that we
+require to have larger collections of facts. Independently of this,
+however, it appears to me that from a philosophical point of view it
+is extremely probable that all theories of evolution as at present
+applied to life are fundamentally defective in being too partial in
+their character; and perhaps I can not better group the remainder of
+the facts to which I wish to refer than by using them to illustrate
+this feature of most of the later attempts at generalization on this
+subject.
+
+"First, then, these hypotheses are too partial in their tendency to
+refer numerous and complex phenomena to one cause, or to a few causes
+only, when all trustworthy analogy would indicate that they must
+result from many concurrent forces and determinations of force. We
+have all no doubt read those ingenious, not to say amusing,
+speculations in which some entomologists and botanists have indulged
+with reference to the mutual relations of flowers and haustellate
+insects. Geologically the facts oblige us to begin with cryptogamous
+plants and mandibulate insects, and out of the desire of insects for
+non-existent honey, and the adaptations of plants to the requirements
+of non-existent suctorial apparatus, we have to evolve the marvellous
+complexity of floral form and coloring, and the exquisitely delicate
+apparatus of the mouths of haustellate insects. Now when it is borne
+in mind that this theory implies a mental confusion on our part
+precisely similar to that which in the department of mechanics
+actuates the seekers for perpetual motion, that we have not the
+smallest tittle of evidence that the changes required have actually
+occurred in any one case, and that the thousands of other structures
+and relations of the plant and the insect have to be worked out by a
+series of concurrent evolutions so complex and absolutely incalculable
+in the aggregate that the cycles and epicycles of the Ptolemaic
+astronomy were child's play in comparison, we need not wonder that the
+common-sense of mankind revolts against such fancies, and that we are
+accused of attempting to construct the universe by methods that would
+baffle Omnipotence itself, because they are simply absurd. In this
+aspect of them indeed such speculations are necessarily futile,
+because no mind can grasp all the complexities of even any one case,
+and it is useless to follow out an imaginary line of development which
+unexplained facts must contradict at every step. This is also no doubt
+the reason why all recent attempts at constructing 'Phylogenies' are
+so changeable, and why no two experts can agree about the details of
+any of them.
+
+"A second aspect in which such speculations are too partial is in the
+unwarranted use which they make of analogy. It is not unusual to find
+such analogies as that between the embryonic development of the
+individual animal and the succession of animals in geological time
+placed on a level with that reasoning from analogy by which geologists
+apply modern causes to explain geological formations. No claim could
+be more unfounded. When the geologist studies ancient limestones built
+up of the remains of corals, and then applies the phenomena of modern
+coral reefs to explain their origin, he brings the latter to bear on
+the former by an analogy which includes not merely the apparent
+results, but the causes at work, and the conditions of their action,
+and it is on this that the validity of his comparison depends, in so
+far as it relates to similarity of mode of formation. But when we
+compare the development of an animal from an embryo cell with the
+progress of animals in time, though we have a curious analogy as to
+the steps of the process, the conditions and causes at work are known
+to be altogether dissimilar, and therefore we have no evidence
+whatever as to identity of cause, and our reasoning becomes at once
+the most transparent of fallacies. Farther, we have no right here to
+overlook the fact that the conditions of the embryo are determined by
+those of a previous adult, and that no sooner does this hereditary
+potentiality produce a new adult animal than the terrible external
+agencies of the physical world, in presence of which all life exists,
+begin to tell on the organism, and after a struggle of longer or
+shorter duration it succumbs to death, and its substance returns into
+inorganic nature--a law from which even the longer life of the species
+does not seem to exempt it. All this is so plain and manifest that it
+is extraordinary that evolutionists will continue to use such partial
+and imperfect arguments. Another example may be taken from that
+application of the doctrine of natural selection to explain the
+introduction of species in geological time, which is so elaborately
+discussed by Sir C. Lyell in the last edition of his 'Principles of
+Geology.' The great geologist evidently leans strongly to the theory,
+and claims for it the 'highest degree of probability;' yet he
+perceives that there is a serious gap in it, since no modern fact has
+ever proved the origin of a new species by modification. Such a gap,
+if it existed in those grand analogies by which we explain geological
+formations through modern causes, would be admitted to be fatal.
+
+"A third illustration of the partial character of these hypotheses may
+be taken from the use made of the theory deduced from modern physical
+discoveries, that life must be merely a product of the continuous
+operation of physical laws. The assumption, for it is nothing more,
+that the phenomena of life are produced merely by some arrangement of
+physical forces, even if it be admitted to be true, gives only a
+partial explanation of the possible origin of life. It does not
+account for the fact that life as a force or combination of forces is
+set in antagonism to all other forces. It does not account for the
+marvellous connection of life with organization. It does not account
+for the determination and arrangement of forces implied in life. A
+very simple illustration may make this plain. If the problem to be
+solved were the origin of the mariner's compass, one might assert that
+it is wholly a physical arrangement both as to matter and force.
+Another might assert that it involves mind and intelligence in
+addition. In some sense both would be right. The properties of
+magnetic force and of iron or steel are purely physical, and it might
+even be within the bounds of possibility that somewhere in the
+universe a mass of natural loadstone may have been so balanced as to
+swing in harmony with the earth's magnetism. Yet we would surely be
+regarded as very credulous if we could be induced to believe that the
+mariner's compass has originated in that way. This argument applies
+with a thousandfold greater force to the origin of life, which
+involves even in its simplest forms so many more adjustments of force
+and so much more complex machinery.
+
+"Fourthly, these hypotheses are partial, inasmuch as they fail to
+account for the vastly varied and correlated interdependencies of
+natural things and forces, and for the unity of plan which pervades
+the whole. These can be explained only by taking into the account
+another element from without. Even when it professes to admit the
+existence of a God, the evolutionist reasoning of our day contents
+itself altogether with the physical or visible universe, and leaves
+entirely out of sight the power of the unseen and spiritual, as if
+this were something with which science has nothing to do, but which
+belongs only to imagination or sentiment. So much has this been the
+case, that when recently a few physicists and naturalists have turned
+to this aspect of the case, they have seemed to be teaching new and
+startling truths, though only reviving some of the oldest and most
+permanent ideas of our race. From the dawn of human thought it has
+been the conclusion alike of philosophers, theologians, and the
+common-sense of mankind that the seen can be explained only by
+reference to the unseen, and that any merely physical theory of the
+world is necessarily partial. This, too, is the position of our sacred
+Scriptures, and is broadly stated in their opening verse; and indeed
+it lies alike at the basis of all true religion and all sound
+philosophy, for it must necessarily be that 'the things that are seen
+are temporal, the things that are unseen eternal.' With reference to
+the primal aggregation of energy in the visible universe, with
+reference to the introduction of life, with reference to the soul of
+man, with reference to the heavenly gifts of genius and prophecy, with
+reference to the introduction of the Saviour himself into the world,
+and with reference to the spiritual gifts and graces of God's
+people--all these spring not from sporadic acts of intervention, but
+from the continuous action of God and the unseen world, and this we
+must never forget is the true ideal of creation in Scripture and in
+sound theology. Only in such exceptional and little influential
+philosophies as that of Democritus, and in the speculations of a few
+men carried off their balance by the brilliant physical discoveries of
+our age, has this necessarily partial and imperfect view been adopted.
+Never, indeed, was its imperfection more clear than in the light of
+modern science.
+
+"Geology, by tracing back all present things to their origin, was the
+first science to establish on a basis of observed facts the necessity
+of a beginning and end of the world. But even physical science now
+teaches us that the visible world is a vast machine for the
+dissipation of energy; that the processes going on in it must have had
+a beginning in time, and that all things tend to a final and helpless
+equilibrium. This necessity implies an unseen power, an invisible
+universe, in which the visible universe must have originated, and to
+which its energy is ever returning. The hiatus between the seen and
+the unseen may be bridged over by the conceptions of atomic vortices
+of force, and by the universal and continuous ether; but whether or
+not, it has become clear that the conception of the unseen as existing
+has become necessary to our belief in the possible existence of the
+physical universe itself, even without taking life into the account.
+
+"It is in the domain of life, however, that this necessity becomes
+most apparent; and it is in the plant that we first clearly perceive a
+visible testimony to that unseen which is the counterpart of the seen.
+Life in the plant opposes the outward rush of force in our system,
+arrests a part of it on its way, fixes it as potential energy, and
+thus, forming a mere eddy, so to speak, in the process of dissipation
+of energy, it accumulates that on which animal life and man himself
+may subsist, and asserts for a time supremacy over the seen and
+temporal on behalf of the unseen and eternal. I say for a time,
+because life is, in the visible universe, as at present constituted,
+but a temporary exception, introduced from that unseen world where it
+is no longer the exception, but the eternal rule. In a still higher
+sense, then, than that in which matter and force testify to a Creator,
+organization and life, whether in the plant, the animal, or man, bear
+the same testimony, and exist as outposts put forth in the succession
+of ages from that higher heaven that surrounds the visible universe.
+In them, too, Almighty power is no doubt conditioned or limited by
+law, yet they bear more distinctly upon them the impress of their
+Maker; and, while all explanations of the physical universe which
+refuse to recognize its spiritual and unseen origin must necessarily
+be partial and in the end incomprehensible, this destiny falls more
+quickly and surely on the attempt to account for life and its
+succession on merely materialistic principles.
+
+"Here again, however, I must remind you that creation, as maintained
+against such materialistic evolution, whether by theology, philosophy,
+or Holy Scripture, is necessarily a continuous, nay, an eternal
+influence, not an intervention of disconnected acts. It is the true
+continuity, which includes and binds together all other continuity.
+
+"It is here that natural science meets with theology, not as an
+antagonist, but as a friend and ally in its time of greatest need; and
+I must here record my belief that neither men of science nor
+theologians have a right to separate what God in Holy Scripture has
+joined together, or to build up a wall between nature and religion,
+and write upon it 'no thoroughfare.' The science that does this must
+be impotent to explain nature, and without hold on the higher
+sentiments of man. The theology that does this must sink into mere
+superstition.
+
+"In conclusion, can we formulate a few of the general laws, or perhaps
+I had better call them general conclusions, respecting life, in which
+all palaeontologists may agree? Perhaps it is not possible to do this
+at present satisfactorily, but the attempt may do no harm. We may,
+then, I think, make the following affirmations:
+
+"1. The existence of life and organization on the earth is not
+eternal, nor even coeval with the beginning of the physical universe,
+but may possibly date from Laurentian or immediately pre-Laurentian
+times.
+
+"2. The introduction of new species of animals and plants has been a
+continuous process, not necessarily in the sense of derivation of one
+species from another, but in the higher sense of the continued
+operation of the cause or causes which introduced life at first. This,
+as already stated, I take to be the true theological or Scriptural as
+well as scientific idea of what we ordinarily and somewhat loosely
+term creation.
+
+"3. Though thus continuous, the process has not been uniform; but
+periods of rapid production of species have alternated with others in
+which many disappeared and few were introduced. This may have been an
+effect of physical cycles reacting on the progress of life.
+
+"4. Species, like individuals, have greater energy and vitality in
+their younger stages, and rapidly assume all their varietal forms, and
+extend themselves as widely as external circumstances will permit.
+Like individuals also, they have their periods of old age and decay,
+though the life of some species has been of enormous duration in
+comparison with that of others; the difference appearing to be
+connected with degrees of adaptation to different conditions of life.
+
+"5. Many allied species, constituting groups of animals and plants,
+have made their appearance at once in various parts of the earth, and
+these groups have obeyed the same laws with the individual and the
+species in culminating rapidly, and then slowly diminishing, though a
+large group once introduced has rarely disappeared altogether.
+
+"6. Groups of species, as genera and orders, do not usually begin with
+their highest or lowest forms, but with intermediate and generalized
+types, and they show a capacity for both elevation and degradation in
+their subsequent history.
+
+"7. The history of life presents a progress from the lower to the
+higher, and from the simpler to the more complex, and from the more
+generalized to the more specialized. In this progress new types are
+introduced and take the place of the older ones, which sink to a
+relatively subordinate place and become thus degraded. But the
+physical and organic changes have been so correlated and adjusted that
+life has not only always maintained its existence, but has been
+enabled to assume more complex forms, and that older forms have been
+made to prepare the way for newer, so that there has been on the whole
+a steady elevation culminating in man himself. Elevation and
+specialization have, however, been secured at the expense of vital
+energy and range of adaptation, until the new element of a rational
+and inventive nature was introduced in the case of man.
+
+"8. In regard to the larger and more distinct types, we can not find
+evidence that they have, in their introduction, been preceded by
+similar forms connecting them with previous groups; but there is
+reason to believe that many supposed representative species in
+successive formations are really only races or varieties.
+
+"9. In so far as we can trace their history, specific types are
+permanent in their characters from their introduction to their
+extinction, and their earlier varietal forms are similar to their
+later ones.
+
+"10. Palaeontology furnishes no direct evidence, perhaps never can
+furnish any, as to the actual transformation of one species into
+another, or as to the actual circumstances of creation of a species,
+but the drift of its testimony is to show that species come in _per
+saltum_, rather than by any slow and gradual process.
+
+"11. The origin and history of life can not, any more than the origin
+and determination of matter and force, be explained on purely material
+grounds, but involve the consideration of power referable to the
+unseen and spiritual world.
+
+"Different minds may state these principles in different ways, but I
+believe that, in so far as palaeontology is concerned, in substance
+they must hold good, at least as steps to higher truths."
+
+
+B.--EVOLUTION AND CREATION BY LAW.
+
+Evolutionist writers have a great horror of what they term
+"intervention." But they should be informed that the idea of a
+planning Creator does not involve intervention in an extraordinary or
+miraculous sense, any more than what we call the ordinary operations
+of nature. It is a common but childish prejudice that every discovery
+of a secondary cause diminishes so much of what is to be referred to
+the agency of God. On the contrary, such discoveries merely aid us in
+comprehending the manner of his action. But when evolutionists, in
+their zeal to get rid of creative intervention, trace all things to
+the interaction of insensate causes, they fall into the absurdity of
+believing in absolute unmitigated chance as the cause of perfect
+order. Evidences of this may be found by the score in Darwin's works
+on the origin of species. I quote, however, from another and usually
+clear thinker, Wallace, in a review of the Duke of Argyll's "Reign of
+Law," which appeared some years ago, but represents very well this
+phase of thought:
+
+"'It is curious,' says the Duke of Argyll, 'to observe the language
+which this most advanced disciple of pure naturalism [Mr. Darwin]
+instinctively uses, when he has to describe the complicated structure
+of this curious order of plants [the Orchids]. Caution in ascribing
+intentions to nature does not seem to occur to him as possible.
+Intention is the one thing which he does see, and which, when he does
+not see, he seeks for diligently until he finds it. He exhausts every
+form of words and of illustration by which intention or mental purpose
+can be described. 'Contrivance'--'curious contrivance'--'beautiful
+contrivance'--these are expressions which occur over and over again.
+Here is one sentence describing the parts of a particular species:
+'the labellum is developed into a long nectary, _in order_ to attract
+lepidoptera, and we shall presently give reason for suspecting that
+the nectar is _purposely_ so lodged that it can be sucked only slowly,
+_in order_ to give time for the curious chemical quality of this
+viscid matter setting hard and dry.'" Many other examples of similar
+expressions are quoted by the duke, who maintains that no explanation
+of these "contrivances" has been or can be given, except on the
+supposition of a personal contriver, specially arranging the details
+of each case, although causing them to be produced by the ordinary
+processes of growth and reproduction.
+
+"Now there is a difficulty in this view of the origin of the structure
+of orchids which the duke does not allude to. The majority of
+flowering plants are fertilized, either without the agency of insects,
+or, when insects are required, without any very important modification
+of the structure of the flower. It is evident, therefore, that flowers
+might have been formed as varied, fantastic, and beautiful as the
+orchids, and yet have been fertilized by insects in the same manner as
+violets or clover or primroses, or a thousand other flowers. The
+strange springs and traps and pitfalls found in the flowers of orchids
+can not be necessary _per se_, since exactly the same end is gained in
+ten thousand other flowers which do not possess them. Is it not, then,
+an extraordinary idea to imagine the Creator of the universe
+_contriving_ the various complicated parts of these flowers as a
+mechanic might contrive an ingenious toy or a difficult puzzle? Is it
+not a more worthy conception that they are some of the results of
+those general laws which were so co-ordinated at the first
+introduction of life upon the earth as to result necessarily in the
+utmost possible development of varied forms?"
+
+A moment's thought is sufficient to show that there is no essential
+difference between the Creator contriving every detail of the
+structure of an orchid and his producing it through some intermediate
+cause, or his commanding it into existence by his almighty word. The
+same mental process, so to speak, of the contriver is implied in
+either case. But there is an immeasurable difference between any of
+those ideas and that of the orchid producing its parts spontaneously
+under the operation of insensate physical law, whatever that may be,
+alone. Again, in the same review, Wallace writes:
+
+"The uncertainty of opinion among naturalists as to which are species
+and which varieties is one of Mr. Darwin's very strong arguments that
+these two names can not belong to things quite distinct in nature and
+origin. The reviewer says that this argument is of no weight, because
+the works of man present exactly the same phenomena, and he instances
+patent inventions, and the excessive difficulty of determining whether
+they are new or old. I accept the analogy, and maintain that it is all
+in favor of Mr. Darwin's views; for are not all inventions of the same
+kind directly affiliated to a common ancestor. Are not improved
+steam-engines or clocks the lineal descendants of some existing
+steam-engine or clock? Is there ever a new creation in art or science
+any more than in nature? Did ever patentee absolutely originate any
+complete and entire invention no portion of which was derived from any
+thing that had been made or described before? It is, therefore, clear
+that the difficulty of distinguishing the various classes of
+inventions which claim to be new is of the same nature as the
+difficulty of distinguishing varieties and species, because neither
+are absolute new creations, but both are alike descendants of
+pre-existing forms, from which and from each other they differ by
+varying and often imperceptible degrees. It appears, then, that
+however plausible this writer's objections may seem, whenever he
+descends from generalities to any specific statement his supposed
+difficulties turn out to be in reality strongly confirmatory of Mr.
+Darwin's view."
+
+Now that improved steam-engines are lineal descendants of other
+steam-engines is absolute nonsense, in any other aspect than that the
+structure of one suggested the structure of another to a contriving
+mind. We need not affirm this of God; but we may affirm that the plans
+of the creative mind constitute the true link of connection between
+the different states and developments of inorganic and organic
+objects. This is the real meaning of creation by law, as distinguished
+from mere chance on the one hand, and arbitrary and capricious
+intervention on the other. Both of these extremes are equally
+illogical; and it can not be too frequently repeated that divine
+revelation avoids both by maintaining with equal firmness the agency
+of the Creator, and that agency not capricious, but according to plan
+and purpose; embracing not merely the action of the divine mind
+itself, but under it of all the forces and material things created.
+
+
+C.--MODES OF CREATION.
+
+A question often asked, but not easily answered, with reference to the
+creation of animals and plants, is--What was its precise method, and
+to what extent is such intervention conceivable. This is, it is true,
+not a properly scientific question, since science can not inform us of
+the act of creation. Nor is it properly a theological one, since
+revelation appeals to our faith in the facts, without giving us much
+information as to the mode. It can, therefore, be answered only
+conjecturally, except in so far as the law or plan of creation can be
+inferred from what is known, either from science or revelation, as to
+the history of life.
+
+We may, in the first place, assume that law or plan must characterize
+creation. The Scriptural idea of it is not reconcilable with the
+supposition of a series of arbitrary acts any more than the scientific
+idea. The nature of these laws, as disclosed by Palaeontology, has been
+already considered in a preceding part of this Appendix. What we may
+conjecture as to the nature of the creative act itself, from a
+comparison of nature and revelation, may be summed up as follows:
+
+1. If we reduce organized beings to their ultimate organisms--cells or
+plastids--and with Spencer and Haeckel suppose these to be farther
+divisible into still smaller particles or plastidules, each composed
+of several complex particles of albumen or protoplasm, we may suppose
+the primary act of creation to consist in the aggregation of molecules
+of albuminous matter into such plastidules bearing the same relations,
+as "manufactured articles," to the future cell that inorganic
+molecules bear to crystals, and possessing within themselves the
+potencies of organic forms. This is the nearest approach that we can
+make to the primary creative act, and its scientific basis is merely
+hypothetical, while revelation gives us no intimation as to any such
+constitution of organized matter.
+
+2. The formulae in Genesis, "Let the land produce," and "Let the waters
+produce," imply some sort of mediate creation through the agency of
+the land and the waters, but of what sort we have no means of knowing.
+They include, however, the idea of the origin of the lower and humbler
+forms of life from material pre-existing in inorganic nature, and also
+the idea of the previous preparation of the land and the waters for
+the sustenance of the creatures produced.
+
+3. The expression in the case of man--"out of the dust"--would seem to
+intimate that the human body was constituted of merely elementary
+matter, without any previous preparation in organic forms. It may,
+however, be intended merely to inform us that, while the spirit is in
+the image of God, the bodily frame is "of the earth earthy," and in no
+respect different in general nature from that of the inferior animals.
+
+4. The Bible indicates some ways in which creatures may be modified or
+changed into new species, or may give rise to new forms of life. The
+human body is, we are told, capable of transformation into a new or
+spiritual body, different in many important respects, and the future
+general prevalence of this change is an article of religious faith.
+The Bible represents the woman as produced from the man by a species
+of fission, not known to us as a natural possibility, except in some
+of the lower forms of life. The birth of the Saviour is represented as
+having been by parthenogenesis, and if it had pleased God that Jesus
+was to remain on earth as the progenitor of a new and higher type of
+man to replace that now existing, this might be regarded as the
+introduction of a new species. To what extent the Creator may have so
+acted on the constitution of organized beings as to produce changes of
+this kind we have no means of knowing; but if he have done so, we may
+be sure that it has been in accordance with some definite plan or law.
+
+5. We have a right to infer from Scripture that there must be some
+creative law which provides for the introduction of species, _de
+novo_, from unorganized matter, and which has been or is called into
+action by conditions as yet altogether unknown to us, and as yet
+inimitable, and therefore in some sense miraculous. Whether we shall
+ever by scientific investigation discover the law of this kind of
+divine intervention it is impossible to say. That all the theories of
+spontaneous generation and derivation hitherto promulgated are but
+wild guesses at it is but too evident.
+
+6. Since in inorganic nature we meet with such ultimate facts as atoms
+of different kinds and with different properties; and ether of
+non-atomic constitution, all of which seem to be necessary to the
+existence of the world as it is, we may expect in like manner to find
+at the basis of organic structures and phenomena varied kinds of
+ultimate organisms and forces, probably much more complicated than
+those of inorganic nature. The broad simplicity of existing theories
+of derivation and evolution is thus in itself a presumption against
+their truth, except as very partial explanations.
+
+7. We have no right to consider the species "after their kinds" of
+revelation as coincident with the species recognized by science. Many
+of these may be merely races, the production of which in the course of
+time and in special circumstances may fall within the powers of
+created species, and which may merely be the phases of such species in
+time and place. Only the accumulation of vast additional stores of
+facts can enable us to have any certain opinion on this point, and
+till it is settled the doctrine of derivation must remain purely
+hypothetical.
+
+8. The inference of evolutionists that because certain forms of life
+succeed each other in geological time, they must have been derived
+from each other, has an aspect of truth and simplicity; but the idea
+of law or plan in creation suggests that the link of connection may be
+of a less direct nature than mere descent with modification. This has
+been referred to under a previous head.
+
+9. In the scheme of revelation all the successions and changes of
+organized beings, just as much as their introduction at first, belong
+to the will and plan of God. Revelation opposes no obstacle to any
+scientific investigation of the nature and method of this plan, nor
+does it contemplate the idea that any discoveries of this kind in any
+way isolate the Creator from his works. Farther, inasmuch as God is
+always present in all his works, one part of his procedure can
+scarcely be considered an "intervention" any more than another.
+
+10. As an illustration of the hypothetical condition of this subject,
+and of the views which may be taken as to its details, I quote from a
+memoir of my own certain conclusions with reference to the origin of
+the species of land plants which are found in the older geological
+formations. The conclusions stated are at the end of a detailed
+consideration of these plants and the circumstances of their
+occurrence:
+
+"(1.) Some of the forms reckoned as specific in the Devonian and
+Carboniferous formations may be really derivative races. There are
+indications that such races may have originated in one or more of the
+following ways: (_a_) By a natural tendency in synthetic types to
+become specialized in the direction of one or other of their
+constituent elements. In this way such plants as _Arthrostigma_ and
+_Psilophyton_ may have assumed new varietal forms. (_b_) By embryonic
+retardation or acceleration,[151] whereby certain species may have had
+their maturity advanced or postponed, thus giving them various grades
+of perfection in reproduction and complexity of structure. The fact
+that so many Erian and Carboniferous plants seem to be on the confines
+of the groups of Acrogens and Gymnosperms may be supposed favorable
+to such exchanges. (_c_) The contraction and breaking up of floras
+which occurred in the Middle Erian and Lower Carboniferous may have
+been eminently favorable to the production of such varietal forms as
+would result from what has been called the 'struggle for existence.'
+(_d_) The elevation of a great expanse of new land at the close of the
+Middle Erian and the beginning of the Coal period would, by permitting
+the extension of series over wide areas and fertile soils, and by
+removing the pressure previously existing, be eminently favorable to
+the production of new, and especially of improved, varieties.
+
+"(2.) Whatever importance we may attach to the above supposed causes
+of change, we still require to account for the origin of our specific
+types. This may forever elude our observation, but we may at least
+hope to ascertain the external conditions favorable to their
+production. In order to attain even to this it will be necessary to
+inquire critically, with reference to every acknowledged species, what
+its claims to distinctness are, so that we may be enabled to
+distinguish specific types from mere varieties. Having attained to
+some certainty in this, we may be prepared to inquire whether the
+conditions favorable to the appearance of new varieties were also
+those favorable to the creation of new types, or the reverse--whether
+these conditions were those of compression or expansion, or to what
+extent the appearance of new types may be independent of any external
+conditions, other than those absolutely necessary for their existence.
+I am not without hope that the further study of fossil plants may
+enable us thus to approach to a comprehension of the laws of the
+creation, as distinguished from those of the continued existence of
+species.
+
+"In the present state of our knowledge we have no good ground either
+to limit the number of specific types beyond what a fair study of our
+material may warrant, or to infer that such primitive types must
+necessarily have been of low grade, or that progress in varietal forms
+has always been upward. The occurrence of such an advanced and
+specialized type as that of _Syringoxylon_ in the Middle Devonian
+should guard us against these errors. The creative process may have
+been applicable to the highest as well as to the lowest forms, and
+subsequent deviations must have included degradation as well as
+elevation. I can conceive nothing more unreasonable than the statement
+sometimes made that it is illogical or even absurd to suppose that
+highly organized beings could have been produced except by derivation
+from previously existing organisms. This is begging the whole question
+at issue, depriving science of a noble department of inquiry on which
+it has as yet barely entered, and anticipating by unwarranted
+assertions conclusions which may perhaps suddenly dawn upon us through
+the inspiration of some great intellect, or may for generations to
+come baffle the united exertions of all the earnest promoters of
+natural science. Our present attitude should not be that of
+dogmatists, but that of patient workers content to labor for a harvest
+of grand generalizations which may not come till we have passed away,
+but which, if we are earnest and true to nature and its Creator, may
+reward even some of us."[152]
+
+
+D.--PRESENT CONDITION OF THEORIES OF LIFE.
+
+One of the most learned and ingenious essays on this subject recently
+published[153] states on its first page that all the varieties of
+opinion may be summed up under two heads:
+
+"1. Those which require the addition to ordinary matter of an
+immaterial or spiritual essence, substance, or power, general or
+local, whose presence is the efficient cause of life; and,
+
+"2. Those which attribute the phenomena of life solely to the mode of
+combination of the ordinary material elements of which the organism is
+composed, without the addition of any such immaterial essence, power,
+or force."
+
+It is quite true that physiologists have up to this time argued out
+these two alternatives, and that at present the second is probably the
+more prevalent. It is however also true that neither includes or can
+possibly include the whole truth, and that enlightened theism may
+enable us to hold both, or all that is true in either. Undoubtedly we
+must hold that a higher spiritual power or Creator is necessary to the
+existence of life; but then this is necessary also to the existence of
+dead matter and force. So that if physiologists think proper to trace
+the whole phenomena of life to material causes, they do not on that
+account in any way invalidate the evidence for a spiritual Creator,
+nor for a spiritual element in the higher nature of man. Yet so
+inconceivably shallow is much of the biological reasoning of the day,
+that it is quite common to find physiologists referring all life to
+spontaneous and uncaused material agencies, because they have
+concluded that the arrangements of matter and force are sufficient to
+explain it; and, on the other hand, to find theistic writers accusing
+physiology of materialism, if it finds the causes of vital phenomena
+in material forces, as if God could be present only in those processes
+which we can not understand.
+
+What we really know as to the material basis of life may be summed up
+in a few words. Chemically, life is based on compounds of the
+albuminous group. These are highly complex in a molecular point of
+view, and seem to be formed in nature only where certain structures,
+those of the vegetable cell, exist under certain conditions. These
+albuminous substances do not necessarily possess vital properties.
+They may exist in a dead state just as other substances. Under certain
+conditions, however, those of forming part of a so-called living
+organism, they present phenomena of mechanical movement and molecular
+change, and of transformation or transmission of force, which enable
+them to transform themselves into various kinds of tissues, to nourish
+these when formed, and to establish a consensus of action between
+different parts of the organism; and these properties are vastly
+varied in detail according to the kind of organism in which they take
+place, and the conditions under which the organism exists. The
+actually living matter presents no distinct structure recognizable by
+the microscope, and can not be distinguished chemically from ordinary
+albumen or protoplasm; but when living it must either exist in some
+peculiar and complex molecular arrangement unknown as yet to chemistry
+and physics, or must be actuated by some force or form of force called
+vital, and not as yet isolated or reduced to known laws or
+correlation. It does not concern theism or theology which of these may
+eventually prove to be the true view, or if it should be found, which
+is quite possible, that there is no real difference between them. In
+any case it is certain that in the lower animals, and in the merely
+physiological properties of man himself, living matter may act
+independently of any higher spiritual nature in the individual, though
+of course not independently of the higher power of God, which gave
+matter its properties and sustains them in their action. It is farther
+certain that in man the spiritual nature dominates and controls the
+vital, except when under abnormal conditions the latter unduly gains
+the mastery, and quenches altogether the spirit. In the language of
+the Bible, the merely vital endowments of the man belong to the flesh
+([Greek: sarx]), and to the rational mind or soul ([Greek: psyche]).
+The higher nature which man derives directly from God is the spirit
+([Greek: pneuma]). Either of these parts of the complex humanity is
+capable of life ([Greek: zoe]) and of immortality. Either of them is
+capable of being in a state of death, though the import of this
+differs in its application to each. In Genesis, the body is composed
+of the ordinary earth-materials--the "dust of the ground." The higher
+nature is seen in the "shadow and likeness of God," and in the
+inbreathing of the Divine Spirit whereby man became a "living soul" in
+a higher sense than that in which the animals possess the ordinary
+"breath of life." With these views agree the later doctrines of the
+Bible as to the "trichotomy" of "body, soul, and spirit" in man, and
+of the added influence of the Spirit of God as acting on humanity.
+
+
+E.--RECENT FACTS AS TO THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+Several recent statements as to new facts supposed to prove a
+preglacial antiquity for our species have been promulgated in
+scientific journals; but so great doubt rests upon them that they do
+not invalidate the statement that the earliest human remains belong to
+the postglacial age. I may refer to the following:
+
+A very remarkable discovery was made in 1875 by Professor Rutimeyer,
+of Basle. In a brown coal deposit of Tertiary, or at least of
+"interglacial" age--whatever that may mean in Switzerland--he found
+some fragments of wood so interlaced as to resemble wattle or
+basket-work. Steenstrup has, however, re-examined the evidence, and
+adduces strong reasons for the conclusion that the alleged human
+workmanship is really that of beavers.
+
+The Swedish geologists have shown that there is no properly
+Palaeolithic age in Scandinavia, and that even the reindeer had
+probably disappeared from Denmark and Sweden before their occupation
+by man. Some facts, however, seemed to indicate a residence of man in
+Sweden before the great post-pliocene subsidence. One of the most
+important of these is the celebrated hut of Sodertelge, referred to in
+this connection by Lyell. Recent observations have, however, shown
+that this hut was really covered by a landslip, and that its age may
+not be greater than eight centuries. Torel has recently explained this
+in the Proceedings of the Archaeological Congress of Stockholm.
+
+The human bone found in the Victoria Cave at Settle, apparently under
+a patch of boulder-clay, has been regarded as a good evidence of the
+preglacial origin of man. It has, however, always appeared to readers
+of the description as a very doubtful case; and Professor Hughes, of
+Cambridge, has recently expressed the opinion that the drift covering
+the bone may be merely a "pocket" of that material disengaged from a
+cavity in the limestone by the wearing of the cliff.
+
+The same geologist has also shown reason to believe that the supposed
+case of the occurrence of palaeolithic implements under boulder-clay
+near Brandon, discovered by Mr. Skertchley, and paraded by Geikie as a
+demonstration of the "interglacial" antiquity of man, in accordance
+with his system of successive glacial periods, is really an error, and
+has no foundation in the facts of the case.
+
+Mr. Pengelly has endeavored to maintain the value of the deposit of
+stalagmite as a means of establishing dates, in his "Notes of Recent
+Notices of the Geology of Devonshire," Part I., 1874; but, I confess,
+with little success. He urges, in opposition to the Ingleborough Cave,
+that at Cheddar, where, according to him, no appreciable deposit
+whatever is taking place on the existing stalagmite. But this, of
+course, is evidence not applicable to the case in hand, as in the
+Cheddar case no stalagmite crust whatever would be produced. There
+are, no doubt, crevices and caves in which old stalagmite is even
+being removed or diminished in thickness. He farther asserts that in
+Kent's Cave teeth of the cave bear and other extinct animals are found
+covered by not more than an inch and a half of stalagmite, and
+consequently that if this were deposited at the rate of a quarter of
+an inch per annum--the supposed rate on the "Jockey Cap" at
+Ingleborough--these animals must have lived in Devonshire only six
+years ago, which is, of course, absurd. But he fails to perceive that
+this mode of occurrence is quite intelligible on the supposition of a
+rapid decrease in the amount of deposition in the later part of the
+stalagmite period. He farther refers to the fact that the thicker
+masses of stalagmite, which correspond to the places of more active
+drip of water, are in the same position in both crusts of stalagmite.
+This shows that the sources of water containing bicarbonate of lime
+have been the same from the first; but it proves nothing as to the
+rate of deposit.
+
+Mr. Pengelly's own estimate of the rate of deposit gives, however, a
+length of time which is sufficient to show that there must be error
+somewhere in his calculations. He states the aggregate thickness of
+the two crusts at twelve feet, and then, assuming a rate of deposit of
+0.05 inch in 250 years, or one inch in 5000 years, he arrives at the
+conclusion that the whole deposit required 720,000 years for its
+formation. He is "willing to suppose" the mechanical deposits to have
+accumulated more rapidly; but allowing one fourth of the time for
+them, we have nearly a million of years claimed for the residence of
+man in Devonshire, which, independently of other considerations, would
+push back the Palaeozoic trilobites and corals of that county into the
+primitive reign of fire, and which in point of fact amounts to a
+_reductio ad absurdum_ of the whole argument.
+
+Professor Hughes[154] refers, as a case of rapid deposition of matter
+akin to stalagmite, to the deposit of travertine in the old Roman
+aqueduct of the Pont du Gard, near Avignon, where a thickness of
+fourteen inches seems to have accumulated in about 800 years. Mr. J.
+Carey has given in _Nature_, December 18, 1873, another instance where
+a deposit 0.75 inch thick was formed in fifteen years in a lead mine
+in Durham. Mr. W. B. Clarke in the same journal gives a case where in
+a cave at Brixton, known as Poole's Hole, a deposit one eighth of an
+inch in thickness was formed in six months. Such examples show how
+unsafe it is to reason as to the rate of deposit in by-gone times, and
+when climatal and local conditions may have been very different from
+those at present subsisting.
+
+In an able address before the biological section of the British
+Association in 1876, Wallace adduces the following considerations as
+bearing on these questions; and these are well worthy of attention as
+showing that it is the necessities of evolution rather than of
+geological facts that demand the assumption of a great antiquity for
+man, and induce so many writers to accept any evidence for this,
+however doubtful: (1) The great cerebral development of the so-called
+Palaeolithic men, which shows no indications of graduating into
+inferior races. (2) The great variety of the implements of these
+ancient men, and the excellence of their carvings on bone and ivory,
+point to a similar conclusion. (3) Man is not related to any existing
+species of ape, but in various ways to several different species. (4)
+There is an accumulation of evidence to show that the earliest
+historical races excelled in many processes in the arts and in many
+kinds of culture. He instances the wonderful mechanical and
+engineering skill evidenced in the pyramids of Egypt in proof of this.
+His conclusion is either that the origin of man by development from
+apes must be pushed much farther back than any geologists at present
+hold, and I may add far beyond any probable date, or that he must have
+originated by some "distinct and higher agency"--which last is no
+doubt the true conclusion.
+
+Haeckel, in his recent work, the "History of Creation," sketches the
+development of man from a monad, in twenty-two stages; but he has to
+admit that stage twenty-first, or that of the "Ape-like man," nowhere
+exists, either recent or fossil. He has to assume that this missing
+link has perished in the submergence of an imaginary continent of
+Lemuria, in the Indian Ocean; and it is instructive to observe that,
+after deducting this, his affiliation of the races of men, as
+indicated in a map of the distribution of the species, is in the main
+very similar to that with which we are familiar in ordinary
+collections of maps illustrative of the Bible.
+
+The Post-glacial, Palaeocosmic, or Palaeolithic men of Europe are not
+improbably antediluvian; and as to their precise date we know little.
+As to postdiluvian man, Canon Rawlinson has recently pointed out[155]
+the remarkable convergence of all historic dates toward a time between
+2000 to 3000 years B.C., or about the date of the Biblical deluge,
+which may reasonably be inferred to have occurred about 3200 B.C. He
+gives the following summary of historical origins as ascertained from
+the best data, and which accord with the representation of the Bible
+that in the time of Abraham the great monarchies of Egypt and the East
+were scarcely more powerful than the nomad tribe led by that
+patriarch:
+
+  Oldest date of Babylon       2300 B.C.
+    "     "      Assyria       1500
+    "     "      Iran          1500
+    "     "      India         1200
+    "     "      China         1154
+    "     "      Phoenicia   1700
+    "     "      Troad         2000
+    "     "      Egypt         2760
+  Sept. date of Deluge         3200
+
+He rejects, of course, the fabulous chronologies of Egypt, China, and
+India as mythical, or referring to prehuman and antediluvian periods.
+It is to be observed that while these dates place the origins of the
+oldest civilized nations at periods considerably subsequent to the
+deluge, they do not prevent us from supposing that these nations
+commenced their existence wills an advanced civilization borrowed from
+antediluvian times, which is indeed a fair conclusion from the
+Biblical history, independently of the monumental evidence referred to
+by Wallace in a previous paragraph.
+
+The Duke of Argyll, in his excellent little work "Primeval Man," in
+which he discusses the arguments in favor of primitive savagery
+advanced by Sir J. Lubbock in opposition to the views of Archbishop
+Whately in his lecture on the "Origin of Civilization," shows that
+there is no necessity to suppose a slow progress of mankind in the
+arts extending over indefinite ages; and his argument in this respect
+connects itself with the facts as to the high cerebral organization of
+Palaeocosmic men referred to above by Wallace. In summing up one
+division of his argument, he truly remarks: "If we assume with the
+supporters of the savage-theory that man has himself invented all that
+he now knows, then the very earliest inventions of our race must have
+been the most wonderful of all, and the richest in the fruits they
+bore. The man who first discovered the use of fire, and the use of
+those grasses which we now know under the name of corn, were
+discoverers compared with whom, as regards the value of their ideas to
+the world, Faraday and Wheatstone are but the inventors of ingenious
+toys. It may possibly be true, as Whately argues, that man never could
+have discovered these things without divine instruction. If so, it is
+fatal to the savage theory. But it is equally fatal to that theory if
+we assume the opposite position, and suppose that the noblest
+discoveries ever made by man were made by him in primeval times."
+
+I may add that this is true, however far into antiquity we may stretch
+back these primeval times.
+
+Professor E. S. Morse, in his address to the American Association, in
+1876, as vice-president, takes as a theme the contributions of
+American zoologists to theories of evolution, and closes with those
+which refer to what he modestly terms "man's lowly origin." These
+contributions he sums up under three heads, as bearing on the
+following points: "1. That in his earlier stages he reveals certain
+persistent characters of the ape; 2. That the more ancient men reveal
+more ape-like features than the present existing men; and, 3. That
+certain characteristics pertaining to early men still persist in the
+inferior races of men." Under the first head he gives contributions to
+the well-known fact that embryonic stages of the human being, like
+those of other high types, approximate to forms permanent in lower
+types. This is a fact inseparable from the law of reproduction; and as
+has been already shown in the text, absolutely without logical
+significance as even an analogical argument in favor of evolution.
+Under the second and third heads, he refers to cases of exceptional
+skulls and bones belonging to idiots and degraded races of men, as
+showing tendencies to lower forms, which as a matter of course they
+do, though with essential differences still marking them as human; and
+he assumes without any proof that these were relatively more common in
+primitive times, and that they are cases of reversion to a previous
+simian stage, instead of being results of abnormal conditions in the
+individual or variety. He sums up these arguments in the following
+paragraph:
+
+"If we take into account the rapidly accumulating data of European
+naturalists concerning primitive man, with the mass of evidence
+presented in these notes, we find an array of facts which irresistibly
+point to a common origin with animals directly below us, and these
+evidences are found in the massive skulls with coarse ridges for
+muscular attachments, the rounding of the base of the nostrils, the
+early ossification of the nasal bones, the small cranial capacity in
+certain forms, the prominence of the frontal crest, the posterior
+position of the _foramen magnum_, the approximation of the temporal
+ridges, the lateral flattening of the tibia, the perforation of the
+humerus, the tendency of the pelvis to depart from its usual
+proportions; and, associated with all these, a rudeness of culture and
+the evidence of the manifestation of the coarsest instincts. He must
+be blind, indeed, who can not recognize the bearing of such grave and
+suggestive modifications."
+
+Yet Professor Morse knows that there is no true specific or even
+generic kinship between man and any species of ape; that the phenomena
+of idiocy and degeneracy have no real resemblance to those of distinct
+specific types; that the resemblances of man to apes, such as they
+are, point not in a direct manner to any stock of apes, but in a
+desultory way to several; and consequently that, if derived from any
+such animals, it must be from some stock altogether unknown to us as
+yet, either among recent or fossil animals. Farther, as Cope, himself
+an evolutionist, admits, while we can trace the skeletons of Eocene
+mammals through several directions of specialization in succeeding
+Tertiary times, man presents the phenomenon of an unspecialized
+skeleton which can not fairly be connected with any of these lines.
+Lastly, his quotation from Fiske, with reference to the supposed
+effect of a protracted infancy to develop the moral characteristics of
+man, though accompanied with the usual unfair and unreasonable sneer
+(which a naturalist like Morse should have been ashamed to quote)
+against men "still capable of believing that the human race was
+created by miracle in a single day," is the feeblest possible attempt
+to bridge over the gap between the spiritual nature of man and the
+merely psychical nature of brutes.
+
+It is plain that if American naturalists have done nothing more in
+favor of the lowly origin of man than that which Professor Morse has
+been able, evidently with much industry and pains, to gather, we need
+not for the present abandon our claims to a higher origin. It is
+farther significant in connection with this that Professor Huxley, in
+his lectures in New York, while resting his case as to the lower
+animals mainly on the supposed genealogy of the horse, which has often
+been shown to amount to no certain evidence,[156] avoided altogether
+the discussion of the origin of man from apes, now obviously
+complicated with so many difficulties that both Wallace and Mivart
+are staggered by them. Professor Thomas, in his recent lectures,[157]
+admits that there is no lower man known than the Australian, and that
+there is no known link of connection with the monkeys; and
+Haeckel[158] has to admit that the penultimate link in his phylogeny,
+the ape-like man, is absolutely unknown.
+
+In Chapter XIII. I have not touched on the question of the absolute
+origin of language--this not being necessary to my argument. On this
+interesting subject, however, we have, in the naming of the animals by
+the first man, recorded in the second chapter of Genesis, not only the
+primary truth of his superiority to them, but a farther indication
+that the roots of human speech, other than interjectional, lie in
+onomatopoeia, and especially in the voices of animals, and that the
+gift of speech was not the slow growth of ages, but an endowment of
+man from the first, just as much as any of his other powers or
+properties. An interesting discussion of this subject will be found in
+the concluding chapters of Wilson's "Prehistoric Man," second edition.
+Farther, the so-called "tallies" found with the bones of Palaeocosmic
+men in European caves, and illustrated in the admirable work of
+Christy and Lartet, show that the rudiments even of writing were
+already in possession of the oldest race of men known to archaeology or
+geology. (See Wilson, _op. cit._, vol. ii., p. 54.)
+
+I have not noticed, except incidentally, the alleged discoveries of
+very ancient human remains in America, as they all appear very
+problematical. There is, however, some evidence of the coexistence of
+man with the mastodon and other postglacial animals in Illinois and
+elsewhere.
+
+
+F.--BEARING OF GLACIAL PERIODS UPON THE INTERPRETATION OF
+GENESIS.
+
+Whatever views may be taken as to that period of cold which occurs at
+the close of the Tertiary and beginning of the Modern period, it can
+not be held to have constituted any such break as to be considered, as
+it was at one time, an equivalent for the Biblical chaos. This is
+proved by the survival through this period of a very large proportion
+of the animals and plants still existing in the northern hemisphere.
+The chronological system of animals and plants has been continuous, as
+the Bible represents it, since their first appearance on earth.
+
+It is further remarkable that while there is geological evidence of
+climates colder than the present in the temperate regions, there is
+equally good proof of warmer climates even within the arctic circle
+than those of the cold temperate regions at present. It is difficult
+to account for these vicissitudes of climate, and much controversy
+exists on the subject; but it seems certain that in the earlier
+Tertiary and Cretaceous periods, for example, the supplies of heat and
+light were so diffused over the earth as to permit the growth of a
+temperate vegetation in Greenland, and even in Spitzbergen.
+Geologists, however unwillingly, have been obliged to admit this as
+one of those great possibilities, altogether unexpected beforehand,
+which have been developed in the history of our planet. Various modes
+of explaining this succession of cold and warm periods have been
+adopted, all more or less hypothetical. Lyell has argued that it may
+be explained by a different distribution of land and water and of the
+ocean currents. Croll accounts for it by the varying eccentricity of
+the earth's orbit, in connection with the precession of the equinoxes.
+Evans by a shifting of the axis of rotation of the earth. Drayson,
+Bell, Warring, and others, by a change in the inclination of the
+earth's axis. Others by the secular diminution of the internal heat of
+the earth, and of that of the sun. Others by the supposed recurrence
+of periods in which the sun gives more or less heat, or in which the
+earth is passing through colder or warmer regions of space. As the
+subject is of interest with reference to possible correspondences of
+these great summers and winters of the earth with the stages of the
+creative work, it may be well to notice shortly the relative merits of
+these theories.
+
+(1.) The hypothesis of Croll is one of the most ingenious and
+elaborate of the whole; but it has two great defects. One is that the
+causes alleged are so uncertain and so complicated that it is
+difficult to estimate their real value. Another is that it proves too
+much, namely, a regular succession of cold and warm periods throughout
+geological time, of which we have no good evidence, and which is on
+many grounds improbable.
+
+(2.) That the earth's axis of rotation has continued unchanged
+throughout the whole of the geological ages seems proved by the fact
+that the principal lines of crumpling and upheaval from the Laurentian
+period downward are arranged in great circles of the earth tangent to
+the polar circle; and that the lines of deposit of sediment in the
+Palaeozoic age are coincident with the present direction of the arctic
+currents.
+
+(3.) Astronomers consider it improbable that the obliquity of the
+ecliptic has materially changed, and serious differences of opinion
+exist as to the effects which a greater or less obliquity would
+produce on climate. It seems certain, however, that a less obliquity
+would occasion a more uniform distribution of heat and light
+throughout the year; and this, co-operating with other causes leading
+to a warm climate, might enable a temperate vegetation to approach the
+pole more closely than at present.
+
+(4.) That the energy of the sun's radiation and the internal heat of
+the earth have been slowly decreasing seems certain; but it is now
+generally admitted that these changes are so gradual that little
+effect can have been produced by them, except in the older geological
+periods, and that they can have no connection with the great glacial
+period of the Post-pliocene.
+
+(5.) It is otherwise with the hypothesis that the sun's heat may, like
+that of some variable stars, have increased and diminished. There is,
+of course, no direct evidence of this, except the small differences
+observed in cycles of eleven and fifty-five years from the greater or
+less development of sunspots, and the analogy of observed variable
+stars. Still it is a possible cause of variations of climate. It might
+also aid in accounting for the extraordinary evidences of desert
+conditions and desiccation presented by the salt deposits of different
+geological periods in temperate latitudes.
+
+(6.) The theory of the passage of the earth through zones of space of
+variable temperature is now generally abandoned, as there seems no
+reason to believe that such differences exist.
+
+(7.) The theory of Lyell that changes in the distribution of land and
+water may, with the possible co-operation of other causes, have
+produced the observed diversities of climate, is that which seems best
+to meet the conditions presented. It is based on the known properties
+of land and water as to the absorption, radiation, and convection of
+heat, and on the remarkable diversities of climate in similar
+latitudes arising from this cause at present. Farther, it accords with
+the known fact that very great changes of level have occurred in
+connection with the glacial period. This theory undoubtedly embraces a
+true cause, admitted by all geologists, and it dispenses with the
+necessity of believing in the recurrence of glacial periods at regular
+intervals. It farther accords best with the evidence afforded by
+fossils, and especially by fossil plants. It has also the merit of
+directing due attention to the diversities of geographical conditions
+at different periods, and of dealing with causes of change operating
+within the earth itself. The only doubt with respect to it is its
+sufficiency to explain the changes which have occurred, and the view
+entertained of this will depend very much on the interpretation of the
+facts as to the intensity of the last glacial period. If moderate
+views can be taken of this, and if means can be found, by a less
+obliquity of the ecliptic or otherwise, to furnish a continuous supply
+of light in the arctic regions, the difficulties which have been
+alleged against it would disappear.
+
+(8.) In connection with former periods of cold and warmth, and with
+the existence of temperate and tropical vegetation in polar latitudes,
+we should not forget that view which takes into account the probable
+effects of different conditions of the atmosphere, and the greater
+quantity of carbonic acid present in it, in early geological periods.
+This would, of course, best apply to the palaeozoic floras, in so far
+as our present knowledge extends; but there may have been similar
+conditions in later periods. Dr. Sterry Hunt thus states this
+hypothesis:
+
+"The agency of plants in purifying the primitive atmosphere was long
+since pointed out by Brongniart, and our great stores of fossil fuel
+have been derived from the decomposition, by the ancient vegetation,
+of the excess of carbonic acid of the early atmosphere, which through
+this agency was exchanged for oxygen gas. In this connection the
+vegetation of former periods presents the curious phenomenon of plants
+allied to those now growing beneath the tropics flourishing within the
+polar circles. Many ingenious hypotheses have been proposed to account
+for the warmer climate of earlier times, but are at best
+unsatisfactory, and it appears to me that the true solution of the
+problem may be found in the constitution of the early atmosphere, when
+considered in the light of Dr. Tyndall's beautiful researches on
+radiant heat. He has found that the presence of a few hundredths of
+carbonic-acid gas in the atmosphere, while offering almost no obstacle
+to the passage of the solar rays, would suffice to prevent almost
+entirely the loss by radiation of obscure heat, so that the surface of
+the land beneath such an atmosphere would become like a vast
+orchard-house, in which the conditions of climate necessary to a
+luxuriant vegetation would be extended even to the polar regions."
+
+It is obvious that, in the production of complex effects of this kind,
+various causes, whether astronomical or connected with the mutations
+of the earth's crust, may have co-operated, and probably in all
+extreme cases did co-operate.
+
+In any case it is evident that the vicissitudes of climate and the
+great pulsations of the crust, which have raised and depressed
+portions of the surface and changed the position of its covering of
+waters, have been potent agents in the hands of the Creator in
+effecting the changes and succession of living beings, which are thus,
+as Genesis intimates, children of the waters and of the land, and of
+the influences of the heavens. It is also interesting in this
+connection to observe that the occurrence of such periods of general
+warm climate as that in the Miocene shows that it would have been
+possible for man, under certain conditions, to have extended himself
+far more widely in his Edenic state than we can conceive of in the
+present condition of the earth. The modern world is perhaps even in
+this way "cursed" for man's sake.
+
+
+G.--DR. STERRY HUNT ON THE CHEMISTRY OF THE PRIMEVAL EARTH.
+
+On looking back to the reference to this subject in Chapter V., I
+think it may be desirable to present to the reader in some more
+definite manner the conditions of a forming world; and I can not do
+this in any other way so well as by quoting the words of Dr. Sterry
+Hunt, as given in the abstract of his lecture on this subject
+delivered before the Royal Institution of London in 1867:
+
+"This hypothesis of the nature of the sun and of the luminous process
+going on at its surface is the one lately put forward by Faye, and,
+although it has met with opposition, appears to be that which accords
+best with our present knowledge of the chemical and physical
+conditions of matter, such as we must suppose it to exist in the
+condensing gaseous mass which, according to the nebular hypothesis,
+should form the centre of our solar system. Taking this, as we have
+already done, for granted, it matters little whether we imagine the
+different planets to have been successively detached as rings during
+the rotation of the primal mass, as is generally conceived, or whether
+we admit with Chacornac a process of aggregation or concretion,
+operating within the primal nebular mass, resulting in the production
+of sun and planets. In either case we come to the conclusion that our
+earth must at one time have been in an intensely heated gaseous
+condition, such as the sun now presents, self-luminous, and with a
+process of condensation going on at first at the surface only, until
+by cooling it must have reached the point where the gaseous centre
+was exchanged for one of combined and liquefied matter.
+
+"Here commences the chemistry of the earth, to the discussion of which
+the foregoing considerations have been only preliminary. So long as
+the gaseous condition of the earth lasted, we may suppose the whole
+mass to have been homogeneous; but when the temperature became so
+reduced that the existence of chemical compounds at the centre became
+possible, those which were most stable at the elevated temperature
+then prevailing would be first formed. Thus, for example, while
+compounds of oxygen with mercury or even with hydrogen could not
+exist, oxides of silicon, aluminium, calcium, magnesium, and iron
+might be formed and condense in a liquid form at the centre of the
+globe. By progressive cooling, still other elements would be removed
+from the gaseous mass, which would form the atmosphere of the
+non-gaseous nucleus. We may suppose an arrangement of the condensed
+matters at the centre according to their respective specific
+gravities, and thus the fact that the density of the earth as a whole
+is about twice the mean density of the matters which form its solid
+surface may be explained. Metallic or metalloidal compounds of
+elements, grouped differently from any compounds known to us, and far
+more dense, may exist in the centre of the earth.
+
+"The process of combination and cooling having gone on until those
+elements which are not volatile in the heat of our ordinary furnaces
+were condensed into a liquid form, we may here inquire what would be
+the result, upon the mass, of a further reduction of temperature. It
+is generally assumed that in the cooling of a liquid globe of mineral
+matter, congelation would commence at the surface, as in the case of
+water; but water offers an exception to most other liquids, inasmuch
+as it is denser in the liquid than in the solid form. Hence ice floats
+on water, and freezing water becomes covered with a layer of ice,
+which protects the liquid below. With most other matters, however,
+and notably with the various mineral and earthy compounds analogous to
+those which may be supposed to have formed the fiery-fluid earth,
+numerous and careful experiments show that the products of
+solidification are much denser than the liquid mass; so that
+solidification would have commenced at the centre, whose temperature
+would thus be the congealing point of these liquid compounds. The
+important researches of Hopkins and Fairbairn on the influence of
+pressure in augmenting the melting-point of such compounds as contract
+in solidifying are to be considered in this connection.
+
+"It is with the superficial portions of the fused mineral mass of the
+globe that we have now to do; since there is no good reason for
+supposing that the deeply seated portions have intervened in any
+direct manner in the production of the rocks which form the
+superficial crust. This, at the time of its first solidification,
+presented probably an irregular, diversified surface from the result
+of contraction of the congealing mass, which at last formed a liquid
+bath of no great depth surrounding the solid nucleus. It is to the
+composition of this crust that we must direct our attention, since
+therein would be found all the elements (with the exception of such as
+were still in the gaseous form) now met with in the known rocks of the
+earth. This crust is now everywhere buried beneath its own ruins, and
+we can only from chemical considerations attempt to reconstruct it. If
+we consider the conditions through which it has passed, and the
+chemical affinities which must have come into play, we shall see that
+these are just what would now result if the solid land, sea, and air
+were made to react upon each other under the influence of intense
+heat. To the chemist it is at once evident that from this would result
+the conversion of all carbonates, chlorides, and sulphates into
+silicates, and the separation of the carbon, chlorine, and sulphur in
+the form of acid gases, which, with nitrogen, watery vapor, and a
+probable excess of oxygen, would form the dense primeval atmosphere.
+The resulting fused mass would contain all the bases as silicates, and
+must have much resembled in composition certain furnace-slags or
+volcanic glasses. The atmosphere, charged with acid gases, which
+surrounded this primitive rock must have been of immense density.
+Under the pressure of such a high barometric column, condensation
+would take place at a temperature much above the present boiling-point
+of water, and the depressed portions of the half-cooled crust would be
+flooded with a highly heated solution of hydrochloric acid, whose
+action in decomposing the silicates is easily intelligible to the
+chemist. The formation of chlorides of the various bases, and the
+separation of silica, would go on until the affinities of the acid
+were satisfied, and there would be a separation of silica, taking the
+form of quartz, and the production of a sea-water holding in solution,
+besides the chlorides of sodium, calcium, and magnesium, salts of
+aluminium and other metallic bases. The atmosphere, being thus
+deprived of its volatile chlorine and sulphur compounds, would
+approximate to that of our own time, but differ in its greater amount
+of carbonic acid.
+
+"We next enter into the second phase in the action of the atmosphere
+upon the earth's crust. This, unlike the first, which was subaqueous,
+or operative only on the portion covered with the precipitated water,
+is sub-aerial, and consists in the decomposition of the exposed parts
+of the primitive crust under the influence of the carbonic acid and
+moisture of the air, which convert the complex silicates of the crust
+into a silicate of alumina, or clay, while the separated lime,
+magnesia, and alkalies, being converted into carbonates, are carried
+down into the sea in a state of solution.
+
+"The first effect of these dissolved carbonates would be to
+precipitate the dissolved alumina and the heavy metals, after which
+would result a decomposition of the chloride of calcium of the
+sea-water, resulting in the production of carbonate of lime or
+limestone, and chloride of sodium or common salt. This process is one
+still going on at the earth's surface, slowly breaking down and
+destroying the hardest rocks, and, aided by mechanical processes,
+transforming them into clays; although the action, from the
+comparative rarity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, is less
+energetic than in earlier times, when the abundance of this gas, and a
+higher temperature, favored the chemical decomposition of the rocks.
+But now, as then, every clod of clay formed from the decay of a
+crystalline rock corresponded to an equivalent of carbonic acid
+abstracted from the atmosphere, and equivalents of carbonate of lime
+and common salt formed from the chloride of calcium of the
+sea-water."[159]
+
+
+H.--TANNIN AND BHEMAH.
+
+The following synopsis of the instances of the occurrence of the words
+_tannin_ and _tan_ will serve to show the propriety of the meaning,
+"great reptiles," assigned in the text to the former, as well as to
+illustrate the utility in such cases of "comparing Scripture with
+Scripture:"
+
+                            1. TANNIN.
+
+  Exod. vii., 9.--Take thy rod and  Probably a serpent, though perhaps
+  cast it before Pharaoh, and it a  crocodile.
+  shall become a _serpent_.         (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+
+  Deut. xxxii., 33.--Their vine is  Probably a species of serpent.
+  the poison of _dragons_.          (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+
+  Job vii., 12.--Am I a sea, or a   Michaelis and others think,
+  _whale_, that thou settest a      probably correctly, that the Nile
+  watch over me.                    and the crocodile, both objects of
+                                    vigilance to the Egyptians, are
+                                    intended.
+                                    (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+
+  Psa. lxxiv., 14.--Thou didst      Evidently refers to the destruction
+  divide the sea by thy strength.   of the Egyptians in the Red
+  Thou breakest the heads of the    Sea, under emblem of the crocodile.
+  _dragons_ in the waters.          (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+
+  Psa. xci., 13.--The young lion    The association shows that a
+  and the _dragon_ thou shalt       powerful carnivorous animal is
+  trample under foot.               meant.
+                                    (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+
+  Psa. cxlviii., 7.--Praise the     Evidently an aquatic creature.
+  Lord, ye _dragons_ and all deeps. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+
+  Isa. xxvii., 1.--He shall slay    A large predaceous aquatic animal
+  the _dragon_ in the midst of the  (the crocodile), used here as
+  sea [river].                      an emblem of Egypt.
+                                    (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+
+  Isa. li., 9.--Hath cut Rahab and  Same as above.
+  wounded the _dragon_.
+
+  Jer. li., 34.--[Nebuchadnezzar]   A large predaceous animal.
+  hath swallowed me up as a         (Septuagint, [Greek: "drakon."])
+  _dragon_.
+
+  Ezek. xxix., 3.--Pharaoh, king    In the Hebrew _tanim_ appears by
+  of Egypt, the great _dragon_      mistake for _tannin_. This is
+  that lieth in the rivers.         clearly the crocodile of the Nile.
+                                    Verses 4 and 5 show that it is a
+                                    large aquatic animal with _scales_.
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "drakon."])
+
+                            2. TAN.
+
+  Psa. xliv., 19.--Thou hast sore   Some understand this of shipwreck;
+  broken us in the place of         but, more probably, the
+  _dragons_.                        place of dragons is the desert.
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "kakosis."])
+
+  Isa. xxxiv., 13.--[Bozrah in      An animal inhabiting ruins, and
+  Idumea] shall be a habitation of  associated with the ostrich.
+  _dragons_ and a court of owls [or (Septuagint, [Greek: "seiren."])
+  ostriches].
+
+  Isa. xliii., 20.--The wild        Evidently an animal of the dry
+  beasts shall honor me,            deserts.
+  the _dragons_ and the ostriches,  (Septuagint, [Greek: "seiren."])
+  because I give water in the
+  wilderness.
+
+  Isa. xiii., 22.--Dragons in       Represented as inhabiting the
+  their pleasant palaces.           ruins of Babylon, and associated
+                                    with wild beasts of the desert.
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "xchinos."])
+
+  Isa. xxxv., 7.--And the parched   An animal making its lair or nest
+  ground shall become a pool, and   in dry, parched places.
+  the thirsty land springs of       (Septuagint, [Greek: "hornis."])
+  water; in the habitation of
+  _dragons_, where each lay, shall
+  be grass with reeds and rushes.
+
+  Job xxx., 29.--I am a brother of  The association indicates an animal
+  _dragons_ and a companion of      of the desert, and the context
+  ostriches.                        that its cry is mournful.
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "seiren."])
+
+  Jer. ix., 11; x., 22.--I will     Same as above. See also Jeremiah
+  make Jerusalem heaps, a den of    xlix., 33; li., 37; and Mal. i., 3,
+  _dragons_.                        where the word is in the female
+                                    form (_tanoth_).
+                                    (Septuagint, [Greek: "drakon"] and
+                                    [Greek: "strouthos."])
+
+  Lam. iv., 3.--Even the            In the Hebrew text the word is
+  _sea-monsters_ draw out the       _tannin_, evidently an error for
+  breast, they give suck to their   _tanim_. The suckling of young, and
+  young ones. The daughter of my    association of ostriches, agree with
+  people is become cruel, like      this. (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+  the ostriches in the wilderness.
+
+  Micah i., 8.--I will make a       The wailing cry accords with the
+  wailing like the _dragons_, and   view of Gesenius that the jackal is
+  mourning like the owls            meant.
+  [ostriches].                      (Septuagint, "[Greek: drakon].")
+
+We learn from the above comparative view that the _tannin_ is an
+aquatic animal of large size, and predaceous, clothed with scales, and
+a fit emblem of the monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. In two places it
+is possible that some species of serpent is denoted by it. We must
+suppose, therefore, that in Genesis i. it denotes large crocodilian
+and perhaps serpentiform reptiles. The _tan_ is evidently a small
+mammal of the desert.
+
+I omitted to notice in the text a criticism of my explanation of the
+word _bhemah_ in "Archaia," made in Archdeacon Pratt's "Scripture and
+Science not at Variance" (edition of 1872). He opposes to the meaning
+of "herbivorous animals" which I have sought to establish, two
+exceptional passages. In one of these, Deut. xxviii., 26, the word is
+used in its most general sense for all beasts, which the context shows
+can not be its meaning in Gen. i. In the other, Prov. xxx., 30, he
+says it is applied to the lion. The actual expression used, however,
+merely implies that the lion is "mighty among _bhemah_," the
+comparison being probably between the strength of the lion and that of
+oxen, antelopes, and other strong and active creatures. It does not
+affirm that the lion is one of the _bhemah_. While I have every
+respect for the erudition of Archdeacon Pratt, and highly value his
+book, I must regard this objection as an example of a style of
+biblical exposition much to be deprecated, though too often employed.
+
+
+I.--ANCIENT MYTHOLOGIES.
+
+The current views respecting the relations of ancient mythologies with
+each other and with the Bible have been continually shifting and
+oscillating between extremes. The latest and at present most popular
+of these extreme views is that so well expounded by Dr. Max Mueller in
+his various essays on these subjects, and which traces at least the
+Indo-European theogony to a mere personification of natural objects.
+The views given in the text are those which to the author appear alone
+compatible with the Bible, and with the relations of Semitic and Aryan
+theology; but, as the subject is generally regarded from a quite
+different point of view, a little further explanation may be
+necessary.
+
+1. According to the Bible, spiritual monotheism is the primitive faith
+of man, and with this it ranks the doctrine of a malignant spirit or
+being opposed to God, and of a primitive state of perfection and
+happiness. It is scarcely necessary to say that these doctrines may be
+found as sub-strata in all the ancient theologies.
+
+2. In the Hebrew theology the fall introduces the new doctrine of a
+mediator or deliverer, human and divine, and an external symbolism,
+that of the cherubic forms, composite figures made up of parts of the
+man, the lion, the ox, and the eagle. These forms are referred back to
+Eden, where they are manifestly the emblems of the perfections of the
+Deity, lost to man by the fall, and now opposed to his entrance into
+Eden and access to the tree of life, the symbol of his immortal
+happiness. Subsequently the cherubim are the visible indications of
+the presence of God in the tabernacle and temple; and in the
+Apocalypse they reappear as emblems of the Divine perfections, as
+reflected in the character of man redeemed. The cherubim, as guardians
+of the sacred tree, and of sacred places in general, appear in the
+worship of the Assyrians and Egyptians, as the winged lions and bulls
+of the former, and the sphinx of the latter. They can also be
+recognized in the sepulchral monuments of Greek Asia and of Etruria.
+Farther, it was evidently an easy step to proceed from these cherubic
+figures to the adoration of sacred animals. But the cherubic emblems
+were connected with the idea of a coming Redeemer, and this was with
+equal ease perverted into hero-worship. Every great conqueror,
+inventor, or reformer was thus recognized as in some sense the "coming
+man," just as Eve supposed she saw him in her first-born. In addition
+to this, the sacredness of the first mother as the mother of the
+promised seed of the woman, led to the introduction of female deities.
+
+3. The earliest ecclesiastical system was the patriarchal, and this
+also admitted of corruption into idolatry. The great patriarch,
+venerable by age and wisdom, when he left this earth for the spirit
+world, was supposed there, in the presence of God, to be the special
+guardian of his children on earth. Some of the gods of Egypt and of
+Greece were obviously of this character, and in China and Polynesia we
+see at this day this kind of idolatry in a condition of active
+vitality.
+
+4. As stated in the text, the mythology of Egypt and Greece bears
+evident marks of having personified certain cosmological facts akin to
+those of the Hebrew narrative of creation. In this way ancient
+idolators disposed of the prehistoric and pre-Adamite world, changing
+it into a period of gods and demigods. This is very apparent in the
+remarkable Assyrian Genesis recovered by the late George Smith from
+the clay tablets found in the ruined palace of Assurbanipal.
+
+5. In all rude and imaginative nations, which have lost the distinct
+idea of the one God, the Creator, nature becomes more or less a
+source of superstitions. Its grand and more rare phenomena of
+volcanoes, earthquakes, thunder-storms, eclipses, become supernatural
+portents; and as the idea of power associates itself with them, they
+are personified as actual agents and become gods. In like manner, the
+more constant and useful objects and processes of nature become
+personified as beneficent deities. This may be, to a great extent, the
+character of the Aryan theology; but, except where all ideas of
+primitive religion and traditions of early history have been lost, it
+can not be the whole of the religion of any people. The Bible
+negatively recognizes this source of idolatry, in so constantly
+referring all natural phenomena to the divine decree. In connection
+with this, it is worthy of remark that rude man tends to venerate the
+new animal forms of strange lands. Something of this kind has probably
+led some of the American Indians to give a sort of divine honor to the
+bear. It was in Egypt that man first became familiar with the strange
+and gigantic fauna of Africa, whose effect on his mind in primitive
+times we may gather from the book of Job. In Egypt, consequently,
+there must have been a strong natural tendency to the adoration of
+animals.
+
+The above origins of idolatry and mythology, as stated or implied in
+the Bible, of course assume that the Semitic monotheistic religion is
+the primitive one. The first deviations from it probably originated in
+the family of Ham. A city of the Rephaim of Bashan was in the days of
+Abraham named after Ashtoreth Karnaim--the two-horned Astarte, a
+female divinity and prototype of Diana, and perhaps an historic
+personage, in whom both the moon and the domestic ox were rendered
+objects of worship. This is the earliest Bible notice of
+idolatry.[160] In Egypt a mythology of complex diversity existed at
+least as far back. We must remember, however, that Egypt is Cush as
+well as Mizraim, and its idolatry is probably to be traced, in the
+first instance, to the Nimrodic empire, from which, as from a common
+centre, certain new and irreligious ideas seem to have been propagated
+among all the branches of the human family. It is quite probable that
+the correspondences between Egyptian, Greek, and Hindoo myths go back
+as far as to the time when the first despotism was erected on the
+plain of Shinar, and when able but ungodly men set themselves to erect
+new political and social institutions on the ruins of all that their
+fathers had held sacred. In addition to this, the mythology and
+language of the Aryans alike bear the impress of the innovating and
+restless spirit of the sons of Japhet.
+
+I have stated the above propositions to show that the Bible affords a
+rational and connected theory of the origin of the false religions of
+antiquity; and to suggest as inquiries in relation to every form of
+mythology--how much of it is primitive monotheism, how much
+cherub-worship, how much hero-worship, how much ancestor-worship, how
+much distorted cosmogony, how much pure idealism and superstition,
+since all these are usually present. I may be allowed further to
+remind the reader how much evidence we have, even in modern times, of
+the strong tendency of the human mind to fall into one or another of
+these forms of idolatry; and to ask him to reflect that really the
+only effectual conservative element is that of revelation. How strong
+an argument is this for the necessity to man of an inspired rule of
+religious faith.
+
+[The above note was in substance contained in the Appendix to
+"Archaia" in 1860, and its correctness has, I think, been confirmed by
+subsequent discoveries.]
+
+
+K.--ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN TEXTS.
+
+Progress is continually being made in the decipherment and publication
+of these, and new facts are coming to light in consequence as to the
+religions of the early postdiluvian period.
+
+According to the late George Smith and to Mr. Sayce, in their
+contributions to Bagster's "Records of the Past," the earliest
+monumental history of Babylonia reveals two races, the Akkadian or
+Urdu, a Turanian race, with an agglutinate language of the Finnish or
+Tartar type, and the Sumir or Keen-gi, believed to be Shemitic. The
+race of Akkad seems to have invented the cuneiform writing at a very
+early period, and it no doubt represents the primitive Cushites of the
+Bible, to whom is attributed the empire of Nimrod, whose first cities
+were Babel and Erech and Akkad and Calneh. Very ancient inscriptions
+of this early Chaldean or Cushite race exist, probably earlier than
+the time of Abraham. That of king Urukh, who is called "a very ancient
+king," on an inscription of Nabonadius, 555 B.C., represents himself
+as building temples to several gods and goddesses, so that in his time
+there was already a developed polytheism, unless, indeed, he was
+himself the inventor or introducer of much of it. Yet one can gather
+from the probably contemporary Creation and Deluge tablets translated
+by Mr. Smith, that a Supreme God was still recognized, and that the
+subordinate deities, though their worship was probably gaining in
+importance, were still only local and created beings. Yet it was
+undoubtedly from this embryo idolatry that Abraham dissented, and was
+thus led to leave his native land.
+
+In like manner, in the early Egyptian Hymn to Amen Ra, translated by
+Mr. Goodwin, though we have the gods mentioned, they are inferior
+beings, and not higher in position than the angels of the Old
+Testament, while Ra himself is "Lord of Eternity, Maker Everlasting,"
+and is praised as
+
+    "Chief creator of the whole earth,
+    Supporter of affairs above every god,
+    In whose goodness the gods rejoice."
+
+Thus, although there can be little doubt that Ra was a sun-god, there
+can be as little that he is the Il or El of the Shemitic peoples, and
+that his worship represents that of the one God, the Creator. It seems
+probable also that there was an esoteric doctrine of this kind among
+the priests and the educated, however gross the polytheism of the
+vulgar. In short, the state of things in Assyria and Egypt was not
+dissimilar from that prevailing at this day in India, where learned
+men may fall back upon the ancient Vedas, and maintain that their
+religion is monotheistic, while the common people worship innumerable
+gods. All this points to a primitive monotheism, just as the peculiar
+forms of adoration given to saints and the Virgin Mary in the Greek
+and Roman churches historically imply a primitive Christianity on
+which these newer beliefs and rites have been engrafted.
+
+
+L.--SPECIES AND VARIETAL FORMS WITH REFERENCE TO THE UNITY OF
+MAN.
+
+In the concluding chapters of "Archaia" the nature of species, as
+distinguished from varieties, was discussed, and specially applied to
+the varieties and races of man. This discussion has been omitted from
+the text of the present work; but, in an abridged form, is introduced
+here, with especial reference to those more recent views of this
+subject now prevalent in consequence of the growth of the philosophy
+of evolution; but which I feel convinced must, with the progress of
+science, return nearer to the opinions held by me in 1860, and
+summarized below.
+
+We can determine species only by the comparison of individuals. If all
+these agree in all their characters except those appertaining to sex,
+age, and other conditions of the individual merely, we say that they
+belong to the same species. If all species were invariable to this
+extent, there could be no practical difficulty, except that of
+obtaining specimens for comparison. But in the case of very many
+species there are minor differences, not sufficient to establish
+specific diversity, but to suggest its possibility; and in such cases
+there is often great liability to error. In cases of this kind we have
+principally two criteria: first, the nature and amount of the
+differences; secondly, their shading gradually into each other, or the
+contrary. Under the first of these we inquire--Are they no greater in
+amount than those which may be observed in individuals of the same
+parentage? Are they no greater than those which occur in other species
+of similar structure or habits? Do they occur in points known in
+other species to be readily variable, or in points that usually remain
+unchanged? Are none of them constant in the one supposed species, and
+constantly absent in the other? Under the second we ask--Are the
+individuals presenting these differences connected together by others
+showing a series of gradations uniting the extremes by minute degrees
+of difference? If we can answer these questions--or such of them as we
+have the means of answering--in the affirmative, we have no hesitation
+in referring all to the same species. If obliged to answer all or many
+in the negative, we must at least hesitate in the identification; and
+if the material is abundant, and the distinguishing characters clear
+and well defined, we conclude that there is a specific difference.
+
+Species determined in this way must possess certain general properties
+in common:
+
+1. Their individuals must fall within a certain range of uniform
+characters, wider or narrower in the case of different species.
+
+2. The intervals between species must be distinctly marked, and not
+slurred over by intermediate gradations.
+
+3. The specific characters must be invariably transmitted from
+generation to generation, so that they remain equally distinct in
+their limits if traced backward or forward in time, in so far as our
+observation may extend.
+
+4. Within the limits of the species there is more or less liability to
+variation; and this, though perhaps developed by external
+circumstances, is really inherent in the species, and must necessarily
+form a part of its proper description.
+
+5. There is also a physiological distinction between species, namely,
+that the individuals are sterile with one another, whereas this does
+not apply to varieties; and though Darwin has labored to break down
+this distinction by insisting on rare exceptional cases, and
+suggesting many supposed ways by which varieties of the same species
+might possibly attain to this kind of distinctness, the difference
+still remains as a fact in nature; though one not readily available in
+practically distinguishing species.
+
+These general properties of species will, I think, be admitted by all
+naturalists as based on nature, and absolutely necessary to the
+existence of natural history as a science, independently of any
+hypotheses as to the possible changes of specific forms in the lapse
+of time. I now proceed to give a similar summary of the laws of the
+varieties which may exist--always be it observed, within the limits of
+the species.
+
+1. The limits of variation are very different in different species.
+There are many in which no well-marked variations have been observed.
+There are others in which the variations are so marked that they have
+been divided, even by skilful naturalists, into distinct species or
+even genera. I do not here refer to differences of age and sex. These
+in many animals are so great that nothing but actual knowledge of the
+relation that subsists would prevent the individuals from being
+entirely separated from one another. I refer merely to the varieties
+that exist in adults of the same sex, including, however, those that
+depend on arrest of development, and thus make the adult of one
+variety resemble in some respects the young of another; as, for
+instance, in the hornless oxen, and beardless individuals among men.
+If we inquire as to the causes on which the greater or less
+disposition to vary depends, we must, in the first place, confess our
+ignorance, by saying that it appears to be in a great measure
+constitutional, or dependent on minute and as yet not distinctly
+appreciable structural, physiological, and psychical characters.
+Darwin states that Pallas long ago suggested, from the known facts
+that the seeds of hybrid plants and grafted trees are very variable,
+the theory that mixture of breeds tends to produce variability; but
+Darwin does not seem to attach much importance to this, and admits our
+inability to explain the origin of these differences.[161] We know,
+however, certain properties of species that are always or usually
+connected with great liability to variation. The principal of these
+are the following: 1. The liability to vary is, in many cases, not
+merely a specific peculiarity; it is often general in the members of a
+genus or family. Thus the cats, as a family, are little prone to vary;
+the wolves and foxes very much so. 2. Species that are very widely
+distributed over the earth's surface are usually very variable. In
+this case the capacity to vary probably adapts the creature to a great
+variety of circumstances, and so enables it to be widely distributed.
+It must be observed here that hardiness and variability of
+constitution are more important to extensive distribution than mere
+locomotive powers, for matters have evidently been so arranged in
+nature that, where the habitat is suitable, colonists will find their
+way to it, even in the face of difficulties almost insurmountable. 3.
+Constitutional liability to vary is sometimes connected with or
+dependent on extreme simplicity of structure, in other cases on a high
+degree of intelligence and consequent adaptation to various modes of
+subsistence. Those minute, simply organized, and very variable
+creatures, the Foraminifera, exemplify the first of these apparent
+causes; the crafty wolves furnish examples of the second. 4.
+Susceptibility to variation is farther modified by the greater or less
+adaptability of the digestive and locomotive organs to varied kinds of
+food and habitat. The monkeys, intelligent, imitative, and active, are
+nevertheless very limited in range and variability, because they can
+comfortably subsist only in forests, and in the warmer regions of the
+earth. The hog, more sluggish and less intelligent, has an omnivorous
+appetite, and no very special requirements of habitat, and so can vary
+greatly and extend over a large portion of the earth. Farther, in
+connection with this subject it may be observed that the conditions
+favorable to variation are also in the case of the higher animals
+favorable to domestication, while it may also be affirmed that, other
+things being equal, animals in a domesticated state are much more
+liable to vary than those in a wild state, and this independent of
+intentional selection. Darwin admits this, and gives many examples of
+it.
+
+2. Varieties may originate in two different ways. In the case of wild
+animals it is generally supposed that they are gradually induced by
+the slow operation of external influences; but it is certain that in
+domesticated animals they often appear suddenly and unexpectedly, and
+are not on that account at all less permanent. A large proportion of
+our breeds of domestic animals appear to originate in this way. A very
+remarkable instance is that of the "Niata" cattle of the Banda
+Orientale, described by Darwin in his "Voyage of a Naturalist." These
+cattle are believed to have originated about a century ago among the
+Indians to the south of the La Plata, and the breed propagates itself
+with great constancy. "They appear," says Darwin, "externally to hold
+nearly the same relation to other cattle which bull-dogs hold to other
+dogs. Their forehead is very short and broad, with the nasal end
+turned up, and the upper lip much drawn back; their lower jaws project
+outward; when walking they carry their heads low on a short neck, and
+their hinder legs are rather longer compared with the front legs than
+is usual." It is farther remarkable in respect to this breed that it
+is, from its conformation of head, less adapted to the severe droughts
+of those regions than the ordinary cattle, and can not, therefore, be
+regarded as an adaptation to circumstances. In his later work on
+animals under domestication, Darwin gives many other instances of the
+origination of breeds of cattle and other animals in this abrupt and
+mysterious manner, and without any selection, though he strongly leans
+to the conclusion that slow and gradual changes are the most frequent
+causes of variation. It is to be observed, however, that very slow
+changes are in more danger of being accidentally diverted or
+obliterated by crossing, and that the first stages of an incipient
+change may be too unimportant to be permanent.
+
+Many writers on the subject of the Unity of Man assume that any marked
+variety must require a long time for its production. Our experience in
+the case of the domestic animals teaches the reverse of this view; a
+very important point too often overlooked.
+
+3. The duration or permanence of varieties is very different. Some
+return at once to the normal type when the causes of change are
+removed. Others perpetuate themselves nearly as invariably as species,
+and are named races. It is these races only that we are likely to
+mistake for true species, since here we have that permanent
+reproduction which is one of the characteristics of the species. The
+race, however, wants the other characteristics of species as above
+stated; and it differs essentially in having branched from a primitive
+species, and in not having an independent origin. It is quite evident
+that in the absence of historical evidence we must be very likely to
+err by supposing races to have really originated in distinct
+"primordial forms." Such error is especially likely to arise if we
+overlook the fact of the sudden origination of such races, and their
+great permanency if kept distinct. There are two facts which deserve
+especial notice, as removing some of the difficulty in such cases. One
+is that well-marked races usually originate only in domesticated
+animals, or in wild animals which, owing to accidental circumstances,
+are placed in abnormal circumstances. Another is, that there always
+remains a tendency to return, in favorable circumstances, to the
+original type. This tendency to reversion is much underrated by Darwin
+and his followers; yet they constantly recur to it as a means of
+proving possible derivation, and their writings abound in examples of
+it. Perhaps the most remarkable of these reversions are those which
+occur when varieties destitute of all the markings of the original
+stock are crossed and reproduce those markings, which Darwin shows to
+occur in pigeons and domestic fowls. The domesticated races usually
+require a certain amount of care to preserve them in a state of
+purity, both on this account and on account of the readiness with
+which they intermix with other varieties of the same species. Many
+very interesting facts in illustration of these points might be
+adduced. The domesticated hog differs in many important characters
+from the wild boar. In South America and the West Indies it has
+returned, in three centuries or less, to its original form.[162] The
+horse is probably not known in a state originally wild, but it has run
+wild in America and in Siberia. In the prairies of North America,
+according to Catlin[163] they still show great varieties of color. The
+same is the case in Sable Island, off the coast of Nova Scotia[164]
+where herds of wild horses have existed since an early period in the
+settlement of America. In South America and Siberia they have assumed
+a uniform chestnut or bay color. In the plains of Western America they
+retain the dimensions and vigor of the better breeds of domesticated
+horses. In Sable Island they have already degenerated to the level of
+Highland ponies; but in all countries where they have run wild, the
+elongated and arched head, high shoulders, straight back, and other
+structural characters probably of the original wild horse, have
+appeared. We also learn from such instances that, while races among
+domesticated animals may appear suddenly, they revert to the original
+type, when unmixed, comparatively slowly; and this especially when the
+variation is in the nature of degeneracy.
+
+4. Some characters are more subject to variation than others. In the
+higher animals variation takes place very readily in the color and
+texture of the skin and its appendages. This, from its direct relation
+to the external world, and ready sympathy with the condition of the
+digestive organs, might be expected to take the lead. In those
+domesticated animals which are little liable to vary in other
+respects, as the cat and duck, the color very readily changes. Next
+may be placed the stature and external proportions, and the form of
+such appendages as the external ear and tail. All these characters are
+very variable in domestic animals. Next we may place the form of the
+skull, which, though little variable in the wild state, is nearly
+always changed by domestication. Psychological functions, as the
+so-called instincts of animals, are also very liable to change, and to
+have these changes perpetuated in races. Very remarkable instances of
+this have been collected by Sir C. Lyell[165] and Dr. Prichard.
+Lastly, important physiological characters, as the period of
+gestation, etc., and the structure of the internal organs connected
+with the functions of nutrition, respiration, etc., are little liable
+to change, and remain unaffected by the most extreme variations in
+other points; and it is, no doubt, in these more essential and
+internal parts that the tendency survives to return under favorable
+circumstances to the original type.
+
+5. Varieties or races of the same species are fully reproductive with
+each other, which is not the case with true species. Mutual sterility
+of varieties of the same species is an exceptional peculiarity, if it
+ever truly exist; and, on the other hand, the cross-fertilization of
+varieties of the same species, whether in animals or plants, tends to
+vigorous life, and also to return to the primitive or average type. On
+the other hand, intermixture of distinct species rarely, if ever,
+occurs freely in nature. It is generally a result of artificial
+contrivance. Again, hybrids produced from species known to be distinct
+are either wholly barren, or barren _inter se_, reproducing only with
+one of the original stocks, and rapidly returning to it; or if ever
+fertile _inter se_, which is somewhat doubtful, rapidly run out. It
+has been maintained by Pallas and others, and Darwin leans to this
+idea, that there is still another possibility, namely, that of the
+perfect and continued fertility of such mixed races, especially after
+long domestication; but their proofs are derived principally from the
+intermixture of the races of dogs and of poultry, which are cases
+actually in dispute at present, as to the original unity or diversity
+of the so-called species.
+
+If we apply these considerations to man, our conclusion must be that,
+even in his bodily frame, he is not merely specifically but ordinally
+distinct from other animals, and that the differences between races of
+men are varietal rather than specific. This view is confirmed by the
+following facts:
+
+1. The case of man is not that of a wild animal; and it presents many
+points of difference even from the case of the domesticated lower
+animals. According to the Bible history, man was originally fitted to
+subsist on fruits, to inhabit a temperate climate, and to be exempt
+from the necessity of destroying or contending with other animals.
+This view unquestionably accords very well with his organization. He
+still subsists principally on vegetable food, is most numerous in the
+warmer regions of the earth; and, when so subsisting in these regions,
+is naturally peaceful and timid. On the whole, however, his habits of
+life are artificial--more so than those of any domesticated animal. He
+is, therefore, in the conditions most favorable to variation. Again,
+man possesses more than merely animal instincts. His mental powers
+permit him to devise means of locomotion, of protection, of
+subsistence, far superior to those of any mere animal; and his
+dominant will, insatiable in its desires, bends the bodily frame to
+uses and exposes it to external influences more various than any
+inferior animal can dream of. Man is also more educable and plastic in
+his constitution than other animals, owing both to his being less
+hemmed in by unchanging instincts, and to his physical frame being
+less restricted in its adaptations. If a single species, he is also
+more widely distributed than any other; and there are even single
+races which exceed in their extent of distribution nearly all the
+inferior animals. Nor is there anything in his structure specially to
+limit him to plains, or hills, or forests, or coasts, or inland
+regions. All the causes which we can suppose likely to produce
+variation thus meet in man, who is himself the producer of most of the
+distinct races that we observe in the lower animals. If, therefore, we
+condescend to compare man with these creatures, it must be under
+protest that what we learn from them must be understood with reference
+to his greater capabilities.
+
+2. The races of men are deficient in some of the essential characters
+of species. It is true that they are reproduced with considerable
+permanency; though a great many cases of spontaneous change, of
+atavism, or return to the character of progenitors, and of slow
+variation under changed conditions, have been recorded. But the most
+manifest deficiency in true specific characters is in the invariable
+shading-off of one race into another, and in the entire failure of
+those who maintain the distinction of species in the attempt
+accurately to define their number and limits. The characters run into
+each other in such a manner that no natural arrangement based on the
+whole can apparently be arrived at; and when one particular ground is
+taken, as color, or shape of skull, the so-called species have still
+no distinct limits; and all the arrangements formed differ from each
+other, and from the deductions of philology and history. Thus, from
+the division of Virey into two species, on the entirely arbitrary
+ground of facial angle, to that of Bory de St. Vincent into fifteen,
+we have a great number and variety of distinctions, all incapable of
+zoological definition; or, if capable of definition, eminently
+unnatural. There are, in short, no missing links between the varieties
+of men corresponding to that which obtains between man and lower
+animals.
+
+3. The races of men differ in those points in which the higher animals
+usually vary with the greatest facility. The physical characters
+chiefly relied on have been color, character of hair, and form of
+skull, together with diversities in stature and general proportion.
+These are precisely the points in which our domestic races are most
+prone to vary. The manner in which these characters differ in the
+races of men may be aptly illustrated by a few examples of the
+arrangements to which they lead.
+
+Dr. Pickering, of the U. S. Exploring Expedition[166]--who does not,
+however, commit himself to any specific distinctions--has arranged the
+various races of men on the very simple and obvious ground of color.
+He obtains in this way four races--the White, the Brown, the
+Blackish-brown, the Black. The distinction is easy; but it divides
+races historically, philologically, and structurally alike; and unites
+those which, on other grounds, would be separated. The white race
+includes the Hamite Abyssinian, the Semitic Arabian, the Japhetic
+Greek. The Ethiopian or Berber is separated from the cognate
+Abyssinian, and the dark Hindoo from the paler races speaking like him
+tongues allied to the Sanscrit. The Papuan, on the other hand, takes
+his place with the Hindoo; while the allied Australian must be content
+to rank with the Negro; and the Hottentot is promoted to a place
+beside the Malay. It is unnecessary to pursue any farther the
+arrangement of this painstaking and conscientious inquirer. It
+conclusively demonstrates that the color of the varieties of the human
+race must be arbitrary and accidental, and altogether independent of
+unity or diversity of origin.
+
+Some use has been made, by the advocates of diversity of species, of
+the quality of the hair in the different races. That of the Negro is
+said to be flat in its cross section--in this respect approaching to
+wool; that of the European is oval; and that of the Mongolian and
+American round.[167] The subject has as yet been very imperfectly
+investigated; but its indications point to no greater variety than
+that which occurs in many domesticated animals--as, for instance, the
+hog and sheep. Nay, Dr. Carpenter states[168]--and the writer has
+satisfied himself of the fact by his own observation--that it does not
+exceed the differences in the hair from different parts of the body of
+the same individual. The human hair, like that of mammals in general,
+consists of three tissues: an outer cortical layer, marked by
+transverse striae, having in man the aspect of delicate lines, but in
+many other animals assuming the character of distinct joints or
+prominent serrations; a layer of elongated, fibrous cells, to which
+the hair owes most of its tenacity; and an inner cylinder of rounded
+cells. In the proportionate development of these several parts, in the
+quantity of coloring matter present, and in the transverse section,
+the human hair differs very considerably in different parts of the
+body. It also differs very markedly in individuals of different
+complexions. Similar but not greater differences obtain in the hair of
+the scalp in different races; but the flatness of the Negro's hair
+connects itself inseparably with the oval of the hair of the ordinary
+European, and this with the round observed in some other races. It
+generally holds that curled and frizzled hair is flatter than that
+which is lank and straight; but this is not constant, for I have found
+that the waved or frizzled hair of the New Hebrideans, intermediate
+apparently between the Polynesians and Papuans, is nearly circular in
+outline, and differs from European hair mainly in the greater
+development of the fibrous structure and the intensity of the color.
+Large series of comparisons are required; but those already made point
+to variation rather than specific difference. Some facts also appear
+to indicate very marked differences as occurring in the same race from
+constant exposure or habitual covering; and also the occasional
+appearance of the most abnormal forms, without apparent cause, in
+individuals. The differences depending on greater or less abundance or
+vigor of growth of the hair are obviously altogether trivial, when
+compared with such examples as the hairless dogs of Chili and hairless
+cattle of Brazil, or even with the differences in this respect
+observed in individuals of the same race of men.
+
+Confessedly the most important differences of the races of men are
+those of the skeleton, in all parts of which variations of proportion
+occur, and are of course more or less communicated to the muscular
+investments. Of these, as they exist in the pelvis, limbs, etc., I
+need say nothing; for, manifest though they are, they all fall far
+within the limits of variation in familiar domestic animals, and also
+of hereditary malformation or defect of development occurring in the
+European nations, and only requiring isolation for its perpetuation as
+a race. The differences in the skull merit more attention, for it is
+in this and in its enclosed brain that man most markedly differs from
+the lower animals, as well as race from race. It is in the form rather
+than in the mere dimensions of the skull that we should look for
+specific differences; and here, adopting the vertical method of
+Blumenbach as the most characteristic and valuable, we find a greater
+or less antero-posterior diameter--a greater or less development of
+the jaws and bones of the face. The skull of the normal European, or
+Caucasian of Cuvier, is round oval; and the jaws and cheek-bones
+project little beyond its anterior margin, when viewed from above. The
+skull of the Mongolian of Cuvier is nearly round, and the cheek-bones
+and jaws project much more strongly in front and at the sides. The
+Negro skull is lengthened from back to front; the jaws project
+strongly, or are prognathous; but the cheek-bones are little
+prominent. For the extremes of these varieties, Retzius proposed the
+names of brachy-kephalic or short-headed, and dolicho-kephalic or
+long-headed, which have come into general use. The differences
+indicated by these terms are of great interest, as distinctive marks
+of many of the unmixed races of men; but, when pushed to extremes,
+lead to very incorrect generalizations--as Professor D. Wilson has
+well shown in his paper on the supposed uniformity of type in the
+American races--a doctrine which he fully refutes by showing that
+within a very narrow geographical range this primitive and unmixed
+race presents very great differences of cranial form.[169] Exclusive
+of idiots, artificially compressed heads, and deformities, the
+differences between the brachy-kephalic and dolicho-kephalic heads
+range from equality in the parietal and longitudinal diameter to the
+proportion of about 14 to 24. As stated by some ethnologists, these
+differences appear quite characteristic and distinct; but, so soon as
+we attempt any minute discrimination, all confidence in them as
+specific characters disappears. In our ordinary European races similar
+differences, and nearly as extensive, occur. The dolicho-kephalic head
+is really only an immature form perpetuated; and appears not only in
+the Negro, but in the Esquimau, and in certain ancient and modern
+Celtic races. The brachy-kephalic head, in like manner, is
+characteristic of certain tribes and portions of tribes of Americans,
+but not of all; of many northern Asiatic nations; of certain Celtic
+and Scandinavian tribes; and often appears in the modern European
+races as an occasional character. Farther, as Retzius has well shown,
+the long heads and prominent jaws are not always associated with each
+other; and his classification is really the testimony of an able
+observer against the value of these characters. He shows that the
+Celtic and Germanic races (in part) have long heads and straight jaws;
+while the Negroes, Australians, Oceanians, Caribs, Greenlanders, etc.,
+have long heads and prominent jaws. The Laplanders, Finns, Turks,
+Sclaves, Persians, etc., have short heads and straight jaws; while the
+Tartars, Mongolians, Incas, Malays, Papuans, etc., have short heads
+and prominent jaws.
+
+Another defect in the argument often based on the diverse forms of
+heads is its want of acknowledgment of the ascertained and popularly
+known fact that these forms in different tribes or individuals of the
+same race are markedly influenced by culture and habits of life. In
+all races ignorance and debasement tend to induce a prognathous form,
+while culture tends to the elevation of the nasal bones, to an
+orthognathous condition of the jaws, and to an elevation and expansion
+of the cranium.[170]
+
+Again, no adequate allowance has been made in the case of these forms
+of skull for the influence of modes of nurture in infancy. Dr. Morton,
+observing that the brachy-kephalic American skull was often unequal
+sided, and the occiput much flattened, suggests that this is "an
+exaggeration of the natural form produced by the pressure of the
+cradle-board in common use among the American natives." Dr. Wilson has
+noticed the same unsymmetrical character in brachy-kephalic skulls in
+British barrows, and has suspected some artificial agency in infancy;
+and says, in reference to the American instances, "I think it
+extremely probable that further investigation will tend to the
+conclusion that the vertical or flattened occiput, instead of being a
+typical characteristic, pertains entirely to the class of artificial
+modifications of the natural cranium familiar to the American
+ethnologist."
+
+While the points in which the races of men vary are those in which
+lower animals are most liable to undergo change, the several races
+display a remarkable constancy in those which are usually less
+variable. Prichard and Carpenter have well shown this in relation to
+physiological points, as, for instance, the age of arriving at
+maturity, the average and extreme duration of life, and the several
+periods connected with reproduction. The coincidence in these points
+alone is by many eminent physiologists justly regarded as sufficient
+evidence of the unity of the species.
+
+4. It may also be affirmed, in relation to the varieties of man, that
+they do not exceed in amount or extent those observed in the lower
+animals. If with Frederick Cuvier, Dr. Carpenter, and many other
+naturalists, we regard the dog as a single species, descended in all
+probability from the wolf, we can have no hesitation in concluding
+that this animal far exceeds man in variability.[171] But this is
+denied by many, not without some show of reason; and we may,
+therefore, select some animal respecting which little doubt can be
+entertained. Perhaps the best example is the common hog (_Sus
+scrofa_), an undoubted descendant of the wild boar, and a creature
+especially suitable for comparison with man, inasmuch as its possible
+range of food is very much the same with his, which is not the case
+with any other of our domesticated animals; and as its headquarters as
+a species are in the same regions which have supported the greatest
+and oldest known communities of men. We may exclude from our
+comparison the Chinese hog, by some regarded as a distinct species
+(_Sus Indicus_), though no wild original is known, and it breeds
+freely with the common hog. The color of the domestic hog varies, like
+that of man, from white to black; and in the black hog the skin as
+well as the hair partakes of the dark color. The abundance and
+quality of the hair vary extremely; the stature and form are equally
+variable, much more so than in man. Blumenbach long ago remarked that
+the difference between the skull of the ordinary domestic hog and that
+of the wild boar is quite equal to that observed between the Negro and
+European skulls. Darwin shows that it is much greater, and illustrates
+this by an amusing pair of portraits. The breeds of swine even differ
+in directions altogether unparalleled in man. For instance, both in
+America and Europe solid-hoofed swine have originated and become a
+permanent variety; and there is said to be another variety with five
+toes.[172] These are the more remarkable, because, in the American
+instances, there can be no doubt that it is the common hog which has
+assumed these abnormal forms.
+
+5. All varieties or races of men intermix freely, in a manner which
+strongly indicates specific unity. We hold here, as already stated,
+that no good case of a permanent race arising from intermixture of
+distinct species of the lower animals has been adduced; but there is
+another fact in relation to this subject which the advocates of
+specific diversity would do well to study. Even in varieties of those
+domestic animals which are certainly specifically identical, as the
+hog, the sheep, the ox--although crosses between the varieties may
+easily be produced--they are not readily maintained, and sometimes
+tend to die out. What are called good crosses lead to improved energy,
+and continual breeding in and in of the same variety leads to
+degeneracy and decay; but, on the other hand, crosses of certain
+varieties are proved by experience to be of weakly and unproductive
+quality; and every practical book on cattle contains remarks on the
+difficulty of keeping up crosses without intermixture with one of the
+pure breeds. It would thus appear that very unlike varieties of the
+same species display in this respect, in an imperfect manner, the
+peculiarities of distinct species. It is on this principle that I
+would in part account for some of the exceptional facts which occur in
+mixed races of men.
+
+What, then, are the facts in the case of man? In producing crosses of
+distinct species, as in the case of the horse and ass, breeders are
+obliged to resort to expedients to overcome the natural repugnance to
+such intermixture. In the case of even the most extreme varieties of
+man, if such repugnance exists, it is voluntarily overcome, as the
+slave population of America testifies abundantly. By far the greater
+part of the intermixtures of races of men tend to increase of vital
+energy and vigor, as in the case of judicious crosses of some domestic
+animals. Where a different result occurs, we usually find sufficient
+secondary causes to account for it. I shall refer to but one such
+case--that of the half-breed American Indian. In so far as I have had
+opportunities of observation or inquiry, these people are prolific,
+much more so than the unmixed Indian. They are also energetic, and
+often highly intellectual; but they are of delicate constitution,
+especially liable to scrofulous diseases, and therefore not
+long-lived. Now this is precisely the result which often occurs in
+domestic animals, where a highly cultivated race is bred with one that
+is of ruder character and training; and it very probably results from
+the circumstance that the progeny may inherit too much of the delicacy
+of the one parent to endure the hardships congenial to the other; or,
+on the other hand, too much of the wild nature of the ruder parent to
+subsist under the more delicate nurture of the more cultivated. This
+difficulty does not apply to the intermixture of the Negro and the
+European, though between the pure races this is a cross too abrupt to
+be likely to be in the first instance successful.
+
+6. The races of man may have originated in the same manner with the
+breeds of our domesticated animals. There are many facts which render
+it probable that they did originate in this way. Take color, for
+instance. The fair varieties of man occur only in the northern
+temperate zone, and chiefly in the equable climates of that zone. In
+extreme climates, even when cold, dusky and yellow colors appear. The
+black and blackish-brown colors are confined to the inter-tropical
+regions, and appear in such portions of all the great races of mankind
+as have been long domiciled there. Diet and degree of exposure have
+also evidently very much to do with form, stature, and color. The
+deer-eating Chippewayan of certain districts of North America is a
+better developed man than his compatriots who subsist principally on
+rabbits and such meaner fare; and excess of carbonaceous food, and
+deficiency of perspiration or of combustion in the lungs, appear
+everywhere to darken the skin.[173] The Negro type in its extreme form
+is peculiar to low and humid river valleys of tropical Africa. In
+Australasia similar characters appear in men of a very different race
+in similar circumstances. The Mongolian type reappears in South
+Africa. The Esquimau is like the Fuegian. The American Indian, both of
+South and North America, resembles the Mongol; but in several of the
+middle regions of the American continent men appear who approximate to
+the Malay. Everywhere and in all races coarse features and deviations
+from the oval form of skull are observed in rude populations. Where
+men have sunk into a child-like simplicity, the elongated forms
+prevail. Where they have become carnivorous, aggressive, and actively
+barbarous, the brachy-kephalic forms abound. These and many other
+considerations tend to the conclusion that these varieties are
+inseparably connected with external conditions. It may still be
+asked--Were not the races created as they are, with especial reference
+to these conditions? I answer no--because the differences are of a
+character in every respect like those that appear in other true
+species as the results of influences from without.
+
+Farther, not only have we varieties of man resulting from the slow
+operation of climatal and other conditions, but we have the sudden
+development of races. One remarkable instance may illustrate my
+meaning. It is the hairy family of Siam, described by Mr. Crawford and
+Mr. Yule.[174] The peculiarities here consisted of a fine silky coat
+of hair covering the face and less thickly the whole body, with at the
+same time the entire absence of the canine and molar teeth. The person
+in whom these characters originated was sent to Ava as a curiosity
+when five years old. He married at twenty-two, his wife being an
+ordinary Burmese woman. One of two children who survived infancy had
+all the characters of the father. This was a girl; and on her marriage
+the same characters reappeared in one of two boys constituting her
+family when seen by Mr. Yule. Here was a variety of a most extreme
+character, originating without apparent cause, and capable of
+propagation for three generations, even when crossed with the ordinary
+type. Had it originated in circumstances favorable to the preservation
+of its purity, it might have produced a tribe or nation of hairy men,
+with no teeth except incisors. Such a tribe would, with some
+ethnologists, have constituted a new and very distinct species; and
+any one who had suggested the possibility of its having originated
+within a few generations as a variety would have been laughed at for
+his credulity. It is unnecessary to cite any further instances. I
+merely wish to insist on the necessity of a rigid comparison of the
+variations which appear in man, either suddenly or in a slow or
+secular manner, with the characters of the so-called races or species.
+
+7. If we turn from the merely physical constitution of man, and
+inquire as to his psychical and spiritual endowments, it would be easy
+to show, as Dr. Carpenter and others have done, in opposition to
+Darwin, that on the one hand an impassable barrier separates man from
+the lower animals, and that on the other there is an essential unity
+among the races of men. But this subject I have discussed fully in the
+concluding chapters of my "Story of the Earth."
+
+If man is thus so very variable, and if many of his leading varieties
+have existed for a very long time, does not the fact that we have but
+one species afford very strong evidence that species change only
+within fixed limits, and do not pass over into new specific types.
+Viewed in this way, variability within the specific limits becomes in
+itself one of the strongest arguments against the doctrine of descent
+with modification as a mode of origination of new species.
+
+Let us now add to all this the farther consideration, so well
+illustrated in the "Reliquiae Aquitanicae" of Christy and Lartet, that
+the oldest-known men of the caves and gravels may be placed in one of
+the varieties, and this the most widely distributed, of modern man,
+and we have a further argument which tells most strongly against the
+assumption either of the extreme antiquity or of the unlimited
+variability of the human species.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Argyll's "Primeval Man."]
+
+[Footnote 2: Essays on Theism, 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 3: John i., 9.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Hebrews xi., 3.]
+
+[Footnote 5: I avail myself of the condensed translation in Bancroft's
+"Native Races," vol. iii. The original French translation of Brasseur du
+Bourbourg is more full.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The Feathered Serpent is perhaps the representative of the
+Dragon and Serpent in the Semitic version; but has not the same evil
+import, and his color gave sacredness to blue and green stones, as the
+turquois and emerald, both in North and South America, and perhaps also
+in Asia and Africa.]
+
+[Footnote 7: I do not think it necessary to attach any value to the
+doubts of certain schools of criticism as to the Mosaic authorship of
+the Pentateuch. Whatever quibbles may be raised on isolated texts, no
+rational student can doubt that we have in these books a collection of
+authentic documents of the Exodus. They are absolutely inexplicable on
+any other supposition.]
+
+[Footnote 8: "Cosmos," Otte's translation.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Hamilton, "Royal Preacher."]
+
+[Footnote 10: Harvey, "Nereis Boreali Americana."]
+
+[Footnote 11: Osburn, "Monumental History of Egypt."]
+
+[Footnote 12: On this subject I may refer naturalists to the intimate
+acquaintance with animals and their habits, indicated by manner of their
+use as sacred emblems, and as symbols in hieroglyphic writing. Another
+illustration is afforded by the Mosaic narrative of the miracles and
+plagues connected with the exodus. The Egyptian king, on this occasion,
+consulted the _philosophers_ and _augurs_. These learned men evidently
+regarded the serpent-rod miracle as but a more skilful form of one of
+the tricks of serpent-charmers. They showed Pharaoh the possibility of
+reddening the Nile water by artificial means, or perhaps by the
+development of red algae in it. They explained the inroad of frogs on
+natural principles, probably referring to the immense abundance
+ordinarily of the ova and tadpoles of these creatures compared with that
+of the adults. But when the dust of the land became gnats ("lice" in our
+version), this was a phenomenon beyond their experience. Either the
+species was unknown to them, or its production out of the dry ground was
+an anomaly, or they knew that no larvae adequate to explain it had
+previously existed. In the case of this plague, therefore, comparatively
+insignificant and easily simulated, they honestly confessed--"This is
+the finger of God." No better evidence could be desired that the savans
+here opposed to Moses were men of high character and extensive
+observation. Many other facts of similar tendency might be cited both
+from Moses and the Egyptian monuments.]
+
+[Footnote 13: That in Genesis, chap. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Kitto's Cyclopaedia, art. "Creation."]
+
+[Footnote 15: Much that is very silly has been written as to the extent
+of the supposed "optical view" taken by the Hebrew writers; many worthy
+literary men appearing to suppose that _scientific_ views of nature must
+necessarily be different from those which we obtain by the evidence of
+our senses. The very contrary is the fact; and so long as any writers
+state correctly what they observe, without insisting on any fanciful
+hypotheses, science has no fault to find with them. What science most
+detests is the ignorant speculations of those who have not observed at
+all, or have observed imperfectly. It is a leading excellence of the
+Hebrew Scriptures that they state facts without giving any theories to
+account for them. It is, on the contrary, the circumstance that
+unscientific writers will not be content to be "optical," but must
+theorize, that spoils much of our modern literature, especially in its
+descriptions of nature.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Prof. Hitchcock.]
+
+[Footnote 17: McCosh, "Typical Forms and Special Ends."]
+
+[Footnote 18: I adopt that view of the date of Job which makes it
+precede the Exodus, because the religious ideas of the book are
+patriarchal, and it contains no allusions to the Hebrew history or
+institutions. Were I to suggest an hypothesis as to its origin, it would
+be that it was written or found by Moses when in exile, and published
+among his countrymen in Egypt, to revive their monotheistic religion,
+and cheer them under the apparent desertion of their God and the evils
+of their bondage.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Tyndall seems to hold this.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Newton.]
+
+[Footnote 21: John v., 17; Rom. viii., 22; Heb. i., 2; 2 Peter iii.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Heb. i., 2.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Eph. iii., 9.]
+
+[Footnote 24: 1 Tim. i., 17.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Eph. iv., 11.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Job xxxviii. and xxxix.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Romans i., 20.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Essays on Theism.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Herschel, Dissertation on the Study of Natural Philosophy;
+Maxwell, Lecture before the British Association.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Carpenter, "Human Physiology."]
+
+[Footnote 31: Asah.]
+
+[Footnote 32: McDonald, "Creation and the Fall."]
+
+[Footnote 33: Literally, "ages" or "time-worlds," as they have been
+called.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Genesis i., 8, 26-28.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Job xxxviii., 37.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Gen. i., 14; Deut. xvii., 3.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Gen. xxviii., 17; Job xv., 15; Psa. ii., 4.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Not "created," as some read. The verb is _kana_, not
+_bara_.]
+
+[Footnote 39: The usual Septuagint rendering is _Abyssus_.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Smith, "Assyrian Genesis." Brasseur de Bourbourg's
+translation of the "Popol Vuh" of the ancient Central American Indians.]
+
+[Footnote 41: It is impossible to avoid recognizing in the Greek
+Theogony, as it appears in Hesiod and the Orphic poems, an inextricable
+intermingling of a cosmogony akin to that of Moses with legendary
+stories of deceased ancestors; and this has, I must confess, always
+appeared to me to be a more rational way of accounting for it than its
+reference to mere nature-myths. Chaos, or space, for the chaos of Hesiod
+differs from that of Ovid, came first, then Gaea, the earth, and
+Tartarus, or the lower world. Chaos gave birth to Erebos (identical with
+the Hebrew Ereb or Erev, evening) and Nyx, or night. These again give
+birth to Aether, the equivalent of the Hebrew expanse or firmament, and
+to Hemera, the day, and then the heavenly bodies were perfected. So far
+the legend is apparently based on some primitive history of creation,
+not essentially different from that of the Bible. But the Greek Theogony
+here skips suddenly to the human period; and under the fables of the
+marriage of Gaea and Uranos, and the Titans, appears to present to us
+the antediluvian world, with its intermarriages of the sons of God and
+men, and its Nephelim or Giants, with their mechanic arts and their
+crimes. Beyond this, in Kronos and his three sons, and in the strange
+history of Zeus, the chief of these, we have a coarse and fanciful
+version of the story of the family of Noah, the insult offered by Ham to
+his father, and the subsequent quarrels and dispersion of mankind. The
+Zeus of Homer appears to be the elder of the three, or Japheth, the real
+father of the Greeks, according to the Bible; but in the time of Hesiod
+Zeus was the youngest, perhaps indicating that the worship of the
+Egyptian Zeus, Ammon or Ham, had already supplanted among the Greeks
+that of their own ancestor. But it is curious that even in the Bible,
+though Japhet is said to be the greater, he is placed last in the lists.
+After the introduction of Greek savans and literati to Egypt, about B.C.
+660, they began to regard their own mythology from this point of view,
+though obliged to be reserved on the subject. The cosmology of Thales,
+the astronomy of Anaxagoras, and the history of Herodotus afford early
+evidence of this, and it abounds in later writers. I may refer the
+reader to Grote (History of Greece, vol. i.) for an able and agreeable
+summary of this subject; and may add that even the few coincidences
+above pointed out between Greek mythology and the Bible, independently
+of the multitudes of more doubtful character to be found in the older
+writers on this subject, appear very wonderful, when we consider that
+among the Greeks these vestiges of primitive religion, whether brought
+with them from the East or received from abroad, must have been handed
+down for a long time by oral tradition among the people; but obscure
+though they may be, the circumstance that some old writers have ridden
+the resemblances to death affords no excuse for the prevailing neglect
+of them in more modern times.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Pages 21, 22, and 109, _supra_.]
+
+[Footnote 43: The minor planets discovered in more recent times between
+Mars and Jupiter form an exception to this; but they are of little
+importance, and exceptional in other respects as well. To give their
+arrangement and the motions of the satellites of Uranus, would require
+the further assumption of some unknown disturbing cause.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Nichol's "Planetary System."]
+
+[Footnote 45: Proctor's Lectures, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 46: This translation is as literal as is consistent with the
+bold abruptness of the original. The last idea is that of a cylindrical
+seal rolling over clay, and leaving behind a beautiful impression where
+all before was a blank.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Professor Dana thus sums up the various meanings of the
+word _day_ in Genesis: "_First_, in verse 5, the _light_ in general is
+called day, the darkness night. _Second_, in the same verse, _evening
+and morning_ make the first day, before the sun appears. _Third_, in
+verse 14, day stands for _twelve hours_, or the period of daylight, as
+dependent on the sun. _Fourth_, same verse, in the phrase "days and
+seasons," day stands for a period of _twenty-four hours_. _Fifth_, at
+the close of the account, in verse 4 of the second chapter, day means
+the _whole period of creation_. These uses are the same that we have in
+our own language."
+
+Warring, in his book "The Miracle of To-day," has suggested that the
+Mosaic days are _epochal_ days, each considered as the close and
+culmination of a period. This is an ingenious suggestion, and very well
+coincides with the day-period theory as defended in the text.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Psalm xc.]
+
+[Footnote 49: It may be desirable to give here, in a slightly
+paraphrased version, but strictly in accordance with the views of the
+best expositors, the essential part of the passage in Hebrews, chap.
+iv.:
+
+"For God hath spoken in a certain place" (Gen. ii., 2) of the seventh
+day in this wise--'And God did rest on the seventh day from all his
+works;' and in this place again--'They shall not enter into my rest'
+(Psa. xcv., 11). Seeing, therefore, it still remaineth that some enter
+therein, and they to whom it (God's Sabbatism) was first proclaimed
+entered not in, because of disobedience (in the fall, and afterward in
+the sin of the Israelites in the desert), again he fixes a certain day,
+saying in David's writings, long after the time of Joshua--'To-day, if
+ye hear his voice, harden not your hearts.' For if Joshua had given them
+rest in Canaan, he would not afterward have spoken of another day. There
+is therefore yet reserved a keeping of a Sabbath for the people of God.
+For he that is entered into his rest (that is, Jesus Christ, who has
+finished his work and entered into his rest in heaven), he himself also
+rested from his own works, as God did from his own. Let us therefore
+earnestly strive to enter into that rest."
+
+It is evident that in this passage God's Sabbatism, the rest intended
+for man in Eden and for Israel in Canaan, Christ's rest in heaven after
+finishing his work, and the final heavenly rest of Christ's people, are
+all indefinite periods mutually related, and can not possibly be natural
+days.]
+
+[Footnote 50: For the benefit of those who may value ancient authorities
+in such matters, and to show that such views may rationally be
+entertained independently of geology, I quote the following passage from
+Origen: "Cuinam quaeso sensum habenti convenienter videbitur dictum, quod
+dies prima et secunda et tertia, in quibus et vespera nominatur, et
+mane, fuerint sine sole, et sine luna et sine stellis: prima autern dies
+sine coelo." So St. Augustine expressly states his belief that the
+creative days could not be of the ordinary kind: "Qui dies, cujusmodi
+sint, aut perdifficile nobis, aut etiam impossibile est cogitare, quanto
+magis discere." Bede also remarks, "Fortassis hic diei nomen, totius
+temporis nomen est, et omnia volumina seculorum hoc vocabulo includit."
+Many similar opinions of old commentators might be quoted. It is also
+not unworthy of note that the cardinal number is used here, "one day"
+for first day; and though the Hebrew grammarians have sought to found on
+this, and a few similar passages, a rule that the cardinal may be
+substituted for the ordinal, many learned Hebraists insist that this use
+of the cardinal number implies singularity and peculiarity as well as
+mere priority.]
+
+[Footnote 51: It is to be observed, however, that on the so-called
+literal day hypothesis the first Sabbath was not man's seventh day, but
+rather his first, since he must have been created toward the close of
+the sixth day.]
+
+[Footnote 52: "Footprints of the Creator."]
+
+[Footnote 53: This idea occurs in Lord Bacon's "Confession of Faith,"
+and De Luc also maintains that the Creator's Sabbath must have been of
+long continuance.]
+
+[Footnote 54: See the quotation from Job, _supra_.]
+
+[Footnote 55: This is not strictly correct, as many animals, especially
+of the lower tribes, extend back to the early tertiary periods, long
+before the creation of man; a fact which of itself is irreconcilable
+with the Mosaic narrative on the theory of literal or ordinary days.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Since this was written, the bones of many Batrachian
+reptiles have been found in the Carboniferous, both in Europe and
+America. No reptilian remains have yet been found in the Devonian
+rocks.]
+
+[Footnote 57: _Biblical Repository_, 1856. See also an excellent paper
+by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, _Bibliotheca Sacra_, 1867.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Rhode, quoted by McDonald, "Creation and the Fall," p. 62;
+Eusebius, Chron. Arm.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Suidas, Lexicon--"Tyrrenia."]
+
+[Footnote 60: Diodorus Siculus, bk. i. Prichard, Egyptian Mythology.]
+
+[Footnote 61: "Asiatic Researches."]
+
+[Footnote 62: This name is exactly identical in meaning with the Hebrew
+Jehovah Elohim.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Mueller, Sanscrit Literature.]
+
+[Footnote 64: The theology of the Institutes is clearly primitive
+Semitic in its character; and therefore, if the Bible is true, must be
+older than the Aryan theogony of the Rig-Veda, as expounded by Mueller,
+whatever the relative age of the documents.]
+
+[Footnote 65: "Recent Advances in Physical Science."]
+
+[Footnote 66: Croll's "Climate and Time" contains some interesting facts
+as to this.]
+
+[Footnote 67: See the discussion of this in the author's "Story of the
+Earth," and in Sir William Thomson's British Association Address, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Daniell's Meteorological Essays; Prout's Bridgewater
+Treatise; art. "Meteorology," Encyc. Brit.; "Maury's Physical Geography
+of the Sea."]
+
+[Footnote 69: Kaemtz, "Course of Meteorology."]
+
+[Footnote 70: Encyc. Brit., art. "Meteorology."]
+
+[Footnote 71: It is not meant that the word _rakiah_ occurs in these
+passages, but to show how by other words the idea of stretching out or
+extension rather than solidity is implied. The verb in the first two
+passages is _nata_, to spread out.]
+
+[Footnote 72: See also Humboldt, "Cosmos," vol. ii., pt. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Heb., "they refine."]
+
+[Footnote 74: "His pavilion round about him was dark waters and thick
+clouds of the skies," Psa. xviii. This expression explains that in the
+text.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Or "He darkens the depths of the sea."]
+
+[Footnote 76: Translation of these lines much disputed and very
+difficult. Gesenius and Conant render it, "His thunder tells of him; to
+the herds even of him who is on high."]
+
+[Footnote 77: I take advantage of this long quotation to state that in
+the case of this and other passages quoted from the Old Testament I have
+carefully consulted the original; but have availed myself freely of the
+renderings of such of the numerous versions and commentaries as I have
+been able to obtain, whenever they appeared accurate and expressive, and
+have not scrupled occasionally to give a free translation where this
+seemed necessary to perspicuity. In the book of Job, I have consulted
+principally the translation appended to Barnes's Commentary, Conant's
+translation, 1857, and those of Tayler Lewis and Evans in Schaff's
+edition of Lange, 1874.]
+
+[Footnote 78: The word is one of those that pervade both Semitic and
+Indo-European tongues: Sanscrit, _ahara_; Pehlevi, _arta_; Latin,
+_terra_; German, _Erde_; Gothic, _airtha_; Scottish, _yird_; English,
+_earth_.--Gesenius.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Psalm xcv.]
+
+[Footnote 80: Gesenius.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Perhaps "changed," metamorphosed, as by fire. Conant has
+"destroyed."]
+
+[Footnote 82: "Dust" in our version, literally lumps or "nuggets."]
+
+[Footnote 83: The vulgar and incorrect idea that the vulture "scents the
+carrion from afar," so often reproduced by later poets, has no place in
+the Bible poetry. It is the bird's keen eye that enables him to find his
+prey.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Lyell's "Principles of Geology."]
+
+[Footnote 85: Stanford, London, 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 86: In further explanation of these general geological
+changes, see "The Story of the Earth and Man," by the author.]
+
+[Footnote 87: "Tenera herba, sine semine saltem
+conspicuo."--Rosenmueller, "Scholia."]
+
+[Footnote 88: Haughton, Address to the Geological Society, Dublin.]
+
+[Footnote 89: See McDonald, "Creation and the Fall." Professor Guyot, I
+believe, deserves the credit of having first mentioned, on the American
+side of the Atlantic, the doctrine respecting the introduction of plants
+advocated in this chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 90: "Eozoic" of this work. Professor Dana in the latest
+edition of his Manual uses the name "Archaean."]
+
+[Footnote 91: This may refer to an eclipse, but from the character of
+the preceding verses more probably to the obscurity of a tempest. It is
+remarkable that eclipses, which so much strike the minds of men and
+affect them with superstitious awe, are not distinctly mentioned in the
+Old Testament, though referred to in the prophetical parts of the New
+Testament.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Perhaps rather the high places of the waters, referring to
+the atmospheric waters.]
+
+[Footnote 93: The rendering "sweet influences" in our version may be
+correct, but the weight of argument appears to favor the view of
+Gesenius that the close bond of union between the stars of this group is
+referred to. I think it is Herder who well unites both views, the
+Pleiades being bound together in a sisterly union, and also ushering in
+the spring by their appearance above the horizon. Conant applies the
+whole to the seasons, the bands of Orion being in this view those of
+winter.]
+
+[Footnote 94: It would be unfair to suppress the farther probability
+that the writer intends specially to indicate that the sacred crocodile
+of the Nile was itself a creature of Jehovah, and among the humbler of
+those creatures.]
+
+[Footnote 95: The interesting discovery, by Mr. Beale and others, of
+several species of mammalia in the Purbeck, and that of Professor Emmons
+of a mammal in rocks of similar age in the Southern States of America,
+do not invalidate this statement; for all these, like the _Microlestes_
+of the German trias and the _Amphitherium_ of the Stonesfeld slate, are
+small marsupials belonging to the least perfect type of mammals. The
+discovery of so many species of these humbler creatures, goes far to
+increase the improbability of the existence of the higher mammals.]
+
+[Footnote 96: It is very interesting, in connection with this, to note
+that nearly all the earliest and greatest seats of population and
+civilization have been placed on the more modern geological deposits, or
+on those in which stores of fuel have been accumulated by the growth of
+extinct plants.]
+
+[Footnote 97: See Appendix.]
+
+[Footnote 98: See Appendix for farther discussion of this subject.]
+
+[Footnote 99: See Lyell, Principles of Geology, "Introduction of
+Species."]
+
+[Footnote 100: For the exposition of the details of the fall, I beg to
+refer the reader to McDonald's "Creation and the Fall," to Kitto's
+"Antediluvians and Patriarchs," and to Kurtz's "History of the Old
+Covenant."]
+
+[Footnote 101: The Bible specifies, perhaps only as the principal of
+these arts, music and musical instruments by Jubal, metallurgy by
+Tubalcain, the domestication of cattle and the nomade life by Jabal. It
+is highly probable that these inventors are introduced into the Mosaic
+record for a theological reason, to point out the folly of the worship
+rendered to Phtha, Hephaestos, Vulcan, Horus, Phoebus, and other
+inventors, either traditionary representatives of the family of Lamech,
+or other heroes wrongly identified with them. Very possibly their sister
+Naamah, "the beautiful," is introduced for the same reason, as the true
+original of some of the female deities of the heathen.]
+
+[Footnote 102: I can not for a moment entertain the monstrous
+supposition of many expositors that the "sons of God" of these passages
+are angels, and the "Nephelim" hybrids between angels and men.]
+
+[Footnote 103: See Lange's "Commentary on Genesis."]
+
+[Footnote 104: The Russian surveys of 1836 made it one hundred and eight
+English feet; but later authorities reduce it to eighty-three feet six
+inches below the Black Sea.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Kitto's "Bible Illustrations"--Book of Job.]
+
+[Footnote 106: See article "Rephaim" in Kitto's "Journal of Sacred
+Literature." But Gesenius and others regard it, not as an ethnic name,
+but as a term for the "shades" or spirits of the dead. See Conant on
+Job.]
+
+[Footnote 107: On the Biblical view of this subject, the so-called
+Aryan mythology, common to India and Greece, is either a derivative from
+the Cushite civilization, or a spontaneous growth of the Japetic stock
+scattered by the Cushite empire. The Semitic and Hamitic mythologies are
+derived from the primeval cherubic worship of Eden, corrupted and mixed
+with deification of natural objects and stages of the creative work, and
+with adoration of deified ancestors and heroes.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Genesis 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th chapters. See also our
+previous remarks on the deluge.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Genesis iv.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Japheth is "enlargement," his sons are Scythians and
+inhabitants of the isles, varying in language and nationality; and Noah
+predicts, "God shall enlarge Japheth, he shall dwell in the tents of
+Shem, Ham shall be his servant." These are surely characteristic
+ethnological traits for a period so early. On the rationalist view, it
+may be supposed that this prediction was not written until the
+characters in question had developed themselves; but since the greatest
+enlargement of Japheth has occurred since the discovery of America,
+there would be quite as good ground for maintaining that Noah's prophecy
+was interpolated after the time of Columbus.]
+
+[Footnote 111: The language of this people, the stem of the
+Indo-European languages, is, though in a later form, probably that of
+the Aryan or Persepolitan part of the trilingual inscriptions at
+Behistun and elsewhere in Persia.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Edkins, "China's Place in Philology."]
+
+[Footnote 113: Reginald S. Poole has adduced very ingenious arguments,
+monumental, astronomical, and mythological, for the date B.C. 2717.]
+
+[Footnote 114: It is curious that almost simultaneously with the
+appearance of Bunsen's scheme a similiar view was attempted to be
+maintained on geological grounds. In a series of borings in the delta of
+the Nile, undertaken by Mr. Horner, there was found a piece of pottery
+at a depth which appeared to indicate an antiquity of 13,371 years. But
+the basis of the calculation is the rate of deposit (3-1/2 inches per
+century) calculated for the ground around the statue of Rameses II. at
+Memphis, dated at 1361 B.C.; and Mr. Sharpe has objected that no mud
+could have been deposited around that statue from its erection until the
+destruction of Memphis, perhaps 800 years B.C. Farther, we have to take
+into account the natural or artificial changes of the river's bed, which
+in this very place is said to have been diverted from its course by
+Menes, and which near Cairo is now nearly a mile from its former site.
+The liability to error and fraud in boring operations is also very well
+known. It has farther been suggested that the deep cracks which form in
+the soil of Egypt, and the sinking of wells in ancient times, are other
+probable causes of error; and it is stated that pieces of burnt brick,
+which was not in use in Egypt until the Roman times, have been found at
+even greater depths than the pottery referred to by Mr. Horner. This
+discovery, at first sight so startling, and vouched for by a geologist
+of unquestioned honor and ability, is thus open to the same doubts with
+the Guadaloupe skeletons, the human bones in ossiferous caverns, and
+that found in the mud of the Mississippi; all of which have, on
+examination, proved of no value as proofs of the geological antiquity of
+man.]
+
+[Footnote 115: 5004 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Perhaps the earliest certain date in Egyptian history is
+that of Thothmes III. of the eighteenth dynasty, ascertained by Birch on
+astronomical evidence as about 1445 B.C. (about 1600, Manetho); and it
+seems nearly certain that before the eighteenth dynasty, of which this
+king was the fifth sovereign, there was no settled general government
+over all Egypt.]
+
+[Footnote 117: The Egyptians seem, like our modern cattle-breeders, to
+have taken pride in the initiation and preservation of varieties. Their
+sacred bull, Apis, was required to represent one of the varieties of the
+ox; and one can scarcely avoid believing that some of their deified
+ancestors must have earned their celebrity as tamers or breeders of
+animals. At a later period, the experiments of Jacob with Laban's flock
+furnish a curious instance of attempts to induce variation.]
+
+[Footnote 118: See for evidence of these views early notices in Genesis,
+and Lenormant and Osburne on Egyptian Monuments and History.]
+
+[Footnote 119: There is no good reason to believe the flint implements
+mentioned by Delanouee and others, as found on the banks of the Nile, to
+be older than the historic period.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Wilson, "Prehistoric Man," 2d edition, p. 68.]
+
+[Footnote 121: Southall has accumulated a great number of these facts in
+his book on the antiquity of man.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Professor Issel, quoted in _Popular Science Monthly_.]
+
+[Footnote 123: Wilson has remarked the striking similarity of the
+pottery of these people to American fictile wares. This similarity
+applies also to the early Cyprian art.]
+
+[Footnote 124: I agree with Gladstone's conclusions as to the date and
+country of Homer.]
+
+[Footnote 125: I suggested these terms in my lectures published under
+the title "Nature and the Bible," 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Since these words were written I have read the remarkable
+book of Edkins on the Chinese language, which supplies much additional
+information.]
+
+[Footnote 127: Donaldson has pointed out (British Association
+Proceedings, 1851) links of connection between the Slavonian or
+Sarmatian tongues and the Semitic languages, which in like manner
+indicate the primitive union of the two great branches of languages.]
+
+[Footnote 128: "Man and his Migrations." See also "Descriptive
+Ethnology," where the Semitic affinities are very strongly brought out.]
+
+[Footnote 129: I can scarcely except such terms as "Japetic" and
+"Japetidae," for Iapetus can hardly be any thing else than a traditional
+name borrowed from Semitic ethnology, or handed down from the Japhetic
+progenitors of the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 130: See art. "Philology," Encyc. Brit.]
+
+[Footnote 131: Grammatical structure is no doubt more permanent than
+vocabulary, yet we find great changes in the latter, both in tracing
+cognate languages from one region to another, and from period to period.
+The Indo-Germanic languages in Europe furnish enough of familiar
+instances.]
+
+[Footnote 132: It is fair, however, to observe that the Bible refers the
+first great divergence of language to a divine intervention at the Tower
+of Babel. The precise nature of this we do not know; but it would tend
+to diminish the time required.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Lecture in the Royal Institution, March 24, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 134: "Antiquity of Man," 4th ed.]
+
+[Footnote 135: Southall, _Op. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 136: The Mentone skeleton described by Dr. Riviere gives
+evidence of these facts.]
+
+[Footnote 137: Mr. Pengelly declines to admit this; but assigns no cause
+for the breaking up of portions of the old floor, which he merely refers
+in general terms to "natural causes."]
+
+[Footnote 138: This whole subject of supposed preglacial or interglacial
+men is still in great confusion and uncertainty, and is complicated with
+questions, still debated, as to the ages of the supposed glacial and
+postglacial deposits.]
+
+[Footnote 139: _Quarterly Journal of Science_, April, 1875.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Lyell's "Manual of Elementary Geology."]
+
+[Footnote 141: For a full discussion of this subject, see the "Story of
+the Earth and Man."]
+
+[Footnote 142: Such a table, with an admirable exposition of the entire
+succession, as at present known, is given in the Appendix to Lyell's
+"Students' Manual of Geology."]
+
+[Footnote 143: Lyell, basing his calculations on the surveys of Messrs.
+Humphreys and Abbott, but others give very different estimates.]
+
+[Footnote 144: A perfectly parallel example is that of the growth of the
+peninsula of Florida in the modern period, by the same processes now
+adding to its shores; and this has afforded to Professor Agassiz a still
+more extended measure of the Post-tertiary period.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Reade, of Liverpool, has recently given a much slower
+rate--one foot in 13,000 years--as a result of recent English surveys;
+but I have not seen his precise data, and the result certainly differs
+from those of all other observations.]
+
+[Footnote 146: I am quite aware that it may be objected to all this that
+it is based on merely negative evidence; but this is not strictly the
+case. There are positive indications of these truths. For example, in
+the Mesozoic epoch the lacertian reptiles presented huge elephantine
+carnivorous and herbivorous species--the Megalosaurus, Iguanodon, etc.;
+flying species, with hollow bones and ample wings--the Pterodactyles;
+and aquatic whale-like species--Pliosaurus, Ichthyosaurus, etc. These
+creatures actually filled the offices now occupied by the mammals; and,
+though lacertian in their affinities, they must have had circulatory,
+respiratory, and nervous systems far in advance of any modern reptiles
+even of the order of Loricates.]
+
+[Footnote 147: "Story of the Earth"--concluding chapters.]
+
+[Footnote 148: This was written in 1860 for the first edition of
+"Archaia." I see no reason to change it now, and its vindication will
+be, found in the Appendix.]
+
+[Footnote 149: Heb. iv., 9; 2 Peter iii., 13.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Hamilton.]
+
+[Footnote 151: In the manner illustrated by Hyatt and Cope.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Report on Fossil Plants of the Upper Silurian and
+Devonian, 1871.]
+
+[Footnote 153: Drysdale's "Protoplasmic Theories of Life."]
+
+[Footnote 154: Lecture before the Royal Institution of London.]
+
+[Footnote 155: _Leisure Hour_, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 156: See critique in _International Review_, January, 1877.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Reported in _Nature_, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 158: "History of Creation."]
+
+[Footnote 159: See also Hunt, "Chemical and Geological Essays," p. 35.]
+
+[Footnote 160: Except, perhaps, Job xxxi., 27.]
+
+[Footnote 161: "Animals and Plants under Domestication," p. 406.]
+
+[Footnote 162: Prichard. This is admitted by Darwin, who gives other
+examples, though he insists much on the climatal variations which still
+remain in feral pigs.]
+
+[Footnote 163: "North American Indians."]
+
+[Footnote 164: Haliburton's "Nova Scotia;" Gilpin's Lecture on Sable
+Island.]
+
+[Footnote 165: "Principles of Geology;" "Natural History of Man." See
+also a very able article on the "Varieties of Man," by Dr. Carpenter, in
+Todd's Cyclopaedia.]
+
+[Footnote 166: "The Races of Men," etc. Boston, 1848.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Browne, of Philadelphia, quoted by Kneeland and others.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Todd's Cyclopaedia, art. "Varieties of Man."]
+
+[Footnote 169: "Prehistoric Man."]
+
+[Footnote 170: Carpenter in Todd's Cyclopaedia.]
+
+[Footnote 171: For an interesting inquiry into the origin of the dog,
+see the article in Todd's Cyclopaedia already referred to; and the
+subject is fully discussed by Darwin, who leans to the theory of the
+diversity of origin in dogs.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Prichard, Bachman, Cabell.]
+
+[Footnote 173: A curious note, by Dr. John Rae, on the change of
+complexion in the Sandwich Islanders, consequent on the introduction of
+clothing, may be found in the "Montreal Medical Chronicle," 1856, and
+the "Canadian Journal" for the same year.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Latham's "Descriptive Ethnology."]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Abraham, 25, 270.
+
+Abrahamic Genesis, 18.
+
+Abyss, 104.
+
+"Accommodation," theory of, 61.
+
+Adaptation in nature, 78.
+
+AEons of creation, 132.
+
+Agassiz on prophetic types, 350.
+  on species, 342.
+
+Animals, higher, creation of the, 230.
+  lower, creation of the, 211.
+
+Antediluvians, 253.
+
+Antiquity of man, 263, 386.
+  of man, geological evidence of the, 294.
+  of man, history in relation to the, 271.
+  of man, language in relation to the, 285.
+  of the earth, 154, 331.
+
+_Aretz_ (earth), 94, 175.
+
+Argyll, Duke of, on creation by law, 373.
+  Duke of, on the origin of civilization, 391.
+
+Aryan race, 16, 267.
+
+Assyrian Genesis, 19, 108.
+  Texts, 412.
+
+Astronomy of the Bible, 207.
+
+Atmosphere, constitution of the, 157.
+  creation of the, 160.
+
+Augustine on creative days, 134.
+
+_Aur_ (light), 115.
+
+
+Babel, 258, 266.
+
+_Bara_ (create), 90.
+
+Beaumont, De, on continents, 184.
+
+Bede on creative days, 133.
+
+Beginning, the, 87, 95.
+
+_Behemoth_, 233.
+
+_Bhemah_ (herbivores), 231, 406.
+
+Birds, creation of, 216, 219.
+
+Bronn on the origin of species, 339.
+
+Bronze, age of, 279.
+
+Bunsen's chronology, 273.
+
+
+Cainozoic period, 331.
+
+Carnivora, creation of, 232.
+
+Caverns, human remains in, 298.
+
+Centres of creation, 238.
+
+Chaos, 100, 107.
+  chemistry of, 112.
+
+Chinese language, 288.
+
+Comparisons and conclusions, 322.
+
+"Conflict of the Bible with science," 44.
+
+Continents, their origin, 182.
+
+Cosmogony, Assyrian, 108.
+  Egyptian, 106, 198.
+  Greek, 109.
+  Hebrew, its character, 70.
+  Hebrew, its objects, 35.
+  Hebrew, its origin, 46.
+  Indian, 110, 148.
+  Persian, 147.
+  Phoenician, 107.
+
+Cranial characters of primitive men, 298.
+
+Creation, 90.
+  by law, 373.
+  centres of, 238.
+  days of, 115.
+  modes of, 375, 377.
+  of birds, 216, 219.
+  of carnivora, 232.
+  of great reptiles, 213.
+  of herbivora, 231.
+  of higher animals, 230.
+  of lower animals, 211.
+  of man, 235.
+  of plants, 186.
+
+Croll, calculations of erosion, 334.
+  glacial theory of, 396.
+
+
+Dana on creation of plants, 196.
+  on creative days, 144.
+  on tertiary fauna, 234.
+
+Darwin on species, 338.
+
+Day of creation, first, 115.
+  of creation, second, 157.
+  of creation, third, 174.
+  of creation, fourth, 199.
+  of creation, fifth, 211.
+  of creation, sixth, 230.
+  of creation, seventh, 249.
+
+Days of creation, 115.
+  of creation compared with geological periods, 155.
+  prophetic, 65.
+
+Death before the fall, 355.
+
+"Deep," the, 104.
+
+Deluge, the, 256.
+
+_Deshe_ (herbage), 186.
+
+Design in nature, 78.
+
+Desolate void, 100.
+
+Drysdale on theories of life, 383.
+
+Dupont on Belgian caves, 308.
+
+
+Earth, the, 94, 102, 175.
+  its foundations, 177.
+
+Ecclesiastes, chap. i., 74.
+
+Eden, conditions of, 237, 252.
+  site of, 237-252.
+
+Edkins on the Chinese language, 286, 288.
+
+Egypt, early history of, 272.
+
+Egyptian Cosmogony, 106, 198.
+  Texts, 412.
+
+_Elohim_, 89, 97.
+
+Evans on the erosion of valleys, 313.
+
+Evening of creative days, 138.
+
+Evolution as applied to animals, 226, 363.
+
+Excavation of valleys, 315.
+
+Exodus xxiv., 10, 163.
+
+
+Fall of man, 250.
+
+Final causes, 355.
+
+Firmament, the, 162.
+
+Fluidity, original, of the earth, 110.
+
+Forbes on creation of man, 250.
+
+Foundations of the earth, 177.
+
+Frontal, cave of, 308.
+
+
+Genesis, chap. i., translated, 66.
+  chap. i., 1, 87.
+  chap. i., 2, 100.
+  chap. i., 3 to 5, 115.
+  chap. i., 6 to 8, 157.
+  chap. i., 10 to 11, 174.
+  chap. i., 14 to 19, 199.
+  chap. i., 20 to 23, 211.
+  chap. i., 24 to 31, 230.
+  chap. ii., 1 to 3, 299.
+  chap. iv., 23, 46.
+  chap. x., 22, 263.
+  the Abrahamic, 18.
+  the Assyrian, 20.
+  the Mosaic, 27.
+  the Quiche, 22.
+
+Geology, principles of, 325.
+
+Glacial periods, theories of, 395.
+
+God, personality of, 11.
+
+"Grass" in Genesis i., 186.
+
+Greek myths, 109.
+
+Green on the forms of continents, 184.
+
+
+Haeckel on the affiliation of races, 289.
+  on man and apes, 389.
+
+Hamite races, 268.
+
+Harmony of revelation and science, 342.
+
+Havilah, productions of, 255.
+
+_Hay'th-eretz_ (wild beast), 232.
+
+Heavens, the, 92, 165.
+
+Herbivora, creation of, 231.
+
+Hindoos, cosmogony of the, 149.
+
+Hitchcock on creative days, 141.
+
+Horner on the alluvium of the Nile, 274.
+
+Hughes on the excavation of valleys, 315.
+  on interglacial periods, 295.
+  on stalagmite, 388.
+  on the Victoria Cave, 387.
+
+Humboldt on Hebrew poetry, 39.
+
+Hunt on the chemistry of the primeval earth, 400.
+
+Hurakon, 107.
+
+Hut of Sodertelge, 386.
+
+
+Ice-freshets in America, 314
+
+Incandescence of the earth, 110, 119.
+
+India, cosmogony of, 149.
+
+
+Japhetic races, 267, 268.
+
+Jehovah, 96.
+
+Job ix., 5, 176.
+  ix., 9, 206.
+  xxii., 15, 257.
+  xxviii., 179.
+  xxviii., 26, 73.
+  xxxvi., 166.
+  xxxvii., 14, 161.
+  xxxviii., 166, 177, 206.
+
+Jones, Sir W., on Indian cosmogony, 149.
+
+
+Kent's Cavern, 302.
+
+Kurtz on days of vision, 49.
+
+
+Lamech, his poem, 46.
+
+Land, its creation, 174.
+  geological history of, 182.
+
+Languages, unity of, 285, 291.
+
+La Place, nebular hypothesis of, 119.
+
+Latham on African languages, 288.
+  on the radiation of languages, 289.
+
+Laws of nature, in the Bible, 73.
+
+Lemuria, 289.
+
+Leviticus xi., 212.
+
+Life, succession of, 331, 337.
+  theories of, 383.
+
+Light, 115, 121.
+
+Logos, 96.
+
+Luminaries, 199.
+
+Lyell on the cause of the glacial period, 397.
+  on the delta of the Mississippi, 333.
+  on the pleistocene period, 297.
+
+
+Mammals, creation of, 231.
+
+Mammoth age, 299.
+
+Man, antiquity of, 386.
+  creation of, 235.
+  neocosmic, 285.
+  palaeocosmic, 285, 319.
+
+Man, unity of, 263, 414.
+
+Manetho, chronology of, 273.
+
+Margite, cave of, 308.
+
+Menes, his epoch, 273.
+
+Mesozoic period, 218, 331.
+
+Miller on creative days, 135.
+
+Mining noticed in the Bible, 179.
+
+Mississippi, delta of the, 333.
+
+Mist watering the ground, 189.
+
+Modern period of geology, 251.
+
+Modes of creation, 377.
+
+Moffatt on African languages, 292.
+
+Morse on the evolution of man, 391.
+
+Mosaic Genesis, 27.
+
+Mueller's classification of religions, 14.
+
+Mythology, ancient, its origin, 408.
+  of the atmosphere, 171.
+  as related to the Bible, 109, 261.
+
+
+Nature, study of, 244.
+
+Neocosmic man, 285.
+
+"Neolithic" men, 278.
+
+Niagara, excavation of, 312.
+
+Nimrod, 259.
+
+Noah, sons of, 266.
+
+
+Palaeocosmic men, 285, 319.
+
+"Palaeolithic" men, 278.
+
+Palaeozoic animals, 217.
+  period, 231.
+
+Parallelism of Scripture and geology, 343.
+
+Pattison on the antiquity of man, 318.
+
+Pengelly on Kent's Cavern, 302.
+  on stalagmite, 387.
+
+Periods, creative, 126.
+  geological, 330.
+
+Persians, cosmogony of the, 147.
+
+Philological evidence of the antiquity of man, 285.
+
+Pictet on the origin of species, 339.
+
+Pierce on the forms of continents, 184.
+
+Pillars of the earth, 177.
+
+Plants, creation of, 186.
+
+Plastids and plastidules, 377.
+
+Pratt, Archdeacon, on _bhemah_, 406.
+
+Prayer and law, 171.
+
+Progress in nature, 75, 337.
+
+Proverbs, viii., 74, 96, 176.
+
+Psalm viii., 208.
+  viii., 1, 94.
+  xviii., 178.
+  xix., 208.
+  xc., 108.
+  civ., 164, 175, 178, 224.
+  cxix., 90, 74.
+  cxix., 20, 176.
+  cxxxix., 84.
+  cxlvii., 208.
+  cxlviii., 6, 73.
+
+Purpose in nature, 78.
+
+
+Quiche Genesis, 22, 107.
+
+
+_Rakiah_ (the expanse), 162.
+
+Rawlinson on historical dates, 390.
+
+Reconciliation of the Bible and geology, 342.
+
+Reindeer age, 299.
+
+Religion, Aryan, 16.
+  Turanian, 15.
+  Semitic, 16.
+
+_Remes_ (creeping things), 215.
+
+_Rephaim_, 257.
+
+Reptiles, 213, 215.
+
+Revelation, idea of, 12.
+
+River valleys, excavation of, 314.
+
+Ruach Elohim, 106.
+
+Rutimeyer on interglacial men, 386.
+
+
+Sabbath, the, as related to ages of creation, 130.
+  of the Creator, 249.
+
+Schliemann on Troy, 282.
+
+_Shamayim_ (heavens), 92.
+
+Shemite races, 16.
+
+_Sheretz_ (swarming creature), 211.
+
+Somme, gravels of the, 313.
+
+Song of creation, 66.
+
+Species, Agassiz on, 61.
+  Bronn on, 339.
+  distinct from varieties, 414.
+  in Genesis i., 215.
+  origin of, 368, 378.
+
+Spirit of God in creation, 106.
+
+Stalagmite, deposition of, 310, 385.
+
+_Stereoma_, 162.
+
+Stone, ages of, 281.
+
+
+Table of Biblical periods, 352.
+  of geological periods, 330.
+
+Tait, Prof., on the age of the earth, 154.
+
+_Tannin_ (great reptile), 213, 405.
+
+Tennyson on types in nature, 222.
+
+Theories of the origin of genesis, 51.
+
+Thomson, Sir Wm., on the age of the earth, 154.
+
+Time, geological, 321, 332.
+
+Torel on the Sodertelge hut, 386.
+
+Troy, as described by Schliemann, 282.
+
+Type in nature, 82, 222.
+
+
+Unity of man, 263, 414.
+  of nature, 36.
+
+Universe, the unseen, 11.
+
+
+Variation, laws of, 414.
+
+Veda, its cosmogony, 110.
+
+Vegetation, its creation, 186.
+  of Eozoic period, 192.
+
+Victoria Cave, 386.
+
+Vision of creation, 65.
+
+Void, the, 100.
+
+
+Wallace on evolution, 373.
+  on primitive man, 389.
+
+Waters above the heavens, 159.
+
+"Whales, great," 213.
+
+Wilson on American skulls, 427.
+  on ancient pottery, 283.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+By PRINCIPAL DAWSON.
+
+
+EARTH AND MAN. The Story of the Earth and Man. By J. W. DAWSON,
+LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal and Vice-Chancellor of McGill
+University, Montreal. With Twenty Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $1
+50.
+
+     An admirable book. It is a clear and interesting _resume_ of
+     the results of geological investigation, told in simple
+     language, devoid of technicalities. The unscientific reader
+     will obtain more knowledge of geology in one hour's reading
+     of this book than he will in a week's study of more
+     elaborate and professional books upon the same subject. It
+     is vigorously written, and with a certain picturesqueness
+     that is exceedingly attractive. The chapters upon primitive
+     man are peculiarly interesting.--_Saturday Evening Gazette_,
+     Boston.
+
+     The pleasantly written volume before us tells the story of
+     the paleontology and physical geography of the earth in
+     prehuman ages, and closes with a discussion of the theories
+     of the appearance, late in geological time, of man upon the
+     earth. Dr. Dawson's sketch of paleontology will, we feel
+     sure, be found interesting by all readers.--_Athenaeum_,
+     London.
+
+     Since Hugh Miller's time no scientific geologist has done
+     more than Principal Dawson to extend popular interest in
+     this branch of study, to secure attention to its educational
+     value, or to remove misapprehensions which exist in some
+     quarters as to the relations of science and Scripture on
+     geological questions.--_Leisure Hour_, London.
+
+     We have read his book with profound interest. It is
+     intelligible, candid, modest.--_Boston Transcript._
+
+
+ORIGIN OF THE WORLD. The Origin of the World, according to
+Revelation and Science. By J. W. DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
+&c. 12mo, Cloth.
+
+       *     *     *     *     *
+
+PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK.
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS _will send either of the above works by mail,
+postage prepaid, to any part of the United Slates, on receipt of
+the price._
+
+By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
+
+
+SKETCHES OF CREATION: a Popular View of some of the Grand
+Conclusions of the Sciences in Reference to the History of Matter
+and of Life. Together with a Statement of the Intimations of
+Science respecting the Primordial Condition and the Ultimate
+Destiny of the Earth and the Solar System. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
+LL.D. With Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00.
+
+
+A GEOLOGICAL CHART: exhibiting the Classification and Relative Positions
+of the Rocks, and the Various Phenomena of Stratigraphical Geology;
+together with an Indication of Geological Equivalents, the most
+important American and Foreign Synonyms, the Economical Products of the
+Rocks, and numerous Typical Localities; with an Actual Section from the
+Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains, near the Parallel of Thirty-nine
+Degrees. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL.D. Mounted on roller, $10 00.
+
+_With a Key._ 8vo, Paper, 25 cents.
+
+
+THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION; its Data, its Principles, its
+Speculations, and its Theistic Bearings. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
+LL.D. 12mo, Cloth, $1 00.
+
+
+RECONCILIATION OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
+LL.D. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00.
+
+
+_Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, New York._
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS _will send any of the above works by mail,
+postage prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of
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+
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Origin of the World According to
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